[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
HAWAII OCEAN AND MARINE
RESOURCES COUNCIL

JANUARY 1991


HAWAII OCEAN
RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT
PLAN


TECHNICAL SUPPLEMENT








                                PREFREE





                    The Hawah Ocean Resources Management Plan sets forth                         Readers using the Technical Supplement should find the
                    guiding principles and overall recommendations for the State to        keyword index helpful when searching for themes or issues that
                    achieve comprehensive and integrated ocean and coastal re-             cut across sector-specific subject areas. The individual technical
                    source, management, The Ilan is based on major public input            papers should be consulted directly for those readers interested
                    involving over 900 individuals statewide. The Plan was man-            in specific resource sectors. Those with an eye towards program
                    dated by Chapter 228, Hawaii Revised Statutes, and developed           structure and budget allocabon should refer to the summary
                    by the Hawaii Ocean and Marine Resources Council.                      matrices in the Appendices.
                         The Technical Supplement provides detailed analyses and                 How the Technical Supplement is used, will be a matter of
                    survey results that are the foundation of the Plan. In particular,     need and purpose. The important emphasis here is on the
                    the policies, implementing actions and overall recommenda-             action-word "use". This document is intended to be used to
                    tions contained within the Plan were derived from the technical        help State government implement the Plan. The Plan is in-
                    papers published here. The Technical Supplement and the Plan           tended to be used to strengthen the management of Hawaii's
                    were prepared by the same planning team.                               ocean and coastal resources. Together, the Hawaii Ocean
                                                                                           Resources Management Plan and the Technical Supplement are
                         The Technical Supplement is the most comprehensive                important tools. They now need to be applied with commit-
                    reference available on the current -status and assessment of           ment and in earnest.
                    ocean and coastal resources management in Hawaii. The tech-
                    nical papers presented in this document were developed with
                    the assistance of 170 subject-matter experts and community
                    leaders. These individuals participated in ten facilitated work-
                    shops for the specific resource sector' considered or otherwise
                    provided critical input. Nine State departments worked coop-
                    eratively to complete the survey of Hawaii's ocean and coastal
                    pro-rams for the fiscal period 1988-1991. The survey results are
                    reported in their entirety here.






                                             HH011 OCERH RHD MRRINE
                                             RESOURCES COUKIL




                                  The Council is composed of eleven voting members, including
                                  six ex-officio members and five members appointed by the
                                  Governor to represent commercial, recreational, environmen-
                                  Eal and research interests. The Council members are:



                                  Roger A. Ulveling, Chairperson                                    Frank K. Goto
                                  Director, Department of Business,                                 General Manager, United Fishing Agency
                                  Economic Development &-Tourism                                    (commercial interest)'

                                  Murray E. Towiff, Vice-Chairperson                                David F. Padgett
                                  Deputy Director, Office of State Planning                         (commercial interest)

                                  Keith W. Ahue                                                     J. Dave Raney
                                  Deputy Director                                                   (environmental interest)
                                  Department of land and Natural Resources
                                                                                                    Richard S. Shomura
                                  Calvin M. Tsuda                                                   (research interest)
                                  Deputy Director for Harbors
                                  Department of Transportation
                                                                                                    Council Staff-
                                  Bruce S. Anderson                                                 Craig D. MacDonald, Project Manager
                                  Deputy Director for Environmental Programs                        Affifine M. Clark
                                  Department of Health                                              Sequoia Shannon

                                  C. Barry Raleigh
                                  Dean, School of Ocean and Earth Science
                                  and Technology
                                  University of Hawaii at Manoa

                                  Terry G. O'Halloran
                                  President, The Ocean Recreation
                                  council of Hawaii
                                  (recreational interest)

























                   The following individuals made up the technical team respon-
                   sible for developing the Hawaii Ocean Resources Management
                   Plan and Technical Supplement for the Hawaii Ocean and
                   Marine Resources Council. Team members were from the
                   Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism;
                   the University of Hawaii Department of Urban and Regional
                   Planning, Social Science Research Institute, William S.
                   Richardson School of Law, and Sea Grant Extension Service; he
                   State judiciary Center for Alternative Dispute Resolution; and
                   the private sector.



                   Council Staff.                                                      Public Meeting Facilitation and Coordination:
                   Craig D. MacDonald, Project Manager                                 Dee Dee Letts
                   Athline M. Clark                                                    John Barkai
                   Sequoia Shannon                                                     Kathy Bryan
                                                                                       Linda M. Colburn
                                                                                       Keith Hunter
                   Consultants:                                                        Neil Milner
                   G. Kem Lowry, Principal Investigator                                Ray Tabata
                   Michael Hamnett                                                     Karen Takahashi
                   M. Casey Jarman                                                     Howard Takata
                   Christopher B. Jones                                                Marsha Wright
                   Kenn Kassman                                                        Janet Yamamoto
                   Susan J. Mad-dda
                   Michael K. Orbach                                                   OtherAssistance:
                   Wendy L. Schultz
                   M. Carolyn Stewart                                                  Charles Keever, on the staff of the Chairman, Senate Agricul-
                   David A. Tamas                                                      ture, Energy and Ocean Resources Committee, Hawaii State
                                                                                       Legislature, prepared the keyword index for the Technical
                                                                                       Supplement.







                                              TRBLE OF COMTEHTS



                                                                                                                                                          PAGE


                                    L TECEMCAL PAPERS


                                         A. Ocean Research and Education                                                                                          6

                                         B. Ocean Recreation                                                                                                    16

                                         C. Harbors                                                                                                             29

                                         D. Fisheries                                                                                                           38

                                         E. Marine Ecosystem Protection                                                                                         49

                                         F. Beaches and Coastal Erosion                                                                                         60

                                         G. Waste Management                                                                                                    73
                                         H. Aquaculture                                                                                                         84

                                         I. Energy                                                                                                              93
                                         J. Marine Minerals                                                                                                    107


                                   IJ. APPMI(TS


                                         Appendix 1: Acronyms and Abbreviations                                                                                118
                                         Appendix 11: Workshop Participants and Subject Matter Experts                                                         121
                                         Appendix UI: Hawaii's Exclusive Economic Zone                                                                         126
                                         Appendix IV: State Ocean Programs                                                                                     127
                                              A. By Activity and Government Agency                                                                             128
                                              B. Summary by Funding and Staff Resources                                                                        133
                                              C. Details by Authority, Funding and Staff Resources                                                             134
                                         Appendix V: Ocean-Related Councils, Boards and Committees                                                             145


                                   HL KEWORD MEX                                                                                                               147






                                  TECHHUL
                                  PRPERS



                     The technical papers presented in this section are based, on
                     extensive review of published documents and numerous inter-
                     views with relevant government, industry and research experts.
                     In addition, ten facilitated workshops were held to collect
                     feedback on drafts of the papers from 170 subject-matter
                     experts and community leaders statewide. The final policies
                     and recommended actions for each sector paper were then
                     submitted to the Council for their review and revision.
                          Each technical paper describes the existing resource or
                     activity, reviews related Federal, State and County regulatory
                     regimes, and identifies current management issues. Each paper
                     concludes with a statement of the management objective and a
                     List of policies and implementing actions responding to the
                     issues identified. The policies and actions presented in tl@iis
                     section are the revised versions approved by the Council.
                          The Council did not attempt to set priorities among these
                     policies and actions, nor had sufficient time to determine if they
                     were mutually exclusive or in conflict with one another. It
                     would become the responsibility of the Office of Marine and
                     Coastal Affairs, proposed by the Council in the Hawaii Ocean
                     Resources Management Plan, to evaluate and prioritize the
                     policies and actions in conjunction with the designated agen-
                     cies.
                         The f6flowing is a list of the sector-specific technical
                     papers in the order in which they appear in this section:


                               Ocean Research and Education
                               Ocean Recreation
                               Harbor,
                               Fisheries
                               Marine Ecosystem Protection
                               Beaches and Coastal Erosion
                               Waste Management
                                  Tj
                                  P

















































                         0     Aquaculture
                         &     Energy
                         0     Marine Minerals











                                                  Craig D. MacDonald
                                                  Ocean Resources Branch
                                                  State of Hawaii Department of Business,
                                                  Economic Development & Tourism
                                                  P. 0. Box 2359
                                                  Honolulu, H[ 9&W4
                                                  OCEPH RESERCH RHD EDUCHT10H



                                                                                                                Ocean research and education will be major cleterniinants of
                                                                                                  PAGE          the long-term success of the Hawaii Ocean ResourcesManage-
                                                                                                                ment Plan. The public has to understand the need for the Plan
                                        TIE RESOURCE                                                  6         and why the policies and recommendations are proposed, in
                                        Ocean Research and Development                                7         order to give its support. A inarine-literate public is most likely
                                        Marine Education                                              7         to embrace the guiding principles of conservation and inte-
                                                                                                                grated management and collectively act as responsible stew-
                                        RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                           8         ards of Hawaii's ocean and coastal resources.
                                        Regulation and Enforcement                                    8               in the most general terms, research is the acquisition of
                                              Scientific Coftecting Permit                            8         knowledge; education is the conveyance of knowledge. Each
                                              Ent?y Permits                                           8         derives from the other in cyclical fashion such that research and
                                              Endangered Species Protection                           8         education are hinctionally related. This interrelationship is
                                              Water Quality Standards                                 9         most frequently reflected in the organization of our higher
                                        Research and Education                                        9         academic institutions.
                                        Coordination                                                  9               As a practical matter of resource management, the two sets
                                        General Infrastructure Support                              10          of activities are more discrete. Each is associated with its own set
                                        Industry Marketing and Promotion                            10          of impacts and issues requiring separate policies and actions;
                                        MANAGEMEM ISSUES                                            10          each is associated with its own set of constituencies. This
                                        Prioritization and Funding Allocation                       10          general dichotomy is reflected in the following treatment of
                                        Market Diversification                                      I I         ocean research and education in Hawaii.
                                        user Conflict                                               11                While most of the research and education activities in
                                              Researcb-Related                                      11          Hawaii are centered on Oahu, this sector plan has broad
                                              Education-Relxed                                      11          relevance statewide. New marine resource centers and re-
                                        Definition of "Marine Education"                            12          search facilities are being established on or are planned for the
                                        Attitudinal Behavior                                        12          Neighbor Islands. Neighbor Island populations are increasing,
                                        Cam and              of Marine Animals and Habim            12          and there is greater demand and need for more broadly distrib-
                                        Water Safety and Uability                                   13          uting the benefits derived from such program.
                                        Ocean and Coastal Interpretive Education                    13
                                        RECOMMENDA71ONS                                             13          M RESOURCEI
                                        Objective                                                   13          The Hawaiian Islands are an unequalled natural labor-atory for
                                        Policies and Implementing Actions                           13          ocean research and education. Research professionals and
                                                                                                                educators from many countries pursue a multitude of projects
                                                                                                                year-round here. And, Hawaii's public schools and resource
                                                                                                                centers have formal programs in marine education that have the
                                                                                                                potential to rival similar such programs anywhere.
                                                                                                                      The volcanic origin of the Islands and the absence of a
                                                                                                                continental shelf give immediate access to an abundance of









                      ocean resources from warm surface waters to the cold deep                 Hawaii ($16.0 million), and nonprofit organizations ($11.4
                      seafloor. Untouched coral reefs and deep ocean seamounts are              million). This amounts to 98 percent of the total ocean R&D
                      near at hand as are a wide range of intermediate habitat types.           revenues for that year.
                      Even an active underwater volcano, Loihi, lies within a day's sail              Ocean R&D in Hawaii is heavily supported by the
                      of the Big Island. Hawaii's tidal benches and reef flats are              Federal government, which provided 83 percent of the
                      excellent field laboratories for general education. There is lack         revenues between 1980 and 1989. All of the major perform-
                      of neither potential research sites nor educational opportunities.        ers in Hawaii rely heavily on Federal sources for research
                            Complementing Hawaii's rich natural resource base are               revenues: Federal agencies (100 percent), University of
                      superior support facilities and personnel. Researchers perform            Hawaii (88 percent), private businesses (69 percent) and
                      competitively here, drawing upon an extensive infrastructure              nonprofit organizations (68 percent). Ninety percent of these
                      for such services as satellite communications and tracking,               funds come from three principal agencies: U.S. Navy, U.S.
                      electronics design and maintenance, engineering design and                Department of Commerce - National Oceanic and Atmo-
                      manufacturing, marine laboratory analyses, marine surveying               spheric Administration and the National Science Foundation
                      and brokering, and ship maintenance, dry-docking and supply.              (Gopalakrishnan and Sisson 1987; MacDonald et al 1990).
                      The University of Hawaii is recognized nationally and intema-             Hawaii ranks high nationally in terms of Federal receipts of
                      tionally for its distinguished ocean faculty, and its solid offering      ocean R&D dollars.
                      of manne programs is a strong draw for students from around                     Ocean R&D revenues for the decade (1980-1989) in
                      the world. Dedicated marine professionals staff Hawaii's edu-             Hawaii were $395 million (MacDonald and LaBarge 1990).
                      cational and public information institutions statewide.                   The total economic impact of these revenues was about half
                            Hawaii enjoys one of the strongest institutional infrastruc-        a billion dollars. Projected revenues for the industry in 1996
                      tures in the country in support of ocean research and education.          range between $87 and $147 million. Although Federal
                      To mention just a few, the U.S. Navy operates a major branch of           support is expected to continue fueling growth, foreign
                      its Naval Ocean Systems Center here. The University of Hawaii             spending for ocean R&D in Hawaii (primarily from Japan
                      administers the School of Ocean and Earth Science and Tech-               and Singapore) is increasing. The outlook for ocean R&D in
                      nology. The Law of the Sea institute resides in Hawaii. And there         Hawaii is favorable but management of emerging issues will
                      are several national ocean research centers here such as, the             need to be carefully considered to accommodate further
                      Marine Minerals Technology Center (U.S. Department of the                 expansion and ensure continued growth and economic vi-
                      Interior), the Pacific Mapping Center (U.S. Departments of                ability.
                      Commerce and Interior jointly) and the Center for Tropical and
                      Subtropical Aquaculture (U.S. Department of Agriculture), that            MarineEducation
                      provide support for a range of academic and commercial                    Hawaii's ocean is a stimulating place to study and learn and
                      activities. The list is equally long for general educational organi-      offers exciting opportunities for experiential education. Ma-
                      zations offering manne related courses and public information.            rine education as a profession is also a significant source of
                            With a powerful combination of natural, physical and                employment. Course offerings and informational seminars
                      human resources, research and education in Hawaii takes place             on ocean-related topics are numerous and diverse and are
                      in virtually every ocean-related field, including: aquaculture,           provided by a broad spectrum of organizations (e.g., Federal,
                      biology, energy, engineering, fisheries, geophysics, law and              State and County government agencies, nonprofit organiza-
                      policy, mining and minerals, oceanography, recreation, re-                tions and businesses).
                      source economics, surveying and mapping, transportation and                     The possibilities for pursuing formal education in ma-
                      water quality. Hawaii enjoys strategic advantages in many of              rine-related fields in Hawaii are exceptional. At the Univer-
                      these areas, and is attracting increasing attention as opportuni-         sity of Hawaii at Manoa, seven colleges, five schools plus
                      ties afforded by Hawaii's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)                   one major interdisciplinary program offer a total of 205
                      become recognized.                                                        marine-related courses (UH 1989). All University of Hawaii
                      OceanResearch and Development                                             campuses, including community colleges (except West
                                                                                                Oahu), offer at least one such course. So do Brigham Young
                      Among Hawaii's ocean industries, ocean research and de-                   University, Chaminade University and Hawaii Pacific Uni-
                      velopment (R&D) is growing rapidly in importance                          versity. Hawaii Loa University has an undergraduate degree
                      (MacDonald and LaBarge 1990). The research includes both                  program in marine science. The East-West Center offers
                       asic and applied. Ocean R&D revenues in Hawaii were $62                  fellowships for foreign students to pursue graduate degrees
                      million in 1989, having grown at 13 percent per year since                in ocean-related work.
                      1980, and direct employment was about 1,500. The total                          The State Department of Education (DOE) introduces
                      employment impact resulting from these revenues is twice                  public school students (K-12) to the ocean through formal
                      this number. The major performers of this work and the                    classwork and field trips. An expanded marine science program
                      research funds received were: private businesses ($16.7                   for elementary and secondary schools is proposed (Hawaii
                      million), Federal agencies ($16.3 million), the University of









                                         Natural Energy Institute, 1990). "At-sea" teaming experience is                     Although a scientific collecting pemiit may not be re-
                                         provided to students through the Blue Water Marine Laboratory                 quired of field trips for educational purposes, State laws and
                                         Program administered by the Waikiki Aquarium in cooperation                   administrative rules remain applicable. Minimum sizes, dosed
                                         with DOE. The Hawaiian Academy of Science assists DOE in                      seasons, restricted area conditions, etc. apply. Collection with
                                         conducting the annual Student Symposium on Marine Affairs.                    small nets (less than two inches across the 'eye") requires an
                                         The Hawaii State Teachers Association conducts supplemental                   aquarium fish permit issued by DOCARE. Collection is prohib-
                                         marine science workshops and field trips for its members. DOE                 ited in any Natural Area Reserve (e.g., Ahihi-Kinau) and Wildlife
                                         also works cooperatively with other marine-related organiza-                  Sanctuary (e.g., Paiko Lagoon). Collection of endangered and
                                         tons and agencies that provide enrichment/complementary                       threatened species, even for education purposes, is strictly
                                         teaming opportunities.                                                        prohibited by State (and Federal) law.
                                               The marine education needs of a wider segment of Hawaii's               Entry Permits
                                         population are being met by an equally diverse array of pro-                  So me of Hawaii's State wildlife refuges have an ocean compo-
                                         Fams. The Waikiki Aquarium and Sea Life Park both have                        nent, such as the Kure Atoll Wildlife Refuge in the Northwestern
                                         education departments that serve the general public of all ages               Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). Entry clearance and permits detail-
                                         from both the resident and visitor markets and provide exten-                 ing the proposed study plan are issued by the State Division of
                                         sive community outreach for residents. The Bishop Museum,                     Forestry and Wildlife (DLNR). Permits can only be obtained for
                                         Hawaii Maritime Center, Pacific Whale Foundation and Friends                  educational and scientific purposes of a nature that will not
                                         of Heeia State Park also serve a marine-related public education              disturb wildlife occupying the refuge.
                                         function. Additionally, Hawaii is host to numerous national and
                                         international conferences that promote manne research and                           Access to Federal wildlife refuges, such as the Hawaiian
                                         education and is headquarters for PACON International (orga-                  Islands National Wildlife Refuge, which has an extensive ocean
                                         nizer of the biennial Pacific Congress on Marine Science and                  component, is restricted by authority granted through the
                                         Technology) and the Pacific Science Association.                              Wildlife Refuge Administration Act. Entry is limited to approved
                                               Public information on marine-related matters in Hawaii is               research personnel and is by Special Use Permit issued by the
                                         provided by diverse Federal, State and County agencies such as:               Refuge Manager, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in response to
                                         National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-                written requests outlining the specific research study plan. The
                                         vice, U.S. Coast Guard, State Departments of Health, Transpor-                Wildlife Refuge consists of most of the islands and lagoon and
                                         tation and Land and Natural Resources, various County parks                   shoal waters located to the northwest of Kauai and Niihau and
                                                                                                                       extends over an expanse of 1,600 km. Kure Atoll (State refuge
                                         and recreation departments, and Richardson Ocean Center.                      as noted) and Midway Islands are not part of the refuge.
                                         Environmental organizations including Greenpeace, the Na-                     Research logistics in the NWI-11 are compley, based in part upon
                                         ture Conservancy, Sierra Club and Audubon Society also offer                  management concerns (Dollar 1978).
                                         public information regarding Hawah's marine resources. And,
                                         a growmg number of visitor-onented pnvate businesses are mcor                       Midway Islands are possessions of the United States ad-
                                         porating trdormation on marine resources in their tour packages.              ministered under the Jurisdiction of the U.S. Navy and are not
                                                                                                                       legally part of the State of Hawaii. Midway is a defense
                                                                                                                       installation and security clearance is required by the Secretary
                                         RESOURCE KANAGEAUM                                                            of the Navy. A letter of intent identifying the research project
                                         RepWonandEnfm,cement                                                          must be submitted including purpose, sponsoring agency and
                                                                                                                       reasons why entrance to Midway is necessary. The Navy also
                                         Four sets of conditions generally apply to ocean research and                 maintains a Naval Defense at Sea Area, which encompasses all
                                         education in Hawaii: 1) scientific collecting permit, 2) entry permits,       the waters within an 8-km boundary of Midway Islands. Re-
                                         3) endangered species protection, and 4) water quality standards.             search vessels are allowed to pass through this area with
                                         Scientift Cbfiecting Permit                                                   permission from the Navy.
                                         A Scientific Collecting Permit is required to take, possess or sell                 U.S. Coast Guard approval is required for access to areas
                                         certain species of manne fife using certain kinds of restricted               where it operates and maintains facilities, such as Molokini Islet.
                                         gear or in restricted areas. The uses covered by this permit                  Research vessels towing or lowering gear in or near submarine
                                         include scientific research and study and evend to endangered                 transit lanes or the Barking Sands Missile Range are well advised
                                         .species under State law. Examples of restricted areas include                to dear their activities with the military.
                                         Marine Life Conservation Districts, Underwater Parks, Fishery                 Endangered Species Protection
                                         Management Areas, Natural Area Reserves, Wildlife Refuges                     Federally funded or permitted research and educational acdvi-
                                         and Sanctuaries, etc. The Scientific Collecting Permit is issued              ties that potentially would impact critical habitat of an endan-
                                         by the Division of Aquatic Resources, Department of Land          . an .d     gered species require at least informal consultation under
                                         Natural Resources (DLNR). Compliance with this permit is                      Section 7 of the Federal Endangered Species Act. If determina-
                                         enforced by the Department's Division of Conservation and                     tion of adverse impact is found, formal consultation is required.
                                         Resources Enforcement (DOCARE).                                               Also, permits are required under this Act to conduct research









                    and education-related activities on all listed species, which            neering, College of Languages, Linguistics and Literature, School
                    otherwise cannot be disturbed, harassed or collected. Similar            of Travel Industry Management, College of Natural Sciences,
                    permits are required to conduct research and associated activi-          College of Social Sciences, College of Tropical Agriculture and,
                    ties involving marine mammals pursuant to the federal Marine             Human Resources, School of 12w, School of Medicine, School
                    Mammals Protection Act. Consultation and permitting under                of Public Health, and the School of Hawaiian, Asian and Pacific
                    both of these acts are conducted by the Pacific Area Office,             Studies. Other campuses such as the University of Hawaii at
                    National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).                                Hilo have marine-related education programs including the
                          By cooperative agreement, the NMFS shares jurisdiction             Marine Option Program, Summer Marine Studies Program, the
                    and authority with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) for          proposed Kalakaua Undergraduate Marine Center and a pro-
                    management of marine turtles in Hawaii. Protection of endan-             posed marine laboratory at Puako. Windward Community
                    gered or threatened seabirds is provided by cooperative agree-           College operates the Hawaii Backyard Aquaculture Program
                    ment between FWS and the DINR's Division of Forestry and                 and both Windward and Maui Community Colleges operate
                    Wildlife under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act. There is no        Marine Option Programs.
                    similar cooperative agreement between NMFS and DINR for                       Cuniculum development and general support for State
                    protection of other marine endangered species, Such coopera-             programs in marine education are provided by the Office of
                    tive agreements are provided for under Section 6 of the Federal          Instructional Services, Department of Education (DOE), and
                    Endangered Species Act. Anyone conducting research or edu-               the University of Hawaii Curriculum Research and Develop-
                    cational activities involving these species is required to seek          merit Group. Within the Office of Instructional Services, there is
                    approval from the respective agencies.                                   one resource teacher to help support marine and other aquatic
                    Water Quality Standards                                                  education for grades K-12 statewide. Additionally, there are a
                                                                                             total of eight environmental education specialists, one for each
                    For all State waters, standards for water quality established by         of the seven school districts and one with statewide responsi-
                    the Department of Health (Chapter 11-54, HAR), must not be               bilities. The environmental education specialists cover marine
                    exceeded (directly or inclirectly) by any research or educational        education as well as terrestrial, space, resource management
                    activity. These standards pertain to activities on ships at sea as       and energy education. To varying degrees, marine education
                    well as to activities at shore-based facilities such as the Waikiki      also is being delivered through other subject areas such as
                    Aquarium and Sea Life Park, Natural Energy Laboratory of                 science and social studies. The University of Hawaii Curriculum
                    Hawaii (NELH), and Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology                   Research and Development Group has two staff specialists
                    (HOST) Park. The standards stipulate basic water quality crite-          dedicated to marine education. The group is highly interdisci-
                    ria applicable to all waters 'which cover floating debris (espe-         plinary in its composition and works cooperatively with numer-
                    cially plastics), thermal pollution, turbidity and nearly 100 toxic      ous schools and colleges within UH and DOE.
                    substances including radioactive isotopes.                                    The University of Hawaii Sea Grant Extension Service
                    Research and Education                                                   (SGES) promotes wise use of ocean resources through educa-
                                                                                             bon and outreach. SGES operates programs of statewide scope
                    Primary support for ocean research and associated academic               and importance and has agents on Oahu and the Big Island
                    affairs at the University of Hawaii at Manoa is provided by the          (Hawaii). There also is a cadre of education specialists in State
                    School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. The                    government active in marine programs e.g., Division of Aquatic
                    School is composed of four departments (oceanography, Ge-                Resources, Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR),
                    ology and Geophysics, Meteorology and Ocean Engineering)                 Energy Division, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                    and three research institutes (the Hawaii Institute of Geophys-          ment and Tourism (DBED) and Litter Control Office, Depart-
                    ics, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology and Hawaii Natural               ment of Health (DOH).
                    Energy Institute). The School administers three shared Federal/
                    university research programs (the joint Institute for Marine and         Coordination
                    Atmospheric Research, Hawaii Undersea Research laboratory,               As noted, there is a varied array of programs and facilities
                    and the Sea Grant College Program). The School administers               serving marine education and research functions in Hawaii.
                    the undergraduate Marine Option Program and the graduate                 Many of these programs receive direct or indirect funding from
                    Ocean Policy Certificate Program. It also administers the Uni-           the State, or the facilities are on property owned by or ]eased
                    versity Marine Center and is responsible for research vessel             from the State. Most are operated independently of the others
                    operations. Interdisciplinary divisions and centers within the           and to a degree compete among themselves for their clientele.
                    school are being considered that can be more clearly identified          The Legislature has long recognized the need for some form of
                    with federally sponsored research programs (e.g. global climate          coordination among these interests to promote greater aware-
                    change) than can the individual departments and institutes.              ness, understanding and appreciation of the ocean.
                         Other schools and colleges at the University of Hawau"                   The 1987 Legislature established the Hawaii Ocean Center
                    having ocean-related course offerings and/or supporting gradu-           Planning Council to assist the Office of State Planning (OSP) in
                    ate research in marine-related subjects include: the College of          achieving this objective. The Hawaii Ocean Center (HOC)
                    Arts and Humanities, College of Education, College of Engi-









                                       Planning Council is an advisory body appointed by the Gover-                promotion (Chapter 201-13, HRS). ORB has completed mar-
                                       nor consisting of 15 members including representatives from                 ket analyses, developed a marketing strategy and is conduct-
                                       the University of Hawaii; the State Departments of Land and                 ing a major campaign for promoting Hawaii's ocean R&D
                                       Natural Resources, Business, Economic Development and Tour-                 industry. Hawaii is the only State to operate such a program.
                                       ism, Education, Transportation, Accounting and General Ser-                 An industry advisory group is an important component of
                                       vices, and Health; the City Department of General Planning, the             the program.
                                       Hawaii Visitors Bureau; the Waikiki Aquariurn; and members of the                Other agencies in DBED provide additional support for
                                       public with a strong interest in Hawaiis ocean and its resources. The       ocean R&D industry development. The Business Development
                                       HOC Planning Council has recommended that its composition be                and Marketing Division supplements Federal Phase I SBIR
                                       amended to include representatives of each of the Neighbor                  (Small Business Innovative Research) grants with funds of
                                       Island Counties and the Hawaiian community (OSP 1990).                      $25,000 per grant and runs the Hawaii Trade Program, which
                                             The HOC Planning Council also has recommended that a                  identifies and announces worldwide funding opportunities in
                                       Hawaii Ocean Center be established as a network of satellite                ocean R&D and aquaculture for Hawaii businesses and re-
                                       centers and ocean-related prog= throughout the State. Exist-                searchers. The Business Services Division operates a Capital
                                       ing facilities and programs, as well as new ones, should have an            Loan Program with a revolving fund of about $2.5 rnillion. The
                                       opportunity to join the network. The HOC Network could                      High Technology Development Corporation (HTDC) sponsors
                                       facilitate coordination without the need for authority over                 numerous incubation facilities and innovation centers to en-
                                       management and operation of member centers and programs.                    courage promising marine-retated research and commercial
                                       Work on further developing and operationalizing this concept                activities. Such centers include, for example, the Kaimuki
                                       is continuing.                                                              Technology Enterprise Center and the Manoa Innovation Cen-
                                                                                                                   ter. The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority oper-
                                       General Infrastructure Support                                              ates the Natural Energy laboratory of Hawaii, which supports
                                       The Department of Transportation (DOT) Harbors Division is                  ocean research leading to commercialization, and the Hawaii
                                       involved in inf:rastructure development through harbor expan-               Ocean Science and Technology (HOST) Park, Hawaii's first
                                       sion, management and maintenance in support of research                     ocean science industrial park.
                                       vessels horneported here as well as research vessels transiting                  The Pacific Basin Development Council (PBDC), an eco-
                                       Hawaii from other locations. In 1989, Harbors Division had                  notriic development organization made up of the Governors of
                                       responsibility for ten major commercial harbors, 18 small boat              American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northem Marianas,
                                       harbors and 50 boat ramps (see Harbors Technical Paper).                    Guam and Hawaii, is looking at ways to support and encourage
                                       These facilities, together with Snug Harbor from which most of              ocean R&D in these areas and to.forge cooperative working
                                       the University of Hawaii's and the National Marine Fisheries                relationships between Hawaii and these Amefican Flag Pacific
                                       Service's research vessels operate, form an intricate network of            Islands.
                                       surface support enabling statewide and Pacific-wide opera-
                                       tional capabilities.                                                        MANAGEMENTISSUES
                                             Complementing Hawaii's modem ports are highly devel-
                                       oped aviation and telecommunication links. More than 30                     Management issues associated with the ocean research and
                                       major air caniers fly more than 100 scheduled, daily passenger              education sector in Hawaii fall into eight major categories: 1)
                                       and cargo routes to national and international destinations.                prioritization and funding allocabon, 2) market diversification,
                                       Scores of flights connect the State's major islands. DOTs Air-              3) user conflicts, 4) definition of "marine education," 5) attitudi-
                                       ports Division is responsible for airport operation, maintenance            nal behavior, 6) care and handling of marine animals and
                                       and expansion. Hawaii's telecommunications capabilities are                 habitats, 7) water safety and liability, and 8) ocean and coastal
                                       state-of-the-art, offering a recently completed 40,000-circuit              interpretive education. Additional issues related to research
                                       fibei@opbc cable linking Hawaii with the U.S. Mainland, Japan,              and education are presented in vktually all of the other tedini-
                                       Korea and Australia. Additional telecommunications infrastruc-              cat papers where they can best be incorporated into resource-
                                       ture expansion and upgrades are being sought by the High                    or activity-specific management strategies.
                                       Technology Development Corporation attached administra-                     Prioritization and Funding Allocation
                                       tively to DBED. Ocean research and education are labor inten-
                                       sive and information driven. A high capacity for rapid exchange             In this age of increasing economic competitiveness, State spend-
                                       of people and data is crucial to competitive performance and                ing patterns for ocean R&D need to be viewed as strategic
                                       productivity.                                                               components of State policy. State matching funds could be used
                                                                                                                   to attract large Federal research contracts. This form of leverag-
                                       Industry Marketing and Promotion                                            ing results in high economic impact. State investment in this
                                                                                                                   manner has a history of generating short-term returns of two to
                                       The Ocean Resources Branch (ORB)            of DBED is the lead             four Federal dollars for every State dollar spent for ocean R&D
                                       State agency responsible for ocean          R&D marketing and               (DOE 1988) and in the long-term has increased business oppor-








                      tunities in the private sector (e.g., Fast and Tanoue 1988).              Opportunities afforded by these and other candidate countries
                      Substantial capital inputs also could result from using State             need to be identified and aggressively pursued.
                      funds in this way to attract Federal Centers of Excel.lence which
                      would contribute greatly to Hawaii building a more nationafly             User Conflicts
                      competitive infrastructure for ocean R&D.                                 User conflicts within and between ocean recreation and fishing
                           Hawaii relies on the Federal government for 83 percent of            activities are now legend in Hawaii. There is a growing inci-
                      its ocean R&D revenues. The environment in which Federal                  dence of conflicts involving these activities and research and
                      funding decisions are made is highly pofitical; competition               education activities in the nearshore environments of the popu-
                      between states for Federal support is especiafly keen. Federal            lated main islands. Ocean research and education need to be
                      spending for ocean R&D is projected to remain essentially level           recognized as legitimate ocean uses on par with and deserving
                      in real terms through 1996 1 not over the entire decade                   the same considerations afforded any other ocean use activity
                      (MacDonald et a] 1990). Hawaii will have to be strongly                   in Hawaii.
                      competitive with other states to increase its proportional share          Research-Related
                      of these funds.
                           To be most effective econornicaUy, there needs to be a               The problem is particularly acute where disturbance of care-
                      formal fi-amework to guide State ocean research prioritization            My controlled experiments and interruption of long-terin
                      and funding aHocation. State appropriations to match and                  studies diminishes or jeopardizes the integrity and complete-
                      attract federally funded research doffars need to be purpose-             ness of the research results. That possibifity is especially likely
                      fufly based on a program's economic impact as well as on its              in the case of artificial reef-related work and where extensive
                      intrinsic merit. Some balance between economic leveraging                 floating or submerged instrumentation and samphng arrays are
                      power and program appropriateness would have to be devised,               involved. The result could be an undetected bias leading to
                                                                                                faulty conclusions or premature termination of the project if
                      as would a mechanism to centralize decision making and advise
                      the Legislature. There also would have to be a plurality of               interference were overt. Both results damage Hawaii's reputa-
                      interests represented in the process to accommodate all of the            tion as a major center for credible research resulting in reduced
                      major categories of performers (e.g. government agencies,                 possibility of continued funding and serious damage to the
                      businesses, nonprofit organizations and the University of Ha-             professional reputations of the researchers involved. A related
                      waii) involved in ocean R&D in Hawaii.                                    threat derives from the potential impacts of coastal develop-
                                                                                                ment on critical or unique research areas that may inadvertently
                           The State Marine Affairs Coordinator onginafly served this           be degraded or destroyed.
                      function for ocean R&D. The 1982 Legislature abolished the
                      position and Office of the Marine Affairs Coordinator and                       Expansion of the ocean R&D industry and strengthened
                      transferred the powers and duties of that Office to DBED                  marine research curricula in Hawaii's universities and Depart-
                      (Legislative Reference Bureau 1982).                                      ment of Education ultimately will lead to increased use of the
                                                                                                ocean for research and education and to heightened conflicts
                      Market Diversffication                                                    with other ocean users, unless appropriate management mea-
                                                                                                sures are devised and taken. Most recently, the 1988 Legisliture
                      As noted, Hawaii's ocean R&D industry is heavily dependent                requested that an artificial reef zone be established for research
                      upon Federal spending. The general outlook is favorable, but              and other nonconsumptive uses (H.C.R. No. 207, H.D. 1), but no
                      the U.S. budget and trade deficits and the pending "peace                 law was enacted. The only legal mechanism currently enabling
                      dividend" are major uncertainties facing this industry. Hawaii            exclusive use of the ocean for research and education purposes
                      needs to distribute its risk by establishing new markets in other         is Chapter 190D, Hawaii Revised Statutes. This law provides for
                      countries around the Pacific Rim.                                         leasing the ocean within State waters but is narrowly framed
                           Foreign spending for ocean R&D in Hawaii increased by                and so restrictive that it is of limited applicability.
                      46 percent between 1987 and 1989, totalling $6.5 million                  Education-Related
                      (MacDonald and LaBarge 1990). Annual foreign spending dur-                User conflicts also occur during field trips for educational
                      ing this period was 2.5 times greater than in any prior recorded          purposes, most notably at such popular tide pool locations as
                      year (1980-1986). This amount is not great compared to Federal            Made Reef, Makapuu and Pordock. These conflicts generally
                      sources. However, foreign spending has the potential to
                      become the largest nonfederal source of ocean R&D funds for               involve shoreline fishermen or occur between the different
                      Hawaii.                                                                   field trip groups themselves. Field trips are conducted by
                                                                                                virtuafly all grade levels in public and private schools, by
                           Foreign spending during this period chiefly involved two             nonprofit groups such as Sea We Park and the Waikiki Aquarium
                      countries: Japan (61 percent) and Singapore (15 percent).                 and by a variety of undergraduate and graduate programs in all
                      Fourteen other countries contributed in lesser amounts but                of Hawaii's colleges and universities.
                      demonstrated client interest and market possibilities around the                Conflicts involving multiple field trips at a single tide pool
                      Pacific Rim (e.g. Canada, El Salvador, Ecuador, Venezuela,                or reef flat site are perhaps the most troublesome kind. The
                      Australia, Taiwan, Korea and a variety of Pacific Island nations).        educational opportunity being offered is diminished. The re-








                                       sulting congestion contributes to overuse of the site and to              and organizations that are catering to this market segment. As
                                       resource degradation, which hirther reduces the educational               noted above, this is a desirable trend but there are associated
                                       value of the experience. This problem is greatly aggravated by            impacts that cannot be ignored and which will have tobe
                                       two factors: 1) the convergence of users at preferred locations           carefully managed.
                                       at the same time because of favorable conditions caused by the
                                       tides, and 2) the small number of appropriate sites that can serve        AtdnxUtW Behavior
                                       as alternatives to disperse and distribute the effort.                    The reduction in educational value visited upon popular tide
                                             The matter of access is also an issue in this case because          pool and other coastal field trip sites derives as much from
                                       of the limited extent of protected shoreline suitable for field trip      "misuse" as from "overuse." The behavior of educators intent
                                       use, especially by elementary school grades. Access is restricted         on providing specimens for demonstration purposes may fall
                                       primarily by home owners at such preferred study locations as             short of what is required to maintain the sustained viability of
                                       Kawela Bay and the Portlock area and by the military at certain           the marine community they so routinely sample. For example,
                                       bases where the physical conditions for reef and tide pool study          care must be provided and survivorship should be highly
                                       are exceptional. Little can be done to control the timing of the          considered in holding and returning five specimens to the fide
                                       fides, but. conflicts could be reduced among the educational              pool or reef environment after the class or field trip is over.
                                       groups involved by more tightly organizing the user schedules                   The teaching should be to understand and appreciate the
                                       and by seeking additional access to new sites from the proper             ocean system. Students of all ages should first be taught to care
                                       military authorities. The matter of access being restricted by            in order that they may validate the diversity of Hawaiis marine
                                       home owners is addressed more thoroughly elsewhere for                    fife. Informed attitude is the key to developing a conservation
                                       beaches and coastal erosion (see Beaches and Coastal Erosion              ediic and practicing responsible ocean and coastal steward-
                                       Technical Paper) and ocean recreation (see Ocean Recreation               ship. Educators and all environmental interpreters are role
                                       Technical Paper).                                                         models for students and the general public and they need to
                                       Definition of "Marine Education"                                          manifest this caring attitude in their behavior.
                                       There is growing interest among the general public for interpre-          Care and Handilting of Marine Aninials and Habitats
                                       tation and display at popular resource sites (e.g. Hanaurm Bay)           Nationally, there is mounting interest in assuring that marine
                                       and growing demand for general information on manine-re-                  animals held captive for educational and research purposes be
                                       lated matters. In response, an array of governmental, nonprofit           properly and considerately cared for and maintained. This has
                                       and volunteer organizations as well as businesses are offering            been especially true for marine mammals, but it is expected to
                                       a wide range of information services and products. This is a              apply more forcefully in the hiture to fish and invertebrates as
                                       desirable trend which ultimately will lead to a more sophisti-            well. A number of professional societies are establishing stan-
                                       cated body politic and marine constituency in Hawaii and                  dards and guidelines for their memberships to follow. These
                                       should be encouraged. However, management problems are                    organizations include, for example, the American Association
                                       arising in regard to the interpretation of what constitutes "ma-          of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, American Society of Zoolo-
                                       rine education." The concept of quality control needs to be               9 .Ists, Animal Behavior Society, Ecological Society of America
                                       introduced in relation to the educational programs offered.               and International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
                                             For example, the Department of Parks and Recreation,                Natural Resources.
                                       City and County of Honolulu, has adopted administrative rules                   In any set of guidelines it would be necessary to differen-
                                       intended to reduce use of Hanauma Bay Beach Park to a level               tiate between care and handling: 1) while in the field, 2) while
                                       that is less damaging to the bays environinent. The regulations           in trarisport, 3) while in the controlled, monitored classroom
                                       adopted also are intended to reduce the commercial use of                 environment (temporary), 4) while in zoos, aquariums, oceana-
                                       public facilities and increase the educational value of the               riums or related facilities (permanent), and 5) in the use of
                                       resource. But, some tour operators provide "educational" ac-              prepared specimens. These guidelines should be extended to
                                       tivities as a part of their package and seek continued commer-            include the treatment of marine and coastal habitats. It also
                                       cial access on that basis. For this reason, the City and County of        would be desirable that commercial operators engaged in
                                       Honolulu has had to rethink its administrative rules.                     "ecotounsm" be involved in this process and abide by the
                                             The number of accessible major and unique ocean and                 guidelines as well.
                                       coastal resource sites statewide are relatively few. Ahnost cer-                The Department of Education has on hand a set of general
                                       tainly public use of them will exceed their environmental                 guidelines urging that thoughtful consideration be given by
                                       capacities, as occurred at Hanauma Bay, if limits are not set on          teachers and students when using the various marine environ-
                                       the kinds and levels of activities that are to be permitted. As part      ments for educational purposes (DOE 1983). The Waikild
                                       of the process that establishes such limits, marine education will        Aquanurn has adopted specific animal handling instructions for
                                       have to be clearly defined to prevent unintended uses. This               their docents and interpreters as have several other such marine
                                       precaution is especially important in the face of growing de-             resource centers in Hawaii. However, with the growing power
                                       mand for "ecotourism' and the rise in the number of businesses








                     and popularity of national animal rights groups Re the 300,000-                 There are no statewide or regional ocean and coastal
                     member People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, the State             interpretive plans in Hawaii, only some for specific sites. A few
                     needs to consider a more formal position statement supporting             of Hawaii's coastal attractions have interpretive signs (e.g.,
                     responsible research and education, as much to protect re-                Kahaluu Beach Park, Richardson Ocean Center, Wahaula Visi-
                     search and education and their contribution to the State as to            tor Center). Most only identify the name of the site, with little or
                     protect the organisms and their habitats.                                 no additional information provided. Often, the signs are too
                                                                                               brief and printed only in English. A relatively cost-effective
                     Water Safety and Liability                                                means of educating very large numbers of people, including school
                     Water safety and Liability are contentious issues of notable              students, about Hawaii's ocean resources is being underutilized.
                     importance. The personal welfare of students must be provided
                     for in balancing potential risks against the benefits of hands-on         RECOMMENDATIONS
                     experience and field observation. Course work and visual aids
                     are fine, but true literacy in marine-related fields requires direct      Objective
                     exposure to foster full understanding and appreciation.                   Develop a supportive State management system that encour-
                           Regulations regarding planning, authorization and safety            ages and promotes marine education and that fosters the
                     provisions for water-related field trips in natural environments          growth, continued economic viability and effectiveness of
                     are stipulated in Section 2250.1, DOE Policies and Regulations.           ocean research and development in Hawaii.
                     It is recommended by the districts that approval of a water-              Policy A
                     related field trip request submitted by a teacher be made by the
                     district superintendent rather than the school principal, as              Strengthen Hawafi's national and international competitiveness
                     otherwise would be the case. Risk and liability are deemed                in attracting funds for ocean research and education.
                     higher for such field trips and requires a higher level of autho-         Implementing Actions:
                     rization than usual. The general safety guidelines and provi-
                     sions for water-related field trips adhered to by DOE are                       DBED sbould.
                     included in the publication A Compendium: Coastal Field Sites                   1. Continue to implement its marketing and promotional
                     in the State of Hawaii Obid).                                                   strategy to increase Federal spending for ocean research
                           In order to make wise decisions, there is a need for                      and development (R&D) in Hawaii.
                     administrators to personally experience the same kind of field                  2. Conduct a market analysis and develop and implement
                     trip conditions as their students. The administrator's informed                 a marketing and promotional strategy to diversify and
                     farniharity with marine educational programs, including actual                  expand Hawaii's ocean R&D opportunities in Pacific
                     field site visitation, seems crucial if the administrators are to               Basin countries.
                     thoroughly and properly assess matters of student safety and                    3. Extend the funding source listings in the Hawaii Trade
                     liablty.                                                                        Program to include regional consulting opportunities in
                          The matter of water safety on field trips relates broadly to               marine education as well as ocean R&D.
                     other DOE policies. Ultimately at issue is whether or not                 Policy B
                     Hawaffs children have been instructed in water safety and can
                     swim. DOE does provide formal water safety and swimming                   Mitigate user conflicts between research and non-compatible
                     instruction for its students. Yet, many students are not making           ocean use activities so that ocean research projects are not
                     full use of this program because of a need for more facilities,           jeopardized.
                     staffing and funding. The lack of water safety and education              Implementing Actions:
                     programs in Hawaii is also an issue for the ocean recreation
                     sector (see Ocean Recreation Technical Paper).                                  DLNR sbould:
                     Ocean and Coastal interpretive Education                                        1. Amend theocean leasuig law(Chapter 190D, HRS) to make
                     As part of the overall effort to raise the level of marine literacy             it a more effective mechanism in support of ocean R&D.
                     in Hawaii and to generate responsible stewardship, there is a                   2. Establish an artificial reef zone for research and other
                     need for greater public awareness of HawaH's scenic, natural                    nonconsumptive uses at an appropriate site on a "pilot'
                     and cultural/historic ocean and coastal resources. ocean and                    basis. After a reasonable time period, assess the utilization
                     coastal interpretive education can help residents and tourists                  and effectiveness of he zone to decide on the continu-
                     (including in-state travelers) better appreciate and understand                 ance of this site designation and possible extension of the
                     what these resources have to offer in regards to their beauty,                  zoning concept to other areas and research uses.
                     qualities and special meaning (DBED 1988). This appreciation              Policy C
                     in turn instills a heightened sense of value which leads to
                     increased care and concern that these resources be wisely                 Reduce user conflicts among manne-related groups and pre-
                     managed.                                                                  vent overuse of the most preferred coastal field trip sites.








                                       Implementing Actions:                                                           jurisdiction so that the intent and meaning of the term is
                                             DM in consultation u4tb DOE and affected man                .ne           precise and unequivocal. [See Policy C, Action 1.1
                                             resource centers and programs, should.-                                   2. Coordinate the formulation of this definition with the
                                             1. Designate and manage the most suitable coastal field                   Counties and Federal government where overlapping
                                             trip sites as Marine Life Conservation Districts or as other              jurisdictions and shared boundaries occur.
                                             kinds of management areas to enhance and provide for                      3. When formulating this definition, give credence to the
                                             their greatest educational value.                                         ocean recreation/tour industry as an educational source
                                             DOE should..                                                              which can supplement government resources.
                                             2. Make greater programmatic use of Hawaii's marine                 Policy F
                                             resource centers as substitutes for field trip visitation           Ensure that Hawaii's school students are safe around the water
                                             whenever appropriate.                                               and derive maximum benefit from ocean-related field trips and
                                             nen established, the HOC should.                                    excursions.
                                             3. Coordinate regular scheduling for coastal field trips to         Implementing Actions:
                                             reduce congestion and disperse use.                                       DOE should.
                                             4. Seek additional access to new field trip sites from the                1. Require students to participate in a water safety/leam-
                                             proper military authorities.                                              to-swim program. Seek mandatory funding to support this
                                       Policy D                                                                        program.
                                       Ensure that proper stewardship attitudes are rmnifested among                   2. Require administrators and teachers to participate in
                                       educators and other interpreters and students.                                  water safety workshops.
                                       Implementing Actions:                                                           3. Complement coastal-site visits with carefully coordi-
                                                                                                                       nated excursions to marine resource centers. [This has
                                             UH and DOE together sbould-                                               the added benefit of not contributing to overuse of
                                             1. Collaborate, draft and adopt a formal position state-                  field-trip sites (see Policy C, Action 2).1 Additional
                                             ment that sets guidelines for the conduct of responsible                  staffing is needed to provide specialized instructions to
                                             resear6 and education activities including that marine ani                students.
                                             ma]s and their habitats are properly cued for and respected.              4. Coordinate/collaborate field trip objectives at the school
                                             2. Directly involve and coordinate this effort with Hawaii's              level to avoid duplication in learning experiences.
                                             marine resource centers, schools and other appropriate                    5. Secure new funding for "in-the-envirorunent" experi-
                                             government agencies and user groups.                                      ences which are more costly to provide than shore-based
                                             3. Provide teacher training to develop marine literacy and                excursions.
                                             to foster positive stewamLship for the marine environment           Policy G
                                             4. Coordinate partnerships with governmental, commu-                increase public awareness of Hawaii's scenic natural and cul-
                                             nity and business agencies to provide supplemental in-              tural/historic ocean and coastal resources through interpretive
                                             struction in stewardship.                                           education.
                                             DOE should.-                                                        Implementing Actions:
                                             5. Provide teacher resource positions in each school dis-                 DUR should.-
                                             trict to assist with teacher training and direct services to              1. Develop and implement statewide and regional ocean
                                             students (in class and in the field environment). [Currently,             and coastal interpretive plans, including recommended
                                             there is one resource teacher to help support marine and other            sites, resource information, facilities, staffing, funding and
                                             aquatic education for grades K-12 statewide.]                             programmatic needs.
                                       Policy E                                                                        2. Develop multilingual signs (especially Japanese)          10
                                       Prevent unintended activities from occurring in Hawaii's ma-                    help visitors and Hawaii's multi-ethnic population to
                                       rine and coastal protected areas.                                               better appreciate sites.
                                       Implementing Actions:                                                           3. Work collaboratively and coordinate interpretive pro-
                                             DLNR should.                                                              grams with the Counties and Federal government to
                                                                                                                       encourage opportunities for joint agreements and shared
                                             1. Clearly define 'marine education" in whatever formal                   resources and expertise.
                                             process is adopted to manage the resources under its








                    NOTES                                                                University of Hawaii, Hawaii Natural Energy Institute. 1990. A
                                                                                         Cur7iculum Outline andRelatedResource Requiremerttsforan
                    1.   This section is drawn largely from "A rising ticle of invest-   Expanded Marine Science Program for Elementary and Sec-
                    mentopportunities: Hawaii's ocean industries." State of Hawaii       ondary Schools.- A Report to the Hawaii State Legislature Re-
                    Department of Business and Economic Development 1989. p.5.           garding H.R. No. 244, H.D.1 and H.CR. 230, H.D.1, S.D. I.
                                                                                         Honolulu.

                    REFERENCES                                                           University of Hawaii, Marine Option Program. 1989. Marine
                    Dollar, Sj- 1978. Guide to Research Logistics in the Northwest_      and Aquatic-Related Courses at UH Manoa. Honolulu.
                    ern Hawaiian Islands. Working Paper No. 33. University of
                    Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program. Honolulu.

                    Fast, A.W. and K.Y. Tanoue, eds. 1988. 07ECAquaculture in
                    Hawaii. UNH-SEAGRANT-MR-89-01. University of Hawaii,
                    Sea Grant College Program. Honolulu.

                    Gopalakrishnan, C. and J.S. Sisson. 1987. Economic Impact of
                    Ocean Research Funding on the State of Hawaii. UNIHI-
                    SEAGRANT-ME-88-01. University of Hawaii, Sea Grant College
                    Program. Honolulu.

                    MacDonald, C.D.and.A.L.LaBarge. 1990. Ocean R&D Spending
                    Patterns in Hawaii: Analysis and Outlook. Proceedings of the
                    Fourth Pacific Congress on Marine Science and Technology,
                    PACON'90. Vol. H, pp. 65-72. Honolulu:PACON International.

                    MacDonald, C.D., C.F. Keown, A.L. LaBarge and H.E. Deese.
                    1990. U.S, Funding Patterns for Ocean R&D: Critical Assess-
                    ment and Commentary, M7S '90 Proceedings. Vol. 1. pp. 226-
                    232. Washington: Marine Technology Society.

                    State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                    opment. 1988. Enbance, Preserzt@ Restore: An Interim Report
                    on The Wise Use of Hawaii @ Coastal and Nearsbore Resources
                    for the Promotion and Development of the Ocean Recreation
                    and Tourism Industries. By the Governor's Ocean Resources
                    Tourism Development Task Force. Honolulu.

                    State of Hawaii, Department of Education, Office of Instruc-
                    tional Services. 1983. A Compendium: Coastal Field Sites in the
                    State ofHawaii. RS 83-4146. Honolulu.

                    State of Hawaii, Department of Education. 1988. What is Being
                    Done to Stimulate Industry Involvement in Ocean-Related
                    Fields. OceanlIndustryl Education Conference Proceedings.
                    March 18, 1988. pp. 33-46. By C.D. MacDonald. Honolulu.

                    State of Hawaii, Legislative Reference Bureau. 1982. Marine
                    Resources and Aquaculture ftgrams in the State of Hawaii.
                    Report No. 3. By A.M. Ogata. Honolulu.

                    State of Hawaii, Office of State Planning. 1990. Hawaii Ocean
                    Center Recommendations and Implementation Pmposals. By
                    the Hawaii Ocean Center Planning Council. Honolulu.











                                                   Athline M. Clark
                                                   Ocean Resources Branch
                                                   State of Hawaii Department of Business,
                                                   Economic Development & Tourism
                                                   P. 0. Box 2359
                                                   Honolulu, M 968"
                                                   OCERH RECKER



                                                                                                               M HSOURCI

                                                                                                 PAGE          Hawaii's ocean and shoreline areas offer residents and visitors
                                           TIE RESOURCE                                                        year-round opportunities to engage in a diverse array of recre-
                                                                                                   M
                                                                                                               ational and commercial Activities. Coastal areas offer both a
                                           RESOURCE MANAGENM                                       17          range of passive activities from sunbathing and walking to
                                           Regulation and Enforcement                              17          shoreline fishing, and more acitive pursuits, such as swimming,
                                                On the Water                                       17          scuba diving, surfing, paddling, windsurfing, boating and
                                                On Land                                            18          water skiing. In addition to these independent recreational
                                           MMAGF39M ISSUES                                         19          opportunities, a wide array of commercial activities is avail-
                                                                                                               able, including dive tours, boat tours, interisland cruise ships,
                                           Lack of Resources for Recreational                      19          parasailing and jetskiing. One of the newest is commercial
                                             Opportunities                                                     submarine tours.
                                                Parks and Recreation Areas                         19               For Hawaii's residents, going to the shoreline is a favorite
                                                Support F"ilities                                  19          leisure activity. Passive enjoyment of coastal areas is popular
                                                Public Access                                      20          with residents and tourists alike. Based on 1985 State Compre-
                                                Safety and Education Programs                      20          hensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) statistics, at least
                                                Supportfor Ocean Recreation Industry               21          170,000 people swim or sunbathe at beaches or shorelines, on
                                           User Conflicts                                          21          a typically busy day. Seaward of the shoreline, other forms of
                                                Incompatible Uses                                  21          ocean recreation are being enjoyed. Some 23,000 people are
                                                Commercial v& Non-commercial Uses                  22          surfing. Almost 25,000 others are fishing either ashore or afloat.
                                           Natur-A Resource Suswina@                               22          Some 3,000 people are paddling canoes or kayaks, while more
                                                Degradation of Natural Resources                   22          than 18,000 are enjoying other kinds of boating. Beneath the
                                                Quality of Experience                              23          surface, some 21,000 people are diving.
                                           Ineffective Management and Coortlination                23               Hawaii has always promoted its tourism industry on the
                                                Lack of Enforcement                                23          basis of the islands' natural beauty. This is especially true of
                                                Lack of Coordination, Cooperation                              Hawaii's coastal areas, beaches, shorelines and nearshore
                                                   Among Agencies                                  23          waters, which are considered vital to the State's ocean recre-
                                                Lack ofAdequate Funding                            24          ation and tourism industries (DBED 1988). Hawaii has devel-
                                                                                                               oped its diverse opportunities for ocean recreation into a major
                                           RECON31MAlIONS                                          24          industry with annual revenues that are projected to approach
                                           Objective                                               24          $500 million in 1990 (MacDonald and Deese 1989). An impor-
                                           Policies and implementing Actions                       24          tant factor in this success is the increase in the number of
                                                                                                               tourists, who cite ocean recreation activities as one of the main
                                                                                                               reasons they come to Hawaii. The Hawaii Visitors Bureau
                                                                                                               estimates that total visitor expenditures in 1988 were $9.2
                                                                                                               billion (DBED 1989). Sporting events such as surfing,
                                                                                                               bodyboarding and windsurfmg contests, major yacht races,
                                                                                                               competitive ocean swims and endurance events, fishing tour-
                                                                                                               naments and canoe and kayak races are also a major source of
                                                                                                               ocean recreation revenues.








                          The 1990 SCORP provides updated information on Ha-                   operations: however, due to a lack of manpower and equip-
                    waii visitor and resident recreation patterns. According to                ment, this function liesmainlywith the Coast Guard. Underthe
                    SCORP statistics, 85 percent of visitors to Hawaii participate in          National Recreational Boating Safety Program (46 USC 13102)@
                    some form of ocean recreation. Residents also listed going to              the State is eligible for Federal financial assistance for vessel
                    the shoreline as one of their favorite leisure activities.                 registration and a marine casualties reporting system, coopera-
                          It is expected that ocean recreation activities will become          tive boating safety assistance, patrol and enforcement, boating
                    increasingly important, both socially and economically, to                 safety education, aids to navigation, and public facilities built
                    Hawaii. Innovations in designs and materials will provide                  after 1986 (U.S. Coast Guard 1987).
                    additional opportunities for expanding the ocean recreation                      The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) and DOT also
                    .ndustry. The overall growth of the ocean recreation industry              develop and maintain all State harbor facilities. There are also
                    between 1981 and 1986 was dramatic, averaging revenue                      a few privately owned and operated facilities as well as military
                                                                             C,
                    'increases of 16 percent per year compared to 11 percent per               marinas (see Harbors Technical Paper).
                    year for tourism. Growth from 1986 to 1990 was projected to                      Offshore mooring activities are under joint jurisdiction.
                    bring a 74 percent increase in revenues and a 47 percent                   Commercial offshore mooring permit applications are coordi-
                    increase in employment. If realized, the ocean recreation                  nated by COE. A thorough review by all agencies charged with
                    industry would reap the greatest economic gains among all of
                    Hawaii:s ocean industries (ibid).                                          managing marine resources is required, often through the
                                                                                               development of an Environmental Assessment or an Environ-
                                                                                               mental Impact Statement. Since DOT has jurisdiction over State
                    RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                                        waters, it must review applications for the impact a mooring
                                                                                               buoy will have on other water-related uses. The Board of Land
                    Regulation and Enforcement                                                 and Natural Resources is statutorily mandated to manage all
                    There are many Federal, State and County laws and regulations              conservation lands. The Board is chaired and staffed by DLNR,
                    pertaining to the use of recreational resources. The enforce-              which has jurisdiction over all conservation lands including
                    ment of these rules and regulations is carried out by the U S              submerged lands within the State's waters. DLNR requires all
                    Coast Guard, Department of Land and Natural Resources                      mooring applicants to submit a Conservation District Use
                    (DLNR), Department of Transportation (DOT), Department of                  Application (CDUA) and obtain approval from the Board. A
                    Health (DOH), and County parks and police departments. The                 disposition by the Land Manangement Division also is needed.
                    rules not only define the enforcement responsibilities for each            DLNR reviews both its CDUA and COE permit for impacts on
                    agency but also delineate the boundaries of each agency's                  marine resources on submerged lands. DLNR's Aquatic Re-
                    jurisdiction.                                                              sources Division also has statutory authority to regulate the use
                                                                                               of moorings in Marine Life Conservation Districts. The National
                    On the Water                                                               Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) reviews mooring applications
                    Most water-related activities are jointly managed by the Federal           for effects on marine protected species.
                    government and the State of Hawaii.                                              All water-related activities that occur in areas frequented
                                                                                               by rotected marine species (sea turtles and whales) are
                                                                                                I p
                          FederalAutbority. The Federal government and the State               subject to restrictions established by NMFS. NMFS enforces the
                    have joint management responsibilities for water-related ac-               regulations with the assistance of DLNR's Division of Conser-
                    tivities. The State DOT and the Coast Guard exercise concur-               vation and Resource Enforcement (DOCARE) and to a lesser
                    rent authority over those waters within the State's jurisdiction.          extent, DOTs marine patrol officers (see Marine Ecosystem
                    Outside the limit of the State's jurisdiction the Coast Guard has          Protection Technical Paper).
                    authority to the limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone. Hawaii's
                    DOT has exclusive jurisdiction over inland waters and those                      StateAuthority. Within the State, DOT's Boating Branch
                    waters not under Federal jurisdiction. DOT and the Coast                   issues rules for the "...operation, use and equipment of vessels
                    Guard coordinate law enforcement patrols on all waters sub-                on or in the waters of the State..."(Title 15, Chapter 266, HRS).
                    ject to concurrent jurisdiction. This coordination avoids dupli-           The rules are designed to promote the full use and enjoyment
                    cation of efforts and provides the most effective law enforce-             of the waters of the State while ensuring the safety of persons
                    ment possible with the vessels and personnel available.                    and the protection of property. The Boating Branch also
                                                                                               regulates all water-related activities including swimming, surf-
                          DOT has primary law enforcement responsibility                 r     ing, sailing and boating. All water-related activities are en-
                    recreational vessels within the waters under t    'he joint jurisd c-      forced by Harbors Division's marine and harbor patrol officers
                    tion of the State and Federal governments. The Coast Guard has             (Title 15, Chapter 266 and 267, HRS; Chapter 19-86, HAR).
                    exclusive responsibility for the enforcement of vessel inspec-
                    tion and related Federal statutes applicable to non-recreational           DOT's Boating Branch also issues permits for all commercial
                    vessels. Whenever possible, DOT and the Coast Guard c                      ocean recreation activities originating at State harbors and boat
                                                                                    00P_       launching ramps. In addition DOT's Ocean Recreation Man-
                    erate in developing public boating safety education programs.              agement Rules restrict certain commercial and non-commer-
                    DOT and the Coast Guard also coordinate search and rescue                  cial uses to specific sites, and require permits for all commercial










                                        ocean recreation activities within established Ocean Recre-              Division also issues beach concession leases for Duke
                                        ation Areas. Due to concerns expressed by residents, the 1990            Kahanamoku Beach in Waikiki. State Parks also manages and
                                        Legislature adopted Act 313, which limits the operation of               maintains two recreational fishing piers on Kauai.
                                        commercial thrillcraft, parasailing, water sledding, or high-                  The Federal Land and Water Conservation Fund Act
                                        speed boating to cerw areas during certain days and times of year.       (LWCF ) was enacted in 1965 by the Federal government to
                                             Recreational fishing activities are regulated by DLNR's             assist states in acquisition and/or development of outdoor
                                        Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR). Regulations pertaining              recreation resources. As part of the requirement to participate
                                        to catch limits, gear restrictions, etc., are established by DAR         in the LWCF, states are required to prepare State Comprehen-
                                        and enforced by DOCARE (see Fisheries Technical Paper).                  sive Outdoor Recreation Plans (SCORP). SCORP provides an
                                        DAR receives funds from the Federal government for sport                 inventory of all existing Federal, State, County and private
                                        fishing under the Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act (16          recreational facilities statewide. Under the Hawaii State Plan-
                                        USC 777). These funds are currently utilized for a number of             ning Act (Act 236), DLNR is charged with preparing and
                                        activities including aquatic education programs. At least 10             implementing Hawaii's Recreation Functional Plan as part of
                                        percent of the funds are required to be used to provide Pr               the State's Functional Planning process. The State Recreation
                                        improve recreational boating access (Federal Register 1990)              Functional Plan and SCORP address the recreational needs of
                                        and are transferred to DOT for this purpose.                             Hawaii and provide recommended actions to increase oppor-
                                             The Department of Health (DOH) monitors water quality               tunities for recreation. Both SCORP and the Recreational Func-
                                        in all coastal waters. The frequency of monitoring is deter-             tional Plan are being updated. The State Recreation Functional
                                        mined in part by the level of recreational use in a given area.          Plan technical document also qualifies as SCORP.
                                        Areas with high recreational use are monitored once per week                   All lands seaward of the shoreline to the limit of the State's
                                        to ensure that health and safety water quality standards are             jurisdiction are managed by DLNR's Division of Land Manage-
                                        being met (see Waste Management Technical Paper).                        ment and Office of Conservation and Environmental Affairs.
                                             DOH also runs a Honolulu Aquatic Safery Intervention                Ocean recreation businesses wishing to operate in this area
                                                                                                                 must submit a Conservation District Use Application (CDUA) to
                                        Project at Hanauma Bay with a Federal grant from the Center              DLNR's Office of Conservation and Environmental Affairs and
                                        for Disease Control. The project will provide findings about the
                                        impact and effectiveness of testing aquatic safety interventions         obtain a lease permit from the Land Management Division once
                                                                                                                 the CDUA has been granted. Commercial operators are issued
                                        such as signs and educational handouts. There is potential to            permits for their activities on a case-by-case basis. These
                                        apply these findings and successful intervention methods to              permits are subject to interpretation by the Board of Land and
                                        heavily used beaches statewide; although project funding
                                        expires in 1991.                                                         Natural Resources, which considers whether the commercial
                                                                                                                 operator is "staging" its activities in the conservation district or
                                        OuLand                                                                   is "transiting"through conservation lands. A CDUA permit may
                                        Access to  ocean recreational activities is provided through             be granted if it is determined that the proposed activity will
                                        harbors and boat launch ramps. Additional access is provided             have limited environmental impact and a.negative environ-
                                        through Federal, State and County parks, private property                mental declaration is issued.
                                        (resorts), public rights-of-way, and along stretches of open                   County Authoilty. The Counties have by far the largest
                                        shoreline.                                                               role in providing access, facilities and services to non-boating
                                             Federal Authority The federal government's National                 ocean recreational users. Restroom and parking facilities are
                                        Parks Service is responsible for providing access through                pro.vided at most County and State parks. Hawaii has seven
                                        coastal national parks. It also has authority to manage adjacent         national parks, 66 State parks and 569 County parks (DBED
                                        coastal waters throuch the Hawaii National Parks Act. Hawaii             1989). In addition, the Counties maintain a few boat launch
                                        also has one National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR) at               ramps. The Counties also provide lifeguard services at several
                                        Waimanu, Hawaii, which is administered through the National              County and a selected few State parks. Legislation enacted in
                                        oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) under the                  1990 will allow the Counties to provide lifeguard services at
                                        Department of Commerce. The funding to administer the NERR               several State beaches. The Counties also provide permits for
                                        is allocated through the National Coastal Zone Act (see Marine           commercial ocean recreation activities at specific beach park
                                        Ecosystem Protection Technical Paper).                                   areas. Permits are issued subject to County ordinances or
                                                                                                                 through the Special Management Area (SMA) permit process
                                             StateAutbo?Ity. DLNR's State Parks Division regulates all           mandated under the Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Law
                                        State parks, recreation areas and activities under Tide 12,              (Tide 13, Chapter 205A, HRS). The Counties must coordinate
                                        Chapter 194, FIRS. Although the Division generally doesn't               the issuing of permits with DLNR for County parks that are in
                                        issue permits for commercial ocean recreation activities, three          conservation districts.
                                        temporary permits to commercial boat operators for landing at                  The majority of access to the State's waters is managed
                                        Na Pali Coast, Kauai, and one permit for a commercial beach              under the jurisdiction of the Counties' parks and planning
                                        concession to rent recreational equipment at Hapuna Beach                departments. In addition to beach parks, the Counties also are
                                        Park, Hawaii, have been issued. DLNR's Land Management








                      wlel with providing and maintaining public rights-of-way to                The design of these facilities may limit the actual number of
                      the shoreline. Developers wishing to build along the shoreline             possible users, such as lack of access for the handicapped. The
                      must apply for an SMA permit prior to construction and are                 number of parking spaces, the distance from the parking area
                      required under CZM Law to provide public access. However,                  to the ocean, and special conditions, such as night-use prohi-
                      the type of access that is required varies from County to County           bitions, are also examples of factors that may limit use.
                      and is subject to interpretation.                                                Specialized Support Facilities,. Inadequate facilities and
                            In 1988, the Hawaii State Legislature enacted the Hawaii             programs constrain recreational opportunities. For example,
                      Statewide Trail and Access System Act (Act 236). This Act,                 there is general consensus that the availability of berths and
                      which is referred to as Na Ala Hele, assigned DLNR's Division              designated mooring areas for small boats is inadequate. There
                      of Forestry and Wildlife to work with the Counties to inventory            are approximately 2,600 recreational boats on a waiting list for
                      existing trails and shoreline access and propose recommenda-               slips at small boat harbors throughout the State (DOT 1990).
                      tions for additional needed access routes and trails. Several              Support facilities, such as boat launching ramps, ice houses,
                      years ago, the Counties developed shoreline access plans,                  fuel sources, on-land dry storage sites and dry docks also are
                      which may be updated in response to this law.                              insufficient (DLNR 1990). In addition, only a few sewage
                                                                                                 pump-out facilities are available at small boat harbors, al-
                                                                                                 though a sewage improvement plan for small boat harbors
                      MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                                          slowly is being implemented (see Waste Management Techni-
                      lack of Resources for Recreational Opportunities                           cal Paper). Some of the older launch sites are inadequate and
                                                                                                 do not effectively protect boats from strong ocean surges.
                      Parks and Recreation Areas                                                 Launching from these facilities can be extremely difficult.
                                                                                                           Z)
                      The 1990 Draft Recreational Functional Plan states that the                There is also a severe lack of harbors of refuge for small boats
                      capacity of beach parks and shoreline areas is rapidly diminish-           to seek shelter in inclement weather. A number of resorts and
                                                                                                 other private parties are considering constructing private ma-
                      ing, especially on Oahu, due to the significant number of
                      resident and visitor users. The saturation of beach park capac-            nnas. In addition, the State has been exploring options for
                      ity is considered a top priority issue in the Recreation Func-             additional small boat harbors (see Harbors Technical Paper).
                      tional Plan. Additional public parks have to be planned and                      It is estimated that there are over 2,000 vessels moored or
                      developed to meet the growing demand.                                      anchored offshore in State waters (Parsons 1990), because of
                            Camping along the shoreline is affected by several fac-              the lack of harbor facilities. Lack of shoreside facilities for
                      tors. Traditional undeveloped sites are being lost, or access is           access to and from these vessels is also a problem. As the
                      being limited, because of development. Shoreline camping by                boating population increases, these problems wi.11 increase.
                      the homeless is impacting both designated and non-desig-                   The current mooring permit system is complex and lengthy,
                      nated sites. Traditional shoreline camping grounds outside of              resulting in the installation of a significant number of illegal
                      park areas lack basic facilities, such as rest,oom and litter              moorings. Boats currently moor in a haphazard manner wher-
                      disposal services. Additional camping sities, especiaHy in tradi-          ever a somewhat safe anchorage is available. DOT is in the
                      tional camping areas, are needed.                                          process of obtaining management authority from COE and
                                                                                                 DLNR to establish offshore mooring regulations, to include
                      Support Facilities                                                         designated offshore mooring areas and day-use mooring sites.
                                                                                                 However, discussions to develop these regulations have con-
                      Basic Support facilities@ Many recreation activities, including            tinued for at least three years without any significant strides
                      windsurfing, kayaking, surfing and swimming benefit from                   toward establishment of offshore mooring areas.
                      park support facilities. Basic facilities include parking areas,
                      restrooms and showers. Generally, the need for shoreline park                   The diving industry and others have been lobbying for
                      areas and basic support facilities will continue to increase with          installation of day-use moorings to eliminate some of the
                      population growth. The high volume of use at many recre-                   damage to coral caused by anchoring. However, moorings fall
                      ational areas is taxing the capacity of the related support                under the jurisdiction of both DOT and DLNR and must be
                      facilities. In addition, the State and Counties have expressed             approved by both agencies. Although day-use moorings were
                      concerns about their ability to maintain current facilities as             installed at Molokini because of coral damage and safety
                      funding generally has been directed towards acquisition and                concerns, no additional day-use moorings were approved until
                      development of new facdities. Funding for maintenance has                  recently. After three years of attempts to get a day-use program
                      not kept pace with the high levels of use, and in some areas has           established, frustrated divers and others in West Hawaii in-
                      caused deterioration of facilities (DLNR 1990).                            stalled day-use moorings along the entire Kona coast to save
                           The State and the Counties maintain a number of beach                 the coral and force the State to act. DLNR does not feel that the
                      parks and many shoreline resorts have developed public paths               user groups acted in good faith as mooring system negotiations
                      to the shoreline, which include comfort stations and parking               were ongoing: however, DLNR recently gave DOT approval to
                      areas. However, it is uncertain whether these facilities ad-               allow the temporary use of these moorings to evaluate their
                      equately fulfill the needs of the general public (DLNR 1990).              design as a prototype for statewide application.








