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                40                 Keys
                                   to
                                   Oceanic
                                   Development

                                   Volume 2

                                   Panel Reports
                                   of the Commission
                                   on Marine Science,
                                   Engineering and Resources

                                                                 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
                                                                         Washington, D.C. 20402 - Sold in sets of 3 volumes only

                      Contents

                                                                       Volume 1 Scienceand Environment

                                                                       Foreword
                                                                       Members of the Commission
                                                                       Panels of the Commission
                                                                       Staff
                                                                       Introduction
                                                                       Part I      Report of the Panel on Basic Science
                                                                       Part 11     Report of the Panel on Environmental
                                                                                      Monitoring
                                                                       Part III    Report of the Panel on Management
                                                                                      and Development of the Coastal
                                                                                      Zone
                                                                       Part  IV    Report of the Panel on Education,
                                                                                      Manpower, and Training

                                                                       Volume 2    Industry and Technology: Keys to.
                                                                                   Oceanic Development

                                                                       Part V      Report of the Panel on Industry and
                                                                                      Private Investment
                                                                       Part VI     Report of the Panel on Marine Engineer,
                                                                                      ing and Technology

                                                                       Volume 3    Marine Resources and Legal-Political
                                                                                   Arrangements for Their Development

                                                                       Part VII    Report of the Panel on Marine Re-
                                                                                      sources
                                                                       Part VIII   Report of the International Panel
                                                                       Index

                          Part V

                          Report of the Panel
                          on Industry
                          and Private Investment

                                    Contents

                                    'Preface                                                     V-1             B; Programs in Multipurpose'
                                                                                                                         Technology          . . . . . . .           V-10
                                    Major Recommendations,                                       V-1                 Nature and Extent of Goverment
                                                                                                                         Sponsorship         . . . . . . .           V-1 I
                                                                                                                 D. Technology Transfer                              V-1 I
                                    1.      Need for Advisory Committee                          V-2'
                                    11,     Need for Consolidation of                                    Il.-    Supporting Services         . . . . . . .           V-13
                                                Federal Functions                                V-2     III..   Jurisdiction and Leasing Policies . . . V-14
                                    III:    Multipurposi Technology                              V-3             A. Definition of State Boundaries
                                    IV.     Availability of Capital                              V-3                     and Baselines                               V-14
                                    V.      Seasteading-4 Means To Attract                                       B. Definition of National Jurisdiction              V-15
                                                               ' " ' -       me 'lit,                            C. Exploration and Lease Terms .                    V-15
                                                              Urial Invest                          -3
                                                Entreprene
                                                                                                                 D. Seasteading . . . . . . . . .                    V-16
                                                                                                         IV.'
                                                                                                                 Joint Ventures.                                     V-1 7
                                    Chapter I     Introduction                                   V_4             Insurance      . . . . . . .               . . .    V-1 7
                                                                                                                 A. Offshore Installations          . . . . .        V-17
                                    1.      Panel Objectives                                     V-4             B. Personal Injury to Workers
                                    11.     Potential fbr Industrial Oro*6                       V-4
                                                                                                                         Offshore13                . . . . .         V-171
                                    Ill.    National Interest in the Ocean.                      V-5
                                                                                                         VI.     Collaboration in Development
                                    IV.     Govdrrinient and Industry Roleg                      V-5
                                                                                                                    Planning    . . . . . . . . . .                  V-18
                                                                                                                      onsolidation of Federal Functions. V-1 8
                                                                                                                 A. C
                                    Chapter 21 Present Status                                    V-7             B. Goverment-Industry Planning
                                                                                                                         Mechanism'.                                 V49
                                    I.      Profile of Present industrial Activities             V-7
                                    IL      Value of OceatActivity         '                     V-8     'Chapter 4 '6cean Industries          . . . . . .           V-21
                                    111.    Industry Attitudes T6v@ard
                                             ''Ocean Investment's                                V-9             Introducti                                            -21
                                    IV.-'   Cap Iital Sources and R     -equirements             V-9 ,                        on                                     V
                                                                                                         H.      Petroleum                                           V-22,
                                                                                                                 Natural Gas            . . ... . . . .              V-27
                                    Chapter 3 @,-Policies To Acrelerite                                  IV.     Ocean Min'                                          V-29
                                                                                                                              ing
                                                  I ndustrial Dev4iopmeni of                             K'      Fishing    . . . . .. . .. . .                      V-34
                                                  Marine -Resources                             V-10     VI.     Aquaculture        . . . ... . . . .                V-42
                                                                                                         VIL     Sea Transportation                                  V-44
                                    -1.,"   Government Sponsored Rese ;arch'                             VVIII. Instruments                                          V-46
                                                and Development.                                V-10
                                            A.. Survey Programs                                V-1 0     Acknowledgments                . . . . . . . .              V-50

                          Preface

                             Early in its history, the Commission organized         which this report was being prepared. In addition,
                          seven panels. Each dealt with a major area of             the panel participated in formal hearings with
                          interest pertinent to the responsibilities assigned to    representatives from Federal and State government
                          the Commission by the*'Marine Resources and               agencies, industry, universities, and non-profit
                          Engineering Development Act of 1966, P.L.                 institutions. Finally, the help of Charles C. Convers
                          89-454. Thus, a means was provided to focus on            and J. Stan Stephan was enlisted for particular
                          the basic problems and to recommend solutions in          portions of the text.
                          critical areas. This report is the work of the Panel         The report has been carefully reviewed by
                          on Industry and Private Investment.                       consultants and various experts throughout gov-
                             The panel gathered information from many               ernment and industry, to whom the panel is
                          people,' including approximately 150 personal             indebted.
                          interviews with key figures. Aseries of conferences          Kenneth Drummond, of Texas instruments,
                          was sponsored by the Ocean Science and Tech-              served as Panel Executive Secretary. Of major
                          nology   Advisory Conunittee (OSTAC) of the               assistance to the panel in writing the report were
                          National Security Industrial Association (NSIA) to        the following staff members: Timothy J. Coleman,
                          assist the panel. The panel utilized detailed state-      Union Carbide Corp.; James W. Drewry, University
                          ments and reports provided by: OSTAC; the                 -of Virginia; Amor L. Lane, American Machine &
                          National Chamber of Commerce; the Oceano-                 Foundry Co.; and R. Lawrence Snideman 11, The
                          graphic Comniittee of the National Association of         Oceanic Foundation. The panel greatly appreciates
                          Manufacturers; the National Academy of Engi-              the contributions of these individuals and the time
                          neering, Committee on Ocean Engineering; the              made available by their organizations.
                          National Oceanography Association; and various
                          organizations under contract to the Commission                                Respectfully subn-dtted,
                          and the National Council on Marine Resource`s@and                             Richard A. Geyer, Chairman
                          Engineering Development. Much information was,                                Charles F. Baird
                          derived from symposia sponsored by various tech-'                             Taylor A. Pryor
                          nical societies and universities during the period in                         George H. Sullivan

                             Individuals making primary contributions are listed
                          in Appendix A.

                                                                                                                                          V-1

                                  Major Recommendations

                                     This chapter includes summaries of highlight             Recommendation:
                                  recommendations which are applicable to the                 An advisory committee composed of representa-
                                  broad sector of ocean industries.                           tives appointed by the President from private
                                                                                              industry, States and regions, and the academic
                                  1. NEED FOR ADVISORY COMMITTEE                              community should be statutorily created. This
                                                                                              committee would participate in the establishment
                                     The Government and industry long have                    of National marine goals and objectives and
                                  worked together at all levels in marine-oriented            provide continuing guidance to the Federal Gov-
                                  activities. To aid in the design and implementation         ernment.
                                  of a meaningful National program future Govern-
                                  ment planning should continue to encourage and
                                  anticipate information and advice from industry-            11. NEED FOR CONSOLIDATION OF FED-
                                  The Government also should solicit information                 ERAL FUNCTIONS
                                  and guidance from the States and the academic                 Many Federal agencies have responsibilities in
                                  community. This need will increase as ocean re-             the ocean, but to date no strong focus and in some
                                  source development accelerates with an accom-               instances no clear delineation of responsibility
                                  panying increase in multiple use conflicts.                 exist.
                                     The present need for closer cooperation has                Federal programs and functions should be
                                  intensified for several reasons:                            consolidated to:

                                  -Development of ocean resources is acceler        Iating.   -Enable improved planning and direction of
                                  -This rapid development, accompanied by in-                 marine programs.
                                  creased awareness of the ocean's vast potential and         -Provide more efficient and meaningful services
                                  concern with pollution and conservation, requires           through better utilization of Government man-
                                  the most efficient mobilization of the Nation's             power, funds, and facilities.
                                  capability. Much of this capability already exists
                                  both without and within the Government, includ-             -Permit more efficient conduct of non-military
                                  ing extensive facilities, trained manpower, and             research and development required for expanded
                                  experience in the development and use of marine             marine activities.
                                  resources.
                                                                                              -Provide a means for handling special problems
                                  -The accelerated development of marine resources            related to small, ocean-oriented businesses of
                                  has revealed that it is imperative to achieve               critical importance.
                                  understanding between multiple users in order to
                                  define the present and anticipated scope of con-            -Provide a focus for information and technology
                                  flicts and to recommend suitable mechanisms f         .or   exchange.
                                  resolving them.                                             -Aid in training and education of required man-
                                     The Commission was charged by Congress to                power.
                                  recommend an adequate National marine science
                                  program and a Governmental organizational plan
                                  to carry it out. In determining the nature of this          Recommendation:
                                  organization, the panel finds that provision should         Many marine functions of existing agencies and
                                  be made to allow meaningful participation of                bureaus should, wherever possible, be consolidated
                                  industry, the States, and the acadernic community           to improve the effectiveness of the Goverrunent's
                                  in planning, execution, and review of this program.         participation in a National marine program.

                                  V-2

                        Ill. MULTIPURPOSE TECHNOLOGY                              indirect incentives directed toward establishment
                         I Technology in itself is not a severe limitation to   - of a favorable business climate should be em-
                        industry's physical ability to perform an operation       ployed where pertinent.
                        in the ocean. Cost, however, may often be
                        prohibitive. Consequently, future technological           Recommendation:
                        innovations that reduce costs will accelerate the         Government policy should be to develop and
                        utilization of the oceans. Therefore, early develop-      maintain a business climate encouraging ocean-
                        ment of lower cost technology is required. In             related investments. Special indirect incentives,
                        addition, other innovations may create opportu-           rather than direct financial aid, are advised when a
                        nities to develop entirely new industries.                well defined National interest exists and the
                           Technology and services that benefit a broad           private sector's response is inadequate.
                        sector of present and potential users and which are
                        beyond the capability of a given industry tradi-          v. SEASTEADING-A MEANS 'TO ATTRACT
                        tionally have been sponsored by the Government.              ENTREPRENEURIAL INVESTMENT
                        When such programs are necessary they should be
                        oriented to scientific and basic engineering prob-          The ocean environment has received much
                        lems. To insure an industrial base capable of             promotional attention and many ideas have been
                        supporting accelerating National ocean exploita-          conceived for ocean development. At present,
                        tion, it is imperative that development projects,         however, numerous jurisdictional bodies have no
                        where practical, be performed by industry under           procedures at all to convey rights to submerged
                        appropriate contractual arrangements.                     land. Where procedures exist, they are often in the
                                                                                  form of complicated and expensive leases which
                        Recommendation:                                           constitute a particular burden to individuals and
                        The Federal Government should initiate in the             small companies. Thus, to stimulate the imagina-
                        near future a program to assure development of            tive development of selected underwater areas, the
                        basic multipurpose technology that will enhance           States should adopt a system of simple, attractive
                        the capability of a broad spectrum of users to            leasing, which one might refer to as "seasteading."
                        perform useful work on and in the oceans.                 The term of the "seastead" should be sufficiently
                                                                                  long to justify large investments that may be
                        IV. AVAILABILITY OF CAPITAL                               necessary. Among the possible applications of
                           some ocean industries are so new in areas of ad-       seasteading would be aquaculture and such recrea-
                        vanced technology that their potential is not fully       tional uses as underwater parks and hotels, but not
                                                                                  development of petroleum and other minerals.
                        understood by investors. Nevertheless, many con-
                        cepts of profitably using the ocean are sound, and        Recommendation:
                        the investment community has been intrigued
                        greatly by overall ocean endeavors. It is the feeling     To encourage innovative uses of the ocean
                        in this community that raising funds for projects         other than petroleum and hard mineral develop-
                        with reasonable profit potential will not be a            ment, State governments should initiate ex-
                        problem, and therefore direct Government pecu-            perimental programs for leasing submarine areas
                        niary aid will be rarely necessary.                       ("seasteading') within U.S. territorial waters, con-
                           In view of the National interest in the oceans,        tingent on useful employment of the property.
                        and lack in most cases of a need for direct               Such programs should be a part of a plan for the
                        Government financial aid, the panel feels that            orderly, rational development of offshore regions.

                                                                                                                                    V-3

                                     Chapter I Introduction

                                     1. PANEL OBJECTIVES                                         in terms of regulatory policies, incentives, and
                                                                                                 services to industry?
                                       Two objectives of the Marine Resources and
                                     Engineering Development Act are to accelerate               -What impact would a strengthened Government
                                     development of marine environment resources and             program in marine science and engineering have
                                     to* encourage private investment enterprise in ex-          upon private and industrial activity in the oceans
                                     ploration, technological development, marine com-           and upon the economy as a whole?
                                     merce, and economic utilization of such resources.
                                       These statutory objectives have established the           -7What will be the private sector's requirements
                                     framework for the work of the Panel on Industry             for capital in order to realize the potential for
                                     and Private Investment. Thus the panel has pro-             ocean development?
                                     ceeded from the premise that an increase in                 -How can industry collaborate effectively with
                                     commercial marine activity is in the National               government and the acadernic community in the
                                     interest and should be supported by both the                planning and execution of a truly National marine
                                     public and private sector. The panel's principal                      ?
                                     mission has been to determine what specific                 program.
                                     actions are both necessary and appropriate and                  These questions identify major problems to
                                     what mutual roles are to be played by the public            which the panel's efforts have been directed. From
                                     and private sectors.                                        several alternative means to stimulate investment
                                       The panel particularly wishes to emphasize the            in marine industry, the panel has selected the most
                                     key importance of industry's participation in               promising, attempting to weigh their benefits
                                     advancing the Nation's use of the seas. it is               against possible detrimental effects.
                                     industry which under its own initiative has devel-              This report should be read in conjunction with
                                     oped much of the technology now used in ocean               the Commission report and the other panel re-
                                     operations. The know-how of industrial personnel            ports. For instance, the Panel on Marine Resources
                                     will be crucial to technological extension. Certain         has reviewed in detail the potential of marine
                                     sectors of private industry also command capital            resources; the Marine Engineering and Technology
                                     resources substantially exceeding those govern-             Panel has proposed a fundamental technology
                                     ment is likely to be able to assign to civil ocean          development program intended to advance the
                                     projects.                                                   Nation's capability to utilize such resources.
                                       The larger companies, at least, are capable of
                                     assigning resources to a steady and programmed
                                     effort that can be sustained over the years with            [I. POTENTIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
                                     greater confidence than a project subject to the
                                     uncertainties of annual Congressional appropria-                The potential for greatly expanded industrial
                                     tions. Industry can often sponsor programs in the           activity in the oceans clearly is present. Within the
                                     ocean without fear of political criticism. Moreover,        next 20 years, the world population is expected to
                                     private companies can operate in foreign areas and          increase by some 50 per cent.' About three-to-
                                                                                                 four times more gas and oil will be required
                                     reach agreements with foreign governments (such                       2
                                     as those of the oil industry in the Near East or       of   annually.    It has been estimated that offshore
                                                                                                 sources will provide in a decade about one-third of
                                     niining companies off South Africa, England, and                                      3
                                     Malaysia) that would be more difficult to achieve           the world's petroleum. It also has been estimated
                                     at a government-to-government level.
                                       The panel's work has been directed to the                     lUnited Nations, "World Population Prospects," Pop-
                                     following major subjects:                                   ulation Studies No. 41, 1966, Table A3.2.
                                                                                                     2Weeks, L. G., "The Gas, Oil, and Sulfur Potentials of
                                     -What are the implications of the statutory intent          the Sea," Ocean Industry, June 1968, p. 43.
                                     that marine resource development be accelerated                 3Ibid., p. 48.

                                     V4

                           that world-wide fish catches can be quadrupled           4  of proven reserves to meet future needs and a
                           and many feel there is a great potential in                 diversity of sources to establish a potential for
                           aquaculture for raising marine species of high              competition.
                           economic value. Ocean mining activities could                   ue to the forecasted demand for natural re-
                           expand rapidly as technology for economic re-               -D
                           covery and processing develops, and an interesting,         sources, it is becoming increasingly important for
                           although still very ill-defined, potential exists for       industry to make the best possible projections and
                           deriving new drugs from marine life.                        concomitant decisions concerning the most
                               More immediate opportunities are present                economical sources of supply.
                           among the non-consumptive uses of the sea and               -Domestic production of minerals offshore yields
                           coastal zone-in recreation, transportation, waste           some foreign exchange savings when contrasted to
                           disposal, and scientific inquiry. The demand for            an import alternative. The resultant relatively
                           the major aquatic activities of outdoor recreation          modest saving at this point may be offset by
                           in this country will have tripled by the year               repercussions in markets for U.S. exports, but
                           2000.5 The annual tonnage of international trade            until the Nation's overall payments problem has
                                                                6
                           is expected to double in 20 years.                          eased, the balance-of-payments aspects cannot be
                               Profit-motivated private enterprise traditionally       ignored.
                           has provided one of the most potent avenues for
                           growth. Providing a political and economic climate          -Encouragement of appropriate ocean industries
                           that will allow U.S. ocean industry to meet these           by the Government will contribute to the Na-
                           needs is a challenge to the Nation.                         tional economy in the form of capital investment,
                                                                                       increased employment, and productivity.
                           Ill. NATIONAL INTEREST'IN THE OCEAN
                                                                                       -many benefits accrue to National security from
                               Several reasons for Government encouragement            industrial competence in the oceans. These include
                           of industrial activities in the ocean are fisted            industrial marine technology, equipment, man-
                           below:7                                                     power skilled in ocean operations, an ability to
                                                                                       obtain critical natural resources needed during a
                           -Expanding population       and a rising standard of        prolonged National emergency, and the capability
                           living will consume natural resources at an acceler-        to build and maintain an adequate merchant fleet.
                           ating rate. Government and industry must have
                           comprehensive knowledge of both renewable and               IV. GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY ROLES
                           non-renewable resource inventories, both in the                The profit motive is and should continue to be
                           ocean and on land, to manage these resources                a dominant factor guiding this Nation's marine
                           effectively and help, determine international trade         industries. With profit a primary objective, indus-
                           policy.                                                     try will have to develop the basic data, skills, and
                           -Maintenance of reasonably stable prices and                industrial organization necessary to utilize the sea.
                           marketing arrangements requires an adequate level              The purpose of the programs recommended by
                                                                                       this panel is to advance the capabilities of private
                                                                                       business to develop ocean resources to a degree
                               4Bullis, H. R., Jr. and Dr. J. R. Thompson, "Harvest-   allowing comparison with onshore techniques,
                           ing the Ocean in the Decade Ahead," Ocean Indus@,           products, and services. With this capability, more
                           June 1968, p. 60.
                               5 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.                         rational investment choices can be made between
                               6National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer-     land and ocean resources. To that end government
                           ing Development, "Marine Science Affairs-A Year of          and industry must work closely together.
                           Plans and Progress," 6overnment Printing Office, Wash-
                           ington, D.C., February 1968, p. 73.
                               7Other factors justifying the National interest in the  A. Government Role
                           2cean are reviewed in some detail in two other reports:
                           Effective Use of the Sea," report of the Panel on              The rate of marine industrial development will
                           Oceanography, President's Science Advisory Committee,       be the result of many factors that influence
                           June 1966, pp. 1-3; Report of the Commission on Marine
                           Science, Engineering and Resources.                         profitability: demand, availability of technology,

                                                                                                                                             V-5

                                   capital, manpower, domestic and international               marine resources as well as ensuring proper conser-
                                   competition, and availability of alternative sources        vation practices.
                                   of food and minerals ashore. Government policy is           -Aid in the advance of science and basic technol-
                                   an additional and important factor in marine                ogy necessary to operate within the marine envi-
                                   development but cannot be truly effective unless
                                   supported by other determinants. Government                 ronment.
                                   policy cannot create, for instance, a thriving ocean        -Negotiate acceptable international arrangements
                                   mining or fisheries industry in the absence of an           to conduct marine industrial activity.
                                   economically sound market situation.
                                      Public policy sets the tone for industrial prog-         -Assure that National security is given proper
                                   ress. The Government, through its establishment             consideration in ocean development policies.
                                   and interpretation of the political environment,
                                   determines the ultimate climate for industrial
                                   growth within its jurisdiction. This climate can be         B. Industry Role
                                   promotional or restrictive depending on the priori-
                                   ties established. Many phases of Government                     Based on the      profit motive, industry is the
                                   action can be used to promote ocean progress. At            instrument that gives economic value to ocean
                                   a minimum, Government has a responsibility to:8             resources. Discovery of new resource potentials
                                                                                               will be of no benefit without the capability to
                                   -Enunciate National policies and objectives con-            exploit them economically. Development of an
                                   cerning U.S. marine interests.                              efficient marine industry, on the other hand, not
                                   -Assist in planning for optimum use of limited              only can make the riches of the seas accessible to
                                   public resources and adjudication of conflicting            this Nation and to the world, but also can assist
                                   uses of the sea.                                            U.S. economic development and help strengthen
                                                                                               this Nation's position in international trade.
                                   -Adopt regulatory policies which will           not dis-        The traditional and proper role of industry is
                                   courage private investment.                                 to:
                                   -Provide special incentives to certain marine               -Generate the ideas, methods, and risk capital
                                   industries in their embryonic phase when in the             required for continued industrial progress.
                                   National interest.                                          -Discover, delineate, develop, and market marine
                                   -Undertake and improve the description and                  resources within the constraints of proper conser-
                                   prediction of the marine environment and assess             vation practices and equitable solutions promul-
                                   possibilities of modifying it for the ultimate              gated to solve multi-user problems.
                                   mutual benefit of all users of the sea and coastal          -Provide capital equipment and services funda-
                                   zones.                                                      mental to ocean operations.
                                   -Initiate, support and encourage education and              -Contribute to the support of scientific research
                                   training programs to provide competent manpower             and technological development.
                                   on all necessary levels for marine-related activities.
                                   -Provide for protecting life and property at sea.           -Participate in development of manpower for
                                                                                               ocean operations through in-house training pro-
                                   -Sponsor programs to obtain basic information               grams and aid to education and research within the
                                   for industry's delineation and development of               universities.

                                      8 The Government role defined here is substantially in
                                   agreement with the role stated by the President's Science
                                   Advisory Committee, Panel on Oceanography, in "Effec-
                                   tive Use of the Sea," p. VHl, June 1966.

                                   V-6

                               Chapter 2 Present Status and Outlook for Marine Industries

                               1. PROFILE OF PRESENT INDUSTRIAL AC-                                            Table 1
                                  TIVITIES                                                     PRESENT STATUS OF DOMESTIC
                                  The ocean industries are a heterogeneous group                       OCEAN INDUSTRIES
                               with a multitude of interests. In size, the activities            Type                     Examples
                               vary from a major petroleum company operating
                               many large offshore oil and gas fields to an             Existing Industries
                               independent fisherman earning less than $2,000              Mature, healthy,          Continental shelf oil
                               per year.                                                    and growing               and gas
                                  Chapter 4 reviews in greater detail the status                                     Chemical extraction
                               and peculiar problems of several industries engaged                                    from sea water
                               in ocean resource recovery or use of the sea.                                         Mining of sand, gravel,
                                  The -following table depicts the status of domes-                                   sulfur
                               tic ocean' industries in two broad categories-                                        Shrimp and tuna fishing
                               existing and future. It lists only those that use the                                 Surface marine recrea-
                               ocean directly, as contrasted with such support                                        tion
                               industries as diving or instrument manufacture.             Early stage of            Desalination
                               Table I also takes into account that some seg-               growth                   Bulk and container
                               ments of an industry fall into different categories.                                   transportation systems
                               Thus, mining offshore sand, gravel, and oyster shells                                  and associated termi-
                               represents a mature segment of an ocean industry.                                      nals
                               On the other hand, offshore, placer mining is a                                       Aquaculture, fresh
                               near-term, promising industry and sub-bottom                                           water and estuarine
                               mining (mining of deposits within the bedrock) is                                     Underwater recreation
                               not envisioned until much later.                            Mature, but static        Most segments of f ish-
                                  There are tremendous differences in present               or declining              ing
                               and anticipated rates of growth of ocean indus-                                       Merchant shipbuilding
                               tries. Although all categories of ocean enterprise                                    Merchant shipping
                               share common problems, distinct differences exist                                      (U.S.-f lag vessels)
                               in their operating requirements, investment, degree
                               of competition, and relationship with Govern-            Future Industries
                               ment. Moreover, the needs of some industries such           Near-term promis-         Mining of placer rnin-
                               as fishing, vary in nature and degree from segment           ing (where near-          erals
                               to segment.                                                  term is up to 15         Oil and gas beyond the
                                  Government action to foster development of                years)                    continental shelf
                               specific industries must be flexible enough to take         Long-range                Sub-bottom mining
                               this heterogeneity into account. Thus, certain                                         (excluding sulfur)
                               existing Federal policies and programs may need                                       Aquacult .ure, open
                               no more than minor adjustments for industries                                          ocean
                               that are mature and have a healthy growth rate;                                       Deep water mining
                               for example, little or no direct aid is needed to                                     Power generation from
                               boost oil and gas production on the Continental                                        waves, currents, tides,
                               Shelf. On the other hand, where a technology with                                      and thermal differ-
                               great potential has just begun to advance, such as                                     ences
                               desalination, the Government's assistance in re-
                               search and development and participation in pro- positive action of            a  fiscal, legal/regulatory, or
                               totype construction might be decisive in maintain- technological character might be needed, as in the
                               ing the industry's initial momentum. Occasionally, steadily deteriorating groundfish fishery in view of

                                                                                                                                           V-7

                             the National interest in rehabilitating domestic           ventures offering the likelihood of the greatest
                             fisheries. Finally, there are U.S. Continental Shelf       returns on investment, whether they be on shore
                             industries, such as hard mineral mining, that are          or at sea, at home or abroad. However, industry's
                             still in their infancy but whose economic potential        evaluation of the prospects of profit in the oceans
                             and importance to the Nation justifies removal of          is influenced substantially by regulatory restraints,
                             legal and regulatory obstacles :and creation of            legal uncertainties, and the possibility that the
                             special indirect incentives to attract initial exploia-    Government will sponsor a major ocean program.
                             tion.                                                      On the other hand, the element of excitement in
                                                                                        participating in a new industry may stimulate
                             11. VALUE OF OCEAN ACTIVITY                                investment interest beyond the prospect of im-
                                                                                        mediate return.
                                Many public and private studies have been                  Both the intensity of interest and related
                             made to assess the overall scale of ocean business,        hazards of investment in this field are evidenced
                             using a variety of techniques to describe the size -of     by the number of acquisitions and mergers occur-
                             the investment and the market. A survey of these          'ring now in ocean-oriented industries. Small com-
                             studies revealed that no estimate is satisfactory for      panies in the field with limited capital'and a
                             all purposes. Many are defective because of redun-         restricted product line or service frequently find it
                             dancies, oversights, and inaccuracies of component         advantageous to merge with larger firms. In some
                             figures; inconsistencies in methods of compilation;        instances they are forced to terminate operations,
                             and disagreement of essential definitions. Further,        a pattern typical of young industries.
                             results have sometimes been oriented to such                  The offshore petroleum service industry is an
                             conflicting objectives as showing the magnitude of         excellent example of the diversification trend. In
                             market 'opportunity, supporting advertising ex-            particular, the offshore drilling companies, origi-
                             penditure, or showing the need for greater private         nally characterized by wide-ranging cycles of
                             investment or further Government expenditures.             business activity, are now large, established firms.
                                While estimates have been, as high as $50               They have stabilized successfully their level of
                             billion, the panel believes that the true value of         business by diversifying into such areas as ocean
                             ocean activity in terms of contribution to Gross           engineering, exploration, diving, mining, construc-
                             National Product is between $15 and $25 billion.           tion, pipelaying, and even fish processing. As a
                             This includes recovery and processing of all natural       result, the Nation's largest drilling companies have
                             resources, the sea transportation industry, the            more than quadrupled their gross revenues during
                             marine recreation- industry, Govern     'ment expendi-     the last five years.
                             tures, and net export of marine goods and services.           Ocean industry, in general    ., is not looking for
                                The panel commends the National Council on              subsidization, which in this report is'defined as
                             Marine Resources and Engineering Development               direct financial aid. Instead, industry is seeking
                             for the progress in quantitatively describing many         various. indirect means to minimize risk. Such
                             areas of ocean activity. An urgent need exists,            means usually are peculiar to certain phases of
                             however, for more comprehensive statistics that            each industry, and include definition of jurisdic-
                             will further identify the areas of redundancy,             tional boundaries, environmental prediction, fiscal
                             improve comparability, and take into account the           incentives such as accelerated depreciation, ocean
                             statistics reflecting such factors as investment,          surveys, and such Government contracting policies
                             sales, and contribution to GNP. The Government,            as cost plus fixed fee.
                             working with industry, should develop a method                For example, the mining industry has identified
                             to compile the data necessary to the periodic              the need for reconnaissance surveys to guide
                             publication of the required statistics.                    further delineation of deposits; a petroleum oper-
                                                                                        ator would like longer-range scheduling of offshore
                             III. INDUSTRY ATTITUDES TOWARD OCEAN                       lease sales; and a fisherman would sometimes
                                  INVESTMENTS                                           desire the opportunity to use foreign-built vessels.
                                                                                        The fewer the uncertainties and the less restrictive
                                Because the United States has a freeenterprise          the regulation, the sooner capital and technology
                             system, capital and effort are directed toward             will be available for new ocean opportunities.

                              V-8

                            IV., CAPITAL SOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS                    help meet its special capital needs is provided in
                                                                                     the fishing section of the ocean industry chapter
                               Many ocean industries in areas of advanced,           of this report (Chapter 4).
                            technology are so new that they are not fully               During the past few years, several large aero-
                            understood. Investors are concerned with such            space firms (such as Lockheed, North American-
                            factors as obsolescence in a technology develop-         Rockwell, General Dynamics, and Grumman) and
                            ing at an accelerating rate. Nevertheless, many          other large companies, (such as Westinghouse,
                            concepts of profitably using the ocean are sound,        General Electric, Alcoa, Reynolds Metals, and
                            and the investment community has been intrigued          Union Carbide) have invested millions in ocean
                            greatly by ocean endeavors. This enthusiasm has          ventures. They have tended to emphasize the
                            been indicated by considerable publicity and             heavy hardware and systems approach required for
                            advertising in the popular press and business            special ocean work. Several of the Nation's largest
                            journals, the, creation of two ocean mutual funds        shipyards now are controlled by aerospace or
                            in the last year, and numerous symposia and              conglomerate firms intent upon instituting new
                            publications sponsored by brokerage houses.              and more efficient shipyard parctices.
                              In general, capital has not been lacking to               Risk capital in the hands of entrepreneurs
                            finance current industrial ocean projects, despite       finances a variety of ocean ventures. It is very
                            high econon-dc risks. Further, it is anticipated that    difficult to estimate the actual investment from
                            capital will remain availabl e for projects judged by    this source. However, the reservoir of venture
                            the investment community as having profit poten-         capital potentially available for raw investment
                            tial.                                                    opportunities, both land and ocean oriented, has
                                                                                                                    2
                              Capital for ocean projects is derived from many        been estimated at $3 billion. The availability of
                            sources. The petroleum industry has in general           so much risk capital is a very important character-
                            been able to generate and/or obtain funds readily        istic of the Nation's ability to enter new fields and
                            to meet its very substantial capital requirements        develop new technology. In summary, the panel
                            for bonus bids, new technology, exploration, and         finds that capital usually has been and is expected
                            drilling. A substantial portion is raised from the       to be available to finance industrial ocean projects
                            public based on an individual firm's credit, a factor    with profit potential.
                            constituting one of the great strengths in offshore        In view of the National interest in the ocean,
                            growth. To date, about $18 billion has been              and lack in most cases of a need for direct
                            invested world-wide by the offshore petroleum            Government financial aid, the panel feels that,
                            industry, about $13 billion by U.S. firms., it is        indirect incentives through establishment of a
                            expected that by 1980 the world-wide cumulative          favorable business climate are essential.
                            investment will reach $55 billion. A large portion
                            of this will have to be raised through borrowing or
                            public subscription.
                              Capital for expansion and modernization of the         Recommendation:
                            U.S. fishing fleet has been far less plentiful due in    Government policy should be to develop and
                            large part to high economic risks and legal re-          maintain a business climate encouraging ocean-
                            straints. In addition, many fishing vessels are          related investments. Special indirect incentives,
                            owned by small entrepreneurs having only limited         rather than direct financial aid, are advised when a
                            access to capital markets. A detailed analysis of        well defined hational interest exists and the private
                            this industry's situation and recommendations to         sector's response is inadequate.

                              iRichard J. Howe, "Petroleum Operations in the           2Panel on Inventi on and Innovation, "Technological
                            Sea-1980 and Beyond," Ocean Indust7y; August 1968, p.    Innovation: Its Environment and Management," U.S.
                            30.                                                      Department of Commerce, 1967, p. 42.

                                                                                                                                       V-9

                                Chapter 3 Policies To Accelerate Industrial Development of Marine Resources

                                1. GOVERNMENT SPONSOR, ED RESEARCH                          This information will provide the foundation
                                   AND DEVELOPMENT                                       for more detailed exploratory work by industry.
                                   Optimum utilization of ocean resources will           Detailed exploration will be expensive, and a firm
                                require a very substantial increase in knowledge of      engaging in the work will require extensive initial
                                ocean characteristics and development of new             survey data to reduce costs and risks. Further,
                                technology. The propriety of Government assist-          reconnaissance surveys are expected to uncover a
                                ance to scientific and technical advancement com-        host of new industrial opportunities. I
                                mensurate with the National interest and industrial      , Precedent for this work has been set by onshore
                                needs is well established and widely accepted.           mapping. Survey programs must not become en          'ds
                                Furthermore, this means of accelerating industry's       in themselves but should support many objectives,
                                marine effort is cost-effective, impartial, and can      including those of industry.
                                be terminated as objectives are attained.                B. Programs in Multipurpose Technology
                                A. Survey Programs                                          Technological innovations that reduce an ocean
                                   Far more information and greater research             operation's cost will improve profit outlooks and
                                efforts'are necessary if potential ocean uses are to     accelerate marine resource development. Conse-
                                stimulate the effort they merit. For example,            quently, a basic technology program oriented
                                programs are needed to generate survey data on           toward reducing costs relevant to a wide variety of
                                living resources, reconnaissance-scale geological        user interests will compress      .the timetable for
                                features, and environmental characteristics. At the      utilization of the seas' resources.
                                same time research activities must be undertaken            The Panel on Marine Engineering and Technol-
                                to advance the ability to interpret these data;          ogy states that a 10-year program of intensive
                                without this ability the survey programs could not       undersea development is in the National interest
                                be effective.                                            and recommends that it begin immediately, em-
                                   Experience has demonstrated that such research        phasizing fundamental, multipurpose technology.
                                and survey activity can stimulate development of            Government sponsorship of such a program is
                                technical capabilities, make existing operations         appropriate if the effort concentrates on such
                                more efficient, and accelerate innovation.               basic and widely applicable areas as development
                                   The panel has found that industry today will          of data on materials performance, concepts for
                                readily use additional bathymetric and geophysical       simple tools, and hyperbaric physiology. In most
                                surveys and geological analysis of the Continental       instances, large-scale projects that benefit only a
                                Shelf, slope, and rise. This is of particular impor-     specific industry more properly should be carried
                                tance to the mining industry, but also would be          out by that industry. The process of selecting
                                helpful to the petroleum industry, particularly in       specific projects must take into account needs of
                                deeper waters and in remote areas where even             the Government, scientific community, and indus-
                                general geological characteristics remain unknown.       try, and must avoid       .competition with private
                                These surveys should be reconnaissance in nature;        industry.
                                detailed exploratory surveys should be conducted
                                by industry.                                             Reconnnendation:
                                Recommendation:                                          The Federal Government should initiate in the
                                Bathymetric base maps overlaid with geophysical          near future a program to assure development of
                                and geological information should be prepared to a       basic multipurpose technology that will enhance
                                scale of 1:250,000 for the continental shelves,          the capability of a broad spectrum of users to
                                slopes, and rises of the United States within 15 to      Perform useful work on.and in the oceans.
                                20 years. Selection of areas to be surveyed should
                                be based on priorities that take into account user          I Additional discussion of survey needs is found in the
                                needs.                                                   Report of the Marine Resources Panel.

                                V-10

                      C. Nature and Extent of Government Sponsorship                 One function of Governmen-t in pro      .moting new
                           Selected objectives wherever possible should be        technology should be to enhance the ability of
                      undertaken by the private sector under contract.            firms to react to new technology at an early stage.
                      This will permit private industry as well as the            Aside from reducing public costs thereby, this
                      Government to be familiar with the objectives           ,   ability increases the variety of efforts and ensures
                      characteristics, problems, and opportunities that           that economic considerations are introduced early
                      become apparent during planning and implementa-             in the appraisal and development of new tech-
                      tion. Under these circumstances, we can expect              nology.
                      that industry will aggressively seek commercial                Since circumstances will differ project by pro-
                      application of new technology.                              ject, the Government's arrangements for industry
                           Experience over the last 20 years clearly dem-         participation should continue to be highly flexible,
                      onstrates the very great advantages that follow             consistent with the premise that Government
                      from the participation of numerous organizations            should seek maximum utilization of private capa-
                      in the pursuit of technological objectives. The use         bilities. In some circumstances, joint participation
                                                                                        development project, including sharing of
                      of contractors in research and development pro-             in a
                      jects demonstrates its advantages both for the              costs, would be appropriate. When industry has
                      Government and private organizations. For ex-               acquired the capabilities to pursue an objective, the
                      ample, the success of civil aviation followed in            Government should withdraw.
                      very large measure from Government's reliance on               Withdrawal of Government support and control
                      private firms to develop military aircraft. The             at the earliest time that private firms can assume
                      private firms were able to draw upon this experi-           responsibility will greatly increase the probability
                      ence to design civilian aircraft. A similar process is      that innovations will be carried into the market
                      applying nuclear energy to civilian use,                    place. Industrial groups are usually eager to assume
                           Another example of sponsored research and              complete sponsorship of technical projects as soon
                      development is the extensive investigation by the           as the probability of success outweighs remaining
                      Office of Saline Water of methods to recover fresh          risk and a reasonable return on investment can be
                      water from the sea. The program is conducted                expected.
                      largely through contracts with industry, causing            Recommendation:
                      wide diffusion of knowledge and experience and              When Government research and development pro-
                      stimulating private efforts.                                 am are required in the National interest, they
                           Business firms in oceanographic industries, as in      gr   s
                      others, differ enorinously in their relationship to         should be planned and administered to permit
                      new technology. There are a few firms whose                 private industry to assume responsibility for      ' fur-
                      business is primarily that to perform research and          ther technology development at the earliest possi-
                      development and hence to generate new technol-              ble stage.
                      ogy. A larger but still small group Of firms                D. Technology Transfer
                      undertakes to develop new technology only in                   A recent Congressional report defined technol-
                      order to support their principal activities. These          ogy tran Isfer as follows:3
                      two groups constitute the Nation's R&D industry.
                      Most firms are receptive to new technology emerg-           Technology transfer is     the process of matching
                      ing from outside of their own organizations                 solutions in the form       of existing science and
                      though the receptivity differs widely. Many firms           engineering knowledge to problems in commerce
                      lack the competence, capital, or interest to react          or public programs_ . . The Federal Government
                      to new technology except in immediately usable              "controls" (sponsors, directs, is responsible for) a
                      form and are dependent upon others for whatever             large reservoir of technology rangingfirom research
                      cha  'nges occur. The conceptual problems and the           results, to practical techniques and devices, to
                                                                              2
                      absence of data make exact analysis impossible.             patents.
                           2A more complete discussion of this subject is found      3A report of the Subcommittee on Science and
                      in "Basic Research, Applied Research, and Development       Technology to the Select Committee on Small Business,
                      in Industry, 1965," The National Science Foundation,        U.S. Senate, "Policy Planning for Technology Transfer,"
                      1967.                                                       April 6, 1967, p. 1.

                           333-091 0-69-2

                                           Accurate information available on a timely               transfer the new knowledge to potential users.
                                       basis is essential to all users whether industry,            Person-to-person contact is an extremely effective
                                       Government, or university oriented. Despite                  method of transfer, although slow and expensive.
                                       marked progress by all concerned in the past few                Considerable know-how gained in technology
                                       years, problems of adequate dissen-dnation have              development lies in a grey area between scientific
                                       grown faster than generally recognized.                      information and patentable inventions.5 If this
                                           Another report summarizing a detailed study of           exists in industry because of Government con-
                                       technology transfer conducted for the National               tracts, transference already has been accomplished
                                       Commission on Technology, Automation and                     to at least one user, and the marketplace will
                                       Economic Progress stated:4                                   provide further transfer more effectively than if
                                                                                                    the information were held within the Government.
                                       Devising means of channeling new technologies in                As an example, the Atomic Energy Commission
                                       promising directions-and bringing about the utili-           provided financialassistance to develop new tech-
                                       zation of new technology for significant purposes            nology directly related to civilian use of nuclear
                                       other than the immediate use for which it was                energy. But knowledge of nuclear energy acquired
                                       developed-has become an activity ranking among               by private firms as contractual performers of
                                       the most intellectually challenging of our time....          Government projects made possible the rapid
                                       The transfer and utilization of new technology               transfer of this technology to civilian applications.
                                       offerimmense opportunity to the Nation. There is
                                       widespread agreement among those who have                    Recommendation:
                                       studied the issue that the knowledge resulting               Person-to-person contacts should be encouraged
                                       .from the public investment in R. & D. constitutes           between groups working in related technological
                                       a major, rapidly increasing, and in f ciently
                                                                                   su fl            fields. Such contacts could be achieved through
                                       exploited national resource. Its effective use can           contract programs, special information exchange
                                       increase the rate of economic growth, create new             programs, and reciprocal arrangements between
                                       employment opportunities, help offset imbalances             industry, government, and the academic commu-
                                       between regions and industries, aid the interna-             nity whereby their scientists and engineers would
                                       tional competitive position of US. indust7y, en-             k exchanged.
                                       hance our national prestige, improve the quality of
                                       life, and assist significantly in filling unmet human
                                       and community needs. It is recommended that                     Patents constitute another important form of
                                       more effective use of this technology resource               technology transfer. The panel notes that the
                                       become a national goal established at the highest            patent policies of all agencies of the Federal
                                       levels.                                                      Government have been under review, that the
                                                                                                    Presidential memorandum of Oct. 10, 1963, was
                                           The panel endorses the findings and recommen-            intended as a general Government policy state-
                                       dation quoted above.                                         ment, and a major review of such policy was to be
                                                                                                    published in late 1968    .6 The panel further recog-
                                       Recommendation:                                              nizes the subject's complexity and notes that
                                                                                                    many procedures of the various agencies constitute
                                       Budgets of marine-related Federal agencies should            serious inhibitions to the effective participation of
                                       be augmented in    :order to ensure proper documen-          private enterprise in advancing new technology.
                                       tation as well as satisfactory dissemination of data            An intense controversy exists over the policy of
                                       and technology.                                              some agencies of the Government regarding rights
                                                                                                    in patents evolving from work supported partially
                                           While it is important that new technology be
                                       documented and disseminated, publication of the                 5Senate Select Cbminittee on Small Business, April 6,
                                       information is not always sufficient to effectively          1967, op. cit., p. 1.
                                                                                                       6Harbridge House, Inc., "Government Patent Policy
                                           4                                                        Study, Final Report," Volumes I-III, Federal Council for
                                           Richard Lesher and George Howick, "Assessing             Science and Technology, Committee on Government
                                       Technology Transfer," National Aeronautics and Space         Patent Policy, Government Printing Office, Washington,
                                       Administration, 1966, p. 5.                                  D.C., 1968.

                                        V-12

                   or fully through Federal grants and contracts. The         major reason for this is that it is frequently found
                   magnitude of the problem is such that it cannot be         in reports associated with classified subjects. In
                   ignored. Federal R&D expenditures now exceed               addition, it has been stated in Congressional
                   $16 billion a year. For the past decade, the.              testimony that an important barrier in information
                   Government has provided by grant or contract               release arises from a diverse interpretation of
                                                                                                               7
                   more than one-half the R&D money spent in                  military security regulations. Classified reports
                   industry, thus tending to stimulate invention.             frequently contain important contributions to
                      However, the basic principle of some agencies           marine technology and should be reviewed periodi-
                   of the Government is that titles to patents on             cally to identify those portions that can be
                   innovations arising from use of public monies              released for public use. The panel recognizes that
                   should be assigned to the Government and the               the Department of Defense is making a concerted
                   information contained therein made available to            effort to make available results of military research
                   the public without payment of royalty where                and development.
                   consistent with National security. On the other              An important function to be performed within
                   hand, industry, university, and other private inter-       the Commission's Governmental organizational
                   ests contend that this policy tends to impair              plan is developing cooperative arrangements in-
                   technology transfer and reduce innovation, as it           volving DOD and the civil marine agencies to
                   deprives the inventor of initiative and discourages        assure that all Government data are made available
                   investment capital.                                        to the private sector at the earliest possible time
                      The paradox is that the Government at one and           consistent with National security. Special atten-
                   the same time stimulates invention through its vast        tion should be given to the criteria with which
                   R&D expenditures, yet it a     pparently impedes its       DOD assigns classification to ocean-related data as
                   spread into commerce through certain of its patent         well as to employment of the' "need to know"
                   policies. A new equitable patent policy is needed          requirement for certain classified and unclassified
                   urgently to renew the stimulation of inventiveness         material. The Atomic Energy Commission Advi-
                   while protecting the taxpayers' interests.                 sory Committee on Non-Nuclear Technology has
                      Withholding scientific and technical data from          performed an important service in this area. The
                   the public because of security classification, or          panel believes that this service should be extended
                   because of restrictions under the Mutual Security          to the oceanographic field.
                   and Export Control Acts, is another source of              Recommendation:
                   difficulty. The panel commends the work of the             The Department of Defense and civil marine
                   Senate Small Business Committee in calling atten-          agencies should be directed to review and modify
                   tion to the practical difficulties encountered by          their procedures to ensure that the private sector
                   industry in obtaining Government-generated scien-          has timely access to all classified and unclassified
                   tific and technical information. The overall prob-         Government data as soon as possible consistent
                   lem is serious, and applies to all Federal agencies,       with security considerations. Particular attention
                   although the Navy is of prime importance with              should be devoted to the information exchange
                   respect to marine. technology since the largest
                   percentage has been developed under Na        Ivy spon-    problems of small business.
                   sorship.                                                   An advisory committee should be charged with
                      The Oceanographer of the Navy has estimated             periodic review of the effectiveness with which all
                   that more than 90 per cent of the Navy-developed           Government marine agencies are able to identify
                   raw oceanographic scientific informat    ion is unclas-    and disseniinate information to potential users.
                   sified and therefore should be made available to
                   the public. Nevertheless, as indicated earlier, there      11. SUPPORTING SERVICES
                   are insufficient funds to dissendnate such informa-          The Federal Government provides many serv-
                   tion except for standard charts and publications           ices directly and indirectly affecting ocean indus-
                   intended for the maritime industry. A much.
                   greater percentage,of oceanographic technological            7Senate Select Committee on Small Business, April 6,
                   information is not available to the public. One            1967, op. cit., p. 27.

                                                                                                                                 V-13

                                          tries. Other than the resource management services          depth of the superjacent waters allows exploita-
                                          and scientific research provided by many Govern-            tion, the seabed and its resources are under the
                                          ment agencies, several additional areas are ex-             jurisdiction of the Federal Government. Although
                                          tremely important to industrial ocean operations.           submerged lands beyond 200 meters in depth have
                                          These include weather forecasting and charting              been leased to private industry by the Govern-
                                          operations of ESSA, geological survey work of the           ment, the United States has.not officially claimed
                                          Department of the Interior, maintenance of navi-            jurisdiction over natural resources in the seabed
                                          gable waterways by the Corps of Engineers, and              and subsoil beyond the 200 meter line. U.S.
                                          navigational aids and life and property protection          jurisdiction over fisheries extends out to 12 miles.
                                          services of the Coast Guard. The Navy also provides         A. Definition of State Boundaries and Baselines
                                          important services in salvage, environmental pre-              The boundaries dividing seabed areas of Fed-
                                          diction, and mapping and charting. The National             eral, State, and local jurisdiction; those dividing
                                          Oceanographic Data Center provides the function             privately-owned areas from the public domain; and
                                          of soliciting and disseminating those marine data           those dividing the area appertaining to the United
                                          capable of being machine processed.                         States and the ocean beds falling beyond U.S.
                                              Although the many Government services are               jurisdiction are beset with ambiguities. These
                                          not discussed in detail in this report, they are            uncertainties already are troublesome for business
                                          considered important. Indeed, the panel finds               operations and appear certain to grow more severe.
                                          Government support services assist a great variety             The problems are complex and varied. In many
                                          of ocean operations and often are critical to the           locations the definition of the shoreline itself is
                                          success of industry efforts.                                unclear due to the character of the terrain;
                                              Some specific recommendations affecting pres-           marshlands, floating islands, tidal effects, and'
                                          ent and future needs for these services are found in
                                          other sections of this report. Supportmig services          migrating sand bars all complicate boundary prob-
                                          are discussed in more detail in the report of the           lems. Many instances are recorded of private
                                          full Cominission. In general, it is essential that          property washed away or submerged by storms,
                                          support services provided by the Federal and State          where resulting doubts about title must be re-
                                          governments for a variety of ocean operations be            solved in court. In other cases, the uncertainty of
                                                                                              . .     shoreline location and the manner in which base-
                                          continued and increased wherever growing activ        'ity  lines should be drawn across bays and between
                                          warrants. The effectiveness of these services can be
                                                                                                      islands creates an ambiguity in locating the bound-
                                          increased by improved coordination and in some              ary between State and Federal jurisdiction.
                                          cases consolidation of effort and facilities.                  A second major source of uncertainty is the
                                          III. JURISDICTION AND LEASING POLICIES                      historical claim for States' rights beyond the
                                              Government and industry interests are inti-             three-mile limit. Jurisdiction of three leagues
                                          mately involved in the terms under which public             (more than nine miles) from shore has been
                                          lands are assigned for private use.                         recognized by the Federal Government for Texas
                                              Almost all ocean mineral resources are located          and the Gulf of Mexico shoreline of Florida. In the
                                          on public lands. The seabed and its resources fall          case of Florida, the lack of a definitive boundary
                                          within the sovereignty of the States along the              between the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts at the south-
                                          coast out a distanc@ of three miles except in two           ern end of Florida further complicates the issue.
                                          States.8 Most of these lands have been retained             Maine, citing a pre-Revolutionary War charter as
                                          under State ownership but in some instances                 justification, recently claimed jurisdiction as dis-
                                          development rights have been ceded to counties,             tant as 200 miles from its coast and has sold oil
                                          townships, and private individuals.                         and natural gas exploration rights within this zone,
                                              Beyond the zone of State jurisdiction and out           an action which the Federal Government is ex-
                                          to a depth of 200 meters or beyond to where the             pected to challenge.
                                                                                                         A myriad of local arrangements to develop
                                              8Off Texas and the Gulf Coast of Florida the distance   nearshore resources, particularly shellfish, has
                                          is three leagues (about nine miles). It should be noted that
                                          the boundary is not always precise due to a lack of         caused further confusion. Among the States there
                                          agreement as to the coastal base line.                      is a great variety of legal conventions regarding

                                          V-14

                        ownership of shoreline properties and rights within         nations, many problems arise, other than area
                        the tidal zone. There is confusion regarding the            access, that. affect U.S. companies. A company
                        seaward extensions of the boundaries between                mining, for instance, off the coast of South
                        States. A clear agreement between Federal and               America in an area of disputed jurisdiction will not
                        State governments as to responsibility for man-             only find that it must pay U.S. import. duties, but
                        aging and developing fisheries within the three-to-         that it may not be allowed an investment tax
                        twelve mile zone also    is lacking.                        credit or credit for taxes paid to the nation
                           The unsatisfactory status of the Nation's                claiming jurisdiction. International agreement on
                        marine boundaries and the Federal Government's              national jurisdictions will eliminate. uncertainty
                        responsibility to take the lead in its clarification        and permit U.S. companies operating in such areas
                        has long been recognized. The problem can be                to take advantage of many fiscal incentives nor-
                        deferred no longer. A waiting policy operates only          mally available to domestic companies.
                        to discourage private investment and to complicate              Companies considering offshore oil and mining
                        resolution of claims in areas where investments             ventures will be reluctant, and in some cases
                        have been staked.                                           restrained, from making sizeable investments un-
                           The panel endorses the recommendation for                less the Continental Shelf's limits are precisely
                        solving marine boundary problems proposed in the            defined and a new international legal-political
                        Panel Report on the Coastal Zone. It recommends             framework is agreed upon to govern exploration
                        formation of a National Commis       'sion to create new    and exploitation beyond these limits. Until this is
                        criteria for fixing shore boundaries, establish these       accomplished, the United States should encourage
                        limits for each coastal State, and negotiate with           continued exploration and exploitation beyond
                        Federal and State interests regarding the limits.           the 200 meter isobath.
                        The intent is to establish fixed boundaries for
                        domestic purposes only, breaking from traditional           Recommendation:
                        reliance upon the principles of common law.                 The U.S. Government should take the initiative in
                        Recommendation:                                             proposing a new international framework for
                                                                                    exploiting ocean mineral resources to:
                        A National commission should be established                 -Define clearly the     .limits of National jurisdic-
                        immediately to clarify the marine jurisdictional            tions.
                        lianits of the U.S. coastal States.
                                                                                    -Govern operations beyond these limits.
                        B. Definition of National Jurisdiction
                                                                                    C. Exploration and Lease Terms
                           .The legal problems presently hindering orderly
                        industrial ocean development arise primarily from               Oil, gas, and sulfur are the only mineral
                        State and Federal laws and regulations. However,            resources being recovered from the outer Conti-
                        this concern with laws affecting activities within          nental Shelf under Federal jurisdiction. Phos-
                        National boundaries also includes clarification of          phates, gravels, sand, shells, and certain placers are
                        the National boundaries and the international               being taken from inshore waters under State
                        aspects of exploiting resources beyond them. This           jurisdiction. Petroleum exploration and drilling
                        subject is discussed in greater detail in the Report        conducted in both Federal and State regimes
                        of the Commission's International Panel.                    clearly dominate these activities.
                           As an example of the difficulties encountered,               The terms under which mineral rights in outer
                        two companies have acquired from two different              Continental Shelf lands may be assigned to private
                        nations the oil rights of the same section of sea           developers are specified in the 1953 Outer Conti-
                        floor off the Grand Banks. Canada believes it has           nental Shelf Lands Act.9
                        jurisdiction over the mineral wealth of the Banks,              The Act requires that rights to minerals be
                        but France, which owns the islands of St. Pierre            subject to competitive bidding. This system has
                        and Miquelon, also claims a portion.
                           Because the United States has not officially                 9This subject has been under extensive review for
                        recognized the jurisdictional boundaries of some            some time by the Public Land Law Review Commission.

                                                                                                                                         V-15

                                     worked effectively for the oil industry. But            the present legal and regulatory framework does
                                     the mining industry believes strongly that con-         not encourage individuals and small companies.
                                     sidering the risks and very high costs associated       with innovative ideas to develop such real estate.
                                     with exploration and proving hard mineral re-           Where procedures exist, they generally are limited
                                     serves, the potential profits are not now suffi-        to oil, gas, and mineral rights and require payment
                                     ciently attractive to support competitive-bidding.      of sizeable legal fees and bonuses.
                                     The problem is presented in detail in -the Ocean           The person or company having an innovative
                                     Mining section of Chapter 4 in this report and in       idea often is unable to devote the time and money
                                     the report of the Marine Resources Panel. At a          to obtain exclusive ocean rights. Initially, projects
                                     minimum, development of outer Continental Shelf         usually are high risk, and uncertainty in obtaining
                                     -hard mineral resources will require amendment of       favorable leases often compounds the economic
                                     the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to take into      risk, making the expected value of the return too
                                     account differences between petroleum and               low to justify the capital investment.
                                     mining operations.                                         The State governments should seek to devise
                                                                                             "seasteading'.' affangements-simple, attractive
                                     Recommendation:                                         leasing procedures specifically for the innovative
                                     The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act should be         use of the seafloor and water colurrin. Great
                                     amended to give the Secretary of the Interior           benefits are to be gained by encouraging entrepre-
                                     additional flexibility in assigning rights for mineral  neurial. investment. For example, the States should
                                     development.                                            ponder the increase in tourism likely to spring
                                                                                             from such underwater attractions as parks, hotels,
                                       There also are barriers to assigning rights in        and restaurants. In addition, aquacultural projects
                                     areas within State jurisdictions. For economic and      for shellfish and fin fish could be quite profitable
                                     technological reasons, sea' bottom mining can           and a source of tax revenue.
                                     generally be expected to begin in the shallower            The procedure most attractive to both govern-
                                     waters, which are usually in State rather than          ment and the entrepreneur probably will be a
                                     Federal jurisdictions. Because of little actual ocean   long-term, renewable lease conditioned upon use-
                                     mining, State laws generally do not provide f  .or it,  ful development. The Jessee should be allotted
                                     although several along the coast now have correc-       sufficient time to make a profit on his investment.
                                     tive laws under consideration. This situation makes        The seasteading approach also is fully consist-
                                     it very difficult for a company to evaluate a           ent with the need forthe orderly, rational develop-
                                     potential mining venture, because the leasing           ment of marine areas. Leases can be carefully
                                     procedures, rights, and total costs cannot be           drafted so that each seasteader's operations will
                                     determined readily.                                     mesh with the desired pattern for overalldevelop-
                                                                                             ment. Moreover, if decided that a particular
                                                                                             seastead subsequently is more suitable for another
                                     Recommendation:                                         use, perhaps petroleum or hard mineral develop-
                                     The States should enact procedures that will            ment, the specific termination date of a lease
                                     encourage hard mineral exploration and exploita-        enables a change at a time anticipated by the
                                     tion on their submerged lands.                          seasteader.
                                                                                                The leases should. be established so as not to
                                       Several guidelines for such procedures are dis-       conflict with the more complex procedures al-
                                     cussed in the Ocean Mining section of Chapter 4.        ready used to allocate sectors of the ocean bottom
                                                                                             for petroleum exploration and development.
                                     D. SEASTEADING                                          Indeed, petroleum and other mineral rights should
                                                                                             be expressly excluded from the leases.
                                       The panel believes that entrepreneurs' acquisi-          In addition to many difficulties not yet fore-
                                     tion of rights to submarine areas would stimulate       seen, interference with such uses as navigation and
                                     many facets of ocean development. There are             fishing would pose special problems for seastead-
                                     countless ways an imaginative entrepreneur could        ing. An obvious way to avoid conflict with other
                                     develop the seabed and water column. However,           uses would be to select locations where such

                                     V-16

                          activity is light. The same purpose could be               had difficulty obtaining adequate insurance cover-
                          achieved by limiting development projects to               age. Many aspects of the problem are being solved
                          certain parts of the water column.                         by underwriters, but several remain, impeding
                                                                                     progress. Two unsolved areas are discussed below.
                          Recommendation:
                          To encourage innovative uses of the ocean other            A. Offshore Installations
                          than petroleum and hard mineral development,                  At one time, U.S. insurance. companies insured
                          State governments should initiate experimental             such offshore items as rigs, platforms, pipelines
                          programs for leasing submarine areas ("seastead-           and small submersibles. However, business became
                          ing") within U.S. territorial waters, contingent on        so unprofitable to the few companies in the field
                          useful development of the property. Such pro-              that U.S. underwriters vacated the market and left
                          grams should be a part of a plan for the orderly,          Lloyds of London as the sole insurer. Now the
                          rational development of offshore regions.                  gross annual premiums on offshore installations
                                                                                     have climbed to an estimated $80 million and U.S.
                             Although the panel recommends seasteading               companies are showing signs of renewed interest.
                          only within territorial waters, such a concept will        For instance, several participate in reinsurance
                          have increasing merit in waters farther offshore as        through Lloyds, while at least one U.S. company
                          ocean activities expand in new uses of the sea. Just       recently has written a direct policy in this area.
                          as in the territorial waters, seasteading will be a           In 1968, several underwriters attempted to
                          means of providing investment protection to inno-          form a syndicate to cover this phase'of offshore
                          vative users from multiple use conflicts. Therefore,       industry but the proposal had not been effected at
                          the Government should consider the advantages of           the time of writing this report due to considera-
                          special leasing arrangements beyond territorial            tions of profitability and possible anti-trust implica-
                          waters.                                                    tions. The panel encourages the efforts of the
                                                                                     insurance companies to pool their resources to
                          IV. JOINT VENTURES                                         undertake the high offshore risks. In time, various
                            Joint ventures probably will allow many ocean            factors will improve the insurability of offshore
                          ventures not otherwise possible considering invest-        installations, including:
                          ment size and high risk involved. Companies must           -Improved actuarial statistics.
                          be alert to such opportunities as:                         -A lower rate of damage and loss due to improved
                          -Collaboration in research and development of              technology.
                          ship design and shipbuilding methods, as practiced         -A broader insurance base resulting from acceler-
                          in competitive countries, may be fruitful.                 ating offshore investments.
                          -Consortia for ocean mineral exploration and                  Until the insurance companies find the business
                          development may prove necessary in certain cases           more profitable, it appears that the companies
                          to attract sufficient risk capital.                        operating offshore will continue to pay high
                          -Joint ventures in expensive deep ocean research           premiums or in some cases resort to local pooling
                          may shorten the period necessary to collect                or self insurance arrangements.
                          essential data in many fields.
                                                                                     B. Personal Injury to Workers Offshore
                          -Insurance pools covering offshore equipment and
                          structures may allow improved coverage for                 . The panel finds the insurance cost for personal
                          marine operations.                                         injury in the offshore areas extremely high and for
                                                                                     some small companies prohibitive. A major reason
                          V. INSURANCE                                               for this is that by law many offshore workers may
                                                                                     choose between compensation and litigation when
                            From large petroleum companies to small sup-             seeking recovery for injury; thus the underwriters
                          ply and diving businesses, offshore operators have         have no sound basis to evaluate premium ratings.

                                                                                                                                          V-17

                                       At present, insurance companies cannot predict           turn, the plans of industry have a critical, effect on
                                     whether litigation or compensation procedures will         meeting National objectives. Clearly ocean.devel-
                                     be followed in each case of accidental injury to an        opment must be a total National enterprise in
                                     offshore worker. Litigation awards are determined          which government, industry and the academic
                                     by juries and are often extremely high; yet, the           community plan and work together on a contin-
                                     injured worker may receive a substantially reduced         uing and effective basis.
                                     amount of recovery, perhaps nothing at all, if he is          The consequences of uncoordinated action are
                                     proved negligent. Recovery under compensation              easy to foresee. For example, installations located
                                     laws, on the other hand, is automatic, but the             in areas of doubtful sovereignty might be rendered
                                     amounts fixed by compensation schedules for the            worthless should international agreements change;
                                     various kinds and degrees of injuries are generally        expensive port developments n-dght be circum-
                                     much lower than litigation awards.                         vented by new modes of transportation; invest-
                                       The dilemma relates to the coverage of the               ment in recreation facilities might be jeopardized
                                     Federal Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers'                 by changes in the environment.
                                     Act, which sets rates of compensation for injuries            Yet the difficulty of achieving effective collab-
                                     occurring upon navigable waters to maritime em-            oration in development planning should not be
                                     ployees other than. seamen. The Act provides an            underestimated. Oceanic activities inherently in-
                                     administrative procedure to eliminate the need for         volve great risk. No one can forecast accurately the
                                     redress through litigation in this specific area.          rate of technological development nor the manner
                                     However, it has not been modernized to account             in which international law will develop. There are
                                     for such equipment as manned submersibles and              additional uncertainties which constrain partici-
                                     mobile drilling rigs. Thus, employees on mobile            pants from conm-titments necessary to an effec-
                                     equipment at sea are able to seek recovery either          tive plan. The Government, for instance, inhibited
                                     through compensation under the Longshoremen's              by political circumstances from conunitting funds
                                     Act or by litigation on the theory that they are           to multiyear projects, usually stipulates that its
                                     "seamen."                                                  plans are contingent upon the availability of
                                       When a claimant has such a choice, he can elect          appropriations. Many industries, then, hedge their
                                     the method that maxin-dzes his recovery. Thus the          plans to protect themselves against changes in
                                     probable claim liability is higher, resulting in larger    costs and markets.
                                     pren-durn costs to the offshore operator. If only
                                     one means of recovery were available, the claim            A. Consolidation of Federal Functions
                                     liability would be reduced. Consequently, the
                                     panel recommends enactment of legislation to                  The Panel finds there is no single focus within
                                     ensure that only one method can be used to                 the Government for fostering industrial develop-
                                     determine claim liability. Since it is simpler, less       ment of ocean resources. Many Federal agencies
                                     time-consuming, and establishes greater certainty          have responsibilities in the ocean, but to date no
                                     in predicting liability, the compensation procedure        strong focus and in some instances no clear
                                     is preferable to litigation.                               delineation of responsibility has occurred. Consoli-
                                                                                                dating some existing functions would have many
                                     Recommendation:                                            beneficial effects.
                                     In order to reduce insurance costs, the Longshore-            Planning and implementation functions have in
                                     men's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Act                 the past been less than optimum due to the variety
                                     should be amended so it will b        .e the exclusive     of interests and the fragmented responsibility for
                                     method to determine claim liability for injuries to        ocean endeavors. Improvement is needed in re-
                                     offshore workers.                                          search planning, budgeting, and administration of
                                                                                                funds. A means for better coordination and
                                     VI. COLLABORATION IN DEVELOPMENT                           direction is imperative as ocean development
                                         PLANNING                                               accelerates and conflicts of use multiply. This
                                                                                                could best be achieved if a number of Government
                                       In today's economy, industry finds -its opera-           functions were consolidated. Industry is not only
                                     tions affected crucially by Government actions. In         perplexed with the number of agencies that must

                                     V48

                       be satisfied in conducting marine-oriented opera-       B. Government-industry Planning Mechanism
                       tions, but is seriously impeded in its own planning
                       process when, as often happens, uncertainty and            The Federal Government, industry, the States,
                       conflict arise in the plans of various agencies. This   and the academic community can make better
                       is particularly true for service oriented Govern-       decisions if fully aware of each other's plans and
                       ment agencies.                                          activities. Better communication between the
                                                                               public and private sectors would help ensure
                         Many agencies that influence ocean operations         orderly development of a National marine pro-
                       do so by providing such services as weather             gram. With the diverse nature of private oceanic
                       forecasting, charting, and collection of a variety of   endeavors and the size of private spending, it is
                       oceanographic data. It is believed that uninten-        essential that effective liaison be established be-
                       tional duplication could be minimized and supe-         tween Federal administrators and the private
                       rior service could be provided f6r industry if some     sector. The Government's need for information
                       of these functions were consolidated. Not only          and advice from industry, States and regions, and
                       could priorities be better determined, but greater      the academic community is becoming increasingly
                       efficiency could be achieved in the use of man-         essential as development of ocean resources accel-
                       power and facilities, improving assistance to indus-    erates with an accompanying increase in multiple
                       try without increasing expenditures.                    use conflicts.
                         Numerous civilian agencies with ocean interests          Marine operations are replete with examples
                       splinter non-military research and development.         where joint planning is needed or must be im-
                       Failure to clearly assign responsibility for ocean      proved:
                       work often results in program oversights in impor-
                       tant areas or frequently contributes to unnecessary     -The National Projects proposed in the Report of
                       duplication. The fragmentation of effort and lack       the Marine Engineering arid Technology Panel will
                       of effective coordination and planning often result     require especially close collaboration in planning,
                       in priority and funding assignments at the project      as much of the multipurpose technology devel-
                       level that are inappropriate to the total National      oped will be of value to industry.
                       program. A far better base for conducting research
                       and developing multipurpose technology would            -Consultation is important in development and
                       result from consolidation of some functions of          marketing of products and processes. Items being
                       existing agencies.                                      developed under Government sponsorship should
                         Consolidation of some Government functions            not be competitive with those produced solely
                       would provide greater visibility for ocean develop-     through the private sector.
                       ment, giving a great impetus to industrial develop-     -More effective Government and industry consul-
                       ment in the marine environment. A unified group         tation is needed in projecting schedules for leasing
                       can serve effectively as an information distribution    offshore lands.
                       center. Private organizations wishing to obtain or
                       exchange data or information and to submit              -The need to plan coastal zone use and resolve
                       unsolicited proposals could make fewer contacts.        conflicts presents an especially important chal-
                       A focus within the Government would provide one         lenge to Government and industry. The Panel
                       strong voice rather than many uncoordinated small       Report on Management and Development of the
                       voices. It would be extremely valuable to the           Coastal Zone has recommended the establishment
                       President, the Congress, all the Federal agencies,      of coastal zone authorities on the State and local
                       and the entire Nation.                                  government levels."

                                                                                  The role of these authorities would include
                       Recommendation:                                         planning for multiple use of coastal and lakeshore
                       Many marine functions of existing agencies and          waters and lands and resolving conflicts of mul-
                       bureaus should, wherever possible, be consolidated
                       to improve the effectiveness of the Government's          1OPanel Report on Management and Development of
                       participation in a National marine program.             the Coastal Zone, Chapter 10.

                                                                                                                               V-19

                                  tiple use. The Panel on Industry and Private         community should be statutorily created. This
                                  Investment concurs in this recommendation. These     committee would participate in the establishment
                                  authorities would solve routine cases of user        of National marine goals and objectives and
                                  conflict, leaving only problems of National scope    provide continuing guidance to the Federal Gov-
                                  to be resolved through Federal executive, legisla-   ernment.
                                  tive, or judicial procedures.
                                  Recommendation:                                        Additional details concerning the nature and
                                                                                       proposed functions of such an advisory committee
                                  An advisory committee composed of representa-        are given in the Report of the Marine Engineering
                                  tives appointed by the President from private        and Technology Panel and are endorsed by this
                                  industry, States and regions, and the academic       panel.

                                  V-20

                      Chapter 4 Ocean Industries

                      1. INTRODUCTION                                                    approximate value of chemicals extracted from the
                                                                                         water column adjacent to the United States is
                          The panel has placed major emphasis on re-                     estimated at $127 million.2
                      source industries (oil, natural gas, n-dning, fishing,
                      and aquaculture), recognizing, however, that such                  B. Seaweeds
                      other users of the ocean as the recreation and
                      transportation industries also are immensely im-                      Domestic harvesting of various seaweeds and
                      portant. Sea transportation is discussed in this                   extraction of many derivatives has evolved into a
                      chapter   in general terms. A detailed discussion of               business with annual activity estimated by the
                      recreation i   's found in the Report of the Marine                panel in excess of $25 million. Algin, carrageenin,
                      Resources Panel.                                                   and agaT are the most important commercial
                          Since healthy and growing primary user a.nd                    derivatives, but there are many others.             They are
                      resource industries should foster sound supporting                 utilized in many chemical processes,                often in
                      industries, each support and service industry has                  conjunction with the manufacture of                 food and
                      not been discussed individually. Instrument pro-                   cosmetic products including gelatin desserts,
                      duction, petroleum drilling, pipeline laying, diving,              jams, baby foods, and toothpaste. In                addition,
                      salvage, and weather prediction are among the                      kelp and other seaweeds have been used as
                      many support and service activities. To illustrate                 fertilizer in an unprocessed form. Most seaweed
                      the problems faced by one such industry, the                       harvested is brown kelp from California.
                      panel has included a section on instruments since                     In addition to harvesting natural seaweed, it is
                      the need for instruments pervades all other indus-                 anticipated that aquaculture techniques will sup-
                      tries.                                                             plement the supply by growing some types of
                          Several resource activities-chemicals from sea                 marine algae. There is, for example, a potential for
                      water, seaweeds, and marine pharmaceuticals-are                    raising and processing seaweed in ponds and rivers
                      mentioned only in this introduction.                               for ultimate use as animal feed.

                      A. Chemical Extraction from Sea Water                              C. Pharmaceuticals

                          Chemical extraction from sea water constitutes                    The properties of marine bioactive substances
                      a successful industry with no major problems                       have attracted widespre       .ad interest and appear to
                      requiring Government action.' Salt, bromine, mag-                  pose considerable promise regarding the preven-
                      nesium. metal, and magnesium compounds are the                     tion, treatment and cure of human illS.3            Although
                      only major inorganic chemicals presently ex-                       the pharmaceuticals industry has sponsored some
                      tracted. These industries, well-established in the                 research there is little expressed interest in the
                      United States, compete favorably with land-based                   marine pharmaceutical segment. Industry spokes-
                      operations. For example, magnesium metal ex-                       men have stated that most drug companies have
                      tracted from sea water accounts for over 90 per                    many more research opportunities than they could
                      cent of total U.S        * production, while bromine               possibly undertake, and the most promising of
                      represents approximately half. These large shares
                      of the market are produced in a single facility in                    2
                                                                                             This represents the combined annual value of sea
                      Freeport, Texas. Salt production from sea water is                 water production of salt ($8 million), magnesium metal
                      centered in California. In addition, eight domestic                ($57 million), bromine ($30 million), and magnesium
                      plants rely on the ocean as a source of raw                        compounds ($ 3 2 million). in addition, desalination of sea
                                                                                         water in this country yields $8 million of potable water.
                      material to produce magnesium compounds. The                       W. F. Mellhenny, "Chemicals from Sea Water," Proceed-
                                                                                         ings of the Inter-American Conference on Materials
                                                                                         Technology, May 1968, p. 119.
                           Such extraction is discussed in greater detail in the            3Report of the Panel on Oceanography, President's
                      Report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technol-             Science Advisory Committee, "Effective Use of the Sea,"
                      ogy-                                                               June 1966, pp. 52-54.

                                                                                                                                                 V-21

                                        these are not associated with marine bioactive              consumes about-45--per cent of free world petro-
                                        substances.                                                 leum production but has only about 13 per cent of
                                           To discover a new compound may cost tens of              the proven reserveS.4
                                        thousands of dollars, either by synthesis or refine-         Hence a major problem facing the petroleum
                                        ment from nature. However, once a drug is found,            industry is to prove additional reserves. Those who
                                        it usually costs millions of dollars to produce      ' it   forecast that the world soon would be running out
                                        commercially. Only one of every two to three                of oil and gas supplies have seen advancing
                                        thousand compounds investigated becomes mar-                technology employed to firid new reserves, and
                                        ketable. Because of considerable development                have had to revise their original prognostications.
                                        costs, a drug company must have some assurance              Today the oil industry is developing new technol-
                                        of exclusive rights (patent or license) before it will      ogy that will enable companies to evaluate and
                                        spend the money, and it is often more difficult to          hopefully develop not only.offshore oil deposits,
                                        obtain exclusive rights to naturally occurring              but tar sands, oil shale, coal conversion processes
                                        products.                                                   and other sources on land that are not now
                                           Nevertheless, drug companies continue to look            economically recoverable.
                                        to new sources of supply, including the ocean. If a          Petroleum producers are turning to the sea in
                                        marine specimen is found to contain a new                   the hope of finding and developing large quantities
                                        substance with drug potential, the pharmaceutical           of new reserves more economically than they
                                        companies may find it more economical either to             presently can on land. Thus, even though oper-
                                        synthesize the , active. ingredient, or culture the         ating and capital costs are high offshore, the
                                        creature in the laboratory.. In many cases, there-          companies are hoping that fields not yet discov-
                                        fore, the sea may be an initial source for a given          ered in the comparatively virgin marine areas will
                                        drug, but not a continuing one.                             be sufficiently large and productive to be highly
                                                                                                    competitive with land sources.

                                        Il. PETROLEUM
                                                                                                    B. Investment and Sales
                                        A.  Present Status and Outlook                               The petrol     Ieurn industry produced about $1.0
                                           Demand for oil is expected to increase rapidly           billion of crude oil in 1967 from the U.S.
                                        in the next 20 years. Much of the new domestic                                    Table 1
                                        supply to meet this demand will be from offshore                  DOMESTIC OFFSHORE EXPENDI-
                                        areas because a high percentage of the large, easily                              TURES
                                        located accumulations on land already have been                             (Billions of Dollars)
                                        developed, while comparatively few have been                                                              Cumu-
                                        found offshore.                                                                               1968        lative
                                           The Marine Resources Panel's report includes                                               (Est.)    (Through
                                        recent projections of free world energy demand. It                                                        1968)
                                        indicates that during the next 20 years the                 Lease Bonus and
                                        cumulative demand will be about three times the             Rental Payments   . . . .         $1.25       $ 4.00
                                        total produced throughout the free world during             Royalty Payments  . . . .         0.25          1.85
                                        the last 100 years. Moreover, it is estimated that,         Seismic, Gravity, and
                                                                                                    Magnetic Surveys  . . . .         0.10          1.10
                                        between now and the year 2000, three-fourths of             Drilling and
                                        domestic energy needs will be met by oil and gas,           Completing Wells  . . . .         0.35          3:10
                                        despite increasing reliance on nuclear power and            Platforms, Production
                                        other new sources of energy.                                Facilities, and Pipelines         0.25          1.85
                                           Although U.S. production of oil and gas has              Operating Costs                   0.15          0.85
                                        increased rapidly, domestic consumption has                      TOTAL      . . . . .         2.35        $12.75
                                        grown even more dramatically, contributing to a             Source: Richard J. Howe (Esso Production Research Co.),
                                        steady decline in the ratio of proven domestic              "Petroleum Operations in the Sea-1980 and Beyond,"
                                        reserves to annual production from about 13 in              Ocean Industry, .August 1968, p. 29.
                                        1950 to 10 in 1967. In addition, North America              4Oil and GasJournal, Dec. 25, 1967, p. 119.

                                        V-22

                                                                                                           Table 2
                                                             EXTENT OF OFFSHORE CONTINENTAL SHELF ACTIVITY IN THE FREE WORLD'

                                                                                  United                       Latin                                                                      F ree
                                              Category                Year        States     Canada         America          Europe.        Africa       Mideast       Far East           World

                             tountries with Ofishore
                                  Activity2                           1960              1          1                5              2              6             5              4              24
                                                                      1964              1          1             15                8           21               12             8              66
                                                                      1967              1          1             18                9           26               14             11             80
                              Offshore Concession Acreage             1960              -        -               -                -            -                -              -            3003
                                  (Millions of acres)                 1964              7       154              87               48           56               34             422          807
                                                                      1966              9       202              125              69           127              53             760        1,345 4

                              Geophysical Crew Months                 1960            93           5                6             -            31               -              -            135
                                  (Marine seismograph)                1964          273          22              12             133            45               26             35           546
                                                                      1966          461          26              18             103            33               47             140          8285

                              Crude-Oil Production                    1960          190          -               25               -                          181               -            396
                                  (Thousand b/d)                      1964          449          -               59                8           65            684               7          1,272
                                                                      1967          870          -               77               10           165         1,184               50         2,356

                              Proved Crude Reserves                   1960         1,700         -               220            100            -          14j750               -         16,770
                                  (Million bbi)                       1964         2,200         -               260            100          1,050        32,300               100       35,010
                                                                      1967         4,100         -               330            220          3,150       43,350           1,400          52,550

                               Does not take into account the activity in such protected waters as Venezuela's rich Lake Maracaibo.
                              2Excludes countries where onshore concessions extend into offshore areas and where there is no offshore activity.
                              313reakdown not available.
                              4Data as of Jan. 1, 1967 not yet available.
                              5 Data for 1967 not yet available.
                              Source: OilandGasiournalMay6,1968,p.77.

                                     Continental Shelf," representing approximately 12           will be affected by costs of offshore production,
                                     per cent of the total annual value of crude oil             alternative domestic sources, and U.S. import
                                     extracted in the United States.                             restrictions. This Panel has not attempted to
                                         Offshore production accounts for 16 per cent            analyze the oil industry in detail but has concen-
                                     of total world production.    6  Comparing U.S. pro-        trated on problems of        'the U.S. offshore oil
                                     duction of $1.0 billion with the estimated 1968,            industry and desirable adjustments to the present
                                     investment of' $2.35 billion shown in Table 1, the          regulatory framework in fight of higher offshore
                                     offshore yield has yet to match the very large              risks.
                                     ocean expenditures,by oil companies. Of the $4.0               Much. capital is involved in recovering oil from
                                     billion of bonus and rental payments for offshore           the ocean bottom. Existing platforms in the Gulf
                                     sites paid to date, $3.3 billion were paid to the           of Mexico cost between $1 and $6 million
                                     U.S. Government and $0.7 billion to the States.             depending on water depths and location, whereas
                                     The $1.85 billion of royalties paid to date,                site, preparation costs on land are minimal. In
                                     however, was divided equally between the States             addition, costs of operating over water are two to
                                     and U.S. Govemment.7 Table 2 indicates the                  four times those on land, and offshore pipelines
                                     relative position of the United States in offshore          generally cost two to four times those onshore.
                                     oil activity throughout the free world and also             - One recent analysis of the costs of producing in
                                     reveals the industry's rapid growth since 1960.             a model field under actual conditions off Louisi-,
                                                                                                 ana indicated that present-value net profit (using a
                                     C. Nature of the Industry                                   nine per cent discount rate) dropped to only nine
                                                                                                 cents per barrel at ocean depths of 400 feet
                                         The number and character of the companies in            compared to 33 cents at 100 feet and 50 cents
                                                                                                          8
                                     the industry defy concise description. At least 30          onshore. No finding or bonus costs were included
                                     to 35 U.S. oil companies are involved in offshore           in this example because of variations from field to
                                     production, supported by hundreds of contractors            field. Moreover, a field of better-than-average size
                                     who provide services for a large portion of the             was assumed. It should be noted that the profits
                                     work done at sea. A small percentage of these               generated in deep water (nine cents) are not
                                     contractors is controlled by the oil companies              generally sufficient even to pay for either explora-.
                                     through majority stockholdings. Because of high             tio'n or bonus costs. This example suggests that
                                     operating risks and the large capital outlays re-           additional attention may be required for the
                                     quired, most companies producing oil offshore are,          problems related to the greater offshore depths in
                                     large corporations. However, several small com-             order to insure a continuing and healthy rate of
                                     panies have formed groups to operate jointly                activity in exploration and production.
                                     offshore. Unlike offshore gas, the transmission of
                                     oil through pipelines is usually performed by the           1. Timing of Federal Lease Sales
                                     production companies.
                                                                                                    The system of offshore lease sales is a complex
                                     D. Problems and Recommendations                             subject now under intensive study by the Public
                                                                                                 Land Law Review Commission and the Department
                                         Oil economics is a complex subject-not only             of the Interior. The competition in recent oil lease
                                     from the standpoint of domestic production but              sales indicates the system is working reasonably
                                     also in regard to world production and import               well, but some aspects of the present policy should
                                     restrictions. The price of oil has been at a                be altered.
                                     relatively stable level in the United States in the            The timing of Federal lease sales has been
                                     past. In the future, however, as demand aP-                 erratic. Notice of sales well ahead of time would
                                     proaches conventional supply capability, the price          greatly aid industry budgeting, would enable the
                                         5U.S. Bureau of Mines.                                  industry to improve its utilization of capital,
                                         6Richard J. Howe (Esso Production ,Research Co.),         a
                                     "Petroleum Operations in the Sea-1980'and Beyond,"             J: E. Wilson (Shell Oil Co.), "Economics of Offshore
                                     Ocean Indusny, August 196 8, p. 29.                         Louisiana," presented before the Louisiana-Arkansas Divi-
                                                                                                 sion of the Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Assn., Sept. 12,
                                         "Ibid.                                                  1967.

                                     V-24

                          manpower, and equipment, parti      cularly with re-    Government for application to offshore areas in
                          spect to exploration and development activity, and      the Gulf beyond State jurisdiction.
                          would permit the gathering of more data to                 Removal of restrictions on production from
                          evaluate the property to be leased.                     Federal leases might well make Federal tracts,
                                                                                  deeper and further offshore, more attractive to oil
                          Recommendation:                                         companies. However, this would result in loss of
                          Federal lease sales for oil and gas development         severance tax revenue to Texas and Louisiana
                          rights on the outer Continental Shelf should be         because of reduced onshore output and might
                          announced further in advance than is current            cause the States to respond in kind, thus upsetting
                          practice.                                               the existing economic and political stability. Past
                                                                                  arguments in support of restrictions have included:
                          2. Federal Lease Sales for De Iep Water                 -Restrictions are useful to balance supply and
                            In 1968, there was a $600 million lease sale in       demand and to improve conservation.
                          the Santa Barbara channel. Thus, several oil
                          companies ventured into very deep water-over 60         -Fields with marginal economics would be unable
                          per cent of the acreage is below 600 feet and the       to compete with large efficient fields if the supply
                          corner of one lease is in water more than 1,800         were not prorated. Thus,'it has been reasoned that
                          feet deep. The Santa Barbara sale involved special      restrictions help mamitain a standby production
                                                                                  capability that c  /
                          circumstances that compensated somewhat for the                          duld be mobilized quickly in times
                          disadvantages inherent in greater depths. The           of need such-@s the Middle East crisis.
                          tracts are very near the shore; the oceanographic          -Tlie subject of prorationing involves political
                          and meteorological conditions are mild when             -and economic ramifications related to the varying
                          compared to the Gulf of Mexico; oil is in short         interests of large companies, small companies, and
                          supply along the densely populated coast of             consumers These extremely complex issues pres-
                          Southern California; and there are no restrictions
                          on rates of production. The degree to which the         ently are being reviewed by the Public Land Law
                          deeper Santa Barbara leases will allow econon-dcal      Review Commission.
                          production will depend greatly on technology yet           The percentage allowable is continuing to rise
                          to be developed or perfected -and on finding large      due to ever increasing demand for petroleum.
                          petroleum accumulations.                                This increase will probably continue until the
                            The OCS Lands @ct now firriits the primary            capacity of all wells is attained. Many expect this
                          term for exploration and development to a       maxi-   point to be reached in the next 5 to 10 years.
                          murn of five years. Continuing the trend toward
                          exploration and development in deep water, as           4. Environmental Prediction
                          well as hostile areas such as Cook Inlet, Alaska,          The offshore oil industry    operates in a hostile
                          may make it desirable to lengthen the primary
                          lease term.                                             environment, particularly in    hurricane areas. For
                                                                                  operations under normal climatic conditions, the
                          3. Production Rate Restrictions                         oil companies and their        offshore contractors
                                                                                  receive adequate environmental forecasts from the
                            The Gulf region produces most of the domestic         U.S. Weather Bureau and many private meteoro-
                          offshore oil and has the most proven U.S. offshore      logical companies. Nevertheless, improved data
                          reserves. Texas and Louisiana have set limits on        and forecasting techniques would provide im-
                          the production rate of each well in accordance          mediate cost savings. In view of substantial added
                          with a percentage allowable. In order to offset         costs during the hurricane season in the Gulf of
                          costs of operations over water, both States use the     Mexico, better hurricane data and prediction
                          equity allowable ratio to permit companies to           would be beneficial.
                          produce oil from nearshore and offshore areas at a        The cost of shutting down during a hurricane
                          more rapid rate than on land. State ratios tradi-       threat in the Gulf of Mexico can be considerable.
                          tionally have been followed closely by the U.S.         Offshore operations are shut down to varying

                                                                                                                                    V-25

                                   degrees depending on the type of operation,                 acquired by various Government agencies has
                                   degree of control an    'd automation, and strength         reached offshore operators. Such information and
                                   and proximity of the hurricane. It has been                 technology could benefit all offshore operations,
                                   estimated that Hurricane Inez in 1966 cost                  especially the petroleum industry. Exploration,
                                   Louisiana operators $1.5 million in expenses and            drilling, and production in deeper waters where
                                   lost production even though the hurricane did not           technology must be more advanced make in-
                                   come near enough to cause any property damage.              creased oceanographic knowledge more needed
                                        Property losses, as differentiated from shut           than ever.
                                   downs, have been even greater. Hurricanes Hilda                The responsibility for information exchange
                                   (1964) and Betsy (1965) each caused offshore                should not fall exclusively on Government
                                   property losses exceeding $ 100 million.                    agencies. The petroleum companies, by virtue of
                                        Improved hurricane path prediction will reduce         their many research efforts and ocean operating
                                   the degree and length of shutdowns. Greater                 experience, have accumulated considerable knowl-
                                   knowledge of the wind, wave, and subsurface                 edge on their own. Much of this is not genuinely
                                   forces associated with hurricanes will allow im-            proprietary and could be of great value to the
                                   proved design and'construction techniques result-           Nation if disseminated among other private inter-
                                   ing in savings in construction cost, property losses,       ests and Government agencies.
                                   and insurance prerm'ums.                                       Unfortunately, greater exchange of information
                                        Modification of intensity or path of hurricanes        will not be easy. The knowledge, customarily in
                                   would have obvious advantages not only to the               the sole possession of a few experts, is rarely well
                                   petroleum industry but all other marine - and               documented or advertised. Consequently, because
                                   coastal interests. However, progress in hufficane           person-to-person transfer generally has been ineffi-
                                   research has been disappointingly slow; accurate            cient, enormous effort will be necessary to achieve
                                   prediction, modification, and perhaps control               -greater interchange.
                                   remain hopes for the future. To help in this                   There already have been some cooperative
                                   problem, the Environmental Science Services Ad-             efforts by Govermnent, universities, and the petro-
                                   ministration recently has intensified research at its       leum industry to improve technology transfer in
                                   National Hurricane Center.                                  such subjects as environmental prediction, plat-
                                        Very little is known about the size, shape, speed,     form, design, underwater completion, materials
                                   and destructive power of hurricane waves. The               studies, and welding techniques. For example,!one
                                   more than 1,000 existing offshore platforms                 company with considerable expertise in under-
                                   represent potential instrument sites to measure             water oil well completion gave a course on the
                                   environmental conditions and their effects. Several         subject. Seven petroleum companies signed up at
                                   offshore operators have indicated willingness to            $100,000 each, while the U.S. Geological Survey
                                   make their platforms available for data gathering.          was invited to participate at no cost. On another
                                   In addition, the use of laser or radar altimeters by        occasion, a joint Navy-industry research project
                                   aircraft may have potential for studying hurricane          for measuring hurricane waves was established on a
                                   waves, and the 'study of their feasibility deserves a       cost-sharing, information-sharing basis.
                                   high priority.
                                   Recommendation:                                             6. Multiple Use Conflicts
                                   The U.S. Government, together with industry and                Conflicting uses of coastal and offsho    Ire marine
                                   the academic community, should intensify current            areas is becoming an increasing burden to oil
                                   efforts to improve understanding of hurricanes and          companies. Delays in offshore operations resulting
                                   their destructive effects.                                  from uncertainties brought about by such conflicts
                                   S. Technology Transfe?                                      have cost the petroleum industry substantial sums.
                                        A disappointingly small amount of the oceano-          There is urgent need to bring private interests
                                                                                               together with representatives from U.S., State, and
                                   graphic and ocean engineering data and technology           local governments to develop a mechanism for
                                        9Oil and gas technology is discussed in the Report of  rationally resolving the conflicts. The advisory
                                   the PaneLon Marine Engineering and Technology.              committee recommended in Chapter 3 of this

                                   V-26

                        report could be helpful in developing such a                   production, transmission, and distribution. Petro-
                        mechanism. Further discussion on multiple use                  leum companies normally explore for and produce
                        conflicts is also found in Chapter 3 with a more               the gas. Transportation is handled by the trans-
                        detailed discussion in the report on the Coastal               mission companies regulated by the Federal Power
                        Zone.                                                          Commission (FPC) in aft matters of interstate
                        7. Major Oil Spills                                            commerce. Distribution to consumers usually in-
                           The Nation is       well aware of     the deleterious       volves a separate group of independent companies
                        effects of the grounding of the Torrey Canyon and              regulated at the State level. Although the three
                                                                                       functions commonly are carried on by independ-
                        other tankers. The subject of prevention and                   ent companies, a combination may be performed
                        control of major oil spills is presently receiving a           by one company through subsidiaries. Both the
                        great deal of attention such as the joint pollution            transmission and distribution industries are among
                        study conducted by the Departments of Interior                 the 10 largest U.S. industries in terms of capital
                        and Transportation. A major part of the research is            investment.
                        being done by petroleum companies. Nevertheless,                  Sales of natural gas are expected to increase at
                        the problem is far from solved and Government                  an annual rate of about four per cent in the next
                        and industry attention is encouraged to eve op                 decade. In fact, the percentage of total energy
                        technology to prevent, detect, and nullify                  e  consumption represented by natural gas is ex-
                        effects of oil spills from offshore production              d  pected to increase slightly, in spite of the growth
                        transportation operations.                                     of new competitive primary sources of energy,
                           Government regulations and enforcement are                  particularly nuclear. As with oil, the offshore areas
                        necessary to define responsibility and liability, and          offer great potential for new reserves, and gas
                        to ensure equitable distribution of costs of preven-           producers as well as transmission companies are
                        tion and cure. Because the problem is complex,                 making heavy commitments here. In 1967, over
                        and great knowledge of the subject is held by                  $300 million was paid to petroleum companies for
                        industry, such technology development and legisla-             natural gas produced offshore.
                        tive action must be worked out by a combination                   Occurring in the same environment, offshore oil
                        of Federal, State, and industry experts. Emergency             and natural gas operations share many technical
                        plans should be, established to permit rapid action            and regulatory problems. But beyond that the gas
                        to contain and clean up major oil spills.                      industry faces a special set of constraints associ-
                        8. Other Problem Areas                                         ated with FPC regulatory policy. The growth of
                           Because of detailed treatment in other Sections             gas supply is closely tied to such policy not only
                                                                                     . through FPC regulation of gas transmission
                        of this report and in other panel reports, sur-                companies,   Ibut also regulation of the production
                        veys,'o technology programs," jurisdictional clar-             companies to the extent of controlling the maxi-
                        ification,' 2 and insurance problems" will not be              mum price at which natural gas can be sold to the
                        discussed here. However, all these areas are of                transmission companies.
                        interest and importance to the petroleum industry.
                        Ill. NATURAL GAS                                               B. Problernsand Recommendations
                        A. Present Status                                              1. Reserves
                           The sequence of operation in bringing natural                  The National reserve-to-production ratio (R/P)
                        gas to the consumer involves three functions:                  of natural gas has been declining steadily since
                                                                                       1950, falling from nearly 27 years to slightly less
                           loSee Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the        than 16 years in 1968.      14  The optimum level of
                        Panel on Marine Resources.                                     reserves cannot be authoritatively stated. Some
                           I I See Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the      companies believe that the national R/P ratio can
                        Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology.
                           12 See Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the         14 The R/P ratio is the proven reserves divided by the
                        International Panel.                                           current. rate of annual production, a level of reserves
                           13 See Chapter 3 of this report.                            stated in years.