                                           There are two fishing piers on Kauai maintained by                   of use and traditional users, e.g. swimmers and shoreline
                                      DLNWs State Parks Division. There is also a Fishing pier at               fishermen, may have to compete with other ocean users who
                                      Hanalei, Kauai, which is under the jursidiction. of DOT; how-             were once unable to obtain access. Planning to rnitigate or
                                      ever, it is in disrepair. Funds have been allocated to DLNR for           minirnize additional impacts is a necessary part of any access
                                      its restoration and DOT plans to turn the pier over to DLNR               plan.
                                      once restoration has begun. DOT is proposing that Mala Wharf                    Public access on military lands also is often restricted. In
                                      in Lahaina also be turned over to State Parks. It is also in              several instances, however, the military has cooperated with
                                      disrepair. No new capital improvement money has beed bud-                 State and County agencies to allow controlled access to popu-
                                      geted in recent years for these DOT piers. Funds should be                lar recreational areas through memoranda of agreement. How-
                                      allocated for their repair and maintenance.                               ever, the military has not taken an active role in implementing
                                           Specialized facilities, such as launching areas and storage          these agreements. Current access to military lands and recre-
                                      facilities for outrigger canoes, kayaks, surfboards and                   adonal facilities is limited and expanded access is needed.
                                      windsurfers, are needed in any program supporting ocean                         It may be desirable to maintain limited access to certain
                                      recreation. The American Canoe Association, Hawaii Division,
                                      conservatively estimates that there are 10,000 canoers in the             locations to preserve wilderness qualities or to prevent over-
                                      State. Outrigger canoeing, kayaking and other ocean sports                use, especially in areas with threatened or endangered species.
                                      have grown significantly in recent years (DLNR 1990). Storage             The north shores of Molokai, Hawaii and Kauai are examples
                                      facilities are needed, especially for those individuals living in         of areas that could be designated as wilderness areas where
                                      apartment complexes who have no place to store their recre-               access should continue to be limited (see Marine Ecosystem
                                      ational equipment.                                                        Protection Technical Paper). Lirniting certain types of commer-
                                                                                                                cial activities to certain shoreline areas is another access issue.
                                      Public Access                                                             Maintenance, liability and vandalism are also important issues
                                      Actual physical access to and along the shoreline is another              with regard to public access. In many instances, private prop-
                                      recreational issue. Problems related to this issue include the            erty owners are unwilling to provide public access because of
                                      loss of shoreline recreational areas and restriction of public            the fear of litigation if someone is injured while crossing their
                                      access due to new development. These access issues will                   property. Relief of the burden of liability to allow public access
                                      become critical as more lands are developed for resorts, houses           through government and private property without fear of
                                      and golf courses (DLNR 1990). There is no plan for access in as           being sued is needed.
                                      yet undeveloped areas.                                                          Access Along the Sboreline., Physical access along the
                                           Access to Sborefine Areas: In some areas, private prop-              shoreline is not always continuous. In many areas around the
                                                                                                                Islands, maninade structures (including seawalls, revetments,
                                      erty and private developments block access from the nearest               groins, and canal or drainage outlets) and natural features
                                      developed public roadway to the shoreline or, as in some                  (such as cliffs, vegetation and rocky outcroppings) restrict
                                      coastal resort arm, public rights-of-way are provided but                 access to potential recreational resources (see Beaches and
                                      there is no parking. In these cases, public access agreements             Coastal Erosion Technical Paper).
                                      with landowners or acquisition of public rights-of-way from
                                      inland areas to the shoreline may be necessary to provide                 Safety and Education Programs
                                      access. in other areas, access is poorly marked or public rights-         The safety of people engaged in ocean recreation activities is
                                      of-way have been absorbed by the adjacent private property                of major concern. In 1989, there were 705 water rescues on
                                      owner, thus eliminating access. The 1990 Draft Recreation                 beaches guarded by City and County of Honolulu lifeguards
                                      Functional Plan indicates that access paths have been fenced or           (DBED 1989). The Department of Health has stated that
                                      blocked illegally, signs indicating public access have been torn          drownings are the second leading cause of accidental death in
                 1k                   down and access ways have become impassable due to uncon-                 Hawaii (DLNR 1990). Safety-oriented programs involve both
                                      trolled weeds and brush. Access can be ftirther limited by                conventional fife-saving activities such as lifeguarding and
                                      providing only a few parking stalls for general public use and            preventive activities such as training in recreation activity skills
                                      not allowing any additional public entry once these few stalls            and education about ocean resources, hazards and regula-
                                      are filled. Any leasing of property from DOT must have a                  tions. Planning for water-safety concerns among residents and
                                      provision for access but the type of access va ties. The Cound es         visitors is fragmented and diffused across multiple agencies
                                      on each island and the State Parks Division have various plans            including the Counties, DOH, DOT, DLNR, DOE and the viskor
                                      to obtain additional lands for public access and shoreline                industry.
                                      parks, but the rate of implementation varies from County to
                                      County and has been constrained by a lack of resources.                         Lifeguards are stationed at many County beach parks, but
                                           it should be noted that providing additional public access           many popular beaches including most State beach parks are
                                      to the ocean creates additional impacts and sometimes in-                 unattended. In an effort to resolve the issue of unguarded
                                      creases the potential for conflicts. As additional access is              beaches, the 1990 Legislature passed enabling legislation which
                                      opened, low impact sites are confronted with increased levels             allows the Statetoworkwith the Counties toprovide lifeguarding
                                                                                                                services at selected State beach parks. Before the State and the








                     Counties implement this legislation, there are still some serious        try has expressed frustration with not knowing where to go to
                     issues to be resolved, mainly stemming from concerns about               obtain the proper permits for sporting events and the number
                     which agency is liable once the lifeguarding services are                of agencies that are involved in the permit process (Allara
                     provided. In addition, the need to broaden the legislation to            1990). Plans for an international event, the Hawaii Pacific
                     include all State beaches instead of just State beach parks was          games, were put on hold because of the lack of major sporting
                     expressed by the State Parks Division (Nagata. 1990).                    facilities to provide venues for teams from 30 different coun-
                          In a State surrounded by water, it is estimated that many           tries (ibid). Major sporting events are telecast worldwide and
                     residents do not know how to swim (Sullivan 1990). Water-                provide excellent exposure of the types and variety of ocean
                     re.lated accidents among residents and visitors are numerous,            recreational opportunities available in a scenic Hawaiian set-
                     with more fatalities involving residents than visitors. Education        ting.
                     and training programs can help reduce safety problems. These                  Commercial ocean recreation activities provide opportu-
                     range from training for first-time users on the proper use of            nities for both visitors and residents to participate in activities
                     equipment, and interpretive programs about the resources, to             that would otherwise be unavailable. In addition, a number of
                     providing infonnation on regulations. Instruction in general             commercial vendors provide instructional programs to both
                     water-safery principles and basic swimming skills are impor-             residents and visitors. Often, commercial operators provide
                     tant components of safety intervention as are the posting of             rescue services to all ocean users in areas where the services
                                                                                   0
                     warning signs and development of informational brochures.                would not otherwise be provided. It is generally felt that
                                Z)                                                                                                          0
                     Very few, 9 any, of these types of programs exist. In addition,          patrons will use the equipment regardless of whether there are
                     on some Islands, there are very few shoreline areas with                 qualified and trained personnel to supervise the activity and
                     beaches safe for swimn-dng, especially for fan-dlies with small          the commercial vendors provide a safety factor by being on the
                     children. Often children swim in the calm waters surrounding             site to supervise the activity.
                     boat launch ramps, even though it is illegal, because there are
                     no other safe places to swim.                                                 The majority of visitors to Hawaii come in part to partici-
                                                                                              pate in some form of ocean recreational activity. Promoting
                          DOE has a strict policy on ocean recreation activities.             tourism while not supporting the types of activities tourists
                     There are no ocean activities allowed in school districts, except        seek to participate in, indicates a conflict. Although the indus-
                     when they are approved by the district superintendent. It is left        try provides numerous benefits, its large size and rapid growth
                     up to individual principals to decide where their priority funds         have increased conflicts among users. Public policy, expressed
                     are to be spent. Not many principals are willing to fund water-          by Legislative initiative, acknowledges a lack of support for the
                     safety programs with priority funds as there are so many other           ocean recreation industry. Act 313, SLH 1990, states that "...the
                     projects for which the funds are needed. There is, therefore, no         State is mindful that in managing and regulating ocean use,
                     formal water-safety education in the public schools. An island-          priority should be given to those seeking non-commercial
                     wide program did exist for a few years, but it was cancelled by          recreational opportunities as opposed to those seeking com-
                     the Board of Education due to liability concerns (Sullivan               mercial recreational opportunities. To be a commercial opera-
                     1990).                                                                   tor is a privilege and not an exclusive right." As the tourism
                          There is no comprehensive program within the visitor                industry continues to grow, demand for more commercial
                     industry to inforin visitors of water-safety concerns, but some          ocean recreation opportunities also will continue to increase.
                     individual companies offer information to theirclients. Liability        Greater support for this industry is needed to provide the
                     is the main concern cited as the reason that no comprehensive            infrastructure necessary to reduce conflicts at areas heavily
                     approach to water-safety information has been developed. It is           used by both commercial and non-commercial users.
                     generally assumed that by taking responsibility for informing
                     clients of water-safety concerns, a business or organization             User Conflicts
                     thereby assumes liability for the individual. However, in a              Incompatible Uses
                     recent court case in Kaanapali, Maui, a hotel was found liable           Competition among recreational users for limited ocean recre-
                     for not adequately informing a guest about the rough surf at the         ational resources and the accompanying support facilities is a
                     hotel's beachfront. The liability issue needs to be resolved so          growing concern. The problems range from inconveniences,
                     that safety information can be prepared and presented.                   such as limited parking spaces, crowded beaches and reduced
                     Supportfor Ocean Recreation Industry                                     fish catches, toswirnmers orsnorkelers being injured byboats,
                     As previously noted, the ocean recreation industry was headed            etc. Boating in swimming areas and jetskiing in surfing areas
                     toward $500 million in annual revenues in 1990. Yet improve-             are examples of incompatible activities that involve serious
                     ments to harbor facilities and supporting infrastructure for the         safety concerns. Traditional uses, such as recreational fishing,
                     ocean recreation industry and sporting events have not kept              often compete for the same resource area as users of new
                     pace with the growth of the industry. The processes for obtain-          equipment, such as windsurfers. There is also competition
                     ing permits for commercial ocean recreation ventures and                 among recreational groups, such as shoreline fishermen and
                     major sporting events can be complex and lengthy. The indus-             gflI net fishermen, or recreational trollers; and deep-sea charter
                                                                                              boats, or recreational fishermen and the commercial longline








                                       fishery (see Fisheries Technical Paper). Non-consumptive,                 the tour industry continues to grow, pressure to use these other
                                       users such as scuba dive operators, compete for the same sites            open shoreline areas and small coastal parks is going to
                                       as consumptive users, such as spear fishermen or aquarium fish            increase and the need to strike a balance between commercial
                                       collectors. Habitats, such as sunken ships, service the tour              and public use of recreational resources becomes increasingly
                                       industry. They are also ideal habitats for fish propagation and           difficult. As the competition for space between commercial
                                       are therefore sought as desirable fishing locations. Fishing              operators and the general public increases, the larger concern
                                       depletes the stocks that enhance the visitors' experience.                of the appropriateness of commercial activities occurring 'in
                                             it should be noted that although numerous conflicts have            residential neighborhoods also needs to be addressed.
                                       arisen, as the numbers and types of ocean recreation users                     Commercialism can easily lead to overuse. It is part of the
                                       increase, there also have been significant strides made to                nature of the business. Without any bounds being placed on
                                       mitigate some of them in a few select locations. Two of the most          the growth of commercial ocean recreation businesses, espe-
                                       noteworthy involve the agreements reached between the scuba               cially in popular sites, existing operators expand their busi-
                                       diving industry and the tropical fish collectors off of Kona and          nesses and new operators enter the market as it ?n be a
                                       the agreements reached between the windsurfers and other                  lucrative business and is basically a free resource. This expan-
                                       ocean recreation users along the north shore of Maui. As                  sion can eventually squeeze out the local populace and nega-
                                       enforcement capabilities are lacking in a number of locations,            tively impact the ocean resource the businesses are marketing.
                                       the commercial industry also has had to assume self-policing of           This leads residents to question commercial operations, as
                                       their activities. This works to a large extent in most locations,         unbounded expansion can have detrimental impacts on the
                                       but as the industry grows the sheer numbers of users often in             recreational resource. Governmental agencies need to recog-
                                       and of itself adversely impacts the resource.                             nize that the nature of a commercial business is to make money
                                             The recently adopted Ocean Recreation Management                    from the resource and that businesses will continue to expand
                                       Area Rules have reduced commercial vs non-commercial in-                  while there is money to be made. A systematic approach,
                                       compatible use conflicts and ocean-safety hazards by separat-             which defines and enforces limits on commercial growth, is
                                       ing various recreational uses into designated areas, such as              needed. Under the present management system, agencies seek
                                       delineating thrillcraft zones. In addition, other management              to limit the amount of commercial activity after detrimental
                                       areas have been designated as swimming areas where boating                effects already have occurred. This approach has not proved
                                       is restricted; However, these rules do not cover conflicts                satisfactory for commercial operators, who may actually lose
                                                                                                                 their livelihood, or residents who have been so adversely
                                       sternming from limited facilities or overcrowding, Additional
                                       management of mixed but incompatible recreational activities              affected that they are against any commercial operations.
                                       isneeded.                                                                 Natural Resource Sustainability
                                       Gommerdal vs Non-contmerdal Uses                                          Degradation of Natural Resources
                                       In some areas commercial activities, such as guided tours,                Recreational activities can generate adverse impacts on ocean
                                       lessons and equipment rentals, increase recreational use. Com-            resources. For example, coral reef communities can be dam-
                                       mercial use of public areas, especially parking lots, beaches             aged by anchoring of boats, such as has occurred at Molokini,
                                       and boat launching ramps, continues to generate controversy,              or trampling by snorkelers. Strand vegetation, valuable in
                                       especially when it is deemed excessive and interferes with
                                       public enjoyment. Competition between commercial                          minimizing beach erosion, and in maintaining native ecosys-
                                       windsurfing operations and individual users at Oahu's Kailua              tems, often is destroyed by pedestrians and all-terrain vehicles.
                                                                                                                 Monitoring of resources and management of uses to prevent
                                       Beach Park has resulted in regulation of commercial activities,           overuse can have multiple benefits to the resource and the
                                       Of further concern is the competition between commercial                  activities. Although SCORP provides statistics on the numbers
                                       uses and public use of ocean areas. For example, commercial               and types of recreational facilities available statewide, veryfew
                                       activities in a public area effectively may prohibit public use           recreational sites have been studied to determine the actual
                                       because of competition for space and because of safety consid-            number of users in a given location. Quantifiable data are
                                       erations.                                                                 lacking on the level of use at particular sites, types of activities
                                             The use of public beach parks for commercial activities             occurring there, or impacts that activities have on the resource.
                                       occurs statewide and ranges from the already high intensity of            Without accurate data, it is difficult to properly manage recre-
                                       use noted at places like Hanauma Bay, to tour buses and vans              ational resources. There is a need to monitor use and make
                                       beginning to stop for picnic lunches and dropping off clients at          adjustments to management practices based upon quantifiable
                                       a variety of other open shoreline areas. This issue involves not          data, at least in some of the more heavily used sites.
                                       only State and County parks but also open shoreline areas                      Commercial ocean recreation activities can blossom into
                                       outside of park boundaries and in proximity to residential                major commercial ventures with potentially significant envi-
                                       neighborhoods, The commercial use of parks and shoreline                  ronmental and social impacts. However, an environmental
                                       areas is becon-drig pervasive and needs to be critically exam-            impact analysis is not required when an individual company or
                                       ined. As additional restrictions are imposed on park use and as           an entire industry is growing. In addition, DOT's Ocean Recre-








                     ation Management regulations do not address the cumulative                the primary reasons that management is often ineffective. The
                     impacts that can occur as more and more people use the                    public generally feels that there are sufficient regulations to
                     resource. Currently, there is no way to adequately examine                manage the resources; however, these regulations are not
                     cumulative impacts. There is also a lack of data or agreed upon           adequately enforced (Aotani and Associates 1988).
                     methodolog@ to determine social or environmental carrying                      Although Ocean Recreation Management Rules were
                     capacities for heavily impacted recreational sites.                       promulgated in 1988, DOT has had difficulty enforcing many
                           Marketing campaigns have designated some areas such                 of the new restrictions due to legal constraints and lack of
                     as Molokini and Hanauma Bay as"must-.see" destinations and                resources. A campaign to educate the public on the new rules
                     in so doing have contributed to their overuse (DBED 1988).                has not been undertaken. Installation of signs and/or buoys to
                     There is a lack of comparable sites for people to use as                  demarcate restricted zones has not been done in most areas.
                     alternatives to those that are so heavily used and marketed and           Implementing the 1988 Ocean Recreation Management Rules
                     resource managers have not attempted to establish user carry-             and the new statutory restrictions mandated under Act 313 has
                     ing capacities.                                                           meant a doubling in the types of operator permits and equip-
                     Quality of Experience                                                     ment registrations that are required. Although the number of
                     Given the numerous opportunities for ocean recreation                     enforcement personnel has increased, the number of adn-:iinis-
                                                                                       in      trative staff to process the permits has not. Effective implemen-
                     Hawaii, it is understandable that residents and tourists come to          tation of the rules will require additional administrative and
                     expect a high-quality recreational experience. Unfulfilled ex-            enforcement personnel, plus additional equipment.
                     pectations, a complex concept which involves individual per-              Lack of Coordination, Cooperation Among Agencies
                     ceptions of the availability and qualiryof recreational resources
                     as well as individual preferences based on past experiences,              Current management of coastal and ocean resources is charac-
                     can lead to dissatisfaction with recreational resources. Because          terized by multiple responsibilities diffused across multiple
                     individual preferences are involved, an area may be consid-               agencies. This situation has made it difficult to coordinate and
                     ered to be at a medium-use level by one person and over-                  effectively implement the specific responsibilities of each
                     crowded to another. Hanauma Bay is one area which is                      agency. DOT and DLNR are empowered to enforce each
                     considered to be overcrowded by many residents. Residents                 other's' rules but this does not regularly occur. Until enforce-
                     confronted with increasing use of recreational resources can              ment officers are effectively trained in their own department's
                     be more affected than visitors with no previous experience                rules, no cross-training can occur. Enforcement capabilities are
                     with Hawaii's coastal resources.                                          limited both by manpower and equipment shortages. There
                          Increased numbers of tourists and activities are putting             are 21 marine patrol officers statewide. DLNR's 80 DOCARE
                     increasing pressures on coastal recreation resources. Twenty-             officers, who must enforce all DLNR's land and water-related
                                                                                               regulations, are hampered in enforcing water-related regula-
                     eight permits were issued for hotel construction in 1987, nine            tions by a lack of boats.
                     in 1988 and three in 1989. Prior to this period, the State's
                     average rate of construction for most of the past two decades                  DOT's marine and harbor patrol officers are scheduled to
                     had been just under two projects per year. Although the brunt             be transferred to the newly created Department of Public Safety
                     of this hotel construction was felt mainly in Maui County and             in 1991 (Chapter 26-14.6, HRS). The new Department of Public
                     Kauai, the increase in the number of visitors to the Islands as a         Safety was established in an effort to formulate and implement
                     whole has outpaced the needed infrastructure improvements                 all State policies and objectives for corrections, security, law
                     that should have accompanied such rapid growth. Over the                  enforcement and public safety. The Department will combine
                     next few years, several new construction permits for resort               the functions of the former Department of Corrections with the
                     projects planned on the west and north shores of Oahu and on              sheriffs office, narcotics enforcement, and the marine and
                     the Big Island may be issued. These hotel construction permits            harbor police. Concerns have been expressed about this trans-
                     also represent a new wave of destination resort construction              fer, mainly due to the fact that the philosophy of resource
                     that will provide the foundation for tourism growth in the 1990s          enforcement is completely different from the philosophy of
                     (Bank of Hawaii 1990). Most of these resorts will be opening for          penal code regulatory enforcement. Since the general public is
                     business in the next few years. Planning to alleviate the impacts         not required to know the rules before using a piece of recre-
                     of rapid development on local residents should have been                  ational equipment, a large part of the marine patrol officer's job
                     anticipated or at the very least should be initiated now.                 is educating the public about boating safety rules. It is uncertain
                                                                                               how this role may change under the new department.
                     ineffective Management and Coorduiation                                       Gaps and overlaps in existing management authority
                     Lack of Enforcement                                                       consistently have frustrated users. People who request infor-
                     Since 1988, several plans and surveys have been developed                 mation complain of being referred back and forth between
                                                                                                                          7
                                                                                               agencies. Primary access to marine resources occurs largely
                     and public hearings have been held to address the growing                 0
                     concern of management of recreational resources. In almost all            through County lands to State-managed resources. The State
                     cases, lack of adequate enforcement has been cited as one of              and Counties have not established mutually acceptable guide-








                                       lines to manage these resources. The State can designate                   Implementing Actions:
                                       nearshore waters for specific activities without coordinating                     DOT, DM DBED and the Counties sbould..
                                       with the Counties to assess the impact on adjacent County-
                                       managed lands.                                                                    1. Identify and prioritize ocean and coastal recreational
                                             Agencies charged with issuing commercial permits must                       facilities needing improvements through the State Com-
                                       later assume a reactive role to mitigate negative impacts. As                     prehensive Ocean Recreation Plan (SCORP) and develop
                                       noted, permits for commercial activities are issued by the                        a plan to implement the necessary improvements which
                                       Counties, DLNR and DOT, depending on where the commer-                            complements but is more detailed than the State Recre-
                                       cial activity originates and which agency has management                          ation Functional Plan.
                                       authority. Under existing circumstances, State agencies can                       2. Allocate additional funds needed to maintain current
                                       individually issue commercial permits for the same water area                     facilities properly.
                                       without checking with each other. Often, it is only when the                      3. Work with community groups to develop voluntary
                                       cumulative impacts increase that agencies make an effort to                       maintenance assistance programs to maintain recreational
                                       coordinate.                                                                       facilities.
                                             Commercial ocean recreation businesses that originate                           a. Setup a community "Adopt-a-Park" program.
                                       from a private marina or from private property are not always
                                       required to obtain a commercial permit to operate. There is also                      b. Clarify possible liability concerns so volunteers
                                       a problem with Special Management Area (SMA) permits.                                 can actively participate in maintenance programs.
                                       Under Hawaii CZM law, a change in the intensity of use is part                        c. Develop a maintenance hotline for users to report
                                       of the definition used to define a "development". The County                          needed repairs.
                                       of Kauai has used this definition to require commercial boaters
                                       in Hanalei to obtain an Environmental Impact Statement prior                          d. Develop a community liaison program that pro-
                                       to being issued an SMA permit to operate. The question of                             vides volunteer maintenance groups access to needed
                                       whether intensification of use constitutes "development" has                          funds or supplies to maintain facilities.
                                       not been adequately answered and is currently under litiga-                       4.  Identify and prioritize additional site-specific recre-
                                       tion.                                                                             ational facilities needed for coastal and ocean recreation
                                       L"k ofAdequXe Fun&ng                                                              activities and develop them.
                                       Growth in the visitor industry is straining recreational re-                      5.  Utilize a long-range planning strategy to:
                                       sources which need to be better managed and protected.                                a. Determine which underdeveloped or undevel-
                                       Because funds have not been made available to expand their                            oped recreation areas should be set aside now to
                                       staff, management and enforcement branches are overwhelmed.                           ensure their development as recreational sites in the
                                       DOT's Harbors Division Boating Fund is the only fund desig-                           future as opposed to being slated for possible resort
                                       nated to maintain recreational resources and provide a small                          development.
                                       number of marine patrol officers. At a time when demands on
                                       the resource are growing at an alarming rate, there is insuffi-                       b. Develop methods to set aside these areas such as
                                       cient funding or manpower to designate specific staff to ocean                        land banking or private/public land exchange.
                                       resource enforcement. The need to generate revenues to be                         6.    Encourage alternative development and funding
                                       used specifically for the management and enforcement of the                       options to develop needed recreational facilities.
                                       ocean resources is critical.
                                                                                                                             a. Develop provisions for government incentives to
                                                                                                                             induce private-sector investment in infrastructure de-
                                       RECOMAUMA11ONS                                                                        velopment of marinas; shore-based, small boat stor-
                                                                                                                             age facilities; shoreline parks and park facilities.
                                       Objective                                                                             b. Require resort marina developers to develop pub-
                                       Promote the development of safe ocean recreation opportuni-                           lic boat launch ramps, boat storage facilities, parking,
                                       des which are socially and environmentally acceptable and                             etc., or to develop other provisions of significant
                                       compatible with other ocean and coastal resource uses and                             public benefit.
                                       available to all residents.                                                           c. Upgrade and maintain boat launch ramps then
                                       PolicyA                                                                               charge user fees for all users (commercial and non-
                                       Maintain existing recreation facilities and provide needed                            commercial) using these facilities.
                                       additional recreation facilities especially in under-developed                    7.   Establish a program to coordinate the acquisition
                                       areas.                                                                            and/or use of Federal lands, recreational facilities and
                                                                                                                         waters for recreational resource development and sup-
                                                                                                                         port areas for coastal and ocean recreation activities.








                           DLNR and the Counties should:                                          6. Develop legislation to resolve liability concerns re-
                           8. Ensure coordination in implementing the recom-                      garding access to the shoreline on government lands.
                           mendations developed in SCORP, the State Recreation              Policy C
                           Functional Ilan and State or County parks development            Reserve certain areas as traditional wilderness or low impact
                           plans.                                                           areas.
                           DOTsbould:                                                       Implementing Actions:
                           9. Immediately implement offshore mooring areas regu-                  DLIVR should:
                           lations and plans for establishment of offshore mooring
                           and day-use mooring sites, as well as onshore support                  identify and designate wilderness and protected areas
                           facilities.                                                            where access should remain limited, and determine ac-
                               a. Develop a one-step permit process at DOT to                     ceptable levels and means of access to wilderness areas.
                               eliminate jurisdictional overlaps and a complex re-                Acceptable levels of means of access should include
                               view of offshore mooring permits.                                  determination of the amount, if any, of commercial activ-
                                                                                                  ity that should be allowed and the types of recreational
                               b. Encourage commercial participation in the devel-                equipment that may be utilized, e.g., motorized vs. non-
                               opment of day-use moorings.                                        motorized equipment. [See Marine Ecosystem Protection
                     Policy B                                                                     section.]
                     Maintain and expand access to and along the shoreline where            Policy D
                     needed.                                                                Develop and support a comprehensive and coordinated water
                                                                                            safety program which clarifies liability concerns and includes
                     Implementing Actions:                                                  training and education.
                           DLNR and the Counties should..                                   implementing Actions:
                           1. Coordinate implementation of the Statewide Trail                    DLNR and the Counties sbou&.-
                           and Access System recommendations with implementa-
                           don of recommendations developed in SCORP, the State                   1. Encourage legislation to resolve the liability concerns
                           Recreation Functional Plan, County parks development                   of DLNR's State Parks Division and the Counties regard-
                           plans and shoreline access plans.                                      ing County lifeguard services at State beach parks.
                           1. Ensure continued funding of he Statewide Trail and                  1. leek to expand current enabling legislation that al-
                           Access System.                                                         lows the State to contract with the Counties for lifeguard
                           3. Ensure that expanded access does not adversely                      services to include not only State beach parks but all State
                           impact other ocean and coastal resources since expanded                beaches.
                           access generally means increased use of an area.                       3. Continue to identify and prioritize beaches where
                           4. Maintain current access and public rights-of-way to                 lifeguard services are most needed.
                           the shoreline by:                                                      4. Establish minimum lifeguard training standards and
                               a. Opening public access routes currently blocked                  provide a central location for data on all wacer.-related
                               by adjacent property owners or clogged by weeds.                   accidents.
                               b. Clearly mark all shoreline access and public rights-            DOH, in cooperation udtb DOT DLAW and the Counties
                               of-way and install garbage receptacles.                            should.
                               c. Publish guides (brochures, maps) to shoreline                   5. Seek the necessary funding to expand the water
                               access locations.                                                  safety intervention methods program in DOH to include
                               d. Develop strict guidelines for private shoreline                 all heavily impacted beaches statewide.
                               developers to ensure adequate access by developing                 DLAW, DOT, DOE, DEED and the Counties should-
                               a formula that mandates a required number of park-                 6. Develop informational and training programs for the
                               ing spaces and ancillary recreational facilities adja-             general public to educate users on water safety and
                               cent to access nodes.                                              swimming skills, resource use restrictions, boating and
                           5.  Formulate a cooperative Federal, State and County                  water safety regulations, proper and safe use of equip-
                                                                                                  ment, cultural and traditional uses and conflict avoid-
                           strategy to expand public access through public and                    ance. Use existing Federal, State, County and private-
                           private lands to recreational areas, or expand the State-              sector programs to coordinate and enhance water safety
                           wide Trail and Access System to include Federal involve-               training and education. [See Research and Education
                           ment.                                                                  section.]








                                          7. Establish a task force of Federal, State and County                used areas and potentially impacted areas that ensures
                                          agencies and the visitor and ocean recreation industries              monitoring of the impacts and limits use as needed.
                                          to develop a comprehensive, systematic approach to                         a. Ensure that the methodology established is used
                                          implementing a successful water safety information pro-                    by all agencies tasked with managing the recreational
                                          gram.                                                                      resource so that data are consistent.
                                              a. Review current liability concerns expressed by                      b. Consider the "Limits to Acceptable Change Plan-
                                              the visitor industry regarding provision of safety                     ning System" as one method of determining impacts
                                              information to visitors and the assumption of liability                and managing resources.
                                              that incurs.
                                              b. Enact legislation or other means necessary to                       c. Organize a workshop of agency personnel to train
                                              resolve these liability concerns.                                      all resource managers in the chosen methodology-
                                              c. Develop brochures and other media techniques,                       d. Assess impacts of current activities and set limits
                                              in a variety of languages, to inform visitors of water                 based on analysis of data and implementation of the
                                              safety hazards.                                                        methodology.
                                              d. Develop a comprehensive signage program            to               e. Ensure that the methodology can accurately de-
                                              post needed warning signs. in hazardous beach and                      termine current impacts and assess cumulative im-
                                              shoreline locations statewide.                                         pacts as commercial activities grow.
                                          DOT, DLNR and the Counties should:                                         f. Conduct an environmental assessment ora similar
                                                                                                                     assessment on proposed new economic activities, in
                                          8. Work with community groups to develop a coordi-                         cooperation with the commercial enterprise.
                                          nated volunteer search and rescue program to supple-                  4.   Explore and develop options for limiting access to
                                          ment USCG and County fire department rescue efforts.                  heavily impacted recreational sites, e.g., permits, en-
                                          DOE should..                                                          trance fees, etc. Develop several options for hn-6ting
                                          9. Resolve current liability concerns regarding the teach-            access by commercial operators instead of just relying on
                                                                                                                a bidding process.
                                          ing of swimming and consider the need to develop                               0
                                          mandatory swimming lessons in schools. [See Ocean                     OSP, DBF-D, DLIW DOT and the Counties should-
                                          Research and Education section]                                       5. Work with the ocean recreation and visitor industries
                                          DLNR, DBED, DOT and the Counties should:                              to develop a cooperative planning effort to disperse
                                          10. Promote development of statewide volunteer surf/                  recreational use. Such an effort should:
                                          lifesaving clubs patterned after Australian clubs to work                  a. identify the needs of residents and visitors in
                                          with lifeguards and commercial operators who provide                       determining dispersion patterns.
                                          rescue services.                                                           b. Identify and develop alternative sites that offer
                                   Policy E                                                                          similar or comparable experiences to heavily used
                                   Maintain the environmental and social quality of recreational                     areas.
                                   resources by limiting use.                                                        c. Analyze dispersion of use so that no single area is
                                   implementing Actions:                                                             too heavily affected, unless it is designated for high
                                                                                                                     use, e.g., Waikiki Beach.
                                          OSP, DLAR DOTand the Counties should.-                                     d. Establish an effective marketing strategy to mar-
                                          1. Develop a comprehensive inventory of nearshore                          ket alternative destinations to disperse use.
                                          and coastal resources and activities. Use this inventory to     Poficy F
                                          determine site-specific allocations based on quantifiable
                                          data. Make the inventory available for use by all resource      Determine current and anticipated impacts of ocean recreation
                                          managers statewide.                                             activities on residents and develop plans to assure that both
                                          2. Develop a comprehensive use-level management                 land and sea activities are compatible with one another.
                                          process that requires all commercial ocean recreation           Implementing Actions:
                                          ventures to obtain perrnits prior to being allowed to                 OSP, DLNR and the Counties should.
                                          operate and require agencies to control the issuance of
                                          commercial permits once limits of use have been deter-                1. Develop clearly defined policies for the commercial
                                          mined.                                                                use of open shoreline and public beach parks in residen-
                                          3. Determine the appropriate methodology to identify                  tial neighborhoods and beach parks or shoreline areas
                                          social and environmental carrying capacities for heavily              intensely used by residents.










                                  and DBED sbould:                                                     6. Educate users on resource restrictions.

                            2. Detennine impacts from new hotel construction and                       DOTsbould-
                            0`P

                            develop plans to minimize these impacts.                                   7. Implement the Ocean Recreation Management Rules
                            3. Consider limiting the size of future hotel develop-                     by installing buoys, posting signs and educating users
                            ments allowed outside specified resort nodes in order to                   about regulations.
                            alleviate additional impacts.                                        Policy I
                      Policy G                                                                   Develop a coordinated strategy of resource management that
                      Develop methodology to mitigate conflicts between various                  eliminates current jurisdictional overlaps or gaps.
                      ocean recreational activities where he parties to the conflict             implementing Actions:
                      can be identified.
                      Implementing Actions:                                                            DURandDOTshould-
                            DOTsbould.                                                                 1. Support the transfer of the Boating Branch from DOT
                            1. Hire or contract the services of mediation profession-                  to DLNR.
                            als to provide a process for conflict resolution or work                   2. Re-evaluate the transfer of boating enforcement func-
                            with the judiciary's Center for Alternative Dispute Reso-                  tions to the Department of Public Safety in favor of
                            lution.                                                                    keeping these enforcement activities with the Boating
                                                                                                       Branch and transferring the Branch intact to DLNR.
                            2. Develop a public information campaign on "rules of                Policyi
                            the road" and traditional uses for water-related activities
                            to promote proper use of equipment and understanding                 Develop agency advocacy for the marketing and promotional
                            of rights-of-way.                                                    support of desirable ocean recreation industry sectors.
                            3. Work with the ocean recreation industry to inform                 Implementing Actions:
                            visitors of use restrictions and traditional rights-of-way.                DBED sbould..
                            4. Encourage the ocean recreation industry to develop                      1. Clarify the state's goals regarding tourism promotion
                            methods to address community concerns.                                     and the support for the ocean recreation industry that
                            5. Identify additional areas where conflicts are occur-                    services the tourist.
                            ring and develop restrictions to mitigate potentially haz-                 2. Develop a central permit process and work with
                            ardous conditions.                                                         other agencies to coordinate and expedite the commer-
                                                                                                       cial permit process ensuring that resource impacts are
                      Policy H                                                                         considered.
                      Maintain resource quality and expand programs for enforce-                       3. Identify desirable ocean recreation industry sectors.
                      ment of recreational resource use regulations.                                   4. Promote ocean recreation and sports industries
                      Implementing Actions:                                                            through industry development and marketing support
                                                                                                       with emphasis on providing infrastructure for existing
                            DOT, DLNR and DOH sbould..                                                 business.
                            1. Seek additional funding to increase enforcement ca-                        a. identify sources of funding and other legal re-
                            pabilities of agencies involved in recreational resource                      quirements necessary to start a business.
                            management, including manpower, equipment, training                           b. Determine infrastructure needs, identify available
                            and salaries.                                                                 infrastructure and work with agencies to increase
                            2. Provide cross-training to ensure that each agency can                      infrastructure to meet demands.
                            enforce the other's regulations.
                            3. Clarify jurisdictional constraints to effective enforce-
                            ment.

                            4. Develop a hotline for users to report violations of
                            regulations and ensure timely response to complaints.
                            5. Analyze current hiring practices of enforcement per-
                            sonnel to ensure that DOT, DOH and DLNR officers are
                            receiving similar training, pay and opportunities for ad-
                            vancement.








                                   REFERENCES                                                         State of Hawaii, Department of Transportation, Harbors Divi-
                                   Allara, Mitch. 1990. Personal communication, August, 1990.         sion. 1990. Small Craft Mooring Facilities Utilizzation Report -
                                   Honolulu.                                                          Quarter Ending March 31, 1990. Honolulu.
                                                                                                      Sullivan, Dan. 1990. Personal communication, August, 1990.
                                   Aotani and Associates. 1988. A Statewide Ocean Recreation          Honolulu.
                                   Management Plan. Honolulu.
                                                                                                      U.S. Coast Guard, 14th Disthct. 1987. Statement of agreement
                                   Bank of Hawaii. 1990. Construction in Hawaii, 1990. Hono-          and understandina on boating safety between the State of
                                   lulu.                                                                                t'                                                    I
                                                                                                      Hawaii and U.S. Coast Guard. Honolulu.
                                   Community Resources Inc.1990. Results of 1989 Update Survey        U.S. Federal Register. 1990. Proposed rules for U.S. Depart-
                                   for the Hawaii Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation          ment of Interior, Fish and Wildge Service, 50 CFR Part 80,
                                   Plan (SCORP) - Volume 1: Visitors (August). Honolulu.              5580.27. Monday, April 9,1990. Vol. 55. No. 68.
                                   Community Resources Inc. 1990. Results of 1989 Update Sur-
                                   vey for the Hawaii Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recre-
                                   ation Plan (SCORP) - Volume 2: Residents (November). Hono-
                                   lulu.


                                   MacDonald, C.D. and H.E. Deese. 1989. A Comprehensive
                                   Analysis and Overview of Hawaii's Ocean Industries. Coastal
                                   Zone '89 Proceedings, 6tb Symposium on Coastal and Ocean
                                   Management, CZ89.july 11-14,1989. Vol. IV. pp. 3481-3493.
                                   New York:American Society of Engineers.

                                   Nagata, Ralston. 1990. Personal communication, July, 1990.
                                   Honolulu.


                                   Parsons, David. 1990. Personal communication, July, 1990.
                                   Honolulu.


                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                                   opment. 1988. Enhance, Preserve, Restore. An Interim Report
                                   on the Wise Use of the Hawaii's Coastal and Nearsbore Re-
                                   sourcesfor the Promotion and Development ofOcean Recre-
                                   ation and Tourism Industries. By the Govemor's Ocean Re-
                                   sources Tourism Development Task Force. Honolulu.


                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                                   opment. 1989. 7he State ofHawaii Data Book - 1-989. Hono-
                                   lulu.


                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                                   opment. 1990. Report tothe Fifteenth State Legislature Regular
                                   Session of 1990 on Chapter 228, Hawaii Revised Statutes,
                                   Ocean Resources Management.

                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources.
                                   1990. Draft Hawaii State Recreation Plan, 1990. Honolulu.











                               David A. Tarnas and
                               M. Carolyn Stewart
                               Marine and Coastal
                               Resources Consultants
                               P.O. Box 2523
                               Kailua-Kona, M 96745
















                                                                             PAGE                                                                    PAGE
                       COMMERCIAL HAMRS                                        29             MANAGEMENT MUES                                         34
                       THE RESOURCE                                            29             Inadequate Supply of Small Boat Harbor Facilities       34
                                                                                              Maintenance of Existing Harbor Facilities               34
                       RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                     30             Conflicts Among Harbor Users                            34
                       Harbor Management                                       30             Small Boat Harbor Funding                               34
                       Harbor Planning                                         30             Potential Environmental impacts of
                       Harbor Construction and Maintenance Financing           31                Harbor Construction                                  35
                       Harbor Construction Permitting                          31             Potential Environmental impacts of
                       Enforcement Responsibilities                            31                Harbor Operations                                    35
                                                                                              Coordinated Planning for Harbor Development             35
                       MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                       31
                       Capacity of Commercial Harbors                          31             Areal Constraints on Development                        35
                       Potential Environmental Impacts                                        Restrictions on Harbor Construction in
                         of Harbor Construction                                31                Class AA Waters                                      35
                       Potential Environmental Impacts                                        RECOMMENDATIONS                                         35
                         of Harbor Operations                                  31             Objective                                               35
                       Areal Constraints on Development                        32             Policies and Implementing Actions                       36
                       Restrictions on Harbor Construction
                         in Class AA Waters                                    32
                       RECOMMENDATIONS                                         32
                       Objective                                               32
                       Policies and Implementing Actions                       32         COMMERCIRL HUBORS

                       SMALL BOAT HARBORS                                      32         TBI RESOURCE
                       THE RESOURCE                                            32         Hawaii is completely dependent on its commercial harbor
                                                                                          system for maintaining its economy and life-style. The State's
                       RESOURCE MANAGMENT                                      33         heavy reliance on imported goods makes it imperative that the
                       Harbor Management                                       33         harbor system be maintained and improved. Nearly 98 percent
                       Harbor Planning                                         33         of the goods imported into the State enter through the commer-
                       Harbor Construction and Maintenance Financing           33         cial harbor system, a statistic that has not changed significantly
                       Harbor Construction Permitting                          33         over time. The harbors are also the main distribution points for
                                                                                          interisland shipping and commodity export. There are I I
                       Enforcement Responsibilities                            34         commercial harbors operating throughout the Islands (ten
                                                                                          State-operated and one privately-operated). There are also two
                                                                                          offshore mooring sites for the off-loading of petroleum prod-
                                                                                          ucts for the oil refineries located at Barbers Point on Oahu.








                                              Maritime pursuits have long been the largest and most                        Over 2,500 foreign-flag fishing vessels called at the Port of
                                         stable of Hawaii's ocean industries. The industry posted rev-               Honolulu between 1986 and 1988 to purchase fuel, provisions
                                         enues of $400 million in 1986 and employed @_,500 people,                   and other goods and services. The economic impact of these
                                         excluding n-fflitary employment. Revenues were projected to                 calls amounted to S46 million annually in direct expenditures.
                                         grow by 34 percent to $534 million by 1990, while employing                 About half the amount came from tuna longlihers and half from
                                         2,750 people (MacDonald and Deese 1989). The two major                      tuna motherships. These expenditures multiplied in the local
                                         sectors of the maritime industry are ocean transportation, and              economy to generate over $93 million in income annually
                                         shipbuilding and repair. Ocean transportation includes ship-                (DBED/Sea Grant Program 1990a).
                                         merit of cargo and petroleum products as well as passenger
                                         service. The volume of cargo entering the Islands also contin-
                                         ues to grow. In 1988, 23.7 million tons of cargo - including                RESOURCE MANAGEMM
                                         foreign, domestic and interisland cargo - were handled at
                                         Hawaii's ports (COE 1988). Hawaii is primarily a destination                Harbor Management
                                         point, where virtually all materials shipped into ports are for             The Department of Transportation (DOT) is the lead agency for
                                         Hawaii itself; therefore, the volume of cargo will continue to              all harbor-related activities in the State. it is responsible for
                                         increase as a function of increased population and economic                 management of harbor operations. Chapter 266, HRS, gives
                                         growth. The rate of increase in imported cargo is estimated at              DOT jurisdiction over harbor facilities owned or controlled by
                                         two percent to three percent annually (DOT 1986).                           the State, and ocean waters and navigable streams. Chapter
                                              The popularity of cruise ships as an alternative to the                267, HRS, covers boating matters such as vessel registration,
                                         traditional resort vacation has continued to grow (DOT 1986).               equipment requirements and navigation safety.
                                         The cruise ship industry grew at an annual rate of 24 percent                     A special fund (Harbors Special Fund), financed by har-
                                         from 1981 to 1986, posting revenues of $59 million in 1986                  bor user fees, supports commercial harbor operations. Chap-
                                         (DBED 1989). Hawaii currently has two cruise ships home-                    ters 1941 to 19-44 of the Hawaii Administrative Rules (HAR)
                                         ported in the State and serve the Islands on a weekly basis. In             apply to operations of commercial boat harbor facilities, in-
                                         addition, several trans-Pacific cruise ships make infrequent                cluding provisions concerning use and charges for facilities.
                                         calls to the Islands and were expected to spend an estimated 20             Provisions on permits, small-craft owner responsibilities, safety,
                                         boat-days in port during 1990 (DOT 1990a).                                  control of explosives and pollution also are included.
                                              While there are no facilities in Hawaii capable of building                  The U.S. Coast Guard, DOT Harbors Division, and De-
                                         large oceangoing ships, there are several private shipyards                 partment of Health, Office of Hazard Evaluation and Emer-
                                         capable of providing maintenance and repair services. There                 gency Response (HEER) are responsible for emergency re-
                                         are major marine repair plants at both Honolulu Harbor and                  sponse to oil and chemical spill incidences in harbors (see
                                         Barbers Point. There are also major facilities at the Pearl Harbor          Waste Manaoement Technical Paper).
                                         Naval Shipyard. All of the private repair operations, except
                                         one, have waterfront facilities for the construction, repair and            Harbor Planning
                                         conversion of oceangoing vessels, tugs, towboats, dredges,                  For planning of commercial harbor development, responsibility lies
                                         barges and other vessels. At least two shipyards can handle                 with DOTs Statewide Transportation Plannirig Office. DOT is
                                         vessels of 500-feet. The lift capacities of the floating dry-               responsible for preparing a Statewide Transportation Plan, which
                                         docks range from 2,280 tons to 8,000 tons. The haul-out                     includes harbors (Chapters 7279A-2, 279A-3, HRS). A Statewide
                                         capacity of the marine railways ranges from 150 to 1,400 tons               Transportation Planning Council has been established to coordinate
                                         (COE 1987).                                                                 the development of the Plan. It has the authority to approve for
                                              Economists project that United States trade among the                  submission to the L-gislature any project exclusively involving State
                                         Pacific nations will surpass trans-Atlantic trade by $40 billion in         harbors (Chapter 279A-7, HRS). Its membership includes represen-
                                         the year 2000 (DBED 1989). Many of these billions will be                   tauves from State government agencies and each of the Counties
                                         carried as marine cargo. Hawaii is poised to play a key role in             (Chapter 279A-1, 279A4, HRS). The Council, which meets quar-
                                         handling this flood of trans-Pacific cargo. One strategic use of            terly, has the authority to deternitne the numbers and kinds of
                                         Hawaii's harbor resources is the State's bunkering facilities,              harbors in the State, in consideration of the following needs:
                                         which allow ships to refuel en route. Hawaii's Foreign Trade
                                         Zone is advantageous to shippers, who can save by only                            1) The preservation, safeguarding and enhancement of
                                         paying duty on theirgoods once they are moved from the zone                       the physical and mental health of State residents, and the
                                         into the United States. Hawaii is the only port equally acces-                    ecology and environmental quality of the State.
                                         sible to all major markets on the Pacific Rim. It is equipped with                2) The need for high priority and vital movement of
                                         a skilled labor force and terminal pier facilities that rank among                people and goods (Chapter 279A-9, HRS).
                                         the finest in the Pacific. It also has a growing ship repair                A master plan is prepared for each commercial harbor by DOT,
                                         industry. These factors point toward continued growth of the                Harbors Division, with projections to the year 2010. These
                                         State's maritime industry (ibid).                                           have been prepared for Hilo, Kawaihae, Kaunakakai, Kahului,








                     Kaurnalapau, lort Allen, Nawiliwili, Barbers Point Harbor and                   With Ile increase in cargo coming into Hawaii's commer-
                     Honolulu Harbor. A master plan is in preparation for Kalaupapa.           cial harbors, the infrastructure at several harbors is inadequate
                     During the preparation of these plans, an ad hoc harbor                   to handle the added volumes. While the number of harbors is
                     advisory committee, consisting of harbor users, meets with the            adequate, existing harbors need to be enlarged. DOT is cur-
                     district manager and Harbors Division planning staff. Overlap-            rently engaged in a program of harbor facility expansion and
                     ping plans, such as the Honolulu Waterfront Master Plan, may              improvements in accordance with the 2010 master plans for
                     be used for guidance. These master plans are updated on a                 various harbors.
                     continuous basis, and meetings of the harbor advisory commit-                   The revitalization of the cruise ship industry has added to
                     tee take place at least once a year.                                      this infrastructure overload, as cruise ships must compete with
                     Harbor Construction and Maintenance Financing                             cargo vessels forwharf space at several of the smaller commer-
                                                                                               cial harbors. Repair facilities for pleasure and cruise ships also
                     For the most part, the State finances commercial harbor con-              are needed.
                     struction, either through the Commercial Harbors Special Fund                   The rapidly growing local offshore longhne fishing fleet is
                     or the General Fund. Hawaii also may float revenue bonds to               in need of increased dockage and pier space. Furthermore,
                     support commercial harbor financing. The State must pay for               basic dockside amenities - such as shower and sleeping
                     all costs of shoreside facilities at commercial harbors, including        facilities for the crews of foreign tuna longline-vessels
                     finger piers, wharfs and other necessary shoreline construction.          reprovisioning in Hawaii - are not available in Honolulu
                           Federal funds are available for dredging harbor entrance            Harbor. Development of such facilities by the private sector
                     channels, turning basins and access channels and the construc-            should be encouraged by the State in accord with the Honolulu
                     tion of protective structures. These funds are administered               Waterfront Master Plan. Opportunities for Hawaii's economic
                     through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE). Cost-sharing              growth across multiple industries - including tourism, con-
                     for these projects is approximately one-third State and two-              struction and agriculture - will be lost if the existing harbor
                     thirds Federal. COE also maintains major navigation facilities,           system does not keep pace with changing and expanding
                     such as ship canals. Federal funds only are available for                 needs.
                     harbors that can be justified by commercial usage.                        Potential Environawntal Impacts of Harbor Construction
                     Harbor Construction Permitting                                            Hawaii has only one natural harbor, Honolulu Harbor. Dredg-
                     While commercial harbors are, for the most part, located within           ing, blasting and other physical alterations are necessary for the
                     Special Management Areas (SMAs), they are exempt from                     construction of any new facility. Most harbor dredging is
                     County SMA requirements. DOT's authority over the planning,               accomplished through use of cutter-head or suction dredges,
                     construction, operation and maintenance of harbor facilities              and use of silt curtains is a standard practice for dredging
                     does not require County approval for such projects (Chapters              operations. Blasting is used only as a last resort. Such activities
                     266-2,266-7,205A47, FIRS). Nonetheless, environmental and                 associated with harbor development and maintenance can
                     social concerns are addressed through the coastal zone man-               cause environmental degradation. There are short and long-
                     agement (CZM) consistency review process.                                 term environmental effects that must be considered in harbor
                                                                                               construction. The siltation caused by dredging and blasting
                     Enforcement Responsibilities                                              may affect the water quality, flora and fauna of the nearshore
                     State DOT exercises primary enforcement authority over use of             marine environment. In some coastal areas, construction ac-
                                                                                               tivities have been linked, albeit tenuously, to the increase in the
                     harbor facilities and shipping operations within commercial               presence of ciguatera toxins in marine organisms.
                     harbors. The Coast Guard retains primary enforcement author-
                     ity for commercial vessel inspection and other regulations                      Such alterations also may affect freshwater drainage pat-
                     governing non-recreational vessels.                                       terns along coastlines. Depending on siting, harbor basins may
                                                                                               require the destruction of some anchialine pools, wetlands or
                     MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                                         other habitats, thereby displacing species. Harbor construction
                                                                                               may affect protected marine animals such as humpback whales
                     Capacity of Commercial Harbors                                            and sea turtles.
                     Development of Hawaii's commercial harbor resources gener-                Potential Environmental impacts ofHarbor Operations
                     ally has been concentrated on landward infrastructure for                 Over time, harbor operations may impact the coastal and
                     cargo receipt, storage and transportation. Modernized cargo               marine environments because of increases in noise, traffic and
                     handling techniques and facilities have been helpful in manag-            pollution. Marine mammals, sea turtles and adjacent reef flora
                     ing the ever-increasing volumes of cargo at existing harbors.             and fauna may all be affected. Potential pollution problems are
                     Adequate harbor facilities are critical to enable the increased           exacerbated by inadequate solid waste, oil and sewage dis-
                     import and export of cargo, to support currently expanding                posal facilities in many harbors.
                     industries and to develop new industries.








                                             Accidental and operational releases of oil and other                        6. Work with the private sector and labor organizations
                                       hazardous substances can threaten human health and the                            to develop an expanded ship repair industry in Honolulu
                                       environment. Vessels calling on Hawaii's commercial harbors                       Harbor.
                                       carry such substances as fuel and may also carry them as cargo.                   DOT, in cooperation witb OSP, DBED, DB&F and the
                                       Emergency response and contingency plans and programs are                         Counties. sbould..
                                       needed for all commercial harbors.
                                                                                                                         7. Acquire areas needed for expansion and develop-
                                       Areal Constraints on Development                                                  ment of harbors, and designate other areas for future
                                       Harbor expansion and new harbor development can be impeded                        acquisition, particularly under-utilized areas.
                                       when appropriate lands have already been developed or are in               Policy B
                                       private ownership. Desii-able lands may also be desigriated for other      Minimize and mitigate impacts of harbor development and
                                       uses, such as resort hotels, or classified as conservation areas and       operations on ecological and cultural resources.
                                       thus ciluently unavailable for harbor development.
                                                                                                                  Implementing Actions:
                                       Restrictions on Harbor Construction in Class AAWaters                             DOT, DOH and DUR, in cooperation witb, UH, COE,
                                       New water-quality standards established by DOH are an addi-                       and the Counties sbould..
                                       tional constraint to harbor development. It is unclear if any                     1. Seek to instate comprehensive and on-going water
                                       commercial harbor construction will be allowed in Class AA                        quality and marine life monitoring programs for all exist-
                                       waters, which include large sections of several Islands' coastal                  ing and proposed commercial harbors in order to assess
                                       waters and virtually all of the Kona-Kohala coastline on Hawaii                   the environmental impact of harbor development and
                                       (Chapter 11-54, HAR).                                                             operations.
                                                                                                                         DOT in cooperation tvitb DOH, DLAW, NMFS, and COE,
                                       RECOMMENDA11ONS                                                                   sbould:
                                       Objective                                                                         2. Provide funding for research on the potential envi-
                                       Develop and maintain the State's commercial harbor system in                      ronmental impacts of commercial harbor development,
                                                                                                                         including impacts on marine mammals and sea turtles,
                                       order to meet both the needs of commercial users, and foreign                     and the linkage between harbor construction and
                                       and domestic commerce; and ensure that significant environ-                       ciguatera poisoning in the area.
                                       mental and social impacts will be mitigated.                                      DOTsbould..
                                       Policy A                                                                          3. Improve dissemination of research and monitoring
                                       Expand and improve the capacity of the State's commercial                         findings to the public so that community members can
                                       harbor system.                                                                    have a greater understanding and awareness of the im-
                                       Implementing Actions:                                                             pacts of commercial harbor development on the marine
                                             DOTsbould:                                                                  ecosystem.

                                             1. Expedite the implementation of the 2010 Master Plan
                                             for each commercial harbor in cooperation with each
                                             harboes advisory committee.                                          SEL BORT HHHORS
                                             2. Incorporate mitigation plans for environmental and social
                                             impacts into the master plans for each commercial harbor             IM RESOURCE
                                             3. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Statewide Transpor-             There are 18 small boat harbors and 50 boat launching ramps
                                             tation Planning Council in providing adequate inter-                 throughout the State which cater to recreational public and
                                             agency - in particular, effective County - participation             small commercial ocean recreation operators (DOT 1990a).
                                             and recommend any improvements.                                      Most of these small boat harbors are operated by the State.
                                             4. Expand container facilities at Honolulu Harbor and                On Oahu    ', there are also small boat harbors operated by
                                             other commercial harbors by rebuilding piers or building             private groups and the military. Private boat harbors are
                                             new piers, so they are able to accommodate in ern                    being proposed as part of resort developments on most
                                             cargo-handling facilities.                                           Islands. The unprecedented growth of the commercial ocean
                                                                                                                  recreation sector and the number of personal boats have
                                             5. Encourage the private sectorto develop basic dockside             significantly increased the demand for additional small boat
                                             amenities for the crews of foreign tuna long-liners during           harbor facilities.
                                             re-provisioning stop-overs in Honolulu Harbor.








                            There are four repair facilities in the State which cater to         Harbor Construction and Maintenance Financing
                      small boats. These facilities, located at Honokohau, Keehi,                Small boat harbor construction and maintenance are financed,
                      Kewalo Basin and Ala Wai, have haul-out capabilities ranging
                                                                                                 to a large extent, by the Boating Special Fund. As with commer-
                      from 35 to 70 tons. As a whole, the direct gross revenue                   cial harbors, the State must pay all costs for shoreside facilities.
                      generated by the different      subsectors servicing recreational
                      boaters in 1989 was estimated at approximately $58 million                       Other Federal funds that are available for boating pro-
                      (DBED/Sea Grant Program 1990b).                                            grams and facilities come through mechanisms put in place by
                                                                                                 the Wallops-Breaux Act. The Aquatic Resources Trust Fund
                                                                                                 established by the Wallops-Breaux Act consists of the Boating
                      RBOURCE MANAGMM                                                            Safety Account and the Sport Fish Restoration Account. The
                      Harbor Management                                                          Boating Safety Account receives the initial deposit of Federal
                                                                                                 marine fuel taxes as appropriated by Congress each year ($70
                      DOT is the lead agency for all harbor-related activities in the            million for FY 199 1); the next $I million goes to the Land and
                      State. It is responsible for management of harbor operations.              Water Conservation Fund; and the balance is deposited to the
                      Chapter 266, HRS, gives DOT jurisdiction over harbor facilities            Sport Fish Restoration Account. Of the $70 million, half goes
                      owned or controlled by the State, and ocean waters and                     directly to the Coast Guard to help defray expenses incurred in
                      navigable streams. Chapter 267, HRS, covers boating matters                support of boating safety efforts, and the other half is distrib-
                      such as vessel registration, equipment requirements and navi-              uted to individual states to augment their boating safety efforts.
                      gation safety. DOT, Harbors Division, issues commercial per-                     The Sport Fish Restoration Account also receives all the
                      mits for use of boat ramps and small boat harbor facilities, and           revenue formerlv derived through the Dingell-Johnson Act
                      assesses fees of 2 percent of gross revenues for their use.                (including the excise taxes on fishing equipment). A minimum
                            The Boating Special Fund finances management opera-                  of ten percent of each State's allocation is mandated to be used
                      tions for small boat harbors and launching ramps. its sources of           for boating access construction. DLN11R is the recipient of
                      revenue include harbor user fees, the State marine fuel tax and            Hawaii's allocation of Sport Fish Restoration funds, and DOT
                      income from leases of boat harbor properties. Other financial              applies for use of these funds through DLNR. Each project must
                      assistance for boating safety equipment and programs is avail-             be approved on a case-by-case basis by the U.S. Fish and
                      able from the Federal government. DOT manages most boat                    Wildlife Service (FWS).
                      launching ramps, and recreational boaters use these ramps free
                      of charge. In a few cases, such as the Laupahoehoe boat ramp               Harbor Construction Permitting
                      on Hawaii, the County Parks and Recreation Department                      Small boat harbors that are DOT public facilities are exempt
                      manages the ramps. Operation of boats within small boat                    from County SMA requirements. COE is the primary pen-nit-
                      harbors is regulated by Chapters 19-61 to 19-66 of the Hawaii              granting agency at the Federal level, and DLNR is the primary
                      Administrative Rules.                                                      permitting authority at the State level through the Conservation
                      Harbor Planning                                                            District Use Application (CDUA) process. COE and DLNR
                                                                                                 circulate permit applications to respective Federal and State
                      Planning for small boat harbors is done primarily by DOT,                  agencies for review and comment: DOH for impacts on water
                      Harbors Division. For the most part, it is done on a near-term             quality; U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) for
                      basis, rather than long-range. Until 1976, there was a Governor's          impacts on marine mammals and fisheries; FWS for impacts on
                      Advisory Committee on Harbors and Ramps, which was in-                     turtles and seabirds; and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                      volved in small boat harbor planning. A Governor's Ad Hoc                  (EPA), if a Federal Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is
                      Boating Task Force was established in 1981 to advise DOT on                required. The State Coastal Zone Management Program is
                      priorities for boating facility expansion and construction. The            responsible for detem-iining whether proposals are consistent
                      Task Force was disbanded in 1983 after the recommendations                 with the State Coastal Zone Management Act. In this way,
                      were submitted to the Governor. These recommendations                      permit application reviews may proceed concurrently.
                      have been used as the basis for small boat harbor project                        DOT generally supports proposals for the construction of
                      development ever since, subject to Legislative appropriations              private small boat harbors. A streamlined permit system has
                      to implement these projects.                                               been established through Chapter 171-60, HRS, for joint public-
                            For private marina proposals, the permit process includes            private ventures. Public land leases have been issued in the
                      approvals from Office of State Planning (OSP), DOT and DLNR,               past to private individuals or interests for the development and
                      among others. DOT recently has prepared a planning report on               operation of private marinas on State lands (DOT 1989a).
                      recreational marinas to assist in the planning efforts (DOT
                      1989a). This report covers DOT, Harbors Division, policies and             Enforcement Responsibilities
                      practices, required permits, an overview of demand for marina              DOT exercises primary enforcement authority for boating safety
                      facilities, and an inventory of public and private marina facili-          over non-commercial vessels (Chapters 26-19, 266-1, HRS).
                      des. OSP has drafted a policy on marina development.                       State and the Coast Guard have joint enforcement responsibili-








                                      ties for all charter and tour boat operations. The State considers          harbors throughout the State, docks are broken, cracked or
                                      these recreational although they are subject to commercial                  sinking, and cleats are broken. Solid waste, oil and sewage
                                      licensing, The Coast Guard considers them commercial be-                    disposal facilities need to be improved, and public education
                                      cause they provide services for hire.                                       programs regarding their use developed. Improved tender
                                                                                                                  facilities and dinghy docks also are needed on the Neighbor
                                                                                                                  Islands. Because harbor user fees are low and ramp user fees
                                      MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                                           nonexistent, the maintenance budget for small boat harbors
                                      Inadequate Supply of Small Boat Harbor Facilities                           and ramps is relatively small in terms of total dollars spent.
                                                                                                                        ve                              v
                                                                                                                  Howe     r, the budget is relative]    ' big, considering its per-
                                      Existing small boat harbor slips in Hawaii only accommodate                 centag of the overall operating budget for the boating
                                      a small percentage of the demand for such slips. According to               program.
                                      the waiting lists maintained by DOT (which officials agree
                                      under-represent actual need), existing slips meet approxi-                  Conflicts Among Harbor Users
                                      mately 44 percent of the need. As of March 31 @ 1990, there were            The growth of the commercial recreation industry, especially
                                      approximately 2,600 recreational vessels statewide on waiting               the tour boat industry, has resulted in increased shortages of
                                      lists for slips at small boat harbors (DOT 1990b). There is also            harbor space. It also has brought about long lines to launch
                                      a proliferation of offshore moorings and anchorages for the                 both private and commercial recreational boats at popular boat
                                      estimated 2,000 or more boats that cannot get slips in harbors.             launching ramps. Commercial tour boats operate out of com-
                                      Some of these moorings and anchorages are illegal. These                    mercial and small boat harbors alike, depending on size and
                                      statistics are evidence of an inadequate supply of slips in small           location. The public has expressed concern about the use of
                                      boat harbors.                                                               small boat harbors forcommercial recreation activities, and the
                                            There were approximately 14,857 boats registered in the               lack of available slips has exacerbated this issue.
                                                                                           0
                                      State as of March 1990 (DOT 1990b). Of 2,075 slips existing in
                                                                                                                       The construction of small boat harbors and the increase
                                      the State, 1,802 are in use (DOT 1990b). Vacant slips are empty
                                      for only a s.hort time and often are filled by transient vessels in         in boat traffic from new harbors may cause conflict between
                                      the interim between long term moorages.                                     boaters and other users of these areas, such as fishermen,
                                                                 0-                                               divers, swimmers and surfers. Harbors can also impede lateral
                                            The demand for additional harbor facilities is growing                coastal public access along the shoreline, or provide increased
                                      because of an expanding commercial ocean recreation indus-                  access. These issues usually are addressed during the SMA
                                      try and an increased interest in boating by the general public.             permit process. However, since DOT harbor construction is
                                      The inadequate supply of harbor facilities and launching ramps              exempt from this County requirement, the issues are addressed
                                      has fostered competition between individual ocean recreation                in other forums.
                                      users and commercial recreation operations for the limited
                                      spaces available. While dry-stack storage facilities provide a              Small, Boat Harbor Funding
                                      useful alternative to permanent Slips, there is only one such               Inadequate funding for harbor development is the biggest
                                      facility in the State.                                                      hurdle to development of small boat harbors in the State.
                                            In addition to increasing the number of ramps, slips and              Harbor development is very costly. Estimates for construction
                                      dry-stack storage and associated facilities, the harbors'                   costs of building one small boat harbor slip are in the range of
                                      restrooms, showers, wash-down facilities, trash collection cans,            $70,000. Since COE only covers the cost of dredging and
                                      and facilities for disposal of oil and sewage also should be                breakwater construction, the remaining financial burden falls
                                      improved. The development of more small boat harbor facili-                 on the State. Also, Federal matching funds to develop harbor
                                      ties is needed if opportunities for growth in the ocean recre-              facilities are not available for strictly recreational harbor fadi-
                                      ation industry are to be realized.                                          ties. Other financing arrangements are needed, such as a
                                                                                                       ublic      modified user-fee structure. In addition, when funds are
                                            Another difficulty which must be addressed is p                       available, it is often on a phased basis, so that small boat
                                      opposition to many small boat harbor developments. Plans for                harbor construction is not completed in an expeditious
                                      new boat harbors at Lahaina, Heeia Kea and Hanalei were                     manner.
                                      defeated by opposition from the local communities. The "Not
                                      in My Back Yard' (NIMBY) syndrome also applies to plans for                      The State has a policy that facilitates privatization of small
                                      new launching ramps at various locations throughout the                     boat harbor development (Chapter 171-60, FIRS). Under this
                                      State.                                                                      statute, negotiated leases of public lands are feasible. Chapter
                                                                                                                  171-59(b), FIRS, requires that the disposition of submerged
                                      Maintenance of Existing Harbor Facifities                                   lands by negotiation be for the purposes of: 1) encouraging
                                      In some small boat harbors, facilities such as restrooms, ramps             competition in maritime industries and 2) limited to a period of
                                      and waste receptacles are not well-maintained. Without proper               35 years (DOT 1989a). Legal review of each lease proposal is
                                      cleaning, ramps can become extremely slippery. In some                      conducted before final determination is made regarding method
                                                                                                                  of disposition. Basic policy dictates that teases should be








                     offered for public auction to avoid giving any specific party                  Interagency efforts to evaluate harbor proposals also are
                     preferential consideration. DOT also is pursuing the Request             not well coordinated. Such coordination is essential because of
                     For Proposal (RFP) method for disposal of the lease of the Pier          its potential to diffuse conflicts that occur during, or as a result
                     60 area in Keehi Lagoon for private development. This method             of, harbor development. Cooperation affords improved plan-
                     may be selected for proposed leases for private marina devel-            ning and management opportunities for the involved govern-
                     opment on State lands in the future.                                     ment agencies and communities. Community involvement
                           If private marina developers cannot negotiate with the             may make residents more receptive to harbor development
                     State and be assured of the rights to development, they have             projects. Cooperation also enables the agencies to identify and
                     Me incentive to spend the necessary capital to piepare the appro-        address the many overlapping impacts of harbor development,
                     priate proposals to meet the various requirements for the project.       including potential conflicts with other coastal uses, such as
                                                                                              fishing, surfing and diving.
                     Potential Lwhwiniental Impacts of Harbor Cmwwucdm                              There is no clear overall State policy on private marina
                     Hawaii has only one natural harbor, Honolulu Harbor. Dredg-              development at this time, though OSP is formulating one.
                     ing, blasting and other physical alterations are necessary for the       Currently, each marina proposal is handled on an ad hoc basis,
                     construction of any new facility. Most harbor dredging is                without any guidance from a comprehensive plan. DOT has
                     accomplished through use of cutter-head or suction dredges,              emphasized the need for a general plan outlining the location,
                                           Z)                                                 development and prioritization of marinas and launching ramps
                     and use of silt curtains is a standard practice for dredging             (DOT 1989a). Public use of private ramps and slips must be
                     operations. Blasting is used only as a last resort. Such activities
                                         Z,                                                   considered during this planning process.
                     associated with harbor development and maintenance can
                     cause environmental degradation. There are short and long-               Areal Constraints on Development
                     term environmental effects that must be considered in harbor
                     construction. The siltation caused by dredging and blasting              Harbor expansion and new harbor development can be im-
                     may affect the water quality, flora and fauna of the nearshore           peded when appropriate lands already have been developed
                     marine environment. In some coastal areas, construction activi-          or are in private ownership. Desirable lands also may be
                     ties have been linked, albeit tenuously, to the increase in the          designated for other uses, such as resort hotels, or classified as
                     presence of ciguatera toxins in marine organisms.                        conservation areas and thus currently unavailable for harbor
                           Such alterations may also affect freshwater drainage pat-          development.
                     terns along coastlines. Depending on their site, harbor basins                 While there is a push to build new harbors and expand
                     may require the destruction of some anchialine pools, wet-               existing ones, the potential for overcrowding must be consid-
                     lands or other habitats, thereby displacing species, Harbor              ered. Already, crowded conditions exist in some harbors. Due
                     construction may affect protected marine animals, such as                to Hawaii's strong winds, large open ocean swells and rough
                     humpback whales and sea turtles.                                         waters, areas along the leeward coasts and in more protected
                                                                                              nearshore waters and bays traditionally have been the focus for
                     Potential Environmental Impacts of Harbor Operations                     harbor development. More recently, resort areas also have
                     Over time, harbor operations may impact the coastal and                  been a focus for harbor development. There is a need to
                     marine environments because of increases in noise, traffic and           consider innovative ways to develop coastal areas where little
                     pollution. Marine mammals, sea turtles and adjacent reef flora           boating occurs.
                     and fauna may be affected. Potential pollution problems are              Restrictions on Harbor Construction in Class AA Waters
                     exacerbated by inadequate solid waste, oil and sewage dis-
                     posal facilities in many harbors.                                        Water-qualiry standards established by DOH are an additional
                           Accidental and operational releases of oil and other               constraint to harbor development. It is unclear if any small boat
                     hazardous substances can threaten human health and the                   harbor construction will be allowed in Class AA waters, which
                     environment. Many fuel docks in small boat harbors do not                include large sections of several Islands' coastal waters and
                     have adequate equipment for spill prevention and dinn-up.                virtually all of the Kona-Kohala coastline on Hawaii (Chapter
                                                                                              11-54, HAR).
                     Coordinated Planning for Harbor Development
                     Since the Governor's Advisory Committee on Harbors and                   RECOMMENDAMNS
                     Ramps is no longer in existence and the Statewide Transporta-
                     tion Planning Council is not responsible for small boat harbor           Objective
                     planning, there is no State interagency planning body focusing           Develop and maintain the State's small boat harbor system in
                     on small boat harbor issues. In addition, there is no comprehen-         order to meet the needs of recreational and small commercial
                     sive plan for public and private small boat harbor development in        vessel users in ways that ensure significant environmental and
                     Hawaii. Consequently, statewide planning for expansion and               social impacts will be mitigated and local carrying capacities
                     development of small boat harbors is poorly coordinated.                 will not be exceeded.








                                   Policy A                                                                    10. Provide more launching ramps and parking areas for
                                   Expand the State's small boat harborsystem, including launch-               commercial recreational boat users within the metropoh-
                                   ing ramps, taking into account analyses ofthe areas'carrying                Ean Honolulu area.
                                   capacities and the economic efficiency of proposed harbors.                 11. Work with the private sector to expand facilities for
                                   Implementing Actions:                                                       ocean yacht racing.
                                         DOTsbould-                                                      Policy B
                                         1. Request that the Governor revive the Governor's              Minimize the conflicts between harbor development and other
                                         Advisory Committee on Harbors and Ramps and charge              ocean and coastal activities.
                                         them with providing recommendations for a statewide             Implementing Action:
                                         master plan for small boat harbors and private marinas.               DOTsbould..
                                         Membership on this committee should be limited to those
                                         with direct interest in the boating industry and commu-               Increase the use of existing harbor advisory panels and
                                         nity.                                                                 establish such panels in harbors where they do not
                                         2. Based on recommendations of the Govemor'sAdvi-                     currently exist. (These panels are in addition to the
                                         sory Committee on Harbors and Ramps, prepare a state-                 Governor's Advisory Committee on Harbors and Ramps
                                         wide comprehensive plan for recreational public boat                  [see Policy A, Action 11.)
                                         harbors, and private resort-based marinas. This plan            Policy C
                                         should include: assessment of the requirements of private       Facilitate public-private partnerships and other alternative
                                         recreational boaters and the commercial recreation in-          means for financing harbor development.
                                         dustry; comparison of benefits between clustering and
                                         dispersing marinas along coastlines; statewide survey of        Implementing Actions:
                                         possible sites on public shorelines and private property,             DOTsbould-
                                         and identification of possible locations for harbors of
                                         refuge.                                                               1. Develop provisions for government incentives to
                                         3. As part of this planning process, encourage work-                  induce private-sector investment in: marina irifrastruc-
                                                                                                               ture developmem shore-based small boat storage facili-
                                         shops with the local user communities and studies of the              ties; and shoreline parks and park facilities.
                                         area's environmental and social characteristics, including
                                         carrying capacities of the surrounding areas.                         2. Expedite development of the boat slips and offshore
                                         4. Formulate a comprehensive State policy regarding                   mooring areas currently proposed and critically needed.
                                         development of private marinas. [OSP is currently devel-              DOT, in cooperation witb OSP, DBED@ andDB&F, sbould:
                                         oping such a policy and this should be done in coopera-               3. Formulate strategies to finance facilities that support
                                         tion with DOT, DBED, Counties and the Governor's                      economically valuable ocean-related or harbor industries
                                         Advisory Committee, on Harbors and Ramps.]                            (e.g., ship repair and construction, and small boat indus-
                                         5. Consider public need through the allocation of a                   tries). Possible funding sources include the Federal
                                         certain number of slips to the public, or allow public use            government, the State General Fund, and the private
                                         of the launch ramps and parking within or near private                sector.
                                         resort marinas.                                                 Policy D
                                         6. Consider increasing the maintenance budget for small         Minirnize and m@itigate impacts of harbor development and
                                         boat harbors, and consider financing this through an            operations on ecological and cultural resources.
                                         increase in user fees.
                                         7. Establish an equitable user fee structure for all users      Implementing Actions:
                                         of public small boat facilities. This may include charging            DOT, DOH andDLNR, in cooperation witb UH, COE, the
                                         fees to all users, including those using the launching                Counties, andp?lvate ma?lna developm, sbould:
                                         ramps. The money from these users would continue to go                1. Seek to instate comprehensive and on-going water
                                         directly to small boat harbor improvements.                           quality and marine life monitoring programs for all exist-
                                         8. Organize harbor user groups to clean up harbor                     ing and proposed small boat harbors in order to assess the
                                         facilities on a periodic basis. This would include boaters            environmental impact of such harbor development and
                                         and private operators of harbor concessions.                          operations.
                                         9. Promote the development of more launching ramps                    DOT, in cooperation udtb DOH, DUR WS, and COE,
                                         and dry-stack storage units with public funds and in                  sbould..
                                         partnership with private companies.                                   2. Provide funding for research on the potential envi-








                         ronmental impacts of small boat harbor development,            State of Hawaii, Department of Transportation, Harbors Divi-
                         including impacts on marine mammals and sea turtles,           sion. 1989b. Report of Undocumented Vessel Registration.
                         and the linkage between harbor construction and                Honolulu.
                         ciguatera poisoning in the area.
                         DOTsbould.-                                                    State of Hawaii, Department of Transportation, Harbors Divi-
                                                                                        sion. 1990a. Statistics provided by Paul Dolan, July 1990.
                         3. Clarify with DOH the specific requirements for con-         Honolulu.
                         structing marinas in Class AA waters.
                                                                                        State of Hawaii, Department of Transportation, Harbors Divi-
                         4. Improve dissemination of research and monitoring
                         findings to the public so that communitv members can           sion. 1990b. Small Craft Mooring Facilities Utilization Report
                                                                                        Quarter Ending: Marcb 31, 1990. Honolulu.
                         have a greater understanding and awareness of impacts
                         of small boat harbor development on the manne ecosystem        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1987. Ports of Hawaii, Port
                         5. Require that all private and public small boat harbors      Series #50. Washington, D.C.
                         have facilities for disposal of sewage and oil, and that
                         small boat harbors and launching ramps have receptacles        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1988. WaterBorneCommerceof
                         for solid waste disposal, including separate receptacles       the United States. Part 4; Pacific Coast, Alaska, and Hawaii.
                         for recyclable materials. Educational materials should be      Washington, D.C.
                         developed and disseminated. [See Waste Management
                         section.]
                         6. Establish a comprehensive education program to
                         make boaters aware of the importance of using disposal
                         facilities for sewage and oil, and of bringing solid waste
                          including plastics - back to shore for proper disposal.



                   REFERENCES:

                   MacDonald, C.D. and H.E. Deese. 1989. A Comprehensive
                   Analysis and Overview of Hawaii's Ocean Industries. Coastal
                   Zone '89 Proceedings. Vol. IV. pp. 3481-3493. New York:
                   American Society of Engineers.

                   State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                    pment, Ocean Resources Branch. 1989. A Rising Tide of
                   Investment Opponundies HawausOmanlndustw Honolulu.
                   0



                   State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                   ment & Tourism, and University of Hawaii, Sea Grant Program.
                   1990a. Foreign Flag Fisbing Vessel EVeriditures in the Port of
                   Honolulu, 1986-1988. Draft. By L.L. Hudgins and R.T.B Iversen.
                   Honolulu.


                   State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                   ment & Tourism, and University of Hawaii., Sea Grant Program.
                   1990b. Pmonal Recreational Boating Industry in Hawaii.,
                   Pbysical Cbaracteristics and Economic Contribution, Draft.
                   By P. L. Lal and A. M. Clark. Honolulu.

                   State of Hawaii, Department of Transportation, Harbors Divi-
                   sion. 1986. 201 OMasterPlanforHonolulu Harbor. Honolulu.

                   State of Hawaii, Department of Transportation, Harbors Divi-
                   sion. 1989a. Statewide PlanningforMarina Facilities. Hono-
                   lulu.












                                                 Michael P. Hamnett
                                                 Center for Development Studies
                                                 Social Science Research institute,
                                                 University of Hawaii
                                                 2424 Maile Way
                                                 Honolulu, in 96822
                                                 FISHERIES



                                                                                                              111E RESOURCE

                                                                                                PAGE          Hawaii has a wide range of fisheries resources that are ex-
                                         TIE RESOURCE                                             38          ploited for subsistence, recreational, and cornmercial pur-
                                                                                                              poses. These include reef and nearshore species, bottom fish,
                                         RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                      39          lobsters and other crustaceans, and pelagic fish including
                                         Regulation and Enforcement                               39          several species oftuna. There are two principal fishing regimes
                                               FederalAutbority                                   39          in the State: 1) inshore and nearshore fisheries and 2) offshore
                                               State Autbority                                    40          fisheries. The two regimes have markedly different resource
                                         Monitoring and Research                                  40          characteristics, levels ofabundance and potential for increased
                                               Federal Support                                    40          exploitation.
                                               State Support                                      40                 Hawah's inshore and nearshore fisheries resources are
                                         infrastructure Development                               40          very limited compared to offshore resources. They include a
                                               Federal Programs                                   40          wide variety of marine organisms that are exploited largely for
                                               State Programs                                     41          subsistence and recreational use in the main Hawaiian Islands.
                                         Trade and investment Promotion                           41          Although there are very limited data on these resources, it is
                                               Federal Support                                    41          widely recognized that inshore resources in the main Hawaiian
                                               State Support                                      41          Islands have been in decline for many years (NMFS 1987, Lee
                                                                                                              1990).
                                         MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                        41                 Inshore resources are harvested using nets, spears, and
                                         Resource Sustainability                                  41          pole-and-line. However, data on the number of individuals
                                         User Conflicts                                           43          using thesefishing methods, the amount of effort they expend
                                         lack of Resources for Fisheries Development              43          and the amount of fish caught are not available for the State as
                                         Native Hawaiian Rights                                   43          a whole. Nevertheless, it is widely recognized that the number
                                         ineffective Management                                               of people participating in the inshore and neai-shore fisheries
                                            and Interagency Coordination                          44          is very large compared to the offshore fisherim One estimate
                                               Lack ofEnforcement ofExisting                                  indicates that in 1980, recreational shore fishermen made 1.4
                                                 Regulations                                      44          million fishing "trips," roughly twice the number of 'trips"
                                               inadequate Statisticsfor Fisberies                             made by private boats and charter vessels (NMFS 1990a).
                                                 Management                                       44                 While the total extent of Hawaii's offshore fisheries re-
                                               Lack ofa Consolidated Regime and                               sources is difficult to assess, annual sustainable yields offish in
                                                 Consistent Goals                                 44          Hawaii's waters could be as high as 43 mflhon pounds per year,
                                               Lack ofAdequate Marme Safety                                   a substantial resource for the State (PBDC 1983). Reliable data
                                                 Requirements                                     44          on the current level of fishing are not available. However, the
                                                                                                              National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) estimates that ap-
                                         RECOMMENDATIONS                                          44          proximately 20 million pounds of locally caught fish were
                                         Objective                                                44          marketed in Hawaii in 1988 and valued at $42 million. There
                                         Policies and implementing Actions                        45          were approximately 1,896 registered fishing vessels in Hawaii;
                                                                                                              1, 156 are State-registered and the balance are Federally docu-
                                                                                                              mented vessels. It is estimated that 525 ofthe 1,896 total are full-








                       time commercial vessels. The latter includes boats used by a                  Six beds of precious corals have been identified in the
                       percentage of the 2,770 registered fishermen who fish on a               Hawaiian Islands: one off Makapuu Point, one off Kaena Point,
                       part-time basis (Bourke and Markrich 1990). In addition, an              one off Keahole Point, and three in the NWHI. The Makapuu
                       estimated 1,156 of the 14,250 "non-documented" vessels were              bed is the only one of the six that has been studied systemati-
                       used for commercial fishing in Hawaii as of January 1, 1989              cally. During a six-year period in the 1970s, approximately
                       (Bourke and Markrich 1990) -                                             17,500 kilograms or almost 8,000 pounds of pink, gold or
                            Hawaii's commercial fleet has experienced considerable              bamboo coral were harvested (WESTPAC 1990h). It is esti-
                       growth in the past two years. The major component of that                mated that this was about 40 percent (by weight) of the
                       growth is the longline fleet, which increased from about 50              standing stock (WESTPAC 1990h; 1990i). Between 1983 and
                       vessels at the end of 1988 to about 100 during the second                1987, divers reported harvesting 11,000 pounds of black coral,
                       quarter of 1990. Catch statistics indicate that landings of pelagic      although this is probably much less than the amount actually
                       fish (tuna, billfish, mahimabi and ono) increased from an                taken (WESTPAC 1989b). Moreover, there also have been
                       estimated 12.8 million pounds in 1987, to 16.3 million pounds            allegations of poaching of precious corals by foreign fishing
                       in 1989 (NMFS 1990b). The major landings in 1989 included                vessels in the NWHI.
                       10.5 million pounds of tuna, 5.4 million pounds of bilifish,                  The State's recreational fisheries have an estimated intrin-
                       mabimabi, ono, and other species, and 275,000 pounds of                  sic value of over $200 million (NMFS 1990a). Approximately,
                       other pelagics (NMFS 1990b). The most dramatic increase in               2,627 people were employed in commercial fishing in 1988
                       catch since 1988 has been in swordfish. Swordfish landings               (Shannon 1990). Although no recent statistics are available on
                       have increased from 50,000 pounds in 1988 to over 2.5 million            revenues and employment in seafood marketing associated
                       pounds during the first five months of 1990 (WESTPAC 1990e).             with commercial fishing, retail sales of fish (locally caught and
                       The Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council                  imported) in the State totaled approximately $116 million in
                       estimates that without some limit on the number of boats                 1986 over and above the ex-vessel value of the fish. Inaddition,
                       entering the Fishery, the longline fleet could grow to as many           seafood marketing employed approximately 2,100 people
                       as 150 vessels in the near future (WESTPAC 1990j).                       (MacDonald and Deese 1989). Seafood sales are expected to
                            In 1988, an estimated 2.28 million pounds of bottomfish             reach $176 million in 1990 and provide employment of about
                       worth $6 million were landed (WESTPAC 1989h). The majority               2,700 people (ibid). Revenues in charter boat fishing and
                       of the 1988 catch of 1.7 million pounds was in the main                  international fishing tournaments alone total an estimated $ 10
                       Hawaiian Islands where NMFS estimates a maximum sustain-                 Million to $12 million (ibid).
                       able yield of only 627,000 pounds (WESTPAC 1989b). The
                       latest information available indicates 1,050 vessels sold a por-         RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
                       don of their bottomfish catch in 1989: the main Hawaiian
                       Islands fleet harvested approximately 1.2 n-dllion pounds of             Regulation and Enfoircement
                       bottomfish valued at almost $3.9 million in 1989. A total of 10          Hawaii's fisheries are managed by both the Federal govern-
                       boats participated in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI)
                       bottom fishery in the same year. Landings totaled 303,000                ment and the State of Hawaii. Fisheries within State waters of
                       pounds and yielded an ex-vessel revenue of about $756,000                the main Hawaiian Islands are managed by the State Depart-
                       (WESTPAC 1990g).                                                         ment of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) through its Divi-
                                                                                                sion of Aquatic Resources (DAR). Enforcement of State fishing
                            The size of Hawah's lobster fleet has varied considerably           regulations is provided by the Division of Conservation and
                       since 1980. As many as 16 and as few as three vessels have               Resources Enforcement (DOCARE) with 72 officers (1989).
                       participated in the NWHI's lobster fishery. In 1989, a total of 1.2      Fisheries resources surrounding the NWHI are managed by
                       million pounds of spiny lobster and 184,000 pounds of slipper            DAR and the Federal government through NMFS and the
                       lobster were caught by 11 vessels. The combined value of                 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council
                       the NWHI lobster catch in 1989 was $6.3 million (NMFS                    (WESTPAQ. A State Commercial Marine license with a North-
                       1990c).                                                                  western Hawaiian Islands Taking Permit is required to take,
                            The number of vessels harvesting deep sea shrimp also               catch, possess, sell or offer for sale certain marine life or use
                       has fluctuated in the last decade. Currently, one vessel is              certain gear in the NWHI. Enforcement of Federal fisheries
                       actively fishing for ono shrimp on a full-time basis. Catch              regulations as well as the Marine Mammal Protection Act and
                       statistics are not available from that boat. However, industry           the Endangered Species Act arie the responsibility of NMFS, the
                       sources indicate that several thousands of pounds of shrimp              U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and U.S. Coast Guard.
                       have been harvested in single trips of a month or so. There are          Federal Autbority
                       several smaller boats landing both ono and spotted shrimp.               Federal regulation and management of fisheries in Hawaii are
                       The estimated landings for these boats in 1987 include 10,000            conducted under the authority of several Federal statutes. The
                       pounds of shrimp worth $42,000 and 800 pounds of spotted                 Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (FCMA)
                       shrimp valued at $2,000 (WESTPAC 1989b).                                 charges WESTPAC, and seven other regional councils around








                                      the country, with the responsibility of developing fisheries                People also may apply for permits to take, possess or sell
                                      management plans. WESTPAC and NMFS are required, under                      certain species of oyster and clam as well as top shell, abalone,
                                      Federal statute, to develop management plans and regulate                   or quahog. Freshwater game fish licenses are required by the
                                      fishing within the 200-nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone                State for recreational fishing in lakes, streams and rivers, Pemiz also
                                      (EEZ) surrounding the U.S. islands in the Pacific. Enforcement              are required for use of small mesh nets and traps to stock home
                                      of Federal fisheries regulations is provided by NMFS' South-                aquariums with marine tropical fish ftom Hawaiian waters.
                                      west Enforcement Office and the Coast Guard.
                                           There are four management plans for the WESTPAC                        Monitoring and Ressearch
                                      region, which includes Hawaii, American Samoa, Common-                      Federal Support
                                      wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and Guam. WESTPAC                    NNMFS has compiled and analyzed fisheries statistics of the
                                      has developed regional plans for lobster, bottomflish, pelagic              western Pacific, including Hawaii, on an annual basis. These
                                      species (except for tuna), and precious corals. Lobster fishing             statistics are based on the commercial fisheries catch data
                                      regulations require permits and catch, fish processing, and                 gathered by DAR. In addition, NMFS and DAR gather whole-
                                      sales reports. They also restrict catch area, minimum size, daily           sale marketing statistics which are used in part to monitor
                                      catch, trips, processing, sales and gear. Federal regulations for           fishing activity in the State. NMFS has also gathered vessel cost
                                      bottomfish limit entry into certain areas of the NWHI and                   data on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands lobster and
                                      prohibit the use of trawl nets, bottom gill nets, explosives and            bottomfish fisheries for economic analysis. NMFS provides
                                      poisons. The limited access program was instituted by WESTPAC               reports on its studies to WESTPAC to meet its responsibility for
                                      for the NWHI bottom fishery in 1989 because there was                       review of fisheries it manages.
                                      evidence of over fishing (WESTPAC 1990g). Commercial catch
                                      of bottomfish in Federal waters also must be reported to the                      WESTPAC, as part of its regional fisheries management
                                      State. Federal regulations governing pelagic species place                  responsibility, commissions studies to facilitate the develop-
                                      geographic restrictions on foreign fishing in Hawaii, prohibit              ment of fisheries management plans (FMPs), Studies also are
                                      the use of drift gill -nets, require permits and fishing logs for           commissioned by WESTPAC, Re those conducted by NMFS,
                                      longlining, and reporting of incidental catches of turtles and              to assess the status of fisheries resources for which the Council
                                      marine mammals.                                                             has developed plans. WESTPAC's annual reports are compiled
                                      State Autbority                                                             with reference to the FMPs for pelagic species, precious corals,
                                                                                                                  bottomfish and lobster, and contain regional resource assess-
                                      State fisheries are regulated through both statutes and adrr:iin-           ments for each FMP.
                                      istrative rules. State regulations impose minimum size, gear                State Support
                                      type, bag limits, and/or fishing season restrictions on over 2
                                      species of reef, lagoon, and bottonifish species as well as                 DAR gathers and compiles catch statistics for commercial
                                      octopus (tako), limpet (qpibi), and several varieties of crabs              Fishing in the State. Commercial fishermen are required by
                                      and lobsters. These regulations prohibit the taking of live stony           State law to report their catch to DAR. A standard Fish Catch
                                      corals, clams, oysters, and other shellfish, sea turtles, and monk          Report, which includes information on the area fished, type of
                                      seals, and restrict fishing in 23 harbors and designated marine             gear used, as well as species, number, weight, and sales of fish
                                      life conservation districts. The State prohibits the use of drift gill      caugh@ is used to report catch Other fornis are used for specific
                                      nets, and fishing with explosives, electro-fishing devices, poi-            fisheries, including tuna pole-and line fishery and longline fishery
                                      sons, intoxicants and chemicals (DLNR/DAR 1990). The State                        DAR, in cooperation with the NMFS, FWS and the Univer-
                                      also prohibits the possession of drift gill nets on boats calling           sity of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program, has funded the
                                      at ports in Hawaii.                                                         Hawaii Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit, Oceanic Institute,
                                            State regulations require licenses for commercial fishing.            Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, and other agencies to
                                      A total of 2,770 commercial fishing licenses was issued in 1989.            conduct specific studies to address resource management
                                      Fishermen with commercial licenses are required to file monthly             problems. In 1988, a five-year Main Hawaiian Islands Marine
                                      catch reports. Neither licenses nor catch reports are required              Resources Investigation (MHI-MRI) was initiated involving
                                      for saltwater recreational fishing. Reporting requirements are              most of these agencies and organizations. The purpose of the
                                      monitored by DAR. Marine safety regulation and enforcement                  study was to address increasing concerns over Hawaii's
                                      is vested with the Hawaii State Department of Transportation                nearshore fisheries resources, the habitat and envirom-nent,
                                      (DOT) and the Coast Guard.                                                  and competing nearshore activities (DLNR/DAR 1989a; DLNR
                                            Hawaii requires a Special Marine Animal or Product                    1989).
                                      Possession and Sale License for the commercial sale or serving              InErastimcam Development
                                      of lobsters, Kona crabs, moi, and mullet during their respective
                                      closed season periods. A Scientific Collecting Permit is re-                Federal Pftgrams
                                      quired to take, possess or sell certain species of aquatic life             There are several Federal and Federally funded fisheries devel-
                                      using certain kinds of restricted gear or in restricted areas.              opment programs that serve the State (Shannon 1990). The