                              333-091 0-69-3                                                                                                  V-27

                                      continue to decline for an additional period                Under current procedures a gas transmission
                                      without causing undue concern, resulting in a            company will receive. permission to construct a
                                      lower level of idle development capital for pro-         new pipeline to a production area if it can prove to
                                      ducers. However, individual companies already            the FPC, that, among other things, sufficient re-
                                      have felt the pressure of declining reserves, and it     serves are in the area. A circular problem is there-
                                      is doubtful that it would be in the National             fore created. Transmission companies are unwilling
                                      interest to allow much further reduction.                to firmly commit themselves to the purchase of gas
                                      Although the R/P ratio for oil is about 10 years,        from undeveloped reserves, and producers are
                                      valid reasons exist for maintaining natural gas          reluctant to make the considerable expenditures
                                      reserves at a level above 10 years.                      necessary to develop the reserves without prior
                                         At some point the R/P must stop declining or          assurance of buyers. Furthermore, producers are
                                      the question of future ability to meet demand will       unwilling to have their proven reserves revealed to
                                      cause concern to natural gas users and the financial     the FPC when such public disclosure would
                                      community that provides funds for growth. When           seriously hurt the companies in competition for
                                      this point is reached, and certain companies feel        offshore lease bids.
                                      that it has been, the National R/P ratio must be            This problem does not lend itself to a simple
                                      stabilized; with growing demand this implies a           solution. The panel recommends that the FPC
                                      much greater rate of exploration and development         study every possible solution, including the accept-
                                      than presently exists. Although conventional and         ance of sound business judgment as represented by
                                      perhaps completely new types of land sources will        suitable contractual commitments in substitution
                                      provide some supplies, it appears that the offshore      for geological evidence of reserves. The FPC also
                                      areas will be of vital importance for several            should examine its policies to determine the
                                      decades.                                                 extent to which efforts to establish proven reserves
                                         Before the reserve ratio can be stabilized,           results in disclosure adverse to a company and
                                      incentives to production companies will have to          methods by which such impact, if any, can be
                                      increase. Two areas of FPC regulatory policy could       legitimately minimized.
                                      be modified to provide part of this incentive'.
                                        The maximum price a transniission company              2. Technology
                                      can pay for gas at the wellhead is FPC regulated.
                                      The FPC recognized the importance of incentives             The natural gas industry is faced with increasing
                                      for discovery of new supplies by adopting a              competitive pressure in the energy market from
                                      two-price system in the Permian area rate case and       new, high-technology energy sources. This, com-
                                      a multi-price system in South Louisiana, a location      bined with increasing cost of gas supply, should
                                      with great potential for offshore reserves. Al-          provide .a strong incentive to the transmission
                                      though differences between offshore and onshore          companies to reduce pipeline costs through im-
                                      operations were mentioned in the South Louisiana         proved technology to prevent increasing costs to
                                      rate opinion,' 5 the rates do not appear to reflect      the ultimate consumer. Despite this incentive the
                                      adequately the increased costs associated with           gas transmission industry has an extremely low
                                      offshore operations. As a result, the petroleum          level of expenditures for research and develop-
                                      companies believe there is little financial incentive    ment,
                                      for them to search for offshore gas except in               The industry lacks confidence in the present
                                      unusual circumstances.                                   accounting procedures approved by the FPC for
                                      Recommendation:'                                         R&D. It is believed that lack of clear-cut definition
                                      The Federal Power Commission should re-examme            places expenditures for some R&D activities in a
                                                                                               very high risk category and therefore these are
                                      its differential price concept for natural gas pro-      held to a minimum. When research is successful
                                      duction and make whatever adjustments are advis-         and results in improvement to a specific pipeline
                                      able to reflect adequately the increased cost of         project, it is clear that the transmission company
                                      offshore production.                                     can capitalize the cost.
                                       "Federal Power Commission Opinion No. 546, Docket          If research is not successful, or if of a general
                                      A.R. 61-2, Sept. 25, 1968.                               nature, the accounting treatment of the cost is not

                                      V-28

                        as clearly defined. In many cases it can be              recently assumed the responsibility to assure that
                        capitalized or allowed as an operating expense, but      adequate planning exists for natural gas transporta-
                        some projects may not be so treated. In the latter       tion. Although a major proposal submitted by a
                        event, failure of a major R&D project would be a         consortium for sharing larger and more efficient
                        financial risk incurred by the company's owners.         pipeline systems was denied by the FPC in 1967,
                        This increased business risk would not be offset         every indication, including policy statements
                        automatically by a compensating potential for            issued in 1968, is that future offshore pipeline
                        increased profit since the mechanism of regulated        developments will require a joint industry planning-
                        return assures that the economic benefits of             approach to receive FPC approval. It is hoped that
                        successful R&D now are largely passed on to the          cooperation of producers, pipeline companies, and
                        customer or in some cases the producer. The net          the FPC will lead to expediting the planning and
                        result is an extremely low R&D expenditure in the        processing of joint-use proposals; contribute to the
                        industry and a reluctance to undertake the large,        more orderly development of offshore areas; en-
                        uncertain R&D expenditures necessary for techno-         courage exploration efforts; and provide econo-
                        logical breakthrough.                                    mies of scale of benefit to both the industry and
                          To account for an R&D expenditure after the            its customers.
                        fact in terms of "success" or "failure" appears to
                        be an accounting practice inconsistent with the          IV. Ocean Mining
                        basic premise of research itself. Even if initial
                        hoped-for results are not achieved, the research has     A. Present Status
                        closed out one option and provided a great deal of          No hard mineral mining of practical significance
                        useful information in the process. Consideration of.     is being conducted on the U.S. continental shelves
                        this principle could resolve the lack of agreement       except sulfur, sand, gravel, and oyster shells. There
                        between the gas transmission industry and the FPC        is no mineral mining in the deep ocean. Discussion
                        concerning accounting treatment for research ex-         of offshore mining, therefore, becomes largely a
                        penditures.                                              discussion of its potential, of ways to assure that
                        Recommendation:                                          the potential will be realized as soon as economics
                        The Federal Power Commission should review its           and technology allow, and of its importance to the
                        accounting regulations for research and develop-         Nation. Successful ocean mining is being under-
                        ment activities to determine whether such regula-        taken in other parts of the world where favorable
                        tions are consistent with the legitimate need of the     business climates in combination with adequate
                        gas transmission industry for clear and realistic        geological deposits make such ventures economi-
                        guidelines.                                              cally attractive. Most such operations are in
                                                                                 comparatively shallow water.
                          With appropriate encouragement, the gas trans-            A thorough discussion of marine mineral re-
                        mission industry could foster new technology that        sources is found in the report of the Marine Re-
                        would increase the economic feasibility of gas           sources Panel. That report notes that with some
                        production and transn-dssion further offshore and        exceptions(gold, silver, and uranium) the supply of
                        in deeper water and also be important to the             land-based hard minerals appears sufficient to
                        National oceanographic effort. For example, im-          meet projected demands to the year 2000.
                        proved techniques for laying large diameter pipe-           This finding, however, must be qualified. The
                        lines in deeper waters may well depart from the          process of projecting demand for minerals and of
                        concept of the traditional lay barge and involve         estimating reserves is extremely complex and
                        new seafloor construction techniques using new           subject to many interpretations. Such a finding
                        tools, habitats, submersibles, etc.                      does not reflect the cost of alternative resources
                                                                                 and is based only on known uses and metallurgical
                        C. Planning                                              processes. The effect of new uses and the substitu-
                                                                                 tion of new materials is difficult to predict and can
                          In recognition of the vital role of the offshore       cause considerable error in forecasting mineral
                        areas as a source of gas for the industry, the FPC       demands. World-wide population growth and

                                                                                                                                  V-29

                                    accelerating industrialization, however, point to an      priate regulations presently hindering industrial
                                    ever increasing demand. Indeed, total demand for          participation.
                                    metals between 1965 and the year 2000 is
                                    expected to exceed the total of all metals con-           B. Investment and Sales
                                                              16
                                    surned prior to 1965,         and for some specific
                                    metals the increase will be manyfold. A similar               No authoritative overall statistics on ocean
                                    estimate applies to many non-metallic minerals.           mining are available but the order of magnitude of
                                       Predicting sources of supply is perhaps even           existing operations can be sensed from the follow-
                                    more difficult than predicting demand, due to             ing estimates:
                                    many geological and economic unknowns. This                   Excluding sand, gravel, and oyster shell dredg-
                                    problem is magnified in the case of ocean mineral         ing, the world-wide investment in ocean mining is
                                    resources because so little is known about the            about $60 million, mostly in operations in south-
                                    geology and the technology of recovery and proc-          east Asia and off England and South West Africa.
                                    essing that valid comparisons with present produc-        The annual rate of investment is estimated in the
                                    tion from land sources are almost impossible.             order of $ 10 million and is rising.
                                       Both accelerating demand and depletion of                  About $200 million of minerals was taken
                                    known mineral resources indicate that if the              world-wide from the ocean floor in 1967             '17
                                    Nation is to enjoy a rising standard of living,           excluding coal and iron presently mined from
                                    particularly in the light of an ever increasing           onshore openings and chemicals extracted from
                                    population, great attention must be paid to future        sea water. Common sand and gravel accounted for
                                    supplies; and all indications are that over the           more -than half the total; sands bearing tin, iron,
                                    long-term the ocean will become an important              and other heavy minerals about 20 per cent; shells
                                    source of supply.                                         15 per cent; sulfur 8 per cent; and diamonds 5 per
                                       With the possible exception of certain strategic       cent.. World-wide production of ocean minerals is
                                    minerals, the ocean resources will be recovered by        growing rapidly.
                                    private industry only when economically attrac-           .   At least a handful of U.S. companies now are
                                    tive. For such minerals as sulfur, this point already     involved to some extent in foreign offshore mining
                                    has been reached. For others, timing is uncertain.        operations. Dozens more have collectively invested
                                    It is not necessary to develop most hard mineral          several million dollars in studies and exploration,
                                    ocean resources immediately; thus no crash pro-           indicating the degree of interest and the potential
                                    gram is required. It is imperative, however, that         for rapid growth from today's relatively modest
                                    the Nation begin now an orderly program to gain a         base.
                                    better understanding of resources available and of
                                    basic ocean technology required to exploit them.          C. Industry Structure
                                    Even with such basic knowledge, the time required             Offshore mining in the United States is pursued
                                    on land to advance from early exploration to              in  shallow water by relatively small companies
                                    actual production is often 10 years or more, and          dredging sand, gravel,' and oyster shells in response
                                    due to the environment it probably will be even           to unique local supply and demand situations.
                                    greater for most ocean minerals.                          Sulfur, on the other hand, mined through a drill
                                       Because of growing demand for minerals, the            hole, is related to petroleum in its exploration and
                                    inadequate knowledge of the oceans as a source,           recovery techniques and in its economic and legal
                                    and the lead time required to gain an adequate            problems. ,
                                    understanding, the panel concludes that the Fed-              Many diverse companies are showing interest in
                                    eral and State governments should take appropri-          future operations due. to the variety of potentially
                                    ate action now to stimulate ocean mining activity.        profitable situations. Some companies are oriented
                                    This should include reconnaissance surveys and
                                    removal of some of the uncertainties and inappro-            17 Charles M. Romanowitz, Michael J. Cruickshank, and
                                                                                              Milton P. Overall, "Offshore Mining Present and Future,
                                                                                              presented at National Security Industrial Association-
                                      16 Statement by Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of Ocean Science Technology Advisory Committee (OSTAC)
                                    the Department of the Interior, to the House Committee    Ocean Resources Subcommittee meeting, San Francisco
                                    on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Sept. 21, 1967.         area, April 26, 1967.

                                    V-30

                         solely to entrepreneurial opportunities in ocean          for allocation of mining rights at the current
                         mining, but many are corporations well established        development stage for two reasons: so little is
                         in land mining or petroleum. Offshore exploration         known about hard mineral resources or the tech-
                         and drilling companies, aerospace firms, and ship-        nology for exploration and exploitation that in-
                         building companies are among others involved. It          formed bidding is effectively precluded before a
                         is not yet clear what kinds of corporations will          great deal of exploration; second, exploration is
                         constitute the offshore mining industry of tomor-         inhibited by the financial risk that is greatly
                         row, but the industry need not be restricted to the       increased when a chance exists that exploitation
                         traditional mining companies.                             rights may not be granted to the explorer. Until
                           Nearshore operations, such as placer mining for         there is sufficient knowledge of the ocean's min-
                         gold, could be under-taken by small - companies.          eral resources, the panel recommends adoption of
                         Deep-sea mining, however, probably will be con-           a method of property allocation that encourages
                         ducted by large corporations or consortia because         the maximum private investment in exploration;
                         of high capital requirements. It has been esti-           namely, a method that awards exploitation rights
                         mated, for instance, that recovery of manganese           to the prospector who makes a discovery.
                         nodules on a scale large enough to be economically           One reason that hard minerals from the ocean
                         feasible will require a capital investment of about       are not more actively sought is that little is now
                         $100 million. The traditional mining industry has         known about them. This points up two major
                         one of the highest capital asset-to-employee ratios       differences between petroleum and hard minerals-
                         of any industry.                                          exploration techniques and costs. Initial explora-
                                                                                   tion for oil is based on the extrapolation of known
                         D. Problems and Recommendations                           geological information and relatively inexpensive
                                                                                   geophysical surveys. In contrast, the complexity
                           Industry has stated, in effect, that it is willing      and cost of exploration for hard minerals to
                         to . take the substantial risks required by ocean         establish confidence in an exploitable discovery
                         mining ventures if Government will provide well           are many times greater.' 8 Therefore, by the time
                         defined and reasonable laws relative to property          the prospector has gained sufficient knowledge to
                         rights, crew regulations, import duties, and taxes.       arouse his desire for more detailed exploration
                         In addition, Government-sponsored services, espe-         (hopefully leading to exploitation), he has made a
                         cially surveys, and equitable. treatment in many          considerable
                                                                                               , investment. He will be reluctant to
                         potential multiple use conflicts will be required if      make this investment if, in spite of his initiative,
                         this new industrial potential is to be realized in the    exclusive rights may be awarded to another party.
                         near future.                                                 The panel feels that the highest priority should
                                                                                   be given to encouraging hard mineral exploration
                         1. Leasing Procedures                                     through private initiative and that every considera-
                                                                                   tion should be given to a system that will
                           In accordance with the Outer Continental Shelf          encourage this exploration by reducing investment
                         Lands Act of 1953, the Department of Interior is          risks. The prospector' who has made a large
                         responsible for the management of the mineral             investment leading to an exploitable discovery
                         resources on Continental Shelf lands within Fed-          should be guaranteed the right to exploit it. ,
                         eral jurisdiction. Rights to utilize these petroleum         Whatever method is finally adopted for assign-
                         and hard mineral resources are awarded through a          ing hard mineral rights on the outer continental
                         competitive bidding and leasing procedure defined         shelf, the following should be considered:
                         by the Act. Many State laws for assigning the
                         resources of submerged lands follow the principles        -The method should provide an atmosphere that
                         incorporated in the Act.                                  will attract many searchers. Competition is desira-
                         . This system has worked well for oil, gas, and           ble from the standpoints of stimulating explora-
                         sulfur because of the great demand for utilization
                         rights and the bidding system allocates public             18A complete discussion of the differences in methods
                         resources justly under such circumstances., The           and cost for petroleum and hard mineral exploration is
                                                                                   found in the Reports of the Marine Resources Panel and
                         present bidding system, however, is inappropriate         the Marine Engineering and Technology Panel.

                                                                                                                                     V-31

                                     tion and maintaining our traditional econon-dc           however, will allow this freedom while still permit-
                                     principles.                                              ting, Interior to carry out its responsibilities as
                                                                                              manager of the resources. A system that inhibits
                                     -The method should rely on the           stimulus of     early reconnaissance exploration should be
                                     private initiative. However, in rare cases it may be     avoided.
                                     in the National interest for the Government to              If the prospector's interest is kindled by his
                                     sponsor exploration. Since there would be no             preliminary exploration or by other means, he
                                     private investment in such exploration, leasing          should be able to obtain exclusive rights for
                                     procedures similar to those in the OCS Lands Act         further exploration convertible to exploitation
                                     appear appropriate.                                      rights. A concession system similar to those
                                     -A degree of flexibility in management must be           successfully practiced in several foreign countries
                                     allowed, because so little is known about the            appears to be a suitable method for awarding such
                                     pattern of future developments and because the           rights while protecting the public interest. Such a
                                     potential resources are so different in character.       concession system should:
                                     This will enable policies to be adjusted for
                                     different minerals or for special situations; how-       -Assign exclusive exploration rights for hard
                                     ever, the policies must be clear and certain.            minerals that could be converted to exploitation
                                                                                              rights at the prospector's option. Normally conces-
                                     -The high risk inherent in hard mineral explora-         sions are awarded to the first qualified applicant.
                                     tion should be mitigated by assuring that pros-
                                     pectors may exploit their discoveries.                   -Clearly defme the terms of exploration and
                                                                                              exploitation before exploration begins.
                                     -The method should provide a reasonable eco-             -Discourage speculative holding of offshore lands
                                     nomic return to the public for the use of public         through various combinations of such require-
                                     lands and data, but its primary objective should         ments as: an initial fee; minimum investment in
                                     not be to maximize income from rents, royalties,         exploration or development within specified
                                     or bonuses, but rather to maximize ocean mining          periods of time; rental payments increasing at
                                     activity. A greater ultimate return to the Nation        periodic intervals during the exploration phase;
                                     will result from the development of a healthy            and stipulation that a given acreage be returned
                                     industry contributing to employment, tax rev-
                                     enues, foreign exchange, and the Gross National          periodically until exploitation commences.
                                     Product.                                                 -Provide for rental or royalty payments during
                                     -The method sho     'uld recognize that the Bureau of    the exploitation phase.
                                     Land Management, the lessor of U.S. outer Conti-         -Provide for return of any portion of the conces-
                                     nental Shelf lands, faces competition with other         sion acreage at the option of the concession
                                     nations offering development rights to their Off-        holder.
                                     shore lands on terms attractive to U.S. capital.
                                                                                                 The preceding discussion has centered around
                                     Recommendation:                                          the Federal lands on the outer continental shelves.
                                     When deemed necessary to stimulate exploration,          The State methods for assigning property rights to
                                     the Department of the Interior should be permit-         submerged lands are of equal and perhaps greater
                                     ted to award rights to hard minerals on the outer        importance, since early mining activity probably
                                     Continental Shelf without requiring competitive          will take place predominantly in the shallow
                                     bidding.                                                 waters close to shore. ,
                                                                                                 Some coastal States now have a reasonable
                                        The panel recommends that any U.S. citizen or         system for assigning exploration and exploitation
                                     company should. be free to conduct preliminary           rights. Most States, however, have no laws at all or
                                     exploration on the continental shelves for minerals      have inappropriate laws drafted for other pur-
                                     on a non-exclusive basis. A requirement to give the      poses. It is recommended that the States adopt
                                     Department of the Interior notification of intent,       methods to assign offshore solid mineral rights

                                     V-32

                       that will encourage industrial exploration. It is        way for eventual utilization of the offshore min-
                       further recommended that such a system be                eral resources.
                       similar to the type of concession system described          Earlier in the report a survey program was
                       above. Uniformity in State laws is not considered a      recommended to provide new bathymetric, geo-
                       necessity at this time, but efforts to work toward       physical, and geological information on the Conti-
                       uniformity are highly desirable. When changes in         nental Shelf, slope, and rise. Completion of this
                       the Federal system are adopted, they could serve         task was suggested in 15 to 20 years, but because
                       readily as a model law for the coastal States.           certain areas are of more immediate interest, it is
                           The panel does not believe that the lack of          recommended that priorities be carefully selected
                       international agreement as to sovereign rights over      to reflect user needs and that the survey of these
                       deep sea mineral resources is a major factor             more important areas be completed much sooner.
                       preventing mining operations at this time. How-          Except in special cases, the surveys should remain
                       ever, a clearer definition of the limits of National     reconnaissance in scope, and the actual delineation
                       jurisdiction and an international agreement for the      of commercial deposits should be left to private
                       deep ocean will be needed as conflicts arise.            industry. A significant portion of the survey work
                       Accordingly, the panel concurs with the Inter-           should be contracted to qualified organizations in
                       national Panel in its recommendation that the            the private sector in order to build a National
                       United States take the initiative in proposing a         capability and speed up data acquisition.
                       new international legal-political framework for
                       exploring and exploiting the mineral resources
                       underlying the high seas.                                3. Other Recommendations
                           Only with strong U.S. participation can the best        Before a thriving offshore mining industry can
                       interests of domestic industry and the world             exist, an enormous capital investment will have to
                       community be served. Due to the length of time
                                                                                be made. The resulting risk levels are within
                       normally needed to establish such a complex and
                                                                                Doundaries acceptable to industry, but the pace of
                       important framework, the panel recommends that           investment will be slow in the early stages. There
                       the United States take this initiative immediately.      are several ways the Government     Ican assist indus-
                       Until such a framework is established, the U.S.          try in facing the initial risks:
                       Government should encourage and protect private
                       investment in the deep ocean.
                                                                                -Nominal rentals and low or non-existent royalty
                                                                                payments have been mentioned as ways to encour-
                       2. Surveys                                               age ocean mining. In addition, there are. precedents
                                                                                in foreign. countries for encouraging mining
                           Geological knowledge of the U.S. continental         through special tax incentives. The panel has not
                       shelves is insufficient to provide a basis for wise      made a recommendation for a specific type of tax
                       management of the mineral resources and is               incentive, but urges consideration of one or more
                       insufficient to assist industry in selecting target      of the following:
                       areas for detailed exploration.
                           Obtaining an adequate understanding of the           (a) A tax moratorium for a specified number of
                       geologic structure and composition of the conti-             years.
                       nental margins is a vast job. Companies expect to        (b) Extremely rapid depreciation for ocean min-
                       spend large sums of money conducting surveys to              ing equipment, which can be justified on the
                       delineate deposits, but first need some indication           basis of rapid technological advances and on
                       where to concentrate their efforts. Broad, recon-            swift deterioration from the harsh environ-
                       naissance scale surveys are too expensive for                ment.
                       individual companies, considering the vast area to       (c) Longer periods, perhaps 10 years, to carry net
                       be covered and the low probability of discovering            operating losses forward for tax purposes.
                       economically exploitable minerals. Yet these sur-        (d) Implementation of a special tax differential as
                       veys are a critical first step in determining the            presently applied to some high-risk mining
                       basic character of the shelf and in pointing the             operations in South America.

                                                                                                                               V-33

                                    (e) Extension of     the investment credit against         precision is required. Perhaps this degree of preci-
                                        income tax.                                            sion is more properly obtained by installation of
                                                                                               private systems; however, there is more general
                                       Such incentives    would encourage industry to          need for a National system that will allow survey
                                    undertake initial,    high risk ventures and also          data to be obtained with much more accuracy and
                                    make enterprise      on U.S. continental shelves           that will be economic for many users.
                                    more competitive     with that of foreign countries           Three other topics important to offshore min-
                                    providing such incentives. Special tax,compensa-           ing have been discussed at length in different
                                    tions should be discontinued gradually as the              places: the industry's technological needs are
                                    offshore mining industry becomes self-sustaining.          found in the report of the Panel on Marine
                                                                                               Engineering and Technology; the importance of
                                    -Minerals mined by U.S. companies in inter-                environmental data and prediction services is
                                    national waters should not be subject to import            discussed in the petroleum section of this chapter;
                                    duties and restrictions. To consider such minerals         and the need for clarification of jurisdiction in
                                    to be of foreign origin would impose an undue              offshore areas is emphasized in Chapter 3 of this
                                    burden on the infant industry.                             report, in the Panel Report on Management and
                                    -The existence of multiple use conflicts poses a           Development of the Coastal Zone, and in the
                                    possible barrier to ocean mining. Because no               International Panel Report.
                                    strong industry represents offshore mining activi-         V. FISHING
                                    ties, established interests probably will voice
                                    strong objections to such ventures. Problems will          A. Fundamental Position
                                    arise not only from existing regulatory policies
                                                                                                  Fishing as an occupation is as old as mankind.
                                    but from traditional users of the ocean for
                                    navigation, fishing, and recreation, from conserva-        In this country it has evolved through the years
                                    tion. groups, and from owners of pipelines and             with the Nation's economy and politics. Two
                                    communication cables.                                      important U.S. fisheries, tuna and shrimp, are
                                                                                               economically strong and healthy; several other
                                       Encouragement from Federal, State, and local            segments of the industry are almost as vigorous;
                                    governments will be needed in a variety of such            and still others are marginal. Vie industry often
                                    multiple use conflicts. For example, water quality         has been called sick, but this description is
                                    standards now being set by States rarely consider          misleading. It is not a single industry, but a group
                                    the possibility of offshore mining operations. A           of diverse industries, each with its own peculiar
                                    time may arise in the future when pollution                problems and economic situation.
                                    regulations inadvertently prevent a company from              These industries have some serious common
                                    carrying out a profitable offshore niining venture         problems which probably will lead to progressive
                                    simply because mining was not considered when              deterioration if not checked. Some are world
                                    the law was formed.
                                                                                               problems, common to all sea-fishing nations.
                                    -The Coast Guard should review its requirements            Others are strictly domestic problems which.place
                                    for operation of special vessels at sea. Indications       the U.S. fishing industry in a weak international
                                    are that the present regulations, particularly with        competitive position. In some areas the industry is
                                    regard to minimum crew size, are.unrealistic where         subject to international treaties as well as a maze
                                    applied to offshore mining operations. The regula-         of U.S., State, and local regulations.
                                    tions may burden the operator with an additional              Fish are a freely available, renewable resource.
                                                                                               Although found at all depths and throughout the
                                    and perhaps unnecessary cost.                              world's oceans, most desirable species are concen-
                                    -Navigation systems sponsored by the Federal               trated near coasts.19 Even the coastal fisheries,
                                    Government, although extremely useful to off-               19'Me ratio of U.S. catch beyond coastal fisheries to
                                    shore mining companies, do not provide sufficient          total catch is about 10 per cent in tonnage with about 15
                                    accuracy for some types of exploratory surveys. In         per cent in value. If statistics on U.S. flag tuna landed in
                                                                                               Puerto Rico were included, the percentage would be
                                    many types of delineation or recovery, extreme             soinewhat higher.

                                    V-34

                       however, may be impaired by operation of foreign         craft of which 12,000 are over 5 tons. Unfortu-
                       vessels in adjacent waters because fish migrate          nately, about 60 per cent of the vessels were built
                       between zones. The definition and protection of          over 16 years ago. There are about 128,000
                       U.S. rights within various fisheries constitute a        fishermen in the United States.
                       major responsibility of Government.                          The law requires fishermen to use U.S.-built
                           A second major Government obligation is to           vessels to make domestic landings. Capital invest-
                       establish measures to develop and conserve fish-         ment in the industry has been low in spite of a
                       eries resources. Often this requires difficult choices   vessel subsidy program, a Fisheries Loan Fund,
                       between the rights of groups of commercial and           and a Mortgage Insurance Program (under which
                       sport fishermen and between fishing and other uses       the Government guarantees repayment of fishing
                       of the marine environment. Within coastal waters,        vessel mortgages).
                       abatement of pollution and preservation of natural           Widely disparate trends exist within this diverse
                       habitats are matters of major concern.                   industry. America's large integrated food compa-
                           To further orderly fisheries development, U.S.       nies are able, within the present legal/regulatory
                       and State governments for many years have                environment, to manage highly efficient opera-
                       conducted programs to locate and define fisheries        tions for processing and distributing fish for
                       resources, improve basic understanding of marine         domestic needs. On the other hand, many U.S.
                       life, and improve catching, processing, and market-      fishermen, small independent companies, and
                       ing technology. The budget of the U.S. Bureau of         small cooperatives operating U.S.-flag vessels off
                       Commercial Fisheries for these activities totaled        this Nation's coasts have not participated success-
                       $50.5 million in fiscal year 1969. In addition,          fully in the growing U.S. demand for fish pro-
                       State and local governments spend sizable amounts        ducts. This has diminished employment opportu-
                       on fisheries development.                                nities and placed a drain on foreign exchange. The
                           In some fisheries, conservation legislation has      panel urges that the domestic industry be assisted
                       been used to curtail competition and siifle innova-      in achieving a higher level of efficiency to enable it
                       tion such that an excessive effort is required to        to compete more effectively and serve a larger
                       take the available catch. The efficiency of some         share of the U.S. market.
                       fisheries subject to potential depletion could be
                       improved by establishing in advance the rights of
                       participants to shares of a given fishery, enabling      B. Investment, Sales, and Production
                       each to take his share in the most efficient             1. Investment and Sales
                       manner.
                           Fishing is an international business. Many U.S.          The total domestic investment in fishing vessels
                       processors depend heavily on foreign sources Of          and processing plants is estimated at $1.5
                                                                                       20
                       fish, permitting econon-des which would be un-           billion.    In addition, U.S. corporations have
                       available if the industry were forced to operate         substantial investments in fishing vessels and plants
                       within the strictures of a high tariff or nontrans-      in foreign countries.
                       ferrable national quota system. However, foreign             The U.S. commercial catch at dockside was
                       competition in domestic markets has contributed          valued at approximately $438 million in 1967
                       to the diminishing proportion of the total world         with shellfish (primarily shrimp), tuna, and salmon
                       catch taken by U.S. vessels.                             comprising about 70 per cent. This. compares to
                           Ten years ago the U.S. ranked second in the          1966's $472 Million and 69 per cent. The 1967
                       world in tonnage of fish      landings. Currently it     retail value in the United States of all fishery
                       ranks sixth behind Peru, Japan, RedChina, the            products (both domestic and imported) was al-
                       Soviet Union, and Norway. Even though U.S.               most $2.6 billion .21
                       fishermen concentrate on high value species, the
                       United States still ranks only third or fourth in
                       value of fish landed.                                       20 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
                           The United States has the world's second                21 Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial
                       largest fishing fleet, consisting of 76,000 powered Fisheries.

                                                                                                                                  V-35

                                     2. Fish Production Versus U.S. Consumption                  can begin to take advantage of the growing
                                        Profound changes have occurred since World               demand by fully utilizing the wealth of available
                                     War 11 in the utilization of the world's fishery            resources.
                                     resources. World catch has tripled from 43 billion
                                                                       22                        3. Foreign Trade
                                     pounds to 125 billion pounds,        yet catch by the
                                     U.S. industry has remained relatively stable, be-              In 1967 the United States imported $708
                                     tween 4 and 6 billion pounds (round weight)                 million of fish and exported $84 million, for a net
                                                                                                                                  .24         -six per
                                     despite U.S. consumption nearly tripling in the             dollar outflow of $626 million       Seventy
                                     same period. Fishing activities by many nations,            cent by value of the fish products imported are
                                     especially Japan and Russia, have been extended             food fish, most of which comes from Canada,
                                     to U.S. coasts. Total foreign catch in waters fished        apan, Mexico, and South America.
                                     by U.S. fishermen now far exceeds the U.S. catch            J  Many U.S. processors depend heavily on foreign
                                     from these waters and is expected to increase               sources of fish. In fact, fish processing in the
                                     considerably.                                               United States increased the import product value
                                        Imports to meet the rising U.S. demand have              by $430 million last year. Thus any analysis of the
                                     increased dramatically from 26 per cent of total            foreign trade problem should consider the value
                                     supply in 1960 to 71 per cent in 1967. Yet, the             added to the food product within the United
                                     U.S. coasts are adjacent to some of the most                States as well as the price paid to foreign fisher-
                                     productive and abundant fishery resources in the            men.
                                     world and the U.S. market is the largest and most              The U.S. fishing industry is expanding foreign-
                                     lucrative in the world. Expectations are that U.S.          based operations. Some reasons for this include
                                     consumption will grow steadily, reaching 21 bil-            diversification, better profits than at home in
                                     lion pounds by 1985 and 31 billion pounds by the
                                     year 2000.  23                                              many cases, and encouragement by foreign govern-
                                        Statistics on fisheries supply available to domes-       ments.
                                     tic fishermen are not generally well known because
                                     the research required for reasonable stock assess-          C. Nature of the Industry
                                     ment has been done on only a few species.                   1. Components of the Industry
                                     Conservative estimates indicate that fishery re-
                                     sources off the U.S. coast are adequate to support             The industry consists of several segments, in-
                                     a total annual sustainable yield (available to all          cluding fishermen, vessel owners, wholesale dealers
                                     fishermen) of about 30 billion pounds, including            and brokers, and processors. The fishermen crew
                                     marketable species not being fished now. Depend-            the vessel. Particularly when small vessels are
                                     ing on the definition of marketable species, some           involved, the captain may also be the boat owner.
                                     estimate this total to be as high as 45 billion             With larger and more expensive vessels the owners
                                     pounds.                                                     usually will not be the fishermen. The processors
                                        The production and consumption statistics for            usually do not own their own fleet and are not
                                     the domestic fishing industry are compiled in               tending to become boat owners. The wholesalers
                                     Table 3, covering the period back to 1945.                  and brokers handle a great deal of imported fish
                                     Summarizing, the picture is as follows: annual              and often add some processing, functioning as
                                     production of four to six billion pounds, static for        distributors and merchandisers. In general, the
                                     nearly 30 years; market for about 14 billion                fishing industry is substantially fragmented into
                                     pounds, growing at a much more rapid rate than              many fishing, processing, and distributing firms in
                                     population; and resources available for a total             port cities with a number of merchandising firms
                                     catch of at least 30 billion pounds per year. The           in the interior as well. Processing companies often
                                     question then arises as to how the domestic fishery         extend credit to selected fishermen to purchase
                                                                                                 gear, construct new vessels, or renovate old ones.
                                       12 Ibid.
                                       2313epartment of the Interior, "Commercial Fisheries
                                     Federal Aid to States," Circular No. 286, Washington,       24 Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial
                                     D.C., February 1968, p. 8.                                  Fisheries.

                                     V-36

                                                                                                                      Table 3
                                                                                 UTILIZATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES,
                                                                                                         SELECTED YEARS, 1945-67

                                                                                                      1945                  1950             1955            1960             1965             1967
                                   Population, Millionsl     . . . . . . . . . .                      129.1                 150.2            162.3           178.2            191.9            195.7

                                                                                                                                     Edible Fish (round weight)
                                   Domestic Catch, Million lbs.                                       3,167                 3,307            2,579           2,498            2,586            2,385
                                     Imports, Million lbs    .. . . . . . . . . .                      6803                 1,128            1,332           1,766            2,576            2,683
                                         Total, Million lbs  . . . . . . . . . .                      3,847                 4,435            3,911           4,264            5,162            5,068
                                     Per Capita Use, lbs. .       .I. . . . . . . .                    29.8                 29.5             24.1            23.9             26.9             25.9
                                         (meat weight)  2    . . . . . . . . . .                       (9.9)                0,12)            00.5)           (10.3)           00.9)            00.6)

                                                                                                                                    Industrial Fish (rou.nd weight)
                                   Domestic Catch, Million lbs    . . . . . . . . .                   1,431                 1,594            2,230           2,444            2,190            1,677
                                     Imports, Million lbs    .. ... . . . . . . .                         3  14             639              980             1,515            3,182            7,442
                                         Total, Million lbs  . . . . . . . . . .                      1,462                 2,233            3,210           3,959            5,372            9,119
                                     Per Capita Use, lbs  ... . . . . . . . . .                        11.3                 14.9             19.8            22.2             28.0             46.6

                                                                                                                                      Total Fish (round weight)

                                   Domestic Catch, Million lbs    . . . . . . . . .                   4,598                 4,901            4,809           4,942            4,776            4,062
                                     Imports, Million lbs    .. . . . . . . . . .                      711                  1,767            2,312           3,281            5,758          10,125
                                         Total, Million lbs  . . . . . . . . . .                      5,309                 6,668            7,121           8,223          10,534           14,187
                                     Per Capita Use, lbs. :  . . . . . . . . ....                      41.1                 44.4             43.9            46.1             54.9             72.5
                                   Source: Compiled by the Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
                                   IJuly 1 population eating from civilian supplies, excluding armed forces overseas: beginning 1950-50 States.
                                   2Computed per capita consumption on edible or meat weight basis with allowances for exports and changes in beginning and end-of-year stocks.
                                   3Estimate based on 1946 relationship of round to imported product weight.
                                   4Estimate based on 1946 ratio of round weight to industrial product weight.

                                      There is no National organization representing          total integration of the fishing industry from the
                                   all the interests of the processing, distributing, and     ocean to the supermarket.
                                   marketing sections of the industry, although most            The trend to emphasize products having Na-
                                   firms are members of either the National Fisheries         tional distribution is increasing. The fish products
                                   Institute or the National Canners Association, or          involved must be obtainable in large volume from
                                   occasionally both. A number of local trade organi-         a sound resource base and also must have broad
                                   zations are in the larger fisheries, such as salmon,       customer acceptance.
                                   tuna, shrimp, menhaden and lobster.
                                      Vessel owners group together in local associa-          D. Problems and Recommendations
                                   tions, mostly on a port or regional level, organized         The Marine Resources Act sets among its
                                   under the Fishermen's Cooperative Act of 1934.             objectives the "rehabilitation of our commercial
                                   Functions of such associations vary greatly from           fisheries." The panel believes that in attempting to
                                   marketing to the provision of such benefits as             achieve this objective the Nation should build on
                                   discounts through group purchasing. Several at-            strength. However, the panel also believes that
                                   tempts have been made to create a National vessel          steps taken to solve critical problems can yield
                                   owners association, but without success.                   substantial gains for weaker segments of the
                                                                                              industry, enabling them to take a larger portion of
                                   2. Recent Trends                                           the available catch off U.S. shores.
                                      As re 'cently as 1960 only one U.S. firm engaged        I Access to Fisheries Resources
                                   in the fish trade with as much as $100 million o
                                   -business per year; a. few had $50 million per year;         Fish are treated in both National and inter-
                                   the majority had $10 million or less per year.             national law as a common property resource. The
                                   Around 1960 food firms began diversifying                  law of the industry has been: "First come, first
                                   through purchase or amalgamation with fish firms.          served." Action taken to moderate the ill effects
                                   Today principal firms in the fish trade have sales         of this situation has often been aimed toward
                                   between $0.5 and $1.5 billion a year        .2 5 These     maintaining the position of large numbers of
                                   developments are giving the U.S. fishing industry a        individual fishermen by restricting fishing tech-
                                   new character-more adequate access to capital;             niques. Consequently, excessive, uneconomical
                                   National and international scale thinking; mer-            harvesting effort now is applied to many species.
                                   chandising rather than production orientation; and           A more rational approach to achieving reason-
                                   better management.                                         able competition in taking common-property re-
                                      Large U.S. fish firms customarily have avoided          sources is recommended in the Resources Panel
                                   ,ownership of fishing vessels, although the practice       report. In that report an effort to apply the
                                   has differed in various sections of the industry. All      limited entry principle to those U.S. fisheries
                                   segments, however, extend credit to fishermen for          subject to potential depletion is recommended.
                                   seasonal operations, vessel acquisition, new vessel        Policies should be adopted to restrict fishing units
                                   construction, and other purposes. The changing             to a certain number, each of maximum efficiency.
                                   character of the industry is diminishing this              Controlling entry of fishing vessels should permit
                                   practice.                                                  more effective management of the resource. Over
                                      Many large firms now beginning to predominate           the long term, production costs should be reduced
                                   in the fish trade have extensive holdings in foreign       and earning power improved. This panel concurs in
                                   operations. They buy raw material to their qu@lity         such recorruriendations. Mechanisms through
                                   standards from that source having the optimum              which shares of the resource could be assigned
                                   combination of cost and reliability. However,              include license fees and bidding for rights.
                                   recent history does not indicate a strong trend to
                                                                                              Recommendation:
                                                                                              A quota or limited entry principle should be pilot
                                      25 Examples: Castle and Cooke acquired Bumble Bee,      tested in selected fisheries. The U.S. Government
                                   Inc.; H. J. Heinz bought StarKist Foods, Inc.; Consoli-    should provide both opportunities and incentives
                                   dated Foods bought Booth Fisheries; Ralston Purina
                                   bought Van Camp Sea Food Company.                          for States and regions to carry out these tests.

                                   V-38

                          2. Fleet Renovation                                        facilities should be introduced. This modernization
                              Inefficiency of the present fleet is a serious         may particularly aid in developing the much
                          industry problem. Although the U.S. fishing fleet          underutilized species as Alaska shrimp, tanner
                          is the world's second largest, about 60 per cent of        crab, and Pacific hake.
                          the vessels are over 16 years.old and 27 per cent          Recommendation:
                          have been in service over 26 years." Advances in           U.S. and State Government policies should be
                          fishing technology during the past few years have          aimed at upgrading the U.S. fishing fleet through
                          made most of the U.S. fleet economically, if not           introduction of vessels with modern equipment.
                          physically, obsolete.
                              In the heterogeneous U.S. fishing industry,            3. High Cost of Vessels and Gear
                          some fisheries, such as tuna and shrimp, have fairly
                          modern fleets. Some fleets. are antiquated and                An important legal barrier in several fisheries is
                          rapidly declining for several reasons.                     Federal legislation requiring U.S. fishermen to
                              The reduction of profits due to reasons of             use U.S.-built vessels to land fish at a U.S. port.
                          foreign competition and/or a declining resource            Until 1948 the law was not of major consequence
                          stands out among the various reasons for the               because the U.S. fisherman often had tariff pro.tec-
                          decline of some segments of the fleet. The prices          tion and rarely competed in the domestic market
                          U.S. fishermen must charge to make a profit can            with foreign fishermen.
                          be undercut by foreign fishermen for one or more              By 1948 domestic inflation contributed to the
                          of the following reasons: lower labor costs, more          drastic change in the competitive situation. Tariff
                          advanced technology, and subsidies from their              protection became inconsequential in many fish-
                          governments. In the case of a decreasing resource,         eries and foreign policy prohibited increased pro-
                          overfishing and reduced yields soon result from            tection. Imports of fish from allies were encour-
                          the inability of vessels and fishermen to adapt to         aged to bolster their dollar earning capacity.
                          other, underutilized species. This reduction Of            Lower shipyard costs abroad accentuated the
                          profits tends to diminish the ability of those in the      vessel cost difference. Rapid rebuilding of war-
                          fishery to afford technological improvements or            destroyed fleets, often financed through U.S. aid
                          new vessels of greater utility.                            programs, resulted in new, more efficient vessels in
                              Where U.S. fisheries are overfished, considera-        principal competing countries. Improved freezer
                          tion should be given to retirement of old vessels as       facilities made long distance shipment practical.
                          new ships are introduced. The new ships, in turn,             Because of the domestic vessel construction
                          should be designed for ready conversion to other           law, most U.S. fishermen could not buy an
                          fisheries whose stocks are not being depleted.             efficient new vessel at prices paid by foreign
                          Obstacles to this goal are State laws limiting the         competitors. The tuna and shri       mp, industries, an
                          length of vessels for a particular fishery, possibly       exception, have introduced new technology and
                          reducing the vessel's adaptability to other fisheries.     purchased new vessels in sufficient quantity to
                          Such laws should be reconsidered.                          enable domestic shipyards to become competitive
                              Application of better vessel and gear technol-         with those of foreign countries.
                          ogy to overfished stocks will result in a greater rate        Congress has grappled with the problem of
                          of depletion. Fishermen taking such stocks can be          foreign hull restrictions for many years, but varied
                          helped far more through biological research. Such          interests have vigorously opposed repeal of the old
                          research can help ensure that conservation laws            law. A vessel subsidy bill was passed to attempt to
                          and treaties are based on scientific findings and          alleviate the problem but proved ineffective; hence
                          can assist in determining more abundant stocks.            the 88th Congress passed a more practical bill that
                              Where fisheries are not in danger of depletion         remains in effect until June 1969.
                          more modern gear, vessels, and vessel accessories             The present vessel subsidy act still has short-
                          such as detection and navigation equipment, new            comings. Statutory limitations on annual expendi-
                          propulsion systems, and processing and storage             tures prevent subsidy payments to all qualified
                                                                                     applicants. Although the law requires that a
                          26 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.                         vessel's operation will not cause economic hard-

                                                                                                                                         V-39

                                   ship to efficient operators already engaged in the        among the worst handicaps to fisheries develop-
                                   fishery, no provision exists to retire an older vessel    ment.
                                   replaced by the subsidized vessel. Thus, the law             Congress recognized this and by 1956 began to
                                   generates inequities as it corrects others.               ease the fishing industry's credit problem through
                                       The law has worked to the disadvantage of             U.S. Government loan programs. The Fisheries
                                   some aspects of the work of the Bureau of                 Loan Fund Program has been a very effective
                                   Cornmercial Fisheries. In addition, the Bureau has        incentive for U.S. flag fishing at a nominal cost to
                                   not had much control over which fishery would             the Government. It also has removed the fishing
                                   receive subsidy funds. The long-range solution to         vessel owner from dependence on his customers
                                   the vessel cost problem probably will come from           for capital.
                                   increased use of advanced technology and mass                This program is supplemented by a Mortgage
                                   production techniques.                                    Insurance Program. Whereas the Fisheries Loan
                                       Regarding the subsidy program, the Govern-            Fund enables a direct cash loan to the fisherman,
                                   ment should develop guidelines to establish priori-       under the Mortgage Insurance Program the Gov-
                                   ties in handling subsidy applications. For example,       ernment guarantees mortgages used to finance
                                   a major portion of the program should be directed         construction, reconstruction, and reconditioning
                                   to those fisheries not in danger of depletion. It         of fishing vessels. The program provides a vehicle
                                   also should help those in overfished fisheries move       through which the Government can extend assist-
                                   into underutilized fisheries. When appropriate, the       ance without making a direct capital outlay.
                                   subsidy should be applied to distant-water fish-             The fisherman ordinarily will seek a loan from
                                   eries. In all cases modern technological develop-         his customer or from a bank under the Mortgage
                                   ments should be incorporated into the subsidized          Insurance Program. If reasonable financial assist-
                                   vessels and gear.                                         ance applied for commercially is not available,
                                       U.S. fishermen should be permitted to buy             financial assistance may be provided under the
                                   equipment anywhere in the world where they can            Fisheries Loan Fund. The existence of the fund
                                   firid the best combination of price and perform-          thus provides a fisherman with an alternate source
                                   ance. At present, import duties often prevent             of credit.
                                   acquiring such equipment.                                    The fund has been very helpful to hard-pressed
                                                                                             fishermen. Some in the industry contend that the
                                   Recommendation:                                           fund is so popular it frequently "runs out of
                                   Restrictions on the purchase of fishing equipment         money." Authorization for the fund is $20 mil-
                                   abroad should be removed. Legislation should be           lion; however, $13 million was appropriated in
                                   enacted to permit U.S. fishermen to purchase              1968. On various occasions lending has been
                                   vessels in foreign shipyards; if it is decided not to     restricted to an even lesser amount because of
                                   repeal the restrictive laws, the vessel construction      overall Government expenditure limitations.
                                   subsidy program should be expanded and modified              Both the Fisheries Loan Fund and the Mortgage
                                   to provide for retirement of older vessels.               Insurance Program should be retained. Favorable
                                                                                             consideration should be given those fishermen who
                                   4. Availability of Capital and Credit                     are or intend to become involved with underuti-
                                                                                             lized species having commercial potential.
                                       The credit problems of fish processing, distrib-
                                   uting, and marketing are no different than those of       5. Legal/Regulatory
                                   any other industry and the normal financial
                                   institutions have served these segments well. How-           Among the most serious problems facing the
                                   ever, the fishing segment of the industry has not         U.S. fishing industry are the laws and regulations
                                   been so fortunate, witnessing a relative scarcity of      that prevent increases in efficiency. These restric-
                                   capital since World War Il. Following the war,            tions have resulted from a combination of at-
                                   bankers everywhere became reluctant to finance            tempts at conservation, competition among fisher-
                                   fishing vessels. During the low-profit period from        men for limited supplies of particular species, and
                                   1948 through 1960, and still existing in several          competition between commercial and sport fisher-
                                   fisheries, fishing vessel financing problems were         men for certain species.

                                   V40

                               Except for fisheries managed under interna-               are caught each year (U.S. and foreign) and the
                            tional convention, U.S. fisheries are regulated by           maximum sustainable yield is at least 30 billion
                            the States under a maze of regulations adopted               pounds per year. Some estimate the potential yield
                            over the years, many for reasons long-forgotten.             of underutilized resources as high as 45 billion
                            Numerous State and local laws and regulations                pounds annually. Given proper incentives, within
                            were designed to protect established small-boat              three years the industry should be able to increase
                            Mermen by restricting the use of efficient de-               its present annual catch by 20 per cent and within
                            vices.                                                       10-20 years by several hundred per cent. Much of
                               Such laws increase fish production costs in the           the increased yield would include species presently
                            United States. For example, laws and regulations             used and close relatives not yet utilized. Examples
                            forbid the use of traps to capture salmon; prohibit          of underutilized species include Alaska shrimp,
                            the taking of herring or anchovy for reduction               scallops and tanner crab; Pacific . and Gulf
                            purposes; limit the size and nature of nets; and             anchovy; Gulf and Atlantic thread herring; Pacific
                            forbid the use of sonar to detect fish schools. Such         hake; and Tropical Atlantic and Pacific skipjack
                            restrictions must be eliminated. The States' in-             tuna.
                            terest in the problem is beginning to grow and                  These fish could be exploited more econom-
                            must be encouraged.                                          ically if comprehensive surveys were initiated and
                               Several avenues are available to fosterrepeal of          kept up to date to establish the parameters of the
                            outmoded State laws and regulations. One is to               resource. Rapid action and strong financial sup-
                            develop improved knowledge and understanding of              port are required. The last survey was authorized
                            the ocean and its living resources to guide State            by Congress in 1944 and completed in 1945.
                            legislators and administrators in improving conser-          Depending upon the fishery stock in question, the
                            vation regulations. The Sea Grant. Program should            new surveys proposed may review existing know]-
                            help augment the. technical capabilities of State            edge and/or study the resource itself to acquire
                            fishery officials, through support of fishery                new knowledge. Sport fisheries also should be
                            sciences and education in State universities, which,         included because of the ecological interaction
                            in turn, should provide better advice regarding              between all stocks in a given area.
                            fisheries regulations.                                       Recommendation:
                               Problems of conservation and preservation of              The Government should initiate and sponsor con-
                            natural habitats are not always local, but rather are        tinuing surveys of U.S. coastal and distant-water
                            often interstate in scope. As indicated in the               fishery resources, including sport fisheries.
                            Marine Resources Panel report, the tendency
                            toward parochialism in the individual States has             7. Pollution
                            led to fragmented solutions to fishery problems.                Pollution   of the Great Lakes, estuaries, bays,
                            For example, the East Coast States are unable to             and certain offshore areas has a serious and
                            agree on a management program in the menhaden                increasingly  critical impact on domestic fisheries.
                            Mery despite evidence of depletion. In such cases            The panel endorses the pollution abatement pro-
                            a comprehensive unified management plan is re-               posals made in the Panel Report on Management
                            quired.                                                      and Development of the Coastal Zone and in the
                               Accordingly, this panel recommends that a                 Marine Engineering and Technology Panel Report
                            mechanism be established under which the U.S.                and emphasizes that these actions can help to
                            Government can require the development by the                achieve the goal of rehabilitating commercial
                            States of coordinated management measures for                fisheries.
                            interstate fisheries subject to potential depletion if       8. Information Exchange      27
                            and when the States fail to meet the responsibility             Before scientific research and discoveries can
                            themselves. Similar Federal-State mechanisms have            become an operational part of an industry's
                            been established in the past.                                -knowledge and capability, the industry must be
                            6. Surveys                                                     27 The subject of fishing technology is discussed in
                               U.S. coastal waters contain some of the richest           further detail in the Report of the Panel on Marine
                            fishing grounds in the world. Seven billion pounds           Engineering and Technology.

                                                                                                                                               V-41

                                    able to -use the technology. This ability may be            aquatic plants and animals in a controlled environ-
                                    limited by such factors as lack of technical                ment or a modified ecological system. Modifica-
                                    knowledge and capital, marginality of profits, lack         tions to the natural ecology include those due to
                                    of available peripheral equipment, environmental            temperature, artificial feeding, use of barriers for
                                    and institutional peculiarities, obsolete laws and          containment or predator control, and selective
                                    regulations, and tradition.                                 breeding. Although the prevailing concept of
                                      . In the past 20 years, and increasingly so in the        aquaculture is growing selected, species of fish in
                                    last few years, new materials and techniques have           fresh-water ponds, operations exist in rivers, estu-
                                    been incorporated in a few fishing vessels, includ-         aries, and marshlands, and there is definitely a
                                    ing improved propulsion units, greater refrigera-           potential for the open ocean.
                                    tion capabilities, better location and catching gear,           In the United States the present level of activity
                                    and better sea-keeping qualities. The summation of          is low compared with that in Asia, especially China
                                    all these new discoveries could have had a revolu-          and Japan, but nevertheless a variety of plants and
                                    tionary effect on the construction of fishing               animals is being cultivated. Reliable and compre-
                                    vessels and the reduction in the cost per ton of fish       hensive statistics on sales of aquacultural products
                                    production had they entered the fishing industry            in the United States are available only in a few
                                    more rapidly.                                               selected instances.
                                       The governments of such countries as Russia,                 The panel estimates that the total U.S. whole-
                                    Japan, and West Germany have programs to adapt              sale value was% in excess of $50 million in 1967,
                                    new technology to fishing industry needs which              but this can vary widely, with the definition.of
                                    have helped their industries thrive. Only minimal           aquaculture. Sales of farmed trout and catfish in
                                    programs have been sponsored by the U.S. Govern-            1967 each exceeded $7 million wholesale, bait
                                    ment. However, the panel notes and commends                 minnows exceeded $8 millionj and oysters from-!@
                                                                                                                                                   28
                                    the recent exchange agreement between the Navy              managed, private lands exceeded $13 million.
                                    and the Department of the Interior 'to study                    In addition, a variety of operations involve
                                    advanced acoustic technology in fish detection              salmon, black bass, pompano, mullet, clams,
                                    and adapation of fleet environmental prediction             scallops, prawns, lobsters, shrimp, and other
                                    techniques to forecast fish location. The panel             animal species, as well as several kinds of seaweed.
                                    urges that similar steps be takenj within the                   Statistics on capital investment in U.S. aquacul-
                                    constraints of security, to accelerate the adapta-          ture projects are elusive due to the great variety of
                                    tion of other pertinent military research to the            situations and the often proprietary nature of the
                                    domestic fishing industry.          I                       information. Both expanding research efforts and
                                       In addition, much information- gathered by               reduction of labor costs in commercial operations
                                    scientists in work in biological and conservation           will result in a sharp increase in the demand for
                                    research has potential to reduce fishermen's pro-           capital. The-, companies - involved are generally
                                    duction costs substantially. There is, however, no          small, but the situation is changing rapidly as some
                                    satisfact'ory mechanism to readily translate the            of the largest companies in the United-States now
                                    results of Government technology or scientific              are beginning to explore aquaculture opportuni-
                                    information to the fishermen.                               ties. This trend will bring some needed capital as
                                    Recommendation:                                             opportunities for profit are discovered.             One
                                    A field service mechanism should be established by          State recently estimated that several companies
                                    the U.S. Government analogous to the cooperative            have considered investments-in fixed facilities in
                                    State-Federal extension service administered by             excess of $100 million in different aquaculture
                                    the Department of Agriculture in order to facili-           projects; the commitment awaits favorable out-
                                    tate traiisfer of technically useful information to         come of present research efforts and removal of
                                                                                                                                                 29
                                    fishermen at the local level.                               some political, legal, and regulatory barriers.

                                    V1. AQUACULTURE
                                    A. Present Status                                            28 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
                                       Aquaculture in the United States today consists             29
                                                                                                    Florida Development Commission, Tallahassee, Flor-
                                    of a small, scattered but growing effort to raise           ida, October 1968.

                                    V-42

                            The panel's interest in the growth of aquacul-          third dimension that can improve productivity per
                         ture is from the standpoint of its potential for           unit of surface area.
                         profitable industrial ventures. It has been stated            Aquaculture also has some advantages over
                         frequently that aquaculture can help solve the             conventional fishing that enable it to supplement
                         world hunger and malnutrition problem; however,            the catch of fish and shellfish. Since most areas
                         in the United States early emphasis will be on the         desired for aquacultural use are within U.S, juris@
                         most profitable species, clearly the high-valued           diction, there is no foreign competition for the
                         finfish and shellfish.                                     resource as in some fish stocks. Because a degree
                            There is a rapidly growing demand for seafood           of exclusive rights can be assigned to the "aqua-
                         in general, but the greatest growth is for the high        farmer," and thus he need not rely on a common
                         priced species. As the demand grows, some tradi-           property resource, the incentive is increased to
                         tional fisheries are declining, and many of the            Improve profits through gaining proprietary
                         natural grounds for shellfish are being destroyed          knowledge leading to greater efficiency. In addi-
                         by such other uses as waste disposal, land-fill, and       tion, in aquaculture there is a potential to harvest
                         dredging. At the same time, research has shown             more frequently, to harvest in seasons that do not
                         many areas where vast improvements are possible            compete with the marketing of natural stocks, and
                         in the technology of aquaculture. Examples in-             to control the environment, assuring greater relia-
                         'clude genetic control to improve the quality,             bility in the quantity and quality of the supply.
                         growth rate, and adaptability of various species to        B. Problems and Recommendations
                         different environmental conditions, and the possi-            The growth of this industry is influenced by
                         bility of using presently wasted sources of nutri-         man factors, many of which center around a
                         ents and heat to effect economical control of local            y
                                                                                    widely-scattered and insufficient knowledge of an
                         envfforiments.                                             extremely complex ecological system.
                            Thus, with a growing demand for seafood, an                Lack of thorough understanding of ecological
                         uncertain natural supply of some species to meet           systems is usually the first problem. Research in
                         this demand, and potential for vast improvements'          marine ecology is expensive, and its performance
                         in aquacultural technology, prospects for profit-          requires trained personnel and considerable time.
                         able ventures are increasing-                              The task's magnitude and the unknown probabil-
                            Aquaculture has many         advantages for food        ity of finding commercial applications- generally
                         production. A major impact of aquaculture lies in          places this research beyond the limits of industry's
                         its extreme productivity per acre-a capability that        risk tolerance. There are many exceptions to,this,
                         can lead to considerably larger yields of high-grade       but developing sufficient ecological knowledge to
                         animal protein than fertile dry land.                      stimulate commercial interest remains an appropri-
                            The advantages of aquaculture for food produc-          ate area for Federal and State government support.
                         tion arise in part from readily available nutrients        An important parallel lies in the large amount of
                         and water. A basic problem, however, is proper             publicly supported agricultural research. Govern-
                         management of these resources. Research has                ment funds for basic research, channeled mostly
                         shown that the combination of these ingredients            through the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, are
                         can be very productive due especially to the fact          not adequate to truly stimulate this industry. The
                         that there is inherently a constant supply of water.       panel therefore recommends that the modest
                         If nutrients are in the water, marine organisms            fundS30 presently available for aquaculture re-
                         have a continuous opportunity to use them as               search be increased several fold within the. next
                         contrasted to most land organisms that can absorb          five years.
                         nutrients only when carried to them intermittently            Industry is much more willing to undertake
                         by water. In addition, most marine animals are             applied research programs, and many are in prog-
                         -.poikilotherms (cold-bloods), and because less en-        ress. Often they are funded by a combination of
                         ergy is wasted in heat production, they are often          industry, university, State, and U.S. Government
                         more efficient in conversion of their food intake
                         to edible weight. Finally., forms of aquaculture            30 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries budget devoted to
                         that use the water column obviously have added a           aquaculture was $2.7 minion in FY 1968.

                                                                                                                                       V-43
                               333-091 0-69-4

                                   money. The National Science Foundation's Sea             tants on the ecology of nearshore areas and
                                   Grant College Program, in fact, has reviewed many        stronger efforts to control the harmful factors are
                                   more applications for applied aquaculture research       urgently needed. Vigorous Government support
                                   than it could fund. The panel recommends that            through studies and provision of controls is clearly
                                   the Sea Grant College Program be given greater           necessary. Water is often polluted because the cost
                                   funding to enable sponsorship of a larger percent-       of abatement is greater than the readily measured
                                   age of qualified applications.                           economic value of alternative uses; as aquaculture
                                      Work in estuarine or ocean areas encounters           increases in importance, it may provide much of
                                   another serious obstacle-ownership or rights to          the positive economic impact needed to counter
                                   exclusive use of the water column or seabed.             pollution.
                                   Exclusive rights @sually are essential to any aqua-         Some forms of acluaculture have existed for
                                   culture project, but often difficult to obtain. The      many years, but relative to the potential, aquacul-
                                   problem is acute within waters under State juris-        ture is a new and exciting field. In the United
                                   diction and will in time become so in waters under       States the effort is widely scattered, not only in
                                   U.S. Government control. Few provisions or prece-        States with seacoasts but throughout the Nation.
                                   dents assign exclusive rights to the seabed or water     At present there is, no strong central effort for
                                   column for such uses, and many established               aquaculture either within the industry or within
                                   interests, such as fishing, recreation, and conserva-    the U_S_ Government. The creation of such a focus
                                   tion, regard aquaculture as a conflicting use of         is essential to improve communication among
                                   given areas. The panel identified several cases          governments at all levels, the academic commu-
                                   where investments in aquaculture were thwarted           nity, and industry. It will assist guidance of
                                   for either legal or political reasons although           research efforts and documentation and dissemina-
                                   conflicts of use were minimal. In these cases the        tion of technology, and prevent unnecessary dupli-
                                   degree of exclusivity required was not great and         cation of effort.
                                   the area involved was infinitesimal compared to             The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF)
                                   total water resources available.                         would be the appropriate focus in the U.S.
                                      It is recommended that the State and Federal          Government. BCF already performs some research
                                   governments encourage the use of marine waters           and provides funds to States for extension pro-
                                   for aquaculture projects when they do not inter-         grams under the Commercial Fisheries Research
                                   fere with more important uses. Seasteading (see          and Development Act of 1964. However, BCF
                                   Chapter 3) is a means to encourage such projects         never has been in a position to fund a strong
                                   in U.S. territorial waters by making provisions for      aquaculture program because its primary responsi-
                                   granting exclusive use rights.                           bility was for commercial fishing which, indeed,
                                      Inadequate technology also is a deterrent to          requires much attention.
                                   many types of aquaculture. Mechanical, physical,            Therefore, the panel recommends that the
                                   chemical, or biological methods of containment,          Bureau of Commercial Fisheries be given more
                                   of excluding predators, and of harvesting have not       specific responsibility for investigating aquaculture
                                   been developed to the point of being economically        programs; this must be backed with sufficient
                                   acceptable in many proposed aquaculture systems.         funds as recommended earlier. Pilot projects to
                                   Many of these problems will be solved in conjunc-        establish research facilities and develop basic tech-
                                   tion with the basic and applied ecological studies,      niques appear warranted, and BCF well might
                                   and others will be solved by industry through            contract such projects to industry or universities.
                                   engineering development programs when basic              Without increased support of this type, the com-
                                   research indicates potential and identifies specific     mercial potential for aquaculture may not be
                                   needs.                                                   realized as soon as this panel considers possible
                                      Pollution. threatens or already has destroyed         and desirable.
                                   many attractive sites for aquaculture as well as         V11. SEA TRANSPORTATION
                                   natural spawning grounds. However, possibly some
                                   present-day forms of chemical and thermal poHu_          A- Present Status
                                   tion may actually enhance certain programs. In-             The primary components of the U.S. sea
                                   creased knowledge of the effects of various pollu-       transportation industry are the merchant marine

                                   V-44

                            and th e private shipyards. Merchant marine opera-              Furthermore, although ships under the flags of
                            tions are augmented by such activities as port              Panama, Honduras, and Liberia, the so-called
                            cargo handling. Annual revenue accruing to the              "flags of convenience," are deemed within effec-
                            U.S. merchant marine, which encompasses U.S.-               tive U.S. control, the international political impli-
                            flag vessels operating in coastal and world trade,          cations of U.S. attempts to wrest these ships from
                            amounts to approximately $1.5 billion. If U.S.-             their sponsor nations during peacetime emergen-
                            owned, foreign-flag vessels were included in the            cies are great. Therefore, the panel believes that
                            definition, the revenue figure would be increased           the rapid decline of the U.S.-flag merchant marine
                            by as much as $4 billion, the bulk attributable to          hinders the Nation's ability to support overseas
                            tankers owned by U.S. oil companies.      31                military operations and maintain vital imports in
                               The other main segment of the sea transporta-            time of war.
                            tion industry, the U.S. shipbuilding industry,                  It is important to realize that U.S.-flag shipping
                            includes conversion, repair, and construction of            in the foreign trade is an export commodity. The
                            both naval and merchant vessels. The yearly value           U.S. balance of trade is reduced every time a
                            for this activity exceeds $2.2 billion.31 Various           foreign-flag ship carries trade from a U.S. port.
                            shipyards also have been engaged in designing and               Shipbuilding also is essential as a domestic
                            constructing oil rigs, mining vessels, dredges for          industry during a National emergency, since the
                            the Corps of Engineers, and oceanographic vessels,          need for ships increases rapidly. In terms of
                            cutters, and other ships for the Coast and Geodetic         emergency needs, many believe the Navy building
                            Survey and the Coast Guard.                                 program, constituting more than 75 per cent of
                               Over the past 5-10 years, the small volume of            total construction in private yards, keeps the
                            cargo carried under U.S. flag and the decreasing            domestic shipbuilding industry sufficiently active
                            number of merchant vessels built by domestic                to maintain the needed industrial base. In addi-
                            shipyards have been the subject of considerable             tion, the unused potential in U.S. shipyards can be
                            concern. Several highly respected study groups              mobilized readily in time of war.
                            have analyzed the problems of the U.S. merchant
                            marine, especially such questions as operating and
                            construction differential subsidies and foreign con-        B. Trends
                            struction of U.S.-flag vessels. These problems are
                            extremely complex and deserve more careful,                     Shipbuilding in the United States is a sizable
                            concentrated thought than the panel was able to             industry, becoming more technologically-oriented
                            contribute in light of the broad scope of the               because of the complicated equipment and design
                            Marine Resources and Engineering Development                required for naval vessels which are more complex
                            Act.                                                        than merchant ships. However, the industry does
                               The panel unequivocally believes that strong             not operate at peak capacity or optimum effi-
                            U.S.-flag shipping and private shipbuilding indus-          ciency because most types of vessels are ordered in
                            tries are vital to the National interest. The impor-        very limited numbers. Thus, the pace of capital
                            tance of domestic shipping and shipbuilding be-             investments in updated ship construction facilities
                            comes paramount during times of emergency or                has been in almost direct proportion to the
                            National crisis. In such circumstances, heavy reh-          available level of orders.
                            ance on foreign-flag shipping is not advisable                  However, the recent Navy trend toward multi-
                            though many of the ships may be under nominal               year, multi-ship procurement already has stimu-
                            U.S. ownership.                                             lated capital equipment improvement in shipyards.
                                                                                        If contracting practices for merchant ship con-
                                                                                        struction also followed this pattern, further mod-
                            '31 Laird Durham (A.D. Little, Inc.), "T'he United States   ernization could be expected. When a shipyard
                            Ocean Industries," April, 1966, p. 13.                      receives an order for several ships of a particular
                            32 This figure reflects the value of work done during a     design, the experience and learning acquired in
                            year. Because most shipbuilding contracts extend over       constructing the first few vessels of the series
                            several years, "value of work done" is considered superior
                            to "total cost of ships delivered" as an indicator of       greatly reduces costs and improves efficiency for
                            shipyard productivity. Shipbuilders Council of America.     the remaining vessels.

                                                                                                                                              V-45

                                      One U.S. shipbuilding company has followed          - successfully in international shipping. The concept
                                   the lead of Japan by successfully marketing its          involves technology no more complicated than
                                   own standardized design for a medium-sized               computerized inventory and traffic control. Its
                                   tanker. As of mid-1968, this company had ob-             most outstanding feature is simplicity. Prior to
                                   tained nine contracts for nearly identical vessels.      containerization, a typical overseas cargo shipment
                                   The design-marketing practice has been adopted           was handled at least eight times before secured
                                   by.at least one other major shipyard.                    aboard ship. Containerization has resulted in much
                                      Other ways to minimize costs in sea transporta-       less handling, which in -turn' has led to lower
                                   tion are to build larger ships and utilize nuclear       handling costs and less pilferage.
                                   power. The total energy required to carry a ton of          Containerization also enables a new systems
                                   cargo at a given speed decreases as a vessel's cargo     approach to global transportation. Truck and
                                   capacity increases, reducing cost per ton-mile.          railroad flatcar scheduling can be coordinated with
                                   Although huge tankers and bulk carriers of more          scheduling for containerized ships, thus allowing
                                   than 100,000 deadweight tons are more efficient          large containers to be quickly unloaded and
                                   on the high seas, many harbors around the world          transferred. By minimizing the time a ship spends
                                   are incapable of accommodating such immense              in port, containerization results in great savings to
                                   vessels. In fact, programs to deepen ports now are       the operator and permits ports to handle more
                                   encountering serious physical obstacles, such as         ships and a much greater volume of cargo.
                                   bedrock or highway and railroad tunnels that limit          The impact of containerization can be seen in
                                   dredging depth. Where a harbor cannot be adapted         the fact that 12 per cent of all 1968 foreign
                                   to handle supersbips, it may be necessary to build       commerce handled at New York's piers is contain-
                                   remote terminals offshore or relocate harbor com-        erized, compared to 3 per cent only two years ago.
                                   plexes.                                                  Furthermore, the Port of New York Authority
                                      Nuclear power is another potential way to             estimates that by 1975 half of all cargo brought
                                   increase operational efficiency at sea, especially       into New York Harbor will be handled via contain-
                                   for long-distance, high-speed travel. One big advan-     ers. In view of this projected boom in contain-
                                   tage of nuclear power is that ships can operate          erized shipping, port facilities will have to be
                                   much longer without refueling. Thus, during nor-         up'dated.
                                   mal conditions nuclear ships benefit in time
                                   savings from less frequent stops, and under war-         Vill. INSTRUMENTS
                                   time pressures they need less logistic support for
                                   continued operations.                                    A. Present Status
                                      In addition, nuclear vessels require much less
                                   space for the combination of fuel and power plant           The operation, as well as the monitoring of the
                                   and thus have a greater percentage of their              operation, of oceanographic platforms, test ranges,
                                   displacement available for cargo. Some nations are       equipment, and data systems (in fact, all aspects of
                                   not yet willing to receive nuclear vessels in their      marine science and technology) depends on the
                                   ports for fear of radiation, but it is believed that     availability of diverse types of instrumentation
                                   this will be only a temporary deterrent to the           with adequate cost-performance and reliability
                                   progress of nuclear merchant shipping.                   characteristics. Most important, much of the Na-
                                      Construction of nuclear-powered passenger and         tional investment in ocean programs now and in
                                   cargo ships can be accomplished readily by U.S.          the. foreseeable future will be devoted to meas-
                                   shipyards. The industry has considerable expertise       uring the characteristics of the marine environ-
                                   from building nuclear submarines, cruisers, guided       ment. Reliable, accurate instruments that can be
                                   missile frigates, and aircraft carriers for the Navy,    maintained in proper calibration are a vital factor
                                   not to mention the first nuclear-powered merchant        in the ultimate usefulness of data obtained from
                                   ship, the N. S. Savannah.                                ocean survey programs.
                                      At present, the most heartening recent develop-          Recognition of the importance of reliable ocean
                                   ment in the shipping industry is containerization.       data resulted in the establishment of the National
                                   Two non-subsidized U.S. companies have set the           Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). The data are
                                   pace in this area and have been able to compete          available to the academic, industrial, and govern-

                                   V-46

                         ment sectors and data exchange also has been           -Lack of a common instrument performance 'lan-
                         established with certain foreign countries. Concern    guage" and satisfactory communciations between
                         over proper data processing, archiving, and re-        instrument producers, procurement agencies, data
                         trieval also should be applied to its collection-      collectors, and data users.
                         both to instrumentation and methods employed to        -Present ocean instrument procurement policies.
                         gather data.
                            Most ocean programs have been limited in both
                         staff and budget. As a result, specific program
                         objectives are often compromised and only limited      1. Language and , Communications-Need for
                         instrumentation is procured. Unlike conditions in         Specification Guidelines
                         many other non-oceanographic.programs, such as            Producers, procurement agencies, and users
                         the space program, ocean instrument specifications     require standards and specification guidelines en-
                         are often minimized, meaningful quality assurance      compassing the following:
                         programs are largely nonexistent, and service And
                         maintenance manuals and other documentation               (1) Performance requirements, (2) environ-
                         are often inadequate to meet basic user needs. In         ntal conditions, (3) test procedures, (4) quality
                         addition, statistical information defining condi-      me
                         tions of use, maintenance and repair cycles, and       assurance requirements, (5) design requirements,
                         modes of failure are seldom documented and made        (6) interfacing and/or installation requirements,
                         available to the manufacturer. This, in turn, slows    (7) terminology, (8) formats for specification and
                         down the correction of problem areas and prevents      data, and (9) documentation.
                         the upgrading of performance and reliability in a         Performance requirements should indicate
                         logical manner.                                        types of functions an instrument must perform
                            Past experience shows that user demand for a        and how well these functions must be carried out.
                         particular type of ocean instrument is generally for   Thus, tests will have to measure such items as
                         a limited quantity of highly complex instruments,      repeatability, stability, data rate, accuracy, and
                         often requiring custom design. In such cases,          precision.
                         manufacturing does not lend itself to mass produc-        Additional specifications should be related to
                         tion, one factor that has allowed the small,           an instrument's interaction with various environ-
                         technically oriented firm to compete favorably         mental conditions during operation, storage, and
                         with large corporations. Although large capital        shipping. Therefore, testing would have to ascer-
                         facilities are not always essential to produce         tain the instrument's ability to withstand such
                         marine instruments, expensive facilities are often     environmental aspects as temperature, shock and
                         necessary for development and qualification test-      vibration, pressure, noise, salt spray, and humidity.
                         ing.                                                   Case histories have been compiled showing the
                                                                                seriousness of time lost through equipment failures
                                                                                from such sources as corrosion and shock and
                         B. Specific Problem Areas                              vibration. Developing laboratory tests to simulate
                            The most valid complaints about oceanographic       environmental conditions is difficult, quite com-
                         instruments are their lack of reliability and lack of  plex, and expensive.
                                                                                   For a test procedure specification, for example,
                         user confidence in the data gathered. Many articles
                         have been written and symposia sponsored to            it is necessary to d6fine precisely what constitutes
                         examine the diverse sources of unreliability. One      an acceptance test to determine if each perform-
                         recent meeting identified two primary factors:    33   ance and environmental specification is met satis-
                                                                                factorily by the manufacturer.
                                                                                   Furthermore, oceanographic instruments and
                           33                                                   important components should be classified by
                            Government-Industry-University Symposium on In-     t e, and standard specifications   should be devel-
                         strument Reliability, May 6-7, 1968, Miami, Florida,   yp
                         sponsored by the National Security Industrial          oped for each classification.
                         Association-Ocean Science and Technology Committee        The foregoing indicates types of specifications
                         (OSTAC) Ocean Platform and Instrumentation Subcom-
                         mittee.                                                that could be standardized by      Federal agencies

                                                                                                                                 V-47

                                    responsible for procuring oceanographic instru-                Procurement policies have frequently over-
                                    ments. However, it is imperative that the specifica-        emphasized initial cost because no dependable
                                    tions be reasonable. Current military specifica-            economic and operational performance criteria
                                    tions,    for    instance, would often require              exist to determine the quality and usefulness of a
                                    instruments that are overdesigned or overpriced             given instrument. In addition, procurement specifi-
                                    for commercial applications. These specifications           cations often fail to take into account the total
                                    should provide technical guidance and should not            economic implication of each specification. A
                                    restrict or fteeze a design. Rather, such specifica-        typical example is the requirement for a much
                                    tions should simplify communications among seg-             higher degree of instrument accuracy than is
                                    ments of the oceanic community.                             required.
                                       A large number of independent organizations                 Under present conditions, instrument manufac-
                                    gather and contribute oceanographic data to                 turers frequently do not have-adequate incentive
                                    NODC. Often substantially different experimental            to develop equipment or systems that will be more
                                    results are submitted because their instruments, or         cost-effective to the user. This need not be, since
                                    sensors, while similar, may have been calibrated to         industry can produce reliable equipment at costs
                                    different standards, operated in a different man-           commensurate with high quality. Until procure-
                                    ner,. or their output data may have been processed          ment policies are changed, many instruments of
                                    differently.                                                inherent poor quality will continue to be procured
                                       Some specification guidelines already in exist-          on a low-bid basis.
                                    ence can be applied, with or without modification,             In summary, many instruments perform poorly
                                    to ocean instruments. However, the establishment            under operational condition    's and thus cause need-
                                    of standard ocean instrument specifications is a            less repairs and delays. This latter expe        'nse is
                                    major problem that will require considerable effort         growing rapidly due to ever increasing vehicle
                                    in man-hours and money over a long period until             operating costs. In addition, these instruments
                                    agreement is reached on the acceptability of such           often are not designed to minimize the total
                                    specifications. Voluntary groups have attempted             data cost.
                                    to write specification guidelines, but have gen-
                                    erally failed due to the enormity of the task.              C. Recommendations
                                       The panel recommends establishing a perma-
                                    nently staffed and adequately funded focal point            1. Guidelines
                                    in the Government, preferably in a marine-                     To foster Government procurement of reliable,
                                    oriented agency, to recommend measurement                   cost-effective ocean instruments, the panel recom-
                                    standards, prepare standard specifications, and             mends:
                                    perform tests on oceanographic instruments. Some
                                    efforts of this kind are in progress in the Navy and        _Federal procurement policies should emphasize
                                    the Bureau of Standards.                                    lifetime cost, recommend reasonable performance
                                    2. Procurement Philosophy                                   standards, and require complete, adequate quality
                                                                                                assurance programs by instrument producers.
                                       Measuring characteristics of the marine environ-
                                    ment absorbs a major part of the National invest-           -General guidelines should be developed for pre-
                                    ment in oceanography. The present Federal policy            paring technical specifications for instrument pro-
                                    for developing and acquiring oceanographic instru-          curement, taking into account each category of
                                    mentation appears to minimize initial capital cost          the specifications listed earlier.
                                    rather than total data cost. Thus, inadequate               -The Government should recognize the cost impli-
                                    consideration has been given to the total cost of           cations of particular technical specifications for
                                    obtaining required data, namely the cost to the             data collectors, data processors, and data users.
                                    data collector, processor, and user. It has often
                                    been demonstrated that a more expensive instru-             -Continuing, effective communications should be
                                    ment, by virtue of its versatility and reliability, can     established among the data users, procurement
                                    effect reductions in the ultimate cost of data.             agencies, and instrument manufacturers, encom-

                                    V-4 8

                          passing full exchange of information on opera-         lead role in this area, it is recommended that their
                          tional economics, performance, reliability, and        role be strengthened and broadened. The panel
                          testing procedures.                                    encourages the Navy, working in conjunction with
                          2. Implementation                                      the Bureau of Standards, to act as an interim focal
                          -The needfor oceanographic instrument specifica-       point for tests and standardization activity.
                          tions is urgent. Since the Navy purchases a large      -This function should ultimately be transferred, if
                          number of such instruments and presently has a         necessary, to a civilian marine agency.

                                                                                                                                V-49

                                      Appendix A Acknowledgments

                                         Many persons were contacted by panel and staff members during the preparation of this report. The
                                      following list includes those who made important contributions through interviews, conferences,
                                      submission of written materials, and review of report drafts.' There may have been other persons who
                                      made such contributions, and the panel apologizes for their inadvertent oniission. Although the report
                                      reflects in part these contributions, its recorrunendations are those of this panel and are not necessarily
                                      the views of any specific individuals or organizations.

                                      Name                                             Organization,    Name                                             Organization

                                      Abel, Robert B         ........... National Science Foundation    Connelly, Win          ......... Marine Acoustical Services, Inc.
                                      Adams, C.F             . ................... Raytheon Company     Conner, Don E          ..................... Kelco Company
                                      Allan, Robert M., Jr   ................     Litton Industries     Convers, Charles C     ............    Management Consultant
                                      Allen, Louis           .............. Allen Weather Corporation   Cornell, Mel           ..................... Bull Head Marina
                                      Allen, Sheldon         ........... Freeport Sulphur Company       Cornwell, C.G          . ............. American Hull Insurance
                                      Arnold, K  .......................         Shell Oil Company                                                          Syndicate
                                      Asplin, L.1 . .....................        Shell Oil Company      Cotton, Donald B       ............    D.B. Cotton & Associates
                                      Barrow, Thomas D. (R)      .....   Humble Oil & Refining Co.      Crapo, Stanford T      . ..... Marine Acoustical Services, Inc.
                                      Bascom, Willard (R) . . Ocean Science & Engineering Inc.          Crawford, John E       ...... Crawford Marine Specialists, Inc.
                                      Dauer, Robert V        ........    Global Marine Exploration Co.  Crawford, W.D          .......... Consolidated Edison Company
                                      Bavier, Robert N., Jr  . ............      Yachting Publishing    Cretzler, Don J        ............ Bissett-Berman Corporation
                                                                                       Corporation      Cullison, James S. II (R)   .........  Florida Development
                                      Beckman, Walter C      ......      Alpine Geophysical Associates,                                                   Commission
                                                                                                 Inc.   Danforth, Peter        ....................  Payson & Trask
                                      Beesley, E.N           ........................ Eli Lilly & Co.   Danhof, Clarence (R)    .... George Washington University
                                      Benoit, Richard (R)    ..........   General Dynamics Corp.        Davidson, William H., Jr  ..........   Transcontinental Gas
                                      Berman, Bernard        ..........  Bissett-Berman Corporation                                                    Pipeline Corp.
                                      Boatwright, V.T        ........    General Dynamics Corporation   Davis, Berkley         .............   General Electric Company
                                      Bolin, L.T . ...................           Brown and Root, Inc.   Dean, Gordon (R) . . Bureau of Mines, Department of the
                                      Borch, F.J . ...............       General Electric Company                                                             Interior
                                      Bowen, Hugh M          ........... Dunlap and Associates, Inc..   Dean, Robert           ................. University of Florida
                                      Bramlette, W.A         . .......... Humble Oil & Refining Co.     De Norme, Roger . . Belgian Mission to the United States
                                      Briggs, Robert 0       . ......... The Dillingham Corporation     Derr, Earl D           ......... Royal Globe Insurance Companies
                                      Britain, Kenneth E     ..........  Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co.     Doan, H.D  . ................          Dow Chemical Company
                                      Brockett, E.D          ..................  Gulf Oil Corporation   Dockson, Robert R      . ...........   University of -Southern
                                      Brown, Fred E          .................   Tri-Continental Corp.                                                      California
                                      Brown, Herschel        .................   Lockheed Aircraft      Doig, Keith (R)        .................. Shell Oil Company
                                      Burden, William        ............. Wm. A.M. Burden & Co.        Dole, Hollis (R)       ..... Oregon Department of Geology and
                                      Burgess, Harry C       . ......    Kennecott Copper Corporation                                             Mineral Industries
                                      Burk, Creighton (R)    ...........         Mobil Oil Corporation  Dorsey, B.R            ................... Gulf Oil Corporation
                                      Callaway, Samuel R     ......      Morgan Guaranty Trust Co. of   Drain, J. ...............      Joy Manufacturing Company
                                                                                         New York       Duncan, C.C            ...... American Telephone & Telegraph Co.
                                      Campesi, Nick S        .......................   Divcon, Inc.     Dunlap, Jack W., Jr    . ....... Dunlap and Associates, Inc.
                                      Carney, Thomas         ...............     G.D. Searle Company    Dunlap, Jack W., Sr    . ....... Dunlap and Associates, Inc.
                                      Carsola, Alfred        ............. Lockheed Aircraft Corp.      Edgerton, Harold       ....................    E.G.&G., Inc.
                                      Caubin, Paul J         . ......... Irving P. Krick Associates, Inc. Ensign, Chester (R)  ...........     Copper Range Company
                                      Cawley, John H. (R)    ................      A.D. Little, Inc.    Felando, August        ....... American Tunaboat Association
                                      Chamberlin, Theodore (R)           ......... Ocean Science and    Fisher, Frank R        . ............. Sinclair Oil and Gas Co.
                                                                                   Engineering Co.      Flowers, W.W           ............. Sinclair Research Company
                                      Chambers, Leslie A     . .......   Allan Hancock Foundation       Fortenberry, Jerry P. (R)    .............     Tennessee Gas
                                      Chambers, R.R          ............ Sinclair Research Company                                                Transn-dssion Co.
                                      Channel, R.C           ............. Dunlap and Associates, Inc.  Foster, William C. (R)  ....    ...    Ralston Purina Company
                                      Chapman, W.M. (R)      ....        Nan Camp Sea Food Company      Fox, Joseph M          .............   Merck and Company, Inc.
                                      Charles, Raymond A     . ......    Prudential Insurance Co. of    Francis, Thayer, Jr    ..............  Sippican Corporation
                                                                                            America     Franklin, J.M          ....................... U.S. Lines, Inc.
                                      Cima, Norman E         . .......................    CM2, Inc.     Frautschy, Jeffery D   . ...........   Scripps Institution of
                                      Clark, Robert          ........... Hayden, Stone Incorporated             Oceanography, University of California, San Diego
                                      Clarke, William D      ..........  Westinghouse Electric Corp.    Freeman, N.W           . ...................... Tenneco,lnc.
                                      Cleaver, John C        . .................. Aqua-Chem, Inc.       Frensley, Herbert J    . ............  Brown and Root, Inc.
                                      Clements, William P., Jr  ................       Southeastern     Fuller, Richard C      ................ Bendix Corporation
                                                                                        Drilling CO.    Fulling, Roger W       . ....... E.I.,duPont de Nemours & Co.
                                      Clewell, Dayton        .............       Mobil Oil Corporation
                                      Clotworthy, J.H. . . . National Oceanography Association
                                      Coates, L.D. (R)       ........    Lockheed-California Company    I (R) denotes those persons who reviewed portions of
                                      Coene, G.T. (R)        ..........  Westinghouse Electric Corp.    preliminary drafts of panel material.
                                      Collyer, James         ..................  Raytheon Company
                                      Conant, Melvin         ................    Standard Oil Company   *Deceased.