                      National Industrial Recovery Act, known as the Saltonstall-               the principal agency responsible for ocean industry develop-
                      Kennedy (SK) program, provides funding for fisheries devel-               ment in Hawaii. ORB is involved in the promotion of invest-
                      opment projects. The majority of SK funding has been chan-                ment in commercial fisheries development. ORB runs the
                      neled through the Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation,               State's seafood marketing program to promote the develop-
                      which supports fisheries development projects in Hawaii and               ment of under-utilized fisheries resources and encourages
                      the otherAmerican Flag Pacific Islands as well as the Federated           substitution for high-demand species. ORB also conducts eco-
                      States of Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands, and               noiriic assessments of fishery-related activities such as fishing
                      Palau. However, the amount of SK funding available has                    tournaments, personal boating and provisioning by foreign
                      declined significantly in recent years. In addition, the Commer-          fishing fleets. It also promotes marine tourism development in
                      cial Fisheries Research and Development Act and the Federal               Hawaii. The Financial Services Branch of DBED administers a
                      Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act (Dingell-Johnson Act) provide           large fishing vessel and a small fishing vessel loan program to
                      Federal funding for fisheries management and projects.                    support the purchase, renovation, maintenance and repair of
                            Coordination of local and regional efforts aimed at fisher-         vessels. Currently, fishing boat loan funds are being used
                      ies development and management is facilitated through the                 primarilyto purchase new longline gearand forvessel maintenance.
                      Marine Fisheries Advisory Committee (MAFAQ. Changes in
                      Federal legislation and regulations, as well as efforts aimed at          MANAGEMENT ISSUES
                      fisheries management and development, are facilitated though
                      MAFAC, which has a representative from the Western Pacific                Management issues associated with the fisheries sector in
                      region.                                                                   Hawaii fall into five major categories: 1) resource sustainability,
                      State Programs                                                            2) user conflict, 3) lack of financial resources for fisheries
                                                                                                development; 4) Native Hawaiian rights; and 5) ineffective
                      DOT's Harbors Division is involved in fisheries infrastructure            management and inter-agency coordination.
                      development through harbor development, management and
                      maintenance in support of Hawaii's commercial and recre-                  Resource Sustainabflity
                      ational fisheries. Harbors Division has responsibility for ten
                      major commercial harbors and numerous small boat harbors                  Some of Hawaii's fisheries resources have declined in abun-
                                                                                                dance, apparently as a result of over-exploitation and environ-
                      and boat launching ramps. There were 18 small boat harbors                menta .I degradation. The number of people who participate in
                      and 50 boat launching ramps at the end of 1989 (see Harbors               recreational and commercial fisheries in the State has increased
                      Technical Paper).
                                                                                                with the growth of the State's population (DLNR/DAR 1988a).
                           DAR supports recreational fisheries through the deploy-              The impact of increased exploitation has been particularly
                      ment and maintenance of fish aggregation devices (FADs). As               devastating for inshore and nearshore fisheries resources (Lee
                      ofJune 1990, the FAD system consisted of 55 surface FADs and              1990). Although there are no comprehensive data on nearshore
                      22 mid-water FADs in waters surrounding the main Hawaiian                 fisheries for the State as a whole, most fishermen and scientists
                      Islands (DLNR/DAR 1990). The statewide FAD system resulted                agree that the inshore areas around the main Hawaiian Islands
                      in catches totaling 904,667 pounds in 1989 (Shannon 1990).                have been seriously "over-fished." Some would argue that
                                                                                                environmental pollution has contributed to the decline of in-
                      Trade and investment Promotion                                            and nearshore fisheries resources. However, the recovery of
                      Federal Support                                                           reef fisheries in marine life conservation districts that have
                                                                                                been closed to fishing indicates that restricting fishing can
                      In the past, the Pacific Basin Development Council (PBDC), an             greatly help to restore depleted resources (Lee 1990; NMFS
                      economic development organization made up of the Gover-                   1987).
                      nors of American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern
                      Marianas, Guam and Hawaii, has assisted the American Flag                     Corals in specific locations around the main Hawaiian
                      Pacific Islands (AFPI) with fisheries infrastructure planning.            Islands have suffered considerably from habitat degradation
                      Currently, PBDC is assisting AFPI in assessing trude policies             (United Nations Environmental Programme 1988). Channel
                      that may inhibit trade and investment in fisheries and other              blasting, siltation and other forms of pollution have resulted in
                      sectors.                                                                  declines of coral populations on reefs in Waikiki, Honolulu
                                                                                                Harbor, parts of Lanai and Molokai, and other locations in the
                           The International Trade Administration (ITA) of the U.S.             State (ibid). Coral populations in Kaneohe Bay also suffered
                      Department of Commerce supports the export of products,                   decline from pollution but are recovering after new pollution
                      including seafood, from the United States. The ITA and NMFS               controls and management measures were instituted. Illegal
                      provide market information to assist the development of fish-             harvesting of reef corals for souvenirs and use in aquariums
                      eries exports in the State.                                               probably has had an impact on coral populations in certain
                      State Support                                                             areas. And, the use of anchors by fishing and pleasure boats has
                      The Ocean Resources Branch (ORB) of the State Department of               damaged coral reefs in certain areas. Declines in cor-al popula-
                      Business and Economic Development and Tourism (DBED) is                   tions resulting from pollution and these other activities prob-








                                     ably have had an impact on reef fish populations that depend            undermines the economic self-regulation characteristic of the
                                     directly or indirectly on coral for food and shelter.                   commercial bottom fishery of the NWHI.
                                          Precious corals, including pink, gold or bamboo coral,                  Several of Hawaii's pelagic resources are far more abun-
                                     have been found in deep water in several locations throughout           dant and under-exploited than other fisheries. However, there
                                     the Hawaiian archipelago. Precious corals have been subject to          are no credible estimates of the sustainable yields of pelagic
                                     poaching by foreign vessels within the 200-naudcal mile EEZ of          species within Hawaii's waters. There are indications that, from
                                     the NWHI. The only regular commercial exploitation of pre-              a Pacific-wide perspective, blue and striped marlin have shown
                                     cious coral run by a domestic operator lasted for six years             a general decline in number and size. There are also indications
                                     during the 1970s. However, high operating costs and foreign             that swordfish, sailfish and shortbill spearfish stocks could
                                     competition resulted in the ten-nination of this operation.             sustain some increased effort. However, there are not sufficient
                                     Research indicates that despite the slow growth of precious             data available to determine that any pelagic stocks are in
                                     corals, limited commercial exploitation could be sustained if it        decline.
                                     were economically feasible (WESTPAC 1990i).                                  Some commercial catch statistics are available for Hawaii.
                                          There are no systematic studies of the status of black coral       The longline fleet harvested an estimated 1. 2 million pounds of
                                     populations in Hawaiian waters. Black coral harvested be-               marlin, other billfish, mahimabi, ono, swordfish, spearfish and
                                     tween 1983 and 1987 was in excess of 11,000 pounds. More-               sailfish in 1987. Longline catches of these species increased to
                                     over, there are reports of divers taking small colonies for sale        almost 4 nifflion pounds in 1989. Trolling and handline boats
                                     to curio dealers and interior decorators (WESTPAC 1989b).               caught about 5.3 million pounds in 1987 and only about 3.4
                                     There are no regulations restricting harvests of black corals.          million pounds in 1989 (WESTPAC 1990j; 19900. However,
                                     According to State officials, black coral populations are cur-          data on changes in fishing effort over this time period are
                                     rently not over-exploited. However, there are some people               unavailable.
                                     who think black corals are being over-exploited.                             As indicated, Hawaii's swordfish fishery has experienced
                                          Lobster and bottomfish fisheries are particularly suscep-          a tremendous increase in landings since 1988. In 1988, sword-
                                     tible to over-exploitation because of their limited habitats in         fish landings totaled 50,000 pounds. In 1989, an estimated
                                     Hawaii. Commercial exploitation of both fisheries can lead to           500,000 pounds of swordfish were harvested by 10 vessels. In
                                     significant declines in catches, and, if not properly managed,          the first half of 1990, about 40 boats were targeting swordfish,
                                     can cripple them (WESTPAC 1988). Because both are exploited             and landings were five times those reported in 1989. There is
                                     commercially in the NWHI at considerable distance from                  as yet no indication that this increase is having a negative
                                     centers of population, they are to some degree self-regulating.         impact on the stocks. However, there is considerable concern
                                     When catch-per-unit-of-effort drops below a certain point,              about continued expansion of this fishery in the absence of any
                                     fishermen find it no longer profitable to participate in these          management controls (WESTPAC 1990d; 1990e).
                                     fisheries because of high operating costs. However, this "eco-               There are significantly fewer data available on tuna than
                                     nomic" regulation of the lobster and botton-Sish fisheries does         other pelagic species because there has been no statutory or
                                     not maximize the value of the resources and causes hardship             regulatory requirements for reporting catch aside from Hawaii
                                     to individual fishermen. A limited-entiy program is in effect to        State commercial fishing reports. Data available on skipjack
                                     address this problem for bottornfish for a portion of the NWHI          (aku) catches from these reports indicate that in 1971 , approxi-
                                     An assessment is being conducted by WESTPAC to determine                mately 16 million pounds were harvested. In 1988, aku catches
                                     the need to limit effort in the NWHI lobster fishery (WESTPAC           totaled only 4 million pounds. The decline in catch appears to
                                     1990b). In 1989, the NWHI lobster fishery experienced a                 be a result of economic and market factors, as well as the
                                     significant increase in fishing effort, and the catch-per-unit-o -      closing of the tuna cannery, rather than over-exploitation.
                                     effort declined (NMFS 1990c).                                           Therefore, there may be scope for the expansion of the aku
                                          There is concern that the maximum sustainable yield                fishery. The same may be true for surface yellowfin stocks and
                                     (MSY) for bottomfish species in the main Hawaiian Islands is            for the distant albacore stocks fished by Hawaii-based vessels.
                                     seriously being exceeded. As indicated, NMFS estimates that                  Statistics on commercial landings of tuna show an in-
                                     the MSY for bottomfish in the main Hawaiian Islands is ap-              crease in the catch by Hawaii's longline fleet of from 2.7 million
                                     proximately 627,000 pounds per year. The 1988 catch was                 pounds in 1987, to almost 5.9 million pounds in 1989. The
                                     reportedly 1.7 million pounds, more than 2.5 times the MSY.             majority of this increase was in yellowfin and big-eye. The
                                     Moreover, much of the opakapaka, onaga, ebuand white ulua               trolling and longline fleet tuna catch declined from an esti-
                                     catch was composed of juveniles, and there is concern that              mated 3.1 million pounds in 1987, to about 1.6 million pounds
                                     overfishing may have had an impact on spawning stocks
                                     (WESTPAC 1989b). Unlike the fishery in the NWHI, bottomfish             how fishing effort was distributed among the various fleets
                                                                                                             in 1989 (WESTPAC 1990j). Again, there are no data to indicate
                                     stocks in the main Hawaiian Islands are being exploited by              over this period, and it is not possible to cletennine that there
                                     both commercial and recreational fishermen. The close prox-             is any relationship between increases in longline catches and
                                     imity of this fishery to the main population centers in the State,      decreases in catches by other fleets.
                                     combined with the involvement of recreational fishermen,








                             Some fishermen claim that catches of larger yellowfin and         boating slips. Moreover, commercial fishing boats are not the
                       big-eye tuna as well as other sport fish have declined as a result      major focus of the State s harbor development efforts. While
                       of increased, exploitation by longline boats. However, there            there are plans to expand harbor facilities in Honolulu and
                       has been no systematic study of catch rates for these species,          other parts of the State, it appears that this expansion will not
                       and size reduction usually occurs as stocks are fished down to          meet the needs of Hawaii's commercial fishing fleet and sea-
                       the maximum sustainable yield.                                          food marketing businesses. Without additional pier and dock-
                                                                                               ing facilities for commercial fishing boats and provisions for
                       User Confficts                                                          shoreside marketing and processing facilities, opportunities
                                                                                               for maximizing the value of Hawaii's fisheries resources will be
                       User conflicts have plagued fisheries development and man-              severely hampered.
                       agement in Hawaii just as they have in other parts of the world.
                       In Hawaii, user conflicts include: conflicts between longline                There are currently 2,600 recreational boats on waiting
                       boats using near-surface gear and small trolling boats in               lists for small boat harbor slips in the State (see Harbors
                       nearshore areas and around FADS; perceived competition                  Technical Paper). At least some are part-time commercial or
                       between commercial fishermen and sport fishermen for                    recreational fishing boats, and the lack of adequate infrastruc-
                       pelagic stocks; conflicts between fishermen using spears,               ture for them will inhibit the growth of both recreational fishing
                       hook and line, and nets to exploit reef and nearshore spe-              and part-time commercial fishing.
                       cies; and conflicts between fishermen and other ocean                        The growth of recreational and commercial fishing as
                       recreation users including surfers, swimmers, divers and                well as other boating activity has resulted in a shortage of
                       pleasure boaters.                                                       docking facilities as well as boat ramps, refueling docks and
                             The most volatile conflict among fishermen in recent              other boating infrastructure. While the demand for support
                       years involved newly arrived longhe fishermen unfamiliar                services and dockside amenities continues lo grow, the supply
                       with local fishing conditions and customs. The recent arrivals          is diminishing, and boats must wait longer and longer to use
                       were accustomed to using near-surface set longlines. Use of             facilities (see Harbors Technical Paper; DBED/Sea Grant Pro-
                       this gear in nearshore areas and around FADs resulted in                gram 1990).
                       considerable unrest among operators of small trolling boats.                 Financial support is inadequate to stimulate the enhance-
                       No Federal or State law provides a mechanism to resolve such            ment of the State's commercial fishing industry to maximize the
                       conflicts, but a gentleman's agreement was made with the                value to fisheries resources. Moreover, insufficient support to
                       newly arrived longline fishermen. Nevertheless, sports fisher-          promote the marketing of Hawaii's commercial catch is result-
                       men and participants in the traditional small boat commercial           ing in less than optimal prices for more abundant stocks. An
                       fishery feel that longline boats should be prohibited from              expansion of the demand for under-exploited species of fish
                       fishing within 75 miles of shore and that the expanded longline         could make commercial fishing more profitable and minimize
                       fleet has resulted in a decline in catches.                             the fluctuations in ex-vessel prices. Greater effort aimed at
                             Although much less publicized, there are conflicts among          encouraging commercial fishermen to target under-exploited
                       fishermen using spears, hooks and lines, and nets in nearshore          species and at discouraging increased harvests of over-ex-
                       areas. Such conflicts are due to the inherent incompatibility of        ploited stocks could reduce threats to the sustainability of
                       the fishing gear used and the perception that certain types of          Hawaii's fisheries resources.
                       gear contribute more to over-exploitation than other types.
                       Similar conflicts exist between fishermen and other ocean               Native Hawaiian R4hts
                       recreation users, including surfers, swimmers, pleasure boat-           There is considerable archaeological, historical and ethno-
                       ers and divers. Some of these conflicts result from the "con-           graphic evidence that Native Hawaiian fishermen have been
                       sumptive" nature of fishing as opposed to the "non-consump-             dependent on the fishery resources in Hawaii for several
                       tive" nature of snorkeling and scuba diving.                            centuries (WESTPAC 1989b). There is also evidence that tradi-
                             One final user-conflict issue is the potential negative           tional management methods, including a system of area clo-
                       impact of commercial and recreational fishing on protected              sures, were used effectively by Hawaiian people before Euro-
                       and endangered species. There have been allegations of fish-            pean contact. While traditional management methods are no
                       ermen attacking monk seal, in the NWHL There is also some               longer practiced and traditional fishing rights are not widely
                       concern that monk seats may be caught on longline hooks and             recognized, traditional Hawaiian rights of access may conflict
                       that marine mammals and sea birds may get tangled in dis-               with State and Federal regulations in the future.
                       carded nets and other fishing gear.                                          The pattern of long and continuous use of certain fishery
                       lack of Resources for Fisheries Development                             resources and the recognition of special rights for Native
                                                                                               Americans under Federal law may give Hawaiians special
                       The development of harbors in Hawaii has not kept pace with             rights of access to certain fisheries. These fisheries may include
                       the growth of commercial shipping and fishing, nor the de-              those that are restricted by the State and/or the Federal govern-
                       mand for commercial boat launching ramps and recreational               ment and those in need of further regulation.








                                         Conflicts between traditional Hawaiian access rights and                 Until 1990, the Fisheries Conservation and Management
                                   State and Federal regulations have not posed serious problems            Act (FCMA) did not give the State or Federal government
                                   in Hawaii to date. However, as the need for ftirther regulation          authority to manage or regulate tuna. Yet, commercial fisher-
                                   increases and if area closures become a more widespread                  men who market their fish in Hawaii are required to report tuna
                                   management method, conflicts may occur.                                  catches. Neither WESTPAC nor the State can require catch
                                                                                                            reports from foreign fishermen or from boats marketing their
                                   ineffective management and interagency Coordination                      catch outside the state. Since Congress has removed the tuna
                                                                                                            exclusion clause in FCMA, this problem may be resolved to
                                   Lack of Enforcement of E=sting Regulations                               some degree.
                                   The decline in Hawaii's nearshore fisheries resources is attrib-         Lack of a Consolidated Regime and Consistent Goals
                                   uted in part to the inadequacy of enforcement of existing
                                   fisheries regulations (DLNR/DAR 1988a; DLNR 1988b). Some                 DOCARE has the responsibility for the enforcement of existing
                                   members of the fishing cornmunity, as well as staff profession-          fisheries regulations. DOT's Harbors Division has responsibil-
                                   als involved in fisheries research and management, have indi-            ity for the enforcement of State boating regulations. Neither
                                   cated that Hawaii has more than enough fisheries regulations.            Department has adequate resources to fulfill its statutory en-
                                   Others have indicated that existing fisheries regulations, par-          forcement responsibilities.
                                   ticularly those governing nearshore and inshore fisheries, are                 Part of DBED's mission is to attract investment in Hawaii's
                                   overly complicated and unenforceable. It appears that the lack           fishing industry. To that end, DBED is actively encouraging
                                   of eflective enforcement capacity is due in part to the tremen-          investment in fishing and related industries. DLNR is attempt-
                                   dous amount of shoreline to patrol; the inability of DOCARE to           ing to increase its effectiveness in fisheries management and in
                                   recruit and maintain qualified staff; and assignment of wildlife         handling user conflicts in the fisheries sector. Greater coordi-
                                   enforcement and other responsibilities to DOCARE officers.               nation of the investment promotion efforts of DBED and the
                                         Neither the State nor Federal government have adequate             resource management efforts of DLNR will be needed if effec-
                                   resources to enforce regulations governing Hawaii's offshore             tive fisheries management is to be achieved.
                                   fisheries resources. Again, a lack of personnel and infrastruc-                Regional coordination between Federal and State fisher-
                                   ture hamper DLNR's ability to adequately enforce existing                ies management activities are facilitated through the Hawaii
                                   regulations. NMFS and the Coast Guard are charged with the               Fishery Coordinating Council and WESTPAC on which Hawaii
                                   surveillance and enforcement of fisheries regulations within             is represented. Cooperation between WESTPAC, NMFS and
                                   Hawaii's 200-nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone. Declin-              DAR has increased significantly in recent years. However,
                                   ing financial and personnel resources available to the Coast
                                   Guard have resulted in cutbacks in air and surface enforcement           increased cooperation among these three agencies and with
                                   missions Moreover, the Coast Guard has been given increased              other marine research organizations could result in an im-
                                   responsibility for drug enforcement and hazardous materials and oil      provement in the compilation and analysis of fisheries statistics
                                   spills management (Waihee 1990). This has further taxed resources        for the State and in more effective fisheries management.
                                   that are needed for fisheries surveillance and enforcement.              Lack of Adequate Manne Safety Requirements
                                   Inadequate Statistksfor FIshmies Management                              Serious injuries and deaths among fishermen from 147 accident
                                   Neither the Federal nor the State government can reliably                cases involving fishing vessels from 1965 to 1985 in Hawaii
                                   assess the status of fish stocks or the adequacy of existing             resulted in costs exceeding $6 million (Bourke and Markrich
                                   regulations because of inadequate statistics on fisheries in             1990). The financial and human costs of such accidents have
                                   Hawaii. There are no reporting requirements for recreational             been recognized by the Federal government as a national
                                   fishermen. The vast majority of recreational fishermen are               problem. In 1988, Congress promulgated the U.S. Fishing
                                   exploiting inshore and nearshore resources, those that have              Vessel Safety Act, which calls for stricter controls and improved
                                   suffered most from over-exploitation.                                    safety on fishing vessels. The Coast Guard is proposing safety
                                                                                                            regulations for commercial fishing vessels. However, the unique
                                         Assessing the status of offshore stocks in the main Hawai-         nature of Hawaii's "commercial fleet" with its relatively large
                                   ian Islands also is hampered severely by the lack of reporting           number of part-time commercial fishermen may require addi-
                                   requirements for recreational fishermen. Moreover, many of               tional safety improvements.
                                   the data that are provided by commercial fishermen, who are
                                   required to report their catch, are incomplete and catch-per-
                                   unit-of-effort calculations cannot be made. There is also report-        RECOMNMNDAIIONS
                                   edly gross "underreporting" of commercial catch data. State              Objective
                                   officials indicate that this may be more a function of delinquent
                                   or non-reporting rather than falsification of catch reports.             Provide a foundation for developing an integrated State fisher-
                                   Nevertheless, it is estimated that commercial catch reports              ies management system that ensures: 1) depleted and over-
                                   account for only 10 percent to 90 percent of the actual cornmer-         exploited stocks will be restored to sustainable levels; 2)
                                   cial catch, depending on the fishery.                                    fisheries resources will be harvested at their optimum sustain-








                     able yield; and 3) user conflicts will be minimized- [The most               3. Commission updates of the socio-economic analysis
                     important feature of "optimum sustainable yield" is that it must             as needed.
                     be set at a level to prevent overfishing.]                             Policy C
                     PolicyA                                                                Coordinate private-sector, State and Federal fisheries develop-
                     Assess the status and population dynamics of fisheries stocks          ment and management efforts.
                     (on an ongoing basis) and develop effective management                 implementing Actions:
                     regimes for inshore, nearshore and offshore resources.
                                                                                                  DLIW in cooperation with DBED, NMFSand WF-STPAC,
                     Impkwenting Actions.                                                         should..
                          DLNR should.-                                                           1. Evaluate the role and potential effectiveness of the
                          1. Develop a comprehensive plan for the assessment,                     Hawah fisheries Coordinating Council in light of changes
                          monitoring and management of nearshore and inshore                      in fisheries management structure based on the Ocean
                          stocks building on the Main Hawaiian Islands Marine                     Resources Management Plan.
                          Resource Investigation.                                                 2. Make such changes in the mandate of the Coordinat-
                               a. Accelerate the Main Hawaiian Islands Marine Re-                 ing Council as may be required to fit into the new
                               source Investigation focusing on clear management                  management structure and to improve coordination of
                                                             ZD
                               objectives.                                                        Federal, State, County and private-sector fisheries devel-
                               b. Develop a feasible method for gathering catch                   opment and management.
                               and effort data for inshore and nearshore fisheries.               3. In coordination with the State, develop recommen-
                               c. Develop an integrated management plan for the                   dations for enhancing the role of WEST`PAC in the man-
                               management of inshore and nearshore fisheries.                     agement of Hawaii's fisheries.
                          2.   Work with the NMFS, WESTPAC and the commercial               Policy D
                          and recreational fishing communities to adequately moni-          Ensure that native Hawaiian fishermen receive all the rights to
                          tor the status of offshore fisheries resources.                   which they are entitled.
                               a. Establish better coordination of State and Federal        Implementing Actions:
                               compilation and analysis of fisheries statistics.                  DLNR should..
                               b. Develop a feasible method for gathering catch                   1. Evaluate the findings of the WESTPAC study "Native
                               and effort data from recreational fishermen.                       Hawaiian Fishing Rights.'
                               c. Develop a more effective mechanism for gather-                  2. Review existing Federal and State regulations that
                               ing commercial catch, effort and sales statistics.                 may pertain.
                               d. Secure adequate resources to insure compliance                  3. If the above evaluation and review indicates Hawai-
                               with reporting requirements.                                       ian fishermen should receive preferential rights in the
                          3.   Establish a mechanism for evaluating and improving                 U.S. EEZ surrounding the State, recommend changes to
                                                                                                                                                      0
                          the  compilation and analysis of fisheries statistics to                existing State and Federal regulations to afford such
                          improve fisheries management.                                           rights.
                     Policy B                                                               Policy E
                     Assess the social and economic costs and benefits of a range of        Maximize the use of scientific and management resources.
                     commercial and recreational fisheries development options to           implementing Actions:
                     support the design of effective management and development
                     regimes.                                                                     DLAIR, with assistancefrom UH and other research and
                     Impkmenting Actions.                                                         educational institutions, should-
                          DLIVR should.                                                           1. Develop (or enhance an existing) roster of fisheries
                                                                                                  research and management resources.
                          1. Comrr-@ssion a study of commercial and recreation                    2. Establish a research coordinating committee for D1NR
                          fisheries options to assess the social and economic costs               or the participatory management body described above.
                          and benefits of a range of development designs.
                          2. Use the findings of the study to make changes in the                 3. Develop a long-range fisheries research plan consis-
                          management plan and fisheries regulations based on the                  tent with the integrated fisheries management plan and
                          plan.                                                                   meet the needs of the fisheries management body to
                                                                                                  ensure more effective fisheries management.








                                           4. Develop projects sin-dlar to the Main Hawaiian Is-              Implementing Actions:
                                           lands Marine Resource Investigation to meet ongoing                      DBED, in cooperation zvitb DLIR sbould
                                           fisheries management needs.
                                     Policy F                                                                       1. Work with the commercial fishing community and
                                                                                                                    seafood marketers to review existing trade and invest-
                                     Ensure reasonable access to fisheries resources for subsis-                    ment promotion activities and identify new opportunities
                                     tence, recreational and commercial fishermen as well as other                  for trade and investment promotion.
                                     recreational users (e.g., divers) and aquarium fish collectors.                2. Develop a long-range plan for trade and investment
                                     Implementing Actions:                                                          promotion that encourages the development of fisheries
                                           DLNR sbould:                                                             resources.
                                           1. Through a participatory planning effort involving                     3 Enhance existing trade and investment promotion
                                           representatives of various segments of the fishing com-                  efforts to encourage and expand commercial develop-
                                           munity and other marine users devise mamgement regimes                   ment of under-exploited species through commercial
                                           that provide reasonable access to fisheries resources.                   fishing, charter boat fishing and marine tourism.
                                           2. Using such methods, conduct periodic reviews of                 Policy I
                                           fisheries management and regulatory mechanisms             to      Restore depleted stocks and enhance existing stocks by devel-
                                           ensure such mechanisms continue to meet Hawaii's fish-             oping an effective management regime.
                                           eries management needs.                                            Implementing Actions:
                                     Policy G                                                                       DLNR sbould-
                                     Minimize and resolve user conflicts among fishermen and                        1. Develop a long-range plan for stock restoration and
                                     between fishermen and other ocean resource users.                              enhancement including consideration of the construc-
                                     Implementing Actions:                                                          tion of artificial reefs and stocking of nearshore areas with
                                           DLATR sbould:                                                            cultured species.
                                           1. Evaluate fisheries conflict resolution methods em-                    2. Work with segments of the fishing community to
                                           ployed by other states and identify methods that might be                develop a stock restoration and enhancement program.
                                           adapted for use in Hawaii.                                               3. Reevaluate existing fishing regulations with the goal
                                           2. Develop a conflict resolution mechanism to resolve                    of developing an effective and enforceable management
                                           user conflicts among fishermen and between fishermen                     system.
                                           and other ocean users that enhances communication.                       4. Develop an acceptable and enforceable system of
                                                                                                                    closures to allow nearshore fisheries stocks to recover
                                               a. Formally establish such a mechanism through                       from over-exploitation.
                                               legislation or regulation.                                           5. Develop a public awareness campaign on fisheries
                                               b. Develop a screening system for use of such a                      regulations and the management of Hawaii's fisheries.
                                               mechanism.
                                               c. Lunt the time allowed for mediation or negotiation.               6. Develop a program for stock enhancement based on
                                                                                                                    the plan.
                                               d. Ensure that the agreements resulting from nego-                   7. Develop a public education program to encourage
                                               tiations or mediation are binding.                                   exploitation of under-utilized species and improved man-
                                               e. Develop a public awareness program to encour-                     agement of over-exploited species.
                                               age the use of such a mechanism.                               Policyi
                                           3.  Review existing fisheries regulations and set up a             Provide appropriate infrastructure for recreational and com-
                                           system to review proposed regulations to ensure that user          mercial fisheries development. [See Harbors section.)
                                           conflicts are niinimized.
                                           4. Evaluate the role and potential impacts of commer-              Implementing Actions:
                                           cial fishing vessels, and regulate their influx if necessary.            DOT, DLAq@ and DBED togetber sbould:
                                     Policy H                                                                       1. Review the comprehensive fisheries management
                                     Support trade and investment promotion, seafood marketing                      plan [see Policy A, Action 11 and existing harbor and
                                     support, and the promotion of sports fishing and fisheries-                    marina development plans to ensure the needs of various
                                     related tourism.                                                               segments of the fishing community are adequately met








                             while Ile long-range fisheries development objectives              National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center,
                             can be achieved.                                                   Honolulu Laboratory. 1990c. Annual Report ofthe 1-989 West-
                             2. Develop a fisheries infrastructure development and              ern PacificLobsterFishery. Administrative Report No. H-90-06.
                             finance plan that incorporates existing plans and inte-            By K.C. Landgraf, S.G. Pooley, and R.P. Clarke. Honolulu.
                             grates the development of commercial harbors, marinas,             National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center,
                             boat ramps, artificial reefs, fish aggregating devices (FADS)      Honolulu Laboratory. 1987. Hawaii Marine Fisheries Re-
                             and other fisheries infrastructure.                                sources: Yesterday (1900) and Today (1986). Administrative
                             3. Develop proposals for State, Federal and private-               Report H-87-21. By R.S. Shomura. Honolulu.
                             sector funding to implement the plan.
                             4. Establish a mechanism for ensuring coordination of              National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center,
                             infrastructure management under existing agencies or               Honolulu Laboratory. 1989. Fisheries Statistics of the Western
                             designate a single lead management agency to assume                Pacific. Vol. IV. By D.C. Hamm and M.M.C. Quach. Honolulu.
                             that function .                                                    Pacific Basin Development Council. 1983. Central and West-
                       Policy K                                                                 ern Pacific Regional Fisheries Development Plan. Vol. IV.
                       Evaluate marine safety needs of commercial and recreational              Honolulu.
                       fishermen and facilitate developing programs to reduce accidents.        Shannon, S. 1990. Background paper on fisheries resources
                       Implementing Actions:                                                    and resource management in the State of Hawaii for the State
                             DOT and DLNR, in cooperation with the US, Coast                    of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Development &
                                                                                                Tourism, Ocean Resources Bnanch. Honolulu.
                             Guard, should-
                             1. Develop a voluntary marine safety training program              State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                             for commercial and recreational fishermen.                         opment. 1989. A Rising Tide of Investment Opportunities:
                             2. Evaluate licensing and other procedures to improve              Hawaii's Ocean Industries, Honolulu.
                             marine safety on commercial and recreational fishing               State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                             boats.
                                                                                                ment & Tourism, and University of Hawaii, Sea Grant Program.
                             3. Develop public awareness programs to encourage                  1990. Foreign Flag Fishing Vessel Expenditures in tbePort of
                             participation in training programs and proper mainte-              Honolulu: 1986-1988. Draft. By L.L. Hudgins and R.T.B.
                             nance of equipment.                                                Iversen. Honolulu.


                                                                                                State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources.
                       REFEUNCES                                                                1989. Minutes of the 33rd Hawaii Fisheries Coordinating Coun-
                       Bourke, R.E. and M. Markrich. 1990. Fishing Boat Safety in               cil Meeting, September 19, 1989. Honolulu.
                       Hawaii. A Report to the Hawaii Fisheries Coordinating Coun-              State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources.
                       cil. Honolulu.                                                           1990. 715e Hawaii State Plan: Conservation Lands, Dral?.
                       Lee, D. 1990. Controlled Fishing Practices Needed to Stabilize           Honolulu.
                       Inshore Resources. Makai. Vol, 11, No. 5. Honolulu.                      State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources, DM-
                       MacDonald, C.D. and H.E. Deese. 1989. A Comprehensive                    sion of Aquatic Resources. 1988a. Hattan Commmial Fishing
                       Analysis and Overview of Hawaii's Ocean Industries. Coastal              Surrey, 1987 By RE Hamm and A.Z. Katekaru.         IHonolulu.
                       Zone '89 Proceedings. Vol. IV. pp. 3481-3493. New                        State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                       York:American Society of Engineers.                                      Division of Aquatic Resources. 1988b. Main Hawaiian Islands
                       National Marine Fisheries Service. 1990a. awaiis Marine                  Marine Resources Inventory 1988 Survey. Honolulu.
                       Fisheries.- Long-term Trends and Recent Developments (Pre-               State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                       liminary Estimates). By S.G. Pooley. Honolu       .lu.                   Division of Aquatic Resources. 1989a. FY 1988-89 Annual
                       National Marine Fisheries Service. 1990b. Memorandum of                  Report. By Hawaii Fisheries Coordinating Council. Honolulu.
                       statistics provided to the Department of Business and Eco-               State of Hawaii, Department of Land and-Natural Resources,
                       nomic Development.                                                       Division of Aquatic Resources. 1989b. HawaiiFisbingRegula-
                                                                                                tions. By State of Hawaii, Board of Land and Natural Resources.
                                                                                                Honolulu.


State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
Division of Aquatic Resources.1990. Hawaii Fishing Regula-
tions.  By State of Hawaii, Board of Land and Natural Resources.
Honolulu.

United Nations Environment Programme, IUCN, Natural Re-
sources Conservation Monitoring Center.1988. Coral Reefs of
the World, Vol.III. pp. 143-169. By S.M. Wells (with contribu-
tions from R. Grigg, P. Jokiel, and J.E. Maragos for the Hawaii
secion). Honolulu.

Waihee, J.D.1990. Testimony presented to the House Mer-
chant Marine and Fisheries Committee hearings. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1983.
Fishery Management Plan for the Precious Corals Fisheries of
the Western Pacific Region.Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1988.
Fishery Management Plan for the Bottomfish and Seamount
Groundfish Fishery of the Western Pacific Region.Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1989a.
Fact Shett: Fisheries Management Plan for the Precious Corals
Fisheries of the Western Pacific Region, June 27, 1989. Hono-
lulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1989b.
Rights of Native Hawaiian Fishermen with Specific Regard to
Harvesting of Bottomfish in the Northwestern Hawaiian Is-
lands and with regard to Harvesting of Bottomfish, Crusta-
ceans, Precious Corals, and Open-Ocean Fish in Offshore
Areas Surrounding the Entire Hawaiian Chain, Phase 1 and
Phase 2. By R.T.B. Iversen, T. Dye and L.M. Paul. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council. 1990a.
Lobster Fishing Regulations, Western Pacific. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990b.
Crustaceans Situation Report. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990c.
Amendment 3 to the Fishery Management Plan for Bottomfish
and Seamount Groundfish of the Western Pacific. Draft, June
6, 1990. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990d.
Commercial Pelagic Fisheries in Hawaii, June 11, 1990.
Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990e.
Press release, June 17, 1990. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990f.
Commercial Pelagic Fisheries in Hawaii. Honolulu.


Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990g.
Recruitment Overfishing Definition. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990h.
Amendment 2 and Environmental Assessment:  Fishery Man-
agement Plan for Precious Corals Fisheries of the Western
Pacific Region, May 21, 1990.  Working Draft #1. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990i.
Precious Corals Situation Report, May 22, 1990. Honolulu.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.1990j.
Pelagics Situation Report, June 12, 1990. Honolulu.












                                M. Carolyn Stewart
                                and David A. Tarnas
                                Marine and Coastal
                                Resources Consultants
                                P.O. Box 5653
                                Kailua-Kona, M 96745
                                MRRINE ECOSYSTEM PROTECTION




                                                                              PAGE                                                                   PAGE

                        THE RESOURCE                                            49                  Overuse of Certain Natural
                        Resource Value                                          50                     Resources and Areas                             56
                        Economic Value                                          50             Inadequate Enforcement                                  56
                        Scientific and Educational Value                        50             Inadequate Research and Monitoring Programs             56
                        Cultural and Historical Value                           50             Inadequate Public Involvement                           57
                        Recreational and Aesthetic Value                        50             RECOMMENDATIONS                                         57
                        Ecological Value                                        51             Objective                                               57
                        RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                     51             Policies and Implementing Actions                       57
                        Protection of Overall Marme and
                           Coastal Environments                                 51
                             Federal Authority                                  51
                             State Authority                                    51         M RMURCE
                             County Authority                                   52
                        Protection of Ecosystems and Habitats                   53         Hawaii's marine and coastal environments are the backbone of
                             Federal Protected Areas                            53         its economy and integral to its history and culture. Historically,
                             State Protected Areas                              53         these environments defined communities and provided many
                             State Enforcement ResponsiWity                     54         of the resources upon which the traditional economy de-
                             Private Protected Areas                            54         pended. More recently, the tourism industry, which now con-
                             Special Cases                                      54         tributes significantly to the State's economy, has become de-
                                                                                           pendent upon quality marine and coastal environments. The
                        Protection of Marine and Coastal Species                55         resources contained within these natural environments are
                             Federal Authority                                  55         diverse and numerous: marine life, including marine mammals,
                             State Authority                                    55         sea turtles, birds and fishes; endemic and exotic plant species;
                        MANAGEMENT ISSIMS                                       55         cTitical and productive habitats such as coral reefs, estuaries,
                        Continued Species and Habitat Loss                                 wetlands, offshore islets and rocks, and anchialine pools; scenic
                          and Damage                                            55         land and seascapes, including beaches, rugged shorelines and
                        Ina&quate Management of Some Marine and                            underwater lava formations; and deep seabed minerals.
                          Coastal Resources and Areas                           56            A host of people, organizations and ocean industries utilize
                             Lack of integrated Marine and                                 or are dependent on Hawaii's coastal and marine resources.
                                Coastal Management Plans                        56         These users include: aquaculturists, fishermen, education and
                             Lack of Site-SpeciJic Management Plans             56         research institutions, shipping and related industries, tourists
                             Lack of Coordination in Management                            and outdoor enthusiasts, tourism industry, and ocean technol-
                                qfProtectedAreas                                56         ogy research and development programs.
                             Inadequate Management of                                         On one hand, these ocean industries benefit Hawaii's
                                Important Marine Species                        56         economy and enhance people's understanding of ocean and








                                        coastal processes. on the other hand, these user groups and an               Scientific and Educational Value
                                        expanding human population can negatively impact these                                                                                  ic study
                                        natural environments upon which they depend. Growth and                      Marine ecosystems provide important sites for scientif
                                                                                                                     and education. Preserves that are relatively unmodified or
                                        tourism-related development onshore can result in: loss of                   ,pristine" can generate important geologic, oceanographic and
                                        critical marine habitats; siltation from urban and agricultural              ecological data. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. for ex-
                                        runoff; and decreasing nearshore water quality from inad-                    ample, provide a unique window on species evoludon'because
                                        equate waste disposal capabilities. Fishing, aquarium an       .d sou-       of their geographic isolation and are preserved as the Hawaiian
                                        venir collection can deplete unique or important marine re-                  islands National Wildlife Refuge. Marine protected areas, which
                                        sources. The maritime industry can contribute to reduced water               protect habitats, nesting, nursery and feeding grounds of threat-
                                        quality through operational and accidental discharges of oil and             ened and endangered species, provide uriique scientific and
                                        fuel. Boat anchoring, seabed mining operations and bottom                    educational opportunities. Ecosystems in which human activi-
                                        trawling can disturb coral reefs and other underwater forma-                 ties can be controlled also provide baseline data from which to
                                        tions.                                                                       evaluate the impacts of such activities.
                                           Clearly, the issue of protecting marine and coastal environ-                The ocean research and development industry also values a
                                        ments against degradation merits attention. Hawaii State policy              thriving marine environment. Research and development
                                        incorporates a conservation ethic in resource management,                    projects can translate into technological innovations that may
                                        which includes both elements of environmental protection and                 generate new economic opportunities in the State. In 1989, the
                                        resource use (Chapter 228-1, HRS). However, due to the oppor-
                                        tunifies presented for economic development, resource use, in                economic value of ocean research and development was S62
                                        many cases, has been emphasized more than environmental                      million. The projected value for 1992 ranges between S87 and
                                        protection. Enhanced ecosystem protection requires a shift in                $147 million (MacDonald and LaBarge 1990).
                                        this balance.                                                                  In addition, marine ecosystems function as learning centers
                                           The existing system of marine and coastal protected areas,                for public education programs. Environmental organizations
                                        and the existence of ordinances regulating types and levels of               and schools use field trips to coastal lands and nearshore waters
                                        resource use within the State provide some marine and coastal                to cultivate heightened environmental awareness. Designating
                                        environments with varying degrees of protection. The levels of               underwater parks and trail systems can make marine resources
                                        protection afforded these environments range, in theory, from                more accessible to the public for study. Educating and exposing
                                        strict preservation to promotion of multiple uses. In practice,              people to resource values and the environmental effects of
                                        however, there is a tendency towards leniency in use restric-                human impacts can reduce the need for enforcement by help-
                                        dons. It seems apparent that there is room for improvement                   ing to alter environmentally damaging practices (See Ocean
                                        with regard to ecosystem protection in Hawaii. Furthermore,                  Research and Education Technical Paper).
                                        given the large percentage of coastal lands owned by the State,              Cultural and Historical Value
                                        Hawaii has ample opportunity to increase resource protection
                                        to benefit current and future users.                                         Resources also are valued for their role in ancient culture. Areas
                                                                                                                     used by ancient Hawaiians - including fish ponds, traps,
                                        Resource Value                                                               anchialine pools and whole fishing villages - provide valuable
                                        While marine and coastal resources are essential to the success              cultural resources to both residents and visitors. Fish ponds, for
                                        of Hawaii's ocean industries and overall economy, they are also              example, were constructed by the Hawaiians from embayments
                                        valuable in ways not easily quantifiable and, until recently,                and naturally forming anchialine pools. Anchialine pools also
                                        ignored. Engendering support for better and more comprehen-                  were modified to facilitate the catching of natural stocks of
                                        sive protection of the marine ecosystem requires a broadening                opae'ula (red shrimp) to be used as fish bait. Pipiwai snails and
                                        of perceptions regarding resource value.                                     hibiwai snails (nerifies) were gathered from anchialine pools,
                                                                                                                     These food and water resources helped sustain the ancient
                                        Economic Value                                                               Hawaiian communities that colonized and settled around the
                                                                                                                     pools. Proper interpretation of these areas is important to
                                        Hawaii's economy is intricately linked to its surrounding ocean.             cultivate in today's society the same sense of malama aina or
                                        Economic diversification is a constant theme and one of the                  protecting the land" that existed in early Hawaiian culture. As
                                        major forces motivating Hawaii's interest in the ocean                       with other important historical and cultural resources, these
                                        (MacDonald and Deese 1989). The tourism industry, the State's                pools need specific protection from development pressures.
                                        economic mainstay, is almost entirely dependent on excellent
                                        water quality and a healthy environment. The commercial                      Recreational and Aesthetic Value
                                        fishing industry, which landed approximately 20 million pounds               People are drawn to natural environments for recreation be-
                                        of locally-caught fish valued at $42 million in 1988, depends on             cause of the natural amenities such environments provide,
                                        the maintenance of abundant and healthy fish stocks (see                     Which kind of environment a person chooses to visit depends
                                        Fisheries Technical Paper). Marine pollution and habitat de-                 in part on the nature of the recreation experience the person
                                        struction reduce these fish stocks,








                      seeks. A person pursuing an isolated wilderness experience                 Engineers (COE) under Section 10, Rivers and Harbors Act. Any
                      values the relative absence of urban concentrations, freedom               discharge of dredge or fill material into waters of the United
                      from evidence of human alteration, the absence of pollution,               States, which includes wetlands, anchialine pools, rivers, streams
                      the presence of appealing vistas, and relative peace and quiet.            and coastal waters, requires a permit from the COE under
                      On the other hand, a person wishing to sunbathe on a popular               Section 404, Clean Water Act. Permit applicants are required to
                      beach considers the beach's proximity to home, opportunities               obtain State of Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Federal
                      for particular recreational activities, safety, cleanliness and            Consistency Determinations and Section 401, Clean Water Act,
                      facilities. The marine and coastal environments provide oppor-             Water Quality Certifications, prior to being issued a permit by
                      tunities for this range of recreational experiences (See Ocean             the COE. The decision to authorize a proposed action is based
                      Recreation Technical Paper),                                               on public interest evaluation and evaluations in compliance
                        Resources also have "existence" value, which is largely                  with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), Endan-
                      unquantifiable. This describes the value that people place on              gered Species Act and National Historic Preservation Act.
                      natural resources and environments simply because they exist.              State Autbority
                      Many people are content to know that certain species (e.g.,                Water Qualqy Standards
                      Hawaiian monk seal), ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs) and natural
                      features (e.g,, underwater lava tubes and arches) exist, even if           The Department of Health (DOH) has established water quality
                      they will not personally observe them.                                     standards (Chapter 11, Hawaii Administrative Rules, [HARI)
                                                                                                 based on Federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
                      Ecological Value                                                           water quality standards established under the Clean Water Act.
                                                                                                 DOH water quality standards classify all State waters as either
                      Every coastal and marine resource contains an ecological value
                      because of its crucial role in maintaining the overall balance of          marine or inland waters. These waters are further classified by
                      ecological processes. Marine ecosystems depend heavily on                  use for the purpose of applying standards.
                      properly functioning ecological processes. Energy and nutrient               Marine waters are divided into Class AA and Class A waters.
                      flows are critical to species survival. Estuaries such as Pearl            Marine bottom ecosystems are divided into Class I and Class 11.
                      Harbor and Kaneohe Bay, for example, function as nutrient and              There are basic water quality criteria applicable to all waters that
                      sediment traps. They also serve as nurseries for a variety of fish         address floating debris, thermal pollution, turbidity, and nearly
                      and invertebrates, as well as habitats for endangered species.             100 toxic substances. These standards also describe certain uses
                      Furthermore, they help reduce the effects of erosion from                  and specific criteria applicable to inland and marine waters.
                      storm-induced wave surges and flooding, The continued exist-                 In addition, these water quality regulations include some
                      ence of any species depends directly on the preservation of its            level of natural resource protection, demonstrated by the objec-
                      habitat. Although the value of tl-@s preservation may not be               tive for Class AA waters, which specifies that "...to the extent
                      quantifiable or even identifiable, a specie's demise or extinction         practicable, the wilderness character of these areas shall be
                      because of habitat loss eventually affects the overall balance of          protected" [Chapter 11-54-03(c)(1), HARI. These waters include
                      natural systems.                                                           @pristine" areas along Hawaii's coastline, and "...all embayments
                                                                                                 in preserves, reserves, sanctuaries and refuges" (Chapter 11-54-
                      RESOURCE MANAGF39M                                                         06(a)(2), HARI. No effluent discharge is allowed in these waters
                                                                                                 in depths less than 10 fathoms. Controlled allowable uses
                      It is Hawaii's policy to preserve, protect and, where possible,            include "oceanographic research, the support and propagation
                      restore the natural resources of the State's coastal zone (Chapter         of shellfish and other marine life, conservation of coral reefs and
                      176, Hawaii Revised Statutes [HRSI). An array of management                wilderness areas, compatible recreation and aesthetic enjoy-
                      systems exists in Hawaii at the Federal, State and County levels,          ment" [Chapter 11-54-03(cXl), HARI. Class A waters are to be
                      and within the private sector, designed to preserve coastal                protected for recreational purposes and aesthetic enjoyment.
                      water quality and protect fauna, flora and their habitats from             Activities are perntted provided they are compatible with
                      pollution, human and development pressures. Some manage-                   protection and propagation of fish, shellfish and wildlife [Chap-
                      ment systems aim to broadly protect Hawaii's coastal and                   ter 11-54-03(eX2), HARI. There are specific standards for each
                      marine environments; others target specific ecosystems, habi-              classification of waters.
                      tats and species.                                                            Natural resource protection is also evident in the classifica-
                                                                                                 tion of bottom environments given in DOH water quality
                      Protection of OveraH Marine and Coastal Environments                       regulations. Class I bottom environments are protected so that
                      Federal Aidbority                                                          they "remain as nearly as possible in their natural pristine state
                      US. Army Corps of Engineers Permit P@nocess                                with an absolute minimum of pollution from any human-
                                                                                                 induced source. Allowable uses of marine bottom ecosystems
                      Any construction in coastal, tidal waters below the mean high              in this class are passive human uses without intervention or
                      water mark requires a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of                   alteration, allowing the perpetuation and preservation of the
                                                                                                 marine bottom in a most natural state, such as for non-con-








                                      sumptive scientific research, non-consumptive education, aes-            Hawaii's CZM Law and State programs in the CZM area for
                                      thetic enjoyment, passive activities and preservation" [Chapter          consistency with the CZM Program.
                                      11-54-03(d)(1), HARI. The management objective of Class 11                 within this same State statute, the designation of Special
                                      bottom environments is that 'their use for protection including          Management Areas (SMAs) provides a method for special
                                      propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and for recreational       controls over coastal development. The Legislature found that
                                      purposes not be limited in any way." Any action that may                 these controls wm "...necessary to avoid permanent losses Of
                                      permanently mcddy the bottom environment is allowed only                 valuable resources and the foreclosure of management op-
                                      with approval of the DOH director, after consideration of                tions, and to ensure that adequate access, by dedication or other
                                      environmental impact and public interest (Chapter 11-54-                 means, to public owned or used beaches, recreational areas
                                      04(dX2), HARI. There are specific regulations for each classifi-         and natural reserves is provided' (Chapter 205A-21, HRS).
                                      cation of bottom environments.
                                                                                                                 Soil Erosion Control Permit Process. Sod erosion is a major
                                         Finally, State water. quality standards contain specific rules        nonpoint source pollution problem. To control this, agricultural
                                      regarding discharges    *in and water quality parameters for             operations are to use "best management practices" as described
                                      anchialine pools and wetlands.                                           in Hawaii's Nonpoint Source Water Pollutwn Management
                                         Hawaii Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) Law. The                  Plan (DOH 1989). Construction operations must obtain a
                                      Hawaii Environmental Impact Statement law (Chapter 343,                  grading permit from the County. This permit system is being
                                      BRS) grew out of the need to identify and mitigate potential             evaluated for its effectiveness in controlling sod erosion by the
                                      environmental impacts from activities undertaken or approved             State's Nonpoint Source Pollution Program (See Waste Manage-
                                      by State and County governments. This law is Hawaii's State              ment Technical Paper).
                                      environmental policy act, modeled after the National Environ-              Conservation District Permit Process: Conservation District
                                      mental Policy Act (NEPA). The EIS Law requires that Environ-             Use Applications (CDUAs) must be filed by those proposing to
                                      mental Assessments (EAs) be prepared for actions that propose            engage in any activities not fisted in the Hawaii Administrative
                                      any of a list of uses or amendments to certain plans (Chapter            Rules for Conservation Areas (Tide 13, Chapter 2, HAR). Activi-
                                      343-5, HRS). If a "negative declaration" (i.e., there will be no         des requiring CDUIA permits include constniction of park infm-
                                      impact) is made, then no further environmental impact analysis           structure, commercial operations and installation of moorings.
                                      is required.                                                             A Department of Transportation (DOT) use permit also is
                                         If the State agency preparing the EA detennines that a                required for installation of moorings. DINR Conservation and
                                      proposed activity may significantly affect the environment, an           Environmental Affairs Division oversees the CDUA process.
                                      Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is required. When the               County Autbority
                                      EIS is completed, it is made available for public comment.
                                      Depending on whether the activity anticipates use of State or            Special Management Area Perniit Process: Within each County,
                                      County resources, the Governor or the mayor has the authority            Special Management Areas (SMAs) are designated for areas
                                      to accept the EIS (Callies 1984). Developments proposed for              requiring special management attention. SMAs extend inland
                                      State conservation districts and shoreline setback coastal areas         a minimum of 100 yards and, in undeveloped areas, often are
                                      are two of several uses that require an assessment (Chapter 343-         extended further inland. Specific management authority rests
                                      5, HE).                                                                  with the City Council on Oahu and the planning commissions
                                         Hawaii Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Program: Under                   on the Neighbor Islands. The Counties define the types of
                                      Hawaii's CZM Law (Chapter 205A, fIRS), all State and County              activities that constitute development, and establish SMA bound-
                                      actions within the CZM area must comply with the CZM objec-              anes. SMAguidehnes are outlined in Chapter 205A, HRS (Hawaii's
                                      fives and policies. In addition, since the State's CZM Program           CZM Law), and include the following requirements: adequate
                                      has been officially approved by the Federal government the               public access to shoreline areas; adequate public recreation
                                      national CZM Act (CZMA [P.L. No. 92-5831) requires all i@@eml            areas and wildlife preserves; waste management; water re-
                                      activities undertaken in or affecting Hawaii's coastal zone to be        sources management; no substantial adverse environmental or
                                      consistent with Hawaii's CZM Program. Where national de-                 ecological impacts; and consistency with State and County
                                      fense or other overriding national interests are concerned,              planning and zoning.
                                      Federal activities must at least be consistent to the "maximum             The Counties are to "seek to minimize, where reasonable"
                                      extent practicable." As the lead agency for CZM in Hawaii, the           dredging, filling, or other alteration of bays, estuaries, salt
                                      Office of State Planning (OSP) is responsible for reviewing and          marshes, river mouths, sloughs and lagoons; reduction in size
                                      deciding the consistency of Federal activities with the State's          of beaches or other public recreation areas; developments that
                                      CZM Program. These include direct Federal activities, outer              would restrict access to coastal areas; developments that would
                                      continental shelf activities, Federal funding, and Federal per-          substantially interfere with or detract from the line of sight
                                      mks and licenses.                                                        toward the sea from the State highway nearest the coast"; and,
                                         The CZM Program also is responsible for reviewing the                 "any development which would adversely affect water quality,
                                      actions of State and County agencies for compliance with                 existing areas of open water free of visible structures, existing
                                                                                                               and potential fisheries and fishing grounds, wildlife habitats, or








                     potential or existing agricultural uses of land" [Chapter 205A-              Coastal National Parks: In some marine areas adjacent to
                     266)(AXE), HRS1.                                                          coastal national parks, the National Park Service (NPS) seeks to
                        Special Management Area use permits are required for the               regulate activities. Under the Hawaii National Parks Act, NPS
                     coastal developments listed above. DOT has an exemption                   can extend its jurisdiction over adjacent marine areas and
                     from this requirement for the construction of public harborS.             develop rules regulating fishing and taking of other marine life
                     Permits are issued by Counties after environmental analyses               (Sections 1,4). However, since these marine areas are State
                     and public hearings are conducted. Any rules and regulations              waters, their management requires a joint Federal-State plan.
                     adopted by the Counties for the SMA process must be consistent            Efforts are currently underway to develop such a Federal-State
                     with Hawaii's CZM Law. Action on SMA use permits is final                 management plan for waters off Kaloko-Honokohau National
                     unless otherwise mandated by court order (Chapter 205A-29,                Historic Park in Kona.
                     HRS). There are also provisions for emergency and minor                      Otber Federal Marine Protected Areas.. Designating critical
                     permits (Chapter 205A-30, HRS).                                           habitat areas for threatened and endangered species is another
                                                                                               mechanism for providing recognition and protection of essen-
                     Protection of Ecmyste@s and Habitats                                      dal habitats. In addition, development proposals for projects in
                     Certain marine and coastal areas are protected under Federal or           or adjacent to anchialine pools, fishponds and wetlands are
                     State law. The federal government has institutional and regu-             reviewed by COE, FWS and EPA. Though President George
                     latory mechanisms with which to confer a degree of protection             Bush has announced his intention to adopt a policy of "no net
                     on unique or significant ecosystems and habitats. it is the State's       loss of wetlands," no implementing rules have been adopted.
                     policy to establish and maintain natural area preserves, wildlife         Pools and wetlands are protected under the Clean Water Act.
                     preserves, marine preserves, and unique ecological preserves              State Pmtected Areas
                     (Chapter 3444, HRS). Many of these areas are considered Areas             Marine Life Conservation Districts (MLCDs): The State estab-
                     of Particular Concern (APCs) under Hawaii's CZM Law and                   lished MLCDs to protect unique areas of the marine environ-
                     require special management attention.                                     ment (Chapter 190, HRS). The State Department of Land and
                     Federal V@rotected Areas                                                  Natural Resources (DLNR), Division of Aquatic Resources,           is
                     National Marine Sanctuaries (AMSs):         The NMS Program is            responsible for establishing, managing and regulating uses in
                     administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric                      these MLCDs (Chapter 190-15, HRS). Within each MLCD, the
                     Administration (NOAA), Marine and Estuarine Management                    DLNR develops administrative rules and monitors the resources
                     Division. The primary purpose of the program is resource                  annually. These rules may prohibit the taking of marine life
                     protection. It enables the Federal government to manage                   except by permit for scientific, educational or other purposes,
                     designated marine environments as ecosystems.' The                        under conditions that cause minimal environmental impacts
                     program's mission also allows for the facilitation of multiple            (Chapter 1904, HRS). Rules generally prohibit taking of marine
                     uses within designated NMSs. In the early 1980s, the national             life in MLCDs, emphasizing preservation of the areas' marine
                     government proposed to create an NMS for the waters off                   flora and fauna, and their habitats (Chapters 13-28 to 13-35,
                     Maui in order to protect humpback whale breeding grounds.                 HAR). MLCDs have been designated at Hanauma Bay, Oahu;
                     However, the proposal died because it did not garner ad-                  Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii; Manele-Hulopoe, Lanai; Molokini
                     equate State support.                                                     Shoal, Maui; Honolua-Mokuleia, Maui; Lapakahi, Hawaii;
                                                                                               Pupukea, Oahu; Wailea Bay, Hawaii, and Waikiki, Oahu.
                       National Wildlife Refuges (NWR:s)- In designating National                FisheryManagenientAreas(FAMs).- State regulations restrict
                     Wildlife Refuges, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) seeks          fishing activities within FMAs (Chapters 1347 to 13-54, HAR).
                     to protect bird, and to a lesser extent, marine mammal habitats.          DLNR's Division of Aquatic Resources is responsible for estab-
                     The Hawaiian Islands NWR was created in 1909 for the protec-              lishing and managing FMAs, and regulating activities (Chapter
                     tion of numerous sea and shore birds. It is managed by FWS                187-2, HRS). These FMAs include the Northwestern Hawaiian
                     with strict controls on human interactions with the wildlife.             Islands; Waikiki-Diamond Head Shoreline, Oahu; Hanamaulu
                     Even scientific and educational visits are extremely limited and          Bay and Ahukini Recreational Pier, Kauai; Waimea Bay and
                     closely supervised. The islands and offshore waters prov        .ide      Waimea Recreational Pier, Kauai; Kahului Harbor, Maui; Kailua
                     habitats for over five million seabirds of 18 different species,          Bay, Hawaii; Manele Harbor, Lanai; Puako Bay and Puako Reef,
                     including albatross, boobies, frigate birds, petrels, shearwaters,        Hawaii; and Kawaihae Harbor, Hawaii.
                     storm-petrels, tems and tropic birds.                                       Natural Area Resew Sjstem NARS). The goal of NARS is
                       National Estuarine Research Reserves, Waimanu Valley on                 to protect unique natural areas from loss due to population
                     Hawaii is designated as a National Estuarine Research Reserve,            growth and technological advances (Chapter 195, HRS). NARS
                     under NOAA, Office of Coastal Resources Management. While                 is administered by DLNR's, Natural Area Reserve System Com-
                     it is a Federal reserve, the protected area itself is managed by the      mission (Chapter 195-6, HRS). The Natural Area Reserve System
                     State. The goal of such designations is long-term habitat protec-         Commission is responsible for recommending criteria, evaluat-
                     don for research and educational purposes.                                ing potential sires and recommending specific areas for inclu-








                                     sion in the NARS (Chapter 195:3-7, HRS). There is one NAR,              HRS). However, within MLCDs, DLNR has the authority to
                                     located at Ahihi-Kinau, Maui, that includes a marine compo-             regulate moorings (Chapter 190, M).
                                     nent; Kaena Point on Oahu is a coastal NAR but does not extend             DOH is responsible for monitoring water quality in nearshore
                                     into the water. Rules have been adopted governing activities in         waters, including marine-protected areas, and enforcing com-
                                     these protected areas, including prohibitions on operation of           pliance with EPA and State water quality standards (Chapter
                                     motorized vehicles.                                                     342-31, HRS).
                                        Underwater Rarks., Two MLCDs, Hanauma Bay and                        Private Pmtected Areas
                                     Kealakekua Bay, also are designated State Underwater Parks.
                                     DLNR, State Parks, Outdoor Recreation and Historic Sites Divi-          Private organizations are beginning to increase their involve-
                                     sion, has the authority to manage the parks (Chapter 184, HRS).         ment in the purchase and/or management of marine and
                                     However, they do not currently do so, relying instead upon              coastal areas. The Nature Conservancy, for example, owns and
                                     DLNR, Division of Aquatic Resources, to manage these areas as           manages two preserves with significant coastal resources:
                                     MLCDs.                                                                  Moomomi and Pelekunu Preserves on Molokai. The
                                        Conservation Land Use Llistrict Protective Subzone Within            Conservancy's mission in Hawaii is to protect the fuU range of
                                     the State's Conservation Land Use Districts, Protective Subzones        indigenous species and ecosystems.
                                     can be created to include shorelines and parts of the adjacent          SPecial Cases
                                     ocean. Protective Subzones help preserve natural ecosystems             Anchialine pools are protected as unique ecosystems only in
                                     necessary to native fish species, particularly endangered spe-          the Cape Kinau Natural Am Reserve, Volcanoes National Pask
                                     cies. All of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, excluding               and Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park. The remain-
                                     Midway, are a Conservation Land Use District Protective                 ing anchialine pools are located mostly on private lands and are
                                     Subzone. Hunting and fishing may be allowed to control                  subject to protection only to the extent that Federal, State and
                                     populations (Chapter 13-2, HAR).                                        County permits are applicable to private development of those
                                        Otber State Manne Protected Areas There are other State-             lands and to the extent provided by permit conditions. For the
                                     designated areas that restrict, to varying degrees, consumptive         most part, anchialine pools are located within County Special
                                     uses of the marine environment. A Marine Laboratory Refuge is           Management Areas. DOH water quality regulations state that all
                                     located at Coconut island in Kaneohe Bay on Oahu. Several               anchialir@e pools shall be maintained 'in their natural state with
                                     boat harbors and canals have restrictions on fishing, including         no discharges allowed (Chapter 11-54-05.2, HAR). The pools
                                     Honolulu Harbor, Ala Wai Canal, Kapalania Canal, Heeia Kea              also are protected by COE under the CWA. COE has a memo-
                                     Wharf, Pakai Bay and Waialua Bay, Oahu; and Hilo Harbor,                randum of agreement with EPA and FWS to attempt to protect
                                     Hawaii. Fishing and some other activities are regulated within          the pools to the extent reasonable within EPA guidelines.
                                     such areas as: Alakai Wilderness Preserve, Kauai; Paiko Lagoon          Anchialine pools are not considered wetlands (except perhaps
                                     Wildlife Sanctuary, Oahu; and many Hawaii State Seabird                 some parts of the shoreline in the pools).
                                     Sanctuaries on various islands and islets throughout the State.            The public is responsible for the introduction of exotic fish
                                     State seabird sanctuaries are managed by DLNR, Forestry and             and trash into anchialine pools. Private development offers
                                     Wildlife Division.                                                      partial protection in that private developers are not fi[ling
                                        Ocean Recreation Management Areas (ORM,4s). Some                     anchialirie pools in order to avoid Federal or State regulatory
                                     ORMAs are designated to prohibit operation of certain types of          intervention in their projects. Developers are willing to provide
                                     watercraft during the winter season when humpback whales                some protection only to the extent that their projects can
                                     are present. Other areas are dosed for protection of sea turtle         proceed in consideration of costs for providing the protection.
                                     habitats. These closures reduce the potential for harassment of            Some wetlands are protected and managed to the extent that
                                     these species. ORMAs are managed by DOT, Harbors Division.              they are included as preservation or conservation areas in State
                                     State Enforcement Respo=Wility                                          and County land-use plans and to the extent that they are
                                     Enforcement within MLCDs, FMAs, NARs and'Underwater                     included in existing Federal and State waterbird wildlife ref-
                                     Parks is conducted by DLNR, Division of Conservation and                uges. Other wetlands are protected to the extent that they
                                     Resources Enforcement (DOCARE), in cooperation with other               require pennits from COE.
                                     Federal, State and County agencies. DOCARE has a limited                   Several problems are associated with wetland protection in
                                     number of enforcement personnel on each island - 21 on                  Hawaii, First, the emphasis on wetland protection is relatively
                                     Oahu, 15 on Maui, 11 on Kauai, and 15 on Hawaii - covering              new and many wetland areas are zoned for development in
                                     both terrestrial and marine-protected areas. None are specifi-          State and County land-use plans. Second, there is a lack of a
                                     cally assigned to manne-protected areas.                                common Federal and State definition for wetlands, lack of
                                        Within most manne-protected areas, DOT, Boating Branch,              regulatory jurisdictional wedand maps, and lack of State or
                                     has jurisdiction over vessels (or buoys) on the water's surface         County statutes, strategies and initiatives for wetland protec-
                                     (Chapter 261-1, HRS). DOT, Office of Safety and Law Enforce-            Jon. DOH has a wedand definition in regards to discharges into
                                                                                                             State waters, and the State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation
                                     ment, is responsible for ergorcing boating laws (Chapter 267,








                    Plan (SCORP) has included a wetland strategy. The City and              species designated "endangered" or "threatened" under the
                    County of Honolulu is working on wetland legislation and the            federal Endangered Species Act the same status under State
                    State is attempting to develop a resource plan that includes            law. DLNR also may designate other species by administrative
                    wetlands.                                                               rule (Chapter 195D4, HRS). A list of endangered and threat-
                       Oil and chen-kal spill response in Hawaii waters is con-             ened species appears in Chapter 124, HAR. DOCARE enforces
                    ducted by the DOT, DOH and U.S. Coast Guard to minimize the             State regulations concerning protected species, in cooperation
                    damage caused to coastal and marine environments in the                 with other Federal, State and County agencies.
                    event of a spill or discharge (See Waste Management Technical
                    Paper).                                                                 KANAGENIENT ISSUS
                    Protection ol Marine and Coastal Species                                At a time when coastal development and marine resource use
                    Federal Autbority                                                       are occurring at a rapid rate, the management and protection of
                                                                                            significant marine and coastal areas and resources have not
                    Several marine species are protected under the Federal Endan-           kept pace. A number of management issues and sub-issues
                    gered Species and the Marine Mammal Protection Acts. Hawai-             must be addressed before the marine and coastal resources of
                    ian monk seals, sea turtles and humpback whales are consid-             Hawaii will realize their full economic, education, scientific,
                    ered protected marine species. Hawaiian monk seals are found            recreational, cultural and ecological values.
                    primarily in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Occasionally,
                    they are found on the main Hawaiian Islands. Their population           Continued Species and Habitat Loss and Damage
                    has halved since the 1950s. Estimates made in 1987 placed their         increasing coastal development and marine activities already
                    population between 1,111 and 1,700 individuals, Human          ha-      have impacted many natural environments. Before the taking of
                    rassment contributed to their earlier derriise, but the present         coral was made illegal, this activity had a significant and
                    population appears stable.                                              cumulatively adverse effect on Hawaii's reefs. Still, many tour-
                       For the most part, these species are managed by the National         ists are not aware of the restrictions on this kind of souvenir
                    Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). FWS shares with NMFS juris-            collection. Coral reefs also have been affected by freshwater
                    diction for listed sea turtles, and responsibility for management       runoff and sedimentation associated with urbanization. De-
                    and protection of Hawaiian monk seals because most of the               creased salinity kills coral polyps and other marine life; sedi-
                    monk seal habitat is within the FWS Hawaiian Islands National           mentation smothers corals; turbidity from silt-laden runoff
                    Wildlife Refuge in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. There             reduces light availability vital to the reefs. Boat anchors also
                    are strict regulations on human interactions with these animals.        damage coral.
                       Two endangered species of sea turtles, the leatherback and             in the past, anchialine pools and wetlands, now recognized
                    hawksbffl, and a threatened species, the green sea turtle, inhabit      as unique and irreplaceable natural resources, have been filled
                    coastal waters of Hawaii. Two other turtle species, the olive           or drained for coastal developments. In other cases, the ecology
                    Ridley and loggerhead, are rare visitors to Hawaii's waters. The        of some anchialine pools and fishponds has been dramatically
                    green sea turtle is the most common species. Although the               altered by the introduction of alien species of fish, which
                    population was declining, it now appears stable. Over 90                compete with the indigenous species for dominance over the
                    percent of its mating activities occurs at French Fhgate Shoals.        habitat. Hawaiis estuaiies are also especially sensitive to envi-
                    In the main Hawaiian Islands, its nesting beaches are limited to        ronmental insults. Contamination from point and nonpoint
                    Mdomcimi on Molokai and other unnamed sites on Oahu and                 sources may exceed the assimilative capacity of the estuaries,
                    Kauai. Hawksbill nesting beaches are located at Orr's Beach,            thmtening the integrity of their resources. As habitats, feeding
                    Punalu'u, Kamehame, and formerly at Kalapana on Hawaii, and             and breeding grounds degrade or are lost, populations, indud-
                    at Halawa on Molokai.                                                   ing those of threatened and endangered species, decrease.
                       The humpback whale, the State's designated marine mam-                 Coastal vegetation has been destroyed by the development
                    mal, is one of the most severely depleted of all whale species.         of shoreline structures and the increasing use of off-road ve-
                    Rough estimates place Hawaii's population at approximately              hicles, exacerbating coastal erosion problems in many areas.
                    1,200-1,500 individuals. From December through May, hump-               Shoreline construction also may disturb nearshore resident
                    backs migrate to Hawaii's waters to mate and give birth. Each           species sensitive to siltation and noise, and disrupt critical
                    summer, they return to their feeding grounds along the Alaskan          behavioral patterns.
                    Peninsula or elsewhere in the northern regions of the Pacific.            Human-induced pressures have contributed to a significant
                    SWe Autborby                                                            decline in coastal fishery resources during the 20th Century
                    It is the State's policy to protect endangered species of indig-        (NMFS 1987), through overfishing and habitat degradation. Oil
                    enous plants and animals and introduce new plants and animals           and hazardous chemicals affect both individual organisms and
                    only after ensuring that such introductioa@ will pose negligible        whole ecosystem assemblages through asphyxiation and poi-
                    ecological hazard (Chapter 344-4, FIRS). DLNR accords those             soning. These losses have both ecological and economic reper-








                                      cu,,,ions. Plastic debris - in the form of nets, lines, food               Within the State park system, two Underwater Parks have
                                      packaging, and other items - found in the oceans and along               been named. However, since they are also MLCDs, they are not
                                      the coasts increasingly threatens marine life. Smaller pieces of         managed as State parks. There has been no attempt to expand
                                      plastic are ingested causing death through blocked passages,             mariagement and enforcement of these areas by combining the
                                      ulcerations, toxic accumulation and starvation. Entanglement             efforts of DMs Divisions of Aquatic Resources, and State Parks.
                                      from discarded or lost fishing gear, such as drift nets, causes          Inadequate Management of Important Marine Species
                                      death through drowning.
                                                                                                               Coastal developments often compete for the use of important
                                      Inadequate Management of Some Marine and Coastal                         resource habitats. However, without data on the locations of
                                      Resources and Areas                                                      "critical habitats' for endangered or threatened species, restric-
                                      Lack of IntTrated Marme ad Coastal Management A%ns                       tions on coastal developments often are not considered justifi-
                                                                                                               able. There is growing recognition of the need to protect the
                                      Currently, management of marine and coastal areas is done on             habitats of these unique resources, such as humpback whales
                                      a piecemeal basis. While many individual areas are protected to          and sea turtles. There is also an increasing awareness of the
                                      varying degrees, there is no comprehensive management plan               need to regulate activities on land that affect, directly and
                                      for Hawaii's coastline and nearshore waters. Individual re-              indirectly, critical marine habitats. Though current laws discuss
                                      sources and areas, which may be linked ecologically, often are           the need for habitat protection, complete data regarding habitat
                                      managed without coordination by different agencies. As hu-               locations are lacking.
                                      man, technological and development pressures continue to                   Other marine species, which are not protected under natural
                                      increase, protection of resources and open space will necmi-             resource laws, are being harvested at a growing rate. For
                                      rate their comprehensive management in a coordinated man-                example, the collection of finfish, shellfish and mollusks for the
                                      ner by Federal, State and County authorities.                            aquarium industry is a flourishing activity, risking the depletion
                                         Furthermore, there is a lack of integration in present plan-          of these important species. The protection of these unprotected
                                      ning regarding terrestrial and marine resource management. It            species and their habitats is a growing public concern in many
                                      is important to recognize the connection between the wet and             areas of Hawaii.
                                      dry sides of the coastal zone. In fact, in Hawaii, the inland
                                      boundary of the coastal zone stretches, with the exception of            Overuse of Certain Natural Resources and Areas
                                      forest reserves, across all land masses. Obviously, the land             Many of Hawaii's marine protected areas, such as Molokini
                                      environment cannot be managed in isolation of coastal and                NECD and Hanauma Bay MLCD, are over-used (DBED 1990).
                                      marine environments. Land use on Hawaii's mountains affects              While the goal of the Marine life Conservation Program is
                                      nearshore waters through erosion, runoff and sedimentation;              resource protection (Chapter 190, HRS), some of these areas
                                      therefore, it is important to consider resource protection in            have become tourist destinations promoted by private interests.
                                      terms of linked ecosystems rather than political boundaries.             There has been little effort to reduce use-levels because of
                                      Lack of Site-Spedjflk Management Plans                                   DLNR's support for the public use of these MLCDs. Typically,
                                                                                                               DlNR has been reactive, as in the case of Molokini MLCD,
                                      Effective protection of Hawaii's unique and/or significant natu-         where blocks for mooring buoys were dropped to eliminate
                                      ral areas - including estuaries, anchialine pools, wetlands,             safety hazards only after the situation became a crisis.
                                      beaches, corals and unique shorelines and underwater geo-
                                      logic formations - requires site-specific management plans,              Inadequate Worcement
                                      tailored to address the specific concerns of individual areas.           The number of personnel available for enforcing regulations in
                                      Without clear management policies at the State and County                existing protected areas is inadequate. The National Marine
                                      levels and without site-specific plans, many of Hawaii's unique          Fisheries Service has four people available for the entire Pacific
                                      and significant resources of aesthetic, recreational and eco-            area, including Hawaii. As already noted, DLNR, Division of
                                      norrk value are being degraded at the public's long-term                 Conservation and Resource Enforcement, has a limited number
                                      expense.                                                                 of enforcement personnel on each of the main Islands (21 on
                                      Lack of Coordination in Management ofPmtectedAreas                       Oahu, 15 on Maui, 11 on Kauai, 15 on Hawaii). DOCARE
                                      Federal, State and County agencies have management authority             personnel are responsible for enforcement in both marine and
                                      over individual areas and resources of Hawaii's marine and               terrestrial areas; none are specifically assigned to marine pro-
                                      coastal environments. Despite the natural linkages, there has            tected areas.
                                      been little effort, until recently, to coordinate their manage-          Inadequate RL-@ and Monitoring Program
                                      ment. For example, the nearshore waters adjacent to coastal
                                      County parks are not protected by the State. At Kaloko-                  Given continuing or increasing levels of development, moni-
                                      Honokohau National Historical Park, Federal and State officials          toring the effects of such development on the nearshore envi-
                                      are attempting to develop a coordinated management system                roment is essential..Current water quality monitoring efforts
                                      for adjacent nearshore waters. However, this process is slow;            by DOH provide useful, but not comprehensive, information.
                                      management jurisdiction and regulations are not settled








                     Also, DOH monitoring is not site-specific to protected areas.               implementing Actions:
                     While general government funding for monitoring programs is                       DLNR and OSP sbould-
                     limited, there are private programs - such as at resorts - and
                     specific governmental programs - such as at the Natural                           1. Prepare a comprehensive and cohesive statewide
                     Energy Laboratory of Hawaii - which do monitor water qual-                        master plan for marine and coastal protected areas which
                     ity. However, these programs are not coordinated and an                           can be incorporated into an overall management plan in
                     overall water quality picture is not available (see Waste Man-                    order to balance protection and use of marine and coastal
                     agement Technical Paper).                                                         resources. The master plan should both expand upon the
                        Marine-life monitoring programs also are limited. DLNR,                        existing system and incorporate new types of marine
                                                                                                       protected areas which will protect such features as unique
                     Division of Aquatic Resources, only conducts annual surveys                       underwater geological formations and archaeological
                     on fish biomass in marine protected areas. More frequent and                      sites, as well as coastal areas from which whale-watching
                     regular monitoring of marine resources within protected areas                     and other coastal-recreation activities can occur. This
                     is needed. Monitoring parameters such as coral growth and                         planning process should include at least the following
                     extent of coral cover also is essential in determining the health                 actions:
                     of a marine ecosystem. Currently, this type of monitoring is not
                     done on a regular basis in any protected area.                                         a. Convene a State policy and management work-
                        Complementing the monitoring programs, specific research                            shop to establish criteria for selecting marine and
                     topics need to be addressed, including the identification of                           coastal protected areas.
                     critical habitats for endangered and threatened species and                            b. Identify areas of exceptional resource value which
                     pinpointing of the cause of ciguatera poisoning in fish. While                         should be considered for protected area status. This
                     several university research projects are underway, more studies                        inventory of unique and representative examples of
                     are needed to focus on meeting specific management objec-                              natural ecosystems and resources found in Hawaii's
                     dves. Furthermore, research on the impacts of coastal develop-                         marine and coastal environments can be prepared as
                     ment on nearshore ecosystems must be expanded.                                         part of the overall coastal resources inventory within
                                                                                                            the State's Geographic Information System (GIS) pro-
                     hmdequate Public Involvement                                                           gram. Identify natural areas in need of restoration, prion-
                     Though there are means for the public to comment on the State                          tize these areas, and implement restoration prop-arns.
                     EIS process, SMA permit requests and the Conservation District                         c. Establish a system of marine and coastal protected
                     permit-granting process, the public does not have an effective                         areas throughout the State to protect the best ex-
                     means for commenting on Environmental Assessments or Nega-                             amples of these natural ecosystems and resources on
                     tive Declarations. Likewise, while the public has an opportunity                       each island.
                     to comment on NARS site selections, the means is not effective.
                        At this time, communitv education programs aimed at in-                             d. Establish site-specific management plans, within
                     creasing public awareness'of and participation in marine and                           the framework of the statewide master plan, for each
                     coastal resource issues are few in number. The development of                          marine and coastal protected area, using a methodol-
                     such programs to expand the public's role in marine conserva-                          ogy such as "Limits to Acceptable Change" to estab-
                     tion would nurture a respect for the natural environments of                           lish appropriate carrying capacities. Include within
                     Hawaii and, thus enhance resource protection.                                          these plans descriptions of allowed commercial and
                                                                                                            recreational uses.

                                                                                                            e. Uphold the original goal of the Marine Life Con-
                     RIECOMMNIDAMNS                                                                         servation District (MLCD) program, which is resource
                     Objective                                                                              protection, by establishing use-lintations so that
                                                                                                            marine resources within these districts are adequately
                     Provide for protection of marine and coastal ecosystems, and                           protected. Those current MLCDs that are intensely
                     establish a comprehensive system of marine and coastal pro-                            used are more appropriately managed as underwater
                     tected areas within an integrated program which protects,                              parks; new MLCI)s should be designated for protec-
                     preserves and enhances marine species and areas of excep-                              tion of marine resources. The original goals of the
                     tional resource value on each main island, representing each of                        Natural Area Reserve System (NARS) and Fisheries
                     the natural ecosystems and resources found in the marine and                           Management Area (FMA) programs should also be
                     coastal environment of the State.                                                      upheld.
                     Policy A                                                                               f. Review the existing State Seabird Sanctuary sys-
                     Expand protection of species, natural habitats and other re-                           tem to determine appropriateness of rules and man-
                     sources of exceptional value, thereby rr-@nirnizing environmen-                        agement policies and feasibility of adding new units
                     tal degradation from marine and coastal activities and uses.                           to the system to protect seabird and other wildlife
                                                                                                            resources.