                                      V-50

                            Name                                               Organization    Name                                               Organization
                            Gaden, Elmer L., Jr        . ............. Columbia University     Ludwig, Daniel K            ..............  National Bulk Carriers
                            Gagnebmi, A.P              . .............. International Nickel Co. Luehrmann, W.H            . ................... Teledyne, Inc.
                            Galerne, Andre             ............. International Underwater  Lynch,John                  ................. Sea-Land Service, Inc.
                                                                                Contractors    Maloney, Walter E. . . . Bigham, Englar, Jones & Houston
                            Gaul, Roy D   ..............      Westinghouse Electric Corp.      Maness, Irving              .......... Small Business Administration
                            Gentry ' Robert C          ....... Environmental Science Services  Menzel, Daniel              .................. Battelle Northwest
                                                       Administration, Department of Commerce  Martin, George              ....... North American Rockwell Corp.
                            Ge,,t,cker, Carl           ................. Dow Chemical Co-      Martin, William R           .......... Aquasonics; Engineering Co.-
                            Gherardi, Walter R         ................... Chubb and Son       Maton, Gilbert L            . ............. John 1. Thompson Co.
                            Gilman, Roger H            . ........ Port of New York Authority   May, T.P  . ..........      The International Nickel Co., Inc.
                            Ginzton, Edward L          . ............... Varian Associates     Maybeck, Edward B           ........ The Chase Manhattan Bank
                            Gordon, William G. (R)     .........      Bureau of Commercial     Mayer, Raymond W            ......................   CM2, Inc.
                                                       Fisheries, Department of the Interior   McDonald, Capt. C.A.K., USN (R)             ........  Department
                            Gottwald, F.D              . .................. Ethyl Corporation                                                     of the Navy
                            Graves, C.L   . .....................       J. Ray McDermott       McDonald, Joseph            ...........     Public Land Law Review
                            Hait, James M              . ................... FMC Corporation                                                       Commission
                            Hallamore, R.G             . .................. Lear Siegler, Inc. Mcithenny, W.F. (9)         .........       Dow Chemical Company
                            Halstead, Bruce W. . .@    .....  World Life Research Institute    McKeen, John E              ..............  Charles Pfizer Company
                            Harden, M.L   ....................        Standard Oil of N.J.     McLean, Noel B              ................... Edo Corporation
                            Hastings, Charles E        .............. Hastings-Raydist, Inc.   Mero, John L                ................. Ocean Resources, Inc.
                            Haughton, Dan              ........ Lockheed Aircraft Corporation  Miller, Leonard A           ............... Columbia Gas System
                            Heath, Wallace G. (R)      ............   Western Washington                                                         Service Corp.
                                                                             State College     Miller, O.N                 ................ Standard Oil of California
                            Henry, Vernon J., Jr       . ...........  University of Georgia    Miller, Paul                ................ First Boston Corporation
                            Hills, R.C  ................      Freeport Sulphur Company         Milliken, Frank R           ............    Kennecott Copper Corp.
                            Holden, Donald A           . ...... Newport News Shipbuilding &    Mole, Harvey                ...................... U.S. Steel Corp.
                                                                            Dry Dock Co.       Montgomery, W. Saxe         ...........     Geodyne Corporation
                            Honsinger, Leroy V         .............  Todd Shipyards, Inc.     Moody, John D., Sr. . @     ..........      Mobil Oil Corporation
                            Hood, Edwin M              . ...... Shipbuilders Council of America Moore, J. Jamison          ........ ...... Modern Management,
                            Horrer, Paul L             . ................ Marine Advisors, Inc. Moore, John                ............... North American Aviation
                            Howe, Eugene E             ............. Merck, Sharpe and Dome    Moore, W.T., Sr             . ............  Moore-McCormack Lines
                            Howe, Richard J. (R)       .....  Humble Oil and Refining Co.      Morris, W.T., Jr            . .....-.....   Lykes Brothers, Steamship
                            Hydrick, Gardner           ........... Scudder, Stevens & Clark                                                           Co., Inc.
                            Isaacs, John  .......      Scripps Institution of Oceanography,    Morrish, Thomas M. (R)      ..........      Ocemic Foundation
                                                       University of California, San Diego     Muys, Jerome C              .............   Public Land Law Review
                            Isbrandtsen, Jakob         ....... American Export Isbrandtsen        -                                                Commission
                                                                           - @@ Lines, Inc.    Nemec, F.A                  . ....... Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.
                            Jamieson, JX               ................... Standard Oil of N.J. Nickerson, Albert L        ............    Mobil Oil Corporation
                            Jenkins, George            ................... Metropolitan Life   Oberle, Frank               ........... Murphy-Pacific, Merrit Salvage
                            Jobst, Louis F., Jr        . ....... City and Port of Long Beach                                                           Division
                            Johns, Lionel S. (R)       ..............   Ocean Science and      Ochacher, Donald M.                Columbia Gas System Service
                                                                           Engineering Co.                                                                Corp.*
                            Jones, Albert              ......... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Officer, Charles B        ................ Alpine Geophysical
                                                              Department of the Interior                                                      Associates, Inc.
                            Jones, Robert E            .............. National Association of  O'Keefe, Bernard J          .................... E.G.&G., Inc.
                                                                             Manufacturers     O'Leary, John F             ....   Bureau of Natural Gas, Federal
                            Jordan, Arthur             .......... Cape Fear Technical Institute                                            Power Commission
                            Jordan, S.A   . .............     Westinghouse Electric Corp.      O'Malley, Hubert J          ............    ESSO Exploration, Inc.
                            Jorgenson, John H. (R)     .............    National Security      Oppenheimer, Carl H         ..........      Florida State University
                                                                      Industrial Association   Orlofsky, S. (R)            .... Columbia Gas System Service Corp.
                            Joyner, H.H   ......       American Telephone & Telegraph Co.      Osborne, William            .................. Lehman Brothers
                            Jurow, Irving H            . ............... Schering Corporation  Paige, Johii                ................. International Nickel Co.
                            Kahl, Joseph               ......... Kahl Scientific Instrument Corp. Paine, F. Ward (R)       ........ Ocean Science Capital Corp.
                            Kane, Eneas D              . ........... Chevron Research Company  Palmer, R.B                 . ..........................  Texaco,lnc.
                            Kaufman, Alvin (R)         ...... Bureau of Land Management,       Pearson, A.S.               - - *..... Consolidated Edison Company
                                                              Department of the Interior       Peterson, C.E. (R)          ..... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
                            Kaufman, Otto              ......... Aetna Life Insurance Company                                     Department of the Interior
                            Kennedy, Joseph B          . .......... Sinclair Oil Corporation   Phillippe, G.L.*            ...........:...... General Electric Co.
                            King, Lyle    ..............      Port of New York Authority       Phillips, T.L               .................... Raytheon Company
                            Kirby, George F            .................. Ethyl Corporation    Power, John J               . ............. Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc.
                            Kirkbride, Chalmer G. (R)         .......... Sun Oil Company       Prior, William W. : * , , I * * , I * , . 'Trunkline Gas Company
                            Knowlton, Hugh             ............ Smith Barney & Co., Inc.   Purdon, Alexandria          ....... ........... U.S. Lines, Inc.
                            Kushner, Harvey D. (R)            ...... Operations Research Inc.  Ramo, Simon                 .......................... TRW, Inc.
                            Laborde, Alden J           ....... Ocean Drilling and Exploration  Rebikoff, Dimitri I         ............... Rebikoff Underwater
                                                                                         Co.                                                    Products, Inc.
                            LaQue, Francis L. (R)      ............   International Nickel     Richardson, William S       . ..............   Nova University
                                                                                  Co., Inc.    Ricker, J.B., Jr            ..............  Marine Office of America
                            Laverty, William J         . ......... The Sippican Corporation    Rolfe, Briney               ............ Sinclair Research Company
                            Lenagh, Thomas H           .............. The Ford Foundation      Root, L. Eugene             ................. Lockheed Aircraft
                            Lenz, Wirithrop C          .......... Merrill Lynch Pierce Fenner  Roxer, Gerald F             . .............. William H. Rorer, Inc.
                                                                             & Smith, Inc.     Rudiger, Carl E. (R)        .............   Lockheed Missiles &
                            Lesser, Robert M           . ....... Lockheed-California Company                                                        Space Co.
                            Lockwood, William          .......... First National City Bank     Rutledge, Carleton (R)      ..........      Westinghouse Electric
                                                                               (New York)                                                                 Corp.

                                                                                                                                                           V-51

                                        Name                                             organization    Name                                              Organization
                                        Ryan, William R    ...................     Edo Corporation       Swan, Dave      ........... Kennecott Copper Corporation
                                        Salladay, Steve    ..........    Insurance Company of North      Symonds, Gardiner    ...................        Tenneco,lnc.
                                                                                             America     Tajima, George (R)   ........   Bissett-Berman Corporation
                                        Sampson, Charles M   ........    Freeport Sulphur Company        Taylor, J.F., Jr ..................      Decca Systems, Inc.
                                        Sarett, L.H ..................      Merck & Company, Inc.        Thayer, Stuart  ......  Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.
                                        Schafersinan, Dale A . ......    Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of     Thomas, Charles (R)     ...............    Sun Oil Company
                                                                                             America     Thornberg, Russell B. . . ..Global Marine Exploration Co.
                                        Schenck, Herbert H   ........    U.S. Underseas Cable Corp.      Tibby, Richard B     ....... Catalina Marine Science Center
                                        Schmidt, Benno C   . ..............       J.H. Whitney & Co.     Tishman, Robert      ..............    Tishman Realty Corp.
                                        Schoales, Dudley N. (R)   ........    Morgan Stanley & Co.       Tonking, W.H    ...................      Brown & Root, Inc.
                                        Scott, John   .............           Mobil OR Corporation       Topping, Norman      ..... University of Southern California
                                        Shapiro, Hymin     ..................     Ethyl Corporation      Torrey, Thomas . Insurance Company of North America
                                        Sheets, H.E . ....................        General Dynamics       Treadwell, Capt. T.K., USN      ......  Naval Oceanographic
                                        Shepard, Hardy     ....................       Payson & Trask                                                              Office
                                        Shephard, Robert J. (R)     .... Westinghouse Electric Corp.     Turman, S.B     ......... Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.
                                        Sherwood, Robert     ........    International Nickel Co., Inc.  Tuthill, Arthur H. (R)  .....  International Nickel Co., Inc.
                                        Shigley, C. Monroe (R)    .......  Dow Chemical Company          Vance, Jack 0.                         McKinsey and Company
                                        Shykind, E.B. (R)    ........    CMREF, National Council on      Wakelin, James                         Ryan Aeronautical Co.
                                                  Marine Resources and Engineering Development           Walthier, Thomas N. (R)    .....       Occidental Minerals Corp.
                                        Siebenhausen, C.H. (R)    ............    Shell Oil Company      Ward, David M   .....................        Ward Associates
                                        Simons, Merton E. (R)     ....   Phillips Petroleum Company      Ware, T.M   . ....   International Minerals & Chemical Corp.
                                        Singleton, Henry E   ...................      Teledyne, Inc.     Warm, WX    .................          Marine Office of America
                                        Smith, A.C  .....................         Ocean Systems, Inc.    Warner, Arthur J.       Bureau of Mines, Department of the
                                        Smith, Warren Lee . . Kidder, Peabody & Company, Inc.                                                                   Interior
                                        Snodgrass, James (R)Scripps Institution of Oceanography,         Warner, R., Jr  .........  *  .......  Mobil Oil Corporation
                                                                University of California, San Diego      Waters, Rear Adm. Odale D., Jr., USN       .....   Department
                                        Snyder, A.E   ........................        Colt Industries                                                      of the Navy
                                        Snyder, Capt. J. Edward, USN . Department of the Navy            Weber, Ernest M      .............     Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc.
                                        Soloman, Herbert L   .........    Uris Building Corporation      Wedin, John (R)      .... Staff, Senate Commerce Committee
                                        Spangler, Miller B ........      National Planning Association   Weiss, A.M  ........    Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of America
                                        Stephan, Charles R   ..........  Florida Atlantic University     Wheaton, Elmer P. (R)     .........    Lockheed Missiles and
                                        Stephan, J. Stan   .......  First Bank and Trust Company,                                                            Space Co.
                                                                                      , Bryan, Texas     White, N.C  ........    International Minerals and Chemicals
                                        Stewart, Harris B  . ..............   ESSA, Department of        Williams, L.M   .............    Freeport Sulphur Company
                                                                                           Commerce      Wilson, Roger W      .................     J. Ray McDermott
                                        Stoddard, George A   ..........    Scudder, Stevens & Clark      Wingate, H.S    . ...............      International Nickel Co.
                                        Stoddard, George E   . .........   Equitable Life Assurance      Wright, Donald L     ..............    Jersey Enterprises, Inc.
                                                                         Society of the United States    Wright, Edward W     . ...........     Dillingham Corporation
                                        Stowers, H.L  . .............    Texas Gas Transmission Co.      Zimmerman, Edwin M      ............     Anti-Trust Division,
                                        Strohmeyer, D.D    . ........    Bethlehem Steel Corporation                                            Department of Justice
                                        Sutton, Paul A     ..................     Alpine Geophysical     Zimmerman, Jack      .... Hydrospace Research Corporation
                                                                                      Associates, Inc.

                                         V-52

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                                                                    IJ
                                                           @National Geographic Society

                      Part VI

                      Report of the Panel
                      on Marine Engineering and Technology

                                      Contents,

                                      Preface     . . . . . . . .             . . . . .        VI-1     VI.-    influence of Technology on the
                                                                                                                  ''Law of the Sea        . . . . .. .         VI-22
                                      Chapter I      Introduction and Summary                  VI-2
                                                                                                        Chapter 4 Organization            . . . . . .          VI-23
                                      1.      Program and Goal          . .. . . . . .         VI-2
                                      11. '   Major Objectives                                 VI2      1.
                                                                                                                National Perspective      . . . . . .          VI-23
                                      III.    Major Repommendations                            VI-3     Il.     National Organizational Structure            . VI-23
                                      IV.     Ten-Year Program of 'Marine                                       A. General    . . . . . . . . .                VI-23
                                              I Development-                                   VI-4             B. National, Advisory Committee
                                              A. Fundamental, Technology                       VI-4                    for the Oceans (NACO)                   VI-'23
                                              B. National -Test, Facilities .                  VI@5,,   Ill.    US. Government Organizational
                                              C. National Projects      . . . . ... .          VI-5                 Structure             . . . . . .          VI-25
                                              D. Costs   . . . . . . . . . . .                 VI-6.            A. General    . . . . . . . . .                VI-25
                                                                                                                B. New Civilian Ocean Agency                   VI-25
                                      Chapter 2 Major Findings and                                              C. Interagency Coordinating
                                                     Recommendations                           VI-7                    Mechanism      . . . . . . .            VI-25
                                                                                                                D. Navy Role              . . . . . .          VI-25
                                              A. General    . . . . . . . . . .                VI-7     IV.     Focal Point in the Legislative Branch          VI-26
                                              9. Fundamental Technology'.
                                              C.  Test Facilities                              VI-9     Chapter 5 Multipurpose Technology                      VI-27
                                              A Special Deep Ocean Considerations . VI-9
                                              -E. Special Nearshore Problems                  VI-10     1.      Fundamental Technology            . . . .      VI-28
                                              F. Great takes Restoration           . . . VI-1 I                 A. Survey Equipment and
                                              G. Industrial Technology - . -          -   -   VI-1 I                   Instrumentation       . . . . .         VI-29
                                                  1. Fishing and Aquaculture                  VI-1 I            B. Power Sources          . . . . . .          YI-33
                                                  2. Oil and Gas                              VI-1 2                1. Chemical Batteries         . . . .      VI-33
                                                  3. Chemical Extraction and                                        2. Fuel Cells . . .              . . .     VI-34
                                                          Desalination                        VI-12                 3. Thermal Conversion         . . . .      VI-34
                                                  4. Ocean Mining       . . . . . .           VI-13                 4. Nuclear Reactors .         .  . .- .    VI-35
                                                  5.p6werGeneration'                          VI-13                 5. Isotope Power      . . . . . .          VI-35
                                                                                                                    6. Conclusions        . . . . . .          VI-36
                                      Chapter 3 Factors Affecting Technology                                    C. External Machinery, Systems and
                                                      Development,                            VI-15                    Equipment      . . . . . . .            VI-37
                                                                                                                    1. Power Application          . . . .      VI-37
                                      1.      Opportunities for the Future . . .              VI-15                 2. Electrical Distribution       . . .     VI-39
                                      11.     Importance, Urgency, and Rationale                                    3. Buoyancy and Trim Control             . VI-39
                                                  for U.S. Leadership      . . . . .          VI-1 6                4. Conclusions    . . . . . . .            VI-40
                                      111.    Trends Influencing Marine                                         D.'Materials      . . . . . . . ..             VI-41
                                                  Development       . . . . . . .             VI-1 7                1 .ffigh Strength Steels .       .  .    . VI-42
                                      IV.     Interrelationships Among Particular                                   2. Nonferrous Metals          . . . .      V142
                                                  Segments                                    VI-18                 3. Nonmetallic Materials                   V143
                                              A. Government-Industry-Academic                 VI-18                 4. Supplemental Buoyancy
                                              B. Civilian-Military    .. . . . . .            VI-19                        Material. .@      . . . . .         VI-44
                                              C. Relationships Among,,Nations; .              VI-20                 5. Secondary Materials        . . . .      V145
                                      V.      Technical Interrelationships         . . .      VI-20                 6. Conclusions        . . . . . .          VI45
                                              A. Science7.f-ngin.eering-Technotogy            VI-20             E. Navigation and Communications. V146
                                              B. Outerspace-Hydrospace                        VI-21             F. Tools              . . . . . . .            VI49

                                  G. Mooring Systems, Buoys, and                              F. Future Needs     . . . . . . .        VI-1 29
                                         Surface Support Platforms.        . VI-51,           G. Institutional Arrangements .          . VI-133
                                  14. Biomedicine and Diving                                  H. Conclusions      . . . . . . .        VI-133
                                         Equipment     . . . . . . .         VI-55
                                  1. Environmental Considerations            VI-62
                                     1. Sea Floor and Bottom Strata          VI-62     Chapter 6 Industrial Technoloo                  VI-135
                                     2. Bottom Composition and
                                            Engineering Properties           VI-63     1.     Fishing   . . . . . . . . . .            VI-136
                                     3. Physical and Chemical                                 A. Fishing Vessels and Gear       -  -   '. V1- 137
                                            Properties of Seawater           VI-64            B. Hunting and Harvesting         . . .  VI-144
                                     4. DynamicFactors       . . . . .       VI-67            C. Processing    . . . . . . . .         VI-150
                                  J. Data Handling     . . . . . . .         VI-71            D. Government Role         . . . . .     VI-153
                                  K. Life Support      . . . . . .. .        VI-72            E. Conclusions      . . . . .            VI-154
                           IT.    Test Facilities  . . . . . . . .           VI-77     11.    Aquaculture      .. . . . . . . .        VI-156
                                  A. Simulation Facilities        . . . .    VI-77     111.   Offshore Oil and Gas                     VI-I 61
                                  B. Hyperbaric Facilities        . . . .    VI-79            A. Scope of Offshore Industry            VI-161
                                  C. Ocean Test Ranges            . . . .    VI-80-'          B. History of Offshore Activity .        VI-163
                                  D. Conclusions       . . . . . . .         VI-82            C. Exploration      . . . . . . .        Vl- 164
                           ITT.   Deep Ocean Activities                      VI-83            D. Production    . . . . ... . .         VI-167
                                  A. Undersea Systems                        VI-83            E. Pipelines     . . . . . . . .         VI-169
                                     1.  SubmersibleVehicles        . . .    VI-84            F. Subsea Operations       . . . . .     VI-172
                                     2.  Unmanned and Tethered                                G. Government Role         .  *. . . .   VI-176
                                            Vehicles   . . . . . . .         VI-87            H. Conclusions      . . . . . . .        VI-1 77
                                     3.  Transport and Support                         IV.    Ocean Mining     . . . . . . . .         VI-179
                                            Submarines       . . . . .       VI-88            A. Introduction     . . . . . . .        VI-179
                                     4.  Military Submarines                 VI-89            B. Hard Minerals vs. Oil and gas         VI-180
                                     5. Conclusions      . . . . . .         VI-91            C. Exploration and Evaluation            VI-182
                                  B. Deep Ocean Installations       ,  .   . VI-92            D. Recovery      . . . . . .             VI-1 83
                                     1. Sea Floor Habitats        . . . .    VI-93            E. Processing and Transportation         VI-186
                                     2. In-Bottom Habitats        . . . .    VI-93            F. Forecast      . . . . . . . .         VI-187
                                     3. Conclusions      . . . . . .         YI-94            G. Government Role         . . . . .     VI-187
                                  C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and                           H. Conclusions      . . . . . . .        VI-188
                                         Salvage   . . . . . . . .           VI-95     V.     Chemical Extraction        . . . . .     VI-190
                                     1. Safety and'Certification       .   . VI-95            A. Introduction     . . . . . . .        VI-190
                                     2. Search and Rescue         . . . .    VI-96            B. Present Techniques for
                                     3. Salvage and Recovery        .  .   . VI-98                  Extraction    . . . . . . .        VI-194
                                     4. Conclusions      . . . . . .         VI-99            C. Future Extraction of Other
                           IV.    Nearshore Activities   . . . . . .         VI-99                   Chen-dcals   . . . . . . .        VI-195
                                  A. Pollution     . . . . . . . .         VI-100             D. Conclusions      . . . . . . .        VI-196
                                  B. Coastal Engineering . .        .  .   . VI-106    V1.    Desalination     . . . . . . . .         VI-197
                                  C. Shelf, Installations    . . . . .     VI-110             A. History and Trends      . . . . .     VI-198
                                  D. Transportation and Harbor                                B. Techniques of Desalination            VI-203
                                         Development     . . . . . .       VI-I 15            C. Projection of Water Costs      . . .  VI-207
                           V.     Great Lakes Restoration         . . . .  VI-121             D. Desalination Problems      . . . .    VI-209
                                  A. Current Situation       . . . . .     VI-122             E. Government-Industry Roles         .   .VI-211
                                  B. Causes of Pollution and                                  F. Conclusions      . . . . . . .        VI-211
                                         Accelerated Aging        . . . .  VI-123      VII.   Power Generation . . @            . . .  VI-213
                                  C. Preventive Measures     . . . . .     VI-126             A. Power Generation in the Ocean
                                  D. Restorative Measures         . . . .  VI-127                   Environment     . . . . . .        VI-213
                                  E. Other Measures for Water                                 B. Power from Ocean Energy        . . .  VI-216
                                         Quality Improvement               VI-1 28            C. Conclusions      . . . . . . .        VI-219

                                      haptevi        ioned, PtoJoqftJbF Mar" a             .. ....         7.   Great takes Restoration
                                                                              qn,

                                                                                                           &    Resource Astay'Equipment
                                       7
                                          Refiii;6       of9ational Projects                                       Development Program               VI-238
                                              to the Development Cycle                VI-2211              9.   Coastal Engineering and
                                          A. Fundamental T6chnologgy,@-_`."           VI-222                       Ecological Studies Program VI-241
                                          B. National Projects .                      VI-,222            I O@.  Fisheries and Aquaculture
                                          C. Subsystem and Component                                               program                           VI-242
                                                 @Development                . . . VI-222                I I.,  Experimental Continental
                                          D. Operational Systems                      VI-222                       Shelf Submerged Nuclear
                                          E. Expected Benefits                        VI-222                       Plant  . . . . . . . .            VI-245
                                                                                                         12     Large Stable Ocean Platform        . VI-246
                                   11-    Description of National Projects       .    VI-222
                                            1.   Fixed Continental Shelf                                 13.    Long-Endurance Exploration
                                                    Laboratory                       .,,V,1-224                    Submersibles with 20,000-
                                            -2. Portable@C on'tinentalShelf                                        FootCapability . , - VI-248
                                                    Laboratories                      VI-224             14.    Prototype Regional Pollution
                                            3.-  IWW16 Unders'ei Su'pip"o-irt                                      Collection, Treatment, and
                                                                                                                   Processing System        . . . VI-250
                                                    Laborajqry._.                     vl-,@79,
                                                                                                         15.    Prototype Harbor Develop-
                                            4.   Seamount Station                     VI@Z@0                       ment Project      . . . . .       VI-253
                                            S.   Deep Ocean Stations      '           VI-233
                                            6.   Pilot Buoy Network .        . . . VI-234         Appendix A       Acknowledgments          . . .    VII-254

                       Preface

                            This report assesses the present national effort     States and regions, private enterprise, the acadernic
                       in marine engineering and technology and provides         community, and the U.S. Government.
                       broad guidance for the economical and rational                The material presented in this report represents
                       development of a strong U.S. capability in the            the effort of the panel Commissioners, staff, and
                       marine environment.                                       the beneficial guidance of many consultants duri
                                                                                                                                      ing
                            The following objectives, stated ., in sub-          the course of the panel's deliberations. The
                       paragraphs of Section 2(b) of the Marine Re-              Panel Executive Secretary was:
                       sources and Engineering Development Act of
                       1966, were felt to be applicable in establishing the                     Lincoln D. Cathers
                       scope of activities of the panel:
                                                                                     Under sponsorship of the Oceanic Foundation
                       (1)  The accelerated development of the resources         additional staff *was assembled to support the
                            of the marine environment....                        panel. This staff, the Marine Commission Support
                       (4)  The preservation of the role of the United           Group, was comprised of:
                            States as a leader in nwrine science and
                            resource development....                                            Amor L. Lane
                       (6)  7he development and improvement of the                              Carl E. Rudiger, Jr.
                            capabilities, performance, use, and efficiency                      Carleton Rutledge, Jr.
                            of vehicles, equipment, and instruments for                         Robert J. Shephard
                            use in exploration, research, surveys, the                          R. Lawrence Snideman 11
                            recovery of resources, and the transmission of                      Robert M. Lesser (part-time)
                            energy in the marine environment.
                       (7)  The effective utilization of the scientific and          A  special note of thanks is made to the
                            engineering resources of the Nation, with close      agencies and   companies who generously provided
                            cooperation among all interested agencies,           the time of the Commissioners, Executive Secre-
                            public and private, in order to avoid unneces-       tary, staff personnel, and consultants.
                            sary duplication of effort, facilities, and equip-       The panel contactedexisting organizations (the.
                            ment, or waste. .                                    National Security Industrial Association, the Na-
                                                                                 tional Academy of Engineering, numerous tech-
                            The panel has endeavored to delineate the            nical societies, universities, commercial and de-
                       Nation's future course in the marine. environment         fense industries, regional authorities, and non-
                       in terms of engineering and technological feasi_          profit organizations) to solicit and involve the*
                       bility, to assess its present structure, to point out     private sector in defining problems and recom-
                       inhibitions to progress, and to relate the necessary      mending solutions.. Coordination was maintained
                       input to the obtainable output. It      .stresses areas   with other panels through personal contact,
                       where engineering and technology have a bearing           monthly Commission meetings, and distribution of
                                                                                 draft materials.
                       on the growth and development of industry and
                       the solution of defense problems.                             In Appendix A is a complete listing of indi-
                            The panel was particularly cognizant of the          viduals and organizations contributing to the
                       need for national participation as opposed to a           development of this report.
                       predominantly government approach, in future                             John H. Perry, Jr., Chairman
                       ocean activities. Achieving a strong marine engi-                        Charles F. Baird
                       neering and technology capability can be accom-                          Taylor A. Pryor
                       plished best by the cooperative efforts of the                           George H. Sullivan

                                                                                                                                    V1_1
                            333-091 0-69-5

                                    Chapter I Introduction and Summary

                                    1. PROGRAM AND GOAL                                     the state of technology. Both depths are reason-
                                       The development of the ocean as a resource is a      able targets. The two major objectives are workable
                                    major concern closely linked to the solution of the     for U.S. ocean activities and may be carried out
                                    problems of urban development, transportation,          within an acceptable international legal framework.
                                    public health, foreign aid, and world hunger.
                                       An essential element of the national commit-                      Figure 1 Key Definitions
                                    ment to the oceans is the technology to explore
                                    and utilize them, to occupy the U.S. territorial sea,      Ocean    engineering-The      application of
                                    and to utilize and manage the resources of the U.S.        science and engineering to describe the
                                    Continental Shelves. This country's position of            marine environment and to develop and
                                    technological leadership requires it to take an            operate systems for its utilization.
                                    active role in developing the earth's resources,           Marine  technology-The total capability to
                                    especially those of the undersea frontier.
                                       Technological development has been the foun-            utilize the ocean environment, including
                                    dation of U.S. strength and national growth. Its           knowledge, equipment, techniques, and
                                    extension into the oceans is necessary to continue         facilities.
                                    national development, including creation and pro-          Occupy-To inhabit a volume of ocean or an
                                    tection of employment, a more enjoyable way of             area of seabed to observe, make decisions,
                                    life, and maintenance and improvement of the               and take action. Occupation includes the
                                    national environment for the future. Economic              element of permanence.
                                    and social benefits, conitinuing acquisition of
                                    scientific knowledge, and military necessity justify       Explore-To search, probe, map, and chart
                                    the commitment.                                            systematically the ocean environment,
                                                                                               cluding the water column, floor, and sub-
                                    11. MAJOR OBJECTIVES                                       floor features for the purpose of enhancing
                                                                                               subsequent action.
                                       The panel proposes, as the major objectives of          Manage-To direct effort to conserve deplet-
                                    an increased national commitment to the oceans,            able resources, achieve continued and - im-
                                    that the United States should develop the tech-            proved yield of regenerative resources, mod-
                                    nological base and capability to:                          ify the environment to facilitate these
                                                                                               efforts, and resolve multiple use conflicts.
                                    -within 10 years: occupy the U.S. territorial sea;
                                    utilize the U.S. Continental Shelf and slope to            Utilize-To carry out a useful purpose or
                                    depths of 2,000 feet; explore the ocean depths to          operation; to obtain profit or benefit by
                                    20,000 feet.                                               using.

                                    -within 30 years: manage the U.S. Continental
                                    Shelf and slope to depths of 2,000 feet; achieve
                                    the. capability to utilize the ocean depths to             The earth's continents are fringed by shallow,
                                    20,000 feet.'                                           sloping shelves varying in width from a few yards
                                                                                            to hundreds of miles. The shelves and a limited
                                       The depths   of 2,000 feet and 20,000 feet for       area of the steeper continental slopes beyond lie
                                    technological development of the undersea frontier      within the 2,000 foot contour, an area totaling
                                    are dictated by the bathymetry of the oceans and        nearly 10 per cent of the earth's ocean floor-
                                                                                            approximately as large as North and South Amer-
                                        Key definitions are given in Figure 1.              ica combined. The 2,000-foot, depth is within

                                    V1-2

                       reach of present U.S. technology and closely             A. General
                       relates to current estimates of diver working
                                                                                  1. A National Advisory Committee for the Oceans
                       potential. As a primary technologica.l. goal it is
                       realistic, attainable, and immediately rewarding.            tq,,gu@4e national,marine efforts.
                          The continental slopes, especially beyond the           2.An oceanic agency concentrating im, one,
                                                                                    agency appropriate U.S. Government groups
                       2,000 foot contour, are quite precipitous. For
                                                                                    with primary roles and missions in the oceans
                       example the next four 2,000 foot increments to
                       the 10,@00 foot contour each provide only about              and including a technology development group.-
                       three per cent more bottom area. For depths from           3. A  10-year program of intensive undersea,
                       10,000 down to 20,000'feet, increased depth                  development.
                       capability is rewarded with access to an additional        4. National Projects to accelerate progress into
                                                                                    the undersea frontier.
                       75 per cent of the total ocean bottom area, while
                                                                                  5. A strong Navy undersea n-dssion and an
                       depths beyond 20,000 feet (two per cent of the           -   . @V    j."
                       total) are found only in a few trenches. Therefore,          improved program in deep submergence and
                       a natural deep ocean technological development               ocean engineeering.
                       goal exists for 20,000 feet. (See Figure 2)                6. An effective national commitment to the
                          The promising characteristics of advanced                 ocean requiring understanding and cooperation
                       structural materials, new concepts of external               from all segments of the national economy.
                       machinery and equipment, and better engineering          B.  Fundamental Technology
                       make operations at 20,000-foot depths a practical
                       objective. Twenty thousand feet is a 1,@gical,             7. A program to advance fundamental marine
                       realistic, yet challenging goal for technology.              engineering and technology.
                                                                                  8. Development of engineering design handbooks,
                                                                                    technical memoranda, and other design data
                                                                                    with a system for continually updating this
                       Ill. MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS                                   information.
                                                                                C.  Test Facilities

                         The panel's report is summarized in this fist of         9. A program to increase the number and quality
                       recommendations:                                             of test facilities and to reduce testing costs.

                                     10%        13%                                       '75%                           2%

                           2,000 - -Shelf

                          10,000-

                       Lu
                       Lu                                                Abys,_
                                                                              ,a/ Plains
                       Z

                          20,000-
                       Lu

                                                                                                                             Trenches

                          36,000
                                                                 Per cent of ocean bottom
                       Figure 2. Per cent of ocean bottom that can be explored by various operating depth
                       capabilities.

                                                                                                                                  vi-3

                                   D. Deep Ocean                                             3. Chemical Extraction and Desalination

                                   10. A program to expand 20,000-foot ocean                 25. Development of new chemical extraction tech-
                                       engineering capabilities.                                  nology in conjunction with desalting research.
                                   11. Technology priorities in power sources, free          26. Government participation in advanced desalt-
                                       flooding machinery, equipment, and materials.              ing technology projects without its entrance
                                   12. Systems priorities in survey vehicles, search              into the business of supplying desalted water.
                                       vehicles, transfer vehicles, manned stations,         27. A balanced program advancing desalination
                                       and support systems.                                       technology to convert seawater, inland
                                                                                                  brackish water, and waste water into usable
                                   E. Nearshore                                                   supplies.
                                   13. A program of pollution monitoring and water           4.   Ocean Mining
                                       quality restoration to complement the
                                       essential goal to halt effectively the pollution      28. A program to advance undersea exploration
                                       of nearshore waters.                                       technology to enable timely delineation of
                                   14. A program of coastal biological and                        offshore reserves and provide growth of off-
                                       engineering efforts.                                       shore mining.
                                   15. A program to improve port and harbor de-
                                       velopment technology.                                 5.   Power Generation
                                   16. A Coast Guard research and development                29. A developmental program for submerged
                                       program leading to improved maritime safety.               commercial nuclear power.

                                   F. Great Lakes

                                   17. A restoration technology National Project             IV. TEN-YEAR PROGRAM OF MARINE DE-
                                       tailored to the immediate needs of Lakes Erie              VELOPMENT
                                       and Ontario and southern Lake Michigan.
                                   18. An actual restoration project undertaken as
                                       soon as technology is available.                           The concept supported by the panel is to
                                   G. Industrial                                             advance marine engineering and technology
                                                                                             through cooperative participation by State,
                                   1. Fishing and Aquaculture                                Federal, academic, and industrial groups.
                                   19. Development of greatly improved domestic
                                       fish production capability.                           A. Fundamental Technology
                                   20. Surveys of promising underutilized commercial
                                       and sport fisheries.                                       Fundamental technology is an essential base for
                                   21. A program to pursue aquaculture development           future marine endeavors. Particular categories, by
                                       vigorously.                                           definition, have numerous multiple interrelated
                                   2. Oil and Gas                                            applications. The quality and scope of funda-
                                                                                             mental technology must be expanded con-
                                   22. A mechanism for optimum information                   tinuously to assure new developments, reduce
                                       exchange between, the Government and the              costs, increase capability, improve reliability, and
                                       petroleum industry.                                   afford new ways to solve problems.
                                   23. Government furnished information on funda-                 Elements of fundamental technology most criti-
                                       mental undersea technology, biomedicine, and          cal for effective commercial development, scien-
                                       reconnaissance mapping and charting, and              tific exploration, and military operation are listed
                                       increased development of environmental pre-           in Figure 3 in approximate descending order of
                                       diction and modification technology.                  importance. References in parentheses are to
                                   24. A program directed toward reduction of oil            Chapters 5 and 6 of this report where pertinent
                                       spills and combating their effects.                   detailed discussion may be found.

                                   VI-4

                                                                                    C. National Projects

                                                                                       A series of national facilities, programs, and
                                                -Figure 3.                          projects, generically called National Projects, is
                                 Elements of Fundamental Technology                 recommended for consideration during the 10-year
                                                                                    program to, support technological progress in the'
                            (a)  Survey equipment and instrumentation               oceans. These projects, many having strong-inter-
                                 (5-1 -A)                                           relationship's, are listed in Figure 4. (See Chapter 7
                            (b)  Power sources (5-1-B),                             for details.)
                            (c)  External machinery systems and equip-
                                 ment (5-1-C)
                            (d)  Materials (5-1-D)
                            (e)  Navigation and communications (5-I-E)
                            (f)  Tools: diver and@vehicle (5-1-F)
                            (g)  Mooring systems, buoys, and surface
                                 support platforms (5-1-G)                                               Figure 4
                            (h)  Biomedicine and diving equipment
                                 (5-1-H)                                                            National Projects
                            W    Environmental considerations (5-1-1)
                            (j)  Data handling (5-1-J)
                            (k)  Life support (5-1-K)                                 National Undersea Facilities
                            (1)  Coastal engineering (5-[V-B)                             1. Fixed continental shelf laboratory
                            (m)  Extraction techniques (6-VI)                             2. Portable continental shelf laboratories
                            W    Services: certification, inspection, and                 3. Mobile undersea support laboratory
                                 recovery (5-111 -C)                                      4. Seamount station
                            (o)  Coastal ecology (control and modifica-                   5. Deep ocean stations
                                 tion) (5-IV-A and 5-V)                                      - Continental slope
                                                                                             - Midocean ridge
                                                                                             - Abyssal deep
                                                                                       National Marine Programs
                                                                                          6. Pilot buoy network
                                                                                          7. Great Lakes restoration program
                                                                                          8. Resource assay equipment development
                         B. National Test Facilities                                           program
                                                                                          9. Coastal engineering and ecological
                                                                                               studies program
                            The marine environment         is not well known,            10. Fisheries and aquaculture program
                         and with today's technology it is a hostile and               National Marine Projects
                         difficult operating area. History has borne out that            11. Experimental continental shelf sub-
                         adequate testing is required to utilize a foreign                     merged nuclear plant
                         environment effectively. Thus, in developing the                12. Large stable ocean platform
                         capability to occupy and manage the offshore                    13. Long-endurance exploration sub-
                         areas and explore and utilize the deep oceans, it                     mersibles with 20,000-foot capability
                         will become evident that test facilities will be a              14. Prototype regional pollution collection,
                         national resource as.important as any other single                    treatment, and processing system
                         factor.                                                         15. Prototype harbor development project
                            There are two prime elements of the national
                         test facility needs-(I) those to test systems,
                         equipment, components, and fundamental de-
                         velopments and (2) those to test man as a diver in
                         the sea. (See Chapter 5, Section.11 for details.)

                                                                                                                                         VI-5

                                     D. Costs                                                                          Figure 5
                                        The result, of the national       effort will be to                  Cost for 10-Year Program
                                     establish the technology needed for access to the
                                     oceans in a convenient, economical, and reliable                                                  Ten Year Cost
                                     manner with a taxpayer investment of less than                      Category                         (billionsof-
                                     one billion dollars of new funding per,year over                                                      dollars)
                                     the next,decade.
                                                                                                Fundamentai'Technology                     2.0-3.0
                                        Figure 5 is a breakdown of the. estimated        costs  Test Facilities
                                     for the 10-year marine development program.                   Simulation facilities  . . . .          0.4-0.6
                                                                                                   Biomedical chambers       . . .         0.1-0.2
                                                                                                   Ocean test ranges   . . . . .           0.3-0.4
                                                                                                National Projects
                                                                                                   Undersea facilities    . . . .          0.6-1.0
                                                                                                   Marine programs     . . . . .           0.3-0.5
                                                                                                   Marine projects     . . . . .           0.4-0.7
                                                                                                Operational Support       . . . .          1.0-1.5

                                                                                                             TOTAL     . . . . .           5.1-.7.9
                                                                                                ISee Figure 2.

                          Chapte  r 2 Major Findings and Recommendations.

                             The major findings and recommendations of                 engmieering and technology development program
                          the Marine Engineering and Technology Panel are              over the next 10 years could provide the United
                          summarized under the following categories:                   States a wide range of industrial, scientific, politi-
                                                                                       cal, and military technological options.
                          A. General                                                      Without such an accelerated undersea explora-
                          B. Fundamental Technology                                    tion and development program, a critical national
                          C. Facilities                                                technological deficiency will develop. Moreover,
                          D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations                         instead of an orderly development, a crash reac-
                          E. Special Nearshore Problems                                tion would become necessary should some other
                          F. Great Lakes Restoration                                   nation demonstrate an internationally important
                          G. Industrial Technology                                     undersea capability.
                                                                                          The goals stated in this report will not be
                             These categories relate directly to the report's          achieved unless a much greater national commit-
                          major marine technology discussions, most of                 ment to the oceans is made. U.S. ocean activities
                          which are concerned with surface or relatively               Presently include substantial private, State, and
                          shallow operations to 2,000 feet. Such operations            regional efforts. Therefore, the oceans deserve a
                          are expected to dominate national ocean activities           different approach than military and space endeav-
                          during the remainder of this century. Within each            ors which have been strictly Federal responsi-
                          group, findings are presented first, followed by             bilities.
                          recommendations. This chapter summarizes the                    Overall undersea capability could advance more
                          current state of marine technology, its potential,           rapidly if affirmative efforts were made to publish
                          and a valid approach to advancing the nation's               government-developed technology. Unclassified re-
                          capability to explore and utilize the oceans fully.          search and engineering data are sometimes not
                                                                                       .released because funds are insufficient to prepare
                          A. General                                                   public reports, manpower limitations hamper ex-
                                                                                       traction of unclassified technological data from
                             The oceans are the promise of future genera-              classified documents, or the U.S. Government
                          tions; they are the arena for achieving a major              (especially the military) chooses to withhold un-
                          advancement in world gross product. Ocean devel-             classified data from general distribution.
                          opment is a major concern-more compelling to
                          today's national interest than space development-
                          integral to the solution of urban, transportation,           Recommendations:
                          health,    foreign    aid,    and    world      nutrition
                          problems-and vital to national defense.                      1. A National Advisory Committee for the Oceans
                             The present overall undersea c      apability of the      (NACO) should be established with representation
                          United States is extremely limited relative to the           from the States and regions, private enterprise, the
                          potential of marine technology. Given a funda-               academic community, and the U.S. Government.
                          mental technology program and a commitment to                Its principal functions would be to (1) advise all
                          the oceans, the United States could produce                  U.S. Government agencies with missions in the
                          systems in 10 to 15 years that would duplicate on            oceans on the planning and implementation of the
                          the continental shelves many productive terrestrial          national marine efforts, (2) inform the Congress,
                          functions while attaining substantially improved             (3) assist the States and private interests, (4) guide
                          operating capabilities throughout the oceans at all          the fundamental marine technology development
                          depths.                                                      program, and (5) submit a periodic report assessing
                             Industrial, scientific, and military undersea             the national ocean program. Advice should be
                          technology are closely linked. A properly man-               given in such areas as national goals and long-range
                          aged, balanced, comprehensive, dynamic marine                plans, facilities, manpower, National Projects,

                                                                                                                                             VI-7

                                    scientific investigations, and oceanographic opera-        industrial, academic and scientific, and military
                                    tions.                                                     and civilian government.