                                                 g. Establish a statewide system of day-use mooring                         d. Evaluate development along entire river water-
                                                 buoys to protect reefs from anchor damage. DOT is                          sheds to ensure that estuaries will not be receiving
                                                 presentlyworking with The Ocean Recreation Coun-                           large amounts of cumulative pollutants.
                                                 cil of Hawaii (TORCH) and the Mooring Pin Advisory                    6.   Evaluate the feasibility of leasing submerged lands to
                                                 Committee on this project, as required by House                       private, non-governmental organizations (eg., the Nature
                                                 Concurrent Resolution No. 21, 1990. [See Ocean                        Conservancy) for management as a marine protected
                                                 Recreation section]
                                                                                                                       area.
                                                 h. Identify species of high commercial and recre-              Policy B
                                                 ational values and provide these species and their
                                                 habitats with adequate protection to ensure the contin-        Facilitate coordinated and comprehensive inter-agency man-
                                                 ued economic viability of their dependent industries.          agement where jurisdictional overlaps exist between Federal,
                                                 i. Continue working with the aquarium fish collect-            State and County governments in marine and coastal protected
                                                 ing industry to develop a management plan which                areas.
                                                 establishes guidelines and regulations of collection at        Implementing Actions
                                                 a given site and limits to collection of certain species.             DLA(Rand CSP, in conjunction udib appropilatefederal,
                                             2. Request the Legislature to increase funding to: DNU                    State and County agencies, sbould:
                                             State Parks Division in order to improve the management                   1. Coordinate with Counties in designating and manag-
                                             of underwater parks; and DLNR Division of Forestry and                    ing marine protected areas adjacent to coastal County
                                             Wildlife in order to improve management and enforce-                      parks, coordinate with NSP and FWS in designating and
                                             ment of the State Seabird Sanctuary system.                               managing marine protected areas adjacent to coastal
                                             3. Work with the Counties planning commissions, and                       National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges, and coor-
                                             planning departments (City Council and DLU for the City                   dinate with other State agencies in designating and man-
                                             and County of Honolulu), to establish coordinated ma-                     aging marine protected areas adjacent to coastal State
                                             rine fife and water quality monitoring programs to pro-                   parks.
                                             vide a comprehensive data base regarding the quality of                   2. Facilitate and coordinate Federal, State, and private-
                                             Hawaii's marine and coastal resources. As part of these                   cooperative research and monitoring efforts at develop-
                                             programs:                                                                 ing baseline information regarding the locations of crifi-
                                                 a. Require monitoring before, during and after can-                   cal habitats of endangered and threatened species. En-
                                                 struction of coastal developments in order to obtain                  courage the designation of these critical habitats as pro-
                                                 a better data base for understanding the numerous                     tected areas.
                                                 and cumulative impacts of these coastal develop-                      3. Encourage joint efforts of Federal, State,         County,
                                                 ments on fringing reefs, anchialine pools and other                   private and community involvement in marine life and
                                                 natural resources.                                                    water quality monitoring programs.
                                                 b. Support research into the effects of coastal devel-                4. Organize statewide management workshops with
                                                 opment on the quality of nearshore waters and ma-                     Federal, State, County and private managers to address
                                                 rine life.                                                            significant issues and develop improved management
                                             4, Establish an effective program for handling spills of                  tools such as:
                                                                                                C
                                             oil and other hazardous substances in order to minimize                        a. A policy for protecting wetlands from develop-
                                             damage to the marine and coastal environments. [See                            ment
                                             Waste Management Section.]
                                             5. Coordinate with and encourage Counties planning                             b. A strategy for maintaining open ocean space.
                                             departments (DLU for the City and County of Honolulu) to,                      c. Other policies governing the uses of resources of
                                                 a. Establish appropriate development controls for                          shared interest.
                                                 areas inland of marine and coastal protected areas to          Policy C
                                                 prevent non-point source pollution through ninoff or           Improve the enforcement of regulations protecting marine and
                                                 groundwater contamination.                                     coastal protected areas and species.
                                                 b. Incorporate habitat protection of endangered and            Implementing Actions
                                                 threatened coastal and marine flora and fauna into
                                                 County planning efforts.                                              DLNR sbould.
                                                 c. Ensure that protection of open coastal spaces is                   1. Request the Legislature to increase funding for en-
                                                 included in County plans.                                             forcement of marine conservation and preservation regu-








                           lalion, to provide more personnel and equipment for                      1, Encoura,epullici,,volvemeri,in,lelevelopmen,oI
                           more comprehensive enforcement.                                          overall and regional ocean and coastal management
                           2. Request the Legislature to increase funding for man-                  plans.
                           a,emen, and educational programs addressing marine                       8. Support the development of interpretive centers,
                           and coastal protected areas and species; and encourage                   especially at protected areas, to educate the public on the
                                                                                     Z)
                           Federal and private funding of such efforts.                             uniqueness of Hawaii's marine resources. [See Research
                           3. Establish Memoranda of Understanding (MOU's)                          and Education section.]
                           between Federal and State agencies to enable personnel from
                           these agencies to enforce both State and Federal regulations.      REFERENCES
                           4. Coordinate community and private-sector involve-                Arakaki, S.T. 1990. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Letter of
                           ment in monitoring and enforcement of regulations.                 November 21, 1990. Honolulu.
                           5. Budget funds to staff and publicize the toll-free num-
                           ber available to the public to report sighted violations of        Callies, D.L. 1984. Regulating Paradise- Land Use Controls in
                           regulations. This should be done in cooperation with the           Hawaii. Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press.
                           existing NMFS program for reporting violations of regula-
                           tions concerning marine mammals and sea turtles.                   Holt, A. 1990. Letter of September 3, 1990. Honolulu.
                           6. Identify remote areas in need of more frequent pa-
                           trolling.                                                          Kramer, W. 1990. Personal communication, July 1990. Honolulu.
                           7. Review penalties for adequacy and appropriateness.              MacDonald, C.D. and H.E. Deese. 1990. A Comprehensive
                     Policy D                                                                 Analysis and Overview of Hawaii's Ocean Industries. Coastal
                                                                                              Zone '89 Proceedings. Vol. IV. pp. 3481-3493. New
                     Enhance local community awareness, appreciation, and par-                York:American Society of Engineers.
                     ticipation in marine conservation and preservation efforts.
                     Implementing Actions:                                                    MacDonald, C.D. and A.L. LaBarge. 1990. Ocean R&D Spending
                           D,LVR should..                                                     Patterns in Hawaii: Analysis and Outlook. Proceedings of the
                                                                                              Fourth Pacific Congress on Marine Science and Technology,
                           1. Request the Legislature to appropriate funds for im-            PACON'90. Vol. 11. pp. 65-72. Honolulu:PACON International.
                           proving public education programs in schools and else-
                           where, to increase public awareness and appreciation of            National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center,
                           marine resources and conservation. [See Ocean Research             Honolulu Laboratory. 1987. Hawaii@ Marine Fishery Re-
                           and Education section.]                                            sources., Yesterday (1900) and Today (1986). Adrr-@nistrative
                           2. Encourage public participation programs such as                 Report H-87-21. By R.S. Shomura. Honolulu.
                           "Coast Watch" or"Adopt-a-Shoreline" as ways to enhance             National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center,
                           public understanding of marine conservation and en-                Honolulu Laboratory. 1988. Ybe Hawaiian Monk Seal.. Popu-
                           forcement of rules.                                                lation StatusandCurrentResearchActidties. By W.G. Gilmartin.
                           3. Encourage programs which emphasize the cultural                 Honolulu.
                           and historical values of Hawaii's marine and coastal
                           resources. For example, seek programs which revitalize             Naughton, J.J. 1990. Personal communication, July 1990. Hono-
                           ancient Hawaiian fishponds to grow opae `ula (red shrimp)          lulu.
                           using traditional methods as a means of historical preser-
                           vation. This must include solving siltation and runoff             Nitta, E.T. 1990. Personal communication, July 1990. Honolulu.
                           problems, and could be a part of interpretive programs at
                           parks or resorts, rather than as commercial ventures.              State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                           4. facilitate the process for public comment on the                opment. 1990, Report to the Fifteenth State Legislature Regular
                           adequacy of Environmental Assessments and on Nega-                 Session of 1990 on Chapter 228, Hawaii Revised Statutes,
                           tive Declarations.                                                 Ocean Resources Management.
                           5. Facilitate the process for public comment on adding             State of Hawaii, Department of Health. 1989. Hawaff'sNonpoint
                           to or removing lands from the Natural Area Reserve                 Source Water Pollution Management Plan. Honolulu.
                           System.
                           6. Change the administrative procedure to allow for a              State of Hawaii, Legislative Reference Bureau. 1987. Compen-
                           public comment period for species recovery plans.                  dium of State Ocean and Marine Related Policies. By T.S.
                                                                                              Brennen and K.H. Takayama. Honolulu.










                                                 Christopher B. Jones
                                                 Center for Development Studies
                                                 Social Science Research Institute,
                                                 University of Hawaii
                                                 2424 Mae Way
                                                 Honolulu, HI 96822
                                                 BERCHES RHD                              CORSTRL EROS10H



                                                                                                             nm "SOURCE
                                                                                               PAGE          Worldwide, the typical image of Hawaii is of beautiful white
                                         TIk1E RESOURCE                                          60          sand beaches lined with palm trees. Hawaii has majestic
                                         Physical Processes as Resources                         61          mountains and famous volcanos, but the areas most valued -
                                         Long-Term Erosion Trends                                61          treasured by visitors and residents alike - are coastlines.
                                                                                                             Ironically, the very desirability of those coastlines for recre-
                                         RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                     62          ation, vacationing and residence has resulted in human activi-
                                         Federal Authority                                       62          ties that threaten future enjoyment of them.
                                         State Authority                                         62            The threat in a word, is erosion. Whereas erosion is a natural
                                         County Authority                                        63          process, and not usually a problem in the absence of human
                                         MANAGEMEENT ISSUES                                      64          development, human development along the coastline has
                                         Resource Sustainabifity                                 64          increased both erosion and the risks to life and property as a
                                               Hardening                                         64          result.
                                               So
                                                 .ft Approacbes                                  64            Many people now recognize the resource value of beaches
                                         User Conflicts                                          65          and shoreline property.-Millions of tourists come to the Islands
                                         ineffective Management and Coordination                 65          every year just to enjoy the beaches. Residents, as well as
                                               Resource Issues                                   65          visitors, use Hawaii's beaches for recreation. On an average
                                               Enforcement Issues                                66          day, at least 170,000 people swim or sunbathe at beaches in
                                               Researcb Issues                                   66          Hawaii (see Ocean Recreation Technical Paper). Shoreline
                                               Sboreline Boundary Issues                         66          residences are among the most prized real estate in the nation.
                                               Coordination Issues                               66          Hotels, condominiums, apartments and homes on the shore-
                                                                                                             he, and especially close to beaches, are of preirdurn value. A
                                         Participation and Education                             67          home or condo on the beach is considered by many to be a
                                         RECOMNMATIONS                                           67          luxury because of the proximity to this resource.
                                         Objective                                               67            Not often considered is the importance of beaches as a
                                         Policiesand implementing Actions                        67          resource for other purposes, such as wildlife habitats, energy
                                                                                                             buffers, and as a source of sand. Ecologically, beaches and
                                                                                                             nearshore marine waters are habitats for many seabirds, turtles
                                                                                                             and other animals that nest or breed on beaches or dunes.
                                                                                                             Communities of crustaceans inhabit certain beaches and attract
                                                                                                             shorebirds. Sea turtles come ashore to lay their eggs above the
                                                                                                             high water line on a few remote beaches, primarily in the
                                                                                                             Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian coastline also
                                                                                                             supports unique beach ecosystems, called "strand" ecosys-
                                                                                                             tems, which contain rare endemic and indigenous forms of
                                                                                                             plant life.
                                                                                                               Most people are unaware of the critical role that coral reefsl
                                                                                                             and beaches play as energy buffers. Sandy beaches are particu-








                   larly important for protecting inland areas from storm flooding         the shorehe.8 The winter storms of 1968 and 1969 are ex-
                   and damage from wave run-up. Sandy beaches have a dynarnic              amples of this type of storm (Hwang 1981).
                   relationship with wave energy levels: sand can be both depos-
                   ited (e.g., during the relatively calm summer) and eroded (e.g.,        Long-Term Erosion Trends
                   during winter storms). This suggests the importance of sand in          Beach sand in Hawaii originates from three sources: erosion of
                   nearshore areas. Nearshore sand is an integral part of a beach          volcanic rock on land, fragmentation of coral reef materials and
                   system, with sand moving on- and offshore depending on                  associated shells of organisms, and, rarely, fragmentation of
                   wave action and currents.                                               lava flowing into the ocean. The primary source of beach sand
                     Historically, beaches also have been a source of sand for             on the older Islands is from the fringing coral reef (COE 1979).
                   human activity, mainly construction. Removing sand from one             While the composition of typical beach sand includes both
                   area of a beach system, as is done in sand mining, can cause            calcareous and basaltic materials, the predominant compo-
                   erosion problems in other areas of that system. Shoreline sand          nents are fragments of skeletal parts of marine invertebrate
                   mining occurred for many years, for example at Waimea Bay               animals and algae. The most common skeleton fragments
                   on Oahu and Papohaku Beach on Molokai, but removal of                   belong toforaminifera, followed by mollusks, red algae, and
                   sand from beaches now is severely restricted,                           echinoids (Moberly and Chamberlain 1964). Coral fragments
                                                                                           have been found to be fifth in order of prominence in calcar-
                   Physical Processes as Resources                                         eous sands and are thought to be declining as a source of sand
                   The Hawaiian chain generally is believed to have been formed            due to overfishing of parrotfish and other grazing fish that
                   by the tectonic movement of the Pacific plate over a "hot spot"         bioerode coral skeletons (OSP 1989). The other major source
                   in the Earth's crust. This hot spot created a succession of             of beach sand is eroded basaltic material frorn the land surface,
                   volcanos as the plate moved toward the northwest. Thus, the             which are either fragments of bedrock or minerals.9
                   oldest of the eight major islands is Kauai and Hawaii is the              Human intervention in the coastal zone clearly has had a
                   youngest. Correlated with age, Kauai has the most extensive             major impact on the natural processes of erosion and accretion.
                   beaches and Hawaii has the least.                                       The "hardening" of the shoreline, 10 particularly on Oahu (e.g.,
                     Coastlines consist of sea cliffs (e.g., Na Pali Coast), sandy         the shoreline fronting the Diamond Head end of KaJakaua
                   beaches, mud flats, raised coral reefs, and some areas of               Avenue in Waikiki), has had such a critical effect that some
                   mangrove. Bay formations are generally the result of river              beaches may never recover. As previously mentioned, over-
                   valleys drowned by post-glacial sea-level rise or embayments            fishing of coral grazers may have a long-temi negative impact
                   between adjacent volcanos (OSP 1989). Long stretches of                 on the generation of sand. @he smothering of coral reefs by silt
                   sandy beaches are found on all the major islands, except for            and other kinds of nonpoint source pollution also has a
                   Kahoolawe and Hawaii, Pocket beaches formed between                     detrimental effect on the long-term health of coral reef commu-
                   rocky headlands or sea cliffs are the most common type of               nities, and thus their sand-production abilities. Navigation
                   beach found on the islands of Kahoolawe and Hawaii. Pocket              channels cut through reefs not only destroy sections of the reef,
                   beaches are found on all Hawaiian islands.                              but also act as sediment traps, which remove sand from the
                                                                                           active littoral zone (Moberly and Chamberlain 1964; COE
                     Erosion and accretion are natural processes. In many areas,           1979).
                   sand is moved from place to place2 along the shore and within             Sand mining also has been an historical activity which has
                   the nearshore area by wave action and coastal currents as part          contributed to erosion. Although sand mining is now restricted
                   of an annual cycle of erosion and accretion. This type of               to beach replenishment efforts, the removal for personal use is
                   erosion is especially noticeable at north shore beaches because         still allowed (up to one gallon per person per day). Stream
                   of large seasonal differences in wave action. Hawaiian coast-           mouths occasionally, often seasonally, become clogged with
                   lines also experience cyclical erosion,3 in which an area may           sand and detritus. Stream and channel mouths are cleared of
                   erode for a number of years and then accrete for a number of            sand periodically. Generally, the material is placed on adjacent
                   years.                                                                  shoreline areas although sometimes it is removed from the
                     The key processes that drive littoral changes include winds,          littoral cell entirely.
                   currents, waves,4 tsunamis,5 hurricanes6 and seasonal stonns.             At a global level, human interventions in natural processes
                   Storms can produce the most profound and dramatic erosion               may have an even more profound impact on Hawaii's coast-
                   and damage effects. Large storms that coincide with high tides          line. Global climate change may have a range of possible long-
                   often do the greatest damage. Storm waves under these condi-            term consequences including: altered precipitation patterns, 11
                   tions are able to strike the coastline at greater heights and with      altered winds and currents,12 air and water temperatures;13
                   greater energy.7 Not only are these types of storms a threat to         increased frequency and intensity of storms and hurricanes; 24
                   buildings and other coastal developments, but they also have            and an accelerated sea-level rise. 15
                   great potential to carry large volumes of sand offshore and
                   along the shore (COE 1979). Such storms, although they may                While there is still considerable uncertainty about the extent
                   only occur once a decade, can have significant impacts along            of possible global warming due to the doubling of carbon








                                        dioxide and increasing amounts of other "greenhouse" gases in              Amendment to the NFIP (PL 100-242,5544), which encourages
                                        the atmosphere, there is widespread consensus that the atmo-               retreat from eroding coastlines by providing advance pay-
                                        sphere is warming. A similar consensus is growing that global              ments of certain insurance benefits. [County flood ordinances
                                        warming will result in an acceleration of global sea-level rise.           presently complement certain FEMA-identified flood zone
                                        Both developments, fortunately, are gradual, can be moni-                  controls, such as guidelines on ground-level construction to
                                        tored and responded to before their effects have serious                   allow flood waters to flow beneath elevated houses and to
                                        impacts on life and property.                                              restrict emplacement of flood-deflecting fill (Kanuha 1990).]
                                           Sea-level rise itself is still a controversial topic. There is not         COE has jurisdiction in the coastal zone from the mean high
                                        much doubt that the sea level will rise. The disagreements are             water mark seaward to the 3-mile limit. COE permits are
                                        about the extent of the global sea-level rise. Sea-level research          required for dredging, mooring buoys, discharge of fill materi-
                                        has shown that in the last century, the global rise has been               als, and erosion-control structures, such as revetments, groins,
                                        somewhere between 8 and 20 centimeters. An average figure                  breakwaters and levees. Any individual or entity who plans to
                                        many scientists would agree on for the global sea-level rise in            do work 'in, under, across, or on the banks of navigable
                                        the last 100 years is about 15 cm (6 inches).                              waters" must obtain a COE permit. Its regulatory mandate is
                                           The threat which sea-level rise poses to coastal erosion is not         established in at least nine laws including: the Rivers and
                                        a direct one, such as coastal inundation, but rather secondary             Harbors Act of 1899; Fish and Wildlife Act of M8; Environ-
                                        effects that could enhance the worst effects of storm surges,              mental Policy Act of 1969; CZM Act of 1972. While major
                                                                                                                   projects in its jurisdiction require regular COE permits, a
                                        normal winter storms and seasonal ocean wave swells. How-                  @nationwide" permit program is in effect for projects of limited
                                        ever, one direct effect of sea4evel rise to be considered is what          scope. The nationwide program is intended to reduce delay
                                        is known as the Bruun rule. According to the Bruun rule for                and paperwork for small projects. Between 10 and 30 activities
                                        sandy shorelines (on moderate slopes), for every unit up, the              are undertaken annually in Hawaii under COE nationwide
                                        sea moves inland 100 units. Thus, even for a one-inch rise in sea          permits (OSP 1989).
                                        level, the high-fide mark moves roughly three yards inland
                                        (National Research Council 1987).                                             COE will build erosion-control structures when the long-
                                           Regardless of the uncertainties involved in projecting the              term benefits over a 50-year period can be justified. COE acts
                                        extent of possible sea-level rise and effects of global warming,           on requests from projects at a local level, but will not develop
                                        planners cannot avoid taking these long-term factors into                  such structures for purely private interests. Approval forprojects
                                        account. Over the long-haul, the costs of doing otherwise                  generally is not granted until all State and County permits are
                                        would be self-defeating.                                                   granted. COE is responsible for an environmental assessment
                                                                                                                   (EA) and, 9 necessary, an environmental impact statement
                                                                                                                   (EIS) for projects with significant environmental impacts under
                                        RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                                        the Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Permit issuance is de-
                                                                                                                   pendent upon a review of the EA or EIS, if deemed necessary.
                                        Federal Authority
                                        Federal authority related to erosion control and management is             State Authority
                                        embodied in the Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Act of 1972                  State Authority rests in two major pieces of legislation, the State
                                        (CZMA), national flood insurance programs administered un-                 Land Use Law (Chapter 205, HRS) as amended, and Hawaii
                                        der the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and                    CZM Law (Chapter 205A, FIRS). The State Land Use Law is the
                                        mndates of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE).                         cornerstone legislation which, among other things, establishes
                                           The CZM Act (P.L. 92-583) was created to provide assistance             the four major land-use classifications (urban, rural, agricul-
                                        to and support states in developing programs for managing                  tural and conservation), and divides the jurisdiction over these
                                        coastal zones. Shoreline erosion is an explicit issue mentioned            lands among State and County governments. Urban districts
                                        in the CZM Act as an area of concern to be addressed by state              are under the control of the four County governments. Parcels
                                        CZM Program policy. In addition, the Federal CZM office                    of 15 acres or less in agricultural and rural districts come under
                                        encourages greater levels of cooperation among all levels of               County control. Larger parcels are under State control. Conser-
                                        government in planning for and management of hazard-prone                  vation lands are under State, control.
                                        areas (OSP 1989).                                                             The Department of Land and Natural Resources (DlNR) has
                                           FEMA's mandate is to provide leadership in flood p ain                  jurisdiction over conservation district lands, some of which are
                                        management and the protection of wetlands. Congress has                    shorefront. All submerged lands seaward of the shoreline, out
                                        acted to mandate FEMA to implement a coastal erosion man-                  to the limit of the State's jurisdiction, are in the conservation
                                        agement program. FEMA has not yet fully exercised its legisla-             district and thus fall under DLNR jurisdiction. The shoreline is
                                        five authority in the area, but is exploring erosion management            defined "as the upper reaches of the wash of the waves, other
                                        options to be administered through the National Flood Insur-               than storm and seismic waves, at high tide during the season of
                                        ance Program (NFIP). Worthy of mention is the Upton-Jones                  the year in which the highest wash of the waves occurs, usually
                                                                                                                   evidenced by the edge of vegetation growth, or the upper limit








                     oldelris left I, the wash of the waves (Chapter 205A-1, HRS)."              Act 356 of the 1989 Legislature, relating to CZM, was enacted
                     DLNR reviews Conservation District Use Applications (CDUAs)               to strengthen Chapter 205A. Major amendments included a
                     to allow construction or activities in conservation lands (e.g.,          provision to bring unauthorized seawalls into government
                     seawalls and revetments), although the Board of Land and                  shoreline jurisdiction - even if a part is on private land;
                     Natural Resources can deny permit applications or attach                  expansion of the "cause of action provision" (right of individu-
                     conditions to them.                                                       als to file suit) to include all coastal areas (within the State's
                       The certified shoreline is a critical boundary for the determi-         jurisdiction) outside of the Special Management Area (SMA
                     nation of the various jurisdictions. The procedures for certifica-        extension of and increase in civil penalties for SMA and shoreline
                     tion are specified in Chapter 91, HRS, which determine where              setback area violations; and, extension of County Jurisdiction over
                     the State's jurisdiction begins. Chapter 13-222, Hawaii Admin-            the area between the mean sea level and the shoreline (OSP 1989).
                     istrative Rules, "Shoreline Certifications," was adopted in 1988,           The Hawaii Environmental Impact Statement Law of 1974
                     to standardize the shoreline certification application proce-             applies to all State, County and private developments within
                     dure. These rules and regulations administered by the Board               the shoreline setback area. The EA/EIS requirements are trig-
                     were promulgated to implement the shoreline setback law and               gered when any water or land-use permit applications are
                     other related laws.                                                       deemed to have significant environmental impact, defined as
                       The Department of Transportation (DOT) has authority over               "the sum of those effects that affect the quality of the environ-
                     activities within State waters (Chapter 266, HRS). Ocean dredg-           ment, including actions that irrevocably commit a natural
                     ing, filling, construction and dumping materials below the                resource, or adversely affect the economic or social welfare"
                     mean high water mark (or in any navigable waters) require a               (Chapter 343, HRS). The first agency receiving an application
                     DOT permit. A DOT Shorewaters Permit is processed and                     for project approval has the authority to make a negative
                     issued concurrently with a CDUA. The Water Transportation                 declaration with respect to the EA, or call for a more detailed
                     Facilities Division of DOT will provide a written statement               EIS. When the EIS is submitted, the agency has the authority to
                     concurring ordisagreeing with the CDUA/Shorewaters Permit.                accept it or reject it as incomplete. The Department of Health
                     If DOT does not concur with the CDUA permit approval, the                 (DOH) is responsible for environmental quality of State waters
                     applicant must apply separately for a Shorewaters Permit                  (.Chapter 342, HRS). The National Pollution Discharge Elimina-
                     (DPED 1979).                                                              tion System is a permit process designed to manage and
                                                                                               regulate waste discharge into streams and coastal waters (un-
                       Chapter 183, HRS, Part IV, Relating to Forest and Water                 der the Clean Water Act of 1977). It is administered by DOH.
                     Reserve Zones, gives DLNR authority to establish forest and               Thus, DOH could become involved in an erosion-control
                     water reserve zones and to adopt regulations governing them.              activity such as offshore sand mining for beach replenishment,
                     n 1985, amendments to this law prohibited building structures             which could affect water quality.
                     or seawalls on accreted lands (except State and County prop-
                     erties) and cletermined that all accreted lands should be consid-         County Authority
                     ered to be within the Conservation District.                              Landward of the shoreline, Counties have jurisdiction under
                       Chapter 205A, HRS, the Hawaii CZM law, has set out                      State zoning, SMA and shoreline setback regulations. Under
                     broad guidelines and objectives to regulate the State's coastal           Chapter 205A, the four Counties are required to establish SMA
                     zone. This law was the result of the authority delegated                  boundaries and an SMA permit process for lands extending
                     through the National CZM Act of 1972 to the various coastal               from the shoreline to no less than 100 yards inland. Develop-
                     states, which in Hawaii is vested in the Hawaii CZM Program.              merits within SMAs must conform to the objectives and provi-
                     The program is administered by the Office of State Planning               sions within the Hawaii CZM Law. The permit-granting au-
                     (OSP), through a network of State agencies, and the County                thorities are the planning commissions for Kauai, Maui, and
                     governments (through the Special Management Areas/Shore-                  Hawaii Counties and the City Council for the City and County
                     line Setbacks - discussed later). CZM objectives relevant to              of Honolulu. Applicants for an SMA Use Permit must file a
                     coastal erosion included provisions: to provide accessibility             document that includes an identification of the property, plans,
                     to recreational resources; protect, preserve and restore sce-             description of the proposed development, shoreline survey (if
                     nic and open space resources; protect or minimize disrup-                 on the shoreline), and a description of the environment af-
                     tion of coastal ecosystems; protect life and property from                fected. Evidence must be provided that there are no serious
                     coastal hazards; and to improve the development process,                  environmental or ecological impacts. SMA permit application
                     improve communications, and encourage public participa-                   triggers a review by the designated agency, based on its value
                     tion.                                                                     (major permits are required for projects over $65,000) and
                       The Hawaii CZM Program also mandated OSP to reduce                      potential environmental impact.
                     hazard to life and property from tsunami, storm waves, stream               The Shoreline Setback Law (Chapter 205A, HRS, Part III) is
                     flooding, erosion, and subsidence; and, control development               most applicable to shoreline erosion impacts. Similar to the
                     in areas subject to storm waves, tsunami, flood, erosion, and             SMA process, authority is delegated to the Counties to establish
                     subsidence hazard (Chapter 205A, Part 111).                               setbacks no less than 20 feet and no more than 40 feet inland








                                       from the shoreline (although counties may extend the setback              wave energy, which causes sand scouring and carries sand
                                       further by County ordinance). The law is intended to control              offshore. As a result, these structures may block lateral shore-
                                       development on the shoreline, maintain open space and pre-                line access, and can create hazards for people swimming,
                                       serve public access to the shoreline. By restricting shoreline            surfing or sailing.
                                       construction, the law reduces the long-term threat of erosion                A similar cost is associated with the use of groins in some
                                       and allows for erosion-control structures when erosion threat-            places. First, accretion up-drift and erosion down-drift of the
                                       ens private property. Administration and enforcement of the               structures occurs. Second, the groins may reduce the strength
                                       shoreline setback requirements are the responsibility of the              of the long-shore current. Finally, the groins have combined to
                                       County planning departments (Kauai, Maui, Hawaii) and the                 reduce or cut off the sand feeding the area. Dennis Hwang
                                       Department of Land Utilization (DLU) of the City and County               (1981) pictorially illustrates how this has occurred at Kualoa
                                       of Honolulu. Variances for prohibited activities and structures           Point on Oahu. Another cost may be the false sense of security
                                       may be issued following a review by the County authorities.               that seawalls and revetments provide. While most stabilization
                                       Variances may be granted with conditions attached by the                  structures (e.g., on much of Oahu's North Shore) may handle
                                       responsible County planning department. The primary inten-                normal winter waves, during large storms or tsunamis, the
                                       tion of the variance procedure is to minirnize the interference           structures may be topped or damaged. The threat to life and
                                       with natural shoreline processes. However, this provision is              property may be greater than if the structures had never been
                                       considered secondary to private property protection (DPED                 built. Over the long term, shoreline structures can be damaged
                                       1979).                                                                    "under normal conditions" simply by the incessant pounding
                                                                                                                 of the sea. Major storms also can alter the offshore morphol-
                                       MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                                         ogy, thus changing coastal processes and rendering these
                                                                                                                 protection structures ineffective.
                                       Management issues associated with the coastal erosion sector                 Even when people are committed to the construction of
                                       in Hawaii fall into four major categories: resource sustainability;       erosion-control structures, there are some serious manage-
                                       use conflicts; ineffective management and coordination; and               ment considerations. To address the structural and functional
                                       participation and education.                                              requirements for erosion projects there should be adequate
                                       Resource Sustainability                                                   knowledge of the environmental site conditions; adequate
                                                                                                                 knowledge of the short and long-term littoral processes; ad-
                                       There are two major approaches to dealing with erosion when               equate design of the structure; proper construction and main-
                                       it becomes a problem. The first focuses on efforts to manage the          tenance; and goals or priorities that may constrain the selection
                                       physical form of the shoreline. Shore stabilization structures            of a particular measure or structure (OSP 1989).
                                       are designed to protect shorefront property and are referred to           Soft Approacbes
                                       as "hardening." The other approach to erosion management
                                       recognizes the dynamics of natural shbrehe processes and is               For the most part, these approaches are in the interest of
                                       referred to as the "soft" approach. This approach includes                preserving the sandy beach resource, although private prop-
                                       planning efforts such as zoning, shoreline setbacks and special           erty generally has higher precedence. Some of theapproaches,
                                       design requirements. Imbedded in these approaches is a                    such as beach fill and beach nourishment, border on the hard
                                       conflict: one emphasizes interference with natural processes              side (as earthmoving processes), but are considered less dam-
                                       to protect private property, while the other emphasizes plan-             aging (even supportive) of natural littoral processes.
                                       ning and design with nature in mind.                                      Renourishment of eroding beaches with sand, construction of
                                       Hardening                                                                 barrier dunes and planting vegetation along unstable beaches
                                                                                                                 are other physical alternatives for controlling the effects of
                                       Physical techniques and structures widely used to control                 erosion. These approaches are less invasive, soft techniques
                                       erosion processes include: seawalls, groins, bulkheads, revet-            for stabilizing beach processes. These nonstructural methods
                                       ments, detached breakwaters and sand-grabbers. The effect of              have been under-utilized and beach replenishment projects
                                       hardening on an increasing percentage of state beaches (par-              are impeded due to regulatory hurdles (DPED 1979).
                                       ticularly on Oahu) has been labelled "fortress-building" for                Sand mining is clearly an issue related to both beaches and
                                       good reason. The trend can be seen clearly on aerial photo-               shoreline erosion. Conceptually, sand from mining operations
                                       graphs. Future problems at current chronic erosion sites are              can be removed from the littoral area or placed in it. For the
                                       Rely to continue to provoke proposals for more erosion-                   most part, sand has been mined for use as a construction
                                       control structure. The continuation of hardening overthe long-            material. Sand for this purpose has come from beaches and
                                       run comes with considerable costs. One cost associated with               sand deposits (e.g., "relic dunes") mauka of the shoreline
                                       stabilization structures is the possible transfer of erosion prob-        boundary. More recently, sand from a third geographic area -
                                       lems to neighboring shoreline properties, resulting in the need           offshore deposits -has been explored as a possible source for
                                       for similar measures by downshore property owners. The net                beach replenishment (as well as for commercial purposes).
                                       effect of these structures (especially seawalls) is often to reflect      Sand mining is restricted, but may now be authorized for public








                     uses by a Shoreline Setback Variance. Relic dunes within the               This may happen gradually, but once the beach is totally
                     SMA (outside of the shoreline setback area), can be mined if an            eroded at the toe of the structure, access is prevented. The
                     SMA permit is obtained. The most critical issue facing the                 tendency toward hardening not only blocks lateral shoreline
                     mining of off-shore sand for beach replenishment (other than               access, but also creates hazards for recreational activities. One
                     cost), is the plethora of regulatory hurdles. Among the hurdles            factor that exacerbates the strength of public feeling about the
                     that could be required to replenish an Oahu beach are: CDUA,               issue is the perception (often true) that many structures are
                     SMA, EIS, DOH Water Quality, COE and DOT permits; DLNR                     constructed improperly and/or illegally. Shoreline access is a
                     Land Management Division approval, as well as approval of the              critical issue. It is one of the key objectives of the CZM Act and
                     City Council.                                                              it is a high profile issue for the general public.
                        Shoreline setbacks are examples of soft regulation, yet the                The loss of lateral access due to hardening is a serious issue
                     setback variance process allows measures of the hard sort.                 highlighted at the time of this writing by a court case involving
                     However, as Hwang pointed out a decade ago, 40 foot - let                  a seawall proposed for a stretch of Lanikai beach on Oahu. The
                     alone 20 foot - setbacks in some areas are of little value in              Lanikai case also reflects another conflict area, a private-private
                     protecting against erosion. He pointed out that Counties have              tension. Some Lanikai shoreline residents are concerned that
                     the power under Chapter 205A to regulate new development                   seawall construction will accelerate erosion on neighboring
                     within the 100-yard SMA. Rolling back the setback boundary                 properties. Thus, an example of private- private use conflict is
                     for new developments could be carried out within the current               where construction of a seawall or revetment by one owner can
                     regulatory framework (Hwang 1981). A related set of issues                 result in loss of sand from neighbors' properties.
                     pertains to the need for the State and Counties to act to create              Larger private developments also may create erosion prob-
                     special zones (i.e., hazard zones or coastal erosion districts) to         lems resulting in both private-public and private-private con-
                     vary setbacks in the absence of the political will to roll them            flicts, although this appears to be less of a problem than
                     back to a standard limit (e.g., 100 to 300 feet).                          haphazard residential seawall construction. Similarly, large
                     Use Confficts                                                              public works projects, such as marina developments and/or
                                                                                                entrance channel projects, may alter littoral sand cycles and
                     As illustrated above, erosion problems often raise debates over            thus have long-term consequences both for private and public
                     public-versus-private property rights. This is the key issue that          beach properties (see Harbors Technical Paper).
                     poses one of the greatest challenges to erosion management.
                                        C,                                                         Thus, what might be considered a laissez-faire approach to
                     For example, the legal issue of "taking" often arises when the             structural stabilization conflicts with the "public trust". A list of
                     government is perceived to be infringing on private property               public trust concerns includes: governmental responsibility to
                     rights or effecting property values. Use conflicts are not con-            protect citizens from natural hazards; long-term erosion "exter-
                     fined solely to tensions between public and private interests,             nalities" (i. e., costs of property loss, construction and loss of tax
                     and can include private-private and public- public conflicts as'           revenues); uncoordinated individual actions with unintended
                     well.                                                                      consequences (e.g., physical impacts on public lands and
                       Public-private tension is the central conflicting-use issue.             resources); long time-horizons and a disproportionate share of
                     Lands seaward of the shoreline (the vegetation line or upper               costs transferred to future generations; and the public's "right
                     wash of the waves evidenced by a debris he) are open, public-              to know" in the case of proposed developments in erosion-
                     use areas. As a result of erosion, the outer boundary of public-           sensitive areas (OSP 1989). Noda points to the need to see
                     use areas is pushed inland, thus shrinking that zone. The                  erosion management as part of a larger set of policy initiatives
                     reasoning is that erosion-control structures built within the              "involving open space preservation, beach access, shoreline
                     shoreline setback establish a firm boundary for a private                  development and ocean resource management" (OSP 1989, 3-14)
                     property parcel, while the shoreline - vegetation line and/or
                     upper wash of waves - continues to move inland up to the toe               ineffective Management and Coor(hnadon
                     of the structure. If left to erode naturally, the beaches generally        ResourceIssues
                     maintain a normal profile. In these cases, the public-use area is
                     maintained, but there is no compensation to the private owners             The lack of financial and human resources has been identified
                     for their loss of property. Clearly the inclination of property            as a problem in the area of erosion management, particularly
                     owners is not to abide the processes of nature, and shore                  in enforcement (OSP 1989). At the County level, there is
                     protection structures are put in place to stabilize the shoreline          insufficient budgetand personnel for adequate inspection and-
                     and maintain the private, upland property.                                 monitoring of erosion-control structures. Coastal engineering
                       Given the general tendency towards shoreline hardening to                expertise is needed within line agencies, not just through
                     protect private property, it is usually public areas that are              occasional consulting studies. There is also a clear need for
                     reduced in size over time. The construction of erosion-control             other technical specialists in the coastal zone management
                     structures, such as seawalls and revetments tends to reduce the            network or available to it. Hawaii is, in fact, the only coastal
                     public" area. It may prevent lateral access altogether, as                 state without a state geological survey (Moberly 1990). There
                                                                                                have been continuing problems in recruiting and retaining this
                     mentioned earlier (see Ocean Recreation Technical Paper).








                                     type of specialist in government. This is by no means a problem          tification is to define the shoreline to implement the shoreline
                                     unique to erosion management, but it is a problem that compli-           setback law and other related laws. A number of problems
                                     cates effective shoreline management.                                    remain: the issue of "ownership,' the accuracy and efficacy of
                                     Enforcement Issues                                                       the certification process, "emergency ordinances' following
                                                                                                              coastal erosion events, and subdivisions of accreted lands and
                                     Although it appears that enforcement is a statewide problem,             within shoreline setbacks. In the first place, State certification
                                     the City and County of Honolulu has the largest problem one              of the shoreline does not deal at all with the problem of
                                     of the more dramatic areas, which exemplifies this manage-               ownership of the lands in question. Shoreline certification only
                                     ment problem, is Lanikai beach. On one stretch, there are 36             establishes (for one year) the boundary of the setback and
                                     lots, only three of which have not had seawalls built on them.           SMA. Thus, while the consequences of certification generally
                                     Only two were built with the proper permits. Nine seawalls are           mean that the makai side is public and the mauka. side is
                                     .non- conforming" and 22 are considered illegal (OSP 1989,3-             private, it does not always establish the legality of "ownership."
                                     14). Studies have called for greater monitoring (e.g., from              For example, if erosion or accretion occur, the State can
                                     oblique aerial photographs) to detect illegal structure and for          recertify the shoreline, but cannot decide ownership ques-
                                     the need to take sanctions against violators. Whereas the                tions.
                                     Counties now have greater jurisdiction, at the time of this                 Another problem is that when shorelines are surveyed
                                     report, violators are still not being fined for illegal seawall          during calm weather, the shoreline certified usually does not
                                     construction.                                                            reflect the statutory "upper reaches of the waves ... at high tide
                                        Enforcement has been problematic because of the difficulty            during the season of the year in which the highest wash of the
                                     in identifying illegal structures. Considerable energy is spent in       waves occurs..."This is particularly true forthe Island of Hawaii
                                     the process of inventorying existing shore structures and in             where wave wash-up is considerable, and evidence for the
                                     researching permit histories. Records need to be searched at all         "upper reaches" is not as clear, given the generally younger
                                     three levels of government (Federal, State and County) be-               geology of the shoreline (Kanuha 1990). In cases where the
                                     cause it may not be possible to tell what agency had jurisdiction        shoreline is lost "due to subsidence due to earthquake, or
                                     at the time of construction. Clearly, the lack of funding and            storm or tidal wave," the shoreline may be certified at or near
                                     staffing for enforcement are significant issues. High litigation         the location of the earlier shoreline and the property owrer
                                     costs are another major contributing factor limiting the level of        may apply to restore the shoreline at its previous location.
                                     enforcement.                                                             There is serious concern about this process on the part of
                                     Researcb Issues                                                          environmentalists and planners who think that it sets the
                                                                                                              stage for even more problems in the future, including pos-
                                     Enforcement is clearly linked with the need for more research            sible loss of life.
                                     and better coordination of shoreline data and beach databases.              Subdivisions of land within the shoreline setback area also
                                     In addition to monitoring shoreline lots on Oahu, statewide              have become a problem. Some wide, shallow lots where
                                     monitoring and shoreline surveys and monitoring are needed.              resulting subdivision means that there is little buffer between
                                     Baseline data are needed for offshore bathymetry and coastal             structures and the shoreline. "Hardship" setback variances are
                                     morphology. Long-term time-series studies are needed to                  much easier to obtain for erosion-control structures when lots
                                     establish baseline erosion rates, including site evaluations as          are shallow.
                                     well as fine-grained photographic and cartographic data- ga -
                                     ering. Risk assessments still are needed to isolate specific high-       Coordination Issues
                                     risk erosion and hazard areas for site-specific time-senies re-          The lack of interagency coordination of erosion management
                                     search.                                                                  and permitting has had a number of consequences. For ex-
                                     Sboreftne Boundaty Issues                                                ample, some property owners, faced with the possible red tape
                                     In 1989, legislation providing that the Counties may extend              in dealing with three levels of government opt to build seawalls
                                     their shoreline jurisdiction seaward to the mean sea 1'evel was          solely on their own property. Although they only have to get a
                                     an important step toward untangling the jumble of overlapping            setback variance (and thus avoid Federal and State permits),
                                     jurisdictions, blurred jurisdictional boundaries and shifting            the smaller space available for a structure favors the selection
                                     physical boundaries of the shoreline. One continual source of            of a seawall, which is likely to lead to greater erosion.
                                     complications has been that natural boundaries shift and change,            Physical boundaries can change to complicate matters fur-
                                     while the regulatory boundaries tend to stay the same. Histori-          ther. Construction of shoreline-stabilization structures sea-
                                     cally, differing definitions of the shoreline have posed prob-           ward of the shoreline may result in the movement of the
                                     lems, and have changed over time. For example, shoreline                 shoreline to the toes of the structures. Thus, a structure con-
                                     jurisdiction boundaries may be defined as the highest wash of            structed in the jurisdiction of DLNR may eventually fall under
                                     the waves, the mean sea level or the vegetation line.                    County jurisdiction. This is one reason why a coordinated
                                        Shoreline certification has been one focal point of the               State/County system for managing shoreline stabilization struc-
                                     erosion management problem. The purpose of shoreline cer-                tures is needed.








                        CO1', "nationwide" permit system has streamlineltle pro-                 example, K2ilua, Oahu residents might benefit from knowl-
                     cess of obtaining a Federal permit for minor work in the coastal            edge about tradewind patterns over the long-term. Evidence
                     zone, and as a result is often considered the easiest permit to             suggests that tradewinds shift direction from northeast to east
                     obtain (OSP 1989). Because obtaining a nationwide permit is                 and back to the northeast over a period of 40 years. If this
                     relatively easy, many people apparently believe it is the only              periodicity continues, Kailua beach erosion/accretion also
                     permit necessary. Despite the fact that COE informs permit                  may have a natural 40-year cycle (Hwang 1981).
                     recipients to check with the local permit-granting agencies,                   Public education is intrinsic to public participation in the
                     many people do not obtain the additional necessary permits.                 planning and management process (a CZM objective) and to
                     COE forwards copies of its permits to local agencies, but there             the cultivation of a future-oriented perspective. The low level
                     is no formal inforination-sharing process. Similarly, State and              r
                                                                                                 01 public participation and public education, coupled with the
                     County agencies do not consistently inform COE about pen-nits               lack of a long-range planning component in policy and man-
                     that also fall in COE jurisdiction.                                         agement points to continued and escalating conflicts and costs.
                        Coordination is also a problem at the neighborhood level.                Unless Hawaii becomes more anticipatory, its people will be
                     There has been a serious lack of coordination with or among                 unprepared to deal with the serious concerns that will be posed
                     residents with respect to the alignment and littoral coordina-              by global warming and sea-level rise over the next two de-
                     tion of structures. Sea Engineering cites the Punaluu area (of              cades. The absence of an engaging information and public
                     Windward Oahu) as a good example, where erosion structures                  education program will allow widespread public apathy to-
                     are well-constructed, generally of the same type, and have                  ward a number of ocean and coastal issues to continue.
                     consistent alignment. By contrast, a section of Oahu's Laniloa                 Hawaii needs to stay on the "cutting edge" of national coastal
                     beach has eight different types of structures, with varying                 zone management. Of the 29 states with CZM programs, only
                     alignments, and the "overall appearance of the shoreline is                 13 including Hawaii, have setback regulations specifically for
                     poor" (DLU 1989, 23).                                                       erosion. Hawaii has been in the forefront of coastal manage-
                     PaifWpation and Education                                                   mentin a numberofareas. However, otherstates, suchasNorth
                                                                                                 Carolina and Florida, have more aa ressive and larger erosion
                                                                                                                                      09
                     The remaining, and perhaps most significant, management                     management programs. As a leading coastal state, Hawaii
                     problems are all closely interconnected. Public participation in            should provide an example of how to be forward-looking,
                     the erosion planning and management process is virtually                    particularly with regard to erosion. As an island state, Hawaii has the
                                            0
                     nonexistent. Public education on erosion is virtually nonexist-             opportunity not only to influence the other coastal states, but also to
                     ent. A perspective that looks to the future is lacking, as well, in         serve as an example for island countries around the world
                     the one area of ocean resources management where it is called
                     for most. These factors are generally ignored, but together,
                     would spell success in forging a proactive and cohesive alli-               RECOMMENDA11ONS
                     ance of interests to work with the shoreline instead of against it.         Objective
                       Public participation at a meaningful level is needed to                   Develop an integrated State erosion management system that
                     overcome resistance to changes in shoreline erosion manage-
                     ment, which may be required. Tough choices like "private                    ensures: 1) the preservation of sandy beaches and public access
                     property versus public beaches" will have to be addressed                   to and along the shoreline; and 2) the protection of private and
                     squarely. Broader public awareness, greater knowledge of                    public property from flood hazards and wave damage.
                     coastal processes on the part of shore-dwellers, and legislative            Policy A
                     expertise are required if managers are to make headway                      Establish and maintain a comprehensive coastal shoreline
                     against the loss of the coastline. Shoreline property owners                survey, database, and other research.
                     have to come to terms with the prospect of losing the "image
                     of Hawaii" - permanently. This has to do with more than just                implementing Actions:
                     fewer beaches for residents to enjoy. The image - and the                         OSP, in cooperation witb DLAT, should.
                     tourist industry that depends on it - relies on a continued
                     future for abundant sandy beaches.                                                1. Give high priority to the identification and character-
                       The myopia of the present is our biggest enemy in the                           ization of chronic erosion and inundation areas through-
                     struggle to save our land and our beaches. A long-term per-                       out the State so that regulatory and structural mitigation
                     spective of the future and the environment is absolutely neces-                   measures can be implemented as soon as possible.
                     sary to the successful management of these resources. More                        2. Establish and maintain a statewide database for aerial
                     than any other section within the Ocean Resources Manage-                         photography and coastline studies, and classify each area
                     ment area, coastline erosion requires a broad time frame of                       of the shoreline according to level of erosion and inunda-
                     understanding. One must see the decades and centuries-long                        tion risks.
                     processes at work, and appreciate the long-term costs (from                       3. Set priorities for and monitor basic research on beach
                     hardening) that are being passed to future generations. For                       processes, littoral cell sand production and movement,








                                              risk assessments [see Policy D1, and baseline coastal                Implementing Actions:
                                              erosion and cartography.                                                   OSP, in cooperation witb DLIR DOTand the Counties,
                                              4. Obtain standardized and digitized data from Uni-                        sbould.
                                              versity and other researchers for inclusion in *the state-
                                              wide ocean and coastal Geographic Information Sys-                         1. Continue scientific research programs to explore the
                                              tem (GIS).                                                                 mechanisms and to assess the current rates of sand
                                                                                                                         production.
                                              5. Provide for easy access to data and databases both for                  2. Select non-rural hazard areas and chronic eroding
                                              resource managers and the general public.                                  and unstable beaches forsand replenishment pilot projects
                                              6. Further identify and inventory offshore sand resources.                 and monitor impacts on littoral cell dynamics.
                                              7. Carefully examine the application of the Bruun rule                     3. Establish projects to stabilize littoral cell sand balance
                                              (i.e., that sea-level moves inland up to one hundred units                 in hazard, chronic erosion, and unstable areas by:
                                              for every one unit of rise) to various shoreline types across                  a. Removing unsound erosion structures and/or
                                              the State based on a range of possible scenarios for sea-
                                              level rise.                                                                    b. Importing sand of similar types from offshore
                                       Policy B                                                                              sources.
                                       Coordinate County, State, and Federal erosion- and beach-                         4.  Restrict the taking of sand by individuals in sensitive
                                       management efforts.                                                               ecological and high use areas.
                                       Implementing Actions:                                                             5. Prohibit the use of motorized off-road vehicles within
                                                                                                                         the shoreline setback area.
                                              OSP sbould.                                                          Policy E
                                              1. Work cooperatively with the Counties and other State              Promote an erosion-control structure limitation strategy.
                                              agencies in establishing and implementing a consoli-
                                              dated permit application, review, and approval system                Implementing Actions:
                                              for erosion-control structures and setback develop-                        OSP, in cooperation u@itb DLNR, DOTand the Counties,
                                              ments.                                                                     sbould.-
                                              2. Explore regulatory and economic incentives, includ-                     1. Identify for management purposes, districts desig-
                                              ing strategies being used in other coastal states such as:                 nated as hazard, chronic erosion, unstable beach, accreting
                                                  a. Tax incentives;                                                     beach, and stable beach areas.
                                                  b. Insurance rates;                                                    2. Establish "Special Improvement Districts" for the de-
                                                  c. Hazard ratings.                                                     velopment of uniform (standardized and aligned) ero-
                                                                                                                         sion structures for hazard, chronic erosion, and unstable
                                       Policy C                                                                          beaches.
                                       Exercise greater enforcement of laws and regulations.                             3. Establish a cooperative program with County and
                                       Implementing Actions:                                                             Federal authorities to restrict new physical erosion struc-
                                                                                                                         tures except in designated hazard areas.
                                              DLAW sbould.-                                                              4. With County lead agency cooperation, have all illegal
                                              1. Work closely through their representatives to imple-                    erosion control structures modified to meet requirements
                                              ment a uniform permit system. (See Policy B, Action 1.1                    or removed.
                                              2. Collaborate with and act on recommendations to                          5. Develop a management policy regarding offshore
                                              limit erosion-control structures.                                          structures such as sand grabbers and artificial reefs.
                                              3. Increase the level of negative sanctions to be applied            Policy F
                                              against law and regulation violators (including structure            Develop an active public participation and education program
                                              demolition, firies, and other civil penalties).                      to preserve and protect beaches.
                                              4. Seek greater funding for personnel, site visits, and              implementing      .Actions:
                                              monitoring of shoreline alterations. [See Policy 1.1
                                       Policy D                                                                          OSP sbould..
                                       Ensure the continued natural production of sand and assess the                    1. Establish an advisory committee of public interest
                                       potential for using beach replenishment.                                          groups, publiCand private school and university educators,
                                                                                                                         and nonprofit agencies to help guide d-& education program.








                          2. Establish a public education program on beach and              Po  licy I
                          erosion processes and issues including:
                                                                                            Assure adequate funding resources and personnel.
                               a. Flood and erosion hazard television spots and
                               brochures;                                                   implementing Actions:
                               b. District and neighborhood "Adopt-a-Beach" pro-                   OSP, in cooperation witb DLAIR and DOT, should-
                               grams and activities.                                               1. Seek increased legislative funding for line manage-
                          3.   Establish a public participation program for input                  ment functions.
                          into erosion and beach programs planning through:                        2. Seek funding specifically for shoreline erosion and
                               a. Statewide participatory planning debates on spe-                 beach management, especially for enforcement.
                               cific issues via newspapers, television, and radio                  3. Seek legislation which would establish an account
                               shows;                                                              separate from the State General Fund for fines and pen-
                               b. Statewide public long-range planning work-                       alties which could then be used by the enforcement
                               shops.                                                              agency.
                    Policy G                                                                       4. Seek continued Federal funding for coastline research.
                    Expand open space and shoreline setbacks.                                      5. Enroll in the FEMA (Federal Emergency Management
                                                                                                   Agency) Flood Insurance relocation option program au-
                    Implementing Actions:                                                          thorized by the Upton-Jones amendment or otherwise
                          OSP, in cooperation u@tb DLNR and the Counties, should-                  develop incentives to relocate structures inland of chronic
                          1. Explore and evaluate options for expanding the shore-                 erosion zones.
                          line setback in agricultural, rural, and conservation lands              6.  Explore a range of other funding avenues including:
                          for open space purposes.                                                     a. Beach maintenance taxes;
                          2. Explore and evaluate options for establishing an                          b. Impact fees;
                          expanded variable setback based on annual erosion                            c. County and State cost-sharing;
                          rates, coastal characteristics, and potential sea-level
                          rise.                                                                        d. Park user fees.

                          3. Seek legislative funding for strategic land acquisi-           Polmicyi
                          tions along the coastline where world-class resources             Plan for climate change, sea-level rise, and emerging issues.
                          exist.
                          4. Develop a disaster plan (and necessary legislation)            Implementing Actions:
                          which would call for acquisition of shoreline proper-                    OSPsbould:
                          ties where improvements are destroyed by hurricane or                    1. Identify agency personnel to monitor and track the
                          tsunami.                      I                                          scientific research on global climate change and sea-level
                          5. Work with the Counties to limit through regulation                    rise and emerging issues.
                          (or legislation, if necessary) shoreline subdivision ac-                 2. Engage in long-term planning exercises - with se-
                          tivity.                                                                  nior planners, planning staff, and scientific experts -
                    Policy H                                                                       which Lake into account a range of possible geological
                    Maintain and develop access to beaches and along the shore-                    and climatic changes.
                    line.                                                                          3. Involve the public in educational and participatory
                    Implementing Actions:                                                          planning activities which explore the consequences of
                                                                                                   climate change and sea-level rise.
                          OSP, in cooperation udtb DL;VR, DOTand the Counties,
                          sbould.
                          1. Establish a statewide policy requiring new erosion-            NOTES
                          control structures (where possible) to provide means of           1. Coral reefs play a major role in the Hawaiian beach system
                          lateral shoreline access (e.g., steps, walkways).                 (except, generally, the island of Hawaii) as a buffer for wave
                          2. Encourage through beach replenishment, sand pro-               energy and as a source of beach material. Fringing reefs are
                          duction, and structure abatement, natural means of lateral        most common around the older Islands - the Island of Hawaii
                          access to the shoreline.                                          has a much younger reef system. The only barrier reef in
                                                                                            Hawaii is at Kaneohe Bay on Oahu (Noda and DHM 1989,1-5).








                                      Coral reefs are composed of the skeletons of corals and                    seconds and heights of up to 15 feet. The North Pacific swell is
                                      coralline algae. Shells and other materials become cemented                famous as the source of the large surf that has popularized
                                      into these structures to form a conglomerate reef (Moberly and             surfing spots such as Waimea Bay, Pipeline and Sunset Beach.
                                      Chamberlain 1964; COE 1979,2). The more shallow and flatter                These large waves are produced by storms in the Pacific 1,000
                                      reefs usually are found on the leeward and protected coasts.               to 2,000 miles to the northeast of Hawaii and usually arrive
                                                                                                                 between October and April. These waves typically have peri-
                                      2. The two major movements of sand are longshore transport                 ods of 15 to 20 seconds and heights exceeding 20 feet (Moberly
                                      and onshore-offshore exchanges. Waves striking the coastline               and Chamberlain 1964; COE 1979).
                                      at an angle move material both by the skewed up-rush and
                                      backwash of waves and by longshore currents generated by                   5. Tsunamis are seismic waves often generated in the Pacific
                                      this wave energy (Moberly and Chamberlain 1964; COE 1979).                 "Ring of Fire' , as well as within the Pacific basin. While tsunamis.
                                      Long shore transport is confined to the narrow area between                are not significant factors in overall erosion processes, they
                                      the breakers and the limit of wave up-wash. Onshore-offshore               have large a potential to do short-term damage. Coastline
                                      exchange occurs between the shore and the complex network                  damage includes erosion and scouring of shoreline and
                                      of channels, ridges and pockets within and around the fringing             nearshore areas; movement of sand, basalt and reef material Hand
                                      reef. Steep, high energy waves tend to move material offshore              or out to sea; arid, occasionally severe damage to structures.
                                      over the reef; low, long-period waves tend to move material
                                      shoreward (Moberly and Chamberlain 1964; COE 1979). Off-                   6. Hurricanes in Hawaiian waters are rare, although several
                                      shore currents, called rip currents, occur when water piled up             have come close to or passed over several of the Islands.
                                      against the shoreline seeks to flow seaward. Some rip currents             Hurricanes Nina, in 1957, Dot in 1959, and lwa in 1982, caused
                                      can reach velocities high enough to scour and transport bottom             severe shore damages. For umnple, Hurricane Iwa removed three
                                      sediments (Noda and DHM 1989,1-14).                                        to five feet of sand from the reef fronting the Hawaiian Electric
                                                                                                                 Company power plant on leeward Oahu and at least 11,000 cubic
                                      3. The concept of a littoral sand budget can be used to quantify           yards of sand was eroded from Kahe Beach (Noda and DHM 1989).
                                      sand inputs, transport and loss (Moberly and Chamberlain
                                      1964; Noda and HDM 1989). If the rates of input and loss are               7. The Island of Hawaii has some special problems regarding
                                      balanced over time, the area in question can be said to be "in             erosion and inundation. Hawaii, for the most part, lacks a reef
                                      equilibrium." When the dynamics of accretion are not in                    system to diffuse the energy of incoming waves and to moder-
                                      equilibrium with losses through erosion, then net erosion over             ate seasonal extremes. With most of the wave energy unbuf-
                                      the long term will occur. A littoral cell is the name applied to a         fered, coastal bluffs are subject to being overtopped and wave wash-
                                      section of coastline which is in equilibrium and where there is            UP distances can be considerable during seasonal stormy months.
                                      little if any exchange of nearshore sand with adjacent areas.
                                      Littoral cells commonly are found in stretches of coastline                8. Large waves breaking over a reef also can raise the water
                                      isolated by rocky promontories or deepwater channels.                      level - called 'wave setup" when solely due to wave action.
                                      4. Waves approach the Hawaiian islands from all parts of the               This condition also allows waves to strike the shore at greater
                                                                                                                 heights and energy intensities (COE 1979). Storms can result in
                                      Pacific Ocean and from some parts of the Indian Ocean (COE                 the build up of strong rip currents that can transport sand to
                                      1979, 8). The waves reaching Hawaii, which tend to be sea-                 such depths that it becomes irretrievable. However, storms
                                      sonal in nature, are categorized in a few general types: the               break down rocks and coral reefs and can produce large
                                      northeast tradewind waves, Kona storm waves, North Pacific                 quantities of sand to replace some lost to deep water sinks.
                                      swell, south swell, and tropical stomi/hurricane waves (Moberly
                                      and Chamberlain 1964). Northeast iradewind waves are most                  9. Black sand and green sand beaches are of volcanic glass and
                                      common and prevail during summer months. These waves                       olivine origins, respectively. Black sand beaches are particu-
                                      typically have periods of 5 to 12 seconds and heights of four to           larly vulnerable to erosion and short-lived if their scurce is
                                      eight feet (Moberly and Chamberlain 1964; COE 1979). The                   limited or terminated. Hawaii's sands are lighter by weight and
                                      south swell occurs during summer months and is generated by                more quickly reduced in size by abrasion than the quartz and
                                      South Pacific and Indian Ocean storms as far as 5,000 miles                eldspar sands commonly found elsewhere in the world (COE
                                      away. These waves arrive in distinct wave groups typified by               1979). According to one study, reduced production of calcar-
                                      long, uniform crests. South swell waves commonly have Pcil-                eous sands =@ nake beach sands darker in color (due to the
                                      ods of 14 to 18 seconds and heights as great as 15 feet (Moberly           greater proportion of detrital grains) and thus less desirable for
                                      and Chamberlain 1964; USCOE 1979). Kona storm waves                        recreation (Noda and DHM 1989).
                                      usually occur between November and April arriving from the
                                      south and southwest. These waves are driven by"Kona"winds                  10. Shorelines become "hardened"when the gradual construc-
                                      which replace the prevailing northeast tradewinds; Kona winds              tion of revetments and seawalls results in even greater erosion,
                                      can be strong when produced by local storm fronts and tropical             which leads to further erosion-control structure construction
                                      storms. Kona storm waves usually have periods of six to ten                and ultimately to a walled shoreline.








                      11. Decreases in precipitation, for example, could mean less                   Slumping occasionally has lowered small stretches of the
                      weathering and erosion inland resulting in less cletrital sand              coastline as much as one to two feet at once. Rapid slumping
                      production. The other extreme, heavy precipitation, could                   of a portion of the south Kilauea flank from the Kapoho area
                      mean greater inland erosion, and coupled with human devel-                  southwest into Hawaii Volcanoes National Park resulted in a
                      opments (i.e., non-point source pollution from runoff) could                lowering of about 15.5 miles of coastline up to 11 feet (Kanuha
                      mean heavier siltation of coral reefs.                                      1990).


                      12. While there is at present no evidence that global warming
                      has affected regional climate, scientists have suggested that El            RIEFIERIENCES
                      Nino-Southem Oscillation (ENSO) events, which can influ-                    Campbell, J.F. and R. Moberly. 1978. Ala Moana Beacb Ero-
                      ence weather patterns throughout the Pacific, might be altered.             sion: Monitoring and Recommendations. HIG Technical
                      The areas directly affected by ENSO events (e.g., upwelling                 Report 78-10. University of Hawaii, Hawaii Institute of Geo-
                      and ocean temperatures), may be expanded and/or shifted in                   I
                      location which could have an impact on currents, winds and                  physics, Honolulu.
                      waves throughout the region. Even small changes in the                      Casciano, F.M. 1973. Development ofa SubmarineSandRecov-
                      current and wind patterns impinging on Hawaii could alter                   ery SystemforHawaii. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-73-04. Univer-
                      erosion and accretion patterns.                                             sity of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu.
                      13. Air and water temperature changes also could have an                    Casciano, F.M. and R.Q. Palmer. 1969. Potential of Offsbore
                      impact on the production of reef and terrestrial sand. On the
                      I                                                                           Sandasan Exploitable Resource in Hawaii. SEAGRANT-69-4.
                      positive side, warmer ocean waters might promote greater                    University of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu.
                      biological activity in reef areas resulting in greater sand production.
                      14. The specter of more frequent and perhaps more violent                   City and County of Honolulu, Department of Land Utilization.
                      storms rank near the top - with sea-level rise - as the largest             1989. Oabu Shoreline Study, Pan 1: Data on Beacb Changes
                      threats of global warming to the Hawaiian coastline. More                   (1988). By Sea Engineering, Inc. Honolulu.
                      violent stomis are even more of a threat to human life and                  City and County of Honolulu, Department of Land Utiliiation.
                      property than higher ocean levels. Combined with the effeccs                n.d. Oabu Shoreline Study, Part 2: Management Strategies.
                      of higher water levels, storm surges and nin-up could reach                 Honolulu.
                      much farther inland. Greater frequencies of major storms could
                      also mean that recovery periods after storms rarely are com-                Hwang, D. 1981. Beacb Changes on Oabu as Revealed by
                      pleted.                                                                     AerialPbotograpbs. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-CR-81-077. University
                      15. The consensus among climate researchers is that the                     of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu.
                      doubling Of C02 and increases in other greenhouse gases will                Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1990.
                      cause an increase in atmospheric temperature of around 2'
                      Centigrade (3.6'F) by as early as 2030. This in turn is expected            Policymakers Summary oftbe Scienti(icAssessment ofClimate
                      to raise the sea level (due to glacial melting and ocean thermal            Change -Working Group 1. Bracknell, UK.
                      expansion) at least eight inches by 2030 and 24 inches by 2100              Kanuha, D. 1990. Letter of August 21, 1990 to Craig MacDonald,
                      (IPCC 1990). These estimates, however, are considered by                    Honolulu.
                      some to be conservative. Some modeling results indicate a
                      .
                      worst case" scenario sea-level rise of 11 feet bv 2 100. Even the
                      "business-as-usual" scenario of eight inches b     Iy 2030 suggests         Moberly, R., Jr. 1990. Letter to Craig MacDonald. Honolulu.
                      over a foot of sea-level rise for the Island of Hawaii and slightly         Moberly, R., Jr. and T. Chamberlain. 1964. Hawaiian Beacb
                      less for the older Islands in a little more than a generation.
                                                                                                  Systems. Hawaii Institute of Geophysics Report 64-2. University
                       At the same time that the oceans are rising, many places in                of Hawaii, Honolulu.
                      the world (including much of Hawaii) are sinking. Due to the
                      immense weight of the shield volcanos which comprise the                    Moberly, R, Jr., J.F. Campbell and W.T. Couiboum. 1975.
                      Hawaiian Islands, the Islands are actually subsiding into the               Offsboreand OtberSandResourcesfor0abu, Hawaii. UNIHI-
                      Earth's mande. Honolulu is "sinking" (relative to mean sea                  SEAGRANT-TR-75-10. University of Hawaii, Sea Grant College
                      level) at the rate of 1.5 mrn a yearwhile Hilo is sinking at a faster       Program, Honolulu.
                      rate of 3.8 mm year. In other words, some sections of Hawaii's
                      coastline already are experiencing a relative sea-level rise of 6           National Research Council. 1987. Responding to Changes in
                      to 15 inches per century. It should be pointed out that due to              Sea Level.-Enginee7ingImplications. Washington, D.C.:National
                      active faulting and volcanic activity on the Island of Hawaii,              Academy Press.
                      parts of its southeast coast experience "slumping."









                                  State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-
                                  opment. 1979. Beach Erosion: Technical Findings and Rec-
                                  ommendations. Draft issuepaper. Honolulu.

                                  State of Hawaii, Office of State Planning, Hawaii Coastal Zone
                                  Management Program. 1989. Hawaii Shoreline Erosion Man-
                                  agement Study, Volume 1: Ovendew and Case Study Sites. By
                                  Edward K. Noda and Associates, Inc. and DHM, Inc. Honolulu.

                                  United States Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division.
                                  1979. Heo Yoursetf- A Sbore Protection Guide For Hawaii.
                                  Honolulu.











                              David A. Tarnas and
                              M. Carolyn Stewart
                              Marine and Coastal
                              Resources Consultants
                              P.O. Box 2523
                              Kailua-Kona, M 96745
                              ESTE MRHOGEMEHT




                                                                         PAGE                                                               PAGE


                      THE RESOURCE                                         73            RECOMMENDATIONS                                       81
                      RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                  73            Objective                                             81
                      Water Quality Standards                              73            Policies and Implementing Actions                     81
                      Wast,@_ Treatment                                    74
                      Spills of Oil and Other Hazardous Materials          74
                      Plastics                                             76
                      Hazardous Wastes                                     76        M RMOURCE
                      Radioactive Wastes                                   76        To some extent, the ocean has the capacity to store, biode-
                      Dredge Materials                                     77        grade, dilute or disperse various wastes without adverse'im-
                      Nonpoint Source Pollution                            78        pacts upon coastal communities and ocean resources. Treated
                      MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                    78        municipal sewage effluent, oil, plastics, dredge spoils and
                      Potential Social and Environmental Risks             78        radioactive wastes are types of wastes which have been or are
                           Primary Wastewater Treatment                    78        being disposed of in the ocean surrounding Hawaii. The
                                                                                     nearshore waters receive pollutants from point sources, such
                           Msmicipal Waste Indwation                       78        as sewage outfalls, and nonpoint sources, such as soil erosion
                           Hazardous Waste incineration                    78        and urban runoff. As Hawaii's population grows, the amount
                      Maintenance of Existing Facilities                   79        of waste produced increases. At the same time, the State's
                      Support for Treatment Facility Operations            79        disposal capacity is decreasing - landfills are filling up and
                      Facilities and Inhwhucture                                     sewage treatment plants are reaching their design-capacity
                         for Municipal Wastewater Treatment                79        limits.
                      Collection System for Hmsehold Hazardous Waste       79           In general, waste management practices involve disposing
                      Funding                                              79        wastes in a place so as to minirnize harm to the environment
                           Hazardous Waste Management PrWum                79        and to human health, or, if possible, benefit the environment.
                           Nonpoint Source Pollution Pr@ram                79        Protecting the environmental quality of Hawaii's nearshore
                      Oil and Chemical Spill Response Capabilities         so        waters is essential to maintaining the economic health of the
                      Comprehensiveness                                    80        State and its standard of living. Tourism, ocean recreation,
                           Marine Phtstic Pollution                        80        fisheries, aquaculture, ocean thermal energy conversion, and
                           Water Quality monaoring                         80        ocean research and development all depend on clear, pollu-
                      Legal Authority                                      80        tion-free waters.
                           Hazardous Spills                                so
                           Afternative Sewage Treatment Metbods            80        MOURCE MANAGEMM
                      Coordination                                         80
                           Hazardous Waste Management on                             Water Quality Standards
                              Federal Instaffations                        80        For all State waters, standards for water quality have been
                           Oil Spfil Response                              80        established by the Department of Health (DOH) under Chapter
                      Public information and Involvement                   81        11-54, Hawaii Administrative Rules (HAR). These arebased on








                                      the Federal Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) water                   Wastewater Treatment
                                      quality criteria promulgated under the Clean Water Act (CWA).               Most effluent from sewage treatment facilities in Hawaii is
                                      State waters are classified as either marine or inland waters.              treated and discharged into the ocean. Of increasing concern
                                      These waters are further classified by their uses for the pur-              to residents is the daily discharge of municipal sewage treat-
                                      poses of applying standards.                                                ment wastes into the marine environment. With a growing
                                         Marine waters are divided into Class AA and Class A waters.              population, the volume of wastewater will only continue to
                                      The objective of Class AA waters is to preserve them "in their              grow. The capability of existing treatment facilities to handle
                                      natural pristine state as nearly as possible with an absolute               this increasing volume of wastes is an important consideration.
                                      minimum of pollution or alteration of water quality from any                   There are 11 major wastewater treatment facilities discharg-
                                      human-caused source or actions." The objective of Class A                   ing 143-32 million gallons of treated effluent into the ocean per
                                      waters is to ensure that their use for recreational and aesthetic
                                      enjoyment is protected (Chapter 11-54-03, HAR). Marine                      day. As with any point source of discharge, a National Pollution
                                      bottom environments are divided into two classes.                           Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) discharge permit is
                                                                                                                  required from DOH. There are a total of 15 wastewater facilities
                                         Standards are established for numerous pollutants, as de-                with NPDES permits. Four normally do not discharge into the
                                      tailed in Chapter 11-54-04, HAR. There are basic water quality              sea. They use injection wells or reuse the effluent by watering
                                      criteria applicable to all waters which cover floating debris,              cane fields or golf courses. The Counties manage municipal
                                      thermal pollution, turbidity and specific criteria for nearly 100           wastewater treatment facilities. Some private developers of
                                      toxic substances. The standards also describe certain uses and              resorts or housing projects are required to build their own
                                      specific criteria applicable to inland and marine waters.                   sewage treatment facilities, which must meet the same NPDES
                                         DOH is responsible for monitoring and enforcing these                    regulations as municipalities.
                                      regulations. A statewide monitoring program is carried out by                  The impact of sewage effluent on the marine environment
                                      DOH, with periodic samples taken at numerous stations                       depends on its content and on the rate, location, depth and
                                      throughout the State with continuous data analysis. For recre-              quantity of discharge. Most effluent discharges have low levels
                                      ation areas with intensive use, the water is sampled weekly. For            of dissolved solids, very low levels of suspended solids and
                                      all other areas, sampling is done on a monthly, serni-annual or             high nutrient values. Pathogenic bacteria and viruses also may
                                      annual basis, depending on the amount of recreational use                   be present. If an outfall is properly located, high initial dilutions
                                      and contribution of pollution sources. These samples are                    and strong currents will cause immediate dispersion, so that
                                      analyzed at the DOH laboratory on Oahu, and at support                      accumulation of sediment on the ocean bottom is negligible.
                                      labs on each Island. The lab receives no direct Federal funds,              As long as they are located in deep water and are designed to
                                      but it receives indirect funds through Federal support for                  withstand storm surge and tsunami events, deep ocean outfalls
                                      monitoring programs.                                                        are not known to cause serious environmental problems.
                                         For all point sources of pollution, a discharge permit is                   Individual wastewater treatment systems, such as cesspools
                                      required from DOH. These include, among others, wastewater                  and septic tanks, are regulated by DOH. Cesspools that are
                                      treatment facilities, electric generating facilities, industries and        constructed in permeable solid or rock formations may leach
                                      agricultural facihties. These National Pollution Discharge Efirrii-         nutrients and bacteria into the groundwater and nearshore
                                      nation System pen-nits are required under the CWA. This EPA                 environment. In order to address this potential problem, the
                                      pollution-control program is administered in the State by DOH.              DOH director has stated a goal of banning all cesspools by
                                      For the discharge permit, there are conditions concerning                   1991. To make this transition, DOH is promulgating amend-
                                      monitoring requirements and submission of data to DOH on a                  ments to Chapter 11-62, HAR, on wastewater systems. These
                                      periodic basis. Permits are classified as either major or minor,            amendments will severely restrict the areas where cesspools
                                      depending on the size of the facility and nature of the dis-                will be allowed. County Wastewater Advisory Committees
                                      charge. There are also continuous or interniittent flow permits,            formed on each Island selected those areas in which cesspools
                                      depending on the frequency of discharge. DOH requires                       should not be allowed. These areas are called the proposed
                                      dischargers to monitor themselves and submit results on a                   Critical Wastewater Disposal Areas. Throughout the State, this
                                      regular basis. Once a year, DOH conducts site inspections to                includes all areas within the 100-year flood range and ground-
                                      assure sampling techniques and obtains "split samples" to                   water recharge areas, where defiried. Each County has recom-
                                      detennine analytical accurateness.                                          mended additional areas requiring protection.
                                         There are specific management practices for certain types of             Spills of 09 and Other Hazardous Materials
                                      wastes, such as effluent from wastewater treatment plants,
                                      oil, plastics, hazardous wastes, radioactive wastes, dredge                 Petroleum supplied over 91 percent of the State's primary
                                      material and nonpoint source pollution. The significance of                 energy needs in 1988. AD of it was shipped into the State. There
                                      and management system for each type of waste are de-                        are two oil refineries in the State, both on Oahu. To supply
                                      scribed below.                                                              them at full capacity; approximately ten tanker deliveries are
                                                                                                                  needed every month. The tankers load and unload at mooring








                    buoys situated off Barbers Point. The closest of these facilities            In the event of an oil or chemical spill, both Federal and State
                    is only 1.5 miles offshore. The loading cycle may Lake as long            agencies respond. Under Chapter 342D-50, Hawaii Revised
                    as two days to complete.                                                  Statutes (HRS), DOH monitors State waters forwater-pollution
                       About 60 percent of the crude oil unloaded in Hawaii                   violations. They may cite, fine and suspend operations of
                    originates in Alaska. Tankers usually approach Barbers Point              projects or activities in violation of Federal or State water-
                    via the Kauai channel. Kaiwi Channel is used on occasion by               quality standards. Under Chapter 342D-51, HRS, responsible
                    vessels coming from Alaska, but the channel is more often the             parties must report all discharges of oil, petroleum products
                    approach of choice for vessels coming from the West Coast.                and other hazardous substances within 24 hours of a spill.
                    This approach puts the entire south sho"re of Oahu at risk from           Failure to report or to initiate corrective action can result in a
                    crude oil spills. Tankers call at the other Islands as well. These.       fine of $10,000 per day. DOH also may evaluate adequacy of
                    ships are usually product tankers, delivering fuel oil, motor             corrective responses and prescribe additional actions. During
                    gasoline or jet fuel. just under half the products delivered are          oil spills, DOH, Office of Hazard Evaluation and Emergency
                    light distillates; over half are heavy oils. In the case of Maui          Response (HEER), serves as the State on-scene coordinator to
                    tankers approach from the north, and moor to the north o@                 the U.S. Coast Guard. Chapter 342D-52, HRS, grants DOH
                    Kahului. This puts not only the north shore of Maui at risk from          authority to test water quality and effects on aquatic and other
                    spills, but also Molokai, Lanai and Oahu, as winds and currents           life after a spill. In the face of sufficient hazards, it may close
                    would move a spill west and south.                                        beaches, suspend fishing and issue public health warnings
                                                                                              about the hazards of consuming polluted fish and other marine
                       Petroleum and petroleum products released into marine                  life.
                    environments are responsible for the deaths of organisms                     The State's Environmental Response Law, recently signed
                    through coating and asphyxiation, contact poisoning, expo-                into law, gives DOH additional powers concerning oil and
                    sure to water-soluble toxic compounds and destruction of                            0
                    sensitive juvenile life forms. Oil also can generate indirect or          chemical spill clean-up. Administrative rules will be developed
                    long-term effects, such as the destruction of food sources for            over the next year to clarify these powers and responsibilities.
                    higher trophic level species. Ingestion and incorporation of              HEER is heavily dependent on Federal funds for its operation.
                    sublethal amounts of oil and oil products into body tissues can              The Department of Transportation (DOT), Harbors Divi-
                    result in infection, reduced resistance and other stresses. Chronic       sion, also is authorized to regulate and control polluting dis-
                    low-level concentrations in the water may interrupt normal                charges in State waters. Chapter 266-3, HRS, specifically autho-
                    physiological and behavioral responses, thus affecting survival.          rizes DOT to promote regulations necessary "to prevent the
                       Severe environmental impacts would result from accidental              escape of fuel or other oils onto the harbors, ocean waters, and
                    spills associated with the ocean transport of hazardous materi-           streams, either from any vessel or from pipes or storage tanks
                    als. For most hazardous materials, a significant spill in almost          upon the land."
                    any location would result in the loss of a large proportion of the           The Coast Guard is the primary Federal agency involved in
                    marine life in the immediate area, Chronic effects would be               the management of spills of oil and hazardous materials, Under
                    widespread and long-lasting, particularly for toxic and persis-           the CWA, a national contingency plan was developed which
                    tent chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are among the most                   provided for a national response team and center, and 13
                    likely candidates for ocean incineration. There is general                regional response teams, which, in turn, develop regional and
                    consensus that under most circumstances, spilled material                 Federal local contingency plans. The Federal local contin-
                    would be impractical or impossible to clean up.                           gency plan is developed by the"federal on-scene coordinator"
                       Oil and chemical spills in the marine and coastal environ-             in consultation with the regional team. The plan identifies: 1)
                    ments, the loci of Hawaii's tourism, could have major impacts             probable locations of discharges or releases; 2) available re-
                    on the State's economy. An uncontained oil spill at Barber's              sources; 3) disposal methods and facilities consistent with State
                    Point could impact the southern coast of Oahu, including the              and local plans; and 4) a local structure for responding to
                    Nin-dtz Beach, Ewa Beach, Sand Island, Honolulu and Waikiki               discharges or releases.
                    areas. Poorly handled spill incidences, whether or not they                  The Coast Guard provides on-scene coordinators for coastal
                    ultimately impact the natural environments, can lead to public            zone spills, while the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
                    or visitor misperception about the quality of these environ-              provides them for inland spills.   The boundary definitions for
                    ments. Such misperceptions could compromise the tourism                   'coastal" and "inland" are designated in the regional plans by
                    industry.                                                                 agreement between the two agencies. With very few excep-
                       Handling of oil and hazardous materials at harbors' icreases           tions, the owners and operators of vessels that discharge oil in
                                                                             'r               violation of the Clean Water Act are liable for removal costs up
                    the likelihood of an accidental spill in and contamination of             to a statutorily established ceiling. The Petroleum Industry
                    these areas. However, accidents occurring outside harbor                  Response Organization is the oil industry's national coordinat-
                    areas, although less frequent, can cause greater damage. Oil              ing body for oil spill management. The local industry coopera-
                    slicks, for example, can sometimes stretch for hundreds of                tive is the Clean Islands Council. These organizations assist the
                    miles.                                                                    responsible parties and coordinate with Federal coordinators.