                                    2. A new, adequately funded oceanic agency                 General Public Requirements:
                                    should be established within the U.S. Government
                                    to concentrate in one agency appropriate civilian          -Total national involvement including efforts of
                                    groups with primary niissions and roles in the             States, regions, and private enterprise.
                                    oceans. An important part of the new agency                -An awareness by the American people of the
                                    should he a technology development group re-
                                    sponsible for conducting and supporting a funda-           Importance of the oceans to the Nation and the
                                                                                               world.
                                    mental marine technology program and providing
                                    engineering support to th       Ie agency's operating      industrial Needs:
                                    groups.
                                                                                               -Extensive survey information on marine re-
                                    3. A 10-year program of intensive undersea devel-          sources on which to base investment decisions.
                                    opment should be undertaken. Such an effort
                                    would give the Nation the technological base and           -Sufficient Government ocean engineering devel-
                                    capability to: (1) occupy the territorial sea, (2)         opment funds to stimulate substantial private
                                    utilize and manage the resources of the U.S.               investment in operational systems..
                                    Continental Shelf and slope, (3) explore and
                                    utilize deep ocean resources, (4) meet needs for           -A better appreciation of the complexities and
                                    undersea military operations, and (5) determine            costs of operating in the oceans.
                                    intelligently future national undersea programs.           -A solid base of fundamental technology and
                                                                                               operating experience.
                                    4. A series of National Projects should be estab-
                                    lished to support advancement into the undersea            -A legal and political framework that fosters
                                    frontier of industry, the States, the academic             ocean exploration and production activities.
                                    community, and the U.S. Government agencies in,
                                    an economic manner. These projects should re-              Academic and Scientific Needs:
                                    ceive government support and, where applicable,            -Sufficient funds allocated to scientific projects
                                    be available to all users on a @ cost reimbursement
                                    basis. Principal use of these National Projects will       to provide improved engineering support of at-sea
                                    be to test and evaluate the economic and technical         scientific operations.
                                    feasibility of advanced marine developments.               -A close interaction between scientists and engi-
                                    S. Navy undersea development efforts in             deep   neers in applying engineering capabilities to the
                                                                                               conduct of scientific projects.
                                    submergence and ocean engineering should be
                                    increased. The program outlined by the Deep                -More emphasis in engineering institutions on
                                    Submergence/Ocean Engineering Program Planning             ocean problems.
                                    Group appears to reflect realistically future Navy
                                    needs. In addition to this program, an expanded            Military Needs:
                                    Navy mission in support of the applicable national         -Establishment within the Department of Defense
                                    technology goals should be recognized to take              of a strong primary military mission in undersea
                                    maximum advantage of iWsting capabilities and
                                    facilities. Cooperative efforts between the Navy           technology to meet present and future threats.
                                    program and the civilian program should be                 -A clearly stated Navy mission in support of
                                    pursued to the fullest extent.                             national marine programs evoking support of the
                                    6. An effective national commitment to the                 Congress, civilian leaders, and the general public.
                                    oceans will require understanding and cooperation          -A recognition of the contribution that can be
                                    from all sectors of the economy-general public,            made by use of Navy capabilities in international,

                                    VI-8

                       economic, political, scientific, and technological        the undersea frontier parallels the history of
                       fields.                                                   strategic test facility needs for development of
                                                                                 high altitude, supersonic, and space flight. Ocean
                       -Funds in addition to those required for military         test facilities are a national resource as important
                       commitments sufficient to allow use of Nav
                                                                              y  as any other single factor in the development of
                       capabilities and management expertise in support          technology.
                       of the overall national goals.                               Insufficient and often unsuitable test facilities
                                                                                 today are seriously impeding advancements in
                       Civilian Government Needs:                                submersible, habitat, equipment, and instrumenta-
                       -A concentration of agencies having ocean roles           tion development.
                       and missions.                                                Facilities for physiological research, medical
                                                                                 training, diver equipment development, and satura-
                       -A marine and undersea technology development             tion diver training are grossly inadequate.
                       capability.                                               Recommendation:
                       B. Fundamental Technology                                 9.* A national program should be initiated to
                                                                                 increase the number and capability of undersea
                          Critical advances in fundamental technology are        research, development, test, and evaluation facil-
                       required to improve undersea operating capabil-           ities and to oversee efforts to improve facility
                       ities and reliability. Examples include: reliable,        design technology to reduce costs. A two part
                       efficient, compact power sources; machinery and           approach is needed for systems and equipment
                       equipment capable of ambient operation; corrO-            development and biomedical development.
                       sion and fouling resistent, high strength-to-weight
                       materials; subsurface navigation and precise posi-        D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations
                       tioning devices; underwater communication and                The bathymetry of the world's oceans is such
                       viewing systems; and biomedicine.                         that approximately 88 per cent of the ocean floor
                          Knowledge of ocean environmental variables,            lies between the 2,000 and 20,000 foot contours,
                       particularly such features  'as temperature, salinity,    with 10 per cent less than 2,000 feet deep and
                       depth, biological effects, bathymetry, acoustic           only two per cent greater than 20,000 feet deep.
                       properties, bottom and, sub-bottom geology, is
                                                                                    'Marino life and high@grade' mineral resources
                       insufficient to establish valid engineering design        exist at 20,000 feet. Sedimentary deposits which
                       'criteria for undersea systems.                           may contain oil are known to exist on the
                       Recommendations:                                          continental rises at depths from 6,000 to 14,000
                                                                                 feet.
                       7. A fundamental marine engineering and           tech-      The deep sea is of great interest to scientists
                       nology program should be vigorously pursued to            concerned with such fields as ocean circulation,
                       expand the possibilities and lower the costs of           climatology, nutrient supply, marine biology, geo-
                       undersea operations.                                      physics, and geology.
                                                                                    A technological deficiency in systems designed
                       8. Handbooks, technical memoranda, and other              to operate below 2,000 feet exists because of the
                       engineering design data should be developed,              lack of a national commitment to 'Understand,
                       continually updated, and made available to the            explore, and utilize the deep ocean. Deep ocean
                       ocean engineer to provide critical information on         operations in 'general are restricted severely by
                       undersea environmental conditions and the behav-          equipment failures and the lack of ability to do
                       ior of systems, materials, and components in the          useful work.
                       environment.                                                 Military systems with deep operating capability
                                                                                 will provide such advantages as better conceal-
                       C. Test Facilities                                        ment, improved location for acoustic systems,
                                                                                 expanded tactical coverage of @systems operating
                          The necessity for adequate test facilities to          above, and larger absolute margin of safety during
                       permit safe, orderly, and rapid advancement into          dives and submerged maneuvers. Deep operating

                                                                                                                                   VI-9

                                        systems would be required for undersea arms                    astrous effects @on recreation, fish and wildlife,
                                        control inspection and enforcement.                            water supplies, natural. beauty, commercial devel-
                                                                                                       opment, and scientific study. Pollution in some
                                        Recommendations:                                               areas is so critical that the use of nearshore waters
                                        10. The United States should undertake immedi-                 for additional waste disposal cannot be tolerated.
                                        ately a dynamic and comprehensive advanced                     A technology base exists to produce more effec-
                                        development program leading to a greatly ex-                   tive waste treatment techniques, monitoring de-
                                        panded ocean engineering capability. The deep-                 vices, and to introduce preventative and restorative
                                        ocean goal should be set at the working plateau of             measures.
                                        20,000 feet to gain access to 98 per cent of the                  So much critical U.S. coastal land has been lost
                                        world's oceans. This is consistent with the pro-               to the sea that improved coastal engineering
                                        jected status of deep ocean technology. Develop-               technology becomes increasingly important. Ex-
                                        ment of 20,000-foot systems to explore and utilize             tensive erosion protection projects have been
                                        the ocean as a whole is more rational than to                  undertaken, but due to a lack of basic understand-
                                        advance incrementally at greater overall cost.                 ing of shore processes there often have been both
                                                                                                       unexpected failures and undesirable results.
                                        11. The deep ocean development program should                     Progress in marine transportation is leading
                                        give highest priority to:                                      rapidly to larger, deeper-draft bulk carriers and
                                        -Compact power sources for vehicle        .s and habitats.     high speed ships with such improved cargo han-
                                                                                                       dling systems as containers and lighters. Contain-
                                        -Reliable free flooding external machinery, elec-              erization is growing especially fast. The New York
                                        trical systems, and equipment.                                 Port Authority estimates that by 1975, 50 per
                                                                                                       cent of its general cargo will be * containerized
                                        -Materials for low weight-to-displacentent ratio               compared to 12 per cent at present and only 3 per
                                        structures; high-strength, corrosion and fouling               cent in 1966.
                                        resistant components; and supplemental buoy-                      Port design in addition to ship design will pace
                                        ancy.                                                          future progress. Deepening of harbors to accom-
                                                                                                       modate large bulk carriers is encountering such
                                        12. The United States should undertake a pro               .   severe physical barriers as.. bedrock, marimade
                                        grain to gain knowledge and experience in the                  tunnels, and long shallow approaches. In general,
                                        deep ocean, focusing on technology to develop:                 terminals for bulk and containerized shipping must
                                                                                                       be totally new. Utilization of land made available
                                        -Efficient long-endurance exploration submers-                 by obsolete facilities can make valuable contribu-
                                        ibles. and associated instrumentation.                         tions to    Iurban development. Increased ocean
                                        -Logistic support and rescue vehicles for crew                 activity will require government emphasis on
                                        transfer and resupply.                                         safety and regulation. Nearshore activities place
                                                                                                       prime reliance on dependable navigation and
                                        -Manned stations capable of submerged support                  communications.
                                        by deep submersibles.
                                                                                                       Recommendations:
                                        -Submersible mother ships and stable surface                   13. Disposal of wastes in coastal,waters must not
                                        platforms to support undersea operations safely                be considered an acceptable alternative to pollution
                                        and efficiently.                                               abatement and control without full prior knowl-
                                        E. Special Nearshore Problems'                                 edge of its effects. A goal should be set to halt
                                                                                                       substantially any further pollution and to improve
                                           Pollution is the most serious problem in              the   the quality of nearshore waters. The goals of this
                                        nearshore area, having detrimental and often            dis-   program should be enforced by joint State-Federal
                                                                                                       ultimate standards to be fixed immediately. These
                                             In this panel report, the emphasis is on the engineer-    standards should be tailored for incremental future
                                        ing and technology to support activities in the coastal and    compliance until the desired standards are at-
                                        estuarine zones. Another panel report deals with the
                                        overall problems of these zones.                               tained. In addition, detailed research and develop-

                                        VI-10

                         ment programs should be pursued to improve ,                 tion, abatement is required to make restoration
                         technology of monitoring devices to help deter-              efforts effective.
                         mine pollution sources and distribution.
                                                                                      Recommendations:
                         14. To increase the quality and quantity of                  17. A Nationa    .I Project tailored to the immediate
                         usable coastal land, a program of coastal biolog-            needs of Lakes Erie-and Ontario and southern
                         ical and engineering efforts should be pursued               Lake Michigan should be funded'to test such
                         vigorously and adequately funded to perform such             promising restoration schemes as artificially in-
                         tasks as:                                                    duced, destratification. Existing facilities should be
                         -Coastal process studies.                                    used to -the fullest extent.
                         -Prototype developments. of new erosion preven-              18. A    restoration project for Lakes Erie and
                         tion systems.                                                Ontario and southern Lake Michigan should be
                                                                                      undertaken as soon as the technology is available.
                         -Applied research on nearshore ecology.                      The program should complement the implementa-
                                                                                      tion of effective pollution abatement technology
                         15. Port and harbor development should be based              in all the Great Lakes and must be managed to
                         on a total systems approach. to marine transporta-           accommodate Federal, State, community, and
                         tion. Such development should concentration                  private interests.
                         design of offshore bulk cargo terniinals and im-
                         proved methods of intermodal (air-land-sea) trans-
                         fer to allow more effective use of coastal land.
                                                                                      G. Industrial Technology
                         16. To protect life and property better, the Coast           1. Fishing and Aquaculture
                         Guard should pursue a research and deve opment
                         program to strengthen capabilities for traffic con-             The total annual production of the U.S. fishing
                         trol, monitoring, and search and rescue (including           industry has been static at four to six billion
                         underwater divers, submersibles, and habitats). A            'pounds for nearly 30 years, although the U.S.
                         study should be made of present and potential                fnarket is three times the U.S. catch and is growing
                         underwater acoustic requirements. Frequency and              rapidly. Further, the sustainable yield adjacent to
                         power level allocations should be established and            the United States is estimated to be greater than
                         enforced.                                                    30 billion pounds. The U.S. fishing fleet is mixed
                                                                                      in quality-partly antiquated, such as the New
                                                                                      England ground fish fleet, and partly modern, as
                         F. Great Lakes Restoration                                   the West Coast tuna fleet and parts of the Gulf
                            The major problem faced by the Great Lakes is             Coast shrimp fleet. ,
                         aging (cutrophication) accelerated by water pollu-              Fishermen spend an average of half of their
                         tion leading to:                                             total time at sea hunting fish, and in some fisheries
                                                                                      considerably more. Nevertheless, government ef-
                                                                                      forts to assist the industry have given greater
                         -Over-enrichment of the Lakes                                emphasis on biological science, and less on search,
                         -Build up of dissolved and suspended solids in the           location, and harvesting technology development.
                         Lakes                                                           Freshwater aquaculture of catfish and trout and
                                                                                      estuarine aquaculture of oysters are examples of
                         -Oxygen depletion of the Lakesand tributaries                successful local U.S. industries with good growth
                                                                                      potential. A strong market exists in the United
                            Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and southern Lake                States for quality sea food products many of
                         Michigan are in the worst condition of the five              which are adaptable to aquaculture. Open sea
                         Great Lakes, but none is beyond restoration.                 aquaculture, however, does not yet exist commer-
                         Technology can reverse the aging process. Pollu-             cially.

                                                                                                                                            V1_11

                                  Recommendations:                                        operation. Mainly because of power, requirements
                                  19. Fisheries production technology should         be   exploration and production wells will continue to
                                  developed through greater emphasis on engineering       be drilled from the surface. An increasing number
                                  to permit U.S. fishermen to supply a much    . greater  of production wells and fields will be completed
                                  fraction of the domestic market. An expanded            beneath the surface, making increasing use of
                                  program should be undertaken to improve vessels,        acoustically controlled undersea equipment.
                                  fish catching gear, and methods. Laws governing            Technology has so advanced that specially
                                  fisheries management should focus on controlling        designed barges can weld, X-ray, externally coat,
                                  the total catch rather than restricting the use of      and lay pipelines. Five thousand miles of pipe,
                                  improved equipment and harvesting methods. For          from small 2-inch flow lines to 26-inch trunk lines,
                                  overfished stocks, emphasis should be placed on         now traverse the floor of the Gulf of Mexico. To
                                  technical support of biological research and on         date, pipe laying has been Iiiiiited to 340 feet in
                                  modification of existing fishing equipment for use      medium diameter (12 inch) pipe and 100 feet in
                                  in other fisheries. For stocks not in danger of         large diameter (48 inch) pipe.
                                  depletion, efforts'should be concentrated on gear          Major oil spills from tankers have been a costly
                                  development, vessel design, survey, and fish loca-      hazard, in some cases disastrous and causing
                                  tion technology. A substantial share of the pro-        international repercussions. Even such lesser oil
                                  gram budget should be used for contract studies         discharges as cleaning tanks or pumping bilges on
                                  by industry and private institutions.                   the high seas have detrimental effects on beaches
                                                                                          and coastlines.
                                  20. The U.S. Government should sponsor contin-
                                  uing surveys of promising coastal and distant           Recommendations:
                                  fishery resources, including sport fisheries, to        22. A mechanism should be established to ensure
                                  determine the potential of under-utifized species,      optimum information exchange between the U.S.
                                  to provide information for fish location and            Government and the petroleum industry.
                                  harvesting equipment design applicable to these
                                  species, and to support negotiation of inter-           23. Results of such Government        undersea tech-
                                  national fisheries agreements and treaties.             nology programs as biomedicine       to support ad-
                                                                                          vanced diving, fundamental undersea technology,
                                  21. The promise of aquaculture should be pursued        and reconnaissance mapping and charting should
                                  with such development efforts as selective breed-       be available to the petroleum industry to help
                                  ing, control of temperature and nutrients, and          expand operations to deeper water and reduce
                                  containment techniques. Aquaculture projects            operation risks and costs. Technology efforts
                                  should be established, in existing laboratories         should be expanded to improve Government serv-
                                  where feasible, to emphasize engineering appli-         ices in environmental prediction and modification,
                                  cable to freshwater, nearshore, and open sea            particularly regarding hurricanes and sediment
                                  systems.                                                behavior and transport.

                                  2. Oil and Gas                                          24. The government must ensure development of
                                     Offshore oil and gas industry initiative has         improved methods to minimize the possibility of
                                  developed a major nongovernmental marine sci-           oil spills, optimize clean-up measures, and identify
                                  ence and engineering program. Much of the result-       the responsible polluters. Contingency plans
                                  ant technology will be applicable to future             should be prepared to permit immediate action to
                                                                                          contain and clean up major oil spills.
                                  Government and other industry ocean programs.
                                     Offshore production continues to move into           3. Chemical Extraction and Desalination
                                  progressively greater depths. During 1969, explora-
                                  tory drilling is expected in water depths of 1,300         Magnesium metal, magnesium compounds, and
                                  feet and production established in as deep water as     bron-dne are extracted from sea water commer-
                                  400 feet. Within 10 years, such systems as remote       cially, supplying 90, 34, and 50 per cent respec-
                                  control undersea core drilling rigs may be in           tively of the U.S. market. Desalination effluents

                                  VI-12

                        and high @ concentration anomalies, such as the Red-    4. Ocean Mining
                        Sea hot spots, may make it practical to extract
                        other. elements of even lower average concentra-        . Solid minerals exist in.the form of deposit   's on
                        tions. Worldwide, salt is the most important            Ahe seafloor and within the bedrock. In each cate-
                        product-extracted, with almost 30 per cent of the,      gory the resources are extremely diverse in nature,
                        total world production being derived from sea           and value. Bottom deposits. include shells, sand,
                        water.                                                  phosphorite and manganese nodules, and gold and
                           Desalination processes can be used for multiple      tin placers. Bedrock deposits include coal, sulphur,
                        purposes including the conversion of sea water and      and iron ores. Technology for exploration and
                        brackish water and for purification of polluted         recovery of each is substantially different.
                        water. No single process is optimum for the               The only mineral recovery operations on the
                        divergent types of input water and output quan-         U.S. Continental Shelf are sand, gravel, and oyster
                        tity and quality needed. Energy and capital invest-     she.11 dredging plus sulfur extraction. Deep ocean
                        .ment costs dominate the economics of desalted          manganese nodules are known to contain substan-
                        water.                                                  tial concentrations of nickel, copper, and cobalt.
                                                                                The technology for commercial nodule mining,
                                                                                however, has not yet been demonstrated. Future
                        Recommendations:                                        ocean mining may require submersible exploration
                        25. The present program to devel            alternate   vehicles and dredges; seafloor production, boring,
                                                               op               and drilling rigs; ocean accessible installations
                        desalting methods for differing applications should
                                                             . j@               the bedrock; and high capacity vertical and hori-
                        be expanded. Attention should be given to new           zontal transport systems.
                        chemical extraction technology which can be used
                        with concentrated brines.
                                                                                Recommendation:
                                                                                28. Although the worldwide supply of land based
                        26. The U.S. Government's prime objective in its
                        saline water program should continue to be the          mineral resources may be sufficient to the year
                        advancement of desalting technology, in contrast        2000, it is essential for U.S. industry to make an
                        to the business of supplying water. The fial step       early start in offshore exploration and production.
                        in developing promising new_ or improved pro-           To delineate offshore mineral reserves and provide
                        cesses should be based on two major approaches,         the fundamental technology for future growth, the
                                                                                U S Government should establish a program to (1)
                        both in cooperation with private industry: (1).          *e*are and publish reconnaissance scale bathy-
                        sponsorship of construction and operation of            Pr P
                        prototype or dern .onstration plants and (2) partici-   metric- geophysical, and geological maps of U.S.
                        pation with water supply agencies in constructing       ConQntal Shelves and deeper areas, (2) establish
                                                                                favorable legal, political, and econormic incen6ves7
                        and operating such plants. Thus, State, municipal,
                        and private water supply agencies would have an         to encourage industry to delineate further exploit-
                        opportunity to utilize new desalting technology in      able deposits and develop its own extraction
                        a first-of-a-kind plant wherein the risk is shared      technology, and (3) cooperate in developing un-
                        through Government financial support.                   dersea mineral exploration devices emphasizing
                                                                                more rapid geophysical exploration tools and
                                                                                unproved deposit sampling equipment.
                        27. The Government's desalination research and
                        development program should be balanced to de-
                        velop techniques to supply large-scale regional         5. Power Generation
                        water needs, including metropolitan coastal facili-
                        ties and ultimately agriculture; to develop more          Tides, waves, currents, and thermal differences
                        reliable and efficient small plants for beachfront      are theoretically feasible sources of power in
                        hotels and islands and for small inland communi-        certain locations. Although some developments
                        ties which must make use of brackish or polluted        show promise, as yet no plant in the world -is
                        water supplies; and to develop systems to permit        profitably generating power from these sources.
                        industrial and municipal re-use of waste water.         Principal use of the sea in power generation

                                                                                                                                VI-13

                                 probably will continue to be for dissipating. waste      would . permit later construction of relatively.
                                 heat from fossil or, nuclear fueled power plants.        small (5,000 to .10,000 kw) power sources to
                                                                                          -support undersea operations. -A possible subse-
                                 Recommendation:                                          quent development would be.,huge, stationary.
                                 29. The Atomic Energy Commission and the new             electric generating facilities fthousandsW mega
                                 oceanic agency in cooperation with private indus-        watts). Such large- facilities will become increas-
                                 try -should sponsor development and construction ingly important- as coastal landt grows scarce and
                                 of an experimental continental shelf submerged" expensive and -as it becomes necessary -to shift
                                 nuclear power plant. The technology developed            thermal pollution loads from the nearshore areas.

                                   VI-14

                         Chapter 3 Factors Affecting Technology DevelopMent

                            This chapter presents a    number'6f important       tionship of the   civilian and  military' sectors of
                         non-technical aspects that will influence the course    society has problems relating to planning, informa-
                         of marine technology in the United States. These        tion exchange, and security classification. Ocean
                         include (1) 'opportunities    for the future, (2)       activities will stimulate new international relation-
                         it.nportance, urgency, and rationale for U.S. leader-   ships; they can benefit this Nation and others.
                         ship, (3) trends influencing marine development,          Current law of the sea relates only to the
                         (4) interrelationships among economic segments,         ocean's surface. Inevitable technological progress
                         (5) interrelationships of technical influences, and     will compel new legal codes when present surface-
                         .(6) influence of technology on the law of.the sea.     oriented laws fail to satisfy the needs of the
                            Experience shows that forecasts of the near          undersea *activities.
                         future tend to be overly opthnistic: and forecasts        The rise and fall of great nations has invariably
                         of the far future lack boldness. A look at the          included a period of territorial expansion and
                         distant future and the benefits of a national ocean     acquisition. Nations failing to extend frontiers
                         program envisions communities working and living        often fell victim to neighbors who pursued policies
                         in the oceans.                                          of expansion. The United States originated with
                            The importance, urgency, and rationale for U.S.      13 colonies on the Eastern seaboard and through
                         leadership in ocean science and technology require      purchase and settlement spread the American
                         that a national program be pursued vigorously.          culture from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
                         Although timing is critical, a crash program is not       Except Antarctica, no important land area today
                         needed. The complexities of the undersea frontier       remains for peaceful expansion and settlement.
                         require a modem store of knowledge for o        pera-   Overpopulation  and undernourishment are rapidly
                         tions both on the continental shelves and in the        becoming a specter of the future, and man will
                         deep oceans. In the progress to the shelves and         turn to the sea for additional nourishment, mate-
                         the deep, science and technology will be con-           rial resources, and perhaps living space. Future
                         stantly challenged. Well conceived and executed         generations may dwell on continental shelves,
                         endeavors in science and technology have proved         going ashore only to market the products of their
                         worthwhile in the past. National security, water        undersea community and to procure items not
                         pollution, and international affairs are important      available in the ocean. Atlantis may become not a
                         motives for U.S. leadership.                            myth of the past but a civilization of the future.
                            Several influences strongly pressure the Na-           Complete, well planned exploration and inten-
                         tion's advancement into the waters of the conti-        sive utilization are needed to establish firmly this
                         nental shelves and deep ocean. Just to maintain,        new frontier. The United States should proceed
                         nonetheless to improve, living standards of an          now with this planet's final peaceful expansion.
                         increasing world population requires progressively
                         more food, shelter, water, energy, and recreational
                         resources. National needs include areas for further     1. OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE FUTURE
                         peaceful expansion, new opportunities to earn
                         profits and establish new tax bases, reliable mili-       The engineering and technology program rec-
                         tary security, and means for assisting developing       ommended is aimed principally at opening the
                         nations to become self-supporting.                      undersea frontier. Particularly important is the
                         . Although not always distinctly defined, science,      element of economical and continuous access,
                         engineering, and technology have interrelations         with strong emphasis on reducing the costs of
                         essential to the national program, and they require     at-sea operations to make ocean resources more
                         reinforcement. There is an important interrelation-     available.
                         ship among the government, industry, and aca-             From the first, the Commission was directed to
                         demic communities which requires an exchange of         pioneer, experiment, and look to the future. Its
                         information and skilled personnel. The interrela-       mandate was to outline activity for the foreseeable

                                                                                                                                VI-15

                                  future and to give guidance to the U.S. Govern-         placement of heat generating operations at sea
                                  ment.                                                   where adequate cooling capacity is available. Mov-
                                     Fulfillment. of technological potentials is a        ing large stationary power plants to sea will free
                                  difficult task. It is hoped that the following two      high value urban land for other use.
                                  mission objectives will provide the guidelines to           During this same period the knowledge will be
                                  achievement. The United States should develop           acquired upon which to establish reasonable water
                                  the technological base and capability:                  quality standards satisfying both commercial and
                                                                                          recreational interests. Beaches once closed because
                                  -within 10 years.to occupy the U.S. territorial         of pollution may be reopened, and coastal engi-
                                  sea, utilize the U.S. Continental Shelf and slope to    neering technology will be available to restore
                                  depths of 2,000 feet, and explore the ocean depths      damaged beaches, construct artificial islands, and
                                  to 20,000 feet.                                         otherwise enhance the usefulness of coastal lands.
                                                                                              Improved technology will benefit greatly scien-
                                  -within 30 years to manage the U.S. Continental         tific effort, perhaps allowing basic discoveries to
                                  Shelf and slope to depths of 2,000 feet and utilize     be made that will profoundly affect the future.
                                  th e ocean depths to 20,000 feet.                       The scientist will have convenient and economical
                                                                                          access to entire oceans.
                                     The two objectives are interrelated. The first           Finally, the stage will be set for a new period of
                                  provides the improved understanding and capabil-        21 st century seapower, a period characterized not
                                  ity basic to ocean systems development. The             only by a powerful Navy in the military sense, but
                                  second, during the period 1980 to 2000, visualizes      an internationally strong-and respected Nation. If
                                  extensive use of new techniques on U.S. Conti-          the Nation accepts the - challenge of this report,
                                  nental Shelf areas. In the deep oceans development      there will be established an increased opportunity
                                  of long-term operating capability will be stimu-        to solve some of the difficult social problems of
                                  lated by needs formulated from exploration.             population, poverty, and malnutrition. The United
                                     By the year 2000, colonies on the sea floor will     States should lead in meeting the challenge of the
                                  be commonplace because industries will operate          undersea frontier.
                                  profitably at sea and people will be there to
                                  support them. It is not difficult to conceive of fish   11. IMPORTANCE, URGENCY, AND RATION-
                                  harvesting systems or perhaps open water aquacul-           ALE FOR U.S. LEADERSHIP
                                  ture. Much of the offshore oil and gas industry will
                                  be operating completely submerged, and very                 There is little question that mankind eventually
                                  possibly mining will have overcome ocean exploi-        will make massive use of the oceans for natural
                                  tation problems. Chemical processing plants may         resources, transportation, recreation, and national
                                  well find deeper ocean conditions compatible with       security. A well-conceived program is needed-a
                                  the needs of high pressure processes.                   national program that is thoughtfully scheduled,
                                     Although it may be easy to overestimate              carefully executed, and wisely balanced with
                                  near-term progress, it is equally easy to under-        other national interests. The rate at which man
                                  estimate the long term potential. By the year           becomes economically involved with the oceans
                                  2000, the U.S. industry with the highest sales          may be debated, but the need for his involvement
                                  volume, employment, and earnings may well be            is a certainty. The United States must learn
                                  one intimately associated with the oceans.              to court the oceans, eliciting responses which
                                     Beyond the economic considerations of a com-         reinforce the material, aesthetic, and social ends
                                  mitment to the oceans, there are tremendous             the Nation is striving to achieve.
                                  social, political, scientific, and military implica-        Offshore oil has demonstrated its viability. With
                                  tions for the 1980-2000 period. Water pollution         initial success, the industry can look forward
                                  can be checked; water quality restoration-initially     confidently, and an increasing industry contribu-
                                  in fresh water areas and later in coastal regions-      tion to the economy can be expected. Although
                                  will have a firm beginning. Although during this        the world supply of mineral resources on land
                                  period the problem of thermal pollution will            appears generally sufficient to the year 2000,
                                  become fully apparent, technology will permit           leadtimes require an early start. Offshore explora-

                                  VI-16

                          tion and pilot production are required to delineate            more ocean resources to be harvested econorni-
                          the more accessible reserves and to develop the                cally.
                          technology base to meet accelerating needs.                       A stable and predictable legal environment will
                             Gradually ocean industries collectively will geri-          be required. Technology should be considered in
                          erate a larger and larger fraction of the gross                framing laws to ensure their enforceability and
                          national product and will help the United States               realistic applicability to prospective activities. The
                          maintain its competitive position in the world                 latter quality is particularly important because
                          marketplace. It is easier and cheaper to maintain a            development and utilization of ocean resources
                          position of leadership than to regain lost initiative.         involve major capital investment.
                             More intelligent stewardship of resources will                 In some cases, the most valuable assistance the
                          be required as utilization of the oceans increases.            United States can give less advanced nations is the
                          This implies improved knowledge, best achieved                 technological knowhow to develop their own
                          through an aggressive basic marine science pro-                industry. Technology can be expanded to support
                          gram. Improved scientific understanding of the                 profitable ocean exploitation and meaningful in-
                          oceans also is needed to support a continuing                  ternational scientific programs.
                          advance in technology, to make longer-term                        National security is much more than classic
                          weather predictions, to realize food production                military might-submarines, missiles, aircraft car-
                          potentials, and to determine future military useful-           riers, and destroyers. In its broadest sense, it is the
                          ness. Science has returned dividends in the past,              action a nation must take to maintain its position
                          and will in the future.                                        in world affairs. The United States does not and
                             Now is the time to reverse the trend of                     should not fulfill all its needs from resources
                          degradation of the environment. Beaches have                   within its boundaries. More than 98 per cent of
                          been closed on Lake Erie; ocean beaches have been              U.S. international commerce is carried by ships.
                          rendered useless by oil slicks; oyster beds have               Control to assure free use of the seas is basic to
                          been condemned; and city water front areas have                national security. But such control of the sea is
                          been blighted by raw sewage and chemicals                      relative, not absolute, applying equally to friend
                          dumped into harbors. Technology should be ex-                  and foe.
                          tended so these problems can be solved econorni-                  Seapower is best built on a sound base of
                          cally.                                                         industrial and commercial ocean development,
                             The state-of-the-art is such that it is possible to         providing knowledge and trained manpower for
                          consider a law requiring municipal and industrial              times of military need. This emphasis would
                          intakes to be installed downstream from their                  minimize Navy expenditures for in-house develop-
                          outfalls, in effect putting the water user in the              ment, yet would provide a viable foundation for
                          same position as others downstream. There is no                the future. The Navy must keep informed con-
                          reason why a user cannot return water of a quality             stantly of non-military ocean activity. Its develop-
                          equal to that which he takes from a stream.                    ment program should emphasize long range items
                             The world's richest Nation need not live in its             necessary to national security, such as deep sub-
                          own filth, but should set an example by directly               mergence systems, which do not now attract a
                          facing these problems rather than leaving greater              large amount of commercial activity.
                          problems to future generations. The technology
                          should be developed to eliminate the economic                  Ill. TRENDS INFLUENCING MARINE DEVEL-
                          penalty of waste treatment, making it possible for                 OPMENT
                          many activities to profit by reprocessing wastes
                          into marketable products. This quantitative bene-                 The marine environment will become increas-
                          fit would be in addition to the qualitative values             ingly important, and national interest in and
                          of beauty, clean water, and recreation.                        emphasis on the exploration and utilization of the
                             The net effect of modern communication and                  undersea frontier will increase accordingly. Effec-
                          transportation has been to deny the oceans their               tive planning of technology development must be
                          historic role as natural barriers. Interaction be-             based on estimates of future trends and needs
                          tween nations will increase as technology allows               induced by both natural and man-made influences.

                                                                                                                                               VI-17
                               333-091 0-69-6

                                    Barring 4 major war, world requirements for 'such         more leisure time. These will accelerate the need
                                    basics as: water, food, housing, and energy can be        for additional coastal recreation areas.
                                    estimatedr-easonably well to the year. 2000._,               Impairment'of activitlesby' pollution will be-
                                       However, it is . difficult to make. long'-r'?L'nge     come more obvious and Will motivate incre a*sed
                                    projections of such qualitative factorsa's consumer       program s of abatement, enforcement, and restora-
                                    tastes, political and legal arrangements and eco-         tion. Pollution, like inflation, goes relatively un-
                                    nomic progress. It is essentially today's technology      heeded for a time but has enormous long term
                                    that will be employed to meet such requirements           implications. Before the end of the century, a
                                    during the next 10 years. Beyond that period              significant amount of national energy must be
                                    planning becomes more difficult because of the            directed to protecting and enhancing the environ-
                                    unpredictability of technological advancements,           ment.
                                    especially real breakthroughs. Yet, when national            Technological knowhow incorporated in most
                                    interests -have dictated the 'need for both adequate      U.S. products gives the United States a great
                                    funding and high priority emphasis, solutions to          advantage in the world market. To retain this
                                    difficult technological problems have been more           advantage the United States must commit itself to
                                    rapid than most conceptual planners visualized.           the development of the technology needed to
                                       Technology can provide a better way of fife. A         open the undersea frontier as a new source of
                                    higher standard of living for a doubled world             products and materials.
                                    population in the year 2000 will require more than
                                    twice the power, fresh water, and       ra w materials
                                    consumed today. The material demands of higher            IV. INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG PARTIC-
                                                                                                   ULAR SEGMENTS
                                    living standards are vividly illustrated by the fact
                                    that the United Staf@@s with five per cent of the            Technology development must be accomplished
                                    World's population consumes -almost half the              in a realistic environment subject to economic,
                                    power and raw materials produced by the entire            social, political, scientific, international, and mili-
                                    world. So that the United States cannot be                tary pressures. Decisions on program activity
                                    accused of taking a disproportionate share of             -
                                                                                              should be preceded by objective discussions care-
                                    World' resources, it is prudent to encourage 4evel-
                                                                                              fully weighing technical and policy features. Im-
                                    o.pment of technology for new offshore.petro-             portant areas of interrelationship have been iden-
                                    leum, mineral, food, and other resources, in effect       tified among economic segments: (1) government -
                                    greatly expanding the world resource    Ibase.            industry - academic, (2) civilian - military, and (3)
                                       For the near term, national security will be the       relationships among nations.
                                    most compelling influence forcing advancement of
                                    marine technology. However, offshore petroleum            A. Govern ment-I ndustry-Acade      .mic
                                    expenditures are growing more rapidly than de-
                                    fense expenditures. A large portion of the effort            Goverment's traditional role in industrial de-
                                    will have both civilian and military application,         velopment has been to provide protection for
                                    suggesting a need for strong cooperation between          business investments and information of a scien-
                                    the two.                                                  tific or,technical nature. The State Department,
                                       The quest    for ,wealth and profit,,will help         De@aitmerit of De&nse,"U.S.'Coast Guard Depart-
                                                     t       I       dva
                                    advance marine echno,ogy., A        nced technology       ment pff6ifinterio1r, and    the U.S. Patent Office
                                    will. provide. the key to, more economic utilization      pioivide protection f6'r ma'
                                                                                                                           rine industries in many
                                    of the  undersea   environment. Such assets of,the        forms:  physical survey data pertinent to mineral
                                    sea as buoyancy, sound transimission,' and a limit-       deposits, general environmental information, and
                                    less heat sink will influence technological develop-      statistical data.
                                    ment.                                                        Protection of business investments is of particu-
                                       Technology development has,,allowe.d concur-           lar concern to those industries interested in ex-
                                    rent achievement of a shorter work week and a             ploiting the'continental shelves. Because explora-
                                    higher standard of living. As this trend continues,       tion and survey information must precede
                                    Americans will earn higher disposable incomes and         exploitation of the shelves, broad surveys of the

                                    V1-18

                          shelves must be given high priority in any-national          components technically- advanced to maintain a
                          ocean program. Legal rights of industries operating          competitive position - and (2) applying technical
                          on the continental shelves are particularly vague.           skills and experience to solving known military
                          Conflicts over jurisdiction among individuals,               problems. Military technology developments often.
                          States, and- the U.S. Government and between the             are applicable -to civilian -endeavors.
                          United States and foreign nations over sovereignty              Often a simple solution to a technical problem.
                          on the shelf have created a climate* of legal                can open the door to major systems applications.
                          uncertainty hindering private investment and tech-           However, because of security classification, ad-
                          nological development.                                       vances in, the state-ofmthe-art can be withheld from
                             Various agencies of the U.S. Government have              other potential users. Overclassification unneces-
                          programs in ocean research and development. In               sarily slows communications and can cause unin-
                          particular the Navy has recently increased its               lentional duplication of effort when civilian indus-
                          efforts through establishment of the Deep Submer-            try is not apprised of military developments.
                          gence Systems Project and the Deep Ocean Tech-                  Devising means of transferring technology and
                          nology Program. The Sea Grant Program, under                 bringing about utilization of that technology for
                          way in 1968, is expanding Federal Government                 purposes other than those for which it was
                          support of applied marine sciences.                          developed have become activities of national im-
                             The present relationship among the govern-                portance requiring continued high level attention.
                          ment, industry, and academic world in marine                 The transfer. problem can occur within either the
                          programs needs strengthening., Expanding interests           civilian or military sector as well as between them.
                          -of industry in the ocean environment and the                   Research and development in the marine sci-
                          importance of these interests to the economic                ences constitutes a rapidly increasing and relatively
                          well-being of the United -States argue for a strong          unexploited resource. Effective transfer of tech-
                          non-military Government ocean services program               nology carr increase the rate of economic growth,
                          and a guarantee of offshore protection. Govern-              create new employment opportunities, and aid the
                          ment-sponsored technology development efforts                international competitive position of American
                          should emphasize improved and less costly                    industry.
                          methods, thereby enabling ocean industries to                   Furthermore, technology is a tool that the
                          operate'profitably and also provide increased tax            United States can use to aid other nations -striving
                          revenues.                                                    to improve their standards of living. Ocean tech-
                             Fundamental technology development cannot                 nology is particularly suitable to technology trans-
                          be effective without close coordination with the             fer. First, marine activities are global in perspec-
                          industrial and academic sectors. A continuing                tive and application. The Gulf Stream that washes
                          mechanism should be @ established, through which             Florida shores eventually influences the climate
                          the industrial, financial, and academic commu-               and ecology of England, Norway, and the North
                          nities readily can advise on marine science, engi-.          Sea. Second, marine problems are relatively new to
                          neering" and technology. Advice is needed in                 the community of advanced science and engineer-
                          ftindamental technology, facilities, manpower, and           ing, and few institutional barriers have been
                          national goals and projects. More specifically, a            erected.
                          relationship similar to that which existed between              Traditional means of transferring technology
                          the National Advisory Comrriittee for Aeronautics            include the movement of knowledgeable people
                          .(NACA) and its advisory panels @ -would be de-              and technical literature coupled with the normal
                          sirable.                                                     activities of libraries, technical journals, profes-
                                                                                       sional symposiums, corporations, and govern-
                          B. Civil ian-Military-                                       ments. These are key activities, but because of the
                                                                                       extreme technical diversity of the oceans and the
                             Effective civilian-military    interchange of tech-       large numbers of present and potential users of
                          nology is obviously useful to both parties. Inde-            marine data, more is needed. It is necessary to
                          pendent research and development programs con-               construct and implement channels of distribution
                          -ducted by. defense contractors normally have two            and methods of retrieval of these technical data,
                          objectives: (1) keeping a company's products and             particularly from government to industrial users.

                                                                                                                                            VI-19

                                      A special problem exists with small business              As a basis for harmonious international marine
                                    which historically has had difficulty obtaining          exploration and resource development, certain
                                    security clearances and need-to-know on classified       premises should underlie national- policies and
                                    programs. Small companies often lack general             programs. Excellence, experience-, and capabilities
                                    knowledge of information sources of the Federal          in marine science and technology exist in several
                                    Government. Progressive companies prepare unso-          nations and cooperation can be beneficial to the
                                    licited proposals to demonstrate their expertise.        United States.
                                    However, unless industry is aware of project needs,         In the development of ocean resources, major
                                    time and money may be wasted in submitting               capital investments must be protected.- Uncertain-
                                    proposals for duplicative efforts.                       ties in -interpretation and application of existing
                                    . The U.S. Government role in technology trans-          international law may result in conflicts between
                                    fer must be based on (1) a positive policy that the      nationsi particularly with regard to the width of
                                    release of marine science and technology is a            teff itorial seas, rights of innocent passage, and the
                                    legitimate function . and (2) an implementation of       exploitation of ocean resources. A legal framework
                                    the policy in the agencies concerned with funda-         is required to prevent conflicts and to preserve the
                                    mental technology, ocean exploration and survey,         traditional freedom of the sea.
                                    and ocean services. For example, the National               U.S. marine technology developments should
                                    Aeronautics and Space Administration has accom-          consider both international competition and coop-
                                    plished the transfer of technical data by establish-     eration. Where consistent with the national inter-
                                    ing technology utilization officers at its various       est, programs should encourage increased coopera-
                                    activities, placing responsibility in an identifiable    tion and data exchange among ocean scientists and
                                    office or individual. However, great care must be        engineers of all nations. The U.S. should consider
                                    taken in the treatment of patentable data to assure      advanced marine technology as a prime export
                                    an incentive through ownership for the developer         product and as a foreign aid tool to assist
                                    who risks funds in furthering his invention.             developing countries to strengthen their capabili-
                                      The Navy, role in dissemination of technical           ties for using the ocean and its resources as a
                                    data is particularly important because of the            means to economic progress. The International
                                    magnitude of its ocean research and development          Panel proposes an international framework for
                                    program. It should be recognized that, there are         ocean exploration in its report.
                                    penalties to both under- and over-classification.
                                    What is most needed is a consistent'classification       V. TECHNICAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS
                                    policy directed toward optimizing the technical
                                    and military superiority of the United States.              In addition to economic, social, political, inter-
                                    Since only the Navy can judge the implications of        national, and military pressures, interrelated tech-
                                    its data, it must carry out this function with the       nical areas also influence marine technology devel-
                                    utmost care.                                             opment. Included are those among science,
                                                                                             engineering, and technology and those between
                                    C. Relationships Among Nations                           outerspace and hydrospace development.
                                      From the earliest times the      oceans have SUP-      A. Science- Engineering-Technology
                                    ported bonds of commerce and culture. However,
                                    historic relationships are changing, accelerated by         Using modern technology, man can explore and
                                    advances in marine technologyj enabling nations to       understand increasingly greater portions of the
                                    conduct activities farther from home and in deeper       marine environment. Improvements in technology
                                    water. Multinational communication is necessary          lead to an ability to monitor, measure, and predict
                                    to the beneficial utilization of the sea because of      environmental phenomena more accurately. De-
                                    the international character of marine science, the       signs for,and operations of such complex undersea
                                    sheer magnitude of the unexplored undersea fron-         military systems as those employed in an anti-
                                    tier, and the free use tradition of open ocean areas.    submarine warfare and undersea command and
                                    The size, complexity, and variability of the marine      control are dominated by acoustical conditions. In
                                    environment emphasize the importance of interna-         fact, almost all undersea activities are heavily
                                    tional cooperation.                                      influenced by environmental considerations.