                                         Federal on-scene coordinators monitor removal and clean-             Hazardous Wastes
                                      up operations to ensure that they are conducted properly.               There are many types of hazardous waste. Some come from
                                      When the polluter is unknown, not acting responsibly or the             households, others from industry. Household hazardous
                                      clean-up effort is insufficient, the on-scene coordinator may           wastes include insecticides, paints, cleaning agents and
                                      exert partial or total control of spill response. The Coast Guard       acids. There have been a few state-sponsored collection
                                      can direct the mobilization of oil-spill control equipment within       programs for household hazardous wastes in the past. A
                                      the State and request additional equipment from the Mainland.           three-month program in 1989 consisted of a one-day pick-
                                      "Federalizing" a spill activates a Federal clean-up fund, which         up on the Neighbor Islands and a two-day pickup period on
                                      supports whatever actions are requred to ensure proper dean-up.         Oahu. There is no collection program currently planned due
                                         In this area of the Pacific, Hawaii is a member of a regional        to lack of State funds. Hence, household hazardous wastes
                                      response team made up of representatives from 13 Federal                often are discarded and sent to landfills. This unregulated
                                      agencies and governments of Guam, American Samoa and the                disposal can lead to groundwater contamination. DOH has
                                      Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana islands. This re-                  begun efforts to establish a permanent household hazardous
                                      sponse team is co-chaired by EPA and the Coast Guard. In                waste collection system in Hawaii.
                                      addition, the Federal government will establish a regional                Industrial hazardous wastes - such as paints, hydraulic
                                      strike team within the State, associated with the Coast Guard.          fluid and solvents -also are produced in Hawaii. Some data
                                      Plastics                                                                are available on the amount of hazardous wastes produced
                                                                                                              and stored on the numerous military installations around the
                                      Plastics have become an integral part of the world economy.             Islands. There are a few private operations that recycle
                                      They are used for packaging, containers, household goods,               solvents, but most of Hawaii's industrial hazardous wastes
                                      furnishings, equipment and machines. However, the charac-               are exported to the Mainland for disposal.
                                      teristics which make plastics so durable and convenient for use           Management of all industrial hazardous wastes is done by
                                      also make them noribiodegradable and hazardous to the envi-             EPA and DOH under the Resources Conservation and Re-
                                      ronment. When discharged, lost or abandoned in the marine               covery Act (40 CFR 260-270). EPA has primary responsibility
                                      environment, plastic debris can generate serious problems.              for issuing hazardous waste permits, while DOH helps EPA
                                         Entanglement of marine animals in six-pack rings, plastic            inspect operations involving hazardous materials. DOH will
                                      strapping bands and fishing gear is one problem associated              submit an application to EPA requesting authorization as the
                                      with plastic debris. The term "ghost fishing" has been coined to        primary hazardous waste management authority in the State.
                                      describe the death caused by lost or discarded fishing gear that        The State also is drafting its own hazardous waste regula-
                                      continues to trap marine life. ingestion of plastics and styrofoam      tions.
                                      also can adversely impact marine species. Human safety can be             A registration system exists to regulate the transport of
                                      threatened if divers become entangled in fishing lines and nets.        hazardous wastes. EPA gives identification numbers to the
                                      Plastic items, including synthetic ropes and netting, can also          shippers, who must comply with specific Federal and State
                                      interfere with vessel operation, fouling propellers and clog-
                                      ging cooling-water intake systems. The disposal of         I large      rul.es. DOH has not yet imposed hazardous waste transpor-
                                      amounts of debris has the potential to adversely impact the             tation regulations.
                                      aesthetic quality of beach areas.                                       Radioactive Wastes
                                         Accidental disposal of plastic items at sea and littering from       Low-level wastes (LLW) are generated in all activities involv-
                                      land account for some of the debris, but deliberate disposal is         ing radioactive isotopes. LLW constitute the bulk of all
                                      a much larger problem. Major sources of marine plastics                 nuclear wastes generated, including contaminated clothing,
                                      pollution include commercial fishing vessels, merchant ships,           equipment and other medical and research nuclear waste
                                      U.S. naval and research vessels, passenger vessels and pri-             products. Between 1957 and 1968, solid radioactive wastes
                                      vately owned recreational vessels.                                      were disposed of in Hawaii's waters by the U.S. Navy and
                                         National legislation was recently enacted to adopt Annex V           University of Hawaii. In addition, liquid waste, resulting
                                      of the Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention        from maintenance and repair of submarines and ships, was
                                      for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships, 1973 @MARPOL 73/78).          discharged into Pearl Harbor until 1973. LLW must now be
                                      Under this law, no plastics can be dumped at sea. As a result,          transported to Mainland sites for burial (DBED 1990).
                                      the Coast Guard has adopted regulations designed to reduce                In the future, Hawaii may be required to dispose of its
                                      the incidence of discharges of plastics and other ship-gener-           own LLW. Mainland states currently providing this service
                                      ated garbage into the marine environment. The Department of             may be closing their doors to wastes from other states, in
                                      Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) and DOT, as well as                   order to accommodate their own waste disposal needs. The
                                      numerous public and private institutions - including the                U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), in cooperation with
                                      University of Hawaii Sea Grant and Sea Life Park - are                  relevant state agehcies, is responsible for managing
                                      educating the public about regulations prohibiting marine               LLW.
                                      disposal of plastics and their effects on the marine environment








                          High-level wastes (HL\X7) are generated in the processing of            neers (COE) under Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of
                       spent fuel from nuclear power plants or nuclear submarine and              1899 (dredging) and by EPA and COE under Section 404
                       ship reactors, Currently, HLW generated in Hawaii (virtually all           (discharge of dredge materials) of the Clean Water Act (CWA)
                       by the military) are transported to the Mainland for disposal.             and Section 103 (ocean disposal of dredge materials) of the
                       DOE also monitors civilian HLW: however, Hawaii has no                     Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA).
                       nuclear reactor sites, which serve as storage sites elsewhere. Military    Under Section 103, MPRSA, EPA has designated several dredge-
                       HLW is stored in various DOE reservations throughout the country.          material ocean dump sites in Hawaii. These sites are located off
                          An issue relevant to Hawaii is the proposal for subseabed               Nawiliwili, Kauai, about 3.3 nautical miles (nm) at 1, 120 meters
                       disposal of HLW. The difficulty in locating and managing safe              (in) depth; off Port Allen, Kauai, about 3.2 run at 1,610 m depth;
                       land-based storage sites spurred an examination of at-sea and              off south Oahu, about 3.3 nm at 475 m depth; off Kahului, Maui        '
                       seabed disposal of HLW. Subseabed disposal would involve                   about 5 nm at 365 in depth. and off Hilo, Hawaii, about 4 nm
                       placing HLW into canisters, which would be imbedded into the               at 340 in depth (Arakaki 1990). COE records indicate that more
                       sediment of the deep mid-ocean abyssal plains. This sediment               than nine million cubic yards of dredge materials have been
                       has physical and chemical properties that help to isolate highly           dumped at the South Oahu Dump Site since the 1960s, in
                       radioactive wastes from ocean waters. The U.S. Subseabed                   conformance with Federal testing requirements.
                       Disposal Program, administered by DOE, was established to                     Under the MPRSA, commonly known as the Ocean Dump-
                       assess the feasibility of using subseabed disposal methods for             ing Act, EPA designated ocean dump sites and, in cooperation
                       high-level nuclear wastes. More than 200 holes have been                   with COE, established test procedures to determine the accept-
                       tested in the Pacific basin about 2,500 miles northwest of                 ability of dredge materials for ocean dumping. COE imple-
                       Hawaii (DBED 1990). However, funding for this program has                  ments dredge-materials testing requirements, determines the
                       been decreased substantially in recent years due to conflicts              acceptability of dredge materials for ocean disposal and issues
                       with international law, international political opposition to the          permits to transport dredge materials for ocean dumping after
                       proposal and serious environmental concerns.                               consideration of EPA opinions. EPA, which oversees the
                          The effect of radionuclides on the marine environment is                program, may find materials unacceptable for ocean disposal.
                       dependent on a number of factors, including the physical state             COE may request an economic waiver in response to EPA
                       of the discharged waste, the method of waste discharge, wind               objections. In Hawaii, COE does not require perniit applicants
                       and wave action, and other oceanographic and biological                    to obtain a Water Quality Certification (Section 401, CWA) for
                       processes. Due to the many factors involved, the nature and                the ocean disposal of dredge materials, because Section 103,
                       levels of impacts these materials may have are difficult to                MPRSA, does not require permit applicants to acquire such
                       estimate. Contamination of seafoods and impacts to marine                  certification. Furthermore, the designated ocean disposal sites
                       ecosystems are of particular concern.                                      are located outside State waters (beyond the three-mile limit,
                                                                                                  the demarcation of State jurisdiction for these purposes).
                       Dredge Materials                                                             The resuspension of dredge materials and probable impact
                                                                                                                                 0
                       Hawaii's economic health, viability and the safety of its people           of the resuspended materials on marine life and water qualiq,
                       are dependent upon shipping, which emphasizes the impor-                   currmtly cannot be judged as a significant public concern. Most
                       tance of maintaining Hawaii's harbors. Similarly, maintenance              maintenance activities are located within previously disturbed and
                       of flood control channels is required for the protection and               developed areas, where marine life abundance and productivity are
                       safety of human life and property. Hence, periodic mainte-                 sharply depressed in comparison to preclevelopment conditions. In
                       nance dredging is necessary to maintain operating depths in                contrast to daily resuspension of bottom sediments by ship traffic
                       harbors and navigation channels, and to maintain flood protec-             and frequent occurrence of storm rurioff, maintenance dredging is
                       tion capacity in flood control channels.                                   a single, short-term (five to ten days), highly localized occurrence
                                                                                                  that happens on a frequency of once in five to ten years Oess
                          Dredge materials are composed of terrestrial silts and clays,           fiequently for flood control channels). Based on DOE and EPA
                       mixed with sand, basalt or coral cobbles. Contaminants from                research on the environmental. effects of dredging, rnispension of
                       urban, commercial and industrial areas surrounding harbors                 dredge materials does not result in any immediate or long-term
                       and flood control channels may be washed or discharged into                degradation of water quality except in very unusual circumstances
                       these water bodies, where the contaminants may bind to the                 such as the presence of significant concentrations of water-soluble
                       silts and clays. Consequently, the public is concerned about the           contaminants from industrial sources being discharged into a water
                       probable impacts of dredging and dredge-material disposal                  way (Arakaki 1990). Based on, and within the limitations of,
                       activities on marine life. The impacts may result from smother-            bioassayandbioaccumuladonteststodate, dredge materials dumped
                       ing, settling of resuspended dredge sediments, potential toxic-            at ocean disposal dump sites were not found to have toxic or
                       ity and bioaccumulation of contan-driants in dredge materials,             unacceptable bioaccumulation effects on test organisms. Be-
                       and potential release of contaminants into the water column.               cause ocean disposal sites are located far offshore, removed
                          Dredging activities and their impacts on navigation and the             from human activities, no significant adverse effect on nearshore
                       environment are regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engi-                  fisheries, water supplies, recreation, human health, safety or
                                                                                                  welfare are expected.








                                        DOH surveys have found traces of contaminants in edible                   tion and educational campaigns, including a public volunteer
                                      marine life found in Hawaiian harbors and flood control                     water-quality monitoring effort. The current NPS Program is
                                      channels, as a result of contaminant discharges into these water            dependent on Federal operational funds from EPA, which will
                                      bodies and runoff from commercial and industrial upland                     be phased out in 1991. DOH wffl submit funding proposals to
                                      areas. These findings attest to the need to regulate and control            the 1991 Legislature in order to obtain permanent State funding
                                      contaminant sources, both point and nonpoint, rather than                   for the program. Without such funding, it is conceivable that
                                      focusing on the symptoms (e.g., contaminated dredge materi-                 the NPS program will cease to exist.
                                      als). Contaminated dredge materials only can result from the
                                      introduction of contaminants into harbors and flood control
                                      channels by point and nonpoint sources. Regulating contan-d-                MANAGEMENT ISSUES
                                      nant sources should, in turn, reduce contaminant levels in                  Potential Social and Environmental Risks
                                      marine organisms caught for human consumption in harbors
                                      and flood control channels.                                                 Primary Wastewater Treatment
                                      Nonpoint Source Pollution                                                   The question of whether secondary treatment of municipal
                                                                                                                  wastewater is necessary has been hody debated in Hawaii. The
                                      Pollution can reach the marine environment from a variety of                City and County of Honolulu has sought a waiver from the EPA
                                      nonpoint sources. Sedimentation from sod erosion causes                     requirement for secondary treatment of sewage by virtue of its
                                      significant siltation problems for the nearshore environment.               deep ocean wastewater outfalls. Unlike continental areas,
                                      Sources include agricultural and urban storm water runoff. The              areas off of the Hawaiian Islands slope rapidly into deep ocean,
                                      use of agricultural chemicals in the State may contribute to the            where currents can actively dilute and disperse effluent. As a
                                      increase in residues found in runoff entering the nearshore                 result, some believe that secondary treatment in Hawaii does
                                      waters. In rural areas, waste ninoff from poultry, cattle and pig           not markedly improve water quality or reduce environmental
                                      farms also enters the nearshore waters, increasing nutrient                 impacts. Others speculate that the discharge of dissolved
                                      levels.                                                                     nutrients associated with secondary treatment may have even
                                        Golf courses are a common use of coastal land. Fertilizers                more serious environmental consequences than discharges of
                                      and pesticides applied to these golf courses may find their way             primary-treated wastewater.
                                      into coastal waters, potentially affecting water quality. The                 In general, secondary treatment removes dissolved and
                                      cumulative effects of these agrochernicals are difficult to as-             colloidal organics by using microorganisms, which assimi-
                                      sess. Goff courses also can contribute to sedimentation during              late them. In the ocean, there are microorganisms that
                                      the construction stage, if not adequately managed.                          accomplish the same function. With good dilution and dis-
                                        In many areas, storm water runoff into drainage ditches,                  persion, and an almost unlimited supply of dissolved oxy-
                                      canals and streams carries significant amounts of pollutants                gen, no problems should occur. This concern is primarily a
                                      into nearshore waters, including pesticide and fertilizer runoff            problem of social and political perception, rather than of
                                      from yards, and petrochemical and heavy metal runoff from                   technical feasibility.
                                      industrial parks and roads. Little effort is being made to inter-           Municipal Waste Incineration
                                      cept the contaminants in these streams; consequently, they end              The city's HPOWER plant at Barber's Point is designed to bum
                                      up in the nearshore water.                                                  municipal solid waste. The environmental and human health
                                        There are efforts to collect oily wastewater from service                 effects of the plant emissions and ash disposal are community
                                      stations, car washes and maintenance shops. This wastewater                 concerns. There also is disagreement over the completeness of
                                      contains oil, brake fluid, solvents, anti-freeze, grit, metal par-          combustion and the effectiveness of emission control at the
                                      ticles, fuel and other contaminants. Though such wastewater is              plant. At this time, there is no plan for at-sea incineration of
                                      pumped out frequently, its collection, transport and disposal is            solid wastes.
                                      not monitored by the State. Some of this wastewater can                     Hazardous Waste Incineration
                                      conceivably end up back in storm drains.
                                        DOH has prepared an assessment report and mariagement                     Hazardous waste incineration is very controversial. Ten to
                                      plan on Hawaii's nonpoint source pollution (DOH 1989a;                      twenty percent of all hazardous wastes are amenable to incin-
                                      1989b). The assessment report outlines the State's nonpoint                 eration (DBED 1990). Although they comprise a relatively
                                      source pollution problems. Sedimentation has been identified                small portion of all hazardous wastes, they are among the most
                                      in the report as the primary nonpoint source pollution problem              toxic. Because of their characteristics - such as their organic,
                                      in the State. The management plan discusses those tasks which               chemical and energy content - they remain potentially haz-
                                      will be part of the Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution Control                 ardous for long periods of time. other methods of storage and
                                      Program. As part of its first phase, the NPS Program is evaluat-            disposal are not effective management alternatives. Incinera-
                                      ing County grading ordinance effectiveness in controlling                   tion can reduce the volume of hazardous waste by more than
                                      sedimentation. The program also is initiating public informa-               99 percent (DBED f990). However, many incinerable hazard-
                                                                                                                  ous wastes contain high amounts of organically bound chlo-








                      ride, which generates highly corrosive and toxic hydrogen                 facilities are now being operated close to their design capacity.
                      chloride gas when burned. The formation and release of                    The question is whether to build additions to these facilities, or
                      products of incomplete combustion during incinerafion also                stop growth in the housing developments that connect to them.
                      may pose a significant risk to the public. Human health risks             Unfortunately, the planning for housing developments is not
                      from incineration of carcinogenic heavy metals, such as chro-             well coordinated with planning for infrastructure develop-
                      mium, cadmium and beryflium, can be significant. Potentially              ment, resulting in overworked treatment facilities.
                      hazardous ash also is produced. The disposal of this ash is an
                      important issue.                                                          Collection System for Household Hazardous Wastes
                        Land-based facilities are required to have air pollution                There is no program for the collection and disposal of house-
                      control equipment, such as scrubbers, capable of removing                 hold hazardous wastes in the State. Thus, household hazard-
                      acid gases from the smoke. However, these toxic emissions are             ous wastes are dumped at landfills. This can pose a potential
                      then disposed of either in ponds, in the case of scrubber water,          contairdnation. threat to groundwater.
                      or landfills, in the case of solid filters. A private company may
                      propose a hazardous waste incinerator for Oahu's Campbell                 Funding
                      Industrial Park. This site is being considered with the intention         Hazardous Waste Management Program
                      that this facility's smokestack emissions would be dispersed in
                      the waters off Barbers Point by the tradewinds.                           The DOH Hazardous Waste Section is developing its capability
                        The incineration of liquid hazardous wastes at sea also has             to manage the State's hazardous waste stream. It soon will
                      been proposed. However, the use of scrubbers on ocean                     request authorization from EPA to perrnit hazardous waste
                      incinerator vessels is not easily feasible because of the unstable        transfer and disposal facilities. However, this effort is being
                      platform. Some argue that scrubbers are not entirely necessary            hampered by lack of funds and limited personnel (four inspec-
                      because of the seawater's natural capacity to neutralize hydro-           tors, one permit person, one planner, and a part-time man-
                      gen chloride gas, and because the vessels operate far from                ager). Consequently, DOH lacks adequate enforcement capa-
                      human populafions. At this time, ocean incineration has not               bilities.
                      been approved by the EPA as an appropriate method of waste                  The establishment of HEER is an important first step for the
                      disposal. There is considerable public opposition because of              State to deal with the problems of hazardous waste and oil
                      the significant contaminabon of the surface ocean layers by the           spills. However, it also is significantly underfunded and under-
                      emissions, and the danger of catastrophic spills.                         staffed. There are seven staff members - three of whom are on
                                                                                                loan from EPA - and two clerical workers. Federal funding
                      Maintenance of Existing Facilities                                        and "loaned" personnel are intended only to assist the State
                      Problems have occurred at some sewage treatment facilities 'in            with the planning phase of its program and provide some
                      the State as a result of equipment failures. in these cases,              emergency response clean-up assistance. These funds, which
                      sewage was released in a less-treated form. The effluent quality          are provided through an EPA Superfund core grant, are to be
                      was lower than allowed by NPDES permits and the plant                     phased out within two or three years. To date, the State has not
                      managers, either the Counties or private developers, were                 supplied adequate funding for the program to stand on its own.
                      fined for discharge violations. In some cases, plant operators            Nonpoint Source Poflution Program
                      have received repeated citations for violations. These viola-             The State's Nonpoint Source Pollution Program is very new.
                      tions point to the need to improve the maintenance of sewage              Consequently, it is difficult to assess its success. However, it can
                      treatment facilities. Many existing facilities are being used             be said that since there is virtually no State funding for the
                      beyond their design capacity limits. This indicates an entirely           program and no full-time State employee working in it, there is
                      different problem.                                                        an apparent deficiency in State financial commitment to this
                      Support for Treatment Facility Operators                                  program. The two staff assigned to the program are on loan
                                                                                                from Federal agencies, one from the Soil Conservation Service
                      Control technology for wastewater treatment is becoming                   and one from EPA. The program has just recently hired five,
                      more sophisticated. More effective and efficient performance              temporary field technicians, who are responsible for evaluat-
                      is expected from these technologies, As a result, more training           ing the effectiveness of County grading ordinances.
                      opportunities and career advancement incentives are needed                  Since it is just getting started, the program has not yet begun
                      for treatment facility operators.                                         to deal with the other nonpoint source pollution problems,
                      Facffities and Infi-astructure for Municipal Wastewater                   such as cesspool leaching, storm drains, golf course runoff and
                      Treatment                                                                 other forms of agrochemical pollution, it also is hampered by
                                                                                                a lack of baseline data. Although a coastal water quality
                      When existing wastewater treatment facilities were built, they            monitoring program exists, there is no such program to address
                      were designed to handle waste volumes from the community                  nonpoint source pollution concerns.
                      for 20 years. Less than 20 years later, many of these treatment








                                        Oil and Chemical Spill Response Capabilities                              from hazardous spills if there is no clear threat to human health
                                        Oil and chemical spills are potentially catastrophic to the State's       or welfare. The rule-making procedure for enforcing the law
                                        marine and coastal ecosystems and economy, Rapid and effec-               offers the opportunity to clarify this shortcoming. Furthermore,
                                        tive response to spills is essential. However, since the State            in terms of administrative capability, DOH does not have
                                        depends heavily on the Coast Guard to respond to oil and                  sufficient trained personnel to assess the damage to natural
                                        chemical spills, the State's capability to assist in response             resources resulting from a spill. It is also not clear whether
                                                                                                                  HEER has the authority to hire staff on a contractual basis to
                                        efforts or handle spills independently is extremely limited.              provide this service.
                                        Hawaii has an oil spill contingency plan and response inven-
                                        tory, which the Coast Guard Marine Safety Office recently                 Alternative Sewage Treatment Methods
                                        updated. It highlighted several inadequacies, some                        A variety of alternative methods for treating human wastes
                                        infrastructural and others institutional. Hawaii has too little           such as composting toilets and leaching systems using water
                                        equipment to respond to a major spill effectively. Furthermore,           hyacinths, sedges and lemongrass - are not approved by the
                                        recent Coast Guard staff and budget cuts have resulted in                 State and Counties for residential use. Leaching systems re-
                                        limited planning and preparedness capabilities.                           quire a large space and could be restricted to low-density
                                        Comprehensiveness                                                         residential developments if they are to be included in building
                                                                                                                  codes.
                                        Marine Plastk Pollution
                                        Marine pollution from plastics is a significant problem that the          Coordination
                                        State needs to address in a more comprehensive fashion.                   Hazardous Waste Management on Fedeml hatafladons
                                        Educational efforts by DLNR, DOT and University of Hawaii                 The Federal government is a major land owner in Hawaii. On
                                        Sea Grant are beginning to reach ocean users. However, many               some lands, there are facilities for aircraft and ships, and
                                        coastal recreation areas do not have any informational flyers or          storage for munitions, fuels and chemicals. These installations
                                        posters on the issue. In addition, these recreation facilities do         are required to provide information on quantities and types of
                                        not always have solid waste receptacles on site. Ocean recre-             wastes on hand. These military wastes are subject to the same
                                        ation events, including fishing touirriaments, do not regularly           regulations as civilian hazardous wastes. Since there have been
                                        provide incentive programs for boaters to bring their garbage             problems in other states with the management of hazardous
                                        back to shore for proper disposal. Recycling programs for                 wastes on Federal installations, it is important for Hawaii to
                                        plastics are limited.                                                     ensure that these wastes are properly managed. Some informa-
                                        Water Quality Monitoring                                                  don is available on the amounts of hazardous waste generated
                                        Comprehensive statewide water quality monitoring programs                 by Federal facilities. COE is well-funded to manage these
                                        are needed. The current State program is insufficient, espe-              hazardous wastes. The problem, however, lies in inadequate
                                        cially in temis of sampling frequency and number of sampling              coordination between Federal and State management efforts.
                                        sites. Three factors contribute to these deficiencies: 1) lack of         Oil Spill Response
                                        funding to expand the program; 2) DOH water quality labora-               The recent update of the State's oil spill contingency plan
                                        tory is operating at full capacity and having problems with lack          pointed to several areas where improved coordination is needed.
                                        of space and qualified personnel; and 3) DOH field personnel
                                        are also fully occupied. Current State efforts to control nonpoint        Currently, the on-scene coordinator has the responsibility to
                                        source pollution are hampered by the lack of baseline data on             ensure adequate clean-up of a spill, yet incomplete authority to
                                        water quality. Federal funds for water quality monitoring                 direct it. Granting greater authority to the on-scene coordinator
                                        programs are dwindling.                                                   would expedite decision-making, particularly if contingency
                                                                                                                  plans incorporate preapproval for any actions requiring per-
                                           Federal, State and private monitoring programs exist but are           mits, such as for use of chemical dispersants.
                                        not coordinated. Existing data from these programs are not                   Private ciean-up organizations exist, such as the Clean
                                        analyzed on a comprehensive or comparative basis to provide               Island Council and Petroleum industry Response Organiza-
                                        an overall water quality picture. Marine life monitoring is not           tion; however, it is essential that their capabilities be effectively
                                        required as a means to assess potential impacts of pollution on           utilized in coordination with Federal and State efforts. The
                                        the marine environment. Standard quality assurance and qual-
                                        ity control programs must be agreed upon and implemented by               availability of emergency response equipment and personnel
                                        all monitoring programs.                                                  is limited. On some Islands, equipment and personnel are not
                                                                                                                  available at all. if all agencies and organizations potentially
                                        Legal Authority                                                           involved in spill management would confer to predetermine
                                                                                                                  an array of appropriate actions to take under particular circum-
                                        Hazardous Spills                                                          stances, the on-scene coordinator could exert on-scene com-
                                        In Hawaii's new Emergency Response Law, it is not clearly                 mand without causing undue controversy. If effective, such a
                                        articulated that the DOH may act to protect natural resources             decision model might transfer useftilly to other environmental
                                                                                                                  disaster response plans.








                     Public Information and Involvement                                            3. Fully implement the water quality monitoring pro-
                     When an Environmental Assessment (EA) is prepared for a                       gram in the Clean Water Branch. This would require
                                                                                                   additional funding from the Legislature.
                     proposed project, the State agency responsible for the area or
                     resource determines whether the proposed activity has the                     Municipal Sewage Treatment
                     potential to cause significant environmental impacts. If it is                4. 1Work with the Counties to upgrade sewage treatment
                     determined affirmatively, then an Environmental Impact State-                 facilities and build new facilities. This may require addi-
                     ment (EIS) is prepared. The public can comment on the EIS and                 tional funding from the Legislature.
                     thereby Lake part in ensuring its adequacy. However, when a
                     @negative declaration" is made, stating that the project will have            5. Convene a statewide policy and management work-
                     no significant environmental effects, the public has no means                 shop on the relative costs and benefits of primary and
                     to comment on the decision. If individuals or groups disagree                 fertilizer.
                     with the negative declaration, or feel the EA is inadequate, they             6. Work with Counties to develop alternative funding
                     must file a lawsuit.                                                          mechanisms for constructing additional sewage treat-
                       Results from water quality monitoring programs are not                      ment facilities as building development. continues.
                     readily available to the public in an understandable format                   7. Increase training and career advancement incentives
                     that analyzes trends and current status of sites. Public under-               for treatment facilities operators.
                     standing of oil spills and their potential impacts on the
                     marine environment must be improved. The public is not                        8. Implement the revised Chapter 11-62 Hawaii Admin-
                     actively involved in marine life monitoring programs and is                   istrative Rules (HAR) which describes the boundaries of
                     not fully aware of any standard procedure for reporting                       Critical Wastewater Discharge Areas on each island.
                     spills.                                                                       9. Encourage each County to maintain adequately trained
                       Recycling, source reduction and anti-littering programs de-                 environmental engineers to evaluate proposed individual
                     pend on public awareness and involvement for success. How-                    wastewater treatment systems.
                     ever, many of these programs do not receive adequate support                  OSP should:
                     from the State. The success of nonpoint source pollution
                     control is especially dependent on public awareness and                       10. Work with the Counties to ensure that sewage treat-
                     involvement since no Federal regulations exist, and controls                  ment facilities have adequate capacities to handle incom-
                     are voluntary.                                                                ing waste volumes in order to prevent discharges of
                                                                                                   untreated sewage into nearshore waters. Thiswill require
                                                                                                   coordination of planning for housing development with
                     RECONMENDA17ONS                                                               planning for infrastructure development.
                     Objective                                                                     DOHsbould.
                     Ensure that the State is capable of effectively regulating waste              Individual Wastewater Treatment Systems
                     disposal, and accidental oil and chemical spills, while protect-              11. Work with the Counties to support the use of non-
                     ing human health and minimizing environmental degradation.                    cesspool alternative methods of domestic sewage treat-
                     Policy A                                                                      ment. This would need to be accomplished through the
                                                                                                   implementation of wasiewater rules which allow for
                     Minimize point and non-point source pollution and its accom-                  these types of systems.
                     panying impacts on the ocean and coastlines by developing
                     appropriate regulatory controls, incentives, monitoring, and                  Municipal Solid Waste
                     research programs.                                                            12. Establish solid waste management standards that
                     Implementing Actions:                                                         Counties would be expected to meet in developing their
                                                                                                   solid waste management plans, including site selection
                          DOHsbould:                                                               and closing criteria for landfills.
                          Water Quality                                                            13. Ensure that municipal solid waste incineration - in-
                          1. Monitor and provide input on proposed changes to                      cluding smokestack emissions and ash disposal - is fully
                          Federal statutes and regulations regarding water quality                 monitored and monitoring information is readily avail-
                          and waste disposal.                                                      able to the public.
                          2. Sponsor regional. and State workshops to review                       Hazardous Waste
                          existing DOH and other monitoring programs in order to                   14. Establish an effective monitoring prograrn for all
                          establish a comprehensive water quality and marine life                  hazardous or toxic wastes. To do this the Legislature
                          monitoring program for all coastal waters.                               should increase funding and staffing for DOH programs.








                                             [This would enable DOH to increase its monitoring of all                    4. Work with the Counties to provide incentives for
                                             hazardous was*e treatment/storage/disposal centers and                      recycling and composting.
                                             ensure proper treatment, storage and disposal of wastes.]
                                                                                                                         5. Coordinate regulatory controls and incentive pro-
                                             15. Work with industry to develop incentive programs to                     grams to discourage illegal dumping of oil, sewage from
                                             minirnize hazardous or toxic wastes and to develop spill                    vessels, plastics and other waste into ocean and coastal
                                             prevention, preparedness and response capabilities.                         waters.
                                             16. Develop an effective enforcement program for haz-                       DOTshould:
                                             ardous waste regulations.                                                   6. Provide incentive programs to encourage commer-
                                             17. In the event of hazardous waste incineration, ensure                    cial and recreational vessels to bring plastic wastes and
                                             that plants - including smokestack emissions and ash                        sewage back to port for proper disposal.
                                             disposal - are fully monitored and monitoring informa-                      7. Require the establishment of facilities for sewage and
                                             don is readily available to the public.                                     used oil, along with receptacles for solid waste, separated
                                             Radioactive Wastes                                                          into plastic, paper, aluminum, and glass, at all small boat
                                             18. Establish a management program for overseeing the                       harbors and boat ramps. At the same time, develop
                                             collection, transportation, disposal and monitoring of a                    educational programs for boaters about the benefits of
                                             radioactive wastes.                                                         utilizing these facilities. [See Harbors section.)
                                             Non-point Source Poffution                                                  DOHsbould:
                                             19. Improve the effectiveness of the non-point source                       Hazardous Waste
                                             pollution control program. To do this, the Legislature                      8. Support programs to reduce the production of haz-
                                             should increase funding to DOH: to prioritize and ad-                       ardous wastes in the State's industries. Use waste audits to
                                             dress non-point source pollution issues; for State person-                  pinpoint the sources of hazardous waste in different
                                             nel for the program; and for research into the impacts of                   industries. Offer incentives for industries to take preven-
                                             various land uses on nearshore habitats,                                    tive steps such as raw material substitution, process
                                             Litter Control                                                              redesign, product redesign, in situ recycling, and en-
                                             20. Establish a program to identify and regulate sources of                 hanced containment during transfer and processing.
                                             unregulated waste disposal, including fishing gear, mass                    9. Establish a free and convenient collection system for
                                             release of helium filled balloons, and onshore and off-                     household hazardous wastes, such as pesticides, paints,
                                             shore littering.                                                            and solvents.
                                       Policy B                                                                   Policy C
                                       Promote waste minimization through source reduction, recy-                 Be prepared to -respond effectively to spills and other dis-
                                       cling, and other alternative methods of waste management as                charges involving oil and other hazardous materials in the
                                       part of the State's regulatory programs.                                   State's waters.
                                       Implementing Actions:                                                      Implementing Actions:
                                             DOHsbould:                                                                  DOHsbould:
                                             Wastewater Treatment                                                        1. Increase staffmg for the department's Office of Haz-
                                             1. Support water reclamation through a variety of meth-                     ard Evaluation and Emergency Response (HEER). Ibis
                                                                                                                         would require additional funding.
                                             ods, including artificial marshes, sedges, water hyacinths                  2. Arrange for HEER to contract services for natural
                                             and other plants as means of absorbing nutrients con-                       resources damage assessment from spills.
                                             tained in primary treatment effluent, in addition to the
                                             current practice of using this effluent in golf course                      3. Clearly articulate in the rule-making procedure for
                                             irrigation.                                                                 the State Emergency Response Law that the department
                                             2. Support the utilization of sewage sludge, after proper                   has the,authority and responsibility to respond to spills or
                                             treatment, as composted fertilizer.                                         releases that may harm natural areas without clear threat
                                                                                                                         to human health. [These rules and responsibilities for
                                             Munkspal SoUd Waste                                                         protection of natural resources also need to be integrated
                                             3. Work with the Counties to establish redemption cen-                      with the existing authority of DLNRJ
                                             ters for recyclable materials, including plastic, paper,                    4. Initiate a program to evaluate and take action on the
                                             glass, aluminum, and used motor oil.                                        hazardous waste problems in all Federal facilities in
                                                                                                                         Hawaii in cooperation with the COE.








                             5. Identify those hazardous waste cleanup sites that                       4. Establish a toll-free number for citizens to report
                             should be included in the State and National Priority List                 violations of waste disposal regulations.
                             for Superfund sites.                                                       5. Incorporate public comment into the preparation of
                             6. Conduct an economic impact assessment study to                          long-term toxic waste clean-up plans.
                             cletennine the impact of an oil spill in specific areas, such        Policy E
                             as Waikiki. This would help the State determine how
                             much money it is willing to pay for prevention.                      Ensure cooperation among regulatory and management agen-
                             7. Conduct a study with Federal, State and County                    cies within the State, and among Federal, State, and County
                             agencies, and petroleum shippers         Iand refiners to ap-        agencies.
                             proximate the probable risks of various categories of oil            Implementing Action:
                             spills. This would require close and candid cooperation                    DOH should:
                             between industry representatives, the USCG and State
                             representatives.                                                           Conduct a comprehensive review of waste management
                             8. Review existing response plans and approved strate-                     regulations, procedures, and programs at the County,
                             gies for oil spill response. This should include an ongoing                State, and Federal levels to identify the gaps and overlaps
                             effort to monitor technical literature for innovations in                  as well as opportunities for improved cooperation and
                             coping with monitoring, containment, recovery and clean-                   information-sharing among the agencies.
                             up of oil spins.
                             9. Evaluate actual oil spill response capacity in the State          REFERENCES
                             or available to the State on short (12 hour) notice. Alloca-         Arakaki, S.T. 1990. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Letter of
                             tions to upgrade capacity in either State or Federal agen-           August 29,1990. Honolulu.
                             cies, or in the private sector must be based on a realistic
                             appraisal of what already exists, its suitability for Hawaii         State of Hawaii, Department of Business and Economic Devel-
                             and the probabilities that it might be needed.                       opment. 1990. Report to tb e Fifteenth State Leg islatu re Regula r
                             10. Work with Federal agencies to devise incentives for              Session of 1990 on Chapter 228, Hawaii Revised Statutes,
                             the oil industry to enhance the procedural safety of oil             Ocean Resources Management.
                             shipments, and to ensure immediate reporting not merely
                             of spills, but of high-spill-risk situations.                        State of Hawaii, Department of Health. 1989a. Hawaii'sAssess-
                             11. Work with the U.S. Coast Guard to expedite the                   ment of Norpoint Source Pollution Water Quality Problems.
                             sampling process for idenfifying spill sources.                      Honolulu.
                                                                Z)
                             12. Establish a grievance mechanism to provide a forum               State of Hawaii, Department of Health. 1989b. Hawaii's
                             for citizens to seek compensation when they are affected             Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Management Plan. Hono-
                             by spills.                                                           lulu.
                      Policy D                                                                    State of Hawaii, Legislative Reference Bureau. 1987. Compen-
                      Enhance public awareness and participation with regard to                   dium of State Ocean and Marine Related Policies. By T.S.
                      sources and effects of marine pollution, as well as methods and             Brennen and K.H. Takayama. Honolulu.
                      programs for waste disposal and cleanup.
                      Implementing Actions:

                             DOHshould.-

                             1. Seek increased funding from the Legislature for its
                             public education program to enhance public awareness
                             of wastewater disposal facilities and environmental pro-
                             grams and the effects of marine pollution on the environ-
                             ment. Such programs should also encourage public par-
                             ticipation in clean-up activities.
                             2. Increase support of community programs such as
                             "Adopt-a-Beach" (e.g., trail, storm drain, etc.).
                             3. Make water quality monitoring information, which
                             analyzes trends and identifies problem areas, readily
                             available to the public in an easily understandable form.












                                               Ken Kassman
                                               Center for Development Studies
                                               Social Science Research institute,
                                               University of Hawaii
                                               2424 Maile Way
                                               HonoW H[ 96822
                                               ROURCULTURE



                                                                                                           nffi MOTWE
                                                                                             PAGE          Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms on land or in
                                        n1E RESOURCE                                           84          the ocean, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic
                                        Physical Enviroriment                                  85          plants in salt, brackish or fresh water. Although the Hawaii
                                        Cultural Environment                                   85          Oce  an Resources Management Plan is primarily concerned
                                        Production Facilities                                  86          with ocean-related impacts of aquaculture, it is important for a
                                                                                                           comprehensive management plan to view this sector in its
                                        RESOURCE MANAGEMM                                      86          totality. Information and issues concerning freshwater aquac-
                                        Regulation                                             87          ulture are thus included in this technical paper.
                                             Federal Autbority                                 87             Aquaculture is currently one of th@ fastest growing indus-
                                             State Autbority                                   87          tries in Hawaii with an average annual growth rate in revenues
                                             County Autbority                                  88          of 13 percent and an estimated income of over $21 million in
                                        support                                                88          1989 (DLNR 1989). Technical support and consulting services
                                             Federal Autbority                                 88          (the service sector) brought in the bulk of revenue for the
                                             Swe Autbority                                     88          industry with over $14 million in sales. In 1989, 22 Hawaii-
                                             County Autbority                                  89          based firms were involved in this sector, providing research,
                                                                                                           training, conference, education and consulting services. Prod-
                                        MANAGEMIM ISSUES                                       89          uct sales (the commercial production sector) are estimated to
                                        Imd Availability and Expense                           89          furnish another $7 million, primarily from the sale offreshwater
                                        Water Availability                                                 prawns and marine shrimp. Although the commercial produc-
                                        Public Access and User Conflicts                                   tion sector currently represents half the dollar volume of the
                                        Environmental Concerns                                             service sector, its importance should not be overlooked. It is
                                        Regulatory Constraints and lack of Coordination        90          estimated that aquaculture furnishes from two percent of the
                                        Economic Viability                                     91          total fisheries production ofthe State. Because ofthe highvalue
                                                                                                           of its produce, aquaculture comprises 13 percent of the total
                                        RECONMEMAnONS                                          91          value of all seafood produced commercially in Hawaii (DLNR
                                        Objective                                              91          1990).
                                        Policies and Implementing Actions                      91             Although the present growth of aquaculture seems to indi-
                                                                                                           cate stability, in the recent past large scale private investment
                                                                                                           in the production sector and subsequent withdrawal of said
                                                                                                           investment, a serious disease epidemic in the marine shrimp
                                                                                                           production sector, and a lack of available seed stock in other
                                                                                                           sectors has shown aquaculture in Hawaii to be an economi-
                                                                                                           cally cyclical, but growing, industry. In 1979, less than $2
                                                                                                           rnillion in production sales and no service sales were reported.
                                                                                                           While 1979 revenue was related primarily to a single species,
                                                                                                           freshwater prawns, the variety of aquacultured species has
                                                                                                           now expanded to aver 35 different products including marine
                                                                                                           shrimp, Chinese catfish, tilapia, carp, rainbow trout, abalone,
                                                                                                           nori, ogo, spirulina, oysters, salmon and lobster. in addition








                    several species of ornamental aquatic plant and animal species          aquacultural development. Primary lands are those lands out-
                    are being cultured along with juvenile shrimp and prawns for            side of urban zoning districts and below 3,000 feet elevation
                    stocking. Futurespecies prospects include mabimabi, japanese            that have less than a five percent slope, fresh, brackish or salt
                    flounder, baitfish, giant clams, limpets, pearl oysters and sea         water potentially available, average air temperatures above 20
                    cucumbers. This infant industry could grow to play an impor-            degrees centigrade and clay, loamy or clay-loam soil, which
                    tant role in an economically diversified and more self-sufficient       can be compacted into ponds. Secondary lands have the above
                    Hawaii and expand the State's export market as well (DLNR               characteristics but have less suitable soils. These include lava
                    1989; 1990).                                                            lands. Despite the large amount of potentially available acre-
                      Aquaculture resources are based largely on the technical              age, zoning, land ownership, prior pesticide use, the proximity
                    support and food production sectors of the industry. Advances           and availability of water resources and other factors greatly
                    in marine biotechnology and research indicate that equally              limit the actual availability of the land base. User conflicts and
                    valuable returns may lie in new aquacultural areas such as              untested legal questions also may limit the availability of
                    marine industrial chemicals, marine pharmaceuticals and bio-            offshore aquaculture development.
                    medical research models. In recent years, aquaculture re-               Cultural Environment
                    searchers have begun to investigate the feasibility of mass
                    aquaculture for a variety of invertebrate species. Marine bio-          The aquaculture industry in Hawaii is blessed by many unique
                    technology shows great potential for expanding the opportu-             cultural factors, both traditional and modem. The Hawaiian
                    nities in commercial aquaculture (Main et at 1987). The aquac-          lifestyle has always relied upon ocean resources. Ancient
                    ultural resources in Hawaii can be broken down into three               Hawaiians made abundant use of the sea and utilized the ocean
                    main subgroups: environmental resources, cultural resources             for their major source of protein. Although the introduction of
                    and current production facilities. Understanding each of these          cattle and other animals has reduced this reliance on marine
                    resource sectors is important in developing a comprehensive             produce, Hawaii is still the largest per capita seafood consumer
                    public policy and maintaining the viability of aquaculture in           in the United States. Much of this owes to the State's unique
                    Hawaii.                                                                 ethnic and cultural make-up. Over half of the population now
                                                                                            comes from Pacific Island and Asian cultures in which seafood
                    Physical Environment                                                    is a major dietary component.
                    Hawaii's environmental resources have been a major factor in               The traditional/historical role of aquaculturect seafood in
                    the growth of the aquaculture industry. Hawaii is the only state        ancient Hawaiian culture is a major factor, which should be
                    which has year-round temperatures suitable for growing tropi-           considered a resource to the modem aquaculture industry. As
                    cal, sub-tropical and temperate aquatic species. Solar intensity        early as 1901, observers noted that over 104 manmade fish-
                    in certain parts of Hawaii is among the highest in the world. The       ponds actively were involved in the farming of marine species,
                    warm climate and solar intensity play a major role in minimiz-          including the fast-growing grey mullet or ama, milkfish or
                    ing the energy costs involved in temperature regulation. Ha-            awa, and the abolebole and oopu (gobies). These ponds
                    waii also has some of the purest water in the world. One of             covered almost 3,000 acres and produced 680,000 pounds of
                    Hawaii's leading aquacultural crops takes advantage of this             fish annually. Although this seems substantial compared to
                    situation in the raising of high quality, freshwater prawns             Hawaii's modem aquaculture industry, it is estimated that there
                    IDLNR 11111,                                                            were more than 340 fishponds when aquaculture production
                      The ocean surrounding Hawaii provides a virtually unlim-              was at its pre-European contact peak.
                    ited supply of relatively clean, free, salt water. Salt water             With the decline of the Hawaiian population following
                    (18,000+ ppm of chloride) and brackish water (250 - 18,000              Western contact and the rise of a plantation economy, many of
                    pprn of chloride) also are available from various limestone and         these fishponds fell into disrepair and disuse. Recent studies
                    volcanic aquifers. Both brackish water and salt water are               show that several of these ponds could be renewed for present-
                    underutilized resources at this time. Emphasis on saltwater             day aquacultural production. In a recent study, six of 67 ancient
                    aquaculture development could relieve pressure on limited               fishponds studied were found to have excellent potential for
                    freshwater supplies while utilizing semi-neglected resources.           mullet and milkfish production, and 15 ponds were found to
                    As a byproduct of the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion                   have good potential with minor repair or improvements (DPED
                    (OTEC) experiments on the Island of Hawaii, researchers have            1977).
                    successfully used cold, nutrient rich, pathogen-free, deep sea            The rise of the plantation economy early in this century also
                    water for aquaculture. OTEC could provide aquaculture with              marked an era of important reliance on agriculture. For de-
                    fresh water as well, although the relative cost may be detrimen-                                                      Z>
                    tal (DLNR 1984; 1990; Fast and Tanoue 1988).                            cades, sugar and pineapple were major economic forces in the
                                                                                            islands. With the decline of these industries, water and land will
                     Hawaii has a large ocean and land base suitable and poten-             become available for other uses. As a sub-industry of agricul-
                    ally available for aquaculture use. The aquaculture develop-            cure, aquaculture could use these resources while continuing
                    ment report for the State (1978) identified 135,000 acres of            the cultural connection to the land and diversified economy
                    'primary lands and 500,000 acres of secondary lands suitable for        now associated with agriculture.








                                           The aquaculture industry thus has a substantial advantage in          company continued its support of Hawaii aquaculture with a
                                        that a cultural/historical base of familiarity and acceptance has        $20 million expansion program. Partial funding of this expan-
                                        already been laid both for the consumption and culturing of              sion program came from Japanese investment (ibid).
                                        aquatic resources. The resurgence of aquaculture in Hawaii                 Another California-based company operates the largest
                                        presents a viable means to produce traditionally accepted                shrimp farm in Hawaii, comprised of over 153 acres of aquac-
                                        protein sources and an opportunity to connect that production            ulture ponds. It has a well-known roadside stand, which offers
                                        to the reemergence of Hawaiian culture and community self-               freshly cultured shrimp and prawns to seafood-hungry resi-
                                        sufficiency. For the people who work on such projects, aquac-            dents and tourists alike. It also raises and sells several species
                                        ulture is more than a commercial activity. It is a way of life that      of fish. The company recently opened a processing plant in the
                                        links traditional heritage to the modem world. Few other                 Mapunapuna area of Oahu (ibid).
                                        industries in Hawaii can make this claim.
                                                                                                                   Kahuku Aquacultural Park on Oahu is a privately owned
                                        Production Facilities                                                    and independently operated park with both fresh and saltwa-
                                        Aquaculture has played a significant rol@ in bringing diversified        ter aquaculture. Its six private farms, on land owned by Campbell
                                        investment to Hawaii. There are 50 seafood farms in operation,           Estate, are involved in shrimp and fish production (ibid).
                                        employing more than 500 people and growing 35 different                    Production from government-funded aquaculture facilities
                                        species of aquatic resources in production facilities that range         is usually a byproduct of research. There is commercial pro-
                                        widely in technical sophistication and complexity. Most are on           duction from private firms operating in government-spon-
                                        Oahu (DLNR 1988; 1989; 1990).                                            sored aquaculture parks, but production is not directly funded
                                                                                                                 by the public sector. Natural Energy Laboratory Hawaii Author-
                                           Small scale "cottage" farms are the dominant organizational           ity (NELHA) aquac   .ultural park is an example of this
                                        form in Hawaii, accounting for 63 percent of total aquaculture                                                                      type of
                                        production organizations. These farms are fairly stable (8.5             government facility, which encourages commercial produc-
                                        years of average operation), farnily-oriented businesses with            tion and provides research and technical support services to
                                        one or two employees. Many of these families own their own               commercial producers Gbid).
                                        land and are thus able to keep one of the primary operating                The Anuenue Fisheries Research Center (AFRC) is an ex-
                                        expenses for aquaculture in Hawaii relatively low. These                 ample of a government-owned production facility. AFRC,
                                        cottage famis account for much of the production of                      operated by the Department of Land and Natural Resources
                                        aquacultured species in Hawaii. Six@-six percent of Hawaii's             (DLNR) Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR), has a 1.6 hectare
                                        prawn production and all of its freshwater and ornamental fish           (ha) facility that conducts research and produces fresh and
                                        production come from cottage farms (Main and Deupree                     saltwater aquaculture species. It has been providing freshwa-
                                        1986).                                                                   ter prawn seed stock to local aquaculturists for more than a
                                           Ten percent of Hawaii's 50 aquaculture farms are incorpo-             decade. It is now conducting research into seaweed projects as
                                        rated. Due to the larger size of corporate operations, these             well as larval culture of marine shrimp, mahimahi and crabs
                                        operations accounted for about 70 percent of total dollar                (Main et al 1987). Maui County also has supported the culturing
                                        volume in the aquaculture production sector in 1989. In 1986,            of marine shrimp seed stock for commercial production sup-
                                        one-half of all shrimp and algae production facilities and one-          port on Molokai (ibid).
                                        third of the prawn farms in the State were corporate-owned.                Although there has been interest in government-supported
                                        Small-business accounted for the other 50 percent of shrimp              aquaculture restoration and enhancement of depleted marine
                                        and algae farms (ibid).                                                  fisheries, only recreational freshwater stock enhancement (cat-
                                           Although the majority of aquaculture production in Hawaii             fish and trout) is being undertaken at this time.
                                        is sold locally and directly by the producer, international
                                        companies from several continents are becoming an increas-               RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
                                        ingly important part of the industry. International investment in
                                        the aquaculture industry includes investment from countries as           A range of Federal, State and County regulatory regimes and
                                        diverse as Norway and Japan. Recent foreign investment in                agencies manage aquaculture activities in Hawaii. Access to
                                        aquaculture production in Hawaii is estimated to be as much as           water (fresh and salt), siting, species choice, system design,
                                        $15 million, with millions more being brought into the State             effluent discharge, financial aid, and research and extension
                                        through international consulting by Hawaii-based firms (DLNR             services are overseen by different agencies operating on differ-
                                        1989).                                                                   ent governmental levels with different regulatory responsibili-
                                           Mainland companies also have found it advantageous to                 ties and legislative mandates. These areas of responsibility fall
                                        locate aquaculture facilities in Hawaii. One company, origi-             into two main categories: regulation and support.
                                        nally established in California, now raises abalone, oysters, sea          Federal, State and County regulatory and support regimes
                                        urchins and salmon on the Kona Coast of Hawaii (Islands,                 shape aquaculture in Hawaii. Attempts are being made to
                                        March/April 1989, Santa Barbara, California). In 1989, this              coordinate these diverse agencies and their programs as well as








                      to provide linkages between the various sectors of the aquac-          aquaculture effluent discharges from facilities producing less
                      ulture industry. In 1985, the Hawaii Aquaculture Advisory              than 100,000 pounds of aquatic animals per year and for
                      Council was authorized by the the State Legislature to promote         facilities that discharge less than 30 days a year. DOH also may
                      communication between private industry and State govem-                grant Zones of Mixing to allow effluent discharges that have
                      ment agencies. A Memorandum of Understanding formalized                implemented the "best degree of control" even though they are
                      linkages between the University, State agencies and the Oce-           unable to meet the WQS. Limited zones are intended to place
                      anic Institute. The Mariculture Research and Training Center,          controls on discharges in order to attain the highest level of
                      the State Aquaculture Development Program and the UH Sea               water quality and minimize environmental impacts on re-
                      Grant Extension Service jointly sponsor an annual series of            ceiving waters. Anyone who proposes a discharge that
                      workshops on topics pertinent to local aquaculturists (Main et         results in a change in water quality must demonstrate impor-
                      al 1987).                                                              tant economic or social benefit and show that it will not
                                                                                             interfere or adversely impact the intended beneficial uses of
                      Regulation                                                             any State waters.
                      Federal Authority                                                         Under Chapters 328-9 and 321-11, HRS, Chapter 11-35, 11-
                      The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) has jurisdiction over           29 and others, HAR, and the National Shellfish Sanitation
                      structures placed in waters from the shoreline seaward. COE            Program (Pub. No. 33 U.S. Public Health Services), DOH is
                      generally requires a permit for projects involving dredging or         responsible for the inspection and regulation of shellfish in-
                      filling-in navigable waters, stream diversion or impoundment           cluding the growing, harvesting, packing and shipping of
                      and for projects affecting swamps, marshes and wetlands. Any           oysters, clams and mussels.
                      individual who wants to do work "in, under, across, or on the             The Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) is
                      banks of navigable waters" must first obtain a pen-nit from COE.       the lead agency for aquaculture development and for land-use
                      Its regulatory mandate stems from several laws including the           decisions involving conservation lands in Hawaii. The State
                      Rivers and Harbors Act of 1191, Clean Water Act, National              land Use Law (Chapter 115, HRS), the Coastal Zone Manage-
                      Marine Protection and Research Act, and the Coastal Zone               ment Act (Chapter 205A, HRS) and several similar mandates
                      Management Act of 1972. COE is responsible for an Environ-             provide the basis for State land-use management in Hawaii.
                      mental Assessment and if necessary an Environmental Impact             Land-use law establishes four major land use classifications:
                      Statement for projects with significant environmental impacts          urban, rural, agricultural and conservation. The Land Use Law
                      under the Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Permit issuance is         establishes jurisdiction between the State and the four County
                      generally undertaken after all State and County permits are            govemments. Most urban land is under County control, as is
                      granted.                                                               agricultural land in parcels under 15 acres. Conservation land
                        Another Federal agency involved in Hawaii aquaculture is             and large agricultural tracts are under DLNR jurisdiction. Aquac-
                      the Department of Interior, which interacts with local authori-        ulture/mariculEure is defined as a permitted use in both the
                      ties on endangered species issues.                                     agricultural and conservation classifications. State Conserva-
                                                                                             tion Land Use Penriits generally are required by DLNR for
                      State Authority                                                        projects within areas zoned as conservation lands.
                      On the State level, the Department of Health (DOH) is a                   Along with DOH, DLNR oversees groundwater allocation
                      primary regulatory agency. DOH is charged with enforcing the           decisions and the withdrawal of water from streams. DLNR also
                      National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and the Hawaii               oversees modification of stream channels on windward Oahu
                      Environmental Impact Statement Law of 1974. The Environ-               and use of groundwater in Oahu's Ewa and Wahiawa. DLNR is
                      mental Assessment/Environmental Impact Statement require-              further responsible for historic site review of projects affecting
                      ments are triggered whenever public projects or coastal zone           designated or potential Federal and State Historic Sites, includ-
                      area projects requiring water or land-use permits are deemed           ing many ancient Hawaiian fishponds.
                      to have significant environmental impact; defined as "the sum             The Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Law (Chapter 205A,
                      of those effects that affect the quality of the environment,           HRS) requires State agency permit decisions to be consistent
                      including actions that irrevocably commit a natural resource, or                              0
                      adversely affect the economic or social welfare" (Chapter 343,         with the objectives and policies in the Law. The law sets broad
                      Hawaii Revised Statutes [HRSD.                                         policy regarding the use of coastal resources. It is administered
                                                                                             by the Hawaii Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Program,
                        DOH also is the lead agency in the issuance of the National          Office of State Plannm*g.
                      Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit man-                The Department of Agriculture (DOA) requires perrnits for
                      dated by Congress through the Clean Water Act of 1977                  the importation of non-indigenous species of aquatic animals.
                      (Chapter 342D, HRS). Dischargers of aquaculture effluent are
                      required to meet applicable NPDES effluent guidelines and              Certain species, commonly aquacultured on the Mainland,
                      State Water Quality Standards (WQS). Implementation ofWQS              such as striped bass, some species of tilapia and freshwater
                      is through Hawaii Administrative Rules, Tide 11, Chapter 54            eels, are not permitted for importation into Hawaii due to
                      (Chapter 11-54, HAR). Federal exemptions are available for             concern over unknown environmental impacts.








                                        The Department of Transportation (DOT) has authority over            aquaculture development. One of those centers, the Center for
                                     activities within State waters (Chapter 266, HRS) and requires          Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture (CTSA), is in Hawaii.
                                     permits for filling/dredging, construction and placement of             jointly administered by the University of Hawaii and the
                                     structures in shorewatersJoint processing of DOT Shorewaters            Oceanic Institute, CTSA is a programmatic center that funds
                                     Permits with Conservation District Use Permits may be allowed.          and administers research, development and demonstration
                                     County Autbority                                                        projects throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands (DLNR
                                                                                                             1987; 1988; Main eE al 1987).
                                     Landward of the shoreline, Counties have jurisdiction under                in addition, USDA provides nationwide aquaculture sup-
                                     the State Land Use Law, Special Management Area (SMA) and               port through matching grants to States through its Agricultural
                                     Shoreline Setback regulations, and County planning, zoning              Marketing Service; extension services through State Coopera-
                                     and subdivision laws. Under Chapter 205A, HRS, the four
                                     Counties are required to establish SMA boundaries and an SMA            t1ve Extension offices; Farmers Home Administration loans; Federal
                                     permit process for lands extending from the shoreline to no less        crop insurance; National Agricultural Library Service; statistical
                                     than 100 yards inland. Developments within the SMA must                 reporting services and purchase of aquaculture overproduction.
                                     conform to the objectives and provisions within the Hawaii                 Other Federal agencies, including the Department of Inte-
                                     Coastal Zone Management Law. The permit-granting authori-               rior (DOI) and DOC support research, development, extension
                                     ties are the planning commissions for Kauai, Maui and Hawaii            and training for aquaculture activities. DOI works primarily
                                     Counties and the City Council for the City and County of                through the US Fish and Wildlife Service. DOC supports aquac-
                                     Honolulu. Applicants for an SMA pen-nit must file a document            ulture research and development activity through the Eco-
                                     that includes an identification of the property, plans, a descrip-      nomic Development Administration (EDA) and National Oce-
                                     Jon of the proposed development, a shoreline survey (if on the          anic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA con-
                                     shoreline), and a description of the environment affected.              ducts its research and development programs pdmffly through
                                     Evidence must be provided that no serious environmental or              the National Marine Fisheries Service and Sea Grant College
                                     ecological impacts will occur. Act 200 adopted by the 1979              Program. Additional Federal support for aquaculture, primarily
                                     State Legislature amends Chapter 205A, HRS, to allow exemp-             financial aid, is available through loans from the Farmers Home
                                     tion from SMA pen-nits for aquaculture activities which are not         Administration and the Small Business Administration, and
                                     or may not become 'part of a larger project, the cumulative             grants from the National Science Foundation.
                                     impact of which may or may not have a significant envionmental             Federal and State grants to fund aquaculture research have
                                     or ecological effect" on the SMA.                                       been rising since 1980, when support totaled about $2 million.
                                       Chapter 205A, HRS, Part II and III, require that the Counties         In 1985 State and Federal aquaculture grants exceeded $6
                                     establish shoreline setbacks no less than 20 feet and no more           million. State funds are primarily administered by DLNR's
                                     than 40 feet inland from the shoreline (although Counties may           Aquaculture Development Program and are often matched by
                                     mend the setback further by County ordinance). The law is               UH Sea Grant College Program and occasionally by private
                                     intended to control development on the shoreline, prevent               sources. Hawaii also has received recognition from the Federal
                                     erosion, maintain open space, and preserve public access to             government for its leadership role in aquaculture develop-
                                     the shoreline. Administration and enforcement of shoreline              ment. The State was selected in 1987 by Congress as the site of
                                     setbacks are the responsibility of the County planning depart-          the Center for Applied Aquaculture (CAA). CAA will serve
                                     ments (Kauai, Maui and Hawaii) and the Department of Land               national aquaculture research needs. it is expected to employ
                                     Utilization of the City and County of Honolulu. Variances may           300 persons and be a foundation for approximately $40 million
                                     be issued following a review by the appropriate County au-              to $60 million in research contracts annually Obid).
                                     thorities. Other general building permits also may be needed.           State Autbority
                                     County public works departments generally require grading,
                                     grubbing and stockpiling permits for major land clearing devel-         In 1978, Hawaii became the first state to issue a comprehensive
                                     opments. The City and County of Honolulu also requires a well           aquaculture development plan (DPED 1978). The State has
                                     permit for the construction of or modification to fresh, brackish       long had a commitment to developing an aquaculture industry.
                                     or saltwater wells.                                                     As early as 1961, the Honolulu Bait Station (later consolidated
                                                                                                             into the Anuenue Fisheries Research Center, AFRQ began
                                     support                                                                 State-funded research into culturing tilapia. for use as baitfish.
                                     Federal Autbority                                                       In 1965, the State pioneered freshwater prawn aquaculture and
                                                                                                             for over a decade has provided postlarval prawn stock to local
                                     On the Federal level, the Department of Agriculture (USDA)              aquaculturisEs. The AFRC continues to provide extension
                                     and Department of Commerce (DOC) have been major sup-                   services regarding a variety of marine and freshwater species
                                     porters of aquaculture in Hawaii, providing over $6.4 million in        (Main et al 1987).
                                     grant funding in 1987 alone. In addition, USDA made a substan-             In 1977, the State Aquaculture Development Program (ADP)
                                     tial commitment to aquaculture on a national level in 1985 with         was established in the Department of Planning and Economic
                                     the establishment of four (now five) regional centers to support        Development (now the Department of Business, Econornic








                     Development & Tourism, DBED). ADP is the lead agency for:                 In addition, the State has provided significant financial
                     1) statewide planning, coordination and communication; 2)              support for development of the aquaculture industry. DOA
                     providing inforimation-related support services, permit acqui-         administers the Aquaculture Revolving Loan Fund (ARLF) to
                     sition, species and site selection, marketing and economics,           help finance commercial aquaculture activities. By taw, ARLF
                     and disease diagnosis and prevention projects; and 3) funding          can loan up to $100,000 for real estate and improvements and
                     and co-funding research, development and demonstration                 up to $75,000 for operating capital. Since its establishment in
                     projects. In 1981, ADP was transferred to DLNR to consolidate          1972,38 loans totalincy $1,670,000 have been made. Loans from
                     resources under one lead agency.                                       the ARLF are not available to aquaculturists involved in the
                        The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA)           production of ornamental fish (ibid).
                     was created from the separate entities of the Natural Energy           County Autbor*'y
                     Laboratory of Hawaii and the Hawaii Ocean Science and                  Maui County, long a leader among the Counties in aquaculture
                     Technology Park. NELHA has used the deep seawater byproduct            research, is the only County supporting aquaculture develop-
                     of the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) projects it              ment. The Maui County Baitfish Facility, founded in 1978,
                     oversees to support aquacultural research and production.              investigated developme'nt of top minnows for use as bait for
                     NELHA comprises over 870 acres reserved for high technology            skipjack tuna fishing. Tilapia and catfish also were being
                     ocean-related research, development and commercial activi-                                                                              0
                     ties. Staff, expertise, equipment and utilities are available for      investigated for human consumption. Facilities include six .2-
                     aquacultural support. In 1989, eight companies produced 13             ha ponds and three .05-ha broodstock ponds. There are four
                     different aquacultural products (some sold to Mainland mar-            full-time County employees (Main et at 1987). In 1988, Maui
                     kets) and employed 140 people (DLNR 1989).                             County also funded the first cottage4evel aquaculture project
                                                                                            in the State. Managed by Maui Economic Opportunity, Inc.,
                        Besides ADP, the Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR) has            senior citizen participants cooperatively marketed Chinese
                     aquaculture responsibilities which include hatchery opera-             catfish, snails and tropical fish grown in backyard fish farms.
                     tions, research, stock enhancement and development activi-                Maui is now looking into establishment of a 107-acre re-
                     ties. Through its AFRC facility, DAR became the main supplier          search facility called the Kealia Aquatech and Renewable
                     of prawn post-larvae seed stock on an emergency basis after            Resources Park (KARRP) as a technology incubator focusing
                     private hatcheries closed down.                                        on renovation, pilot testing or pre-commercial development
                        In 1985, the Legislature authorized the establishment of the        phases of projects. The County also has funded a marine
                     Hawaii Aquaculture Advisory Council (HAAC) to advise DLNR              shrimp hatchery on Molokai to provide post-larvae seed stock
                     on aquaculture development in the State. The Council is                to the two marine shrimp farms there. Maui County also is
                     composed of 16 ex-officio members from key State agencies              joining various State and private agencies in funding a project
                     and County governments and seven aquaculture industry                  to use a traditional Hawaiian fishpond in the culturing of mullet
                     representatives (DLNR 1984).                                           and milkfish (DLNR 1989).
                        The University of Hawaii offers training and research facili-
                     des through 13 of its departments or programs including: the           MANAGEMENT ISSUES
                     College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources; College
                     oINatural Iciences; Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology; Hawaii         Management issues associated with aquaculture in Hawaii fall
                     Backyard Aquacultural Program; Mariculture Research and                into six major categories: land availability and expense; water
                     Training Center; the Snug Harbor Algal Mass Culture Facility           availability; public access and user conflicts; environmental
                     and Waikiki Aquarium. The University has an aquaculture                concerns; regulatory constraints and lack of coordination among
                     coordinator who emphasizes development for research and                management agencies; and economic viability concerns.
                     mention outreach to industry. The UH Sea Grant program
                     funds innovative research and development projects and of-             Land Ava&blhty and Expense
                     fers extension help throughout the Islands. The University             Although the Aquaculture Development Plan WED 1978) has
                     offers degree programs related to aquaculture through its                     0
                     Marine Options Program and the Hilo campus has a degree                identified 135,000 acres as suitable for aquaculture and an
                     program offering an aquaculture major (DLNR 1984; Main et a]           additional 500,000 acres as having potential for aquaculture,
                     1987).                                                                 land ownership, development conflicts and the high cost of
                                                                                            land for purchase or lease seriously restrict this ideal. Only a
                        The State has recognized the need for a large-scale aquacul-        fraction of that acreage is currently available for aquaculture
                     ture pond research and training facility to simulate the environ-      development. Government support of aquaculture, such as the
                     ment in which most commercial aquaculture is produced. The             aquaculture park at NELHA on the Island of Hawaii, can help
                     University of Hawaii's Mariculture Research and Training Cen-          alleviate this situation. Some suggest expanding the aquacul-
                     ter (MRTC) at Hakipuu, Oahu, was selected as the site for Phase        ture park system to other Islands. Offshore aquaculture devel-
                     1 of this facility, with satellite facilities to be built on one or more opment also could alleviate some of the cost associated with
                     of the Neighbor Islands (DLNR 1989).                                   land acquisition and the unavailabity of suitable land.








                                     Water Availability                                                      environmental effects of aquaculture effluent discharge into
                                     Water availability may be broken down into three categories:            coastal waters.
                                     brackish, salt and fresh. There are substantial brackish water             The construction of shoreline and offshore aquaculture
                                     and almost unlimited saltwater resources available for aquac-           facilities may further complicate issues. Construction along
                                     ulture today and in the future. The supply of fresh water is            shoreline areas could conflict with the Special Management
                                     adequate for current aquaculture production. Although the               Area (SMA) mandate to protect, preserve, develop and restore
                                     visitor industry, golf courses, diversified agriculture, a growing      Hawaii's coastal zone resources. However, aquaculture may
                                     population and new industrial development put pressures on              be able to further the SMA mandate by utilizing restored
                                     freshwater supplies, it is important to note that fresh water used      traditional fishponds, restocking depleted fisheries and, effect-
                                     for aquaculture often can be integrated into agriculture as             ing positive effluent discharge-related biostimulation.
                                     irrigation water and thus "used" more than once. The decline               The inadvertant importation of exotic species to Hawaii has
                                     of other agriculture sectors, such as sugar and pineapple, may          caused the endangerment or extinction of many indigenous
                                     free some fresh water for the aquaculture sector. This issue is         plant and aninial species. Although this is not primarily an
                                     likely to become more heated as competition for fresh water             ocean concern, there are known cases of marine species
                                     increases. Setting priorities for water use and reuse and encour-       importation and spread. Eucbema, a seaweed, has "escaped"
                                     aging brackish and saltwater aquaculture development may                outside enclosures and spread throughout Kaneohe Bay. Tila-
                                     help rnitigate future problems.                                         pia has spread to most brackish water areas in the state. There
                                     Public Access and User Conflicts                                        is concern that a more predatory species, such as an eel, could
                                                                                                             do long-term or permanent damage to the ecosystem. Since
                                     Aquaculture farms and research facilities have reported serious         most of the species which have proven to be viable for
                                     economic losses due to theft in recent years. Shoreline fish-           aquaculture are nonindigenous to Hawaii, responsible,
                                     ponds seem particularly vulnerable to losses from theft. Enrich-        proactive management in this area is important.
                                     ment of the natural environment from aquaculture effluent and
                                     nutrients may increase fisheries around offshore aquaculture            Regulatory Constraints and Lack of Coordination
                                     structures, thus attracting fishermen and poachers as well as           Myriad agencies on all levels of government regulate and
                                     fish.                                                                   control aquaculture in Hawaii. Many of these agencies or
                                       Aquaculture is primarily located along shoreline, near-coastal        governing bodies have limited knowledge of aquaculture, that
                                     or coastal water areas. Expansion of the industry could restrict        is a unique industry. Restrictions and regulations which may
                                     access to these areas and raise the question of traditional access      seem valuable to the regulatory agency may not in fact be
                                     versus property rights. View planes and view obstruction may            relevant, and thus, may make public participation in aquacul-
                                     occur because of offshore aquaculture structures, pens and              ture development more difficult (DLNR 1989).
                                     cages. Traditional public rights, such as access to the shoreline          Restrictive policies and a complicated perrnit-granting pro-
                                     from the land or the sea and the public use of fisheries as             cess also hinder the start-up and expansion of new aquaculture
                                     common resource, including traditional native tenants rights,           businesses. This is especially true for small businesses lacking
                                     make user conflicts likely.                                             financial and in-house technical resources. The current permit
                                     Environmental Concerns                                                  process is thought to limit the development of farms, impede
                                                                                                             lender or investor financing at the early stages of development,
                                     As aquaculture in Hawaii is still a relatively small and environ-       require costly legal, engineering and environmental expenses;
                                     mentally benign industry, there is little evidence of adverse           commit technical and mangement people to nonproductive
                                     environmental effects. As the industry expands there may arise          time-consuming meetings, strategy sessions, public hearings,
                                     environmental concerns that might be better addressed sooner            and coordination with consulcants; add to construction costs;
                                     than later. Among them are effluent discharge and the acciden-          and impose significant and long-term costs for monitoring and
                                     tal release of imported species into the ecosystem.                     reporting to government agencies (DLNR 1987; 1988).
                                       Effluent discharges from aquaculture facilities generally                Given the range of goals and objectives that governmental
                                     contain a high amount of nutrients due to uneaten feed,                 agencies seek to follow, it is inevitable that some conflicts
                                     unabsorbed fertilizers and/or waste elimination from the ani-           among development and resource protection policies will
                                     mal stock. Chemical agents used to prevent disease may be               occur. Coordinating bodies such as ADP and HAAC help unify
                                     present in the discharge, as well as hormone additives that             on a Statewide level the various approachs to aquaculture
                                     might be used to accelerate growth. Such nutrient enhance-              development now undertaken by Federal, State and County
                                     ment of the natural environment could stimulate the growth of           governing agencies. Recent steps have been taken in this
                                     plankton and neritic and benthic biota. The effecLs of such             direction. This increased coordination among government
                                     biostimulation may be viewed as positive, neutral or negative,          agencies should be encouraged along with increased input
                                     depending upon the specific results and biases of the inter-            from the private and research-oriented sectors. ADP has been
                                     preter. Additional assessment needs to be done concerning the           helpful in obtaining permits and is currently -working on








                     methods to further facilitate proactive coordination beteween                nomic, social, and environmental well-being of Hawaii.
                     permitt-granting agencies.                                                   4. Consider the needs of the aquaculture industry for
                     Economic Viability                                                           fresh water in relation to competing water uses.
                     Lack of capital is perhaps the biggest constraint to start-up or        Policy B
                     expansion of commercial aquaculture production facilities in            Mitigate user conflicts between the aquaculture industry, fish-
                     Hawaii. Private lenders are unwilling to risk capital on a new          ermen, and the public at large.
                     industry, which they may not understand and may correctly               implementing Actions:
                     perceive as high-risk. Bankruptcies and the withdrawal of
                     support by several large corporate aquaculture operators in the              DLAW sbould..
                     State have furthered apprehension. Start-up costs are especially             1. Investigate alternative means to resolve disputes be-
                     high for small-scale and community-onented ventures. Suitable                tween these communities.
                     seed stock often is unavailable and feed expenses are high.
                       Despite the above, the future for aquaculture in Hawaii                    2. Investigate the feasibility and desirability of expand-
                     could be very bright. Federal and State programs are encour-                 ing the Ocean Leasing Law to allow commercial aquacul-
                     aging increased participation. More people are eating fish at a              ture facilities in nearshore waters.
                     time when traditional fisheries are approaching their optimal                3. Encourage new aquaculture famis and facilities to
                     level of production. Hawaii already has played a major role in               begin a dialogue with affected community groups early in
                     the culturing of freshwater prawns worldwide. Expansion of                   the development process.
                     Hawaii's expertise into other areas, such as the production of
                                                                                             Policy C
                     further food species, culturing stock for depleted ocean fisher-
                     ies, and exploration into biotechnology, medicine and indus-            Assess the impacts of aquaculture on the Hawaiian ecosystem.
                     trial products could help Hawaii diversify its economy and              implementing Actions:
                     adapt to environmental and economic situations. A diversified,
                     small-scale, locally oriented production sector could help                   DLNR, in cooperation witb DOH, sbould..
                     increase Hawaii's self-sufficiency and provide the beginnings                1. Investigate the environmental effects of aquaculture
                     of a stable economic and food production base for the State.                 effluent discharge now occurring in Hawaiian waters.
                     Continued concentration on basic and applied research can
                     further export earnings as the service and consulting sector                 2. Evaluate State regulations governing discharges and
                     gains prominence on the Mainland and worldwide. Large-                       suggest possible changes to Federal and County regimes.
                     scale operations, if proven viable, also can increase export                 3. Develop a strategic and coordinated management
                     earnings and provide needed jobs in a diversified economy.                   plan to prevent adverse environmental impacts from
                                                                                                  aquaculture discharges, such as the identification and
                     RECOMMENDA11ONS                                                              development of suitable sites around the State.

                     Objective
                                                                                             REFERENCES
                     Develop an integrated approach to manage the impacts asso-
                     ciated with an expanded aquaculture industry in Hawaii, while           Choy, S. and D. H. Kondo, M. H. Maruyama, N.K. Nakamura,
                     maintainina the viability and integrity of the environment.             S. D. Maynard. 1981. The MokaueaFisbpond Project. Univer-
                     Policy A z@                                                             sity of Hawaii, Marine Option Program. Honolulu.
                     Assess the economic, social, and environmental costs and                Coleman D.E. and R.L. Buettner. 1989. Union List ofAquacul-
                     benefits of expansion in the various sectors of the aquaculture         turejournals in Hawaii. Center for Tropical and Subtropical
                     industry.                                                               Aquaculture. Honolulu.
                     Implementing Actions:                                                   Cooperative State Research Service/U.S. Department of Agri-
                           DLAW sbould:                                                      culture. 1987.
                           1. Identify the positive and negative impacts of expand-          Fassler, R. 1990, Hawaii, Prawns, Shrimp and Salmon. Aquac-
                           ing the various sectors of the aquaculture industry.              ulture Today. Spring. Honolulu.
                           2. Establish priorities for support of the various industry
                           sectors.                                                          Fast A.W. and K.Y. Tanoue (eds). 1988. OTECAquaculture in
                           3. Create a coordinated development strategy to direct            Hawaii. Working Paper Number 33. University of Hawaii, Sea
                           the industry along the path most beneficial to the eco-           Grant College Program. Honolulu.








                                   joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture of the Federal Coordinat-            State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                                   ing Council on Science, Engineering, and Technology. 1983.             Aquaculture Development Progarm, Aquaculture Advisory
                                   NationalAquaculture Development Plan. Washington, D.C.                 Council. Hawaii Aquaculture Advisory Council Reports, 1986
                                                                                                          to 1989. Honolulu.
                                   Main, K. L. and R. H.Deupreejr. 1986. CommercialAquacul-
                                   ture in Hawaii. University of Hawaii, CoBege of Tropical               State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                                   Agriculture and Human Resources. Honolulu.                             Aquaculture Development Program. 1988. Hawaii Aquacul-
                                                                                                          ture. Honolulu.
                                   Main, K. L. and J. K. Wang, R. H. Deupree, Jr., S. Higa. 1987.
                                   Aquaculture Planning in Hawaii. Report submitted to the                State of Hawaii, Department of Agriculture. 1990. YbeHawaff
                                   U. S. Department of Agriculture Cooperative State Research             State PlanforAgriculture. Draft. Honolulu.
                                   Service.                                                               State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                                   Office of Technology Assessment/U.S. Congress. 1987. Inte-             Aquaculture Development Program. 1990. Aquaculture in
                                   grated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular                  Hawaii. Honolulu.
                                   Areas. Washington D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office.
                                                                                                          Yim, T.C. 1977. Senate Aquaculture Report. Honolulu.
                                   Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
                                   1989. Aquaculture, Developing a New Industry. Paris.

                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-
                                   opment, Aquaculture Development Program. 1976. Aquacul-
                                   ture in Hawaii. Honolulu.


                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-
                                   opment, Aquaculture Development Program. 1977. ThePoten-
                                   tialfo r Mu Ilet a nd Milkjtsb Cultu re in Ha wa i ia n Fisbpo n ds.
                                   By W. D. Madden and C. L. Paulsen. Honolulu.

                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-
                                   opment, Aquaculture Planning Program. 1978. Aquaculture
                                   Development for Hawaii- Assessments and Recommenda-
                                   tions. By Center for Science Policy and Technology Assess-
                                   ment. Honolulu.


                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-
                                   opment, Aquaculture Development Program. 1981. Ocean
                                   LeasingforHawaii. By G. S. Clay, S. Broder, R. Turner, D. S.
                                   Kataoka, G. L. Rhodes, and D. K. Yamase. Honolulu.

                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                                   Aquaculture Development Program. 1981. Mariculture and
                                   Ocean 7bermal Energy Conversion, State of the A71 Assess-
                                   ments. Honolulu.


                                   State of Hawaii, Legislative Reference Bureau. 1982. Marine
                                   Resources and Aquaculture Programs in the State of Hawaii.
                                   By A. Ogata. Honolulu.

                                   State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources,
                                   Governor's Aquaculture Industry Development Committee.
                                   1984. Report oftbe Governor'sAquaculture Industry Develop-
                                   ment Committee. Honolulu.










                                Wendy L Schultz
                                Center for Development Studies
                                Social Science Research Institute,
                                University of Hawaii
                                2424 N[aile Way
                                Honolul% 111 91%22
                                ENERGY



                                                                                           TBE RESOURCE
                                                                             PAGE          Hawaii's ocean waters are a major energy resource, particularly
                         THE RESOURCE                                           93         important in a State whose relative isolation renders it hostage
                         Demand                                                 93         to imported oil, While the State supports many forms of
                         Supplies                                               94         alternative energy research and development, it has focused
                         implications for Ocean Resource Management             94         undeniably on the ocean. During the 1980s, Hawaii became
                         Ocean and Energy Production                            94         the premier site for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
                              Energy Sources in Ocean Waters                    94         research and implementation. OTEC facilities are designed to
                                                                                           replace fossil fuel electrical generation capacity. In a State
                              Ocean-Based Energy Distr*ution                    97         where the greatest energy demand lies in the transportation
                         RESOURCE MANAGEMENT                                    98         sector, OTEC's capacity to displace fossil fuel use will be
                         Regulation and Enforcement                             98         limited for the next decade. Nonetheless, the ocean has much
                              Electricity Generatiow OTEC                       98         to offer in alternative sources of energy for the future, through
                              Electricity Transmission                        100          OTEC and other marine energy technologies.
                         Monitoring and Res@                                  100             In addition, the conventional energy facilities already in
                              State                                           100          place in the State affect the ocean directly in a number of ways.
                              Federal                                         101          Oil-buming electrical generation plants are sited near the
                         infiaswucture Development                            101          oc .ean and use ocean water for cooling systems. Hawaii's
                              State                                           101          primary energy source, crude oil, arrives entirely by tanker.
                              Federal                                         101          Statewide use of geothermal energy resources is technically
                         Education and Public Awareness                       101          feasible given advanced transport systems - either design and
                                                                                           deployment of what will be the world's deepest underwater
                              State                                           101          power transmission cable, or the production and shipping of
                         MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                    101          hydrogen throughout the State. Appropriate ocean manage-
                         Site and Use Conflicts                               102          ment policies and appropriate energy strategies must recog-
                         Environmental impacts of Energy Facilities           102          nize the ocean's potential as an energy resource as well as its
                              Energy Production                               102          present relation to existing energy facilities.
                         Inaderluate Data Coordination                        103          Demand
                         Overlapping jurisdictions and Authorities            103
                              Site4 Development Permits and Plans             103          In 1988, Hawaii's resident population totaled over 1,098,000,
                         Limited Funds, labor and Equipment                   103          with a de facto population of approximately 1,219,0001. Energy
                                                                                           consumption for that year totalled almost 313 trillion Btu; this
                         RECOMMENDATIONS                                      104          equals approximately 285 million Btu per capita for the resi-
                         Objective                                            104          dent population, or approximately 45 barrels of oil per person
                      I





































                         Policies and Implementing Actions                    104          (barrels of oil equivalent, total energy use)2. Looking at State
                                                                                           consumption patterns by sector, 1987 figures show that of a
                                                                                           total 234.6 trillion Btu of energy consumed, 9.4 percent was
                                                                                           residential use; 12.5 percent was commercial use; 24.5 percent
                                                                                           was industrial use; and the remaining 53.6 percent was used in
                                                                                           the transportation sector.