                                    VI-20

                           A great scientific effort is needed. There should     solutions to problems. Aerospace talents and
                        be close interaction of the scientist with. the          philosophy of approach can and are being applied
                        engineer to facilitate, the effort. The overall devel-   to ocean problems, especially in fundamental
                        opment of marine science has suffered from the           technology, systems engineering, and systems man-
                        lack of communication between the two, and the           agement. Although many problems such as navi-
                        present relative paucity of knowledge stems in           gation and communication have technical similari-
                        large measure from the past lack of adequate             ties, actual hardware solutions are often very
                        equipment. Essential in studying or exploiting the       different.
                        ocean for any purpose are the necessary tools.              Operational designs cannot be assessed without
                        Despite the need for improved marine engineering         environmental data. Instrumentation, sensor, re-
                        and technology support, engineering institutions         cording, storing, and processing systems are essen-
                        have not emphasized problems of the oceans.              tial for environmental profiling. For example,
                           Oceanographic research operations are costly in       determining effects of marine life on acoustical
                        terms of manpower, especially considering the            properties requires special marine test equipment.
                        limited number of oceanographers. In 1966, the           Bottom bearing strength, shear and plastic flow
                        United States graduated only 24 doctorate level          strength, core samples, turbidity susceptibility,
                        oceanographers compared to 100 for the Soviets.          bottom stability, and seismic activity data are
                        Since manpower resources are liniited, improved          needed to establish design criteria. Space instru-
                        tools and equipment should be emphasized. Both           mentation cannot serve these needs. Also, space
                        parties, the scientist and engineer, are responsible     simulation facilities which emphasize low pressures
                        for better cooperation in the future.                    have little application to the high pressure needs of
                           Insufficient funds allocated to scientific proj-      hydrospace.
                        ects have generally made impossible improved                Aerospace power source needs have brought
                        engineering support. It is probable that the scien-      fuel cells out of the research laboratory and
                        tist will demand the better tools and equipment          transformed them into practical devices. They
                        technology can provide. This is underscored by the       have advanced considerably the state-of-the-art
                        fact that scientists at the Woods Hole Oceano-           and have provided impetus to the fuel cell industry
                        graphic Institution waited in an almost endless line     for lower cost construction, standard sizes, and
                        to use the Alvin submersible.                            mass production techniques. These advancements
                           The science-engineering interaction also works        have provided a technological base from which
                        the other way. Although Sir John Baker may have          development of undersea power systems can pro-
                        been correct when he said, "Science earns no             ceed at a greatly reduced cost. However, special-
                        dividends until it has been through the mills of         ized development is still necessary to adapt this
                        technology," development of new technology of-           basic development to the marine environment.
                        ten waits for scientific breakthroughs. For ex-             Aerospace technology has contributed struc-
                        ample, aquaculture will benefit from scientific          tural design techniques, high strength-to-weight
                        advances in fish genetics. Deep sea nodule mining        metals, and composite structures. This technology
                        will benefit from understanding the ocean mineral        has been applied to design and fabrication of
                        precipitation process.                                   submersible pressure hulls and hard tanks, outer
                                                                                 hull or fairing structures, and flotation spheres.
                        B. Outerspace-Hydrospace                                 Advanced pressure hull design entails the use of
                                                                                 detail stress analysis, shell buckling theory, and
                           Much has been said about the fallout of space         experimental stress analysis techniques largely
                        technology applicable to the ocean environment.          developed in the aerospace industry. Rocket
                        Meteorological satellites continuously observing         motor technology involving flaw detection, alloy-
                        global weather patterns obtain critical forecasting      ing, and processing of materials has been used in
                        data from unpopulated oceanic regions. Communi-          development work for deep submersibles.
                        cations satellites have spanned vast ocean areas.           Titanium is an example of a high-strength metal
                           Unfortunately, observations are limited to            developed by the aerospace industry, but it re-
                        ocean surface features. The totally different sub-       quires substantial modification before application
                        surface environment usually means totally new            to deep ocean vehicles. Space technology has not

                                                                                                                                  VI-21

                                   concerned itself with the.unique ocean needs of          guidance system from the Polaris program in the
                                   resistance to stress corrosion and crack propaga-        Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle.
                                   tion. Fabrication and welding techniques for thick          A parallel is readily appirent between space and
                                   sections, critical to deep submergence programs,         undersea life support requirements. Work in sub-
                                   have not been an aerospace requirement.                  marine non-regenerable life support systems served
                                   - Deep ocean vehicles are limited in pressure hull       as the basis for the original systems for spacecraft,
                                   volume, requiring many electrical components             resulting in advanced non-regenerable systems.
                                   mounted externally. Those retained inside the            This knowledge is now being used to_ provide
                                   pressure hull must conform to strict requirements        sophisticated life support systems for small, deep
                                   on heat generation, size, weight, and electro-           submersibles with comparable volume and power
                                   magnetic interference. Aerospace technology in           limitations.
                                   the areas of solid-state devices and switches,              Space technology can contribute little to the
                                   miniaturization and packaging design, circuit de-        special certification requirements and procedures
                                   sign, and reduction of interference effects. is          needed for undersea vehicle pressure huff mate-*
                                   applicable to ocean vehicle problems. However,           rials,. hard tank structure, penetration fittings, and.
                                   space technology does not provide answers to such        piping. However, common safety requirements
                                   electrical system requirements as penetration of         exist for crew protection from toxic fumes, fire,
                                   pressure,hulls and water-tight electrical connectors.    smoke, and atmospheric contaminants.
                                     Frequently,     aerospace-developed       hydraulic       Indeed, aerospace technology has been useful in
                                   pumps, motors, and valves have been utilized             solving ocean systems problems. However, the
                                   directly off-the-shelf, but, usually these have been     degree of applicability should not be over stressed
                                   unreliable in the undersea environment'  , Aerospace     since -once the undersea environment is penetrated,
                                   technology has led to advances in viscosity index,       new technological solutions are usually needed.
                                   oxidation and corrosion inhibition, long term
                                   storage, and high and low temperature characteris-
                                   tics bearing on the successful application of            VI. INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON,THE ,
                                   hydraulics to marine systems. However, there are              LAW OF THE SEA
                                   no hydraulic systems or qualified hydraulic fluids
                                   currently functioning at high pressures up to the           Although the trends and relationships discussed
                                   16,500 psi required for deep ocean systems.              above will affect technology development, prob-
                                     Reliable communications is critical to effective       ably the reverse will be true in the law of the sea.
                                   diver and submersible operations. Unlike radio and       Society tends to move as an organic whole and the
                                   telemetry methods and equipment available world-         advancement of technology is inevitable.
                                   wide for surface communications, undersea op-               Laws must be tailored to the needs of society
                                   erations depend upon acoustics and cables as. the        and to the technology which is integral to their
                                   primary means of information transfer. Under-            enforcement. The technology of the sea will
                                   water sound transmission suffers from refraction,        undergo drastic change and that change has barely
                                   attenuation, and limitations of spectral range.          begun. Saturation diving, submersible vehicles, and
                                      For rendezvous and mating of submerged vehi-          undersea habitation will become commonplace.
                                   cles, six degrees of freedom are involved, just as for   The essence of the change will be the replacement
                                   a Gemini-Agena docking. However, an additional           of present ocean surface technology with totally
                                   complication under water is variable ocean cur-          submerged technology.
                                   rents. Controllers have been developed from les-            There will be critical problems to solve, but
                                   sons learned in aircraft and spacecraft to provide       when they are solved, the ability to work in the
                                   submersible pilots with controls for rotation in         subsea environment will become increasingly easy.
                                   pitch, roll, and yaw and translation in surge, sway,        In the undersea area, law must respond to a
                                   and heave. Aerospace technology has led to the           rapidly developing technology. The law will be
                                   use of a modified computer and a modified inertial       greatly challenged to keep pace.

                                   VI-22

                         Chapter 4 Organization

                            The following ideas on organization represent       date all U.S. Government activities associated with
                         the input to. the Commission from its Panel on         the oceans into one organization. Rather, it is
                         Marine Engineering and Technology. An effort has       necessary to take advantage of the competence
                         been made to emphasize only comments that              that presently exists and to selectively cluster
                         relate to the organizational needs to promote and      where appropriate to provide additional strength.
                         encourage progress in marine engineering and           Regardless of the amount of clustering, the Navy
                         technology. However, it is recognized that several     should remain separate to support its military
                         thoughts would affect much broader areas of            obligations. In the civilian sector several organiza-
                         future marine programs.                                tions have limited interests in the ocean and
                                                                                therefore could not fit logically into a single
                         1. NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE                                civilian marine agency.
                            Overall national management of ocean resource          'The@ panel feels two basic principles must be
                                                                                satisfied to respond to the diverse character of
                         development and the related supportmig marine          marine activities and the critical need for advanced
                         engineering and technology need strengthening.         technology to support future activities. First, a
                         Because of the decentralized character of ocean        mechanism in  Iust be established to provide national
                         activities, the important contributions of the          erspective and guidance to the Nation's engineer-
                         States and regions, private enterprise, and the        F
                         academic community must be recognized. These           ing and technology efforts. Second, recognition
                         complement the well-established role of the U.S.       must be made of the necessity of continual.
                         Government.                                            ad .ditions to fundamental technology. This latter
                                                                                principle leads to the importance of assuring that
                            To date major Government contributions in           ftinds to support fundamental technology develop-
                         marine engineering and technology have come            ment are adequately distinguished from agency
                         from the Navy, chiefly because of its requirements     general operating funds so that a steady and
                         for knowledge and skills associated with the           continuing fundamental technology program can
                         oceans. However, the past two decades have seen        be assured without interruption.
                         efforts of the private sector, led in this area by
                         the petroleum industry, expand such that their
                         expenditures are greatly in excess of non-military     B. National Advisory Committee for the Oceans
                         Government efforts.                                       (NACO)
                            The need for national participation as opposed
                         to a predominantly Government approach to                 It is essential that a mechanism be established
                         marine programs became clearly apparent during         that can ensure orderly development and execution
                         the panel's investigations. The States and regions,    of a national ocean program. Such a mechanism
                         private enterprise, the academic community, and        should be responsible for providing advice on the
                         the U.S. Government all have vital roles to play.      planning and coordination of a national program
                         These roles can be responsive and coordinated          including ocean science, technology, environ-
                         only if they are provided with a, means for            mental services, and ocean resource development.
                         cooperative long-range planning and National guid-     It would be concerned, with the marine programs
                         ance.                                                  of all U.S. Government agencies, States and
                                                                                regions, private enterprise, and the academic com-
                         11. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUC-                     munity and would provide a continuing statutory
                            TURE                                                means for furnishing a representative input from
                         A. General                                             all sectors. Specifically, the panel recommends a
                                                                                National Advisory Committee for the Oceans.
                            With the diverse scope of national activities in    Regardless of action taken to consolidate Federal
                         the ocean it is unwise and impractical to consoh-      Government agencies, this committee is needed.

                                                                                                                                 VI-23

                                    1. Functions                                               -Serve, when appropriate, as a channel of com-
                                       The panel believes the committee could most             munications and a focal point in the plans and
                                    usefully focus its advice in such areas as the             arrangements for international programs.
                                    following:                                                 -Submit to the President and the Congress an
                                                                                               assessment of the national ocean program, includ-
                                    -Review and      advise on updating the 10-year            ing a review of the activities of the oceanic agency.
                                    objectives of national ocean programs.                     The report is to be made at intervals not less
                                                                                               frequently than every two years.
                                    -Assess current levels of activity in terms of ac-
                                    complishing the 10-year objectives.                        -Generate pertinent activities on its own consist-
                                                                                               ent with its overall responsibilities.
                                    -Identify deficiencies and recommend assignment
                                    of responsibilities to rectify them.                          As can be seen from the above list, a primary
                                    -Recommend means to eliminate unintentional                function of this organization would be to advise
                                    duplication of effort.                                     (1) the new oceanic agency, (2) the Navy, (3) the
                                                                                               Army Corps of Engineers, and (4) other U.S.
                                    -Review and offer a national perspective to the            Government agencies with marine interests. Advice
                                    plans and budget requests of the U.S. Government           should be provided on such matters as funda-
                                    agencies by taking *into account efforts outside the       mental technology, facilities, manpower, National
                                    Government.                                                Projects, scientific investigations, and oceano-
                                    .-Recommend lead agencies for marine programs              graphic operations. The unique feature of the
                                    having multi-agency interests, and recommend               committee will be the ease of reciprocal informa-
                                                                                               lion transfer among the U.S. Government, States
                                    whether specific marine programs can best            . be  and region   Is, private enterprise, and academic
                                    undertaken by the Navy, by the new consolidation           institutions.
                                    of appropriate existing agencies, or by an agency
                                    not included in the civilian consolidation.
                                                                                               2. . Membership
                                    -offer guidance and recommend important new
                                    ocean programs and facilities for the overall                 It is recommended that this advisory c     . ommittee
                                    national program, making effective use of the              consist of 15 official members representing private
                                    competence of both private and Government                  enterprise, the States and regions, and the aca-
                                    orgagizations.                                             demic community. The chairman should be selected
                                    -promote means for collecting, processing, and             from outside the U.S. Government. In addition to
                                    disseminating pertinent technical information.             the 15 official members, U.S. Government repre-
                                                                                               sentatives should be designated official observers.
                                    -Recommend an adequate level of programs and               This would assure that the committee was aware of
                                    facilities for marine education and training.              the programs and problems of the U.S. Government
                                    -Anticipate, focus attention on, discuss, and              marine agencies. All members would be appointed
                                                                                               by the President with the advice and consent of
                                    recommend the resolution of multiple-user con-             the Senate and would serve fixed overlapping
                                    flicts.                                                    terms. This committee would be supported by a
                                    -Respond to requ     Iests for advice from the Presi-      full-.time executive director and appropriate staff.
                                    Oent and U.S. Government agencies with marine                 The members from industry should be drawn
                                    activities.                                                primarily from the users of the sea such as those
                                                                                               engaged in the transportation, petroleum, fishing,
                                    -Help to, ensure that the national program has             mining, desalination, and recreation industries.
                                    proper and continual visibility to State and munic-        Those industries that supply hardware and services,
                                    ipal governments, private enterprise, the academic         also should be represented.
                                    community, and especially to the Congress and the             The State and region members should. be drawn
                                    public.                                                    from the Pacific, Atlantic, Gulf Coast, and the

                                    VI-24

                       Great Lakes areas. The members from the aca-              B. New Civilian Ocean Agency
                       dernic community should be drawn from universi-
                       ties with ocean programs. The U.S. Government                A new, adequately funded civilian oceanic
                       members should be chosen to represent its diverse         agency should be established within the U.S.
                       marine interests.                                         Government to concentrate in one agency appro-
                                                                                 priate civilian groups with primary roles and
                       3. Structure                                              missions in the oceans.
                          The advisory committee should be siipple-                 A new civilian technology development group
                       mented by as many subcommittees or panels as              should be created within the agency to support
                       might be required to deal with specific topics or         fundamental technology. The fundamental tech-
                                                                                 nology program should be managed by this new
                       areas of national concern requiring specialized
                       knowledge. It is recommended that the parent              marine technology group and should utilize when
                       committee form an executive board comprised of            appropriate the resources and facilities of existing
                                                                                 agencies and the private sector.
                       the chairman, and one member from each of the
                       four groups-industry, U.S. Government, States             C. Interagency Coordinating Mechanism
                       and regions, and the academic community-to                               I
                       expedite operations between the formal full com-             To complement and support the efforts of the
                       mittee meetings.                                          agency and NACO and to recognize the fact that
                         The advisory committee should be established            many marine activities would still be located
                       by statute and provided with funds for its admini-        outside any consolidation, it is recommended that
                       strative operations and for accomplishing the             an interagency coordinating mechanism be estab-
                       ftLnctions listed above.                                  lished and chaired by the head of the new civilian
                         The panel considers the formation of this               agency. This mechanism would ensure the inclu-
                       committee a critical requirement. The recommen-           sion of the interests of all Federal agencies with
                       dation is intended to enlist a cooperative relation-      marine programs not included in the proposed
                       ship between all sectors of the economy and is            consolidation.
                       characteristic of programs utilized in opening new
                       frontiers. Indeed, it is intended to include key          D. Navy Role
                       characteristics of the historic programs so success-         The Navy is in a position to contribute greatly
                       ful in developing the American railroad, agricul-         to advanced marine engineering and technology
                       ture, and aircraft industries.
                                                                                 related to a national ocean program. It is recom-
                                                                                 mended that the Navy be given an expanded role
                       Ill. U.S. GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONAL                       recognizing the support it can provide to the
                           STRUCTURE                                             national program in areas closely related to its
                       A. General                                                competence, facilities, and experience.
                                                                                    Even with an increasing involvement of non-
                         To ensure optimum and continuing contribu-              military users, the Navy is the logical organization
                       tions from the U.S. Government to the develop-            to support many of the overall national needs of
                       ment of a national program, a stronger non-               marine engineering and technology. The following
                       military input is needed. A new marine program            statements of high ranking leaders of the Depart-
                       would be advanced and strengthened, if it could           ment of Defense and the Office of the Secretary of
                       build upon a consolidation of those appropriate           the Navy reinforce this conclusion:
                       existing agencies with primary missions and tasks
                       in the ocean. This consolidation would support the        If national oceanographic objectives require it, the
                       very important new civilian technology develop-           Department of Defense is willing to requestfunds
                       ment group and would complement the Navy deep             firom Congress for work only marginally related to
                       submergence and ocean engineering programs. In            defense needs, but for which the Department of
                       many cases the existing competence, facilities, and       Defense is in the best position to manage because
                       experience of the Navy should be drawn upon to            of technical skills, facilities, or organization. The
                       support missions of national importance.                  direction for utilization of these funds could come

                                                                                                                                  VI-25

                                        from a non-Department of Defense organization if                advantage of Navy programs in technology with
                                        this is judged to be the best course.                           realistic concern for national security needs.
                                        The Navy is proud of the role it played in leading                 Therefore, to capitalize on the assets of the
                                        the revolution in oceanography and of @the indis-               Navy, selected national missions should be as-
                                        pensable support it has given so many, of the                   signed and adequate funds should be allocated to
                                        programs directed 'by other federal and private                 the Navy.
                                        agencies. The Navy believes that a vigorous, well               IV. FOCAL POINT IN THE LEGISLATIVE
                                        defined, and multifaceted oceanographic program                     BRANCH
                                        is clearly in the national interest. It, therefore, is
                                        prepared and expects to participate in all areas                  The U.S. Government's ocean program is within
                                        where Navy experience and facilities may be of                  the scope of numerous committees and subcom-
                                        value to the nation. 2                                          mittees of the CongreSS,4      each concerned with a
                                                                                                        portion of the oceanographic program. Thus,
                                        In my mind these programs (undersea technology                  oceanography and ocean engineering have lacked a
                                        programs) can best be desc?ib        'ed as the develop-        clear cut channel of effective communication with
                                        ment.of technology leading toward the. occupation               the Congress. Many committees of the Congress
                                        and exploitation of the ocean bottom and the                    receive fragmentary information on the ocean
                                        deep ocean. Although our primary objectives are                 program, usually small parts of the presentations
                                        military exploitation, the technological knowhow                of the -many departments and agencies having
                                        developed by these programs is identical for all
                                                                 3                                      some ocean;responsibilities and missions in addi-
                                        types of exploitation.                                          tion to other large responsibilities.
                                           The above statements were used to            guide the         The situation is even worse regarding Congres-
                                        Navy Deep Submergen6e/Ocean Engineering Pro-                    sional consideration of ocean appropriations.
                                        gram Planning Group. This group. recommended a                  Ocean appropriations are a very small part of
                                        substantial increase in the Navy undersea efforts.              Defense, Commerce, Interior, AEC, and other
                                        It is also apparent that a more fully responsive                department budget requirements. Usually, no spec-
                                        Navy contribution to the national effort in the                 ific ocean program is presented to the Appropria-
                                        oceans requires:                                                tions Committee, but when it is, the description is
                                                                                                        di&inted.
                                        -Establishment. within the Department of Defense
                                                                                                          The unsatisfactory Congressional overviews of
                                        of a strong primary military mission in undersea                the ocean program probably will become worse
                                        technology to meet present and future threats.
                                                                                                        unless changes are made. It is necessary to create a
                                        -A clearly-stated Navy mission to support na-                   Congressional committee or a Joint House-Senate
                                        tional marine programs which will evoke the                     Committee for Marine Affairs to hear the entire
                                        support of the Congress, responsible civilian lead-             national program-including the parts of the
                                        ers, and the general public.                                    States, industry, and the academic community-as
                                        -A recognition of the contribution which can be                 well as the total U.S. Government program with
                                        made by the use of Navy capabilities in inter-                  emphasis on its role in the national program. The
                                        national, economic, political, scientific, an      d t ech-     Congress should be asked to authorize the Govern-
                                                            ' Icy "_     I @             1 0 @1
                                        nological fields'.          ,11'''           " "   %'@      ,   ment programe I and @ endorse, the total national
                                                                                      r,;  v;
                                                                                              b!  _'w
                                        -A definition, of     secu ity, r auirements      that,,will    program.!Presentations should be made to a new
                                        enable the civilian      sector -to Aerive, miximu              .oceanic. sub-cormnittee:,oU@ the @ House Appropria-
                                                                                                 .,in
                                                                                                        tionsCornmittee,..,,-@;--@',
                                             Statement   of the Honorable John S. Foster, Jr., Di-        The reports and advice made available by the
                                        rector of Defense Research and Engineering, Feb. 24,            proposed National Advisory Committee for the
                                        1967.
                                            2Statement of the Honorable Paul R. Ignatius, Secre-        Oceans should assist in the development of a
                                        tarY of the Navy, to the Navy League Convention,                clearer focus in the Congress.
                                        Honolulu, April 26, 1968.
                                            3Statement of the Honorable Robert H. B. Baldwin,
                                        Under Secretary of the Navy, at the Fourth-U.S. Navy               4For details, see chart between pages 32 and 33 of
                                        Symposium on Military Oceanography, Washington, D.C.,           hearings of House Subcommittee on Oceanography-
                                        May 11, 1967.                                                   National Oceanographic Program, 1965, Serial No. 82-83.

                                        VI-26

                        Chapter 5 Multipurpose Technology

                            Seapower,    defined by     Admiral   Mahan     many     technology    to occupy...new territory. and modify
                        years ago, encompasses all elements contributing             world. geography would give a nation, the potential
                        to national strength-natural resources, industrial           to make valid and defensible claims -, with an
                        capacity, manpower, economic power, geographic               excellent position to counter claims by those not
                        situation, and cultural status. These many.dimen-            having the technology. A technology base must be
                        sions serve a nation in both peace and war.                  established for the United. States to enter the
                           The United States stands on       the threshold of a      undersea frontier.
                        rekindled interest in the oceans. A new age of
                        seapower, important to the United States and the             -Economic power. New technology determines -
                        'world, can be achieved by technological readiness           which country will be the world source of various
                        to utilize the sea.                                          products. U.S. doniination.of the world aircraft
                                                                                     and computer markets is an excellent example;
                        -Cultural status. National prestige is an image of           Japanese strength in fishing and shipbuilding is
                        strength or lack of it in the eyes of other nations.         another. New industries have been created in a
                        This is of major concern, because (1) no nation              short time by such technological breakthroughs as
                        wants to be a loser, (2) as a nation's prestige falls,       xerography, polaroid photography, solid state elec-
                        other nations begin to suspect it of weakness, (3)           tronics, offshore drilling, and desalination. Tech-
                        other nations do not want to be associated with a            nology and the economics of production and
                        loser,.and (4) as other nations progressively with-          exploration- are inseparably linked. A strong.tech-
                        draw their- adherence and support, the trend                 nology base will - likely lead -to new marine
                        toward becoming a loser accelerates. This is a               industries.
                        vicious circle-strength begets strength and weak-
                        ness, weakness.                                              -Manpower. An improved technology requires the
                                                                                     continual upgrading of the manpower necessary to
                           A nation's prestige or cultural status adheres            fabricate, operate, and maintain the systems utiliz-
                        closely to the vigor of its research and technologi-         ing the undersea frontier. Manpower of various
                        cal activities. The world community is well aware            skills and interests will be required. Some will find
                        that today's scientific and technological strength is        employment.in the actual marine environment,
                        the direct source of tomorrow's economic and                 while many more will-provide critically -needed
                        military strength. Space activities have illustrated         support functions. that. can be accomplished only
                        this truth. However, activities in the marine                on the land. The requisite manpower with the
                        environment inherently promise. far greater. eco-            tools and equipment provided by technology will
                        nomic, military, and prestige rewards than in                rapidly alter the ocean from an area of dreams to a
                        space. A great nation ignoring this runs the grave           site of action.
                        risk of falling into weakness.
                                                                                     -Industrial capacity. Volume production can work
                              geographic situation. Over 70 per cent of the          wonders in reducing costs. American industrial
                        earth is covered by water. The last major dry land           capacity has met great challenges. A highly refined
                        frontier was discovered in 1492, when the world              automobile,can be bought for less than $2,500.
                        population was 350 million. Today with 10 times              Should it not be possible to,build a class of ex-
                        the population, the world is forced to turn again            ploration vehicles with 20 horsepower propulsion
                        to the sea for new sources of food, minerals, and            systems, life support, and unsophisticated com-
                        energy.                                                      munication electronics for $50,000 each?

                           In the undersea frontier, many nations with               -Natural Resources. Low-cost underwater vehicles
                        widely divergent geographies, needs, and techno-             could open a prospecting era eclipsing the-
                        logical capabilities are involved. Achieving Ahe             California gold rush. Exploring and mapping the

                                                                                                                                         VI-27

                                    sea bottom might be accomplished in much less           -the -undersea frontier and improve the U.S. world
                                    time than now thought necessary. Support of a           conipetitive position. A solid program to advance
                                    technology base for -low-cost, reliable systems         fundamental technology is needed for developing
                                    development could hasten the exploitation of the        elements and processes that- can be combined into
                                    natural resources in the undersea frontier.             useful, ocean, components, subsystems, and sys-
                                                                                            tems.
                                    -Technology plateau. Much has been expressed in            While an excellent base already exists-so much
                                    the popular press about a technological plateau.        so that the panel is convinced that the United
                                    To the contrary, the panel agrees with the remarks      States can achieve the goals set forth in this
                                    by Dr. John S. Foster, Director of Defense Re-          report-many categories require further develop-
                                    search and Engineering, before Congressional hear-      ment ' a lesser number require extensive effort, and
                                    ings in early 1968:                                     others require little advancement. This section
                                    There is no technological plateau now nor is one        concentrates on the most critical fundamental
                                    about to be -created. @ We are convinced th         at  technology needs, to which the panel has assigned
                                    research and exploratory development effort re-         the following order of priority:
                                    quires increased support during the next few years
                                    to ensure many options-a margin of safety-              -Survey equipment and instrumentation. The
                                    against any technological challenge.                    Nation's most urgent needs in undersea develop-
                                                                                            ment are for knowledge of the ocean's living and
                                    Dr. Foster also warned against relying too heavily      non-living resources. and the technology to de-
                                    on technical forecasting instead. of sound research     termine quickly and efficiently their potential.
                                    and exploratory development. He noted that those        What is generally available must be known before
                                    predicting the future of science have usually been      it is utilized, ignored, wasted, or deeded away.
                                    far too conservative.                                   -Power sources. No single power source will meet
                                       In the sections of Chapter 5 which follow, an        all the power level and endurance requirements. of
                                    assessment of the current situation and some ideas      undersea tasks.. A variety of power sources is
                                    on future marine   technology needs are presented.      needed.
                                    Recommendations are made at the end of each             -External machinery systems and equipment.
                                    subdivision. In most cases, the recommendations         Undersea technology will be abundantly rewarded
                                    are those the panel would like undertaken in the        by developing systems that can operate in the
                                    near future. Longer-term recommendations reflect        environment without the need for encapsulation.
                                    judgments on potentially rewarding advanced tech-
                                    nology not necessarily required for today's             -Materials. Materials advancement can lead to
                                    operations.                                             large undersea payloads and more reliable ocean
                                       The potentials discussed throughout this report      subsystems and components.
                                    are critically dependent on the discoveries and
                                    knowhow generated by ocean science and technol-         -Navigation and communications. These are prime
                                    ogy. A substantial investment to extend and             requisites to safe and successful operations on and
                                    consolidate this fundamental knowledge promises         . in the oceans.
                                    handsome rewards in terms of sufficientresources,       _Tools. Improved diver and vehicle tools are
                                    enhanced economic vigor,.improved strategic posi-       required to do useful work in the oceans.
                                    tion, a better way of life, and a stronger national
                                    defense. All this is the promise-the threat is that     -Mooring systems, buoys, and surface support
                                    it will be underestimated or overlooked.                platforms. Surface support is used for many
                                                                                            undersea activities. Stable surface platforms and
                                    1. Fundamental Technology                               reliable long-life buoys must be developed.
                                       Step one in the capability development cycle         -Biomedicine and diving equipment. Man can
                                    for marine technology is base-building to establish     operate in the sea safely and efficiently. only
                                    the knowledge and. means to explore and utilize         supported by a biomedical program determining

                                    VI-28

                        physiological limits, medical treatments, and mini-       of surveys whether they be scientific, industrial, or
                        mum decompression times.                                  military-7each having special requirements. This
                                                                                  diversity plus the complexity, vastness, and general
                        -Environmental considerations. Environmental in-          inaccessibility of the ocean volume make surveys,
                        formation is critical to the design of reliable,          especially of the continental shelves and suspected
                        efficient, and economic equipment for use in the          anomalies, a first step toward undersea utilization.
                        oceans.
                                                                                  1, Bathymetric measurement systems have been
                        -Data handling. Data are the product of scientific        improved markedly in accuracy, speed, and con-
                        and exploration missions. Technology applied to           venience through advancements in echo sounding.
                        marine data handling can vastly improve at-sea            For detailed studies in deep water, however,
                        operations.                                               existing systems are not adequate. Measuring and
                                                                                  recording profiles of the ocean bottom along
                        -Lifie support. Extended underwater manned op-            selected courses traveled by the survey ship., plane,
                        erations require advanced life support systems.           or satellite omits knowledge of intervening areas
                                                                                  that can be compensated only by increasing the
                                                                                  number of courses (survey lines).
                                                                                     ffigh endurance submersibles with side-scan
                        A. Survey Equipment and Instrumentation                   sonar and short range echo sounders offer a
                                                                                  method for detailed bathymetric mapping essen-
                        1. Survey Equipment                                       tially independent of subsurface visibility and
                                                                                  surface weather. Major obstacles are the lack of
                        a. Current Situation Survey functions required            precise navigation and limited endurance and
                        for undersea operations result from needs for (1)         payload.
                        measurement and sampling of ocean and sub-                   Acoustic profiling with high energy sources,
                        bottom parameters for geophysical, chemical, and          mechanical vibrators, air guns, gas exploders,
                        biological analysis, (2) knowledge of position, and       electric arcs, and explosives can be used for deep
                        (3) communication of data among undersea sta-             reflection and refraction work. Detailed shallow
                        tions, surface support locations, and onshore             water geology can be defined with high resolution
                        centers.                                                  profiling utilizing low energy sources.
                          The current approach to undersea mapping                   For several years, general surveys of limited
                        involves use of surface methods almost exclusively.       ocean areas (as parts of the Gulf Stream) have
                        Ocean surveying is limited in accuracy by the lack        been conducted from aircraft. Some data are being
                        of precise long-range surface positioning systems.        gathered on the sea surface now by weather
                        The advent of satellite positioning constitutes an        satellites, and steps are being taken to establish
                        improvement, but does not approach the accuracy           global surveys of the ocean surface. by satellite
                        required to perform undersea construction and             (Figure 1). Aircraft and satellite mounted cameras,
                                                                                  infrared radiometers, microwave radiometers, and
                        geological evaluation surveys.
                          The same type of basic reference systems                similar instruments are capable of gathering valu-
                                                                                  able data on ocean surface temperature, sea state,
                        provided by the usual geodetic methods on land-           ice conditions, current and water mass movements,
                        ultimately of comparable accuracy-are required            schools and congregations of fish, phytoplankton
                        undersea for mapping ocean bottom and sub-                blooms, water pollution, and other important
                        bottom features and for recording the location of         processes.
                        physical, chemical, and biological measurement
                        taken in the water column. The technology of              b. Future Needs The study of ocean processes
                        navigation and bathymetry, mapping magnetic and           and marine species on more than a very small scale
                        gravi tational fields, and primary sub-bottom             will require the availability of data on an auto-
                        tectonics can be combined to synthesize regional          matic or rapid retrieval basis. Ocean engineering
                        geology.                                                  efforts will profit greatly from the existence of
                          Technological aspects of ocean surveys cannot           rapid access to data on the environment. Predic-
                        be considered separately from priorities and types        tions of fish production and migration to optimize

                                                                                                                                    VI-29

                                                   --SAR

                                                 A.

                                                                                                                                 41@

                                                                       2@

                                                                                                            40b
                                                                                                    CHL6@
                                                                   S  1  14

                                                    0              Ic
                                                        T/S MO

                                  Figure 1. Digital mosaic compiled from analog signals received from satellite ESSA -5. Eight
                                  major storms in Northern Hemisphere on Sept. 14, 1967 are displayed. (ESSA photo)

                                  fish catch require synoptic environmental data and     their slow speed, necessitating improved instru-
                                  predictions. Knowledge of regional and local           mentation and procedures.
                                  bathymetry, circulation, and other environmental          Bathymetric survey methods involving multi-
                                  factors is needed to design outfalls for desalting     ship operations with centralized data reduction
                                  and waste disposal operations.                         and mapping functions are under evaluation. Com-
                                     General mapping functions should include            ponent deficiencies and lack of priorities have
                                  measuring and plotting magnetic and gravitational      deterred implementation. The potentials of aerial
                                  fields. Like sub-bottom profiling, the general         and satellite color photography and of infrared
                                  resource development interest is in regional fea-      sensing for subsurface mapping functions should
                                  tures and  navigational aids with initial emphasis on  be determined and exploited, especially in sh   allow
                                            11 A@_m

                                  continental shelf surveys rather than localized        waters and coastal areas. The potential of submers-
                                  anomalies for substructure analysis. Continuous        ibles in such operations should receive more
                                  gravimetric surveys are limited in effectiveness by    attention.

                                  VI-30

                         2. Instrumentation                                         craft have been an important aid to such measure-
                         a. Current Situation The      measurement of under-     .  ments as. sound velocity in sediments.
                                                                                        Only chemical parameters of very general inter-
                         water physical, chemical, geological, and biological       est, such as salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen have
                         parameters is accomplished predominantly with              been measured with other than sophisticated
                         devices lowered from surface craft or suspended            laboratory instrumentation or methods of volu-
                         from floating or submerged buoys (Figure 2).               metric analysis. Some application has been made
                         Such measurements are limited generally to basic           of fluorescence, spectroscopy, radioactive tracers,
                         parameters required to identify water masses and           and neutron activation analysis in tracing sediment
                         determine their movement or to provide gross               and water movement. Little has been done to
                         identification of biological activity and nutrients.       adapt instruments for analysis in geochernical
                         Limited measurements from submersibles have                surveying, pollution monitoring, nutrient assess-
                         included stereophotogriphy for topographic
                                                                                    ment, and other ocean activities of growing inter-
                         studies, temperature, salinity, and on-site sound          est and concern.
                         yelocity measurements in      upper sediment layers.           Biological measurements are completely infer-
                                                                                    ential, consisting of chemical and physical meas-
                                                                                    urements that can be correlated with biological
                                     OW W imam                                      concentrations, movement, and         activity. Biologi-
                                                                                    cally important properties such       as oxygen, total
                                                                                    organics, salinity, Eli, and pH' plus the physically
                                                                                    important parameters can be compared with bio-
                                                                                    logical observations and bioacoustic measurements
                                                                                    to predict response to environmental factors,
                                                                                    productivity, and migration.
                                                                                        New developments by the Atomic Energy
                                                                                    Commission and the Navy include a deep water
                                                                            sit'!   isotopic current analyzer, a nuclear sediment
                                                                                    density probe, and an in situ oxygen analyzer.
                                                                        f           b. Future Needs 'New instrumentation is needed
                                                                                    to study biological species, their distribution,
                                                                                    feeding habits, reproduction, and migration as a
                                            AN"d -t                         A       function of chemical and physical parameters. In
                                                                                    addition, assistance to the biologist in the acquisi-
                                                                                    tion of field data can be provided through (1)
                                                                                    development of automatic discrimination of acous-
                                                                                    tic signals generated by marine species, (2) obser-
                         Figure 2. Meteorologic fleft) and oceano-                  vation of movement of species by acoustic net-
                         graphic (right) sensor packages of ODESSA                  works, (3) counting marine species migration
                         system, which gathers data from unmanned
                         buoys over wide ocean areas. (ESSA photo)                  through fish passes or other constrictions, and (4)
                                                                                    other survey techniques.
                                                                                        Submersibles, should be particularly well
                                                                                    adapted to on-site measurements of physical prop-
                            Measurements by divers in the water mass have           erties of sea water and sediment. Sediment meas-
                         been limited to a few physical parameters, such as         urements are needed for basic design criteria for
                         distance and temperature, requiring only such              bottom emplacement, construction, tunneling, and
                         rudimentary devices as bulb thermometers, mag-             laying of pipelines and cables as well as for
                         netic compasses, and measuring sticks or cor s. In
                         situ measurements have been made of sediment
                         shear strength. However, diver monitoring and                  'Eh and pH are defined in the subsection on
                         manipulation of instruments lowered from surface           environmental considerations of this section.

                                                                                                                                        VI-31

                                      resource surveys. Instruments and procedures for              facilities should be provided on a reimbursable
                                      on-site measurement of engineering properties of              basis to service the manufacturers and users of
                                      sediments is needed.                                          both military and non-military equipment.
                                         While great progress has been made- in develop-                Properly' operating survey equipment is critical
                                      ing instrumentation having digital capabilities,,             to the exploration and development of ocean
                                      further progress is essential before long-range rapid         resources. Separate groups using similar equip-
                                      ocean environmental surveillance becomes a                    ments not calibrated to the same standards often
                                      reality.                                                      obtain substantially different results. At present
                                         Much instrumentation available has been crit-              no mechanism exists whereby uniform standards
                                      icized as being unreliable and unsuited for service at        of measurement can be established. Such standards
                                      sea. Instrumentation development will flourish to             are essential to efficient evaluation and analysis of
                                      the@ extent of the commitment to utilize the sea-a            data obtained under various conditions.
                                      commitment in part dependent on the state of                  Recommendations:
                                      undersea technology.
                                         It follows that initial efforts in opening the vast        Highest priority should be assigned to develop-
                                      economic potentials of the ocean may be invested              ment of survey equipment for detailed mapping of
                                      best in developing precise, rugged, seaworthy                 bathymetric, geological, and ecological features;
                                      measuring instruments. Calibration and evaluation             high-speed, wide-path width bottom scanning; and
                                      of new instrumentation is needed to provide the               three dimensional plotting. Realtime        2  digital re-
                                      proof-testing leading to dependableuse.                       cording and processing systems adopted to oceanic
                                                                                                    instrumentation should be pursued. Improved
                                      3. Conclusions                                                equipment should be developed to perform high-
                                                                                                    speed surveys of (1) shape, thickness, and extent
                                         Increased knowledge        of the oceans       can be      of sediment layers, (1) depth and shape of rock
                                      obtained through better survey equipment and                  surfaces, and (3) spatial distribution of engineering
                                      mapping techniques. Technology and scientific                 properties of rock sediment layers.
                                      study can provide information for proper explora-                 Technology should be advanced in (1) rapid
                                      tion and development of ocean resources. New                  at-sea analysis of chemicals in ocean and estuarine
                                      equipment is needed for precise measurement of                waters and in sediments for pollution monitoring,
                                      the ocean environment both for single in-place                nutrient evaluation, corrosion control, and geo-
                                      measurements and for high-speed continuous                    chemical exploration, (2) on-site measurement of
                                      measurements of variable water and sediment                   microgradients of salinity, pH, Eli, and water and
                                      properties.                                                   sediment densities, and (3) magnetic and gravi-
                                         Except where abrupt topographical changes                  metric survey instruments for use at depths.         I
                                      occur or where a need for detailed studies in deep                Consideration should be given to observation,
                                      water exists, the accuracy of vertical dimension              measurement, and sampling functions as integral
                                      measurements by current systems is adequate for               components of a system including navigation,
                                      mapping. However, surveys are limited in speed                communications, observation platform, and han-
                                      and economy, partially due to the lack of rapid               dling equipment.
                                      data collection and processing capability.                        Programs involving mapping, surveys, explora-
                                         Platforms, equipment, data syst        'ems, and such      tion,, research, and preconstruction engineering
                                      other tools of undersea technology as test range              functions will be most cost effective by applying a
                                      operations depend inherently on instrumentation               systems approach and automation. The ultimate
                                      capable of adequate performance and acceptable                goal_,should be. to return to shore with data
                                      reliability. A primary deterrent to equipment                 reduced, plotted, and ready for interpretation, or
                                      development is the inadequacy of facilities for               to relay realtime data via synchronous satellites to
                                      evaluation and calibration.                                   data processing centers ashore.
                                         Ocean simulators and laboratories to evaluate
                                      and calibrate equipment are not only scarce, but                  2Realtime refers to. the capability to process data
                                      are not generally available to either manufacturers           simultaneously with the event being observed, permitting
                                                                                                    conclusions to be drawn and corrective action to be
                                      or users. Because of high capital costs, test                 implemented immediately.

                                      VI-32

                          Because of lack of facilities for equipment           outer space. Considerable expenditures will be
                      evaluation and calibration a coordinated program          required, however, to redesign these systems for
                      should be established immediately whereby cali-           manned undersea applications.
                      bration services and development of essential                 Divers usually will be able to obtain electrical
                      standards and specifications can be made available        energy through umbilical cords. But free-
                      to all users on a cost-reimbursement basis.               swimming saturated divers working appreciable
                          To permit standardized development, fabrica-          distances from base will need reliable, high capa-
                      tion, and calibration of ocean instruments and            city, portable energy packages. Power demands for
                      sensors, studies should be undertaken to determine        tethered operations may extend upward to the
                      realistic accuracy requirements.                          multikilowatt range to fulfill life support, illun-dna-
                                                                                tion, work, environmental protection (especially
                      B. Power Sources                                          suit heat), and other demands.

                          This nation must develop better undersea
                      power sources. When submersibles with adequate            1. Chemical Batteries
                      endurance are developed, they need only submerge
                      and surface in the sheltered waters of a harbor-          a. Current Situation       Deep submersibles       have
                      This will provide great cost reduction for future         used lead-acid batteries as a primary energy source
                      submersible operations-the elimination of surface         because of their low cost, established reliability,
                      support.                                                  and adaptability to submerged operation. Silver-
                          Within the foreseeable future undersea vehicles       zinc batteries have been used in a few applications
                      and habitats will be limited to the utilization of        where improved performance was mandatory and
                      presently known and identified prime energy               increased cost acceptable. Bottom installations
                      sources including (1) nuclear energy systems which        such as Sealab have relied on power generated on
                      require only occasional maintenance and refueling,        support ships or ashore.
                      (2) chemical energy systems replenished by sup-              Small vehicles with limited mission require-
                      port'ships, and (3) ship- or shore-generated electri-     ments employ batteries because of their relatively
                      cal energy transmitted by cable.                          low cost, although payload is reduced by battery
                          A portable undersea support laboratory at a           weight. Because neutral buoyancy must be main-
                      depth of 2,000 feet and the continental slope or          tained, the low overall energy availability per
                      midocean ridge station at 8,000 feet with crews Of        pound of battery system limits greatly the endur-
                      15 to 25 and possibly 100 to 1,000 will require           ance of most vehicles. Weight-to-energy ratios
                      large amounts of energy, many thousands of                range from 75 to 125 and 25 to 40 pounds per
                      kilowatts. When the laboratory is relatively near         kilowatt hour for installed lead-acid and silver-zinc
                      land, the energy can be generated best on shore           batteries, respectively.
                      and transmitted to the habitat through cables.
                          For remote locations a self-contained undersea        b. Future Needs Use of new battery reactants
                      power system probably will be required. Submers-          such as fluorine may offer a two-to-three-fold
                      ible vehicles and underwater construction machin-         improvement in weight-to-energy ratios, but the
                      ery will incorporate nuclear power systems or             projected costs of such developments are high.
                      refuelable or rechargable chemical energy plants,         Further, the weight-to-energy ratios will be chal-
                      because electrical cables impose serious entangle-        lenged seriously by improved fuel cells and ther-
                      ment and vulnerability hazards.                           mal conversion systems. Battery development
                          Extensive work in the space program on the            should concentrate on adapting to undersea use
                      SNAP 2, SNAP 10, and SNAP 8 power systems                 such other known high energy systems as
                      (Space Nuclear Auxiliary Power developed for 2,           mercury-zinc or nickel-cadmium.
                      500, and 30,000 watts) may find application in the           Methods of recharging submersible battery
                      undersea frontier. Reactors and conversion sys-           systems at ambient pressure in the deep, ocean
                      tems that meet the initial power requirements of          would enable battery powered submersibles to
                      anticipated fixed bottom habitats and future deep         achieve greatly enhanced endurance. Such tech-
                      submergence vehicles have been developed for              niques would allow the battery powered submers-

                                                                                                                                  VI-33
                          333-091 0-69-7

                                     ible to rival and perhaps to exceed the endurance       b. Future Needs Fuel cells appear essential to
                                     of fuel cell powered submersibles.                      efficient undersea operations. Hydrogen-oxygen
                                                                                             fuel cells for undersea use require hard tanks for
                                     2. Fuel Cells                                           both the fuel cell module and the fuel. The fuel
                                     a. Current Situation Deep submersible vehicles          could be stored cryogenically as a liquid, but
                                                                                             substantial insulation would be required.
                                     and.habitats with power requirements in the 10 to          Tankage, designed to withstand ambient pres-
                                     100 kilowatt range may well use fuel cells in the       sure at operating depth, adds considerable weight
                                     coming decade. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell has        to the power system. If a fuel cell could be
                                     by far the most extensive development history?          developed capable of pressure-balanced ambient
                                     albeit for highly specialized and costly space          operation without hard tank protection, system
                                     applications.                                           weight would be independent of operating depth,
                                       Another major fuel cell type being considered         and a weight-to-energy ratio of six to eight pounds
                                     for undersea use, hydrazine-hydrogen peroxide,          per kilowatt hour might be achieved. This could
                                     has received relatively less attention but is in an     result in important weight improvement in power
                                     advanced state of development for terrestrial           systems for 20,000-foot submersible operations.
                                     applications by the U.S. Army. It is a much less
                                     expensive device probably in part because of less
                                     stringent qualification and documentation require-      3. Thermal Conversion
                                     ments. Like the battery, the fuel cell is a static
                                     energy converter producing electrical energy from       a. Current Situation       Thermodynan-dc power
                                     chen-dcal energy.                                       systems may range from the simplest, using jet fuel
                                       Unlike the battery, the fuel cell can produce         and an oxydizer with a reciprocating engine, to
                                     energy as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied.        very advanced systems, using such high energy
                                     Fuel cells produce waste products (heat and water       sources as the reaction of sodium with seawater.
                                     from the hydrogen-oxygen cell or heat, water, and       Application of thermodynan-dc cycle systems most
                                     nitrogen from the hydrazine-hydrogen peroxide           likely will be in the shallow zero to 2,000-foot
                                     cell) which may be of use.                              zone, thereby allowing wastes to be exhausted
                                       The basic concept of the fuel cell has received       directly to sea. For covert operations, it would be
                                     much conceptual development during the first half       necessary to condense the exhaust and store it
                                     of this century. Nevertheless, it took the impetus      aboard so no trail would be left, and neutral
                                     of the space race and the expenditure of over $ 100     buoyancy maintained.
                                     million to provide the operational hydrogen-               An extensive engineering effort was devoted to
                                     oxygen fuel cell systems used in the Gemini and         closed cycle thermodynamic power systems in the
                                     Apollo projects. Such accelerated technology de-        early 1950's. A complete evaluation was made of
                                     velopment ultimately may have applications in           long-term submerged operations, and several
                                     automobiles, recreational boats, and undersea           usable concepts were developed to perniit sub-
                                     systems.                                                merged operations of days or weeks. The pressur-
                                       A fuel cell is planned as the power source for        ized water nuclear reactor development in 1955
                                     the Navy's Deep Submergence Search Vehicle              supplanted the thermodynamic power concept for
                                     (DSSV). The 34-hour DSSV mission time and               fleet submarines, and little additional work has
                                     power consumption rate demand peak power of             been done since.
                                     50 kilowatts and a 1,000-kilowatt-hour energy
                                     supply. The system, including required buoyancy         b. Future Needs Few undersea applications will
                                     material, will weigh about 10,000 pounds, or 10         require a nuclear reactor energy source. Chemical
                                     pounds per kilowatt hour. A silver-zinc battery         dynamic systems (operating on the Brayton,
                                     system providing the same energy would weigh            Rankine, or Sterling cycles and utilizing a re-
                                     about 30,000 pounds. The additional vehicle             ciprocating engine or a turbine driving an electrical
                                     weight and size required to utilize silver-zinc         generator) could produce electrical energy at much
                                     batteries would seriously affect the performance        less cost and weight than a nuclear plant and
                                     of DSSV.                                                should receive renewed development attention.