                                        Hawaii's energy demand pattern is unique among the 50                    cal plants the output of which exceeds one-third of baseload
                                     states, and with respect to the nation as a whole. With the State's         demand. The recycling and burning of garbage, while using an
                                     economy dependent on the tourist industry, jet fuel use is                  indigenous energy "resource," also raised some ire among
                                     comparatively high, with air transport the primary consumer in              voters. Public sentiment is untested with regard to nuclear
                                     the transportation sector. In the rest of the country, ground               fusion, but history suggests feelings would run high on that
                                     transport is the primary consumer in the transportation sector.             issue as well. However, should commercial nuclear fusion
                                     As virtually no consumer demand for heating exists in Hawaii,               become possible, Hawaii at least can claim abundant supplies
                                     residential energy use is comparatively low. The State's relative           of "heavy water"for deuterium in the surrounding oceans. The
                                     lack of heavy industries also reduces its total demand for fuel             only indigenous sources of energy available to the State are
                                     oil and electricity.                                                        solar power, wind power, geothermal power, biomass and the
                                        In 1987, almost 45 million barrels of oil or equivalent in               various "water powers:" hydropower, OTEC, and tidal and
                                     products were consumed in Hawaii. The State's transportation                wave generators.
                                     sector alone accounted for 60 percent of oil demand. The total              implications for Ocean Resource Management
                                     1988 liquid fuel tax base equalled 1.22 billion gallons, of which
                                     over 701 million gallons were aviation fuel. Electric utilities are         Given Hawaii's lack of conventional energy resources and
                                     the second-largest users of oil, at 26 percent of total State               heavy reliance on imported petroleum, development of all
                                     demand. in contrast, transport for the country as a whole                   practical alternative energy systems is a necessity. This in-
                                     equals only 27 percent of total energy consumption, and                     cludes continued research and development in energy systems
                                     electricity generation over 35 percent. In the future, fresh water          that may not be viable at the present. First among the alterna-
                                     production may become another energy sink in Hawaii's                       tives is energy conservation. The State mandates not only
                                     energy demand pattern. The State's new desalinization plant at              integrated resource planning by electrical utilities, but also
                                     Barbers Point focuses on a new, potentially very large energy               demand-side management and conservation programs. As
                                     demand sector.                                                              statistics indicate, Hawaii already strongly supports alternative
                                                                                                                 energy use: 9.2 percent of its primary energy needs are met by
                                     SupplieS3                                                                   non-conventional sources, compared to only 3.5 percent for
                                     Hawaii's energy supply picture is also unique. In 1988, Petro-              the United States as a whole.
                                     leum supplied over 91 percent of the State's primary energy                   The ocean resource management program should encour-
                                     needs. All of that petroleum was shipped to the State. About 60             age optimal development and use of the State's ocean energy
                                     percent of it originated within the United States (primarily from           resources. The primary ocean and ocean-related energy re-
                                     Alaska's North Slope fields). Biomass (principaBy sugar cane                sources to consider currently are OTEC, tidal and wave power
                                     bagasse) supplied 8 percent of Hawaii's primary energy needs,               generators, and marine biomass. Where to put energy facilities
                                     and solar water heating, hydroelectricity, wind power and                   raises both social and environmental issues, which must jointly
                                     geothermal power together provided only 1.2 percent. In                     be addressed by ocean resource management and energy
                                     contrast, in 1988, the nation as a whole depended upon                      plans. Finally, both underwater electrical transmission cables
                                     petroleum for only 43 percent of its total energy needs; upon               and surface transport for conventional fuels should be man-
                                     coal and gas for 23.5 percent and 23.1 percent, respectively;               aged to balance efficiency of delivery with safety. Optimal
                                     nuclear power accounted for 7.1 percent; hydroelectricity for               development and use of these ocean resources should not
                                     3.3 percent; and all others for 0.3 percent.                                preclude maintaining and enhancing marine environmental
                                        Looking at electricity generation alone, petroleum fueled 91             quality.
                                     percent of Hawaii's electricity generation in 1988, with biomass            ocean and Energy Production
                                     generating seven percent, and the remaining two percent or so
                                     generated by hydropower, wind power and geothermal power                    EnerV Sources in Ocean Waters
                                     combined. The utilities generated about 89 percent of Hawaii's
                                                                                                                 The Pacific Ocean is one of the planet's primary energy en-
                                     electrical demand. Plantations and other private companies                  gines. As it absorbs sunlight, the subsequent temperature shifts
                                     generated the other 11 percent, most of which was sold to                   in the water drive not only cloud formation but the flow of
                                     electrical utilities under contract.                                        winds and the generation of storms. This thermal energy can be
                                        Of the conventional energy sources - petroleum, natural                  tapped indirectly, as wind power, marine biomass fuel, and
                                     gas, coal - Hawaii has absolutely no reserves to answer its                 wave power, or directly as OTEC. The ocean is not merely a
                                     energy demand. Even if construction of nuclear fission plants               planetary, but an interplanetary energy sink: the gravitic forces
                                     in the State were not against the law, Hawaii's electricity                 generated among the sun, the moon, and Earth generate tides,
                                     demand would be insufficient for fission's economies of scale.              and this energy also may be captured for use. Hawaii's wind
                                     Average plant size for nuclear fission electrical generation is             generators are all land-based, so ocean energy management is
                                     approximately 1000 MW. Oahu's peak demand is about 1000                     currently limited to marine biomass, wave power, OTEC and
                                     MW, with baseload requirements of about 600 MW. Given any                   tidal power. On a worldwide scale, however, these sources
                                     generating plant's downtimes, it is impractical to build electri-           alone could meet planetary power needs (Table 1).4






                                 Table I                                                       on the Big Island.6 Designated as the primary site for OTEC
                                                                                               research in the United States, OTEC-related experiments have
                                 Estimted Technically Feasible                                 been ongoing since it opened. Applied research began in 1979,
                                                                                               with the construction of "Mini-OTEC," a pilot closed-cycle
                                 Ocean EneW Resource Potentials                                OTEC plant build on a converted Navy barge. This plant
                                 (in MV)                                                       produced a 52-kw gross output of energy, and a 15-kw net
                                                                                               output of energy. It was the first closed-cycle plant to produce
                                 Thermal conversion                  10,000,000                a net output of electrical power.
                                 Wave power                             500,000                  OTEC is a method of converting the renewable solar energy
                                                                                               stored in the ocean into electrical energy. Two main compo-
                                 Tidal power                            200,000                nents comprise the system: warm and cold seawater intake and
                                 Salinity gradients                   3,540,000                discharge pipes; and the power plant itself, consisting of
                                                                                               pumps, turbine generators and heat exchangers. Warm surface
                                 Bioconversion                          770,000                seawater and cold deep seawater are piped separately to a
                                 Currents                                 50,000               power plant where the temperature differential, which must be
                                                                                               at least 200C, is utilized in either closed-cycle or open-cycle
                     *megawatts                                                                thermal energy conversion. In a closed-cycle plant, the warm
                     Source: Riva et al. [16:231, cited in Pryde, Philip R., NonconventionalEnergy sea water vaporizes a working fluid, such as ammonia, which
                     Sources, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1983. p-101.                  drives a turbine generator; the cold seawater then condenses
                                                                                               the working fluid to produce a continuous cycle. in an open-
                        Marine biomass can generate methane for a variety of                   cycle plant, warm surface seawater is vaporized in a depressur-
                     energy end-uses. Conceptual designs to date have suggested                ized chamber, producing low-pressure steam for power gen-
                     cultivating both giant kelp and red seaweed, grown in planta-             eration. The cold water is used to condense the steam: this
                      ons fertilized by nutrient-rich deep seawater. This deep sea-            process incidentally produces large quantities of desalinated
                     water would be pumped to the near-surface waters in a form of             water as a byproduct. The cost effectiveness of the open-cycle
                     artificial, mechanically assisted upwelling. As the pumps for             plant is enhanced by the production credit from this byproduct.
                     upwelling would themselves consume energy, these designs                  Fresh water also can be produced through closed-cycle OTEC
                     are most viable when linked to wave energy or OTEC plants.                with the addition of a conventional desalination unit or a
                     However, yields under experimental conditions have con-                   second stage consisting of a flash evaporator and a surface
                     finned that seaweed plantations could easily be 15 tons dry               condenser (ie., an open-cycle OTEC system without a turbine).
                     weight per acre per year, which is comparable to the best land-           This system is referred to as an hybrid OTEC plant.
                     based biomass production. As supplementary products, the                    More exciting than the ocean energy research itself is the rich
                     plantations also would produce animal food and fish.                      basket of commercial opportunities that have resulted from
                        Every surfer knows that ocean waves are power. Mechani-                innovations based on the cold seawater pumped to condense
                     cally, the trick is converting the multidirectional, varying power        the working fluid in an OTEC plant. This cold, nutrient-rich
                     of the wave into unidirectional mechanical energy and thence              deep seawater can be applied innovatively to air-conditioning,
                     to electrical power. Hundreds of designs exist to do so, includ-          agriculture and aquaculture. NELHA has installed an
                     ing hydraulic pumps, pneumatic pumps, rotation vanes and                  airconditioning system using chilled-water coils in one of its
                     hinged rafts. While fuel costs for these technologies are nonex-          laboratory buildings, resulting in considerable energy savings.
                     istent, and operating costs low, capital costs would be very              Research projects cultivating temperate zone fruits and veg-
                     high for any installation large enough to provide community               etables have produced lettuce and strawberries in gardens
                     power. As long as oil prices remain below $50 per barrel, none            cooled and irrigated with the fresh water condensing on the
                     of these designs will be economically viable.                             external surfaces of the cold seawater pipes. As for aquacul-
                        Tidal power generators require a tidal range of at least five          ture, the cold seawater not only allows means of fine-tuning
                     meters to be economically viable using conventional technol-              tank and pond temperatures for thermally sensitive fish, shell-
                     ogy. Only shallow estuaries and embayments, which concen-                 fish, mollusks and seaweeds, but it is nearly pathogen-free and
                     trate tidal forces, see such high tidal ranges. Relatively few            very nutrient-rich. This enables aquaculture projects to pro-
                     suitable sites exist on the planet; and none of them are in Hawaii.         ce premium rrticroalgae, nori, abalone, oysters, giant dams,
                                                                                               lobsters, salmon and trout. However, at present there are no
                        Marine biomass plantations, wave power generators and                  commercially viable species for cost-effective, OTEC-based
                     tidal power generators have not generated great interest in               mariculture operations. OTEC mariculture is in its formative
                     Hawaii. But OTEC research in the State has continuously                   years and not ready for commercialization. With the exception
                     expanded since 1975, supported by Federal, State, private and             of the relatively small use of the cold seawater as air-condition-
                     international sponsors. In 1975, the Natural Energy Laboratory            ing chiller fluid, OTEC should be considered for its potential
                     of Hawaii Authority5 (NELHA) established the Kona Seacoast                production of electricity and desalinized water.
                     Test Facility on 328 acres of oceanfront land at Keahole Point








                                        In the decade between 1979 and 1989, steadily growing                    One can envision 40-MW hybrid plants for the Islands of
                                     interest in OTEC research and related activities transformed the         Hawaii and Kauai meeting all water and electricy needs under
                                     land surrounding the Seacoast Test Facility at Keahole Point             the scenario provided in Table 2. Likewise, smaller (10-MW)
                                     into the Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology (HOST) Park.                plants can be considered for Molokai. In the case of Oahu, the
                                     It has seven cold-water pipes in place, and 14 tenant projects.          population is too large to meet all electrical needs with OTEC.
                                     Of these, four are OTEC energy research projects, six are                However, all water needs can be met with hybrid OTEC plants.
                                     aquaculture research projects and four are commercial aquac-             The hybrid OTEC plants considered above would have the
                                     ulture ventures. Of the 869 acres at HOST Park, 416 are                  following production rates:
                                     committed to ongoing or proposed projects. OTEC demonstra-
                                     don projects are planned for the near future. A 210-kw (gross)                Plant Size        Electricity           Water Production
                                     land-based, open-cycle plant is under design and scheduled                                      Production
                                     forconstruction at NELHA in mid-1991, with operadonssched-                     10-MW            70 X 106 kWh          4 to 8 million gpd
                                     uled for July 1992. This plant is a joint project of the U.S.                  40-MW            280 X 1011 kWh            16 million gpd
                                     Department of Energy, the State and the Pacific International
                                     Center for High Technology Research (PICHTR). The plant is                 The cost per kWh (expressed in current dollars), including
                                     designed to produce net power and is therefore referred to as            a credit for freshwater production, would be 0. 10 $/kWh for the
                                     the Net Power Producing Experiment (NPPE). Several propos-               10-MW plant, 0.09 $/kWh for the 40-MW plant. These plants
                                     als for closed and hybrid-cycle plants ranging from 160 to 500-          could be commercially available before the turn of the century
                                     kw (gross) are being pursued by Hawaiian outfits.                        if some of the demonstration projects under consideration
                                        The cost of electricity produced with OTEC plants has been            come to fruition. The financial community will not invest in
                                     compared to that of electricity produced via petroleum or coal-          new technology without an operational record.
                                     fired plants (Vega 1991). Two generalized markets were con-                As a point of comparison, consider that in 1988 residential
                                     sidered: industrialized nations with land-based or floating              electricity costs were almost 0.08 $/kWh for Oahu; 0. 11 $/kWh
                                     plants and smaller, less-developed island nations with modest            for Hawaii; 0. 12 $/kWh for Kauai; almost 0. 10 $/kWh for Maui;
                                     needs and therefore, small, land-based plants. The model is              almost 0.16 $/kWh for Lanai; and almost 0.20 $/kWh for
                                     used to establish scenarios under which OTEC could be com-               Molokai. Therefore, OTEC for the State is promising, pending
                                     petitive. The scenarios are defined by two parameters - fuel             the construction and operations of demonstration plants.
                                     cost and cost of freshwater production. The results of the
                                     analysis are summarized in Table 2.



                                     Table 2

                                     OTEC Market Penetration Scenarios

                                     NOMPM NU POWIM                                                      SCROMO                                  SCENAZO
                                     Nff ]POWIM (MW)                nw                                   REQUREMEM                               AVAUMUXrY

                                                I                   Land-Based OC OTEC                   *  $45/barrel of diesel                 South Pacific
                                                                    with 2nd-Stage additional            -  $1.6/m3 water                        Island Nations
                                                                    Water Production                                                             by Year 1995
                                                10                  Land-Based                              $25/barrel of fuel oil               American Island
                                                                    (as above)                              $0.85/m3 water                       Territories and
                                                                                                            -or-                                 other Pacific
                                                                                                            $22/barrel                           Islands by Year
                                                                                                            $0.8/m3 water                        2000
                                                40                  Land-Based Hybrid                    -  $44/barrel of fuel oil               Hawaii, if fuel
                                                                    (ammonia power cycle                 -  $0.4/m3 water                        or water cost
                                                                    with flash evaporator                   -or-                                 doubles by Year
                                                                    downstream)                          *  $22/barrel                           2000
                                                                                                         *  $0.8/m3 water
                                                40                  * Closed-Cycle Land-Based            -  $36fbarrel                           by Year 2M
                                                                    * Closed-Cycle Plant ship            e  $23/barrel

                                     NoLe OC-OTEC limited by turbine tedmolgy to 2.5 MW modules or 10 MW plant (with four modules).
                                            CC-OTEC or Hybrid (water production downstream of closed-cycle, plant flash evaporator).








                      Ocean-Based Energv Distribution                                            order to prove technical capability of cable installation and
                      UnderwaterElecoical Transmission Cables7: In October 1981,                 maintenance. To further link all the State's customers into a
                      the State initiated the Hawaii Deep Water Electrical Transmis-             baseload power grid, Maui Electric Company (MECO) initiated
                      sion Cable Demonstration (HDWQ Program in conjunction                      feasibility studies to test the economics of installing submarine
                      with the Federal government and in cooperation with Hawai-                 transmission cables between Maui, Molokai and Lanai.
                      ian Electric Company. Its purpose was to research and develop                The cable project will be implemented in conjunction with
                      a deep water electrical transmission cable and support system              the development o1a 511-MW geothermal generation plant on
                      to deliver electricity from renewable energy sources on the Big            the Big Island in a joint effort called the Hawaii Geothermal/
                      Island to consumers on Oahu. The State's largest energy                    Interisland Transmission Project. In May 1989, Hawaiian Elec-
                      market, Oahu, has no large-scale indigenous firm power sources.            tric sent out a Request for Proposals to 33 organizations to
                      The undersea cable could transmit up to 500 megawatts of                   finance, design, construct, install, operate and maintain a 500-
                      electrical power, almost half of Oahu's current demand. This               MW geothermal generation/interisland transmission project.
                      system also could provide back-up electrical power to other                Also that year, the State awarded a major contract to ERC
                      islands should power emergencies arise (Sumida and Hills                   Environmental and Energy Services Company to prepare the
                      1984).                                                                     project@s masterplan and environmental impact statement, and
                        By 1988, sonar surveys and unmanned submarine surveil-                   to analyze overland electric transmission corridors.
                      lance determined the selection of a preferred undersea cable                 Petroleum Transport and Storage: Oahu has two oil refin-
                      route between Hawaii and Oahu from nine suggested routes.                  eries, both in Campbell Industrial Park near Ewa Beach. The
                      This route begins at Puna on the Big Island, moves north and               older of the two is owned by Chevron. The Hawaii Indepen-
                      west to Waimea over land, than crosses the Alenuihaha Chan-                dent Refinery, Inc. (HIRI), owned by Pacific Resources, Inc.
                      nel to Maui at a depth of 6,350 feet. On Maui, the cable comes             (PRI), is newer and more sophisticated. Their total combined
                      onto land at Huakini, crossing the southern tip of the island to           processing capacity is approximately 135,000 barrels per cal-
                      submerge again at Ahihi. From there, it runs northwest past                endar day (Table 3). Supplying this capacity with crude oil
                      Lanai and Molokai, through the Auau Channel at a depth of                  requires about ten tanker deliveries every month. The tankers
                      only 410 feet, before heading across the Kaiwi Channel under               load and unload at mooring buoys situated in waters off
                      2,240 feet of water to Waimanalo on Oahu.                                  Barbers Point. The closest of these facilities is 1.5 miles off-
                        In 1989, the project had progressed to successful laboratory             shore. The loading cycle may take as long as two days.
                      testing of a 300-kv DC self-contained oil-filled cable. As the               About 60 percent of the crude oil landing in Hawaii origi-
                      final phase of the feasibility study, the 273-foot vessel Flexservice      nates in Alaska. Tankers from Alaska usually approach Barbers
                      3 laid and retrieved a 26,000-foot, non-electrical test cable in           Point via the Kauai Channel. Kaiwi Channel is used on occasion


                      Table 3

                      Hawaii's Refineries
                      REFINERY CAPACITY                                               BIM                                          CEMON
                           (barrels/day)                                              80,000                                          55,000

                      STORAGE CAPACITY
                           in million barrels (no. of tanks)

                           CRUDE OIL                                                  1.8 (6)                                         1.6 (7)
                           PRODUCTS                                                   2.4 (50+)

                      TANKER SIZE (median)
                           in deadweight tons                                         35,000                                          97,000
                           deliveries/month                                           8                                               3

                      LOADINGAJNLOADING*
                           mooring buoy type
                           monobuoy fixed-point
                           miles offshore                                             2                                               1.5
                           loading cycle (days)                                       1.5-2                                           1-1.5


                      Chevron only unloads.
                      Sources: Conversations with PRI and Chevron staff, January 1990.








                                      by vessels coming from Alaska, but Kaiwi is more often the                     Electricity also is produced in the state by small diesel
                                      approach of choice for vessels from the West Coast. This                    generators; small hydroelectric plants, found on Maui, Kauai
                                      approach puts the entire south shore of Oahu at risk from crude             and Hawaii; wind famis, primarily on Oahu and Hawaii; and
                                      oil spills. Tankers call at the other islands as well. These ships          the burning of bagasse, on Hawaii as well as on Kauai, Maui
                                      are most often product tankers, fffled with fuel oil, motor                 and Oahu. Diesel, hydroelectric and wind farm facilities have
                                      gasoline, or jet fuel. just under half of the products delivered            very little impact on ocean waters. Sugar factories, however, do
                                      are light distillates, while more than half are heavy oils (Table           add significant amounts of pollutants to the ocean in the form
                                      4). In the case of Maui, tankers approach from the north, and               of mill water waste discharge.
                                      moor to the north, at Kahului. The north shore of Maui is at risk
                                      of spills, as are Molokai, Lanai and Oahu, as winds and currents
                                      would move the spill west and south.                                        RESOURCE MANAGEMM
                                         Utilities operate 13 ofl-fired electrical generating plants in           Regubtion and Enforcenient
                                      the State, with plantations operating a dozen more electrical               Elearkily Getwatioir OTEC
                                      plants,which bum either oil or bagasse. Of the oil-fired power
                                      plants, three are on Oahu, five on the Big Island, two on Maui,             State. All ocean energy development will occur under the
                                      and one each on Kauai, Molokai and Lanai. The three Oahu                    authority of the State Department of Business, Economic De-
                                      plants are all near the ocean - at Kahe Point, Waiau on Pearl               velopment & Tourism (DBED), according to Tide 12, Conser-
                                      Harbor, and Honolulu's waterfront near Pier 7. The Maui                     vation and Resources, Chapter 196-4, HRS. This statute ap-
                                      power plants are in Kahului on Hobron Point, and at Maalaea,                points the Director of DBED as State energy resources coordi-
                                      with capacities of 34.9 MW and 96.1 MW respectively. The                    nator, and charges DBED with the following mandates:
                                      Kauai power station at Port Allen has a total generating capacity                 1. Develop Hawaii's energy resources at optimurn levels.
                                      of over 65 MW. Lanai and Molokai's plants have total capacities
                                      of 10.76 MW and 5 MW, respectively.                                               2. Recommend to the Governor and Legislature, which
                                         At least nine of these plants are situated within one-half mile                programs represent best allocation of resources.
                                      of the shoreline. Whether they use well water or seawater as a                    3. Develop programs to encourage public and private
                                      steam source, these nine plants subsequently pipe the con-                        exploration of alternative energy'sources.
                                      densed but still warm water into the ocean. Maui's Kahului                        4. Organize public education progarns regarding energy
                                      plant illustrates the relative amount of seawater return for a
                                      given capacity. The Kahului plant has four generator units that                   5. Advise government, public and private sector on en-
                                      jointly produce almost 35 MW of power. The pumps on those                         ergy resource acquisition, utilization and conservation.
                                      four units each push between 3,700 - 4,000 gallons per minute                     6. Contract for services to develop energy sources and
                                      (gpm) of condensed steam into the ocean, for a plant total of                     resources.
                                      37,900 gpm. - or a little over 1,000 gpm per MW of plant
                                      capacity. The water is cooled before discharge to a federally                     7. Report to the Governor and Legislature annually on
                                      regulated maximum temperature of 36.70C, or 780F.                                 energy.
                                                                                                                        8. Adopt rules as needed to implement Chapter 196-3;4, HRS.


                                      Table 4

                                      Hawalirs Petroleum Imports and Exports

                                                                                      UOORTS                                           0a"ORTS
                                                                                      [in 11000 barrels]                               [in 1,000 barrels]
                                      Product                                         Total//Domesfic//Foreign                         Total//Domestic//Foreign
                                      CRUDE OIL                                       41,218       20,755      20,463                  -             -          -

                                      REFINED PRODUCTS                                6,651        3,353       3,298                   6,829         3,331      3,498
                                      Motor gasohne                                   193          193         -                       187           187        -
                                      Distillates                                     217          217         -                       1,658         i,o67      591
                                      jet fuel                                        2,677        1,119       1,559                   2,160         104        2,056
                                      Rsd. fuel oil                                   3,563        1,824       1,739                   2,524         1,673      851
                                      Other                                           -            -           -                       300           300        -


                                      Note: "Jet fuel" excludes imports of 3,686,500 barrels of unknown origin.
                                      Source: Department of Business and Economic Development, Energy Division, records: Section 17, Table 504. 1.








                    These are primarily research and development, monitoring                   DOH is directly responsible for maintaining environmental
                                                                                                                                             C,
                    and planning activities. DBED issues no permits for energy              quality in general and that of State waters in particular, under
                    development. Rather, it applies to other agencies for permits           Chapter 342, HRS. DOH defines State water quality standards
                    for its energy development projects.                                    and monitors compliance with Federal and State water quality
                       Permits for all ocean energy projects generally involve the          standards. Because OTEC technology requires upwelling and
                    following agencies: the Department of Land and Natural                  discharge of deep seawater, development must abide by Fed-
                    Resources (DLNR); Department of Transportation, Harbors                 eral and State water regulations.
                    Division (DOT/Harbors); Department of Health (DOH); Public                 The State Environmental Policy Act, Chapter 343, HRS7
                    Utilities Commission (PUC); and relevant County planning                mandates procedures to identify and mitigate impacts on
                    comm@ission (or, in the case of the City and County of Honolulu,        marine and coastal ecosystems, among others. Any agency
                    the City Council). Ocean energy projects also fall into the             action or development activity requiring a CDUA, an SMA
                    purview of the State's Coastal Zone Management (CZAI) Pro-              permit, or a Federal permit triggers an environmental assess-
                    gram. CZM objectives primarily are realized through the per-            ment. Environmental assessments determine whether the ac-
                    mit-granting, regulatory and management authority of those              tion or activity may generate significant environmental im-
                    five agencies, with the Counties exercising the most authority          pacts. If the permit-granting agency concludes that impacts will
                    via Special Management Area (SMA) zoning regulations. The               be significant, the agency or organization submitting the appli-
                    CZM Program has responsibility for ensuring that federally              cation must prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS),
                    funded or permitted projects are consistent with State and              which will be subject to public review. The Department of
                    County coastal zone regulations.                                        Health's Office of Environmental Quality Control acts as the
                                                                                            clearinghouse for dissemination and archiving of completed
                       Under Chapter 205, HRS, Hawaii's Land Use Law, DLNR is
                    responsible for land-use regulations in Conservation Districts
                    and Forest Reserves, including the Conservation District Use               The production and sale of electricity from a commercial-
                    Application (CDUA) permit process; Marine Life Conservation             scale OTEC plant, or any other commercial-scale ocean energy
                    Districts (Chapter 100-15, HRS); Fishery Management Areas               project, would require review by the Public Utilities Commis-
                    (Chapter 187A-2, HRS); Natural Area Reserves (Chapter 171-3,            sion (PUC). PUC oversees, among other things, all persons or
                    HRS); and State parks (Chapter 184, HRS). As any "land"                 organizations involved in the "production, conveyance, trans-
                    seaward of the shoreline (underwater) is classified as conser-          Mission, delivery, or furnishing of light, power, heat, cold,
                    vation district, all ocean energy projects anchored within 12           water, gas, or oil" (Chapter 269-1, HRS). It is quite possible that
                    miles require a CDUA permit. Chapter 190D, HRS, Ocean and               commercial OTEC plants would furnish power, cold, and
                    Submerged Lands Leasing, specifically addresses the proce-              water. PUC reviews utility rate schedules to ensure that they are
                    dures for issuing CDUA permits for OTEC project construction            "just and reasonable."
                    in State marine waters and submerged lands.                                Furthermore, PUC has the specific mandate (Chapter 269-
                       In addition, the Board of Land and Natural Resources also is         27.2@ HRS) to direct public utilities "to arrange for the acquisi-
                    granted authority under Chapter 171, HRS, Public Lands, Man-            tion of and to acquire electricity generated nonfossil fuel
                    agement and Disposition, to sell or lease public lands to               sources as is available ... to maximize the reduction in consump-
                    government agencies or public utilities, and to grant licenses or       tion of fossil fuels in the generation of electricity.` in the
                    easements for use of public lands. The board is not permitted           process of assuring that just and reasonable rates are charged
                    to do so in cases where the public utility has suitable lands of        for nonfossil fuel-generated electricity, PUC may set the rate
                    its own. This could apply to public utility-sponsored OTEC              paid by the public utility for electricity generated from altema-
                    projects requiring shoreline land parcels for plant construction.       tive energy as not less than 100 percent of the cost the utility
                       In Chapter 266, HRS, the Legislature grants DOT authority to         avoids by not having to produce the electricity itself. This
                    manage all ocean uses seaward of the shoreline, shore waters            particular regulation is in direct accord with the Federal utility
                                                                                            regulations.
                    and navigable streams. Section 3 of that chapter specifies that
                    DOT's jurisdiction pertinent to ocean energy projects, such as             The Counties also have jurisdiction over OTEC and similar
                    OTEC, includes: Licensing and registration of persons or                energy projects, through two statutes. The first, Chapter 46-
                    organizations engaged in commercial activities in or on the             19,HRS, grants Counties the power to develop alternative
                    shore waters or shores of the State; and licensing and regulation       energy resources themselves in joint ventures with public
                    of equipment utilized for commercial activities in or on the            utilities. The second is the State Coastal Zone Management Law
                    shore waters or shores of the State. In practical terms, this           (Chapter 205A, HRS). This law grants each County authority to
                    means that any construction, dredging, or filling in or near            define Special Management Areas (SMAs) extending from
                    shore requires a DOT Shorewaters Permit. This may be pro-               shoreline inland not less than 100 yards. Within the SMA,
                    cessed simultaneously with a CDUA permit. In cases where                Counties manage a permit process that ensures that all devel-
                    DOT does no, concur with CDUA approval, it may request a                opments conform to the objectives of the State Coastal Zone
                    separate Shorewaters Permit application.                                Management Law.








                                           Permit applications must include a survey of the property                 Legislature designed a unique, streamlined permit process
                                         and shoreline, description and plans for the project, and a                 specifically for the HDWC, codified as Tide 12, Chapter 196D,
                                         description of the affected environment. If the project cost                HRS, Geothermal and Cable System Development. This statute
                                         exceeds $65,000, a review for a major SMA permit is triggered.              cites the need "to develop a consolidated permit application
                                         If the reviewing agency's environmental assessment deter-                   and review process to provide for and facilitate the firm
                                         mines that the project will have serious environmental impacts,             assurances that companies will require.. .' in order to complete
                                         a formal environmental impact statement is required. The                    a project requiring such heavy capital investment.
                                         permit-granting agencies are the planning commissions of                       Thus, according to Section 6: all Federal and State agencies
                                         each County, with the exception of the City and County of                   with permit-granting authority join in a single review process,
                                         Honolulu, where the authority rests with the City Council.                  and "...shall cooperate ... to minimize duplication between and,
                                           Tederah The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) also has                   where possible, promote consolidation of Federal and State
                                         jurisdiction over waters and submerged lands from the shore-                requirements. ...this ... shall include, among other things, joint
                                         he three miles seaward. This authority stems from Federal                   environmental impact statements with concurrent public re-
                                         legislation including, but not limited to, the Rivers and Harbors           view and processing at both levels of government" This
                                         Act of 1899; National Environmental Policy Act of 1969; and                 consolidated review is facilitated by DLNR.
                                         Federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (P.L. No. 92-                      FederaL As currently designed, the deepwater cable would
                                         583). The Department of the Army permits cover construction                 cross out of State waters and into Federal jurisdiction. The
                                         in, under, or across navigable waters within the three-mile                 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 affirms Federal
                                         limit. These would apply to any land-based OTEC pipelines, or               jurisdiction and control over the subsoil and seabed of all
                                         a moored, offshore OTEC facility.                                           submerged lands beyond the State's three-mile limit. Other
                                           The Public Utility Regulatory Act of 1978 (PURPA), requires               Federal laws applicable to this project will be the Submerged
                                         electric utilities to buy electricity from qualifying facilities at the     Lands Act of 1953; Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972;
                                         utility's "avoided cost." Thus PURPA both opened the market                 Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899; Federal Water
                                         and established the price level for renewable power produc-                 Pollution Control Act; Marine Protection, Research, and Sanc-
                                         don.                                                                        tuaries Act of 1972; National Environmental Policy Act of 1969;
                                           The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has                       and Federal Power Act. Both the Law-of the Sea Convention
                                         issued three notices of proposed rule-making under PURPA to                 and the Continental Shelf Convention specifically grant states
                                         more clearly define market access and pricing for independent               the rights to lay submarine cables on the marine bed. Most of
                                         power:                                                                      these laws relate to COE's authority over construction in
                                                                                                                     navigable waters.
                                                   Regulations Governing Independent Power Produc-
                                              ers, 53 Federal Register 9327 (March 22, 1988), Docket                 Monitoring and Research
                                              No. RM88-4-000.                                                        State
                                              0 Regulations Governing Bidding Programs, 53 Fed-                      As has been pointed out, the Department of Health has primary
                                              eral Register 9324 (March 22, 1988), Docket No. RM88-5-                responsibility for monitoring State environmental quality, es-
                                              000.                                                                   pecialty with respect to ocean waters and ecosystems. The
                                              0 Administrative Determination of Full Avoided Costs,                  Office of Environmental Quality Control acts, to a limited
                                              Sales of Power to Qualifying Facilities, and Interconnec-              extent, as a clearinghouse on environmental impact state-
                                              bon Facilities, 53 Federal Register 9331 (March 22, 1988),             ments, updating other State agencies on new activities and
                                              Docket No. RM6-000.                                                    projects, and their possible effects.
                                         These proposed regulations would streamline rate approval                      In addition to general ocean research performed by various
                                         for independent power producers by local public utility com-                departments and institutes within the University of Hawaii, the
                                         missions; authorize states to institute a program of competitive            State has established three research organizations which con-
                                         bidding to meet utility need for new generation capacity;                   duct research on ocean energy resources and related topics.
                                         establish new guidelines to deten-nine avoided costs; and                   The Hawaii Natural Energy institute (HNED, created by Act
                                         permit qualified facilities to build and own interconnection                235, SLH 1974, is charged with research and development of
                                         facilities.8                                                                alternative energy sources for Hawaii. Along with their in-
                                         EleaYkity Transmission                                                      volvement in OTEC development, HNEI staff also are respon-
                                                                                                                     sible for the geothermal pilot well, photovoltaic energy devel-
                                         State. In ordinary circumstances, projects such as the Hawaii               opment, and altemative transportation -fuels research.
                                         Deep Water Cable (HDWC) would pass through the same                            The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH) was estab-
                                         pen-nit process specified for OTEC projects. HDWC also would                lished primarily to further OTEC research. Section 26-18, HRS
                                         require County right-of-way and easement permit, as it would                gives DBED the mahdate for energy research, especially re-
                                         pass overland on the Big Island and Maui. However, the                      garding ocean resources and control of NELH. The director of







                       DBID it, on Ile board of NEIH, as does the chair of the                   Infiwtrucwm Development
                       Board of Land and Natural Resources. Chapter 227, HRS                     State
                       establishes NELH to "manage and operate research facilities
                       [to] provide sites for research, development, demonstration,              Hawaii has three organizations devoted to commercial infm-
                       and commercialization of natural energy resources and other               structure development for ocean energy technologies and
                       compatible scientific and technological investigations". As               related activities. The High Technology Development Corpora-
                       of July 1, 1990, the State consolidated NELH and the HOST                 don (HTDQ is established by HRS 206M to develop projects
                       Park into the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority.              and industrial parks encouraging commercial high technology
                       This restructuring is expected to enhance administrative and              ventures in Hawaii. In addition to pure research, PICHTR is
                       operational efficiency on site.                                           mandated to "assist the State's high technology development
                         Finally, the Pacific International Center for High Technol-             corporation in its efforts, [by promoting] educational, scientific,
                       ogy Research (PICHTR) was established in 1983 by the                      technological, and literary pum& in the area of high technology...".
                       Legislature (Chapter 304-65, HRS) as an educational and                      The site of the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii has been
                       research institution with a mission to promote education,                 expanded to incorporate the Hawaii Ocean Sciences and Tech-
                       scientific, technological and literary pursuits in the areas of           nology (HOST) industrial park. This venture was an initiative of
                       high technology, and to support high technology industry in               HTDC. HOST provides the infmstructure for ongoing OTEC
                       Hawaii. In 1985, PICHTR was incorporated as a private, non-               experiments, and for commercial aquaculture ventures made
                       profit education and research corporation.                                possible by OTEC's cold, nutrient-rich, deep seawater. The two
                         PICHTR has identified three technology research and                     organizations have been merged under DBED.
                       development niches in which Hawaii has a comparative                      Federal
                       advantage: information technology, specifically focusing on               In 1980, the Federal Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act, PL
                       undersea robotics research; energy and resources technol-                 96-320 (later modified by PL 98-623) established licensing
                       ogy, specifically focusing on undersea robotics research,                 procedures and authorized loan guarantees for OTEC facilities;
                       energy and ocean resources technology, specifically focus-                while PL 96-310 supports the commercial establishment of
                       ing on OTEC, geothermal, hybrids, integrated electric utility,            OTEC generating plants.
                       wind, hydrogen and bioengineering.
                         In support of its efforts, PICHTR looks to the Federal and              Education and Public Awareness
                       State governments and to foreign nations for funding sup-                 State
                       port. It has successfully solicited major grants from the
                       Government ofJapan to develop OTEC technologies. PICHTR                   Legislation mandates that all State departments mentioned
                       also solicits funding from the private sector.                            educate the public regarding their areas of responsibility. The
                       Federal                                                                   directors of business, economic development and tourism, land
                                                                                                 and natural resources, transportation and health are all directed
                       The Federal government contributes directly to many of the                to organize public education programs, publish annual reports,
                       research projects connected with these organizations. As an               and make all ongoing research available to the general public.
                       example, the Federal contribution to the Hawaii Deep Water                Furthermore, each agency issuing permits requires public hear-
                       Cable feasibility project totals more than S22 million. The               ings as part of the process. Public hearings also are required to
                       State contributed only $5 million. Total Federal support for              review environmental impact statements.
                       State energy projects outlined in the 1990 State Energy
                       Functional Plan exceeds $23 million (although not all of the
                       Federal grants outlined have been confirmed).                             MANAGFMM MUFS9
                         Federal legislation also supports involvement in ocean                  During the late 1980s, oil prices were tow. This condition has
                       energy research. Recently, the Internal Revenue Service                   not endured. Indeed, if all externalized social and environmen-
                       (IRS) was petitioned by GenOtec of Washington, D.C. and                   tal costs were considered, the condition would not exist todav.
                       the State for tax credits to permit more rapid cost recovery for          The use of fossil fuels carries a number of negative extemalitie's:
                       OTEC properties. The Internal Revenue Code was modified                   carbon dioxide and monoxide and sulphur dioxide are all
                       by the Energy Tax Act of 1978 and amended by the Crude Oil                airborne health hazards; carbon dioxide contributes to global
                       Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1980 to qualify OTEC property for              wam-@ing; ocean transport of petroleum and its products risks
                       energy tax credits. GenOtec applied for the credits in the                ocean health; the number of cars steadily increases and so does
                       Caribbean. The State applied for credits in Hawaii and the                the amount of land devoted to roads; etc. Ocean energy
                       U.S. Trust Territories. Both GenOtec and the State were                   technologies could provide the State with comparatively clean,
                       notified that their requests had been approved.                           renewable energy.








                                        But in Hawaii, it will be some time before the ocean plays a          some ocean recreational activities, and possibly fishing as well.
                                     significant role in the State's energy supply. Overall, a research       However, these plants can also be shore-based, or designed to
                                     and development strategy that actively explores all alternative          serve as ocean breakwaters. Marine biomass plantations
                                     energy sources, coupled with enthusiastic campaigns for con-             constitute by their very nature a massive disruption of normal
                                     servation, energy efficiency, and recycling, will work to ensure         marine ecosystems.
                                     reduced dependence on oil. The State Energy Functional Plan                 It is certain that commercial-scale development of any ocean
                                     maps out just such an approach. With regard to ocean energy,
                                     this would mean balancing the heavy investment in OTEC                   energy resource will generate use conflicts. There are few
                                     development with appropriate support for such technologies               mechanisms to negotiate those conflicts, or compensate co           -
                                     as wave energy research as well.                                         munities for use sacrifices they may be forced to accept "for tmhe
                                                                                                              common good." In fact, courts provide the only recourse.
                                        Development of ocean energy resources, and the State's                While case law offers numerous examples of compensation for
                                     energy sector generally, faces five major issues: site and use           loss of coastal property, it has few regarding compensation for
                                     conflicts; environmental impacts inadequate coordination of data         loss of coastal use.
                                     acquisition, consolidation and dissemination; overlapping Junsdic-
                                     dons and authorities; and limited -funds, labor and equipment            Environmental Impacts of Energy FacHities
                                     Site and Use Confficts                                                   Energy Producdon
                                     Existing electrical generation plants have two major negative            The possible environmental and social trade-offs in ocean
                                     impacts on residents use of the shoreline and ocean. They                energy development need quantification. The public recog-
                                                                                                              nizes, and wishes the State to recognize, that each type of
                                     disrupt viewplanes within the coastal area. A particularly good
                                     example of this is the HECO Kahe Point plant overlooking Ko              energy production has quantifiable economic and environ-
                                     Olina. In addition, residents have expressed concern regarding           mental impacts. Therefore, Hawaii, like New York and Califor-
                                     the possible effects of effluent discharge and thermal pollution.        nia, should include in its energy planning process the explicit
                                     These latter two disrupt offshore fishing grounds.                       comparison of costs and benefits of renewable energy altema-
                                        Some people have complained that shore-based commer-                  tives with conventional energy (e.g., fossil fuel, coat, nuclear).
                                     cial-scale OTEC plants will disrupt prime surfing locales. New              For example, the long-term benefit-of a plentiful supply of
                                     slant drilling techniques will ameliorate this problem by bury-          drinking water could be compared with the short-term impact
                                     ing seawater pipes beneath the shoreline on their way out to             of construction activities to build the OTEC plant and seawater
                                     sea, but the impacts of this need clarification. Environmental-          system. Platforms and underwater subsystems are artificial
                                     ists and marine mammal devotees suggest that the deep water              reefs, attracting fish and other species, a positive impact; but
                                     cable will conflict with the use of that ocean space by whales,          intake pipes may redistribute ocean nutrients, a potential
                                     dolphins and sharks, and that electromagnetic frequency leak-            environmental cost.
                                     age generated by the cable will disrupt the animals' breeding               Even within technologies, there may be more beneficial
                                     and feeding grounds. For the most part, however, ocean                   alternatives. For example, open-cycle OTEC, with ocean water as its
                                     energy issues have generated little controversy at public meet-          working fluid, could be cortipared with the closed-cycle plant with
                                     ings, due perhaps to insufficient inforination.                          its potentially hazardous working fluid of ammonia or Freon.
                                        In order to diversify Hawaii's energy sector, the State will ask         Finally, consideration could be given to comparing the costs
                                     residents to judge the trade-offs involved in adopting one               of outgassing of dissolved carbon dioxide into the environ-
                                     source of energy over another, and decide which they prefer.             ment of conventional and OTEC power plants. Recent experi-
                                     To do this, people will need to understand these energy                  ments have shown that the carbon dioxide release from a fossil-
                                     projects in immediate terms. They will require the kind of               fueled power plant of comparable size is 15 to 25 times larger
                                     information that makes it possible for them to envision a                than that of an OTEC plant.
                                     project's impact on their day-to-day ocean activities. Because              Public concerns echo these forecasted impacts. At public
                                     people know little about how OTEC works, or about the                    meetings, people wanted to know more about the potential
                                     potential for wave energy generators or marine biomass plan-             impacts on the marine environment due to large commercial
                                     tations, use conflicts exist primarily in theory.                        seawater discharge flows from OTEC and related mariculture
                                        Few studies, for example, convey to the public any sense of           developments, including positive aspects of "seawater return."
                                     how much a shore-based, commercial-scale OTEC plant could                In addition, people felt that they had insufficient information
                                     disrupt the local marine environment and disturb other com-              on several issues: the severity of thermal pollution from OTEC
                                     mercial or recreational activities nearby. An offshore OTEC              plants; potential impact to the marine environment and marine
                                     plant would act much like an artificial reef, and would affect           biota resulting from the proposed deepwater cable; potential
                                     fishing in its vicinity. Wave generation plants can be large-scale       impact of the undersea cable on the natural area reserve on
                                     constructions, stretching great distances through ocean waters.          Maui; and effects of-pollution on marine mammals caused by
                                     Such plants would constrain any ocean transport and certainly            ocean energy activity.









                      Inadequate Data Coordination                                               ized into the planning and permit process, and actively and
                                                                                                 aggressively sought.
                      Many ocean-related Federal and State agencies are collecting                                  Z)
                      and compiling data on the coastal and ocean environment.                      The lack of public awareness about the public planning and
                      These data are useful as a historical record indicating environ-           management process for ocean energy resources can be fatal
                      mental trends, providing baseline information with which to                to the process. Public meetings conducted by the Ocean and
                      assess the impact of development activities, and as a founda-              Marine Resources Council in June 1990 revealed disaffection
                      tion for establishing a fiscal evaluation o1botl the tangible and          and frustration with what people perceived as fragmented and
                      intangible characteristics of the State's marine environment.              confusing bureaucracies that seem to excel at referring com-
                         Currently, this information is scattered throughout the files           p .laints elsewhere. While political despair may distort this
                                                                           73                    view, it nonetheless indicates that people want to participate in
                      and libraries of those diverse agencies. It would increase the             decision-making but cannot figure out how. Not only do
                      efficiency and effectiveness of ocean energy development                   people perceive the system of public hearings as difficult to
                      specifically and ocean management generally if a central clear-
                                                              Z@                                 track, they feel that opinions expressed at them have no effect
                      inghouse existed to organize and update such data. Further-                on the end results of planning,, and in any case no one reports
                      more, an inventory of work done to date will reveal areas that             results back to the community. The need exists for a concen-
                      require greater research. This will be particularly critical in            trated and neighborly oceans outreach program. Such a pro-
                      establishing the extent of destruction and environmental deg-
                                  Z@                                                             gram should include the means for communities to develop
                      radation in the aftermath of oil spills, when the State will want
                                                                                                 common goals and visions for integrated ocean use, and meet
                      to define liabilities.                                                     community needs, such as secure energy supplies.
                         Public meetings also revealed that the public perceives a
                      lack of reliable data on environmental impacts. This may                   Limited Funds, Labor and Equipment
                      indicate that the available information is not being effectively           Supporting in-depth research on the full range of potential
                      disseminated. At least one person commented that even though
                                                                                        0        ocean energy technologies will require greater levels of fund-
                      he was interested in reports on coastal environment impacts,               ing. In the 1980s, Federal funding was reduced from $841
                      he found the language of the technical reports daunting. A
                                                                                      0          million annually to a low of $4.2 million. Although availability
                      more straightforward, vividly worded summary of impact as-                 of Federal, international, and private sector funds has in-
                      sessments might be an answer to this problem. This is a critical           creased in the last few years, an aggressive, creative approach
                      information need. to ensure meaningful public participation in             to research fundraising and solicitation of venture capital
                      permit hearings 'and environmental impact assessments, as                  would speed appropriate ocean energy development. Both
                      well as the overall planning process.
                                                                                                 pure and applied research on ocean energy inventories, appli-
                                                                                                 cability of other ocean energy technologies, and the coastal
                      Overlappingjurisdictions and Authorities                                   and marine environment will be needed before the State
                      Sites, Development Permits and Plans                                       decides on either the optimal use of its ocean resources, or the
                      Diversifying Hawaii's energy sector will require the develop-              optimal structure of its energy supplies.
                      ment of large-scale projects, whether based on conventional                   Most State agencies also lack staff resources to devote at least
                      energy, or renewable energy. Existing Hawaii statutes will                 one person at each branch level to community outreach,
                      impose conditions on those development plans in order to                   education, and relations. Yet that is a critical need, particularly
                      mitigate adverse environmental impacts. People will no doubt               given the complexity of ocean energy development, which is
                      raise additional objections or questions as they learn about               equalled by the complexity of the regulatory system that exists
                      each new project. Thus the relevant State agencies have two                to administer the coast and oceans. State agencies would be
                      tasks in regulating ocean energy developments: incorporating               aided greatly by additional staff charged entirely with fielding
                      public opinion regarding costs and benefits to the community,              community questions, composing information modules on
                      and expecliting the development of a needed resource after it              ocean resources, and compiling integrated ocean environmen-
                      has earned public approval. The existing system of zoning,                 tal databases. With regard to ocean energy outreach, DBED
                      permit-granting and conducting environmental reviews can be                could institute joint programs with other government agencies,
                      problematic on both fronts.                                                and with the utility companies and research organizations to
                        As many as five agencies exercise authority over the State's             support school science projects, solicit participation on possi-
                      shores and nearshore waters. This results in duplication of                bilities and plans to community interest groups, and inforin the
                      efforts and public confusion over administrative and regula-               local business community on prospects and opportunities in
                      tory accountability. Some beneficial side effects do emerge                ocean energy development
                      frorri the multiplication of jurisdictions and perinit require-               Finally, optimizing Hawaii's use of ocean energy resources,
                      ments: project development is slowed sufficiently to allow                 and ocean resources overall, requires long-term thinking,
                      public consideration and debate, and opposition is mustered                foresight, monitoring of emerging trends and technological
                      to question expert opinions. If, however, those are judged to be           innovations, and design of visions that capture the community's
                      positive, they should be explicitly and formally institutional-            preferences for its daily interactions with the ocean as a whole.







                                     This in itself calls for a research and planning team focused on                 the magnitude of potential financial loss of both tangible
                                     scanning technical literature for the emergence of innovative                    and intangible resources in those areas at risk. [See Waste
                                     technologies, composing alternative scenarios for ocean en-                      Management section.]
                                     ergy development and its possible byproducts, and organizing               Policy C
                                     workshops to allow the public to participate in designing and
                                     reviewing those alternative development scenarios. The goal                Increase public knowledge regarding ocean energy technolo-
                                     should be ocean energy development based on the communitys                 gies.
                                     needs and environmental preferences. This deserves the in-                 Implementing Actions:
                                     vestment of funds and staff.                                                     DBED, in cooperation udth DOE. should.
                                                                                                                      1. Solicit Federal and private-sector funds to expand its
                                     RECOMWNI)ATIONS                                                                  educational campaign on ocean energy resources for use
                                     Objective                                                                        in schools, including information on relevant ocean-
                                     Balance optimal, cost-effective development of the State's                       related State and County programs.
                                     ocean energy resources, as well as the State's other energy                      2. Develop informative, multimedia presentations for
                                     sources, with the preservation of Hawaii's coastal and marine                    public dissemination on different ocean energy tech-
                                     environments.                                                                    nologies.
                                     Policy A                                                                         DBED should.-
                                     Actively encourage alternative ocean energy use as well as the                   3. Update financial and investment data on ocean en-
                                     development of integrated energy resources and the use of                        ergy technologies developed elsewhere, as background
                                     hydrogen as a medium of energy transfer, as an alternative to                    infortnatidn for potential commercial ocean energy pri-
                                     fossil fuel dependence.                                                          vate-public partnerships.
                                     Impkinenting Actions.                                                            4. Research or model the costs of electricity production
                                                                                                                      and potential co-products for all.potential ocean energy
                                           DBED should.                                                               sources.
                                           1. Support establishment of a commercial-scale OTEC                  Policy D
                                           plant at the earliest possible date.                                 Mediate conflicts of use between ocean energy programs and
                                           2. Expand funding support to ocean energy research                   other ocean uses, and compensate communities of interest
                                           and development, including but not limited to OTEC,                  when other uses are limited or curtailed by State-mandated
                                           wave energy capture, marine biomass, and the explora-                ocean energy activities.
                                           tion of ocean energy innovations.                                    Implementing Actions:
                                     Policy B                                                                         DBED should.-
                                     Conduct an inventory of Hawaii's ocean energy resources and the
                                     coastal and manne environments that their development affects.                   1. Establish a program offering facilitated negotiation
                                     Implementing Actions:                                                            on ocean energy-related conflicts.
                                                                                                                      2. As a means to preempt potential conflicts, investigate
                                           DBED, in cooperation with OSP, should.-                                    innovative approaches to facilitate goal-setting within
                                           1. Design a coastal and marine environmental database,                     Hawaii's communities with regard to energy develop-
                                           in conjunction with other related agencies, to consolidate                 ment and ocean management, such that agreed-upon
                                           government, university, and private research, which would                  goals could be incorporated into an ongoing ocean plan-
                                           be updated continuously and publicly accessible.                           ning process.
                                           2. Update ocean energy resource inventories completed                      3. Investigate means to compensate communities for
                                           to date, and expand them where necessary to include                        loss of coastal and ocean use due to ocean energy
                                           data on wave, tidal, marine biomass, salinity gradient, or                 developments, and to establish rates and ki     .nds of com-
                                           other prospective energy resources.                                        pensation.
                                           3. Assess the relative degree of impact on the marine                Policy E
                                           and coastal environment of the complete array of poten-              Enhance coordination and cooperation among State, County,
                                           tial energy sources available for State use, in order to             and Federal agencies responsible for permitting ocean energy
                                           establish a cost/benefits matrix for public consideration.           activities, to reduce duplication of effort, simplify the pennit-
                                           4. Identify shore areas most at risk from potential oil              ting process and increase public involvement in ocean energy
                                           spills, inventory their plant and animal life, and evaluate          management.








                     Implementing Actions:                                                    8. This section on PURPA and proposed corollary regulations
                           DBED, in cooperation with DLNR and DOT, sbould.                    was drawn from Edwin T.C. Ing, President, American Wind
                                                                                              Energy Association, "Regulatory and Legal Issues," presented
                           1. Develop means to increase the opportunities             for     at the "Enhancing Renewable Energy Development in Hawaii
                           public notification and review of proposed projects,               Workshop," sponsored by the State of Hawaii, Department of
                           including instituting a public hearing explaining the project      Business and Economic Development, Energy Division, July
                           and inviting comments at the time the application for              26 & 27,1989, in Honolulu, Hawaii.
                           permit is first filed.
                           2. Evaluate the Federal, State, and County regulatory              9. Most of the issues presented in this section are drawn from
                           regimes applicable to energy activities and suggest ap-            public meetings sponsored by the Ocean and Marine Re-
                           proaches to coordinating the pern-litting process.                 sources Council cluringJune, 1990, and from the "Workshop on
                                                                                              Enhancing Renewable Energy Development in Hawaii,"spon-
                                                                                              sored by DBED in July, 1989.

                     NOTES

                     1. This section owes much to the draft HawaiiStateFunctional             REFERENCES
                     Plan: Energy, particularly pages 6-8, and the State ofHawaii             Pryde, P.R. 1983. Nonconventional Energy Resources. New
                     Databook.. 1989.                                                         YorkJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.
                     2. The Btu equivalent of barrel of oil will vary depending upon          Solar Energy Research Institute. 1989. Ocean Ybermal Energy
                     its quality, but an "average" barrel of oil is equivalent to             Conversion: An Overview. Washington, D.C.:Government
                     approximately 6 million Btus.                                            Printing Office.
                     3. The following section draws heavily on data presented in              State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                     the State Energy Resource Coordinator's Annual Report: July              ment & Tourism, Energy Resources Coordinator. 1988. State
                     1, 1W -June 30, 1989, particularly pages 5, and 96-99.                   Energy Resource Coordinator-@ Annual Repon, Fiscal Year
                     4. Salinity gradient power derives from the osmotic pressure             1987- 1988. Honolulu.
                     difference between fresh and saltwater. The world's resources            State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                     of this power generally he where large freshwater streams meet           ment & Tourism, Energy Resources Coordinator. 1989. State
                     either the ocean or landlocked saline lakes such as the Dead             Energy Resource Coordinator's Annual Report, Fiscal Year
                     Sea. The power potential is greater in the latter instance, due to       1988 - 1989. Honolulu.
                     higher salinity. Hawaii simply lacks any major instance of this
                     freshwater-saltwater interface.                                          State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                     5. At the time this site was developed, NELHA was the Natural            ment & Tourism. 1988. 7be State ofHawaiiDatabook 1988.. A
                     Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH). As ofJuly 1, 1990, NELH              Statistical Abstract. Honolulu.
                     merged with the Hawaii Ocean Science andTechnology (HOST)                State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                     Park, forming the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Author-            ment & Tourism. 1989. TheState ofHawaii Databook 1989: A
                     ity. Increasing overlaps between the two agencies in terms of            Statistical Abstract. Honolulu.
                     infrastructure, operations, and services suggested consolida-
                     tion for administrative efficiency. Like its parent organizations        State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                     the new organization is administratively attached to DBED.               ment & Tourism. 1990. Regulatory and Legal Issues. Enbanc-
                     6. The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority also                ing Renewa ble En ergy Developmen t in Ha wa ii Wo rksh op, Ju ly
                     manages the State's experimental geothermal power plant, the             26-27, 1990. By T.C. Ing. Honolulu.
                     Puna Geothermal Facility, which includes the HGP-A geother-              State of Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Develop-
                     mal well, the I MW wellhead generator plan,, and Noii 0 Puna,            ment & Tourism. 1990. Ybe Hawaii State PLan: Energy (Draft
                     the Puna Research Center.                                                Functional Plan). Honolulu.
                     7. This section derives much of its information from the mono-           State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-
                     graph by Sumida and Hills on legal, institutional and financial          opment. 1984. Legal, InstitutionalandFinancialAspects ofan
                     aspects of the cleepwater cable project, with updates elicited           Inter-IslandElectrical Transmission Cable. PreliminaryAnaly-
                     from the State Energy Resource Coordinatof s report for fiscal           sl.s - Executive Summary. By G.A. Sumida and A.L. Hills.
                     year 1988-1989.                                                          Honolulu.








                                 Vega, L.A. 1991. Economics of Ocean Thermal Energy Conver-
                                 sion (OTEC). Ocean Energy Recovery. American Society of
                                 Civil Engineers. In press.

                                 Vega, L.A. and A.R. Trenka. 1990. Near Term Market Potential
                                 for OTEC in the Pacific Basin. Proceedings oftheFourtb Pacific
                                 Congress on Marine Science and Tecbnolog, PACON90. Vol.
                                 1. pp. 491-498. Honolulu: PACON International.










                               Sequoia Shannon
                               Ocean Resources Branch
                               State of Hawaii Department of Business,
                               Economic Development & Tourism
                               P.O. Box 2359
                               Honolulu, M 96804
                               MORIME MIHEROLS



                                                                                         THE RESOURCE
                                                                           PAGE          Hawaii is developing strategies to develop its ocean resources
                        THE RESOURCE                                         107         for diversifying its economic base. Mineral deposits, ranging
                        Offshore Resources                                   107         from sand to cobalt-rich manganese crusts, are resourcesfound
                             Location and Value                              107         within Hawaii's territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone
                        Nearshore Resources                                  109         (EEZ). The mineral deposits in the Hawaiian EEZ merit inves-
                             Location and Type                               109         tigation in the light of future projections indicating that 25
                                                                                         percent of the world's mineral supply will ultimately be derived
                        RESOURCE MANAGEWBT                                   110         by ocean mining (Waihee 1990). The marine mineral resources
                        Federal Authority                                    110         of the EEZ could be an important part of Hawaifs econornic future.
                             Offsbore Resources                              110           In an effort to diversify its economy, provide jobs and
                             Nearsbore Resources                             110         develop new marine industry, Hawaii actively has considered
                        State Authority                                      110         ocean mining since 1972 (DOI 1990). Such an industry would
                             Offsbore Resources                              110         provide an economic boost that would carry beyond the initial
                             Nearsbore Resources                             ill         mining endeavor to new spin-off industries, such as marine
                        County Authority                                     ill         research, exploration electronics, submersibles, marine engi-
                             OffsborelNearsbore Resources                    ill         neering and technology-transfer opportunities for an interna-
                                                                                         tional market. The potential to develop a marine minerals
                        MANAGEMENT ISSUES                                    ill         industry is being considered both for offshore manganese
                        Revenue Sharing                                      ill         resources as well as nearshore sandAimestone resources.
                             Offsbore Resources                              ill
                        Federal-State Relations                              112         Offshore Resources
                             Offsbore Resources                              112         The most valuable offshore marine minerals resources are
                        Technology and Research actmues                      112         cobalt-rich manganese crusts and manganese nodules.
                             Tecinsology                                     112         Location and Value
                             Researcl; Activities                            113
                        Public Awareness                                     113         Manganese deposits contain varying combinations and per-
                        Environmental Considerations                         114         centages of metals such as iron, manganese, cobalt, copper,
                             Exploration                                     114         nickel and platinum, with cobalt being by far the most eco-
                             Mining                                          114         no.mically valuable. Cobalt-rich manganese crusts, associated
                             Transportation                                  115         primarily with seamounts and guyots over areas sufficiently
                             Processing                                      115         large enough to support possible ocean mining ventures, are
                                                                                         found within the EEZ adjacent to Hawaii and Johnston Island
                        RECOMM(ENDA11ONS                                     115         (See figure on page 108). The best resources are located at
                        Objective                                            115         depths between 800 and 2,400 meters (DOI 1990).
                        Policies and implementing Actions                    115           Manganese nodules, which are relatively rich in manganese,
                                                                                         cobalt, iron, nickel, and copper, are abundant over vast areas
                                                                                         of the deep seabed at depths of 4,000-5,000 meters. Nodules
                                                                                         are usually potato-shaped, three to six cm in diameter, and lie















                                                    180*
                                                       -   11 @._ - - --                                                                                                                         I
                                                                                                                POTENTIAL MARINE MINING LEASE TRACTS
                                                              P                                                 IN THE EEZ ADJACENT TO
                                                                                                                HAWAII AND JOHNSTON ISLANDS
                                          30-                                         30* (N LatRude)
                                                                                                170*(W Longftude)
                                                             _U




                                                                                                                                         160*


                                                                                 34,







                                                              P
                                                              P
                                                              P

                                                              AREAS EXCLUDED FOR                170*
                                                              ENVIRONMENTAL
                                                                                                                                                                   A",
                                                              REASONS
                                                              AREAS EXCLUDED
                                                              FOR MILITARY
                                                              REASONS
                                                                                 17*                                17*


                                                                                                                           100     200 km
                                                                                                                               0





                                                                                               170*





                                     scattered on the ocean floor. Crusts occur as thin blankets and               Second, rich crust deposits are located at shallower depths
                                     encrustations on sediment-free areas of the seafloor and sea-              and in closer proximity to potential operation bases than
                                     mounts. They range from thin films to thicknesses of more than             nodules. The water depths of optimum crust deposits vary
                                     ten centimeters. It is not known presently which of these                  from 800 to 2,400 meters and crusts are much more accessible
                                     deposit types will be first to provide commercial minerals for             than the 4,000-5,000-meter-deep nodule fields. For example,
                                     U.S. or intemational markets. Hundreds of millions of dollars              shallow depths present fewer handling problems in raising
                                     already have been comrr:iitted to the exploration and technol-             niined ores to the surface (Wiltshire 1990a). In addition, the
                                     ogy development by industry and several national govern-                   closer proximity of potential mining enterprises to centers of
                                     ments for deep seabed nodules. Present knowledge concern-                  commerce likely would result in lower costs for supplies,
                                     ing the crust deposits is very preliminary. Nevertheless, several          transportation and repairs for a crust mining operation.
                                     factors related to the crust deposits warrant continued efforts to
                                     learn more about them. Crusts are different than nodules in a                 Third, existence of manganese crusts within the legal regime
                                     number of ways Qohnson and Clark 1988).                                    of .a domestic EEZ may facilitate development of a marine
                                                                                                                minerals industry. The richest-known nodule deposits, on the
                                        First, cobalt concentrations in crusts are four times those of          other hand, are on the deep seabed outside the EEZ, an area of
                                     nodules, contain a higher total value of metals than nodules,              disputed jurisdiction. A more attractive regime for mining
                                     and have a much higher value per square meter in place. Some               manganese crusts likely would occur within the EEZ of Hawaii.
                                     crusts also contain potentially economic grades of platinum.                  A marine minerals industry in Hawaii potentially would
                                     Recent studies show that the crusts may carry up to $350/ton of            offer the United States a domestic source of important strategic
                                     contained metals, whereas nodules may carry only about $200/               materials. Currently, over 95 percent of the cobalt used in the
                                     ton (Wiltshire 1990a). Of these metals, cobalt is one of the most          United States is imported. A domestic source of strategic
                                     critical in supply because domestic reserves are inadequate                marine minerals could alleviate the problem of dependence on
                                     and cobalt is of strategic importance to the United States. The            foreign importation ofsuch strategic minerals. Cobalt, manga-
                                     United States accounts for about one-third of the world's                                                                                   b
                                                                                                                nese and platinum -metals critical to U.S. industry - are
                                     consumption of cobalt, yet produces none of it (five percent is            imported from countries with unstable political conditions or
                                     recycled). Its special properties are ideal for producing power-
                                                                                                                where other supply disruptions could occur for geopolitical
                                     ful permanent magnets and corrosion and high temperature                   reasons, e.g., South Africa, Zaire and Zambia. Of the principal
                                     resistant super-alloys. In addition, crust metals act as catalysts         mineral resources found in the EEZ (crusts, polymetallic
                                     for a variety of chemical processes and are important to the               sulphides and nodules) the United States impm the following:
                                     nation's industries.






                         TRBLE I                                                                 impetus to the State to investigate the feasibility of mining
                                                                                                 nearshore sand resources to meet these pressing needs.

                         METAIS OF U.S. CONSUMPflON E@WRTED                                      Location and Type
                                        Manganese                   99%                          Sand for beach enhancement and construction comes from a
                                        Cobalt                      95%                          variety of sources. Materials for concrete are made with crushed
                                                                                                 limestone deposits from raised reefs or lithified dunes. crushed
                                        Platinum                    92%                          basalt from quarries, or crushed dredge spoils. Sand for other
                                        Nickel                      741/o                        construction needs comes from inactive dunes or beach
                                        Zinc                        67,/,o                       ridges (inland), or is imported silica sand from Australia or
                                        Cadmium                     66%                          Canada. Imported sand, (approximately 100,000 tons a year),
                                                                                                 at $65 - $95 per ton, is reserved for specialized uses, such as
                         Source. Adapledfrom "Advanced Technology and Science: A Key to          tournament-quality golf courses or high-quality Portland
                         Oceanic Development " (1987) MTSjournal, Vol. 220)                      cement.
                                                                                                    While crushed basalt and limestone aggregate may be ac-
                                                                                                 ceptable (though expensive) for the construction industry,
                         An additional political dimension for the United States to              they are not acceptable for beach replenishment. Basalt is too
                      consider is the possibility that the first crust mining operation          dark in color and limestone hardens over time. eventualiv
                      in the sea mav be the only one to be developed anywhere as the             leaving a beach denuded of sand. Crush                 a ,
                                                                                                                                             ed rock is' naularan@
                      investment costs are so high and the available sites so few.               uncomfortable to walk and lie on. It contains adhering rock
                      Foreign producers, including State-owned or State-controlled               powder which washes out into nearshore waters, creating
                      companies, are likely to continue to be the measure of compe-              turbid water and smothering coral reefs. Crushed quarry sand
                      tition that must be met by both domestic onshore and offshore              (lithified sand dunes) and inactive inland dunes serve as the
                      producers (U.S. Conaress 1987). The cobalt market is a limited             primary source of sand for State as well as County beaches.
                      one. Should it aggressively pursue mining exploration and                  Sand for beach replenishment is obtained from graded on-
                      development, the United States could preclude other entries in             shore, inland sand dunes located on Kauai, Maui and Oahu.
                      the market, Lherebv securing a domestic source of a strategic              Inland sand dunes on Oahu are expected to be depleted within
                      mineral in an unstable and limited world market.                           ten years (Griffin 1990). Importing sand from the Neighbor
                         A recent study estimates that offshore crust mining, com-               islands is very expensive to meet the needs of Oahu's recre-
                      bined with onshore processing in Hawaii, would generate                    ational beaches.
                      annual sales of about S540 million statewide and lead directly                 All of the previously described terrestrial, natural sand
                      and indirectly to more than 3,000 new jobs (Morgan 1990).                  sources are of very limited quantity, rapidly dwindling, or
                      About half of these sales and jobs would be generated in the               production cost-pro'hibitive. Dwindling onshore reserves and
                      State if only mining occurred and the ore were transported                 restrictive State legislation and administrative rules have pro-
                      elsewhere for processing. Such an industry in Hawaii, with or              hibited the harvesting of sand deposits. Concern for future
                      without processing, would diversify the economy and increase               shortfalls of sand supplies have prompted studies to prospect
                      commerce independent of tourism, government and the con-                   for offshore deposits (Coulboum et al 1988).
                      struction industry.                                                           While large deposits of sand with the requisite grain size,
                      Nearshore Resources                                                        distribution and color suitable for beach replenishment occur
                                                                                                 at a number of sites nearshore, they have not yet been used for
                      Sand is the most valuable nearshore marine mineral. As one of              this purpose. "Nearshore" is here defined to mean within three
                      the seemingly unlimited products of the sea, it is of vital                miles of the shoreline. Geophysical and geological research
                      importance to everyone in Hawaii, residents and visitors alike.            completed during the last 20 years has iden"tified several
                      As such, sand mining may be the marine mineral to come under               deposit sites, which appear to be the most likely candidates for
                      development in the State in the near-term. The worth of                    supplying beach sand for Oahu beaches (Cruickshank 1990).
                      Hawaii's beaches as a recreational focus for residents and
                      visitors goes beyond any dollar value. Millions of visitors (6.6              The economic and technical feasibility of offshore sand
                      million in 1989) journey to Hawaii, drawn in large part by the             recovery depends to a great extent upon the size and location
                      beauty of the beaches. Several of the State's most popular                 of the particular deposit to be mined. The size (volume) of the
                      beaches, including Waikiki and Ala Moana, are sustained by                 deposit determines, in part, how profitable the venture will be.
                      man or are influenced by the activities ofhuman beings. These              For a large deposit, the expense of deploying dredge equip-
                      areas have histories of net erosion and sand loss (Dollar 1979).           ment and possible delivery pipe could likely be offset by
                      Beaches, especially man-made ones, must periodically be                    volume of production (Casciano and Palmer 1969). Some sites
                      replenished with quantities of clean, white beach sand. Main-              are excellent in volume and proximity to the shore. It is
                      tenance of white sandy beaches, coupled with the potential                 estimated, for example, that approximately six million cubic
                      need to compensate beaches for rising sea levels, provides                 yards of sand occur off the Reef Runway at Honolulu Interna-








                                       tional Airport (Griffin 1990). Proximity to the beaches reduces          extent of the U.S. territorial sea), COE must be consulted. if
                                       transportation and other costs for needed replenishment en-              dredging or discharge activities occur within the three-mile
                                       deavors.                                                                 limit, a COE permit is required under the Rivers and Harbors
                                                                                                                Act. In addition, under the Federal Marine Protection, Research
                                                                                                                and Sanctuaries Act, a permit is required from the COE for the
                                       RESOURCE MANAGEMINT                                                      transportation of dredged material for the purpose of dumping
                                       Federa Authority                                                         within the navigable waters. COE also issues a permit under
                                                                                                                Section 404 of the Clean Water Act for placement of dredged or
                                       Offshore Resources                                                       fill materials.
                                       Most minerals of economic interest, while within the 200-mile            State Authority
                                       EEZ, lie in waters beyond the State's territorial sea. By Presiden-
                                       tial Proclamation (1983), the United States claimed sovereign            Offshore Resources
                                       rights and jurisdiction for exploring, conserving and managing
                                                                            0                                   In early 1984, in anticipation of proposed exploratory lease
                                       the natural resources within the EEZ. 200 nautical miles sea-
                                                                                                                sales in Hawaii's EEZ, MMS and the State established a joint
                                       ward of the coast. The primary purpose for establishing the EEZ          Federal/State Manganese Crust Task Force composed of Fed-
                                       was to bring mineral deposits within this area under U.S.                eral and State agencies and technical experts. The Task Force
                                       control (Saiki 1990).                                                    is co-chaired by the State Department of Business, Economic
                                          While the U.S. Congress has not yet enacted comprehensive             Development and Tourism (DBED) and MMS. Staffing was
                                       legislation to implement the EEZ Proclamation, certain re-               provided by DBED. The Task Force was assigned to oversee
                                       source-specific laws essentially cover the same area of the EEZ.         preparation of an environmental impact statement (EIS) and
                                       The Federal Outer Continental Shelf 12nds Act (OCSLA), for               associated research for the proposed exploratory lease sale
                                       example, is the domestic law covering the exploration and                and to act as a forum for the ongoing consideration of ocean
                                       development of oil and gas reserves from an area similar but             mining issues.
                                       not identical to the EEZ.                                                   The work of the Task Force led to a joint Federal-State
                                          Under the OCSLA, the U.S. Department of the Interior                  cooperative agreement for Marine MineralsJoint Planning and
                                       Minerals Management Service (MMS) controls mineral mining                Review signed in December 1988. Thisjoint Planning Arrange-
                                       activities on the outer continental shelf. The MMS Office of             ment UPA) gives Hawaii an active role in planning and review-
                                       Strategic and International Minerals (OSIM) develops policy              ing offshore mineral development activities and coordinating
                                       and implements a program to promote the exploration, devel-              program and policy issues of mutual interest. TheJPA includes
                                       opment and recovery of hard minerals. OSIM provides overall              two committees: the Cooperative Steering Committee (CSQ
                                       programmatic direction for offshore hard minerals activities             and the Coordination Committee (CC). Both Committees are
                                       and facilitates coordination among headquarters and its re-              co-chaired by DBED and MMS and staffed by DBED. The CC is
                                       gional offices, adjacent coastal states, local governments and           responsible for working with citizen groups, Federal and State
                                       the public sector.                                                       decision-makers on planning, program and policy issues; co-
                                                                                                                ordinating project activities; and providing technical support to
                                          Although MMS has primary authority over marine mining
                                       activities in the EEZ, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service           CSC. The JPA, a landmark agreement that creates a unique
                                       (NMFS), and the eight regional fisheries councils, play impor-           Federal-State partnership in managing offshore mineral re-
                                       tant consultative roles. In addition, the U.S. Army Corps o              sources, serves as the prototype for joint Federal/State EEZ
                                       Engineers (COE) is responsible for g   .ranting permits for harbor       management efforts.
                                       facilities to accommodate ocean mineral processing, transpor-               The final EIS was released in October 1990. The Department
                                       tation or other services. The U.S. Environmental Protection              of Interior is considering preparing a Secretarial Issue Docu-
                                       Agency (EPA) has jurisdiction over water quality and benthos             ment (SID) to analyze the EIS. The SID will recommend
                                       protection beyond the State's territorial sea limit.                     whether, when, and under what conditions to hold a marine
                                       Nearsbore Resources                                                      minerals lease sale. From the beginning of the the SID process
                                                                                                                through a lease sale and the exploration phase, it will probably
                                       Nearshore sand deposits he entirely within the State's marine            take at least 15 to 20 years before any mining occurs, given the
                                       jurisdiction, but the State must comply with specific Federal            discovery of mineable deposits.
                                       regulations. The NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource                  The lead agency for the State's coastal zone management
                                       Management administers the Coastal Zone Management (CZM)                 program is the Office of State Planning (OSP). The Hawaii CZM
                                       Act of 1972, which was enacted primarily to provide assistance           Program, a Federally approved program, began in 1977 to carry
                                       to States in developing programs for the management of lands
                                       and resources within the coastal zone.                                   out the goals and objectives of the national CZM Act of 1972, as
                                                                                                                amended. The CZM Act requires that Federal activities and
                                          For activities that occur within the navigable waters of the          development projects directly affecting a state's coastal zone
                                       United States (from the mean hiah water mark seaward to the              be consistent with approved state coastal programs "to the








                       maximum extent rac,ical'(15 CFR 930-32). This"consistency"         process. In addition to a CDUA, an Environmental Assessment
                       provision has been particularly effective for reviewing Federal    would be required. If the CDUA was for commercial purposes,
                       activities that would not otherwise be subject to State laws and   a public hearing would be held.
                       policies. Presently, OCS lease sales and leasing activities, are      Ocean dredging or sand recovery projects in nearshore
                       not subject to Federal consistency. In the leasing regulations,    waters within three miles of the mean high water mark would
                       IMMS stated that "coastal zone consistency concurrence is not      necessitate an application to determine whether a DOT permit
                       required prior to a lease sale of OCS minerals" (54 Federal        was required. DOH establishes and enforces environmental
                       Register, pp. 20427 2046, Jan. 18, 1989). However, all Federal     quality standards for State waters.
                       activities, including OCS leases, are subject to Federal consis-
                       tency requirements if they affect natural resources, land uses or  County Authority
                       water uses in the coastal zone. Support activities, such as
                       transportation, storage or processing of recovered minerals,       OffsborelNearsbore Resources
                       would occur within the state coastal zone and be subject to        The Counties would be involved in land-based activities and
                       state program permits and other requirements (DOI 1990).           developments associated with offshore activities that have
                         Other State agencies that potentially would be involved if an    direct impact upon the use of local infrastructure within State
                       ore processing facility were to be established in Hawaii would     urban land-use districts. Under Hawaii's CZM program man-
                       include the Departments of Transportation (DOT), Health            agement, permits for activities within the shoreline area of the
                       (DOH), and'Land and Natural Resources (DLNR). Develop-             coastal zone are administered by County governments.
                       ment activity within State waters requires a written perinit from     All four Counties have General Plans, some form of develop-
                       DLNR as well as other appropriate permits from DOT. DOT has        ment plans, and zoning and subdivision ordinances. These
                       authority within State waters and over activities at State harbor  Plans encompass the whole County, and lay out general
                       facilities. DOH is primarily responsible for pollution control, to objectives and polices for directing growth and development.
                       include maintaining an ambient water quality monitoring pro-       The Counties share direct land-use control within State urban
                       ,gram to deterinine water quality trends and comply with
                       I                                                                  land-use districts and partial control within State agricultural
                       Federal and State regulations. In addition, DOH issues operat-     A -
                       ing permits for industries that discharge wastewater into coastal  o1stricts.
                       waters of the State.                                                  County authorities would primarily include the parks and
                       Nearsbore Resources                                                recreation departments for beach replenishment and the plan-
                                                                                          ning departments (Department of Land Utilization, City and
                       The Hawaii CZM Program sets basic State policy to guide State      County of Honolulu) under the Special Management Area
                       agencies and County governments in all actions affecting the       (SMA) and the Shoreline Setback Area provisions of Hawaii's
                       State's coastal zone. Hawaii's coastal zone includes the waters    CZM Program.
                       from the shoreline to the seaward limit of the State's jurisdiction   SMAs and Shoreline Setback Areas were created by the
                       and all lands excluding those lands designated as State forest     Legislature to provide added controls on activities in shoreline
                       reserves (Chapter 205A, HRS). In addition, on the landward         areas. The SMA system is the permit process for County
                       side of the coastal zone, two "belts" circling the Islands - the   implementation of coastal zone management objectives and
                       Special Management Area and the Shoreline Setback Area -           policies. Each County has devised its own rules and system
                       are established for more intensive management by the four          following State guidelines.
                       Counties (OSP 1990). Activities involving sand mining would
                       come under the purview of CZM, DLNR and County govem-
                       ments,                                                             MANAGEMEW ISSUES
                        Sand mining has been effectively banned since 1978. The           Revenue Sharing
                       mining ortaking of sandseaward of the shoreline is prohibited
                       with some exception,; including permitted replenishment or         offsbore Resources
                       protection of public lands (Chapter 171-58.5, HRS), or where       The U.S. Department of the Interior and Congress have long
                       the mining ortaking is authorized by a variance (Chapter 205A-     debated whether the OCSLA provides a sufficient basis for
                       44, HRS).                                                          regulating the exploration and development of hard mineral
                        All land is designated at the State level into one of four use    resources of the U.S. EEZ. Several shortcomings limit OCSIA's
                       classifications (conservation, agricultural, rural or urban). All  suitability for managing hard minerals:
                       State waters are classified within the conservation district. The  1. The OCSLA is primarily designed to meet the needs of the
                       State retains control over all land classifications except urban,  offshore oil and gas industry, not the needs of a potential
                       which is under County jurisdiction. If sand mining were to         marine minerals industry. The extensive regulatory guidelines
                       occur on conservation district use lands, which could include      and procedures for OCS oil and gas development do not exist
                       submerged lands, DLNR would retain jurisdiction and issue           r hard minerals mining. Section 8(k) of OCSIA gives discre-
                       perTnits through a Conservation District Use Application (CDUA)    tion to the Secretary of the Interior, thus there are noassurances








                                    to the mining industry that a stable, predictable leasing pro-          Technology and Research Activities
                                    gram will be maintained by subsequent administrations. Bonus            The development of Hawaii as a marine minerals center re-
                                    bid competitive leasing requirements (money paid to the                 quires that industries are made aware of the technological and
                                    government before exploration or development begins) set                research capabilities and concomitant opportunities available.
                                    forth in Section 7(k) of the OCSLA are not well suited for
                                    stimulating exploration and development of seabed hard min-             Tecbnology
                                    erals by the private sector.                                            opportunities for development of a marine minerals industry
                                    2. The economic investment necessary to successfully explore            hinge upon jurisdictional concerns and constraints imposed by
                                    and develop a hard minerals industry requires a public-private          the present limits of marine technology. In some cases, the
                                    partnership. Private industry will need leases of submerged             technology for development is state-of-the-art, while in others,
                                    areas for this purpose. The only existing law that could allow          it is no better developed than technology for mining on the.
                                    a leasing process is the OCSLA. One major constraint, however,          Moon (UH 1988).
                                    is that all revenue from a mining venture must be deposited in             Technological and environmental systems development
                                    the national treasury. Under the OCSLA, the Federal govern-             (systems for exploration, mining, mineral extraction, environ-
                                    ment cannot grant revenue sharing. Until suitable mining                mental mitigation and protection) are at various levels of
                                    legislation is enacted to provide for revenue sharing, there is         development. The goal of mineral exploration is to locate,
                                    little prospect that industry will substantially invest in expen-       identify and quantify mineral deposits for potential commer-
                                    sive minerals exploration and development (Wiltshire, 1990b).           cial exploitation. Detailed sampling of promising sites is
                                    Because of these OCSLA limitations, representatives from coastal        necessary to assess the commercial value of these deposits.
                                    states, the U.S. mining industry and environmental special
                                    interest groups have been working together for several years to            While the immediate challenge is to gain a better under-
                                    develop a new legal regime to encourage the development of              standing of the physiography and geology of the seafloor and
                                    commercially successful and environmentally acceptable ma-              its environment, and to inventory minerals occurrence, the
                                    rine mining in the EEZ. To date, these efforts have not resulted        potential value of developing and marketing technology for
                                    in specific legislation which can survive the gauntlet of the           seabed mining and processing systems should not and cannot
                                    Federal legislative process. However, the American Mining               be ignored. The exploration tools, mining system components,
                                    Congress and the Oceanic Society have provided joint tesd-              system optimization processes and associated waste manage-
                                    mony in support of the major provisions of existing draft               ment techniques, all require technology for ocean mining. For
                                    legislation Uones Bill, H.R. 2440). Continued efforts on the part       sand mining, the technology is essentially at hand. For deep-
                                    of the State are needed to ensure that the final law to emerge          water deposits however, there are significant constraints to
                                    from this process does indeed foster such development.                  development as follows:
                                    Federal State Relations                                                 1. Because offshore marine mining is an emerging industry for
                                                                                                            which technology is only partially developed, an immense
                                    Offsbore Resources                                                      amount of initial capital is required for the research, survey and
                                    Federal-State conflicts over offshore oil and gas leasing and           technical development that must precede a mining and pro-
                                    development activities on the U.S. Mainland offer valuable              cessing operation.
                                    lessons in how to avoid the problems that can arise when                2. Marine mining presents a variety of challenges to the design,
                                    Federal and State agendas differ and the Federal government             development, and operation of marine mining systems. Devel-
                                    pays only lip service to State concerns. More effective partner-        opment and capital costs for vessels and marine systems can be
                                    ship arrangements, such as those represented by the Manga-              high. Profitability of offshore mining ventures will begin only
                                    nese Crust Task Force and JPA, need to be ensured by legisla-           when safe and efficient mining systems can be built and
                                    tion. Although the Task Force option is encouraged in MMS               operated at reasonable costs.
                                    mineral mining regulations, no legislation or regulation man-           3. All known cobalt-rich manganese crust deposits occur
                                    dates such cooperation, making these arrangements more                  deep waters, beyond the range of present technological capa-
                                    tenuous than is desired.                                                bility. Before mining equipment can be designed, more tech-
                                      Among the State's objectives for a marine minerals industry           nical and engineering data must be developed. As part of the
                                    is the pursuit of a legal framework that assures the State's            final EIS produced for MMS by the joint Federal-State Task
                                    continued involvement and participation in the development              Force, a mining development scenario was formulated to
                                    and management of hard mineral resources in the EEZ adjacent            consider the technical details of mining, transportation and
                                    to Hawaii. The State believes that such exploratory and devel-          metallurgical processing. Although the technologies for trans-
                                    opment activities will cause significant impacts on the interests       porting and processing are fairly well developed, those for
                                    and rights of its citizens. Accordingly, the State will seek new        mining are not. Nothing equivalent to manganese crusts has
                                    regulatory or, if necessary, statutory arrangements to give             ever been mined under water (Morgan et al 1988).
                                    Hawaii an assured voice in joint management of marine min-              4. A relatively detailed mining development scenario which
                                    erals resources.                                                        describes and evaluates the various subsystems required to








                        mine crusts has been prepared as part of he EIS. A number of         (HIG), Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL) and
                        approaches are possible for each subsystem, but the basic casks      East-West Center Resources Systems Institute (EWC/RSI). A
                        are the same. Subsystems would be required to fragment,              number of research projects are underway, including an inves-
                        collect and crush crust and probably to partially separate crust     tigation of alternative mining targets associated with manga-
                        from substrate before conveying ore to the surface. Manganese        nese crusts that have provided useful information on by-
                        crust mining is uneconomical with existing technology (Clark         products such as platinum and phosphorite. Much of that
                        1990).                                                               research is cofunded by DBED, University of Hawaii Sea Grant
                        5. The future of deep-sea mining may be determined by major          College Program, and U.S. Minerals Management Service
                        technological breakthroughs. Among the more significant of           (Cruickshank and Woolsey 1989; Olson and Cruickshank 1989).
                        these would be technologies involving robotics and artificial           Studies to determine potential nearshore sand resources are
                        intelligence, computer-assisted mining tools, new lighter and        being conducted by MMTC. MMTC, together with the Depart-
                        stronger materials and in situ processing (Clark 1990). Al-          ment of Ocean Engineering, University of Hawaii, has resumed
                        though future technologies hold great promise for deep-sea           a long-dormant research effort to identify Hawaii's nearshore
                        mining activities, such mining operations are still a high-ri,k      sand deposits.
                        venture. Yet, this is a field that will generate innovative re-         A considerable amount of research has been conducted to
                        search and technology-transfer opportunities.                        identify, map and determine the volume and type of sand in
                        Nearshore mining, the most near-term mining venture for              nearsh@o,re areas (Dollar 1979). Some of the earliest studies on
                        Hawaii, is feasible with current technology. Dredge-mining           the utilization of offshore sand deposits were done in the 1960s
                        technology has been used extensively for harbor and channel          by the University of Hawaii. Two components of these early
                        dredging.                                                            studies involved an inventory of offshore sand deposits through-
                        The dredge is the standard technology for excavating un-             out the Hawaiian Islands, while another part involved the
                        consolidated materials from the seafloor. Existing or modified       feasibility of exploiting these deposits (Casciano and Palmer
                        dredge-mining systems could place many nearshore deposits            1969). The sand inventory and recovery projects are now being
                        in the range of technical exploitability (U.S. Congress 1987).       continued at MMTC under the Sand for Hawaiian Beaches
                        The main dredging techniques that can be used are bucketline,        Study.
                        suction and grab. For sand mining, suction devices are most          Flublic Awareness
                        widely used forrecovery operations. Suction dredges, using an
                        airlift system, or suction probes, using a jet pump, have suc-       A most important issue for marine mining in Hawaii is the need
                        cessfully been used to recover sand deposits. Field tests con-       to dispel the public perception that mining is by definition an
                        ducted near Keauhou Bay in 1111 demonstrated the feasibility         unnecessary activity, engaged in only for profit , and highly
                        of using the jet pump (Discussion of the economic and engi-          destructive to the environment. There is a need for factual
                        neering aspects of the Submarine Sand Recovery System can be         information to better inform people so they can understand the
                        found in Casciano 1973a: 1976).                                      potential economic importance of marine minerals mining, as
                        Researcb Activities                                                  well as its potential impacts. A major effort has been made to
                                      I                                                      establish a solid base for public information on the possibilities
                        The Marine Minerals Technology Center (MMTC) was estab-              associated with a marine minerals industry in Hawaii in this
                        lished by Congress in 1988 as a generic research center within       regard:
                        the Mineral Institutes Program at the U.S. Bureau of Mines,          1. Since 1972, the State has produced a lengthy series of
                        Department of the Interior (Cruickshank and Woolsev 1989).
                                                                                             publications assessing the potential impacts and establishing
                        The center was created to facilitate the development of a            environmental baseline conditions (See Note'). In 1987 for
                        domestic technological capability needed for the efficient and       example, the State published three documents that addressed
                        environmentally compatible exploitation of the mineral re-           various aspects of offshore marine mining for manganese
                        sources. MMTC also functions as a training center and an             crusts. One volume envisioned a mining development sce-
                        information and reference center, particularly with regard to        nario for crusts and another assessed infrastructure require-
                        the transfer of technological developments to industry and the       ments. The third, a draft environmental impact statement.
                        public.                                                              analyzed the environmental impacts of such an industry.           I
                        MMTC is composed of separate divisions for nearshore and             2. During a four-year period, a series of well-attended public
                        deep ocean research. The Ocean Basins Division (OBD) is              hearings and meetings were held on the potential of develop-
                        administered by the Center for Ocean Resources Technology            ing a marine minerals industry in Hawaii. These meetings
                        (CORT) at the University of Hawaii with operational facilities       provided the public with an opportunity to identify a variety of
                        located at theJames K.K. Look Laboratory of Ocean Engineer-          concerns that were addressed in the final EIS.
                        ina in Honolulu.
                        0
                        The research programs at OBD complement the ongoing                  3. In October 1990, the final EIS was released for the Proposed
                        marine minerals activities at the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics     Marine Mineral Lease Sale: Exclusive Economic Zone Adjacent
                                                                                             to Hawaii andjohnston Island, jointly prepared and published








                                    by the State and DOI's Minerals Management Service. The                   Exploration may help to respond to technical and environmen-
                                    purpose of the proposed action is to offer for lease portions of          tal considerations. The effects on the surrounding ocean envi-
                                    the seafloor in the EEZ for mine site delineation, development            ronment would be monitored before, during, and after explo-
                                    and production of cobalt-rich manganese crust minerals. No                ration and exploitation operations.
                                    date has been set for a lease sale. Three alternatives to the                Nearsbore Resources.       The environmental impacts Of
                                    proposed action also were assessed in the EIS. They were to: 1)           nearshore exploration can be preliminarily assessed from the
                                    modify the proposed lease sale by omitting certain deposit sites          EIS conducted at Keauhou. Environmental surveys conducted
                                    in the southwest portion of the EEZ adjacent to Hawaii; 2) delay          before, during and after a two-month field test of the offshore
                                    the sale for five years; and 3) permit no lease sales.                    sand mining and delivery system demonstrated that the
                                       Nearshore sand mining activities in the early 1970s resulted           generation of turbidity and suspended sediment attributed
                                    in the publication of a environmental statement for a proposed            to sand recovery operations was negligible and caused no
                                    sand mining test at Keauhou Bay. A final EIS was released in              adverse impact to nearby coral reefs or other marine life (UH
                                    1974 (Casciano 1973b). The EIS analyzed the proposed action               1977).
                                    of the full-scale, long-endurance field test of the prototype of          Mining
                                    an unique system for mining bottom sand. Alternatives to the
                                    proposed action also were considered.                                     OffsboreResources.. The manganese crust EIS mining analysis
                                                                                                              scenario represents the most likely description of the develop-
                                    Environmental Considerations                                              ment activities possiblc with available information and current
                                    Little direct experience exists with commercial marine mining             expertise in the relevant technical disciplines (DOI 1990).
                                    in terms of estimating the potential for environmental harm.                 The area to be mined in one year could be as small as one
                                    Even dredging operations or recovery of sand for beach en-                square mile. Mining would not be pennitted within 50 mi.1es of
                                    hancement, which has been studied in some detail, are spo-                any Hawaiian Island. Extensive recreational and commercial
                                    radic operations that do not reflect the impacts that could result        fishing in these areas, the existence of precious corals, and the
                                    from long-term operations. Careful consideration in the pro-              proximity to heavily used shorelines all pose potential mul-
                                    posed actions was the goal of the EISs for sand recovery                  tiple-use conflicts for such development. In addition, the
                                    projects and mining of manganese crusts.                                  tourism industry would not be adversely impacted by mining
                                    Exploration                                                               operations. The most promising sites are in the EEZ around
                                                                                                              Johnston Island, more than 700 miles from Hawaii. Marine
                                    Offsbore Resources.- Exploration, which will precede actual               mining impacts depend on a variety of factors, such as size and
                                    mining, is necessary to design and refirie mining systems as              location of operations, dynamics of the ocean operations area,
                                    well as provide information in response to technical and                  and physical setting of the minerals themselves.
                                    environmental considerations. During exploration and exploi-                 The mining system would include a crust pick-up mecha-
                                    tation, the effects on the surrounding ocean environment                  nism which dislodges the crust from its substrate, crushes the
                                    would need to be monitored.                                               recovered material and transfers it onto a lift pipe to the mining
                                       In order to provide a baseline characterization of a represen-         ship. The most significant impact concerns from this operation
                                    tative seamount, a detailed site-specific survey was under-               are associated with the suspended particulate matterproduced
                                    taken. Cross Searnount, 170 miles south of Honolulu, was                  near the seafloor and at the surface lift-pipe overflow. A
                                    selected because it is an environmentally sensitive area; it              potential mitigation measure discussed in the EIS would re-
                                    supports a fishery and at the same time, it has well-developed            quire the subsurface discharge of these suspended particles to
                                    manganese crusts. Data collected from this survey is presented            whatever depth necessary if any significant adverse impacts
                                    in the final EIS to provide a realistic assessment of a Hawaiian          are identified through testing activities.
                                    seamount benthic environment.                                                Generally, very low and low impacts are predicted for the
                                       The proposed action would offer for lease portions of the 2.2          activities at the mine site except in the case of mine-site benthic
                                    million square kilometers within the EEZ adjacent to Hawaii               fauna. Benthic fauna in the path of the mining device would
                                    andjohnston Island. Within this area, only the seafloor in water          suffer a high impact while fauna in the range of sedimentation
                                    depths between 800 and 2,400 meters is proposed for inclusion             (particles suspended by the mining operation) would suffer
                                    in the initial lease area. This included area (termed "permissive         low to moderate impacts (DOI 1990)
                                    area" in the EIS) is approximately 1.2 percent of the entire lease           Nearsbore Resources- Physical disturbance from dredge-
                                    sale area (DOI 1990).                                                     mining operations would consist of removing a layer of the
                                       The scope of the EIS is limited by the overall lack of data on         seafloor, conveying it to the surface and reinjecting the material
                                    manganese crusts in general. These limitations result because             into a barge for transport. The mining operation would gener-
                                    only limited research has been completed within the study                 ate a transient "plume" of sediment that would affect the
                                    area. A test mine site is therefore needed, to complete further           surface, water column and adjacent areas of the oceanfloor for
                                    analysis of the commercial potential and test new technology.             a period of time.








                         Ben,li, communities will be disturbed in areas mined.                    may elect site, outside Hawaii. The key potential impacts a,
                      Mollusks inhabiting the sand and echinoderms migrating across               the process plant sites are those of land-use and air quality
                      the sand deposits would be affected. These impacts can be                   (ibid).
                      mitigated or largely avoided by conducting adequate field
                      surveys before selecting a site (UH 1977). Recolonization is
                      expected to take place quickly in high-energy, shallow water                RECOMWNDATIONS
                      communities (U.S. Congress 1987).                                           Objective
                         An important concern is the impact on the beach itself as a              E lore the establishment of a marine minerals industry which
                      result of nearshore sand mining. The removal of sand from any               . xp
                      part of the littoral sand budget system can affect all other parts          is economically beneficial, environmentally sound, and so-
                      (for further discussion of the littoral sand budget, see Beaches            cially acceptable to the people of Hawaii.
                      and Coastal Erosion Technical Paper). Offshore deposits of                  Policy A
                      sand, in quantities suitable for mining operations, most likely
                      would be found 3,000 to 6,000 feet       ?-I offshore (Griffin 1990).       Assert the State's interest in a full partnership with the Federal
                      These sand resources lie outside of the littoral sand budget and,           government in managing marine minerals activities, including
                      therefore, are already "lost" to the system, i.e., the sand would           the equitable sharing of any revenues derived from the mining
                                                                                                  of manganese crusts.
                      neither be redeposited onto the beach over time nor would its
                      removal adversely affect the beach.                                         Implementing Actions:
                      Transportation                                                                     DBED@ in cooperation with OSP. should:
                      OffsboreResources: The recovered ore would be transferred to                       1. Continue to encourage Hawaii's congressional del-
                      bulk cargo vessels in a slurry, transported to docking facilities                  egation to amend the OCSLA or create new minerals
                      near the processing plant site, and then transferred again in                      legislation giving the State equitable revenue-sharing
                      slurry to the plant itself. Of major concern during these activi-                  benefits from EEZ marine mining and leasing activities.
                      des are accidental discharges of ore and the impacts on vessel                     Such legislation should grant coastal states a meaningful
                      lanes, harbor traffic and docking space (see Harbors Technical                     role in offshore mining decision-making without com-
                      Paper).                                                                            promising other interests of the State of Hawaii.
                                                                                                                  C,                                                                     M
                         Nearsbore Resources: Sand transported to the surface is in                      2. Continue to pursue full partnership with the Federal
                      the form of a slurry consisting of approximately 75 percent                        government by using the successful implementation of
                      water and 25 percent sand. The slurry is placed either in a                        the Federal/State joint Planning Arrangement as partial
                      barge, which transports the sand to the shore, or it is piped to                   justification for joint management of Hawaii's EEZ.
                      shore for placement in a deposition basin. Either method of                 Policy B
                      transport could result in an accidental discharge, resulting in
                      siltation being deposited on adjacent marine biota (Casciano                Encourage and support appropriate research activities that will
                      1973b).                                                                     help to determine what types of marine minerals industry can
                      Frocessing                                                                  be established within Hawaii's EEZ without incurring unac-
                                                                                                  ceptable environmental or social costs.
                      Offshore Resources: Onshore processing of mineral crusts                    Implementing Actions:
                      involves other kinds of effects apart from those associated with
                      mining. A processing facility within the State could play a                        DBED, in cooperation with OSP, DLA7@ DOH, UH and
                      significant role in diversifying the economy. If it is not environ-                appropriate Federal agencies, should-
                      mentally or socially acceptable, or if it cannot become so                         1. Provide for monitoring the environmental effects of
                      without considerable costs to other areas of the economy such                      offshore marine minerals development, mining and pro-
                      as,ourism, however, processing might not provide net benefits                      cessing on marine biota and the ocean/atmospheric sys-
                      to the State. The resolution of the impacts of this final phase are                tem by conducting studies of the ocean environment
                      integrally linked to the economics of the industry and the                         before, during and after the undertaking of these activi-
                      impacts on the environment.                                                        ties through the Federal/State joint Planning Arrange-
                        To allow analysis of the various possible impacts to process-                    ment. Because of the newness of the technology and lack
                      ing plant sites in Hawaii, three general locations are examined                    of comprehensive data regarding the environmental ef-
                      in the EIS. They were selected to embrace a range of environ-                      fects of such mining, consideration should be given to
                      mental analyses and include a site representing the wet side of                    establishing an experimental industry/FederaVState mine
                      an Island (Puna), the dry side of an island (Kohala) and an                        site prior to embarking on large-scale development ac-
                      industrial park setting (Ewa). These sites do not represent land-                  tivities. Information gained from the experimental site
                      use alternatives favored by Federal, State, or County govern-                      should be used in developing a permanent regulatory
                      ments or any individual landowners (DOI 1990). Processors                          regime.








                                        DBF-D sbould:                                                  implementing Actions:
                                        2. Coordinate any onshore activities with DOT and                    DBFED should:
                                        other appropriate State and County agencies in antici-               1. Identify existing experts and help to develop new
                                        pation of any infrastructure needs relating to process-              local expertise in offshore minerals and mining by run-
                                        ing or transshipment of marine minerals.                             ning serninars on scientific findings and technology de-
                                        DLIVR, in cooperation witb UH and DOH sbould..                       velopments related to marine minerals.

                                        3. Monitor the environmental effects of nearshore                    2. Establish Hawaii as a center for coordination of
                                                                                                             rine minerals development in the Pacific and as a sit(17
                                        exploratory and sand recovery projects on marine biota                                                                    . for
                                        by conducting studies on the ocean environment be-                   research and development for technology transfer appli-
                                        fore, during and after the undertaking of these activi-              cations.
                                        ties.
                                   Policy C                                                            NOTB
                                   Foster public awareness and facilitate informed public input        1. For publications representative of the State's efforts to
                                   regarding the development of marine minerals mining, pro-           increase public awareness regarding marine minerals devel-
                                   cessing and related efforts in the State.                           opment see: The feasibility and potential impact of manga-
                                   Implementing Actions:                                               nese nodule processing in Hawaii. Honolulu, February 1978;
                                        DB,ED sbould:                                                  Feasibility and potential impact of manganese nodule pro-
                                                                                                       cessing in the Puna and Kohala districts of Hawaii, DPED
                                        1. Ensure that the public is informed as to the efforts        and U.S. Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA, 1981,
                                        taken by the State to explore developing an offshore           Honolulu; Marine mining: a new beginning, Conference
                                        marine minerals industry and onshore support net-              Proceedings, DPED, July 1982, Hilo, Peter B. Humphey
                                        work.                                                          (ed.); Potential fiscal impacts of manganese nodule process-
                                        DLNR sbould:                                                   ing in the Puna and Kohala Districts of Hawaii, D. M. Blood
                                        2. Follow a similar action to keep the public informed         and J. R. Davidson, UH-Sea Grant, May 1984, Honolulu; A
                                                                                                       baseline study of soil geochemistry in selected areas on the
                                        as to the efforts taken to address the potential develop-      island of Hawaii, J. B. Halbig, et al, 1985, Honolulu; A
                                        ment of nearshore sand recovery.                               baseline study of ground water geochernistry in the Kawaihae
                                        DBF-D and DLNR should.-                                        and Hilo areas on the island of Hawaii, J. B. Halbig, et al.,
                                                                                                       1986, Honolulu; A baseline study of the geochernistry and
                                        3. Achieve these goals      by providing informational         sedimentology of nearshore marine sediments in sele(
                                        materials and conducting public workshops.                     areas off the island of Hawaii, W. C. Dudley, 1986, Honolulu;
                                   Policy D                                                            Infrastructure requirements for a marine minerals process-
                                   Promote appropriate environmentally sound and          socia. ly    ing industry, R. W. Jenkins and F. C. Brown, 1987, Honolulu;
                                   acceptable private-sector development in the area of marine         The predicted effects of dissolved manganese in the photic
                                   mining, processing and related efforts in the State.                zone, C. W. Rice, 1987, Honolulu. (DBED was formerly the
                                                                                                       Department of Planning and Economic Development -
                                   Implementing Actions:                                               DPED.]

                                        DBED sbould:

                                        1. Consider the use of economic and other incentives           REFEMCES
                                        that would encourage exploration of an economically
                                        viable, environmentally sound, and socially acceptable         Casciano, F.M.1973a. Development of a Submarine Sand Re-
                                        marine minerals industry in Hawaii.                            cove?ySjstemforHawaii. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-73-04. Uni-
                                        2. Review the State and Federal regulatory systems as          versity of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu.
                                        they apply to offshore minerals mining to determine            Casciano, F.M. 1973b. Environmental5tatement: Ocean Sand
                                        what, if any, unnecessary impediments exist to devel-          Recovery Test at Keaubou, Kona, Hawaii. University of Ha-
                                        oping a viable industry.                                       waii, Department of Oceanography, Honolulu.
                                   Policy E
                                   Establish local expertise in marine mining and make indus-          Casciano, F.M. 1976. Submarine Sand Recovery System:
                                   try aware of Hawaii as a marine minerals center,                    Keaubou Bay Field Test. UNIIil-SEAGRANT-TR-77-02. Uni-
                                                                                                       versity of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu.








                      Casciano, 1-M, and R,Q. Palmer. 1969. Potential of Offshore             U.S. Congress, office of Technology Assessment. 1987. Marine
                      SandasanfxploitableResourceinHawaii.UNH-SEAGRANT-                       Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier, OTA-0-342.
                      69-4. University of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Hono-            Washington, D.C.:Govemment Printing Office.
                      lulu.
                                                                                              U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service
                      Clark, A. 1990. Personal communication, September 1990.                 and the State of Hawaii. 1990. PrqposedMarineMineralLease
                      Honolulu.                                                               Sale. FxclusiveEconomicZoneAdjacenttoHawaiiandjobnston
                                                                                              Island. Final Environmental Impact Statement, Vols 1 and 2.
                      Coulbourn, W.T.,J.F. Campbell, P.N. Anderson, P.M. Daugherty,           By U.S. Minerals Management Service and State of Hawaii,
                      et al. 1988. Sand Deposits Offshore Oahu, Hawaii. Pacific               Department of Business and Economic Development, Ocean
                      Science. July/October 1988. Vol. 42 (3,4):267-299.                      Resources Branch. Honolulu.

                      Cruickshank, MJ. andj.R. Woolsey. 1989. The Marine Minerals             University of Hawaii, Pacific Business Center Program. 1988.
                      Technology Center: A New Beginning. Proceedings of the                  Ocean Minerals. Technical Resource Document, opinion pa-
                      Conference on Resources and the Environment. March 5-10,                pers prepared by experts in ten key ocean research and
                      1989. pp. )(1-21. National Cheng Kung University, Tainan,               technology areas (Attached to Market Analysis and Proposed
                      Taiwan, ROC.                                                            Strategy for Promoting Hawaii's Ocean Research and Develop-
                                                                                              ment Industry, prepared for the Ocean Resources Branch, State
                      Cruickshank,   Mj. Personal communication, October 1990.                of Hawaii Department of Business and Economic Develop-
                      Honolulu.                                                               ment.) pp. II-E-1. By Mj. Cruickshank. Honolulu.

                      Dollar, Sj., 1979. Sand Mining in Hawaii- Research, Restric-            University of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program. 1977. Envi-
                      lions, and Choicesfor the Future. UNHI-SEAGRANT-TP-79-                  ronmental Surveys Before, During, andAfter0ffsboreMarine
                      01. University of Hawaii, Sea Grant College Program, Hono-              Sand Mining Operations at Keaubou Bay, Hawaii. Working
                      lulu.                                                                   Paper No. 28. By J.E. Maragos, J. Roach, R.L. Bowers, D.E.
                      Griffin, D. 1990. Personal communication, September 1990.               Hernmes, et al. Honolulu.
                      Honolulu.                                                               Waihee,J.D. 1990. Testimony presented at hearing on National
                                                                                              Ocean and Coastal Policy-Hawaii and the Pacific Island States
                      Johnson, C. and A. Clark. 1988. Expanding Horizons of Pacific           before the U.S. House Committee on Merchant Marine and
                      Minerals. Ocean Yearbook 7. E.M. Borgese, N. Ginsburg, J.               Fisheries, January 8, 1990. Honolulu.
                      Morgan (eds.). pp. 145-158. Chicago:University of Chicago
                      Press.                                                                  Wiltshire, J.C. 1990a. Platinum Accumulation in Cobalt-Rich
                                                                                              Ferromanganese Crusts. Proceedings of the Fourth Pacific
                      Morgan, C.L. 1990. Personal communication, September 1990.              Congress on Marine Science and Technology, PACON 90. Vol.
                      Honolulu                                                                1, pp.405-412. Honolulu:PACON International.

                      Morgan, CL, R.D. Mahan, A. Mahaloff andj.C. Wiltshire. 1988.            Wiltshire, J.C. 1990b. Personal communication, October 1990.
                      Microtopography of a Cross Seamount. MarineMining. Vol. 7.              Honolulu.
                      pp. 249-269.

                      Olson, H.J. and Mj. Cruickshank. 1989. Marine Minerals and
                      Mining Engineering Technology Research and Development
                      at the University of Hawaii. Proceedings of the First Interna-
                      tional Ocean Technology Congress.January 22-26,1989. IOTC.
                      Honolulu.


                      Saiki, P. 1990. Committee Staff background memo note for
                      meeting of U.S. House Committee on Merchant Marine and
                      Fisheries, January 1990.


                      State of Hawaii, Office of State Planning, Hawaii Coastal Zone
                      Management Program. 1990. Hawaii Coastal Zone Manage-
                      ment Program Document. Honolulu.






                                 RPPEHDIX I
                                 HEROHYMS HHD HBREUIRTIONS




                                            COE         (Army) Corps of Engineers
                                            CZMA        Coastal Zone Management Act
                                            DOC         Department of Commerce
                                            DOE         Department of Energy
                                            DOI         Department of Interior
                                            EDA         Economic Development Administration (DOC)
                                            EPA         Environmental Protection Agency
                                            FCMA        Fisheries Conservation and Management Act
                                            FEMA        Federal Emergency Management Agency
                                            FERC        Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
                                            IMP         Fisheries Management Plan
                                            FWS         Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI)
                                            IRS         Internal Revenue Service
                                            ITA         International Trade Administration (DOC)
                                            MAFAC       Marine Fisheries Advisory Committee (NOAA)
                                            MMS         Minerals Management Service (DOI)
                                            MPRSA       Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
                                            NERR        National Estuarine Research Reserve (NOAA)
                                            NMFS        National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA)
                                            NMS         National Marine Sanctuary (NOAA)
                                            NOAA        National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (DOC)
                                            NPDES,      National Pollution Discharge Elimiriation System (EPA)
                                            NPS         National Park Service (DOI)
                                            NSF         National Science Foundation
                                            NWR         National Wildlife Refuge (DOI)
                                            OCRM        Office of Coastal Resources Management (NOAA)
                                            OCSLA       Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
                                            0SIM        Office of Strategic and International Minerals (MMS)
                                            OTA         Office of Technology Assessment (U. S. Congress)
                                            PFDF        Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation
                                            PURPA       Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act
                                            SBA         Small Business Administration
                                            SBIR        Small Business Innovative Research Grants
                                            SID         Secretarial Issue Document
                                            USCG        U.S. Coast Guard
                                            USDA        U.S. Department of Agriculture
                                            USN         U.S. Navy
                                            WESTPAC     Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (NOAA)











                             ADP           Aquaculture Development Program (DLNR)
                             AFRC          Anuenue Fisheries Research Center (DLNR)
                             ARLF          Aquaculture Revolving Loan Fund (DOA)
                             BLNR          Board of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR)
                             CDUA          Conservation District Use Application (DLNR)
                             CORT          Center for Ocean Resources Technology (UH)
                             CZM           Coastal Zone Management Program (OSP)
                             DAGS          Department of Accounting and Geneml Services
                             DAR           Division of Aquatic Resources (DLNR)
                             DB&F          Department of Budget and Finance
                             DBED          Department of Business, Economic Development &Tourism
                             DCCA          Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs
                             DLNR          Department of Land and Natural Resources
                             DOA           Department of Agriculture
                             DOCARE        Division of Conservation and Resources Enforcement (DLNR)
                             DOE           Department of Education
                             DOH           Department of Health
                             DOT           Department of Transportation
                             FMA           Fishery Management Area (DLNR)
                             HAR           Hawaii Administrative Rules
                             HAAC          Hawaii Aquaculture Advisory Council
                             HCDA          Hawaii Community Development Authority (DBED)
                             HEER          Hazard Evaluation and Emergency Response Office (DOH)
                             HEIS          Hawaii Environmental Impact Statement Law (HRS)
                             HIG           Hawaii Institute of Geophysics (UH)
                             HIMB          Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology (UH)
                             HNEI          Hawaii Natural Energy Institute (UH)
                             HOC           Hawaii Ocean Center
                             HOST          Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology Park (NELHA)
                             HRS           Hawaii Revised Statutes
                             HTDC          High Technology Development Corporation (DBED)
                             HURL          Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (UH)
                             JIMAR         joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research (UH)
                             LUC           Land Use Commission
                             MH1-MRI       Main Hawaiian Islands Marine Resources Investigation (DLNR)
                             MLCD          Marine Life Conservation District (DLNR)
                             MMTC          Marine Minerals Technology Center (UH)
                             MRTC          Mariculture Research and Training Center (UH)
                             NARS          Natural Area Reserve System (DLNR)
                             NELH          Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NTLHA)
                             NELHA         Natur-al Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (DBED)
                             NWHI          Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
                             OBD           Ocean Basins Division (MMTC)
                             OMPO          Oahu Metropolitan Planning Organization
                             OEQC          Office. of Environmental Quality Control (DOH)
                             ORB           Ocean Resources Branch (DBED)
                             ORMA          Ocean Recreation Management Arm (DOT)
                             OSP           Office of State Planning
                             PUC           Public Utilities Commission (DCCA)
                             SG            Sea Grant College Program (UH)
                             SGES          Sea Grant Extension Service (UH)
                             SCORP         State (of Hawaii) Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan
                             UH            University of Hawaii
                             WQS           Water Quality Standards (DOH)








                                                COUNTY


                                                C&C        City and County
                                                DLU        Department of Land Utilization (City & County of Honolulu)
                                                KARRP      Kealia Aquatech and Renewable Resources Park (Maui)
                                                PUC        Public Utilities Commission
                                                SMA        Special Management Area



                                                OTHER


                                                ACA        American Canoe Association, Hawaii Division
                                                AFPI       American Flag Pacific Islands
                                                cc         Coordinating Cominitee (TPA)
                                                CSC        Cooperative Steering Committee UPA)
                                                EA         Environmental Assessment
                                                EEZ        Exclusive Economic Zone
                                                EIS        Environmental Impact Statement
                                                EWC/EAPI   East-West Center/Environment and Policy Institute
                                                EWC/RSI    East-West Center/Resource Systems Institute
                                                FADs       Fish Aggregating Devices
                                                GIS        Geographic Information System
                                                HDWC       Hawaii Deep-Water Cable
                                                HECO       Hawaiian Electric Company
                                                HLW        High Level Wastes
                                                IUCN       Int'l. Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
                                                JPA        Federal/State joint Planning Arrangement (Marine Minerals)
                                                LLW        Low Level Wastes
                                                MSY        Maximum Sustainable Yield
                                                NPS        Nonpoint Source Pollution
                                                0I         Oceanic Institute
                                                OTEC       Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
                                                PICHTR     Pacific International Center for High Technology Research
                                                PIRO       Petroleum Industry Response Organization
                                                R&D        Research and Development
                                                RFP        Request for Proposal
                                                TORCH      The Ocean Recreation Council of Hawaii



                      I
                                 RPPEHDIH 11


                                 SUBJECT MOTTER EXPERTS

                      The following is a list of people who participated in Ile preparation of the technical
                      papers. Their broad range of expertise and critical opinion is greatly appreciated.Their
                      contribution to preparation of the Hawaii Ocean Resources Management Plan and the
                      Technical Supplement is gratefully acknowledged.


                      FEDERRI


                      Arakaki, Stanley                              Mosher, Lt. Eric                               Simonds, Kitty
                      U. S. Army Corps of Engineers                 14th Coast Guard District                      National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                      Operations Division                           Marine and Environmental Protection            Administration
                                                                    Branch                                         Western Pacific Regional Fishery
                      Harman, Robert                                                                               Management Council
                      National Oceanic and Atmospheric              Naughton, John
                      Administration                                National Marine Fisheries Service              Swenson, David
                      Western Pacific Regional Fishery              Pacific Area Office                            U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
                      Management Council                                                                           Planning Division
                                                                    Nitta, Eugene
                      Kubo, Susan                                   National Marine Fisheries Service              Takemoto, Helene
                      U. S. Soil Conservation Service               Pacific Area Office                            U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
                      Nonpoint Source Pollution Program             Polovina, Jeffery                              Military Division
                      Lee, Michael                                  National Marine Fisheries Service              Witham, Gene
                      U. S. Army Corps of Engineers                 Honolulu Laboratory                            National Marine Fisheries Service
                      Operations Division                                                                          Enforcement Office
                                                                    Pooley, Sam
                      Lennan, William                               National Marine Fisheries Service              Yamamoto, Larry
                      U. S. Army Corps of Engineers                 Fisheries Research Program                     U. S. Soil Conservation Service
                      Planning Division                             Shimoda, Jerry                                 Nonpoint Source Pollution Program
                      Mitchell, Cdr. John                           National Park Service
                      14th Coast Guard District                     Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National
                      Boating Safety Division                       Historic Park


                      STRTE


                      Anderson, Bruce                               Chang, Steven                                  Cruickshank, Michael
                      Department of Health                          Department of Health                           University of Hawaii
                      Environmental Programs                        Clean Water Branch                             Marine Minerals
                                                                                                                   Technology Center
                      Brock, Richard                                Corbin, Jqhn
                      University of Hawaii                          Depaimient of Land and Natural Rmurces
                      Sea Grant Extension Service - Fisheries       Aquaculture Development Program







                                     STRTE         cont.


                                     Daniel, Thomas                                 Kawamoto, Paul                                   Maynard, Sherwood
                                     Department of Business, Economic               Department of Land and Natural                   University of Hawaii
                                     Development & Tourism                          Resources                                        Marine Option Program
                                     Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii            Aquatic Resources and Environmental
                                     Authority                                      Protection Branch                                McKinley, Kelton
                                                                                                                                     University of Hawaii
                                     Fast, Arlo                                     Kay, E. Allison                                  Hawaii Natural Energy Institute
                                     University of Hawaii                           University of Hawaii
                                     Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology             Department of Zoology                            Miller, Jacquelin
                                                                                                                                     University of Hawaii
                                     Fujikawa, Thomas                               Klemm, Barbara                                   Environmental Center
                                     Department of Transportation                   University of Hawaii
                                     Engineering Branch                             Curriculum Research and Develop-                 Miura, Howard
                                                                                    ment Group                                       Department of Transportation
                                     Fujimoto. Michael                                                                               Harbors Division
                                     Department of Land and Natural                 Koehler, Robert                                  Engineering Branch
                                     Resources                                      University of Hawaii
                                     Commercial Fisheries and Aquaculture           Hawaii Natural Energy Institute                  Mizurnoto, Gary
                                                                                                                                     Department of Agriculture
                                     Fujioka, Roger                                 Lau, Denis                                       Agriculture Loan Division
                                     University of Hawaii                           Department of Health
                                     Water Resources Research Center                Clean Water Branch                               Morgan, Charles
                                                                                                                                     University of Hawaii
                                     Grace, Robert                                  Lee,Lynn                                         Marine Minerali Technology Center
                                     University of Hawaii                           Office of Hawaiian Affairs
                                     Department of Civil Engineering                Land and Natural Resources Division              Murakarr* Colleen
                                                                                                                                     Department of Education
                                     Harrison, John                                 Leong,Randall                                    Evironmental Division
                                     University of Hawaii                           Department of Transportation
                                     Environmental Center                           Harbors Division                                 Nagata, Ralston
                                                                                    Engineering Branch                               Department of Land and Natural
                                     Heacock, Donald                                                                                 Resources
                                     Department of Land and Natural                 L'Orange, H. Peter                               State Parks Division
                                     Resources (Kauai)                              Hawaii Coastal Zone Management
                                     Aquatic Resources and Environmental            Advisory Council                                 Nakagawa, John
                                     Protection Branch                                                                               Office of State Planning
                                                                                    MacDonald, Craig                                 Hawaii Ocean Center Advisory
                                     Hendricks, Peter                               Department of Business, Economic                 Council
                                     Department of Land and Natural                 Development & Tourism
                                     Resources (Hawaii)                             Ocean Resources Branch                           Oishi, Francis
                                     Aquatic Resources and Environmental                                                             Department of Land and Natural
                                     Protection Branch                              Magaard, Lorenz                                  Resources
                                                                                    University of Hawaii                             Recreational Fisheries Branch
                                     Hopper, Carol                                  Department of Oceanography
                                     Waikiki Aquarium                                                                                Oh, Paul
                                     Education Department                           Masutomi, Eric                                   University of Hawaii
                                                                                    Office of State Planning                         Sea Grant Extension Service -
                                     Hunter, Cindy                                  State Plan Branch                                Aquaculture
                                     University of Hawaii
                                     Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology             Maxey, Homer                                     Paglinawan, Richard
                                                                                    Department of Business, Economic                 Office of Hawaiian Affairs
                                     Ingoglia, Mark                                 Development & Tourism
                                     Department of Health                           Foreign-Trade Zone
                                     Hazard Evaluation and Emergency
                                     Response Office











                     Parsons, David                                Shang, Yung                                    Verlaan, Philomene
                     Department of Transportation                  University of Hawaii                           University of Hawaii
                     Harbors Division                              Department of Agriculture and                  Law of the Sea Institute
                     Boating Branch                                Economics
                                                                                                                  Walker, Ronald
                     Pennington, Howard                            Smith, Kimberly                                Department of Land and Natural
                     Department of Business, Economic              Department of Land and Natural                 Resources
                     Development & Tourism                         Resources                                      Division of Foresty and Wildlife
                     Ocean Resources Branch                        Main Hawaiian Islands Marine
                                                                   Resources Investigation Project                War, Jan
                     Poirier, Richard                                                                             Department of Business, Economic
                     Office of State Planning                      Takata, Howard                                 Development & Tourism
                     Special Plans Branch                          University of Hawaii-Hilo                      Hawaii Natural Energy Laboratory
                                                                   Sea Grant Extension Service                    Authority
                     Rezaclel, David
                     Department of Business, Economic              Teves, Mary Rose                               Wiltshire, John
                     Development & Tourism                         Department of Health                           University of Hawaii
                     Alternative Energy Branch                     Environmental Planning Office                  Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory

                     Rohan,Shane                                   Thompson, Carolyn                              Woolaway, Chris
                     Department of Business, Economic              Department of Health                           University of Hawaii
                     Development & Tourism                         Nonpoint Source Pollution Control              Sea Grant Extension Service - Ocean
                     Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii           Program                                        Recreation and Tourism
                     Authority                                     Tom,Doug                                       Yatogo, Koji
                     Sakuda, Henry                                 Office of State Planning                       Department of Agriculture
                     Department of Land and Natural                Coastal Zone Management Program                Agriculture Loan Division
                     Resources
                     Division of Aquatic Resources                 Tsuda, Calvin                                  Yung, Margaret
                                                                   Department of Transportation                   Department of Health
                     Schoocraft, James                             Harbors Division                               Environmental Health Services
                     Department of Transportation                                                                 Division
                     Harbors Division
                     Boating Branch





                     Agres, Robert                                 Deloso, Al                                     Ho, Alex
                     County of Maui                                County of Maui                                 City and County of Honolulu
                     Department of Human Concerns                  Recreation Division                            Water Safety Division

                     Bond, Robin                                   Goto, Ralph                                    Hong, Alan
                     City and County of Honolulu                   City and County of Honolulu                    City and County of Honolulu
                     Park Maintenance and Recreational             Water Safety Division                          Park Maintenance and Recreational
                     Services Division                                                                            Services Division
                                                                   Griffin, Don
                     Bums, Steve                                   City and County of Honolulu                    Kanuha,Duane
                     County of Hawaii                              Facilities Development Division                County of Hawaii
                     Energy Program                                                                               Planning Department
                                                                   Hart, Christopher
                     Callejo, Sam                                  County of Maui                                 Kobayashi, Kalvin
                     City and County of Honolulu                   Planning Department                            County of Maui
                     Department of Public Works                                                                   Division of Economic Development








                                                   cont.


                                   Lee, Benjamin                                  Osawa, Walter                                 Yukimura, JoAnn
                                   City and County of Honolulu                    City and County of Honolulu                   County of Kauai
                                   Department of General Planning                 Department of Parks and Recreation            office of the Mayor

                                   Marshall, Mark                                 Robeson, Barabara
                                   County of Hawaii                               County of Kauai
                                   Aquatics Office                                Planning Commission

                                   Nishihara, Mel                                 Sato, Glenn
                                   County of Kauai                                County of Kauai
                                   Division of Parks and Recreation               Energy Branch


                                   BUSIHESSES


                                   Arapoff, Peter                                 Dashiell, Eugene                              McHale, Frank
                                   Ala Wai Marine, Ltd.                           Eugene P. Dashiell AICP Planning              Hawaii Dredging and Construction Co.
                                   Bartholomew, Ed                                Services                                      Parke, Michael
                                   Maui Economic Opportunity, Inc.                Frame, Robert                                 DHM, Inc.
                                                                                  Alcantara & Frame
                                   Bolten, Alexander                                                                            Parnell, Jacqueline
                                   Matson Navigation Co.                          Foster, Robin                                 KRP Information Services
                                                                                  Lacayo Architects, Inc.
                                   Bonnet, William                                                                              Pickard, Joe
                                   Hawaiian Electric Co., Inc.                    Greff III, Clancy                             Ko Olina Resort
                                                                                  Captain Zodiac Raft Expeditions
                                   Bourke, Robert                                                                               Roberts, Blain
                                   Oceanit Laboratories, Inc.                     Guinther, Eric                                Lahaina Divers, Inc.
                                                                                  AECOS, Inc.
                                   Brock, James                                                                                 Schreiner, Herbert
                                   Seaculture, Inc.                               Hanohano,Robert                               Paradise Cruises, Ltd.
                                                                                  Hanohano Enterprises
                                   Brooks, Mark                                                                                 Smith, Bruce
                                   Hawaii SeaFarms, Inc.                          Iverson, Robert                               Kahuku Prawn Co.
                                                                                  Pacific Fisheries Consultants
                                   Burzell, Linden                                                                              Sprague, John
                                   Amorient Aquafarms, Inc.                       Kumagai, James                                Seaculture, Inc.
                                                                                  M & E Pacific, Inc.
                                   Casciano, Fred                                                                               Stevenson, Marty
                                   Ocean Innovators                               Loui, Steve                                   Kinnetic Laboratories, Inc.
                                   Chapman, Gordon                                Pacific Marine                                Sullivan, Patrick
                                   Mauna Lani Resort                              Lozano, Victor                                Oceanit Laboratories, Inc.
                                   Clark, John                                    North Bay Boating Club                        Willers, Jon
                                   Sea Notes Hawaii                               Mansur,julianne                               Seaculture, Inc.
                                                                                  Leo A. Daly, Alfred A. Yee Division







                      KOH-PROFIT ORGRNIZRTIONS


                      Barclach, John                                   Dorian, James                                     Losey, George
                      East-West Center (EAPI)                          East-West Center (RSI)                            Kaneohe Yacht Club
                      Sea Level Rise Program                           Minerals Policy Program
                                                                                                                         Maragos, James
                      Bienfang, Paul                                   Ellis,jack                                        East-West Center (EAPI)
                      Oceanic Institute                                Hawaiian International Billfish                   Land, Air, Water Program
                                                                       Association
                      Bowman, Scott                                                                                      Morgan, Joseph
                      Waikiki Improvement Association                  Forestell, Paul                                   East-West Center (EAPI)
                                                                       Pacific Whale Foundation                          Ports and Harbors Program
                      Cappejen
                      Maui Boardsailing: Association                   Goody, John                                       Morrison, Ken
                                                                       American Canoe Association                        Royal Hawaii Ocean Racing Club
                      Carpenter, Richard                               Hawaii Division
                      East-West Center (EAPI)                                                                            Saxena, Narendra
                      Risk, Resources and Development                  Hinz, Earl                                        PACON International
                      Program                                          Ala Wai Boat Harbor Committee
                                                                                                                         Takahashi, Pat
                      Clark, Allen                                     Kernmer, Cristina                                 Pacific International Center for High
                      East-West Center (RSI)                           Waikiki Improvement Association                   Technology Research
                      Minerals Policy Program                                                                            Development Division
                                                                       King, William
                      Clark, Asa                                       Atlapac Fishing Club                              Trenka, Andrew
                      The Chamber of Commerce of Hawaii                                                                  Pacific International Center for High
                                                                       Lee, Marilyn                                      Technology Research
                                                                       Sea Life Park Marine and Education                Energy and Resources Division
                                                                       Foundation
                      CONSIRURTION GROUPS


                      Cassidy, Annette                                 Leaman, Denver                                    Rothstein, Jerry
                      1001 Friends of Kauai                            Greenpeace Hawaii                                 Public Access Shoreline Hawaii

                      Freedman, Carl                                   Markrich, Michael                                 Wilcox, Carol
                      Blue Ocean Preservation Society                  Malama Na I'a                                     Hawaii Stream Assessment

                      Gilmartin, William                               Meller, Doug                                      Withington, Toni
                      Kilauea Point Group                              Life of the Land                                  North Kohala Coast Preservation

                      Jarman, Casey                                    Mench, Lola
                      Kilauea Point Group                              Sierra Club, Hawaii Chapter


                      PRIURTE CITIZENS


                      Clothier, Tina                                   Shomura, Richard


                      Berg, Jr., Carl                                  Smales, Fred

                      Higgins, E. C.






                                              RPPEHDIH III
                                              HER11,FS EXCLUSIUE ECONOMIC ZONE



                                                       SIZE OF HAWAII'S EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC
                                                       ZONE IN RELATION TO THE U.S. MAINLAND

























                                                                                                        The Hawaiian archipelago extends 1,523 miles NW to SE and
                                                                                                        is surrounded by an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) encom-
                                                                                                        passing an area of 922,967 square miles. With the addition of
                                                                                                        the EEZ in 1983, Hawaii became the second largest state in the
                                                                                                        nation. As can be seen by the accompanying illustration,
                                                                                                        Hawaii's vast EEZ is nearly one third the size of the contiguous
                                                                                                        United States and stretches two-thirds the distance between
                                                                                                        Seattle, Washington and Charleston, South Carolina. As stated
                                                                                                        in the Hawaii Ocean Resources Management Plan, Hawaii's
                                                                                                        current challenge is to acknowledge and fully comprehend the
                                                                                                        enormity of its ocean and coastal resources, and to develop an
                                                                                                        effective management regime to care for them.






                                 APPEHDIHIU
                                 STRTE OCERH PROURMS




                     The matricies in Appendix IV A, B and C are based on survey
                     data provided by the individual departmenis of the State
                     administration. For the most part, the departments defined for
                     themselves: (1) what they considered to be ocean and marine
                     programs, (2) how they categorized their programmatic activi-
                     ties, and (3) how they allocated staff and programmatic re-
                     sources within these categories. Responsibility for accuracy
                     and completeness of this information lies largely with the
                     respective agencies and programs. In some cases it was diffi-
                     cult to discern ocean and marine components from overall
                     programmatic responsibilities; these cases are noted and briefly
                     explained, For these latter reasons in particular, the level of
                     precision is low and the estimates are conservative. This
                     information should be viewed only as a first approximation.

                     Note: FrE positions as reflected in Appendix IVC represent
                     only full-time equivalent civil service positions. Counts of other
                     positions (exempt or contractual) are not provided. However,
                     the monies for these other positions are included under oper-
                     ating funds.









                                                                                      STATE OCEAN PROGRkNIS - by Activity and Government Agency
                                                     RREEHIUR


                                                     BIGUIRTED RITUTY                                 OND              OLHB            DOB              001              DOH             COT             OP               HO              COUHTY


                                                     Recreation


                                                     BOATING

                                                     ï¿½  Statewide boat                                                                                                                   Harbors
                                                        launch.ing facilities                                                                                                            Division -
                                                        program                                                                                                                          Boating and
                                                                                                                                                                                         Engineering
                                                     ï¿½  Statewide                                                                                                                        Branches
                                                        improvements
                                                        and boating facifities


                                                     ï¿½  Boating Safety                                                                                                                   Office of
                                                        (marine casualty                                                                                                                 Safety and
                                                        and investrgation)                                                                                                               --------    ent



                                                     HarborS


                                                     commucIAL HARBORS

                                                     ï¿½  Harbor facilites                                                                                                                 Harbors
                                                        improvements                                                                                                                     Division-
                                                        and expansions                                                                                                                   Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                         Branch
                                                     ï¿½  Statewide harbor
                                                        planning

                                                     -  Harbor Safety                                                                                                                    Office of
                                                        (marine casualty                                                                                                                 Safety and
                                                        and investigation)                                                                                                               Enforcement


                                                     FERRIESNASS TRANSIT

                                                     ï¿½ Molokai-Maui                                   Industry
                                                        commuter ferry                                Promotion
                                                                                                      DiviLsion -
                                                                                                      Ocean
                                                                                                      Resources
                                                                                                      Branch


                                                     ï¿½ Intra-island ferry system                                                                                                         Harbors
                                                                                                                                                                                         Division -
                                                                                                                                                                                         Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                         Branch




                                                     fisberieS


                                                     FISHING VESSEL LOANS                             Financial
                                                                                                      Services
                                                                                                      Branch


                                                     SEAFOOD PROMOTIONS                               Industry                         Marketing
                                                                                                      Promotion                        Division -
                                                                                                      Division -                       Market
                                                                                                      Ocean                            Development
                                                                                                      Resources                        Branch
                                                                                                      Branch


                                                     FISHERIES                                                                                                                                                            FWS
                                                     RESOURCE                                                                                                                                                             WESTPAC
                                                     DEVELOPMENT                                                                                                                                                          NMFS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          PFDF
                                                     ï¿½ Artificial habitat for                                          Aquatic
                                                        bortomfish                                                     Resources
                                                                                                                       Division-
                                                                                                                       Admmmatron
                                                     ï¿½ Fish catch statistics






                              ONE IN                            STATE OMAN PROGMAIS - by Activitv and Government Ageno


                              P(GULRTIO RITUTY                                 061D             BE              009              001              BCH             BOT              OSP             11D              CUM


                                 Recreational                                                   Recreational
                                 fishing rule,                                                  Fisheries
                                 Mahimahi culture                                               Branch

                                 Artificial reef
                                 enhancement


                                 Buoys/trolhng alleys                                           Commercial
                                                                                                Fisheries and
                              -  Fish aggregating devices                                       Aquaculture
                                                                                                Branch
                              -  Fish toxicity tests


                              -  New fishing grounds survey


                              -  Deepwater habitat enhancement


                                 Automated fisheries information


                                 Main Hawaiian Islands marine                                   Aquatic
                                 resources investigation                                        Resources
                                                                                                and
                                 information and Education                                      Environment
                                                                                                Protection
                                                                                                Branch



                              COM3MCIAL                                                                                                                          Harbors
                              FISHERIES                                                                                                                          Division
                              51TRASTRUCTURE
                              DEVEIOPMENr


                              SUFOOD INSPECnONS                                                                                                 Environ-
                                                                                                                                                mental
                                                                                                                                                Health
                                                                                                                                                Services
                                                                                                                                                Division -
                                                                                                                                                Food and
                                                                                                                                                Drug Branch



                              Mariiiw ECOSyStem
                              Pfttection


                              WnDLIFE                                                                                                                                                             FWS
                              and HAHrrAT                                                                                                                                                         NMFS
                              MANAGENEW                                                                                                                                                           OCRM

                                 Wildlife sancruahes                                            Division of
                                                                                                Forestry &
                                 Annual sea-bird                                                Wildlife
                                 surveys


                                 Annual waterbird
                                 suve"






                                          RREHE IN                     STATE OCE.VN PROGR.JLN-IS - by Activitv and Government Agency


                                          MULOTED PITIURY                          OBID         ON            BOA           001          BOH          001          OSP           FIB           COUHTY


                                          WILDLIFE
                                          and HABITAT
                                          MANAGEMM
                                          001110                                                                                                                                                                          1
                                             Manage freshwater                                  Division
                                             streams & resources                                of water
                                             (except fish)                                      Development

                                             Manage underwater                                  State Parks
                                             parks (Hanaunia Bay                                Division
                                             and Kealakekua Bay)

                                          ï¿½  Surveys of potential                               Aquatic
                                             Marine Ue                                          Resources
                                             Conservation                                       Division
                                             Districts (MLCDs)                                  and Environ-
                                                                                                mental
                                          ï¿½  Monitoring MLCDs                                   Protection
                                                                                                Branch
                                          ï¿½  Hawaiian sea turde
                                             and monk sea]
                                             recovery program



                                          NATURAL AREA                                          Natural                                                                         OCRM
                                          RESERVES                                              Arm Reserve
                                                                                                System
                                                                                                Commission


                                          REGULATORY


                                          ï¿½  Conservation                                       Conservation
                                             District Use                                       and Environ-
                                             Application Reviews                                mental
                                                                                                Affairs Office


                                          ï¿½ Enforcement                                         Conservation
                                                                                                and
                                                                                                Resources
                                                                                                Enforcement
                                                                                                Division



                                          Be"bes and
                                          Coastal Erosion


                                          BEACH EROSION                                                                                              coastal      Coastal Zone OCRM           Planning
                                          ]PROTECTION                                                                                                Areas        Management                  Departments
                                                                                                                                                     Program      Program
                                                                                                                                                                                              Parks and
                                                                                                                                                                                              Recreation
                                                                                                                                                                                              Departments




                                          Waste
                                          Managenwnt

                                          WATER QUALITY                                                                                                                         EPA

                                          ï¿½ Water quality                                                                               State
                                             labor2tory analysis                                                                        Laboratories

                                          ï¿½ Water quality                                                                               Environ-
                                             Monitoring                                                                                 mental
                                                                                                                                        Management
                                                                                                                                        Division









                                                               STATE OCE.VN, PROGKkNIS - by Activin, and Government Agenq,
                             FROM


                             RGETEC RUNITT                                     DB[5           DLHR            OCR             001             BCH            00T             OSP                             [GUHR


                             Waste Management (cont.)

                             HARBOR SEWER/
                             WASTE FACHITIES

                                 Statewide commercial                                                                                                        Harbors
                                 harbor sewer system                                                                                                         Division-
                                 improvements                                                                                                                Engineering
                                                                                                                                                             Branch


                                 Statewide sewage
                                 system improvements                                                                                                         Boating
                                 to boaiting facilities                                                                                                      Branch



                             EneW

                             RESOURCE DEVE]LOPMENr

                                 Geothermal energy                           Energy
                                 cable transfer system                       Division


                                 Wave energy resource assessment


                                 Ocean Thermal                               Natural      i
                                 Energy Conversion                           Energy
                                                                             Laboratory
                                                                             of Hawaii
                                                                             Authority



                             Aquacufture

                             OTEC                                            Natural
                             AQUACULTM                                       Energy
                                                                             Laboratory
                                                                             Of Hawaii
                                                                             Authority

                             AQUACULTURE                                                    Aquaculture                                   J
                             DEVELOPMM                                                      Development
                                                                                            Program
                                 Center for Applied
                                 Aquaculture at
                                 Oceanic Institute


                                 Kauai Shrimp
                                 Pond Study


                                 Small and large
                                 scale pond facilities


                                 Extension services


                                 Marine
                                 Shrimp Project


                                 Finfish ftject


                                 Marine Biotechnology









                                                                              STATF OCEkN PROGRkNIS - by Activity and Government Agency
                                                OPPENDIXTR


                                                P[GURB ACTIUITY                             DIED          OUP            BOR            901            BON            BOT            OSP            FIB           COUNTY

                                                Aquacufture (cont.)

                                                FAC1011M                                                                                               Environ
                                                RWECT70N                                                                                               mental
                                                                                                                                                       Management
                                                                                                                                                       Division


                                                LOANSPROGRAM                                                             Agriculture
                                                                                                                         Loan
                                                                                                                         Division


                                                FROMOTIONS                                  Industry      Aquaculture    Marketing
                                                and MAREEMG                                 Promotion     Develqxrient   Division -
                                                                                            Division -    Program        Market
                                                                                            Ocean                        Development
                                                                                            Resources                    Branch
                                                                                            Branch



                                                Marine Minerals


                                                MARINE M01NIUMIS                            Ocean                                                                                    Exclusive     MMS
                                                MUSM                                        Resources                                                                                Economic      NOAA
                                                DEVEWPHW                                    Branch                                                                                   Zone
                                                                                                                                                                                     Program






                              RPPEH91H IUB                    SUNINURY OF STATE OCEAIN PROGRAINIS - by Funding and -Staff Resources


                                                                                  OPERATING BUDGET                                                         CIP op"UP110HONS
                              RGINI? PROBT10 10TOLS                               FY 89                   [y go                   ly gi                    1987                    IgOB                    IgBq


                              Department of Business,                                        22 FrE                          27                      27
                              Economic Development                                        $2,581,692                3,854,37/2              4,339722                  125,000                2,100,000           1,213,DDO
                              & Tourism                                                       86,000                161,000                  161,000                         0                        0                   0


                              Department of Land                                             80 FrE                          80                      so
                              and Natural Resources                                        4,769,336               5,190,283                5,174,786                        0               1,000.000           4,525.000
                                                                                            619,996               1,042,410                  890,955                         0              1,000,000             500,000


                              Department of Agriculture                                             <1                       <1                      <1
                                                                                             175.000                  80,000                   80,000                        0                        0                   0
                                                                                                    0                        0                       0                                                0                   0


                              Department of Education                                         I FrE                          1                       1
                                                                                              83,362                  57,000                   57,700                        0                        0             52.000
                                                                                                    0                        0                                               0                        0                   0
                                                                                                                                                     0


                              Department of Health                                        27.80 FrE                     28.75                   14.15
                                                                                          9.01 nz                       9.55                      -25
                                                                                             881,952                 915,275                 710,136                         0                        0                   0
                                                                                       1,16.1673                 968,460                    87,000                           0                        0                   0


                              Department of Transportation                              300.50 FrE                      321                       316
                                                                                          35,333,812              38,634,821              41.018,313               28,246,oDo             19  762,000         59,539,000
                                                                                                    0                        0                       0             9,Z73,500              18,965,000          6,313,480


                              Office of State Planning                                        2 FrE                          2                       7
                                                                                             212,834                  66,612                 173,992               3,500,000                          0       19,293,000
                                                                                            135,000                 221,000                   KOOO                 3J66,ooo                           0            45,000



                                                                                           433 FrE                      460                       445
                                                                                        S44,197,988               48,798,363              51,403,949               31,873,000              22,862,000         84,622,ODO
                              RMRT-ED TOTAIS                                              Z004,669                Z49ZS70                 1,204,955                7,439,500               9,965,000          05smo


                              bohl CEP allotinents
                              bold Uakr federatfunds









                                                                                 DETAILS OF STATE OCEIN PROGPWIS - b%7 Authorit-v, hinding and Staff Resources
                                                 RPPENDIX IN


                                                 RG[HEY RHO RITIUITY                          HES            BONIN           [En [UNDIHE FY Bq             FY 90          fY 91          1q67            1980           IqBq
                                                                                                             Mus             RGEHEY

                                                 Depan'ment of Business,
                                                 Economic Development
                                                 & Tourism (DBED)

                                                 OCEAN RESOURCES                              Ch. 201                                        personnel:
                                                 BRANCH                                                                                           4 FTE               4              4
                                                                                                                                                  $117,000      117,000         117,000
                                                                                                                                             operating:
                                                                                                                                                  19,000        14,000          14,000
                                                 Projem/Prograims:

                                                 General ocean industry                                                                           38,OW         20,000          71,OW
                                                 Ocean recreation industry                                                                        40,000        35,000               0

                                                 Marine minerals industry                                                                         83-000        90,000          88,000
                                                                                                                             MMS-                 86,000        161,000         161,000

                                                 .Molokai-Maui ferry                                                         OSIM                 300,000       300,000         300,000
                                                 Seafood promotion                                                                                176,000       170,000         190,000
                                                 Ocean RID promotion                                                                              70,DDO        142.000         144,000

                                                 Governor's Ocean  Resources                  Act 324,                                            10,000              0              0
                                                 Tourism Dvmt Task Force                      SLH 1988

                                                 Hyperbanc treatment center                                                                       285,000       285,000         285,000                   1,750,000


                                                 Special project management                                                                       45,000        48,000          51,000

                                                 Hawaii Ocean & Marine                        Ch. 228                                             150,DDO       150.000         150,000
                                                 Resources Council



                                                 BUSINESS SERVICES                            Ch. 199        ï¿½15-3
                                                 DIVISION
                                                   FnktncLat Assistance
                                                   Branch


                                                 Proj"/Programs:,

                                                 Large fishing vessel loans program

                                                 Small fishing vessel loans program


                                                 HIGH TECHNOLOGY                              Ch. 206M       015-30;
                                                 DVMr CORPORATION-                                           15-31


                                                 NATURAL ENERGY                               Ch. 227
                                                 LABORATORY OF
                                                 HAWAII AUTHORITY-
                                                 (NELHA)


                                                 Natural EneW Laboratory                                                                     personnel:
                                                 of Hawaii                                                                                        15 FrE            20              20
                                                                                                                                                  420,000       600,000         64o,ooo
                                                                                                                                             operating:
                                                                                                                                                  40,000        60,0W           64,ow
                                                                                                                                             facililties:
                                                                                                                                                  351,000       824,000         873,000




                                                 AbLe Since 1986 h5e prug-f- purribase and corustruct- of commercialfibing vini-ek b- b- "rorardy -Wrided Loans f- miovatim mamienance and ripair are stig being
                                                 mai@. 7he mmm auz1aL* m rachvigfunds as qfDa=iber 31, 1999 am $.@ OX978for the Large Fuhnng Vwd Loan Pm8ram and $918,8Wfor & Smaff Fairing Vewd Loan Prcgnanz
                                                 "hom H7DCprovtdes support tri/hastruciurefor ocean R&D actrwies.
                                                 -Note In 1990 HOSTand AELH wm combined toform AVA4


                                                 bollik CIP allotments
                                                 bold litali=Jederaffkaids









                                                                DET.AJLS OF STATE OCEINI PROGRAMS - by Authority, Funding and Staff Resources


                                                                                                                                  OVEIRTING BUDGIT                              UP RPHOP11011ORS
                               RGHEY RHO RMUITY                                HES               ROMIR          FED FUNDINE       FY 89         fy 99           fy 91           1987            1988            1989
                                                                                                 PULIS          RG[HCY


                               NATUAL ENERGY ]LABORATORY OF
                               HAWAU AUTHORM (NELHA)
                               (COOL)


                               Hawaii Ocean Science                                                                               personnel:
                               Technology (HOST) Park'                                                                                3 FrE                 3               3
                                                                                                                                      $95,530         100.497         105,722
                                                                                                                                  operating:
                                                                                                                                      492J62          890,8775        1,097,000
                               Warm H20 Pipe                                                                                                                                                                          830,000
                               Ocean Outfall                                                                                                                                                         350,000
                               On-Site Building                                                                                                                                                                       383,OW



                               ENERGY DWISION-                                 Ch. 196


                               projects/progrants:

                               Ocean Thermal Energy                                                                                                                                  125,000
                               Conversion (OTEC) Demi

                               Wave energy resource assessment                                                                                        8,000
                               Geothermal Energy                               Chs. i96D;        513-183        DOE...
                               Cable Transfer System                           199 (DLNE)



                                                                                                                                  2,581,692           3,854,372       4,339,722      125,000       2,100.000        1.213,000
                               DBED Reported Total                                                                                    84000           161,000         161,000               0               0               0



                               'No,, HOST. prmous@y maraged ly be High T,,b,,,,Ibgy Demlopme", Co"ration
                               "Note: EneVDivi5ionfunds only reflect ocean-reWedprojects.
                               -Note Funding wasprimanlyfederal but aporclonatedpriorto 1987



                               Departmmt ofLand and
                               Natural Resources
                               (DLNR)

                               AQUAnc RESOURCES                                Chs. 187A;        ï¿½S13-46                          personnel:
                               D"10N (DAR)                                     188:188E;         13-54; to                            8 FrE                 7               7

                               Adminismon                                      1W 197            3-61 to 64:                      $220.303            SIK179          S208,196
                                                                                                 1
                                                                                                 13-71 to 73;   DOI-FWS               41,572          25,444          2@175
                                                                                                 13-83 to 93;
                                                                                                 1 3-99@  15-3                    operating
                                                                                                                                      55.99,          116.052         54.492
                               projec-ts/prow-                                                                  DOI-FWS               4,750           21016           4,750

                               kr0cial habitats for bortomfish                                                                        50,OW           60,000          60.000



                               Aquatic Enviromenit and                                                                            personnel:
                               Resources Protection Branch
                                                                                                                                      9 FTE                 9               9
                                                                                                                                  S197,599            223,939         226,658
                                                                                                                DOI-FW,S              31088           44091           49668
                               Other projects and operating costs                                                                     182.903         113,063         11,415
                               projects/programs:                                                                                     5@405           _Wo                   0

                               Main Hwn Islands marine                                                                            operating:
                               resources investigation                                                                                      0         366,7io         389.721
                               Marine Life Conservation Districts,             Ch. 190           %13-2&         DOI-FWS                     0         21a000          =000
                                                                                                 13-36


                               'Note: Monies included under operating evpenses andpersonnei ofibese multiple DARprograins.









                                                                                  DETAILS OF STATE OCEkN PROGRAMS - by Authority, Fundingaild Staff Resource's
                                                 MENPIKIR

                                                                                                                                              OFEIRTING BUDGET                               rip 11PPIORIATIONS
                                                  Mhcy Rho RMITY                               HRS             RONIH          f F0 ImIRS ly 8q               fy q6          FY qI           NO?             AN              Iq8q
                                                                                                               Has            RGINCY

                                                 Aquatic Effirment and
                                                 Resources Protection Branch
                                                 (cont.)


                                                 Hawaiian sea turtle and monk
                                                 seal recovery'

                                                 Information and Education Unit                                                               pemnnel:
                                                                                                                                                    7 FrE               8               8
                                                                                                                                                    $106,955      12608           135,053
                                                                                                                              DOI-FWS                    0        39,954          4-%054
                                                                                                                                              operating:
                                                                                                                                                    61,086        128,104         67,2oo
                                                                                                                              DOI-FWS                    0              0         4995


                                                 Commercial Fisheries and
                                                 Aquanikare Minch


                                                 Commercial Fisheries Program                                                                 personnel:
                                                                                                                                                    4 FrE               4               4
                                                                                                                                                    $99,953       121,042         107,980
                                                                                                                              DOI-FWS               3;940         V04             55M
                                                 Other projects and operatmg costs                                                                  178,789       46,461          18,651

                                                 Projects/progranis:

                                                 Fish Catch Report booklets                                                                         14,075        14,807          15,577
                                                 Fish aggregating devices,                                                                          76,000        76,000          76,ODO
                                                 buoys/trolling alleys                                                        DOI-FWS               125,000       125@000         12--sOOO
                                                 Fish toxicity tests                                                                                50,DDO        31,689          41,123
                                                 New fishing grounds survey                                                                         82,300        45,300          78,3DO
                                                 Deepwater habitat enhancement                                                                      40,000        30,000          47,DDO
                                                 Automated fisheries information                                                                         0        262,811         130,242

                                                 Aquaculture Program                                                                          personnel:
                                                 (not part of ADP)                                                                                  7 FrE               7               7
                                                                                                                                                    $338,513      346,712         382,331
                                                                                                                                              operating:
                                                                                                                                                    157,712       173,409         309,150
                                                                                                                              DOI-FWS               3-5,OW              0               0


                                                 Recreation-9 Fisheries Branch


                                                 Sport Fishing Program-                                                                       personnel:
                                                                                                                                                         8              8               8
                                                                                                                                                    $12o,6os      85,424          109,293
                                                                                                                              DOI-FWS               134132        15Z 691         164,583
                                                 Oil= projects and operating costs                                                                  235,129       A044            250.369
                                                                                                                              DCII-FWS              17J676        191067          176,019
                                                 projCCIS/Prograrns:

                                                 Mahimahj culture                                                                                   $22,096       25,0D0          25,000

                                                 Artificial reef enhancement                                                                        5,875         12,500          12,500
                                                                                                                              DOI-FWS               17625         37,WD           37,500


                                                 NATLIRAL AREA, RESERVE                        Ch. 195         SS13-208 to                                    personnel:
                                                 SYSTEW COMMMON                                                1@-209                                             $18,200


                                                 prolects/progra-

                                                 Ahb-Kinau Reserve                                                                                                      0

                                                 Waimami National                                                                                                 3100

                                                 Estuarine Research Reserve                                                   NOAA                                50,000


                                                 'Note- Monies included under openuing epense; andpersonnel ofthese rnuhipLe DARprograins.
                                                 "Note.- Includesfundingforsaftwaterandfresbwaterjisb.Propoitimvaryfmm)wr-to-)tw.









                                                                     DETAILS OF STATE OCEAN PROGRAJIS - by Authority, Funding and Staff Resources


                                                                                                                                       OPEIRTING BUDGET                                   CIF RPROPRIATIONS
                                 HENCY AND AMUR                                                     00NIH            HD FUHDIHG f Y 89                                         H q]       1987              1908             1909
                                                                                                  @ WIS              RGENCY
                                                                                   HRS




                                STATE PMW DIVISION                                 Ch. 198D


                                projects/program:

                                manage underwater parks                                                                                                                        nofunds  allocated



                                CONSERVATION AND                                   198; 205         13-121;
                                ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS                                               13-183;
                                OFFICE                                                              15-15


                                projectslprosr-*

                                Conservation district use application reviews



                                FORESTRY AND                                       Chs. 1831);      S134;                              personnel:
                                WULDLIFF DIVISION                                  195D; 197        13-1211o                                  I F11                 I                I
                                                                                                    13-125                                    $2,003          2,123            2,2219
                                                                                                                     DOI-FWS                  61008           6,368            6,686
                                projects/program:

                                Wildlife sanctuaries                                                                                          6,475                            7,150
                                (marine components)                                                                  DOI-FWS                  19,425          20,400           21,430

                                Annual seabird surveys                                                                                        3,075           3,@25            3,375
                                                                                                                     DOI-FWS                  9,225           9,675            IaI25

                                Annual wa,ebird surveys                                                                                       1,050           1,100            1,150
                                                                                                                     DOI-FWS                  A150            33W              A450



                                AQUACULTURE                                        Chs. 189G;                                          personnel:
                                DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM                                197A                                                       10 FrE              10               10
                                                                                                                                              s262,191        264,422          2(4,422
                                                                                                                                       operating:
                                                                                                                                              55,511          59,028           61,8W
                                                                                                                           Svcs on fee projects:
                                                                                                                                              643,509         561,651          561,651
                                prolects/progr_

                                Center for Applied Aquaculture at the              Act 360,                                                                                                                   1,000,000        4,000,000
                                Oceanic Institute                                  SLH 1988                                                                                                                  1,000,00                    0

                                Kauai Shrimp Pond Study                            Act 314,                                                                                                                                        25.000
                                                                                   sui 1989                                                                                                                                              0

                                Large-scale pond fficilities                       Act N6,                                                                                                                                       500,000
                                                                                   SLH 1989,                                                                                                                                    500,000
                                                                                   A-11

                                Small-scale pond aquaculcure                                                                                  36,s7o          34.965           34,985
                                Extension and development activities                                                                          152,632         218,910          218,910
                                Marine Shrimp Project                                                                                         220,586         73,960           73,96o
                                Finfish Project                                                                                               183,179         158,769          158,769
                                Marine Biotechnology                                                                                          46,271          41,649           41,649



                                DIVISION OF CONSERVATION AND                       Ch. 199                                             personnel;
                                RESOURCES ENFORCEMENT-                                                                                        26 FTE              26               26
                                                                                                                                              $698,940        780,450          785,730
                                                                                                                                       operating:
                                                                                                                                              161,161         196,697          202,656



                                                                                                                                       $4,769,3M          5,190,283            5,174,786             0        1,000,000        4,525,000
                                DLNR Reported Total                                                                                           619,"6    1,14Z410               M955                  0       1,000,000          500,000


                                'Note.. "Ocean"and "coastal" components are not differentiatedftom "land" in record-keeping.
                                "Note- Duision corpers bolb terrestrial and marine reponsibilums.7befigurespromded bere represent one-lbird oftbe totalpersonnel and operating costs and area ruugb &timate
                                for ocean resources enforcement.











                                                                               DETAILS OF STATE OCEAN PROGRAIMS - by Authority. Fundinu and Staff Resources



                                                                                                                                          OFEIRTING BUDGET                            UP UPIOPIRTIONS
                                                RGINCY RHO RETIUITY                         HPS            ROM            110 FUNDS       f Y B 9       fY 90          FY 91          ]go?           IgOB           Ign
                                                                                                           RES            001Y

                                               DepartnwW of
                                               Agrkulture (DOA)

                                               AGUCULTLJRE LOANS
                                               DIVISION


                                               projects/prog-

                                               Aquaculture loan program                      Ch. 219        0-9                           personnel:
                                                                                                                                                   <1              <1             <1
                                                                                                                                          operating:
                                                                                                                                            S175,000          80,000         80,000



                                               MARKETING DrvWC1N -
                                               MARKET DEVELOPMENT
                                               BRANCH


                                               proj"/Prograt-,

                                               Seafood and aquaculture promodon



                                               PLANT INDUSTRY
                                               DIVISION - PLANT
                                               QUARANnNE BRANCH


                                               projects/Prow-"

                                               Manne plant and animal species 0spemons



                                                                                                                                            $175,000          80,000         80,000             0               0              0
                                               DOA Reported Total                                                                                   0              0              0             0               0              0


                                                 Note, Not budgetedfor specifically but done cooperxitiely untb DBED (ORB) and DLNR (ADP).
                                               -Note, marine component is undifferentiated in quarantine inspections.



                                               DepantwW of EducaUon
                                               (DOE)

                                               OFFICE OF INSrRucnONAL                                                                     personnel:
                                               SERVICES - MARINE                                                                              I FrE                1              1
                                               EDWATION PROGRAMS                                                                             $38,282          39,000         39,700
                                                                                                                                          operating:
                                                                                                                                               37,206         10,000         10,000
                                               projects/progamis:

                                               Marine Symposium                                                                                 7,874         8.000          8,000

                                               Marine Science Learning Center
                                               Two aquaculture ponds - Waianae                                                                                                                                           52,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               0



                                                                                                                                             $83,362          57,ODO         57,700             0               0        52,ODO
                                               DOE Reported Total                                                                                  0               0              0             0               0              0









                                                              DETAILS OF STATE OCE.VN, PROGRAMS - bN, Authority, Funding and Staff Resources



                                                                                                                                 OPER11TING BUDGET                          lip OPPROPHINTIORS
                             RGHEY RHD RETIUITY                             ns              RON              HFUHNS -"D                                     FY q1           1q07            IM             A89
                                                                                          @,,Hus             001Y

                            DepantwW of Heaftb
                            (DOH)

                            ENVIRONMENTAL
                            HMTH ADMINISTRATION


                            Environmental Management Division               Chs. 128D       911-59;
                                                                            174C; 18OC:     11-60
                                                                            342B;344
                            projects/prog-

                            Water quality monitoring program                Chs. 342D:      Sï¿½11-54:                             personnel:

                                                                            342H; 342J      11-55@ 11-58     EPA                 .92 FfE                .92

                                                                                            1]-61; Ila                           $W50           40,707

                                                                                                                                 planning:

                                                                                                             EPA                 z 6 FrE                                2
                                                                                                                                 $419,673       352,737           68,250

                                                                                                                                 permitting:

                                                                                                                                 6.6 FrE                6.6
                                                                                                                                 S203,002       218.985
                                                                                                             EPA                 Z,9 RE                 3
                                                                                                                                 V9025          199,002

                                                                                                                                 monitoring and analysis:

                                                                                                                                 10.7 5 FrE             12              5
                                                                                                                                 $372,521       386,069         479,729
                                                                                                             EPA                 .75 FrE                .5
                                                                                                                                 $22Z977        I 7W3

                                                                                                                                 enforcement:
                                                                                                                                 3.3 FrE @              3
                                                                                                                                 $152J65        148,310
                                                                                                             EPA                 I FrE                  I
                                                                                                                                 $SZ605         4a103

                                                                                                                                 training and technical assistance:
                                                                                                             EPA                 .125 FTE @             .083
                                                                                                                                 $A890          A120

                                                                                                                                 public participation and ecation:

                                                                                                             EPA                 ,71 FTE                '75          .25
                                                                                                                                 $105,062       40,590



                            FOOD & DRUG BRANCH


                            P-i"/P-g-:

                            Seafood inspections*                            Chs. 321;       %11-29;
                                                                            328             11-34;
                                                                                            11-35



                            STATE LABORATORIES


                            projects/programs:

                            Water quality laboratory analysis               Chs. 342D,      5511-54;                             personnel:
                                                                            342H, 342J      11-55,,11-58                         5 FrE                  5               5
                                                                                            il-6i: Ila                           S120,000       125,000         125,000
                                                                                                                                 operating:
                                                                                                                                 30,000         32,000           32,000




                            'Note. Costs andpersonnelfor seafood inspections are lumped among allfood inspections.






                                                       FINE K                             DETAILS OF STATE OCEAN PROGRAINVIS - by Authority, Funding and Staff Resources

                                                                                                                                                        OPFIRTING BUDGET                                 CIP OPPROP118TIONS
                                                       RGINEY RHO ACTMITY                              HRS             ROMIN           fig FUNDIHG f y                  [Y go            FY q]           1987             1988             1989
                                                                                                                       RULES           RUM

                                                       Dqpwftwnt0fHea&h(DW
                                                       (Cont)

                                                       SANITATION MUNCH


                                                       projem/progratms@,

                                                       Aquaculrure fficilities inspections



                                                       BMTH PROMOTION AND DISEASE
                                                       PREVENTION DIMON


                                                       projecits/programs:

                                                       Honolulu aquatic safiny                                                                          personnel:
                                                       intervention program                                                                                  .15 FTE              .15              .15
                                                                                                                                                             S4.264            4,911            5,157
                                                                                                                                       Centers for      operating:
                                                                                                                                       Disease               2 FrE                  2                2
                                                                                                                                       Control               $64,291         skm             87,000



                                                       OFFICE OF ENVIRONNMAL                           Ch. 341         ill-201
                                                       QUALnY CONTROL


                                                       projects/programs:-

                                                       Environmental impact statements                 Ch. 343         SS11-200



                                                                                                                                                             $881,952       915,215          710,136
                                                                                                                                                                           %9460             87,000                  0               0                0
                                                       DOR Total                                                                                        Z,Z63,673



                                                       Vote.. Undifferentiated among aR inspectionfunctions.
                                                       "Note: Not categorized 1.7y "wean"and "coastal



                                                       Department of
                                                       Transportation (DOT)                            Chs. 1901);
                                                                                                       277; 279
                                                       COMMERCIAL HARBORS                              Ch. 266         SS19-61 to                       personnel:
                                                                                                                       19-65;                                229 FrE             235              236
                                                                                                                       19-81 to 85                      $6,280,391        6,199,376        6,199,376


                                                                                                                                                             other:
                                                                                                                                                        23,571,930       25,626,042       27,576,112
                                                                                                                                                        equipment:
                                                                                                                                                             59,902         507,730          268,357
                                                                                                                                                             vehicle:
                                                       projects/programs:                                                                                    60,792         163,320          148,750

                                                       Harbor facilities
                                                       improvements & expansions
                                                                                                                                                                                                               80,000                         110.000
                                                                                                                                                                                                              80,000                          60,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                             300,000                          370,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                             135,000                                  0
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1,235,000                        8,425,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                            225,000                                   0
                                                                                                                                                                                                           3,613,000                        10,500,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                          3,012,500                                   0
                                                                                                                                                                                                             430,ODO                          575,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                              50,000                                  0






                               RPPEHPIX TE                      DET.ULS OF STATE OCEAN PROGRA-N-1S - by Authority. Funding and Staff Resources


                                                                                                                              OPERATING BUOGIT                                       CIP UPPOPMATIONS
                               RGEM RHO RMUITY                                HIRS            ROMIN           FID NHOING [Y 89                fy go            [Y 91                 1907      19B8                 1989
                                                                                              PUZ             RGIHIY


                               COMMMCUL IUMRS

                               prq-lpror-:

                               Harbor facilities
                               improvements & expansions
                               (cont.)                                                                                                                                                           18,100-000         3,300-000
                                                                                                                                                                                               17,656,ooo                  0
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    300.000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    300,000




                                                                                                                                                                                     5,175,000                      5,000,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     300,000                        30i,ooo




                                                                                                                                                                                     310,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     310,000




                                                                                                                                                                                     140,000        150,000         1,200,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     130,000      150,000           566,480
                                                                                                                                                                                     1,100,000                      500,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     11100,000                             0




                                                                                                                                                                                     985.000       900,000          14.500,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     85,000       900,000                  0
                                                                                                                                                                                     3,250,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     343,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     95,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     95,000




                                                                                                                                                                                     600,000                        175,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     100,000                        25,000
                                                                                                                                                                                     27000                          75,0DO
                                                                                                                                                                                     Z-000                          25,000



                                                                                                                                                                                     600.000
                                                                                                                                                                                     6oo,ooo




                                                                                                                                                                                     1.490.000
                                                                                                                                                                                     625,00




                            Misc improvements to                                                                                                                                     255,000                        400,000
                            neighbor island harbors                                                                                                                                  155,000                        5,000
                            Statewide harbor planning                                                                                                                                135,000                        300,ODO

                                                                                                                                                                                     135,000                        130,000
                            Intra-island ferry system                        Ch. 268                                                                                                 1,580,000

                                                                                                                                                                                     9800
                            Inter-island mass transit                                                                                                                                                               1,000,000


                            Statewide harbor sewer                                                                                                                                   1.375-000
                            system improvements                                                                                                                                      485,000
                            Commercial fisherie                                                                                                                                      500,000
                            pier reconstruction                                                                                                                                      130,000






                                                RPPEKBIHIUC                    DUMB OF STATE OCEAN PROGRAMS - by Authority. Fundingand StatTResources


                                                                                                                                           OPROTING BUDGET                             UP FIRM IONS
                                                RGENCY ONO Haluily                          HRS             RUMIR          Flo FUROING Fy og             [y q0          Fy qj           A87             goo          jg8q
                                                                                                            RULES          RGEHIY

                                                OCEAN-BASED                                  CH. 267        Sl@-71 to                      personnel:
                                                RECREA71ON (BOATING)                                        19-76                            17.0 FrE            17.0            17.0
                                                                                                                                            54.5 FIF            62.0'           63.0'
                                                                                                                                           $1,593,ODO       1,767,000      1,784,000
                                                                                                                                                other:
                                                                                                                                             3,745,0W       4,30DMO        4,988,Wo
                                                                                                                                           equipment:
                                                                                                                                                 7,500         14,133          4,950
                                                                                                                                              Vehicle:
                                                                                                                                                     0         41,410         32,135


                                                projects/progra=
                                                Statewide improvements                                                                                                                MARMMMIRn@
                                                to boating facilities                                                                                                                                       130,000        40,ODD
                                                                                                                                                                                                            92,000              0
                                                                                                                                                                                                            100.000       150,ODO
                                                                                                                                                                                                            10,000              0
                                                                                                                                                                                                            50,000          3,ODO
                                                                                                                                                                                                            5,000           3,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          207,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                0




                                                                                                                                                                                            200,000         75,000        500,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            200,000         65,ooo       107,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            71,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            64,000




                                                                                                                                                                                            80,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                  0

                                                                                                                                                                                      MIMMMIL-

                                                                                                                                                                                            310,000                     3,550,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            25,000                       105,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            100,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            20,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            355,0DO
                                                                                                                                                                                            50,000




                                                                                                                                                                                            90,0D0                         50,WO
                                                                                                                                                                                            KON                           5000
                                                                                                                                                                                            90,WO
                                                                                                                                                                                            KON





                                                                                                                                                                                            15,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            '0,000
                                                                                                                                                                                      MMMEMSE-                                                        1
                                                                                                                                                                                            115,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            15,000
                                                                                                                                                                                            200,000
                                                'Nole- Persomidjunded through DOTSpectdFunds.                                                                                               20,000









                                                                   DETAILS OF STATE OCEAN PROGRANIS - by Authority. Funding and Staff Resources
                                RPHRIX IUI


                                                                                                                                    UPEIRTING BUDGET                                   CIP RPHOMIRTIONS
                                RGEHEY ONO h[TIUITY                              HPS              ROMIN            FED f HING        ly og            fy go           fy g]             Iqq7             Ig88             jq8q
                                                                                                  RULIS            RGI

                                Statewide improvements
                                to boating facilities (cont.)
                                                                                                                                                                                             90,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                    0




                                                                                                                                                                                             700,000                           1,150,000
                                                                                                                                                                                             70,000                            350,000




                                                                                                                                                                                             150,000
                                                                                                                                                                                             20,000




                                                                                                                                                                                             430,000                           550,000
                                                                                                                                                                                             6o,ooo                            50,000
                                                                                                                                                                                             1,250,000                         775,000
                                                                                                                                                                                             50,000                            200,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               4,884,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               885,000




                                                                                                                                                                                             300,000           156000
                                                                                                                                                                                             79,000            11,'000



                                                                                                                                                                                                               15,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                               6,000




                                                                                                                                                                                                               25.000
                                                                                                                                                                                                               25,000




                                                                                                                                                                                                                               250,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               250,000




                                                                                                                                                                                                                               5,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               1,000





                                                                                                                                                                                             210,000                           110,000
                                                                                                                                                                                             70,000                                  0




                                Statewide boat launching                                                                                                                                                                       50,000
                                facilities program                                                                                                                                                                             50,000

                                Statewide Planning

                                                                                                                                                                                                                               75,ODO
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     0
                                Statewide sewage system                                                                                                                                                                        180,000
                                improve to boating facilities                                                                                                                                                                  90,000

                                Statewide waste oil Ikilifies                                                                                                                                140,000
                                West Maui Ocean                                                                                                                                              140,000           11,000
                                Ocean Recreation Management Plan                                                                                                                                                   0






                                                     Of                               DETAILS OF STATE OCEAN PROGRAINIS - by Authority, Funding and Staff Resources


                                                                                                                                                   OPERATING BUDGET                                  CIP APPROMIRTIONS
                                                     RGENCY RHO RITIUITY                            RES             ROMIN           FED FUROING FY 89               fy gg                 gI         Igo?           Iq88             lqog
                                                                                                                    US              RGINCY

                                                     DepanmM of
                                                     Transportation (DO7)
                                                     (Cont)

                                                     COASTAL ARLAS                                  CH. 266          S19-8110                          S15.29ri           15,810          16.633
                                                     PROGRAM


                                                     projects/progra-:

                                                     Erosion control programs                                                                                                                                          Ala Wai:            Kuhio
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Beach:
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          50,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                         45,000          280,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                0



                                                     SAFFIV & ENFORCEMENT'


                                                     projects/prow-

                                                     Marine casuair v and
                                                     investigation program


                                                                                                                                                   1$35.333,812      38,634,821     41,018,313       28,246 000       19,762,000     59,539.000
                                                     DOT Repofted Total                                                                                        0                0               0    9,273,';00     18,965,000       6,313,480


                                                     'Note. Moniesforpersonnei and operating costs already are represented under both The commenctal barbors and ocean-based recreation categorfesforl)Uin ibis matrix.



                                                     QBke of State P14nning                         Ch. 225M
                                                     (OSP)

                                                     Hawaii Ocean Center Program                                                                                                    personnel:
                                                                                                                                                                                          I FTE
                                                                                                                                                                                          $35,000
                                                                                                                                                                                          council:
                                                                                                                                                                                          10,000
                                                                                                                                                                                    operating:
                                                     Coastal Zone Management Program*               Ch. 205A                                         personnel:                           55,000
                                                                                                                                                         2 FrE                  2               2
                                                                                                                                                       $64,334           66,612           73,992
                                                                                                                                    DOC-             operating:
                                                                                                                                    OCRM               13;000          .15;000            16,000
                                                     Projects:

                                                     beach management erosion studies                                               CON                120,000         206,000            50,000




                                                     Hawaii Exclusive                                                                                  $148,500                 0               0
                                                     Economic Zone Program



                                                     Honolulu Waterfront                                                                                                            personnel:
                                                     Master Plan Project                                                                                                                  4 FrE
                                                                                                                                                                                                     3,500,000                       19,293,000
                                                                                                                                                                                                     3366,ooo                            45,000



                                                                                                                                                       $212,834          66,612           173,992    3,500,000                  0    19,293,000
                                                     OSP Reported Total                                                                                13,%000         221,000            6000       3,16000                    0        45,000


                                                     Note, Figures represent 'ooean-related"programs only. 67M also bas landward responsibilities lbat am not reported bere.






                                RPROX U                         OCEA-N-REL-kTED COUNCILS, BOARDS and COMMITTEES                                                           (as ofianuary 1, 1991)


                                                                                                      AGENCY
                                CCU HC.I I.Si 0 0 APO S? ( 0 MM ITTH S                                SO                                   RSSOCIRTIOHS                          HS TITLI

                                Harwall Fisheries Coordinaiting Councill                              DLNR                                 COUNTIES                            188E:       Fisheries Coordinating Council
                                                                                                      [Avisron of                          PFDF
                                                                                                      Aquatic Resource]                    WESTPAC


                                                                                                                                           DBED
                                                                                                                                           11ndustry Promotion
                                                                                                                                           Division - Ocean
                                                                                                                                           Resources Branch]


                                                                                                                                           DOA
                                                                                                                                           bWarkeling Division -Market
                                                                                                                                           Development Branchi


                                                                                                                                           DOT
                                                                                                                                           Or i mercW Harboni


                                                                                                                                           UH
                                                                                                                                           [Sea Grant College Program]

                                Board of Agriculture                                                  DOA                                  DOH                                 149A:       Agriculture
                                Advisory Committee on Pesticides                                                                           DLNR


                                                                                                                                           UH
                                                                                                                                           [College of Tropical
                                                                                                                                           Agriculture and
                                                                                                                                           Human Resourcesl


                                Hawan Mpwukme Advisory Council                                        DLNR                                 OK01                                189G:       Aquaculture Advisory Council
                                                                                                      lAquacufture                         COUNTIES
                                                                                                      DetelopmentPrograml
                                                                                                                                           DOA
                                                                                                                                           fAquaculture Loan Division]


                                                                                                                                           DOH
                                                                                                                                           /Environmental Management
                                                                                                                                           Sanitation Branch]


                                                                                                                                           DBED
                                                                                                                                           J1ndustrT Promotion
                                                                                                                                           Division - Ocean
                                                                                                                                           Resources Branch]


                                                                                                                                           UH
                                                                                                                                           lCollege of Tropical
                                                                                                                                           Agriculture and
                                                                                                                                           Human Rcwourcesl


                                                                                                                                           JSea Grant College Programl


                                                                                                                                           [Hawaii Institute of
                                                                                                                                           Marine Biologv]


                                                                                                                                           HAWAIIAN HOMES
                                                                                                                                           COMMISSION


                                Anima Species Advisory Commission                                     DLNR                                                                     197:        General Provisions Relating to
                                Aquatic Life & W-"e Advisory Council                                  /Division ofAquatic Resources]                                                       Aquatic Resources & Wildlife


                                Commission on Water                                                   DLNR                                 DOH                                 174C:       State Water Code
                                Resource Management                                                   [Division of                         /Environmental
                                                                                                      Water & Landl                        Management D=on]






                                                      OPPINDIH U                      OCEkN-RFIATED COUNCILS, BOARDS and COMIMITTEES                                                            (as ofjanuary 1, 1991)


                                                       IOU H 11 LA 0 H DWO M M ITTE IS                                     LIRO                                 RSSOCIRTIOHS                          HRS TITLI


                                                      Natural Area Reserves System Commission                              DLNIR                                DOA                                 195:         Natural Area Reserves System
                                                                                                                                                                DOE
                                                                                                                                                                OSP
                                                                                                                                                                LJH

                                                      Environmental Council                                                OEQC                                 DOH                                 341:         Environmental Quality Control

                                                      Hawaii Ocean and marine Resources council                            DBED                                 DLKR                                228:         Ocean Resources Management
                                                                                                                           10cean Resources Branchl             DOT
                                                                                                                                                                OSP


                                                                                                                                                                DOH
                                                                                                                                                                [Environ mental Prograinsl


                                                                                                                                                                UH
                                                                                                                                                                kbool qfOcean and Eanb
                                                                                                                                                                Science and Teckologyl

                                                      Statewide Transportation Council                                     DOT                                  DBED                                279A:        Statewide Transportation Planning
                                                                                                                                                                DOA
                                                                                                                                                                DOH
                                                                                                                                                                OEQC
                                                                                                                                                                OSP
                                                                                                                                                                COLN 17IES


                                                      Energy Functional Plan - Advisory Committee                          DBED                                 DAGS                                196:         Energy Resources
                                                                                                                           [Energy Division]                    DLNR
                                                                                                                                                                DOH
                                                                                                                                                                DOT
                                                                                                                                                                OMPO


                                                      Energy Policy Advisory Committee                                                                          DOD
                                                                                                                                                                DOT
                                                                                                                                                                USDOE


                                                                                                                                                                DB&F
                                                                                                                                                                ftblic Uldities Commissioni


                                                                                                                                                                DCCA
                                                                                                                                                                (Division ofConsumer
                                                                                                                                                                Advocag]


                                                                                                                                                                UH
                                                                                                                                                                [Hawaii Natural
                                                                                                                                                                Energy Institutel


                                                                                                                                                                GOVERNOR'S COfvjMITTEE
                                                                                                                                                                ON GEOTHERMAL ENERGY


                                                      Governor's Geothermal Advisory Committee                             DBED                                                                     196D:        Geothermal & C2ble System
                                                      Interagency Group                                                    [Enegy Divisionj                                                                      Development

                                                      High Technology                                                      DBED                                 DB&F                                2061M:       High Technology Development
                                                      Development Corporation Board
                                                                                                                                                                UH
                                                                                                                                                                Xolkge oflingineeringl


                                                      Natural Energy                                                                                            DBED                                227:         Natural Energy Laboratory
                                                      of laboratory ofHawau                                                                                     DLNR                                             Hawaii Authority
                                                                                                                                                                HTDC
                                                                                                                                                                HAWAII COLIN7Y


                                                                                                                                                                UH
                                                                                                                                                                10ffice oftbe President/


























                    There are two types of entries in this index. Entries without an
                    asterisk refer to information in the narrative portion of the
                    technical papers; entries with an asterisk refer to these papers'
                    specific recommendations. These recommendations are also
                    made in the Hawaii Ocean Resources Managment Ilan, Acro-
                    nyms and abbreviations are as in Appendix 1.





                                                       MR



                                                    ACA - See Agency                                                       HTDC, 10, 101                                                      Economic impact, 84
                                                    Access                                                                 ITA, 41                                                            Effect of cultural environment, 85
                                                        Counties control majority, 18                                      Kaimuld Technology Enterprise Center, 10                           Effect of physical environment, 85
                                                        Funds recreational boating, 18                                     Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park, 53                      Effect of production facilities, 86
                                                        Plan Counties shoreline access, 19                                 MUAC, 41                                                           industry characteristics  '86
                                                        Plan CZM requirement, 19                                           Manoa Innovation Center, 10                                        Management economic viability, 91
                                                        Plan Statewide Trail and Access System, 19                         Maui County Economic Opportunity, Inc., 89                         Management environmental concerns, 90
                                                        Problems aquaculcure, 90                                           Mooring Pin Advisory Committee, 58                                 Management lack of coordination, 90
                                                        Problems beaches, 65                                               NARS Commission, 53                                                Management land availability & expense, 89
                                                        Problems education, 12                                             Nature Conservancy, 8, 54, 58                                      Management public access, 90
                                                        Problems recreation, 18, 20                                        NELH - See NELHA                                                   Management regulatory constraints, 90
                                                        *Ancillary facilities, 25                                          NELHA - See NELHA                                                  Management user conflicts, 90
                                                        *Beaches,69                                                        Oceanic Society, 112                                               Management water availability, 90
                                                        'Coordination, 25                                                  01,40,87,88                                                        Objective, 91
                                                        'Develop, @9                                                       OSP - See OSP                                                      Regulation County, 88
                                                        *Educadon,14                                                       Pacific Basin Development Council, 10, 41                          Regulation Federal, 87
                                                        'Fisheries, 46                                                     Pacific Congress Marine Science & Tech., 8                         Regulation State, 87
                                                        *Lunitations, 26                                                   Pacific Science Association, 8                                     Support County, 89
                                                        'Maintain, 25, 69                                                  Pacific Whale Foundation, 8                                        Support Federal, 88
                                                        *Protected areas, 25                                               PACON International, 8                                             Support State, 88
                                                        'Recreation, 25                                                    PFDF, 41                                                           *Implementing acdons-DLNR, 91
                                                    Acquire                                                                PICHTR, 96, 101                                                    'Implementing actions-DOH, 91
                                                        *Beaches,69                                                        PIRO, 75, 80                                                       *Policy recommendations, 91
                                                        *Harbors areas, 32                                                 PUC, 99                                                       Artificial reefs
                                                    AFRC - See Agency                                                      Richardson Ocean Center, 8                                         Education,11
                                                    Agency                                                                 Sea life Park, 8, 9, 11, @6                                        Research, 11
                                                        ACA, 20                                                            SG - See UH                                                        ..Beaches, 68
                                                        Ad hoc harbor advisory comrriittees@ 31                            Sierra Club, 8                                                     'Education, 13
                                                        AFRc, 86, s8                                                       Statewide Transportation Platining Council, 30,                    'Fisheries, 46
                                                        American Mining Congress, 112                                      32,35                                                              'Research, 13
                                                        Audubon Society, 8                                                 TORCH, 58                                                     Assess
                                                        Bishop Museum, 8                                                   UH - See UH                                                        Fisheries stocks, 44
                                                        Brigham Young University, 7                                        US Center for Applied Aquaculture, 88                              *Aquaculrure discharge regulations, 91
                                                        Center for Disease Control, 18                                     US CG - See US CG                                                  'Aquaculture effluent impact, 91
                                                        Chaminade University, 7                                            US COE - See US COE                                                'Aquaculture fresh water requirements, 91
                                                        Clean Islands Council, 75, 80                                      US MA, 7,88                                                        *Aquaculture impacts, 91
                                                        DBED - See DBED                                                    US DA - See US DA, 88                                              *Aquaculture & Ocean Leasing Law, 91
                                                        DINR-SeeDLNR                                                       US DOC - See US DOC, 88                                            *Bruun rule effects, 68
                                                        DOE - See DOE                                                      US DOE, 76,77                                                      *Conflict resolution methods, 46
                                                        DOH - See DOH                                                      US DO] - See US DOI                                                'Ecosystem river watershed development, 58
                                                        DOT - See DOT                                                      US EPA - See US EPA                                                'Energy electricity production costs, 104
                                                        DPS, 23                                                            US FWS - See US FWS                                                *Energy environmental impacts, 104
                                                        EWC/RSI, 113                                                       US Naval Ocean Systems Center, 7                                   'Enforcement penalties, 59
                                                        FERC, 100                                                          US Navy, 7, 8                                                      *Fisheries commercial vessels impact, 46
                                                        friends of Heeia State Park, 8                                     US NMFS - See US NMFS                                              'Fisheries development options, -45
                                                        Governor's Ad Hoc Boating Task Force, 33                           US NOAA - See US NOAA                                              'Fisheries HFCC effectiveness, 45
                                                        Governor's Advisory Committee on Harbors, 35                       US NPS - See US NPS                                                oFisheries marine safety, 47
                                                        Greenpeace,8                                                       US NSF, 7, 88                                                      'Fisheries native Hawaiian fights, 45
                                                        HAAC, 87, 89, 90                                                   US Pacific Mapping Center, 7                                       *Fisheries native Hawaiian study, 45
                                                        Harbor Advisory Panels, 36                                         US SBA, 88                                                         'Fisheries plans, 46
                                                        Hawaii Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit, 40                     US Soil Conservation Service, 79                                   *Fisheries promotion programs, 46
                                                        Hawaii Fisheries Coordinating Council, 44, 45                      Wastewater Advisory Committees-County, 74                          *Fisheries regulations, 45, 46
                                                        Hawaii Loa University, 7                                           WESIPAC - See WESTPAC                                              *Fisheries safety, 47
                                                        Hawaii Maritime Center, 8                                          *Advisory committee on beaches, 68                                 *Fisheries safety procedures, 47
                                                        Hawaii Pacific University, 7                                       *Fisheries coordinating agency, 47                                 'Fisheries statistics effectiveness, 45
                                                        Hawaii State Teachers Association, 8                               'Governor's Advisory Committee Harbors, 36                         'Fisheries stocks, 45
                                                        Hawaiian Academy of Science, 8                                     *Task force water safety, 26                                       *Minerals regulations, 116
                                                        HOC - See HOC                                                 An-i- Mining Congiress - See Agency                                     *Sand production rates, 68
                                                        Honolulu Bait Station, 88                                     Aquacubure                                                              *Sand use for beach replenishment, 68
                                                        HOST - See NELHA                                                   Definition, 84                                                     *Seabird sanctuaries, 57






                              MOB INE


                            Assess (cont.)                                                         'Waste DOH spill response authority, 82                             *Coordinate access, 25
                                 Shoreline setback expansions, 69                              Clean Islands Council - See Agency                                      'Erosion control, 68
                                 'Shoreline setback variations, 69                             Conffict resolution                                                     'Implementing actions-Beaches, 68,69
                                 *Spill capabilities, 83                                           Fisheries, 43                                                       'Implementing actions-Ecosystem, 58
                                 'Spill response plans. 83                                         Recreation, 22                                                      *Implementing actions-Education, 14
                                 *Spill risk forshoreline, 104                                     'Aquaculture, 91                                                    *Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32
                                 *Statevvide Transportation Planning Council, 32                   *Energy,104                                                         'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat. 36
                                 'Submerged lands protection, 58                                   *Fisheries, 46                                                      *Implementing actions-Minerals, 116
                                 *Waste management systems, 83                                     'Recreation, 27                                                     'Implementing 2ctioris-Recreation, 24, 25, 26
                            Audubon Society - See Agency                                           *Spill damages, 83                                                  'Implementing actions-Waste. 81. 82, 83
                            Beaches                                                            Coordination                                                            *Uabilirv concerns, 25
                                 County authority, 63                                              Aquaculture, 90                                                     'Monitor ecosystem, 58
                                 Enhancement, 109                                                  Beaches.65,66,67                                                    'Protected areas. 58
                                 Erosion problems, 61                                              Ecosystem, 56                                                       'Recreation facilities, 24
                                 importance, 60                                                    Education. 9, 12                                                    'Recreation plan, 24, 25
                                 Management-Bounclaries uncertain, 66                              Energy,103                                                          'Shoreline setback, 68
                                 Management-Lack of coordination, 65, 66                           Enforcement, 17                                                     *Waste cesspool alternatives, 81
                                 Management-Lack of enforcement, 66                                Fisheries. 41, 44                                                   'Waste management standards, 81
                                 Management-Lack of management, 65                                 Harbors-Small boat, 35                                              *Waste NPS pollution control, 58
                                 Management-Lack of public awareness, 67                           Recreation, 23                                                      *Waste recycling incentive, 82
                                 Management-Lack of public participation. 67                       Research, 9, 11                                                     *Waste redemption centers, 82
                                 Management-Lack of research, 66                                   State Marine Affairs Coordinator, I I                         CzM
                                 Management-Resource sustainability, 64                            *Acoess, 25                                                         Aquacukure, 87. 88, 90
                                 Management-Use conflicts, 65                                      *Access and trail development, 25                                   Beaches.62.63,65,66.67
                                 Management-"Hardening", 64                                        'Aquaculture, 91                                                    Ecosystem, 51, 5153. 57
                                 Management-"Soft approach", 64                                    *Database, 67, IN                                                   Energv, 99, 100
                                 Objective, 67                                                     *Education, 13,14                                                   Harbors-Commercial. 31
                                 Permit, 63                                                        'Endangered species, 58                                             Harbors-Small boat, 33, 34
                                 Physical processes affecting beaches, 61                          'Enforcement, 59                                                    Minerals, I 10. 111
                                 Regulation-Feder2l, 62                                            'Erosion control, 68                                                Recreation, 18, 24
                                 Regulation-State, 62                                              'Fisheries, 45, 46, 47                                              Shoreline setbacks, 65
                                 Sea-level rise, 61, 62                                            'Harbors-Small boat, 36                                       Database
                                 *Dambase, 67                                                      'Hotel construction, 27                                             Beaches,66
                                 'Implementing aLtions-Counties, 68, 69                            'Minerals, 116                                                      Energy,103
                                 Implementing actions-DLNR, 67, 68, 69                             *Monitor, 58. 59                                                    'Beaches,67
                                 'Implementing actions-DOT, 68, 69                                 *NPS pollution control. 58                                          'Ecosvscem, 58
                                 *Implemenflng acrions-OSP, 67,68,69                               *Permit process. 104, 105                                           'Energy, 104
                                 'Policy recommendations, 67, 1*8,61                               *Protected areas, 58                                                *G[S. 68
                                 *Research. 67                                                     *Recreation, 24, 25. 26, 27                                         'Public awareness, 68
                                 *Sea level rise. 69                                               'Research, 13, 14, 36. 45, 58. 67                                   *Water accidents, 25
                            Beaches and coastal erosion - See Beaches                              'Shoreline setback, 68                                        DBED
                            Bishop Museum - See Agency                                             'Waste, 81, 82. 83                                                  Education, 9
                            Bbie Water Marine laboratory Program - See UH                          *Water quality, 58                                                  Energy, 98, 9% 101, 103
                            Brigham Young University - See Agency                                  *Water safety programs. 25                                          Fisheries, 41. 44
                            Carrying capacity                                                  CORT - See Facifity                                                     Minerals, 110, 113
                                 Education, 12                                                 Counties                                                                Research, 9, 10, 11
                                 Recreation. 23                                                    Access, 18, 20                                                      *Implementing actions-Education. 13
                                 *Develop for ecosystem, 57                                        Aquaculture, 88, 89                                                 Implementing actions-Energy, 104,105
                                 'Develop for education, 13                                        Beaches.62,63,65.66                                                 'Implementing actions-Fisheries, 45. 46,47
                                 "
                                 Develop for recreation, 26                                        Critical Wastewater Disposal Areas, 74                              'Implementing actions-harbors-Commercial, 32
                                 Develop for research. 13                                          Ecosystem, 52                                                       'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat. 36
                                 'Develop for small boat harbors, 36                               Education, 8,12                                                     *Implementing actions-Minerals. 115. 116
                                 'Develop workshop on method. 26                                   Energv, 99, 100                                                     'Implementing actions-Recreation, 24. 25, 26, 27
                                 'limits to acceptable change, 26                                  Harbors-Small boat. 33                                              *Implementing actions-Research, 13
                            Center for Disease Control - See Agency                                Minerals. 111                                                 DUF
                            Chaminade University - See Agency                                      Recreation, 17, 18, 24                                              *Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32
                            Clarify                                                                Statewide Trail and Access System, 19                               'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36
                                 Narinas in ClassAA waters restrictions, 37                        Water safety, 20                                              Definition
                                 *Tourism policies, 27                                             'Assess waste management systems, 83                                Bruun rule, 68
                                 'Waste DLNR spill response authority, 82                          *Beaches limit subdivisions, 69                                     Education, 6, 12





                                                    ORB INEX

                                                Defunitilon (cord.)                                                 *Energy multi-media presentations, 104                         *Research Hawaii Trade Program, 13
                                                    Research, 6                                                     *Energy public participation permit process, 105               'Research Pacific Basin strategy, 13
                                                    shoreline, 62                                                   'Erosion control areas, 67                                     'Research recognition, 13
                                                    Wetlands lack common definition, 54                             'Erosion control coordination, 68                              'Sand replenishment projects, 68
                                                Department of Pubfic Safety - See Agency                            *Ero5ion control districts, 68                                 *Sand resources, 68
                                                Develop                                                             *Erosion control structures plan, 68                           -se2sch and rescue program, 26
                                                    Carrying capacity education, 12                                 'Fisheries access, 46                                          *Shoreline relocation program, 69
                                                    Education as recogaized use, I I                                'Fisheries closure svsrem
                                                                                                                                       1      146                                  'Shorehe setback coordination, 68
                                                    Education guidelines, 12                                        'Fisheries coordinating agency, 47                             'Shoreline subdivision limitations, 69
                                                    Education informed attitude, 12                                 *Fisheries management system, 45,46                            'Spill risk areas locations, 104
                                                    Education interpretive program, 13                              *Fisheries plan finance, 47                                    *Spill source test improvements, 83
                                                    Hotline, 27                                                     *Fisheries plan integrated, 45                                 *Study of probable spill sites, 83
                                                    116creation public participation, 24                            'Fisheries plan management, 45                                 *Task force water safety, 26


                                                    Research coordination, 11                                                                                                      User fees Harbors-Struill boat, 36
                                                    Research as recognized use, 11                                  'Fisheries plan stock restore, 46                              *Tramed environmental engineers, 81
                                                                                                                    *Fisheries plan under-exploited, 46
                                                    *Access beaches, 69                                             'Fisheries program promotion, 46                               *Wage boat disposal program, 82
                                                    'Access limitations, 26                                         *Fisheries regulations review, 46                              *Waste cesspool alternatives, 81
                                                    *Advisory committee on beaches, 68                              *Fisheries research, 45                                        'Waste hazardous superfund site list, 83
                                                    'Aquaculture impact, 91                                         *Fisheries safety training program, 47                         *Waste hazardous waste reduction program, 82
                                                    'Aquaculture management priorities, 91                          'Fisheries statistics, 45                                      *Waste household hazardous plan, 82
                                                    *Aquarium fish collection plan, 58                              'Fisheries stock enhancement, 46                               *Waste prioritize pollution issues, 82
                                                    'Artificial reefs, 13                                           'Fisheries study, 46                                           'Waste radioactive program, 82
                                                    *Beaches funding, 69                                            Fisheries training, 47                                         'Waste recycling programs, 82
                                                    *Beaches erosion and inundation areas, 67                       'Harbors-Commercial dockside amenities, 32                     *Waste redemption centers, 82
                                                    'Beaches long range planning process, 69                        *Harbors-Commercial ship repair industry, 32                   *waste spill assessment contracts, 82
                                                    'Beaches offshore structures policy, 68                         'Harbors-Smali boat master plan, 36                            'Waste spill impact assessment, 83
                                                    *Beaches public education, 69                                   'Hodine, 24, 59                                                'Waste spill response plans, 82
                                                    'Beaches public participation, 69                               *Incentives for erosion control, 68                            'Waste uffization of sludge, 82
                                                    *Beaches stabilization projects, 68                             *Interpretive centers, 59                                      *Wastewater reclamation, 82
                                                    *Boat launching ramps, 36                                       'Marina development poficy, 36                                 'Water quality monitoring programs, 81
                                                    *Carrying capacity ecosystem, 57                                *Marine education definition, 14                               'Yacht racing facilities, 36
                                                    'Carrying capacity education, 13                                *MineraIsJPA, 115                                         DINR
                                                    *Carrying capacity recreation, 26                               *Minerals marine mining, 116                                   Aquaculture, 86, 877, 88, 89
                                                    'Carrying capacity research, 13                                 Minerals mining expertise, 1 M                                 Beaches@ 62, 63, 65, 66
                                                    'Carrying capacity small boat harbors, 36                       'Minerals State-Federal partnership, 115                       Ecosystem, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57
                                                    *ConflicE resolution method, 27, 46                             'Moniror continuous, 58                                        Educadon,8,9
                                                    *County plans for protected areas, 58                           -Mooring, 25, 36, 58                                           Energy, 99, 101
                                                    *Database, 25, 58, 104                                          *Multflingual site signs, 14                                   Fisheries, 39, 40, 41, 44
                                                    'Database ecosystem, 58                                         *OTEC plant, 104                                               Harbors-Small boat, 33
                                                    *Ecosystem cultural, historical programs, 59                    *Plan aquaculture, 91                                          Minerals, I I I
                                                    'Ecosystem development controls, 58                             *Plan fisheries management, 45                                 Mooring, 17,19
                                                    *Ecosystem enforcement regulations, 59                          *Plan marinas master, 36                                       Recreation, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24
                                                    'Ecosystem habitat protection, 58                               'Plan protected areas, 57                                      Research, 8, 9
                                                    *Ecosystern identify protected areas, 57                        *Plan recreation, 24, 26                                       Statewide Trail and Access System, 19
                                                    *Ecosystem open spaces, 58                                      *Plan shoreline disaster, 69                                   Waste, 76, 8o
                                                    *Education DOE resource teachers, 14                            'Plan site specific coastal management, 57                     Water safety, 20
                                                    'Education field trip sites, 14                                 *Plan spill response, 58                                       *Implementing actions-Aquaculture, 91
                                                    *Education guidelines, 14                                       'Program Federal hazardous waste, 82                           'Implementing actions-Be2ches, 67, 68, 69
                                                    *Education interpretive programs, 14                            *Program waste litter control, 82                              'Implementing actions-Ecosystem, 57, 58, 59
                                                    'Education military field sites, 14                             'Protected areas, 25, 57                                       'Implementing actions-Education, 13, 14
                                                    'Education recognition, 13                                      'Recreation desirable industries, 27                           'Implementing actions-Energy, 104, 105
                                                    'Education resource centers, 14                                 'Recreation identify hazardous areas, 27                       *Implementing actions-Fisheries@ 45, 46, 47
                                                    'Education teacher training, 14                                 'Recreation information campaign, 27                           'Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32
                                                    'Education water safety progfam, 14                             'Recreation Uison program, 24                                  *Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36
                                                    *Endangered species protection, 58                              *Recreation policy on commercial uses, 26                      'Implementing actions-Miner2ls, 115, 116
                                                    *Energy alternative sources, 104                                *Recreation sites@ 24                                          *Implementing actions-Recreation, 24, 25, 26, 27
                                                    'Energy conflict resolution method, 104                         'Research ecosystq, 58                                         'Implementing actions-Research, 13, 14
                                                    *Energy cost/benefit matrix, 104                                'Research federal funds strategy, 13                           *Implementing actions-Waste, 82
                                                    'Energy goals, 104                                              'Research field trip sites, 14                             DOA
                                                    *Energy investment data, 104                                    'Research guidehnes, 14                                        Aquaculrure, 87















                              DOE                                                              Minerals, IN                                                EEZ
                                  Education, 1, 1, 1, 12, 11                                   Recreation, 16,17                                              Education,7
                                  Recreation, 21                                               Research, 7                                                    Fisheries. 40, 44 44
                                  Research, 9                                              Ecosystem                                                          Minerals, 107, 110, 111, 112,114
                                  Water safety, 20                                             Economic impact, 50                                            Recreation, 17
                                  Implementing accions-Education, 14                           Importance, 49                                                 Research. 7
                                  'Implementing acbons-Energy, 104                             Management-lack of coordination, 56                            'Fisheries native Hawaiian rights, 45
                                  'Implementing actions-Recreation, 25, 26                     Management-Lack of enforcement, 56                             'Joint Federal-Scate management, 115
                                  *Implementing actions-Research, 14                           Management-lack of integrated plans, 56                        'Minerals, 115
                             DOH                                                               Management-Lack of monitoring, 56                          Endangered sped-
                                  Aquaculture, 87                                              Management-Lack of public participation, 57                    Access, 20
                                  Be2ches,63,65                                                Management-Lack of research, 56                                Ecosystem, 55
                                  Ecosystem, 51, 54, 55, 57                                    Management-Lack of site plans, 56                              Education, 8, 9
                                  Education, 8, 9                                              Management-Lack of species management, 56                      Jurisdiction-Multiple agency, 17
                                  Energy, 99, 100                                              ManagementmOveruse, 56                                         Research. 8, 9
                                  Harbors-Commercial, 30, 32                                   Management-Species and habitat loss, 55                        *Coordinate, 58
                                  Harbors-Small boat, 33, 35                                   Objective, 57                                                  'Develop protection, 58
                                  Minerals, III                                                Protection-CDIJA process, 52                                   'Ecosystem, 57
                                  Recreation. 17, 18                                           Protection-Counties SMA permits. 52                            'Public participation, 59
                                  Research, 9                                                  Protection-Endangered species, 55                              'Research, 58
                                  Waste, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80                            Protection-Federally protected areas, 53                       'State Seabird Sanctuary, 56
                                  Water safety, 20                                             Protection-Hawaii CZM, 52                                 Energy
                                  *Implementing actions-Aquaculture, 91                        Protection-HEIS, 52                                            Demand for electricity, 93
                                  *Implementing actions-Harbom-Cornmeirial, 12                 lo,ec,ion-Pfiva,e protected area,, 14                          Dvelopmem-Envimninenal impacts,          112
                                  'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36, 37             Protection-Soil conservation permits, 52                       Developmeni-Lack of data coordination, 103
                                  *Implementing actions-Minerals, 115. 116                     Protection-Special cases, 54                                   Development-Lack of funds, 103
                                  'Implementing actions-Recreation, 25, 27                     Protection-State enforcement, 54                               Development-Overlapping jurisdictions, 103
                                  'Implementing actions-Waste, 81, 82, 83                      Protection-State protected areas, 53                           Development-Site and use conflicts, 102
                             DOT                                                               Protection-US COE permit process, 51                           Distribution-Petroleum, 97
                                  Aquaculture, 88                                              Protection-Water quality standards@ 51                         Distfibution-Underwater cables, 97
                                  Beaches, 63, 65                                              value-Cultural and historical. 50                              Generation-Federal regulation, 100
                                  Ecosystem, 52, 54, 55                                        Value-Ecological, 51                                           Generation-OTEC, 98
                                  Education, 8                                                 Value-Economic, 50                                             Generation-State regulation, 99
                                  Energy,99                                                    Value-Recreational and aesthetical, 50                         Infrastructure development, 101
                                  Fisheries, 40, 41. 44                                        Value-Scientific and educational, 50                           Limited funds, labor and equipment, 103
                                  Harbors-iCommercial, 30,31                                   *Implementing actions-Counties, 58                             Management issues, 101
                                  Harbors-Small boat, 33, 34, 35                               'Implementing acfions-DLNR, 57, 58, 59                         Monitoring and research, 100
                                  Minerals, 111                                                *Implementing actions-Federal agencies, 58                     Objective, 104
                                  noting, 19                                                   'Implementing acdons-OSP. 57. 58                               Ocean and energy production, 93
                                  Recreation, 17, 20, 22, 23, 24                               'Policv recommendations, 57. 58, 59                            Ocean energy sources, 94
                                  Research, 10                                             Educatio  .n                                                       Ocean resource management implications, 94
                                  Waste, 75, 76, 80                                            Attitudm2l behavior, 12                                        OTEC, 98
                                  Water safety, 20                                             Coordination, 9                                                Public awareness, 101
                                  'Implementing actions-Beaches, 68, 69                        Current activities, 7, 9                                       Supplies, 94
                                  *Implementing actions-Energy, 105                            Definition, 6,12                                               Transmission regulation-Federal, 100
                                  'Implementing ac,in,,Fi,l,,ie,, 46, 41                       Ecosystem, 51                                                  Transmission regulation-State, 100
                                  'Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32                 Handling of marine animals, habitats, 12                       *Implementing acdons-DBED. 104,105
                                  'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36, 37             importance, 6                                                  *Implementing aaions-DLNR, 105
                                  'Implemenfingactions-Minerals, 116                           Management-User conflicts, I I                                 *Implementing actions-DOE, 104.
                                  Implementing actions-Recreadon, 24, 25, 26, Z7               Objective, 13                                                  'Implementing actions-DOT, 105
                                  'Implementing actions-Waste, 82                              Ocean & coastal interpretive programs, 13                      'Implementing actions-OSP, 104
                           Economk impact                                                      Water safety and liability. 13                                 *Policy recommendations, 104
                                  Aquaculture, 84. 86                                          *Implementing actions-Counties, 14                        Enforcement
                                  Beaches,60                                                   *Implementing actions-DBED, 13                                 Beaches, 65, 66
                                  Ecosystem, 50                                                *Implementing actions-DLNR, 13, 14                             Ecowstem, 54, 56
                                  Education, 11                                                *Implementing 2ctions-DOE. 14                                  Fisheries, 39, 40, 44
                                  Energy, 93                                                   'Implementing actions-Federal agencies, 14                     Harbors-Commercial, 31
                                  Fisheries, 38, 39                                            'Implementing actions-HOC. 14                                  Harbors-Small boat, 33
                                  Harbors-Commercial, 30                                       *Implementing actions-UH, 14                                   Recreation. 17, 23
                                  Harbors-Small boat, 33                                       'Policy recommendations. 13,14                                 Waste, 74





                                                  ON


                                                 Enforcement (cont.)                                                Recreation, 19, 21                                                Fisheries, 40, 41
                                                    'Assess penalties ecosystem, 59                                 Snug Harbor Mass Culture Faciliry-UH, 89                          Harbors-Commercial, 30,31
                                                    *Develop hotline, 27                                            *Assess fisheries, 46                                             Harbors-Small boat, 33, 34
                                                    *Ecosystem, 58, 59                                              *Boat waste disposal, 82                                          Land and Water Conservation Fund, 33
                                                    'Equal employee status, 27                                      'Coordinate housing & sewage, 81                                  Minerals, 113
                                                    'Erosion control, 68,69                                         *Coordinate minerals infrastructure, 116                          Pollution control, 78
                                                    'Fisheries, 45,46                                               *Education resource centers, 14                                   Recreation, 24
                                                    'Funds, 27, 58                                                  'Fisheries, 46, 47                                                Research, 10, 11, 40
                                                    *Hazardous waste, 82                                            *Harbors-Commercial, 32                                           Sport Fish Restoration Account, 33
                                                    'Hotline, 83                                                    *Harbors-Small boat, 36,37                                        Waste, 79
                                                    'Identify patrolling areas, 59                                  *Recreation maintain, 24                                          'Beaches land acquisitions, 69
                                                    'Implement regulations, 27                                      'Recreation plan, 24                                              'Beaches managernent, 69
                                                    'Jurisdiction-Multiple agencies, 27                             *Recreation sites, 24                                             *Ecosystem management, 59
                                                    *Public awareness, 27                                           *Recreation under-developed areas, 24                             *Educadon,13,14
                                                    *Recreation, 27                                                 'Sewage =tment plants, 81                                         *Enforcement, 27, 58. 69
                                                 Environmental assessment                                           'Waste redemption centers, 82                                     'Erosion control, 68
                                                    Aquaculcure, 87                                            Federal agencies                                                       *Fisheries, 47
                                                    Beaches, 62, 65                                                   'Coordinate access, 25                                          'Harbors-Small boat, 36
                                                    Ecosystem, 52, 57                                                 -Implementing actions-Ecosystem, 58                             *Protected areas, 58
                                                    Energy, 99                                                        'Implementing actions-Education, 14                             'Public awareness ecosystem, 59
                                                    Harbors-Small boat, 35, 36                                        Implementing actions-Minerals, 115                              *Public awareness energy, 104
                                                    Minerals, 110, 111, 113.114                                       olmplementing actions-Recreation, 25, 26                        'Recreation, 24
                                                    Mooring, 17                                                       *Implementing actions-Waste, 83                                 'Recreation alterriative sources, 24
                                                    wage, 81                                                   FERC - See Agency                                                      Recreation facility maintenance, 24
                                                    'Aquaculrure, 91                                           Fislierics                                                             *Recreation startup, 27
                                                    oEnergy, 104                                                    Economic impact, 38, 39                                           'Research beaches federal funds, 69
                                                    'Hotels, 27                                                     Federal authority, 39                                             'Research energy, 104
                                                    'Public participation, 59                                       Federal-SLate responsibilities, 39                                *Research Harbors-Commercial, 32
                                                    Ollecreation, 26                                                infrastructure development, 40                                    'Research Harbor0mall boat, 36
                                                    'Spill impact, 83                                               Management-Lack agency coordination, 44                           'Research recognition, 13
                                                 Erosion control                                                    Man2gemeni-lack development resources, 43                         oResearch strategy for Federal, 13
                                                    ,classify beaches, 68                                           Management-Lack of coordination, 44                               'Research strategy for Pacific Basin, 13
                                                    *Coordination, 68                                               Management-Lack of enforcement, 44                                'Sewage treatment plants, 81
                                                    *counties, 68                                                   Management-Lack of statistics, 44                                 'Statewide Trail and Access System, 25
                                                    'Develop districts, 68                                          Management-Lack safety requirements, 44                           *Waste DOH-HEER office, 82
                                                    'Enforcement, 68, 69                                            Management-Native Hawaiian rights, 43                             *Waste education, 83
                                                    *Funds, 68                                                      Management-Resource sustaimbility, 41                             'Waste hazardous disposal, 81
                                                    'Incentive, 68                                                  Management-User conflicts, 43                                     *Waste NPS pollution, 82
                                                    'Limit structures, 68                                           Monitoring and research, 40                                       'Waste public participation, 83
                                                    'Management funds, 69                                           Objective, 44                                                     'Water quality monitoring, 81
                                                    *Offshore structures policy, 68                                 State authority, 40                                               *Water safety programs, 25
                                                    'Permit, 68                                                     Trade and investment promotion, 41                         GIs
                                                    'Permit consolidation, 68                                       Two principal fishery regimes, 38                                 *Beaches,68
                                                    'Remove illegal structures, 68                                  *Implementing actions-DBED, 45,46,47                              'Ecosystem, 57
                                                    'Structures must provide access, 69                             oirriplementing acdons-DLNR, 45,46,47                      Governor's Ad Hoc Boating Task Force
                                                 EWC/RSI - See Agency                                               *Implementing actions-DOT, 46,47                               - See Agency
                                                 Facik                                                              Implementing actions-industry, 45, 46                      Governoir's Advisory Committee Harbors
                                                      AFRC, 89                                                      Implementing actions-UH, 45, 46                                . See Agency
                                                      CORT, 113                                                     *Implementing actions-US CG, 47                            Greenpeace - See Agency
                                                      Critical Wastewater Disposal Areas, 74                        *Implementing actions-US NMFS, 45                          HAAC - See Agency
                                                      FADs,41,43                                                    oiniplementing actions-WESTPAC, 45                         Harbors4ammercial
                                                      Fisheries, 43                                                 'Policy recommendations, 45, 46, 47                            Construction and maintenance, 31
                                                      Fishing piers, IS                                        Friends of Recia State Park - See Agency                            Construction permitting, 31
                                                      Hanaurna Bay Beach Park, 12                              Funds                                                               Enforcement, 31
                                                      Harbors-Small boat, 33, 34                                    Aquatic Resources Trust Fund, 33                               Management-Capaciry, 31
                                                      Kahuku Aquaculrural Park, 86                                  ARLF, 89                                                       Management-Constrairits, 32
                                                      KARRP, 89                                                     Beaches,65                                                     Management-Impacts, 31
                                                      Kona seacoast Test Facuity, 95, 96                            Boating Safety Account, 33                                     Management-Restrictions, 32
                                                      Maul County Baitfis;h Facility, 89                            Boating Special Fund, 33                                       Objective, 32
                                                      Mooring, 19                                                   Energy, 103                                                    Planning, 30


KEYWORD INDEX

Harbors-Commercial (cont.)

Implementing actions-Counties, 32
Implementing actions-DBED, 32
Implementing actions-DB&F, 32
Implementing actions-DLNR, 32
Implementing actions-DOH, 32
Implementing actions-DOT, 32
Implementing actions-OSP, 32
Implementing actions-UH, 32
Implementing actions-US COE, 32
Implementing actions-US NMFS, 32
Importance, 29
Improve and expand, 32
Policy recommendations, 32

Harbors-Small boat
Construction and Maintenance, 33
Construction permitting, 33
Development constraints, 35
Development restrictions, 35
Enforcement, 33
Environmental impacts, 35
Facility maintenance, 34
Importance, 32
Inadequate facilities, 34
Inadequate funding, 34
Management, 33
No coordinated planning, 35
Objective, 35
Planning, 33
User conflicts, 34
Expand, 36
Implementing actions-Counties, 36
Implementing actions-DBED, 36
Implementing actions-DB&F, 36
Implementing actions-DLNR, 36
Implementing actions-DOH, 36,37
Implementing actions-DOT, 36,37
Implementing actions-Industry, 36
Implementing actions-OSP, 36
Implementing actions-UH, 36
Implementing actions-US COE, 36
Implementing actions-US NMFS, 36
Policy recommendations, 36

Hawaii Fisheries Coordinating Council
See Agency
Hawaii Loa University-See Agency
Hawaii Maritime Center-See Agency
Hawaii Pacific University-See Agency
Hawaii State Teachers Association-See Agency
Hawaiian Academy of Science-See Agency
HDWC-See Program
HIMB-See UH
HNEI-See UH
HOC
Planning Council.9
Recommendation for establishment, 10
Implementing actions-Education, 14
Implementing actions-Research, 14
Honolulu Bait Station-See Agency
HOST-See NELHA


Hotline
Enforcement, 27,59,83
Recreation repairs, 24
HTDC-See Agency
Implement
Harbors-2010 master plans, 32
Rules-Critical Water Discharge Areas, 81
Implementing actions
Aquaculture-DLNR, 91
Aquaculture-DOH, 91
Beaches-Counties, 68,69
Beaches-DLNR, 67,68,69
Beaches-DOT, 68,69
Beaches-OSP, 67,68,69
Ecosystem-Counties, 58
Ecosystem-DLNR, 57,58,59
Ecosystem-Federal agencies, 58
Ecosystem-OSP, 57,58
Education-Counties, 14
Education-DBED, 13
Education-DLNR, 13,14
Education-DOE, 14
Education-Federal agencies, 14
Education-HOC, 14
Education-UH, 14
Energy-DBED, 104,105
Energy-DLNR, 105
Energy-DOE, 104
Energy-DOT, 105
Energy-OSP, 104
Fisheries-DBED, 45,46,47
Fisheries-DLNR, 45,46,47
Fisheries-DOT, 46,47
Fisheries-Industry, 45,46
Fisheries-UH, 45,46
Fisheries-US CG, 47
Fisheries-US NMFS, 45
Fisheries-WESTPAC, 45
Harbors-Commercial-Counties, 32
Harbors-Commercial-DBED, 32
Harbors-Commercial-DB&F, 32
Harbors-Commercial-DLNR, 32
Harbors-Commercial-DOH, 32
Harbors-Commercial-DOT, 32
Harbors-Commercial--OSP, 32
Harbors-Commercial-UH, 32
Harbors-Commercial-US COE, 32
Harbors-Commercial-US NMFS, 32
Harbors-Small boat-Counties, 36
Harbors-Small boat-DBED, 36
Harbors-Small boat-DB&F, 36
Harbors-Small boat-DLNR, 36
Harbors-Small boat-DOH, 36,37
Harbors-Small boat-DOT, 36,37
Harbors-Small boat-Industry, 36
Harbors-Small boat-OSP, 36
Harbors-Small boat-UH, 36
Harbors-Small boat-US COE, 36
Harbors-Small boat-US NMFS, 36
Minerals-Counties, 116

Minerals-DBED, 115,116
Minerals-DLNR, 115,116
Minerals-DOH, 115,116
Minerals-DOT, 116
Minerals-Federal agencies, 115
Minerals-OSP, 115
Minerals-UH, 115,116
Recreation-Counties, 24,25,26
Recreation-DBED, 24,25,26,27
Recreation-DLNR, 24,25,26,27
Recreation-DOE, 25,26
Recreation-DOH, 25,27
Recreation-DOT, 24,25,26,27
Recreation-Federal Agencies, 25,26
Recreation-Industry, 26,27
Recreation-OSP, 26,27
Research-DBED, 13
Research-DLNR, 13,14
Research-DOE, 14
Research-HOC, 14
Research-UH, 14
Waste-Counties, 81,82,83
Waste-DLNR, 82
Waste-DOH, 81,82,83
Waste-DOT, 82
Waste-Federal agencies, 83
Waste-Industry, 82
Waste-US CG, 83
Waste-US COE, 82
Incentive
Erosion control, 68
Harbors-Small boat, 36
Marinas, 36
Minerals, 116
Oil transfer, 83
Recreation, 24,27
Recycling, 82
Spill reports, 83
Spill response, 82
Waste disposal, 82
Waste disposal by boats, 82
Waste hazardous waste reduction, 82
Industry
Water safety, 20
Implementing actions-Fisheries, 45,46
Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36
Implementing actions-Recreation, 26,27
Implementing actions-Waste, 82
Inventory
Energy ocean resources, 104
Protected areas, 57
Recreation resources, activities, 26
Sand resources, 68
Spill risk areas, 104
ITA-See Agency
James K.K. Look Lab. Ocean Engineering-See
UH
JPA-See Program
Jurisdiction-Multiple agencies
Aquaculture, 86,90


153








KEYWORD INDEX

Jurisdiction-Multiple agencies                                                                                   
Beaches, 62,63,65,66,67                                                                                   
Ecosystem, 51,52,54,55,56                                                                                    
Energy, 99,103                                                                                                
Fisheries, 39,44                                                                                                       
Fishing piers, 20                                    
Harbors-Small boat, 33                                                 
Minerals, 111
Mooring, 19
Recreation, 17,18,21,23,24
Water Safety, 20
Ecosystem, 58,59
Eliminiate problems, 27
Enforcement, 27
Harbors-Small boat, 36
Kaimuki Technology Enterprise Center
-See Agency
Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park
-See Agency
KARPP-See Facility
Kona Seacoast Test Facility-See Facility
Law of the Sea Institute-See UH
Legislation
Minerals, 111
Access liability concerns, 25
Amend OCSLA, 115
Beaches limit subdivision activity, 69
Fisheries, 46
Funds beaches, 69
Funds ecosystem, 59
Funds enforcement ecosystem, 69
Funds protected area, 58
Funds waste DOH-HEER office, 82
Funds waste education, 83
Funds waste NPS pollution, 82
Funds waste participation, 83
Funds water quality monitoring, 81
Funds water safety, 25
Liability concerns, 25,26
Lifeguards at State beaches, 25
Minerals, 115
Research, 13
Liability concerns
Education, 13
DOE swimming, 26
Recreation, 24,25,26
MAFAC-See Agency
Maintain
Access, 25
Boat facilities, 24
Harbors-Small boat, 36
Recreation facilities, 24
Management
Aquaculture, 86
Beaches, 62
Ecosystem, 51
Education, 8
Energy, 98
Fisheries, 39

Harbors-Commercial, 30
Harbors-Small boat, 33
Minerals, 110
Recreation, 17
Research, 8
Waste, 73
Management issues
Aquaculture, 89
Beaches, 64
Ecosystem, 55
Education, 10
Energy, 101
Fisheries, 41
Harbors-Commercial, 31
Harbors-Small boat, 34
Minerals, 111
Recreation, 19
Research, 10
Waste, 78
Manganese Crust Task Force-See UH
Manoa Innovation Center-See Agency
Marianas
Harbors-Small boat, 33,35
Clarify Class AA waters restrictions, 37
Develop construction policy, 36
Develop plan, 36
Fisheries, 46
Public participation, 36
Recreation, 24
Marine minerals-See Minerals
Marine Options Program-See UH
Maui County Baitfish Facility-See Facility
Maui County Economic Opportunity Inc.
-See Agency
Minerals
Economic impact, 107
Management, County authority, 111
Management, Environmental matters, 114
Management, Exploration, 114
Management, Federal authority, 110
Management, Federal-State relations, 112
Management, Mining, 114
Management, Processing, 115
Management-Public awareness, 113
Management-Research, 113
Management-Revenue sharing, 111
Management-State authority, 110
Management-Technology, 112
Management-Transportation, 115
Objective, 115
Resources-Nearshore, 109
Resources-Offshore, 107
Implementing actions-Counties, 116
Implementing actions-DBED, 115,116
Implementing actions-DLNR, 115,116
Implementing actions-DOH, 115,116
Implementing actions-DOT, 116
Implementing actions-Federal agencies, 115
Implementing actions-OSP, 115
Implementing actions-UH, 115,116


Policy recommendations, 115, 116
MMS-See US DOI
MMTC-See UH, 113
Monitor
Beaches, 65,66
Ecosystem, 56,57
Energy, 100
Fisheries, 40
Recreation, 22
Waste, 74,80,81
Ecosystem continuous, 58
Ecosystem coordinate, 58,59
Federal water quality law, 81
Fisheries, 45
Harbors-Commercial impacts, 32
Harbors-Small boat impacts, 36
Minerals mining, 115
Mining effects on ocean, 116
Research on beaches, 67
Research on climate change, 69
Sand replenishment, 68
Waste literature, 83
Waste hazardous disposal, 81,82
Waste incineration, 81
Water quality, 81
Mooring
Environmental assessment, 17
Inadequate facilities, 19
Jurisdiction-Multiple agencies, 17
Permit, 17
Recreation, 17
Develop, 26,36,58
Mooring Pin Advisory Committee-See Agency
MRTC-See UH
NARS Commission-See Agency
Nature Conservancy-See Agency
NELH-See NELHA
NELHA
aquaculture, 86,89
Ecosystem, 57
Education, 9
Energy, 95,96,100,101
Research, 9,10
Objective
Aquaculture, 91
Beaches, 67
Ecosystem, 57
Education, 13
Energy, 104
Fisheries, 44
Harbors-Commercial, 32
Harbors-Small boat, 35
Minerals, 115
Recreation, 24
Research, 13
Waste, 81
Ocean Recreation Areas, 18
Oceanic Society-See Agency
OI-See Agency
OSP


                                                      



                                       . 1H



                             OSP                                                              PICHTR - See Agency                                                  *Recommendations-Waste, K 82, 83
                                  Aquaculture, 87                                             PIRO - See Agency                                                Pollution - See Waste
                                  Beaches,63                                                  plan                                                             Prioritize
                                  Education, 9                                                    ADP, 88,89                                                       Aquaculture support factors, 91
                                  Harbors-small boat, 33. 35                                      County shoreline access, 19                                      'Lifeguard assignments, 25
                                  Implementing actions-Beaches, 67, 68, 69                        Energy Functional Plan, 102                                      'Protected areas, 57
                                  'Implementing actions-Ecosystem, 57, 58                         Fisheries management-WESTPAC. 40                                 'Recreation facilities, 24
                                  *Implementing actions-Energy, 104                               Harbors-Commercial master plans, 30                              'Research on beaches, 67
                                  'Implementing acdors,Harbom-Commerdal, 32                       Honolulu WaterfrontMver Plan, 31                                 *W.,e NPI pollution, 12
                                  'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36                    Need marina development, 35                                  Program
                                  *Implementing actions-Minerals, 115                             NTS Source Water Pollution Management, 52                        ADP, 87, 98, 90
                                  *Implementing actions-Recreation, 26. 27                        Ocean Resources Management, 45                                   Backyard Aquaculrural Program-U`H, 89
                                  Implementing actions-Waste. 81                                  Oil spill contingency, 80                                        Coastal Zone Management - See CZM
                             OTEC                                                                 Pollution Assessment Report & Management, 78                     Hawaii Capital Loan Program, 10
                                  Aquaculture, 85, 89                                             Recreation Functional Plan, 18, 19, 20. 25                       Hawaii Trade Program, 10, 13
                                  Energy, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100. 101, 102                           sCORP, 16, 17. 1& 22, 25, 54                                     Hazardous waste management, 79
                                  Develop, 104                                                    Statewide Transportation, 30                                     HDWC, 97, 100
                             Pacific Basin Development Council                                    *Aquaculture development, 91                                     Honolulu Aquatic Safety intervention Proj, 18
                                  See Agency                                                      *Aquarium fish collection, 58                                    JPA, 110, 112
                             Pacific Congress Marine Science & Tech.                              'Assess spill response, 83                                       National Flood Insurance, 62
                                  See Agency                                                      'Beaches long term, 69                                           National Recreational Boating Safety, 17
                             Pacific Science Association - See Agency                             'Coordinate recreation, 25                                       National Shellfish Sanitation, 87/
                             Pacific Whale Foundation - See Agency                                *Develop small boat harbor master, 36                            NMS, 53
                             PACON International - See Agency                                     'Ecosystem jurisdiction-multiple agencies, 58                    NPDEs, 63,74,79,87
                             Permit                                                               'Erosion control structures, 68                                  NPS,78,79
                                  Aquaculture, K, 88, 90                                          'Fisheries access, 46                                            Saltonstall-Kennedy, 41
                                  Aquarium fish, 8                                                *Fisheries assess, 46                                            Student Symposium on Marine Affairs, 8
                                  Beaches.63                                                      'Fisheries finance. 47                                           US Mineral Institute, 113
                                  Commercial beach concession, 18                                 *Fisheries integrated, 45                                        U.S. Subseabed Disposal, 77
                                  Commercial boat operators, 18                                   'Fisheries management. 45                                        'Beaches public awareness, 68
                                  Counties, 18                                                    'Fisheries research, 45                                          *Coordinate County access recreation, 25
                                  CZM, 18,19,24                                                   'Fisheries stock restore, 46                                     *Develop cultural, historical, 59
                                  Dredging, 77                                                    'Fisheries under-exploited, 46                                   'Erosion control coordination, 68
                                  Ecosystem, 51, 52, 53, 57                                       *Implement Harbors 2010 Master, 32                               *Fisheries promotion, 46
                                  Energy, 99,100,103                                              *Marinas, 36                                                     'Fisheries safety training, 47
                                  Federal Endangered Species Act, 8                               *NPS pollution control, 58                                       'Fisheries stock enhancement, 46
                                  Federal Marine Mammals Protection Act, 9                        *Protected areas. 57                                             'Fisheries stock restoration, 46
                                  Fisheries, 39, 40                                               *Recreation, 24                                                  *Fisheries underutilized. 46
                                  Harbors-Commercial, 30                                          'Recreation facilities, 24                                       *Harbors acquire areas, 32
                                  Harbors-Small boat, 33, 34                                      *Recreation Functional-Facilities, 24                            *MHI-.MRI accelerate, 45
                                  HDWC special process, 100                                       ISCORP, 24                                                       *Monitor water quality, 81
                                  joint CDUA-Shorewaters, 63. 88                                  *Shoreline disaster. 69                                          'Public awareness interpretive. 14
                                  jurisdiction-multiple agencies, 65, 66. 67                      'Site specific coastal management, 57                            *Recreation public liaison, 24
                                  Marinas, 33                                                     'Spill response, 58                                              'Recreation size set aside, 24
                                  Military areas. 8                                               'Waste household hazardous, 82                                   *Search and rescue, 26
                                  Mineral.,, 111, 111                                             waste public participation. 83                                   'Shoreline building relocations, 69
                                  Mooring, 17                                                 Policy                                                               'Waste boat disposal, 82
                                  Recreation, 17, 18, 21                                          DOE water safety, 13                                             'Waste education, 83
                                  Research, 8                                                     Need for marinas policy, 35                                      *Waste hazardous, 82
                                  Shorewaters, 63                                                 'Reconimendations-Aquaculture, 91                                'Waste hazardous waste Federal sites, 82
                                  Soil erosion, 52                                                'Recommendations-Beaches, 67,68,69                               'Waste litter control, 82
                                  Waste discharge, 74                                             'Recommendations-Ecosystem. 57, 58, 59                           'Waste public participation, 83
                                  "Nationwide", 62.67                                             oRecommendations-Education, 13,14                                'Waste radioactive, 82
                                  Develop central process, 27                                     *Recommendations-Energy, 104                                     'Water safety, 25
                                  *Develop public participation, 104, 105                         'Recommendations-Fisheries, 45, 46, 47                       Protected areas
                                  'Energy enhance coordination, 104, 105                          *Recommendations-Harbors-Cornmercial, 32                         Anchialine pools, 54
                                  'Ercision control, 61                                           *Recommenciations-Harbors-Small boat, 36                         Beaches special zones. 65
                                  'Mooring one step process, 25                                   *Recommendations-,Minerals, 115. n6                              CD Protective subzone, 54
                                  'Recreation prohibit over usage, 26                             'Recommenclations-Recreation, 24,25,26,27                        Ecosystem, 50, 53, 54, 56
                             PFDF - See Agency                                                    *Recommendations-Research. 13,14                                 Fisheries. 43


KEYWORD INDEX

Protected areas
FMA, 53
Forest and Water Reserve Zones, 63
MLCD, 53
NARS, 53,57
National Parks, 53
Naval Defense at Sea Area, 8
NERR, 18,53
NMS, 53
NWF, 50,53
ORMA, 54
Private areas, 54
Research, 8
Underwater parks, 54
Wetlands, 54
Wildlife refuges, 8
Coordination, 58
Develop, 25,57,58
Develop County plants, 58
Develop workshop, 57,58
Ecosystem, 57
Education, 14
Fisheries, 46
Funds, 59
Identify, 57
Inventory, 57
Jurisdiction-Multiple agencies, 58
MLCD, 57
Prioritize, 57
Public participate NARS, 59
Recreation, 25
Research, 14
Seabird sanctuaries, 57
Sumberged lands, 58
Public awareness
Beaches, 67
Ecosystem, 50
Education, 6,8,12,13
Energy, 101,102,103
Minerals, 113
recreation, 23
Research, 6
Waste, 81
Access, 25
Advisory committee beaches, 68
Beaches, 68,69
Ecosystem, 59
Education, 14
Energy, 104
Enforcement, 27
Fisheries, 46,47
Funds, 59
Harbors-Commercial, 32
Harbors-Small boat, 37
Interpretive centers, 59
Minerals, 116
Recreation, 24,25,26,27
Waste, 81,83
Waste boat disposal, 82
Waste Hazardous incineration, 82

Water safety, 26
Public participation
Beaches, 67
Ecosystem, 50,57
Energy, 103
Waste, 81
Aquaculture, 91
Beaches, 68,69
Ecosystem, 58,59
Education, 14
Endangered species, 59
Energy, 104,105
Enforcement, 59
Environmental assessment, 59
Fisheries, 46,47
Harbors-Small boat, 36
Marinas, 36
Minerals, 116
Monitoring, 59
Mooring, 25
NARS system, 59
Recreation, 24,27
Waste, 83
Water safety, 26
PUC-See Agency
Recreation
Current activities, 16
Management-Lack of coordination, 23
Management-Lack of enforcement, 23
Management-Lack of funding, 24
Management-Lack parks and areas, 19
Management-Lack support facilities, 19
Management-Multiple agencies, 17
Management-Natural resources, 22
Management-On land, 18
Management-On water, 17
Management-Public access, 20
Management-Safety and education, 20
Management-Support for industry, 21
Management-User conflicts, 21
Objective, 24
Implementing actions-Counties, 24,25,26
Implementing actions-DBED, 24,25,26,27
Implementing actions-DLNR, 24,25,26,27
Implementing actions-DOE, 25,26
Implementing actions-DOH, 25,27
Implementing actions-DOT, 24,25,26,27
Implementing actions-Federal agencies, 25,26
Implementing actions-Industry, 26,27
Implementing actions-OSP, 26,27
Policy recommendations, 24,25,26,27
Regulations
Critical Water Discharge Areas, 81
HAR Chap 002,52
HAR Chap 011-054,9, 54
HAR Chap 011-54,32,35,51,52,73,87
HAR Chap-011-54-03,74
HAR Chap-011-54-04,74
HAR Chap-011-62,74
HAR Chap-013-02,54
HAR Chap-013-222,63
HAR Chap-013-28 to 013-35,53
HAR Chap-013-47 to 013-54,53
HAR Chap-019-44 to 019-44,30
HAR Chap-019-61 to 019-66,33
HAR Chap-019-86,17
HAR Chap 124, 55
Ocean Recreation Management Rules, 17,22,
23,27
Water Quality Standard, 87
Aquaculture assess effluent, 91
Fisheries assess, 46
Fisheries review, 46
HAR Chap 011-62 implement, 81
Minerals assess, 116
Recreation implement, 27
Waste implement, 81
Waste management standards, 81
Research
Attitudinal behavior, 12
Beaches, 66
Coordination, 9
Current activities, 7,9
Definition, 6
Economic impact, 7
Ecosystem, 50,56,57
Energy, 100
Entry pemits, 8
Fisheries, 40
General infrastructure support, 10
Handling of marine animals, habitats, 12
Importance, 6
Industry marketing and promotion, 10
Management-Market diversification, 11
Management-Prioritization and funding, 10
Management-User conflicts, 11
Minerals, 112,113
Objective, 13
Regulation-Endangered species, 8
Regulation-Scientific collecting, 8
Regulation-Water quality standards, 9
Water safety and liability, 13
Beaches, 67,69
Coordinate ecosystem, 58
Coordinate fisheries, 45
Develop ecosystem, 58
Endangered species, 58
Energy funds, 104
Fisheries resources, 45
Harbors-Commercial, 32
Harbors-Small boat, 36
Implementing actions-DBED, 13
Implementing actions-DLNR, 13,14
Implementing actions-DOE, 14
Implementing actions-HOC, 14
Implementing actions-UH, 14
Minerals, 115,116
Policey recommendations, 13,14
Public awareness-Harbors-Small boat, 37
Sand production, 68






                                  KEYWORD INDEX

                            Research                                                             Wallops-Breaux Act, 33                                           HRS ï¿½ 269-01. 99
                                  'Waste NPS pollution. 82                                       Water Pollution Control Act, 100                                 HRS  269-27.2, 99
                            Richardson Ocean Center - See Agency                                 Wildlife Refuge Administration Act. 8                            HRS ï¿½ 279A-1, 30
                            Sand                                                                 'Upton-Jones Amendment, 69                                       HRS 279A-2, 30
                                  Beach replenishment, 109                                   Statute-State                                                        HRS ï¿½ 279A-3, 30
                                  Mining, 64, 111, 114                                            1974 Legislature-Act 235, 100                                    HRS  279A-4, 30
                                  Sources. 61                                                    1979 Legislature-Act 200,88                                      HRS  279A- 7, 30
                                  'Assess production rates, 68                                   1988 Legislature-Act 236, 19                                      HRS  279A-9, 30
                                  Beaches,68                                                    1989 Legislature-Act 356, 63                                     HRS  304-65, 101
                                  *Importing, 68                                                 1990 Legislature-Act 313, 18, 21, 23                              HRS ï¿½ 321 -11, 87
                                  'Replenishment projects, 68                                    Emergency Response Law, 80                                       HRS ï¿½ 328-9, 87
                                  'Research, 68                                                  HEIS, 63, 75, 82. 87                                            HRS  342, 63,99
                                  *Restrict taking, 68                                           HRS 011-29, 87                                                 HRS  342D, 87
                            Sea Life Park - See Agency                                           HRS  011-35,87                                                  HRS  342D-50. 75
                            Shoreline setback                                                    HRS  026- 14.6, 23                                              HRS ï¿½ 342D-51. 75
                                  Aquaculture. 88                                                HRS   026-18. 100                                                HRS ï¿½ 342D-52. 75
                                  Beaches. 65, 66                                                HRS   026-19, 33                                                 HRS ï¿½ 342-31, 54
                                  Counties, 65                                                   HRS   046-19, 99                                                 HRS 343, 52, 63. 87, 99
                                  CZM, 65                                                        HRS   091, 63                                                    HRS  343-5, 52
                                  Minerals, 1ll                                                  HRS   171,99                                                     HRS ï¿½ 344-4, 53, 55
                                  Variances, 64                                                  HRS   171-03. 99                                                 Ocean Leasing Law, 91
                                  'Assess expansions, 69                                         HRS   171-58.5, 111                                              Shoreline Setback Law. 63
                                  *Assess variations, 69                                         HRS   171-59(b), 34                                              Statewide Trail & Access Svstem Act, 19
                                  'Counties, 68                                                  HRS   171-60, 33, 34                                         study
                                  Permit consolidation. 68                                       HRS  176-01. 51                                                 Fisheries, 40
                                  'Prohibit vehicles, 68                                         HRS   183, 63                                                    MHI-MRI. 40
                            Sierra Club - See Agency                                             HRS   184, 18, 54, 99                                            Minerals. 113
                            SMA - See CZM                                                        HRS   187A-02. 99                                                Sand for Hawaiian Beaches, 113
                            Statewide Transportation Planning Council                           HRS   187-02, 53                                                 'Fisheries, 46
                                  See Agency                                                     HRS  190, 53, 54, 56                                            *Fisheries assess native Hawaiian study, 45
                            Statute-Fed                                                          HRS ï¿½ 190D, 11, 13, 99                                             *Fisheries development options, 45
                                  Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act, 18, 41                      HRS  190-04, 53                                                 MHI-MRI, 45
                                  Clean Water Act. 51, 53, 54, 63, 74, 75, 77, 87,               HRS  190-15, 53,99                                              'Probable spill sites, 83
                                  110                                                            HRS ï¿½ 195, 53                                                Submerged lands
                                  Commercial Fisheries R&D Act, 41                               HRS  195D-4, 55                                                 Beaches, 62
                                  CZMA, 18,52.62.63,87, 100, 110                                 HRS ï¿½ 195-03 to 195-07, 54                                       Energy
                                                                                                                                                                         ,99
                                  Dingell-Johnson Act, 33, 41                                    HRS  195-06, 53                                                   'Ecosystem. 58
                                  Endangered Species Act, 8, 9, 39. 51, 55                        HRS ï¿½ 196D, 100                                             Survey
                                  Environmental Policy Act, 51, 52, 62.87, 100                   HRS  196-3,98                                                   Beaches, 65, 66
                                  FCMA. 39,44                                                   HRS  196-4,98                                                    'Shoreline. 67
                                  Federal Power Act, 100                                         HRS  201-13, 10                                             Territorial sea
                                  Fish and wildlife Act, 62                                      HRS   205. 62, 87. 99                                            Minerals. 110
                                  Fishing Vessel Safety Act, 44                                  HRS   205A.18, 52, 62, 63. 65, 87,    88, 99, 1ll             TORCH - See Agency
                                  Hawaii National Parks Act. 18, 53                              HRS   205A-01, 63                                            Training
                                  Historic Preservation Act, 51                                   HRS   205A-21, 52                                                Other agency rules. 23
                                  Jones Bill-H.R. 2440, 112                                      HRS   205A-26, 53                                                *Education. 14
                                  Land & Water Conservation Fund Act, 18                         HRS   205A-29. 53                                                'Enforcement regulations, 27
                                  Marine Mammals Protection Act, 9. 39, 55                       HRS 205A-30. 53                                                'Environmental engineers. 81
                                  MARPOL 73/78.76                                                HRS  205A-44, 1ll                                                *Fisheries, 47
                                  Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 9                                   HRS  205A-47, 31                                                *Lifeguard, 25
                                  MPRSA, 77, 87, 100, 110                                           HRS  206M, 101                                                 'Research, 14
                                  National Industrial Recovery Act, 41                           HRS  227, 101                                                   'Sewage engineers, 81
                                  Ocean Dumping Act. 77,                                          HRS  228-1. 50                                              Treaties
                                  Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, Ill                           HRS 261-1, 54                                                   Continental Shelf Convention, 100
                                  OCSLA, 100, 110, 111, 112,115                                  HRS   266. 17, 30. 33. 63, 88, 99                                Law of the Sea Convention, 100
                                  PURPA, 100                                                     HRS   266-1, 33                                              UH
                                  Resources Conservation & Recovery Act. 76                      HRS  266-2. 31                                                  Aquaculture. 88
                                  Rivers and Harbors Act, 51, 62, 77, 87, 100, 110               HRS  266-3.75                                                   Aquaculture Coordinator, 89
                                  Submerged Lands Act. 100                                       HRS  266-7, 31                                                  Blue Water Marine Laboratory Program, 8
                                  Upton-Jones Amendment to NFIP, 62                              HRS  267, 17, 30, 33, 54                                        College of Natural Sciences, 89
 





                                                      KEYWORD INDEX                                                   UH                                                                     State Cooperative Extension Service, 88                           Cumulative effects, 23
                                                        College Tropical Agriculture, 89                             US DOC                                                                Education, 11
                                                        Department of Ocean Engineering,         113                       Aquaculture, 88                                                   Energy, 102
                                                        Education, 7, 9                                                    EDA, 88                                                           Fisheries, 43
                                                        Energy, 100                                                    US DOE                                                                Harbors-Small boat users. 34
                                                        HIG, 113                                                           Energy, 96                                                        Minerals, 114
                                                        HIMB, 40,89                                                     US DOE - See Agency                                                   Mitigate harbor impacts, 32
                                                        HNEI, 7, 100                                                   US DOI                                                                Recreation, 21, 22
                                                        HURL, 113                                                          Aquaculture, 87,88                                                Research, I I
                                                        James K.K. Look I.& Ocean Engineering, 113                         Bureau of Mines, 113                                               Aquaculture, 91
                                                        Law of the Sea Institute, 7                                        Minerals, I 11                                                    'Avoid by planning, 26
                                                        Manganese Crust Task force, 110. 112                               MMS, 110, 112,113,114                                             'Education, 13
                                                        Marine Options Program, 89                                     US EPA                                                                Energy, 104
                                                        MMTC, 7,113                                                        Ecosystem, 51, 53, 54                                             'Fisheries, 46
                                                        MRTC, 87,89                                                        Harbors-Small boat, 33                                            'Harbors-Commercial, 32
                                                        Research, 7, 9                                                     Minerals, 110                                                     *Harbors-Small boat, 36
                                                        SG, 9, 40, 76, 80, 87, 88, 89, 113                                 Waste, 74, 75, 76, 77. 78, 79                                   *Research, 13
                                                        Snug Harbor, 10                                                US FEMA                                                           User fees
                                                        Waikiki Aquarium, 8,9,11,12,89                                     Beaches, 62                                                       Beaches,69
                                                        'Implementing actions-Education, 14                                'Beaches, 69                                                      *Boat facilities. 24
                                                        'Implementing actions-Fisheries, 45, 46                        US FWS                                                                'Harbors-Small boat, 36
                                                        *Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32                       Aquaculture, 88                                              Waikiki Aquarium - See UH
                                                        'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36                        Ecosystem, 53, 54, 55                                        Waste
                                                        .Implementing actions-Minerals, 115,116                            Education, 8, 9                                                   Funding-Coordination problems, 80
                                                        'Implementing actions-Research, 14                                 Fisheries, 39, 40                                                 Funding-Hazardous waste management, 79
                                                    US Center for Applied Aquaculture - See Agency                         Harbors-Small boat, 33                                            Funding-Legal authority questions, 80
                                                    US CG                                                                  Research, 8, 9                                                    Funding-NPS, 79
                                                        Ecosystem, 55                                                      'Protected areas, 58                                              Funding-Plastic pollution, 80
                                                        Education,8                                                     US Naval Ocean Systems Center - See Agency                            Funding-Public information, involvement, 81
                                                        Fisheries, 39, 40, 44                                          US Navy - See Agency                                                  Funding-Spill response capabilities, 80
                                                        Harbors-Commercial, 30, 31                                     US NMFS                                                              Funding-Water quality monitoring, So
                                                        Harbors-Small boat, 33, 34                                         Aquaculture, 88                                                   Importance, 73
                                                        Recreation, 17                                                     Ecosystem, 55, 56                                                   Management-Dredge materials, 77
                                                        Research, 8                                                        Education, 8, 9                                                   Management-Hazardous waste incineration, 78
                                                        Waste, 75,76, go                                                   Endangered species, 17                                            Management-Hazardous wastes,76
                                                        'Implementing actions-Fisheries, 47                                Fisheries, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44                                 Management-Household hazardous wastes, 79
                                                        'Implementing actions-Waste, 83                                    Harbors-Small boat, 33                                            Management-Maintenance of facilities, 79
                                                    US COE                                                               Minerals, 110                                                     Management-Municipal facilities, 79
                                                        Aquaculture, 87                                                    Mooring, 17                                                       Management-Municipal waste incineration, 78
                                                        Beaches, 62, 65, 67                                                Recreation, 17                                                    Management-NPS, 78
                                                        Ecosystem, 51, 53. 54                                              Research, 9, 10                                                   Management-Plastics, 76
                                                        Energy, 100                                                        'Implementing actions-Fisheries, 45                               Management-Primary wastewater treatment, 78
                                                        Harbors-Commercial, 31                                             'Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32                      Management-Radioactive wastes, 76
                                                        Harbors-Small boat, 33,34                                          'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36                      Management-Spills, 74
                                                        Minerals, 110                                                  US NOAA                                                               Management-Support for facility operators, 79
                                                        Mooring, 17,19                                                     Aquaculture, 88                                                   Management-Wastewater treatment, 74
                                                        Recreation, 17                                                     Ecosystem, 53                                                     Management-Water quality standards, 73
                                                        Waste, 77,80                                                      Minerals, 110                                                     Objective, 81
                                                        'Federal facility hazardous waste, 82                              Recreation, 18                                                    Develop pollution controls, 81
                                                        'Implementing actions-Harbors-Commercial, 32                        Research, 7                                                       Harbors-Small boat, 37
                                                        'Implementing actions-Harbors-Small boat, 36                   US NPS                                                                'Implementing actions-Counties, 81, 82, 83
                                                        *Implementing actions-Waste, 82                                    Ecosystem, 53                                                     *Implementing actions-DLNR, 82
                                                    US CTSA                                                                Recreation, 18                                                    'Implementing actions-DOH, 81  82, 83
                                                        See Agency                                                         *Protected areas, 58                                              'Implementing actions-DOT, 82
                                                    US DA                                                              US NSF - See Agency                                                  *Implementing actions-Federal agencies, 83
                                                        Agricultural Marketing Service, 88                             US Pacific Mapping Center - See Agency                                'Implementing actions-Industry, 82
                                                        Aquaqculture, 88                                                USER conflicts                                                          'Implementing actions-OSP, 81
                                                        Farmers Home Administration, 88                                    Access, 20                                                        'Implementing actions-US CG, 83
                                                        Federal crop insurance, 88                                         Aquaculture, 90                                                   *Implementing actions-US COE, 82
                                                        National Agricultural Library Service, 88                             Commercial use of parks, 22                                     'Inventory spill risk areas, 104
 





                          KEYWORD INDEX

                         Wage (cont.)
                             'NPs pollution control, 58
                             *Policy recommendations, 81, 82, 83
                             'Spill response plans, 82
                         Wastewater Advisory Committees - See Agency
                         Water
                             Classification, 51, 74
                             DOE safety policies, 13
                             Quality, 9,18, 51, 57, 63, 65, 73, 74, 80, 81, 87
                             Safety education, 13, 21
                             Safety liability concerns, 20, 21
                             *Assess aquaculture effluent impact, 91
                             -Assess aquaculture water impacts, 91
                             'Coordinate quality programs, 58
                             *Develop education safety program, 14
                             *Develop safety workshop, 14
                             'Quality, 81
                             'Safety policy, 14
                             'Safety program coordinated, 25
                         WESTPAC
                             Fisheries, 39, 40,42, 44
                             Minerals, 110
                             Fisheries enhance role, 45
                             *Implementing actions-Fisheries, 45
                         Wetlands                            
                             Beaches,62
                             Develop workshop, 58
                         Workshop
                             Beaches planning, 69
                             'Carrying capacity method, 26
                             *Ecosystem management, 58
                             *Minerals, III
                             *Open space, 58
                             Protected areas, 57
                             ,Sewage treatment, 81
                             small boat harbors, 36
                             'Water and marine life monitoring, 81
                             'Water safety, 14
                             'Wetlands, 58
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                                           PHOTO CREDITS


                                           Douglas Peebles



                                           D E S I G N


                                           Eric Woo Design




                                           This Report has been cataloged as follows:

                                           Hawaii Ocean and Marine Resources Council.
                                               Hawaii Ocean Resources Management Plan.
                                           Technical Supplement. Honolulu: Dept. of
                                           Business, Economic Development and Tourism,
                                           State of Hawaii, 1991.


                                               1. Marine resources - Hawaii
                                               2. Marine resources and state-Hawaii
                                                GC1021.H3.H61.1991
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                                                              NO" COASTAL SERVICES CTR LIBRARY



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