                                     VI-34

                          Encapsulation quickly raises the specific weight          Three factors will influence decisions to build a
                       of chemical dynamic- systems for operations below        nuclear power plant at an undersea site:' (1) cost
                       2,000 feet. Important weight reduction for mobile        of electricity supplied by a nuclear plant at the site
                       systems could be achieved by employing systems           compared with cost of long cable transmission
                       in which the fuel and effluent were maintained at        from land or from surface floating plants, (2) the
                       ambient pressure with only the engine and genera-        character and priority of the undersea operation,
                       tor enclosed in hard tanks. Ultimate development         and (3) the leadtime for nuclear power plant
                       of a system with conversion equipment and fuel           construction and operation.
                       maintained at ambient operating pressures might              Reactor technology considerations will not
                       achieve power sources weighing around 25 pounds          greatly influence the decision at shallower depths.
                       per kilowatt hour.
                                                                                .For missions at 20,000 feet, there are severe design
                                                                                and engineering problems, particularly in the
                                                                                structural design of the condenser.
                       4. Nuclear Reactors                                          Remaining problems may include a variety of
                                                                                materials and operating difficulties. Maintenance,
                       a. Current Situation The nuclear reactor proved          for example, would be virtually impossible at
                       to be a dramatic success on Navy fleet.submannes.        depth. It would be difficult and expensive to raise
                       Units delivering tens of thousands of kilowatts are      a plant for repair and maintenance. Maintenance
                       in reliable service for main propulsion and auxil-       requirements might be minimized if static energy
                       iary loads of submarines and surface ships. The          conversion systems such as thermo-electric conver-
                       recent launching of NR-1 is a major milestone in         sion were incorporated in place of dynamic
                       adapting nuclear power to much smaller vehicles.         turbine-generator systems. Several conceptual de-
                          A concept developed for the Naval Civil Engi-         signs for such power plants have been developed.
                       neering Laboratory of a five man, 6,000 foot                 Unfortunately, the much smaller power require-
                       undersea station includes a nuclear reactor for          ments of current saturation diving habitats are not
                       main power. A unit recommended for,a power               'compatible with the characteristics of existing
                       demand of 38 kilowatts was the TRIGA Oceano-             nuclear reactors. Technology derived from devel-
                       graphic Power Supply with a steam turbine genera-        opment programs to supply small nuclear reactors
                       tor power conversion system. Total weight of this        for space applications may be adapted to the
                       plant (maximum capacity 100 kilowatts) was               undersea power problem, particularly for manned
                       estimated at 145,000 pounds, more than half              underwater stations at limited ocean depths.
                       shielding. The Navy and the Aton-tic Energy
                       Commission are working to develop yet more               S. Isotope Power
                       suitable nuclear reactors for other future deep
                       ocean applications.                                          Power up to 10 kilowatts is considered achiev-
                                                                                able via radibisotope-dynamic conversion power
                                                                                systems, in which the heat of radioactive decay
                       b. Future Needs There are attractions to placing         produces steam to drive a conventional turbine-
                       a nuclear power plant on the ocean floor where it        generator or power a thermoelectric converter.
                       would be away from population centers. If the                Isotope materials with halflives ranging from
                       plant were operated unmanned with most systems           four months to 458 years exist in varying quanti-
                       at ambient pressures, external pressure n-dght be        ties and costs. One most promising for long
                       used to reduce some wall thicknesses. Waste heat         missions, cobalt-60, has a halflife of over five years
                       removal problems would be reduced in the limit-          and an energy density of 1.7 watts per gram in
                       less heat sink of the ocean. If the power plant were     compound form. For shorter missions,
                       remote from manned habitats, shielding might be          polonium-210 with a halflife of 138 days might be
                       reduced by relying upon seawater, an excellent           selected.
                       shielding material itself. Except for power plant
                       maintenance problems and some materials devel-               3There are also reasons to locate power generating
                       opment, current technology is adequate to provide        stations offshore to serve land needs. See Chapter 6,
                       submerged nuclear power plants.                          Section V11, Power Generation.

                                                                                                                                  VI-35

                                        Since radioisotopes are the product of reactor              small vehicles. Until fuel cells, small nuclear plants,
                                     operations or separation of spent fuel, careful con-           and other power sources can be developed for
                                     sideration must be given to selection and avail-               deep ocean service, submersible capabilities will be
                                     ability of isotopes when considering them for                  seriously limited. Figure 3 is a general presentation
                                     electric power production. Some isotopes are                   of approximate ranges of useful outputs for
                                     completely unavailable. With others, price is                  various power sources for submersible systems
                                     changeable and reflects many factors, some un-                 illustrating the point that no one type would
                                     related to actual isotope demand. A careful survey             satisfy A missions. Figure 4 summarizes the
                                     of information supplied by the Atomic Energy                   comparative usefulness potential for various power
                                     Commission regarding cost and availability is                  sources. The diversity of advantages and disadvan-
                                     mandatory before planning to utilize suc*h systems.            tages of each also enforces the need for pursuing
                                        Isotopes are expensive. With a somewhat opti-               diverse approaches in power    source development..
                                     mistic 25 per cent engine cycle efficiency, power
                                     output of 15 kilowatts would require 60 thermal
                                     kilowatts with an expected cobalt-60 isotope cost               104 CHEMI(_AL DYNAMIC
                                     of $390,000.
                                                                                                                                   NUCL A
                                                                                                     j03
                                                                                                                                  K@@ DYNAMIC.
                                        As with reactor systems, radiation and waste                3:            WITH
                                                                                                    -2                 G _EN
                                                                                                                  CRY
                                                                                                       2               R
                                     heat must be considered. The advantages and                     10         @@TOR,
                                     disadvantages of deep ocean reactors are similar to
                                                                                                       10
                                     isotope systems. The transportation of a radio-                D                      FUEL CELLS
                                                                                                    0
                                     isotope system is difficult due to the necessity of
                                                                                                                                           OLAR
                                     continuous shielding and heat rejection.
                                                                                                    Y
                                        Assuming acceptable weight characteristics and               0.1                                   OLTAIC
                                     cost considerations, radioisotope systems can pro-                                                    SOTOPE_
                                     vide small-power supplies having low maintenance               0.01  1    5       1    1     1 1           10
                                     and high reliability for a number of relatively                     min  min      hr  day week monthl Year year
                                     constant power consumers (such as fixed environ-                                  DURATION            FROM HERE ON
                                     mental monitoring systems, transponders, buoys,                                                       LIFETIME &
                                     wellhead controls, and communications and navi-                                                       RELIABILITY
                                     gation systems).                                                                                      LIMIT CONTROL
                                                                                                    Figure 3. The range of usefiil outputs for
                                                                                                    various power sources.
                                     6. Conclusions

                                        Reliable, cost effective,    high energy per unit
                                     weight and volume power        sources are a primary                                Figure 4
                                     requisite for a wide variety of undersea apphca-                      COMPARATIVE USEFULNESS OF
                                     tions. Existing power sources in various develop-                        VARIOUS POWER SOURCESI
                                     ment stages for other applications are- potential                                                          Ambient
                                     candidates for underwater service, but each re-                Ty C @iteria    Low       High   Endur-     Pressure
                                     quires considerable adaptation to the ocean envi                  P,         Power      Power     ance       Capa
                                     ronment and to specific underwater applications.                                                             bility
                                     Clearly, no single candidate is preferable over the            Lead Acid
                                     entire energy spectrum in which submersibles,                  Battery            3          5        5          1
                                     habitats, and other undersea systems may operate.              Silver Zinc
                                        The Icurrent need for suitable power sources for            Battery            3          4        4          1
                                                                                                    Fuel Cell          2          3        3          3
                                     submersibles is urgent. Excluding combatant sub-               Chemical
                                     marines, only rechargable batteriei have           ' been      Dynamic            4          2        3          4
                                     employed for main power in manned, selfpro-                    Isotope            1          5        1          3
                                     pelled submersibles. The NR-l will be -the first               Nuclear
                                     submersible with nuclear power. Batteries impose               Reactor            5          1        1          5
                                     severe weight, payload, and endurance penalties on             1 is best; 5 is poorest.

                                     VI-36

                        Recommendations:                                         little undersea component development has been
                        While it is not realistic to presume that any one        directed toward external machinery. Yet small
                        power source will be adequate for all underwater         submersible hulls generally enclose only the man
                        requirements, the design, development, testing,          and the electronic equipment, and in unmanned
                        and certification of each new source is both time        systems it is desirable to utilize as little heavy
                        consuming and expensive. Therefore, it is also           pressure-resistant structure as possible. Conse-
                        unrealistic to conceive of a program wherein all         quently, efficient design requires the use of new
                        power sources will be developed simultaneously. A        subsystems exposed directly to the ocean environ-
                        more rational approach dictates that development         ment.
                        efforts be directed initially to low-cost adaptions         The attempt to use off-the-shelf or slightly
                        of existing power sources to systems specifically        modified equipment in submersible systems be-
                        designed for the ocean environment.                      cause of cost has in many cases proved unwise.
                           Development of compact, deep         ocean power      Few items have worked as planned, and modifica-
                        sources ranging particularly between 50 and 5,000        tion has been expensive. The use of off-the-shelf
                        kilowatts for deep submergence vehicles and habi-        equipment in effect has led to in situ testing, often
                        tats is most urgent and should receive first priority.   a costly and wasteful procedure. A few hours of
                           Engineering criteria, standards, and perform-         operation without any equipment malfunction is
                        ance and -qualification specifications for power         the best expected from vehicles in initial stages of
                        systems (including components) must be estab-            operation.
                        lished for nonmilitary underwater applications.            . The Circular of Requirements issued in late
                        Applied research and component improvement               1965. as part of the procurement specification for
                        programs must be supported. The development of           the Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV)
                        a low-cost 50 kilowatt power source for submer-          specified the use of off-the-shelf equipment. But
                        sible operations of several days is an example.          many subsystems proposed would not operate
                           Fuel cells should receive priority to meet the 10     when tested in the deep environment, requiring
                        to 100 kilowatt demand of small submersibles, a          added efforts to develop, test, and qualify suitable
                        requirement that can be met by the DSSV fuel cell        equipment for the vehicle.
                        project if carried out as planned. Development of           Safety and progress in the undersea frontier
                        both hydrazine and hydrogen-oxygen systems               necessitate testing, evaluation, and certification of
                        should be supported. Cryogenic underwater tech-          equipment for external operation prior to installa-
                        nology should be emphasized because of its               tion. Because the use of equipment exposed to the
                        potential application in fuel cell and thermal           environment promises great rewards in the effi-
                        conversion systems. In the range for resource            ciency of undersea systems, external machinery
                        utilization on the continental shelves, thermal          systems and equipment development should re-
                        conversion systems should receive renewed devel_         ceive emphasis in the fundamental technology
                        opment support.                                          development program.

                        C. External Machinery Systems and Equipment
                           The sea environment imposes entirely new              1. Power Application
                        operational requirements on machinery systems.           a. Current Situation A key element of mobile
                        Mechanical and electrical equipment have been            undersea platforms will be the propulsion system.
                        developed for operation in the atmosphere or in          Neutrally buoyant vehicles may have to have
                        the vacuum of space, but the ocean's high pressure       mobility in all six degrees of freedom-(l) heave
                        and corrosiveness impose more severe demands             (up and down), (2) surge (fore and aft), (3) sway
                        than have been encountered in most previous              (right and -left), (4) roll, (5) pitch, and (6) yaw.
                        applications.                                            For docking or mating, very precise maneuver-
                           Military submarines operate at relatively shal-       ability is required. For many activities speeds of
                        low depths with most machinery systems inside            five knots or less are acceptable, but in such cases
                        the pressure hull and a minimum of equipment             as chasing tuna or potential enemy submarines
                        exposed to the ocean environment. Consequently,          much higher forward speeds are needed.

                                                                                                                                   VI-37

                                       The choice. of propulsion systems for submer-          -Characteristics of hydraulic fluids change at
                                    sible vehicles depends on their mission. Typical,         extremely high pressures-viscosity may increase
                                    uses-scientific studies, site. survey and inspection,     1W times while operating a system from zero to,
                                    object recovery and light salvage, transport of           20,000-foot depths.
                                    men and equipment, or mobile tool operations
                                    -generally demand precise maneuverability, nor-           -Waxes may form in hydraulic oils and,clog the.
                                    mally more important than high speed.                  I  lines.
                                       Other challenges to propulsion system design           -Gases may accumulate and block the system.
                                    include protection from entanglement, minimum
                                    disturbance of bottom sediments (especially for              The mechanical parts of pumps, actuators, and
                                    bottom-sitting vehicles), and creation of large           motors normally designed for 3,000 pound per
                                    forces and moments at zero speed. Propulsion              square inch (psi) operation in atmospheric systems
                                    system selection will involve weight, volume,             must be redesigned for deep submergence.
                                    simplicity, efficiency, reliability, maintainability,        Most underwater propulsion systems and virtu-
                                    and mechanical endurance.                                 ally all hydraulic and seawater pumps are driven
                                       The state of development and features of the           by electric motors. Several methods for condition-
                                    most common propulsion systems are:                       ing motors to resist the operating environment
                                    -Screw propulsion. Well defined, with designs             have been developed. These include oil-filling,
                                    available for almost any application. Systems have        encapsulation in pressure-resistant housings, and
                                    utilized conventional propellers, ducted thrusters,       sealing principle parts such as rotors and stators
                                                                                              with plastic compounds. None is yet completely
                                    or rotatable pods. Precise maneuverability in all         satisfactory.
                                    degrees of motion requires no less than three screw
                                    propellers.                                                  Most undersea electric power sources provide
                                                                                              direct current. Since no power conversion is
                                                                                              necessary, direct current motors (especially for
                                    -Tandem    propulsion. In early development,        not   constant-speed applications) promise high effi-
                                    progressed beyond the analysis and tank-test              ciencies. However, problems of commutation and
                                    stages. Has promise for highly maneuverable               brush wear under high pressure or in oil have
                                    vehicles.                                                 restricted their use.
                                                                                                 Alternating current motors have the advantage
                                    -Cycloidal (vertical axis propeller) propulsion. In       of being brushless, but require DC-to-AC inverters
                                    use for years on tugs and ferries which require high      for power conversion and speed control. Although
                                    thrust at low speeds and directed thrust for              modern inverters have no moving parts, they do
                                    maneuvering but not three-dimensional control.            not operate reliably in ambient pressures, and their
                                    Only a prototype glass submersible presently              electrical complexity adds weight.
                                    employs cycloidal propulsion.
                                                                                              b. Future Needs Propulsion system reliability
                                    - Water fet propulsion. Uses pumps to expel water         and efficiency must be improved for advanced
                                    at high velocity for propulsion. Currently in use on      undersea systems. The tandem propeller concept
                                    at least two commercially operated deep submer-           appears feasible within. the foreseeable future.
                                    sibles. One uses rotatable jets for primary thrust;       Reduction of vehicle drag to reduce power con-
                                    the other uses jet thrusters for maneuvering              sumption and increase propulsion system perform-
                                    control.                                                  ance holds limited promise.
                                                                                                 Solution of the DC motor brush problem
                                       Many submersible functions and habitat opera-          appears imminent. The Navy has been testing 3
                                    tions require power transmission by hydraulic             and 17 horsepower DC motors of a unique brush
                                    pumps and actuators. In theory, complete hydrau-          concept with favorable results. Larger motors are
                                    lic systems placed externally to the hull at ambient      yet to be developed. AC motor inverter-controllers
                                    pressures can be operated at still higher working         are being refined, but reliability and weight im-
                                    pressures. However, such operations have often            provements, including possible ambient operation,
                                    failed for one or more of the following reasons:          should be pursued.

                                    VI-38

                            Entirely new hydraulic equipment designs are            mal variations, abrasion, and chemical, electro-
                         needed for deep submergence. Pumps, motors,                lytic, and biological attack. Extreme pressure
                         actuators, and such power conversion equipment             changes cause cable insulation to squeeze and
                         as fluid speed reduction gears that use corrosive,         withdraw from between conductor strands and to
                         nonlubricating seawater as the working fluid               be pinched and chafed. Voids formed in cable
                         would be a real breakthrough. Entirely new                 during manufacture can result in air bubble accum-
                         concepts for pump and motor construction and               ulation under pressure, subsequently causing rup-
                         new working fluids may prove a very fruitful               ture due to gas expansion during ascent.
                         alternative.                                                  Molded distribution boxes and oil-filled junc-
                                                                                    tion boxes have been utilized to distribute electri-
                         2. Electrical Distribution                                 cal power. In a molded distribution box, cable,
                                                                                    connectors and wiring are mated in solid rubber of
                         a. Current Situation Electrical power must be              plastic. Inaccessible connecting points are fully
                         distributed within and outside the pressure hull of        protected from the outside environment.
                         undersea systems. Signals to control external                 Oil-filled junction boxes, although heavy and
                         machinery must be transmitted through the pres-            bulky, are reliable in undersea systems. Pressure is
                         sure hull, and outside information must enter for          compensated by an electrically insulating fluid
                         processing, interpretation, and storage. On a rela-        (usually silicone oil) and a flexible diaphragm.
                         tively simple vehicle, a thousand or more wires            When pressure increases, the diaphragm transmits
                         may pass through the hull. The Deep Submergence            pressure to the fluid in the box, thereby support-
                         Rescue Vehicle will require more than 1,400 such           ing the box's walls. The diaphragm may be
                         penetrations. A large bottom habitat may require           spring-loaded to ensure a positive pressure- to keep
                         thousands of such penetrations.                            seawater out. Most remotely operated external
                            Electrical distribution systems within the pres-        contactors and relays are placed in oil-filled boxes.
                         sure hull are similar to those for atmospheric
                         applications, but external distribution systems            b. Future Needs Reliable, multiconductor hull
                         encounter entirely different problems. Each wire           penetrators, cables, and connectors are essential to
                         and component is subjected to both pressure and            systems development. Available components have
                         adverse chemical effects. Deficiencies in the state-       only marginal capability.
                         of-the-art exist in insulation, circuit interruption          Insulations capable of withstanding many pres-
                         techniques, and automatic system monitoring                sure cycles must be developed. New techniques of
                         equipment.                                                 circuit interruption are needed. Reliable automatic
                            Electrical hull penetrators contain contacts            system monitoring equipment must be developed.
                         which complete circuits through the hull. Their            Because undersea maintenance is difficult if not
                         selection is important, as number and size deter-          impossible, equipment must be provided to detect,
                         mine hull reinforcement requirements and may               evaluate, and correct equipment faults automati-
                         affect internal and external equipment arrange-            cally. Pressure and water resistant switch gear,
                         ment.                                                      preferably electronic rather than electro-mechan-
                            Penetrators must be reliable barriers to hydro-         ical, must be developed to avoid bulky protective
                         static pressure to avoid electrical shorting or hull       enclosures and to improve reliability. New meth-
                         flooding. Although various configurations contain-         ods of hull penetration, using radio or visible light
                         ing, relatively few contacts have had some success,        frequencies now being developed for glass hulls,
                         none is yet satisfactory for extended operation's          show promise and warrant increased effort.
                         requiring many signals at great depths.
                            Underwater cables and connectors are a signifi-         3. Buoyancy and Trim Control
                         cant problem. Each must resist the high pressure
                         seawater environment and form a reliable pressure          a. Current Situation Maintaining neutral buoy-
                         resistant connection at the connector-cable and            ancy reliably is important because uncontrolled
                         connector-connector interfaces.                            descent or ascent could be disastrous. A vehicle's
                            Underwater cable'must be resistant to mechan-           weight generally must be controlled through a
                         ical stresses from pressure cycling, vibration., ther-     range as much as �5 per cent of total weight.

                                                                                                                                       VI-39

                                    Merely moving from seawater to the fresh or              the vehicle operator for other duties will be
                                    brackish water of a river mouth changes displace-        required.
                                    ment perceptibly.
                                       Descent from warm surface waters to cold              4. Conclusions
                                    bottom waters or   'transit through several thermal          External machinery systems and equipment not
                                    or salinity layers places a heavy burden on
                                    buoyancy control systems. Existing systems re-           designed for undersea use have proved generally
                                    quire constant attention of experienced personnel        inadequate. However, due to the unavailability of
                                    to compensate for changing conditions.                   special subsea commercial equipment, equipment
                                       Buoyancy control is achieved most simply by           designed for other purposes has been used in the
                                    pumping seawater in and out of hard tanks'               oceans. Even equipment specially designed for
                                    changing the ratio of vehicle weight to displace-        submerged application requires extensive improve-
                                    ment. This method has proven satisfactory to             ment. The state-of-the-art in external machinery
                                    2,000 feet, but pumping water against the high           systems and equipment is summarized as follows:
                                    pressures of greater depths requires expenditure of
                                    much precious energy.                                    Propulsion Systems                Problem
                                       When transporting specimens, minerals, or re-
                                    covered objects to the surface, it will be necessary         Screw              Maneuverability requires
                                    to provide buoyancy at least equal to the wet                                      several units
                                    weight of the cargo. Dropping weights may be                 Tandem             Not tested on a full-scale ve-
                                    inexpensive, but pumping seawater ballast is more                                  hicle; complex mechanism
                                    desirable because it is reversible. Further, systems         Cycloidal          Not tested on a full-scale ve-
                                    operating submerged for long periods may not                                       hicle; complex mechanism
                                    have the opportunity to replace dropped weights.             Water Jets         Sediment disturbance; low
                                       Trim in undersea vehicles has been controlled                                   efficiency
                                    by shifting ballast, changing the pitch of fins or           New Methods        Need to be developed
                                    vanes, or applying propulsion. In shifting ballast,
                                    seawater or mercury is pumped from one region of         Electric Motors                   Problem
                                    the vehicle to another, working effectively even at          DC Motors          Commutation and brush wear
                                    slow or zero forward speeds. However, the system
                                    responds slowly, and the ballast, tankage, intercon-         AC Motors          Inverter/controller weight and
                                    necting piping, and pumping system add weight,                                     reliability; flooded opera-
                                    volume, and complexity. The vehicle must have                                      tion
                                    some relative forward or reverse motion to effect
                                    trim by the use of lifting surfaces.                     Electrical                        Problem
                                                                                                 Penetrations       Weight; reliability of seals and
                                                                                                                       insulation; continuity of
                                    b. Future Needs New fast and completely auto-                                      circuit
                                    matic buoyancy control must be developed. Chem-              Distribution       Weight and bulk of oil-filled
                                    ical propellants may achieve a more satisfactory                                   junction boxes; mechanical
                                    ratio between the weight of energy storage and the                                 circuit interruption; cable
                                    change in vehicle buoyancy. The solution may lie                                   reliability
                                    in designing vehicles so their bulk modulus closely
                                    matches that of seawater, utilizing materials and        Control                           Problem
                                    devices which vary in displacement to compensate
                                    for changes in pressure and temperature, thus                Buoyancy           Ballast pump rates and
                                    providing automatic buoyancy control and mini-                                     reliability; automatic con-
                                    mal requirements for variable ballast.                                             trol; buoyancy generation
                                       More efficient trim control methods -with                                       at great pressure
                                    quicker response will be needed as vehicle  ,s become        Trim               System weight and speed;
                                    larger and faster. Automatic trim controls to free                                 automatic control

                                    VI-40

                       Recommendations:                                         greater depths, supplemental buoyancy material or
                       More efficient, reliable, lighter weight external        advanced hull materials will be required. The
                       subsystems are critical to deeper ocean operating        amount of such material will be a function of the
                       capability. Development has not received the             hull's W/D ratio and the density of the buoyancy
                       attention given materials and power sources, al-         material.
                       though of equal importance. A program specifi-              The pressure hull buoyancy ratio must increase
                       cally aimed at improving reliability and developing      with depth. A recently constructed submersible,
                       new external machinery systems and equipment-            for example, with an 8,000-foot operating capabil-
                       propulsion systems   ' buoyancy, and trim control        ity has a pressure hull made of a 190,000 pounds
                       systems-is needed. -        .'                           per square inch (psi) compressive yield strength
                          The Navy's Deep Ocean Technology Program              steel and a buoyancy ratio of 0.43.
                       should be funded to the'requested levels.                   The Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV)
                          Civilian technology funding levels should allow       designed to operate to 20,000 feet would have a
                       the development of fundamental knowledge                 pressure hull buoyancy ratio of 0.9 if fabricated of
                       needed to produce low-cost systems for non-              the same material. The buoyancy ratio of the
                       military users.                                          DSSV pressure hull would be reduced to 0.1 if a
                                                                                titanium alloy of 125,000 psi compressive yield
                       D. Materials                                             strength were used.
                                                                                   Higher yield strength titanium alloys have not
                          Materials  problems enter critically into every       been used in deep submergence pressure hulls
                       aspect of underwater technology. The economy             because of lower toughness and possible suscepti-
                       and effectiveness of ocean activities are dependent      bility to stress corrosion. If a titanium alloy with
                       upon development of improved materials for               a 180,000 psi yield strength and acceptable tougli-
                       submersible vehicles, underwater structures, equip-      ness became available, a pressure hull buoyancy
                       ment, and all types of components. Material              ratio as low as 0.5 could be attained for 20,000
                       development involves not only basic metallurgical        feet.
                       and mechanical properties but problems of pro-            - Complementary needs include (1) hatches that
                       duction, design, fabrication, testing, in-service in-    form an integral part of the structure when closed,
                       spection, corrosion, and marine fouling.                 but which can open for mating operations at great
                          Developments are needed in metallics, non-            depth without dangerously degrading the struc-
                       metallics, and composites of increased strength          ture, (2) techniques to utilize more than one
                       with sufficient notch toughness, corrosion resist-       material in a hull to capitalize on the unique
                       ance, fatigue strength, producibility, weldability,      advantages of each, (3) analytical tools to predict
                       and economy for pressure hulls and other struc-          and evaluate preliminary design choices, and (4)
                       tural applications. Included in the nonmetallic          fabrication techniques.
                       category are fiber-reinforced plastics, glass, and          Development is needed of undersea antifouling
                       other ceramics.                                          coatings to inhibit biological growth (Figure 5),
                          Neutral buoyancy is an operating requirement          new coatings to protect against corrosion, and
                       for submersibles. Applying a principle that buoy-        cathodic and impressed current techniques for
                       ancy is best provided by the pressure hull and           combating corrosion. Materials are required for a
                       auxiliary buoyancy material is used primarily for        variety of underwater applications in addition to
                       trim-the pressure hull should have a weight-to-          pressure hulls:
                       displacement (W/D or buoyancy) ratio of 0.4 to
                       0.6. This allows for the buoyancy required for           -Gaskets, sealants, and pressure hull penetrations.
                       external machinery and equipment, outer hull and           Rubberized fabrics for pipelines, storage con-'
                       payload. In the discussions following, a spherical
                       geometry is assumed, because this shape provides         tainers, and buoyancy bladders.
                       minimum W/D ratios.                                      -Nylon and other materials for mooring cable,
                          No currently available production material suit-      insulation, and protective sheaths.
                       able for pressure hulls can achieve a W/D ratio
                       lower than 0.5 for 10,000-foot operations. For           @Transparent materials for viewports.

                                                                                                                                  VI-41

                                                                                                 strength or advanced nonferrous or nonmetallic
                                                                                                 materials.
                                                                                                    If many pressure cycles are involved, failure due
                                                                                                 to fatigue rather than crushing forces must -be
                                                                                                 considered. Unfortunately, as yield strength in-
                                                                                                 creases, toughness and fatigue life decrease. Each
                                                                                                 time a vehicle descends to operating depth and
                                                                                                 returns, a fatigue cycle is incurred. If a collapse
                                                                                                 safety factor of 1.5 is incorporated, cyclic loading
                                                                                                 would vary from zero psi to a maximum of 86,500
                                                                                                 psi for HY-140.
                                                                                                    Data suggest that HY-80 can sustain 10 times
                                                                                                 the cyclic loading of HY-1 40; however, the 10,000
                                                                                                 cycle capability for HY-140 steel is likely to be at
                                                                                                 least three times the cycles a submersible will
                                                                                                 undergo during its useful life. Since HY-140
                                                                                                 fatigue life is ample, it is not correct to imply that
                                                                                                 an HY-140 vehicle will have a shorter service life
                                                                                                 than an HY-80 vehicle. This would be true only if
                                     Figure 5. Biological growth on hydrolab after               service life extended beyond 60 years with dives to
                                     one year's submergence off Florida coast near
                                     falm Beach. Inspection of laboratory after                  maximum depth every other day.
                                     removal of growth showed little corrosion had
                                     taken place. (West Palm Beach Post- Times
                                     photo)                                                      b. Future Nee& While steel has a higher density
                                                                                                 than other materials considered for pressure hulls,
                                                                                                 new ultra-strength steels (yield strength greater
                                     -Fluids    for  buoyancy and hydraulic systems              than 240,000 psi) may produce. in 15 years
                                     pressure compensating systems, and lubrication.             efficient 20,000-foot pressure hulls (W/D around
                                                                                                 0.5) for small, maneuverable noncombatant ve-
                                        Technology and knowledge of material per-                hicles.
                                     formance in the ocean has not progressed to where              Although other materials may be used for
                                     final decisions can be made as to what materials            vehicle and habitat structures, high strength steel
                                     and construction techniques are to be employed              may be found the      least costly once stress corro-
                                     in future systems. Entirely new material concepts           sion cracking and brittle failure problems are
                                                                                                 overcome, and manufacturing and fabrication
                                     may be developed and employed by the year                   techniques developed.
                                     2000, but only if sufficient effort is expended in
                                     analysis, development, and use of a wide variety of            Currently HY-80 steel, for which suitable man-
                                     materials.                                                  ufacturing and fabrication techniques have been
                                                                                                 developed, is much less expensive than any other
                                     1. High Strength Steels                                     material proposed for pressure hulls. If ultra-
                                                                                                 strength steel technology were successful, a 20,000-
                                     a. Current Situation Ferrous materials having a             foot hull with W/D ratio around 0.5 would be
                                     yield strength of 80,000 psi (HY-80) or less have           possible and steel might remain the most econom-
                                     been used in all fleet submarines and in most deep          ical material.
                                     submergence vehicles. HY-140 steels (130,000 to
                                     150,000 psi yield strength) now can be specified            2. Nonferrous Metals
                                     for use in noncombatant vehicles, although the use
                                     of HY-140 for combatant submarines awaits solu-             a. Current Situation Titanium and aluminum
                                     tion to many problems in forging, fabricating, and          materials, much less dense than steel, show prom-
                                     welding large segments.                                     ise for low W/D ratio hulls for deep submergence
                                        Operations at 20,000 feet will require much              vehicles. However, fabrication technique and cor-
                                     stronger steels in excess of 180,000 psi yield              rosion unknowns have limited such materials to

                                     VI-42

                         only a few applications. Aluminaut uses aluminum           techniques have not been developed. Unfortu-
                         forged rings for hull construction, and the Alvin          nately, the failure of glass spheres is unpredictable
                         employed titanium buoyancy spheres. Aluminum               and usually catastrophic; once a crack begins, the
                         spheres with yield strength of approximately               entire assembly disintegrates. In metallic structures
                         75,000 psi, and small titanium spheres with yield          the failure mode is usually buckling; initial cracks
                         strength of 120,000 psi have been fabricated.              and structural anomalies usually can be detected
                                                                                 .  prior to complete failure.
                         b. Future Needs        Extensive development and              Glass technology is being applied in construc-
                         improvement of fabrication techniques must be              tion of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center's
                         done to realize the full potential of nonferrous           (NUWC) Deepview, a vehicle having a 44-inch glass
                         materials. For example, bottom habitats probably           end hemisphere (Figure 6). Also NUWC's Hikino
                         will be manufactured in large sections on shore,           design has a total glass sphere with no pene-
                         transported by surface ship or towed to the site,          trations. The sphere incorporates a titanium ring
                         and lowered. Since most, if not all, structural            joint between hemispheres and utilizes an acrylic
                         fabrication will take place on land, dry weight will       inner and outer lining. Other glass construction
                         be extremely important in handling such large              techniques include pouring, sagging by heat,'sag-
                         ,structures.                                               ging by vacuum, and injection molding. The Naval
                            Operating costs of current submersibles are             Civil Engineering Uboratory is working on acrylic
                         related to vehicle weight due to surface support           sphere construction by assembly of 12 identical
                         difficulties. Thus, advanced structural materials          spherical pentagons.
                         and improved supplement buoyancy that reduce,
                         vehicle weight can be economically rewarding. In
                         the future submerged support of submersibles
                         could make dry weight a much less important
                         factor. Further, continuing development of non-
                         ferrous metals an  d alloys for ocean equipment and
                         components is necessary. Included are gunmetals,
                         cupronickels, and cast and wrought aluminum
                         alloys.

                         3. Nonmetallic Materials

                         a. Current Sittiation      Operation of vehicles at
                         20,000-foot depths will require pressure            hulls
                         having weight-to-displacement ratios approaching
                         the ideal 0.4. These can be achieved only by using
                         the very high strength steels with yield strengths
                         above 240,000 psi, titanium with a 1.80,000 Psi            Figure 6. Artist's concept of Deepview sub-
                         yield strength, glass-reinforced plastics, advanced        mersible vehicle. (Navy photo)
                         composites, or massive glass.
                            Glass is expected to be developed to a usable
                         compressive strength level of 250,000 psi during              Properties and performance characteristics of a
                         1970-1980. The attractiveness of massive glass lies        glass filament, originally developed for Polaris
                         in its low density and theoretical compressive             rocket cases, have been evaluated under simulated
                         strength, possibly as high as 4,000,000 psi. Failure       conditions. Complex ring-stiffened cylindrical
                         generally initiates at the glass surface when tension      models have been tested, demonstrating a capa-
                         forces are present and occurs long before compres-         bility to withstand short-term exposure to 30,000
                         sive capabilities are reached.                             feet of hydrostatic pressure and long-term static
                            Annealed glass spheres up to 56 inches diameter         and cyclic exposures at de   pths to 20,000 feet.
                                                                                                                 f
                                                                                                                >k

                         have been fabricated and tested, but results are              Glass fiber reinforced plastics (GRP) are of very
                         inconsistent, and adequate fabrication control             low density and offer the possibility of compres-

                                                                                                                                         VI-43

                                   sive strengths of 130,000 to 200,000 psi. Im-            material, causing the Trieste to be quite bulky and
                                   proved matrices, reinforcements, and composites          unmaneuverable. Its operations with a gasoline-
                                   offering higher compressive strength, modulus,           filled buoyancy balloon are analogous to helium-
                                   shear strength, and environmental resistance can         filled balloon or blimp operations in the atmo-
                                   lead to greatly improved weight-to-displacement          sphere.
                                   ratios and reliability. GRP materials now have               Titanium spheres are used on the Alvin to
                                   demonstrated strengths of 100,000 psi; 150,000           provide an effective net buoyancy. Radial fiber
                                   psi appears attainable in the next decade.               spheres, a variation on filament wound rocket
                                      Oxide ceramics are another potential material         motor case development, show great promise for
                                   for construction of low W/D ratio pressure resist-       supplemental buoyancy. Spheres with a weight-to-
                                   ant enclosures. Alumina and beryllia appear the          displacement ratio of 0.39 have withstood up to
                                   most likely candidates. Current technology does          45,000-foot equivalent depth pressure; an I I-inch
                                   not permit precision manufacture of high strength        sphere with no surface resin coating has been held
                                   ceramic parts larger than 18 inches. Spherical           at 26,000 feet and tested to failure at 56,000-foot
                                   pentagonal ceramic plates imbedded in a metallic         pressures. A 32-inch diameter sphere has been
                                   framework may offer a solution for spherical             proof-tested to pressures equivalent to 22,000-foot
                                   structures.                                              depths.
                                                                                                Most vehicles currently under construction will
                                   b. Future Needs Much must be done to develop             employ syntactic foam for supplemental buoy-
                                   the no-nmetallics into safe, reliable, producible,       ancy. This is a mixture of very light hollow glass
                                   and fabricable engineering materials for deep            microspheres in a resin matrix. Current technology
                                   submergence applications. Glass work should              has yielded syntactic foams with a weight-to-
                                   emphasize reliability, fabrication and penetration       displacement ratio of 0.56 at 8,000-foot pressures
                                   techniques, and joint ddsign. Fiber-reinforced plas-     and 0.69 at 20,000 feet. Thus, the achievable net
                                   tics need process and quality control improve-           buoyancy from each foam is approximately 28
                                   ment.                                                    and 20 pounds per cubic foot of material respeo-
                                      Promising fibers such as carbon, boron, beryl-        tively. (One cubic foot of water weighing 64
                                   lium, alumina, and others should be developed            pounds is displaced by a cubic foot of foam
                                   further. Penetrations for manned hulls must be           weighing 36 pounds yielding a net lift of 28
                                   developed and evaluated. Oxide ceramics deserve          pounds, etc.)
                                   extensive investigation with emphasis on mosaic              The importance of relative density of syntactic
                                   structures to solve the scale-up problem. By the         foam is evident from analyzing its role in vehicle
                                   1980's, nonmetals may be practical for manrated          construction and operation. Every pound of vehi-
                                   pressure hulls.                                          cle negative buoyancy when submerged must be
                                                                                            compensated by a pound of supplemental buoy-
                                   4. Supplemental Buoyancy Material                        ancy. If each pound of buoyancy material contrib-
                                                                                            uted only one-third pound of net buoyancy, then
                                   a. Current Situation       Vehicle volume is an          one pound of negative buoyancy would require
                                   important criterion in maneuverability, which im-        the addition of three pounds of buoyancy mate-
                                   proves as volume decreases. Volume is greatly            rial.
                                   influenced by the buoyancy material employed.                The result would be that each pound added to a
                                   Combatant submarines have been of such limited           vehicle would compound to a total of four pounds
                                   depth capability that buoyancy has generally not         of dry weight. Based on current costs for installed
                                   been a problem. In fact, they carry lead for             buoyancy material, each added pound of vehicle
                                   weight-growth margin and stability. Because of           weight may cost an extra $200 to $300, a cost
                                   available pressure hull materials, deep submersibles     penalty approaching or exceeding that of excess
                                   ordinarily attain neutral buoyancy by carrying           weight on a jet aircraft.
                                   extra buoyancy material.
                                      Gasoline is used for supplemental buoyancy in         b. Future Needs Volume reductions, and perhaps
                                   the Dieste, which has descended 35,840 feet in           very significant cost reductions, can result from
                                   the Pacific. But gasoline is inefficient as buoyancy     improved syntactic foams or other supplemental

                                   VI-44

                         buoyancy materials. Ultimately it will be desirable      applications include steel, titanium, aluminum,
                         to develop a buoyancy material providing 39 to 44        glass, glass fiber reinforced plastics, and ceramics.
                         pounds of lift per cubic foot for 20,000-foot            All have promise of meeting low W/D ratios at
                         operations. Syntactic foam improvements may              20,000 feet by 1980.
                         require stronger, lighter resins and microspheres           Although such materials as titanium and glass
                         with improved tolerances and fatigue life; the           are being improved, once manufacturing and fabri-
                         possible combination of glass macrospheres and           cating techniques have been developed the high
                         microspheres in the foam matrix; and castable            strength steels might remain least costly for most
                         foams that can be poured into small irregular            undersea applications. Materials failures in marine
                         spaces and set at room temperature. To use glass         equipment, a major shortcoming of most oceano-
                         spheres, techniques must be developed to elimi-          graphic efforts, may constitute a major obstacle to
                         nate the danger of sympathetic implosion, a very         better utilization of the sea. Fatigue life under
                         serious problem prohibiting their use currently.         cyclic stress is important in selecting materials for
                            A possible assist may come from development           submersibles, and long-term corrosion is the key
                         of structural members which are themselves posi-         consideration for permanent structures.
                         tively or neutrally buoyant. For example, an outer          Extensive use of supplemental buoyancy mate-
                         skin built of laminated GRP imbedded with glass          rial for operations below a few thousand feet is
                         microspheres might be used both to reduce wet            likely to be required for many years. Currently for
                         weight and to add stiffness to the outer hull            20,000-foot operations, buoyancy materials give
                         structure. Effort devoted to improving buoyancy          only about one-half pound of buoyancy for each
                         materials and developing buoyant structure is sure       pound of their own weight. Vehicle volume has an
                         to be highly cost effective and could even permit        important effect on maneuverability, and the
                         less advanced pressure capsule materials in 20,000       buoyancy material has. an important effect on
                         foot systems.                                            vehicle weight, volume, and costs. Hence, im-
                                                                                  proved buoyancy materials and equipment will be
                         S. Secondary Materials                                   very cost effective.
                                                                                     Independent or contractual materials develop-
                            There are a great number of critical secondary        ment is not being undertaken to a meaningful'
                         materials problems for undersea structures, vehi-        extent by industry. For example, 80 per cent of
                         cles, and devices. They involve rubber, plastics,        the Navy's exploratory development in deep ocean
                         fabrics, fibers, insulations, hydraulic fluids, lubri-   materials is undertaken in-house.
                         cants,. etc. The problems are related to such
                         environmental effects as leakage under pressure,         Recommendations:
                         temperature embrittlement, corrosion, fouling,
                         scouring, and contamination. Most materials devel-       Structural materials development must be acceler-
                         oped for submerged use have been employed only           ated along seveml paths with sufficient funds to
                         near the surface. Research and development on            reach fair conclusions about the ability to obtain
                         deep sea materials has barely begun.                     efficient deep submersible and habitat structures.
                                                                                  After. 10 years, efforts should be narrowed and
                         6. Conclusions                                           production choices made. Research must be coor-
                            Materials technology development is of critical       dinated and industry initiative encouraged; the
                                                                                  approach should be through systems engineering.
                         concern, and upon it the economy and effective-          Efforts should focus on:
                         ness of undersea activities depends. Weight-to-
                         displacement pressure hull ratios of 0.4 to 0.6 are      -Steel,I High strength steels development and
                         exceedingly important due to the fundamental             fabrication techniques, including study of fatigue
                         requirement of supporting the remainder of the           problems, should be pushed to obtain a high-
                         vehicle to achieve neutral buoyancy.                     quality, low-cost material.
                            If the pressure capsule cannot provide needed
                         buoyancy, supplemental material must be added,           -Nonferrous metals. Aluminum and titanium
                         increasing vehicle weight and cost, and reducing         should be developed to provide the basis for
                         effectiveness. Materials considered for structural       efficient (W/D=0.4 to 0.6) 20,000-foot structures

                                                                                                                                   VI-45

                                   within 10 years. Emphasis should be given to
                                   corrosion resistance, fabrication methods, and cost
                                   reductions.

                                   -Nonmetallics. Large glass structures for 20,000
                                   feet should be manufactured and tested to prove
                                   reliability. Construction methods and quality con-
                                   trot techniques should be stressed. Glass fiber
                                   reinforced plastic and ceramic structures should be
                                   built and evaluated against glass, tita   nium, and
                                   steel; efforts should be dropped if no clear
                                                                                                                         2!
                                   feasibility is shown within 10 years. GRP work
                                   should emphasize reliability, resistance to detain-
                                   ination, and reduction of water absorption.

                                      Supplemental buoyancy material should be
                                   developed with a major effort to provide a
                                   low-density, acceptable-strength product having 39
                                   pounds of buoyancy per cubic foot.
                                      A 'program to develop secondary materiaals
                                   should be emphasized to provide the needs of new
                                   systems exposed to seawater. More vigorous re-
                                   search into ocean causes and effects (Section 1,        Figure 7. New Ambrose offshore buoy re-
                                   Environmental Considerations) would feed direc-         placing A -brose ligh tship off entrance to New
                                   tly into this program.                                  York Harbor, an aid to navigation long pro-
                                                                                        .  vided by U.S. Government (Coast Guard photo)
                                      A more comprehensive program           should be
                                   organized to ensure proper information transfer
                                   among user, materials supplier, and designer to         must be provided for command and control and
                                   ensure proper testing of materials. Basic materials     for emergencies. Acoustic frequency and power
                                   data should be made available in handbook form          level allocations will be required as undersea
                                   to the designer, especially for some nonmetals and      activity increases.
                                   coatings. A system also is needed for the orderly
                                   and accurate feedback of service experience infor-
                                   mation. Testing results should be standardized.         1. Navigation, Geodesy, and Positioning

                                                                                           a. Current Situation       Navigation, used here,
                                   E. Navigation and Communications                        means the location of one point on the earth's
                                                                                           surface in relation to another. Geodesy is the
                                      Navigation and positioning are prime requisites      science of determining the three dimensional
                                   to safe and successful operations on and beneath        coordinates of locations (geodetic control points)
                                   the sea. Traditionally, the U.S. Government has         on the earth's surface. Positioning is locating
                                   supplied geodesy, chartmaking, and navigational         oneself relative to a local reference not necessarily
                                   aids to its own agencies, industry, commerce, and       established geodetically.
                                   individuals (Figure 7). While there are many               Marine surveys normally are positioned by
                                   surface navigational aids, they generally lack pre-     shore based electronic systems. Multiple methods
                                   cision for operations out of sight of land.             are sometimes used, including shore based, inertial,
                                      Communications systems are essential to intelli-     satellite, bathymetric, and acoustic systems. Selec-
                                   gence interchange (including telemetry) among           tion depends upon availability, repeatability or
                                   submersibles, support platforms or ships, undersea      accuracy, distance of operations from shore, and
                                   stations, buoys, and associated satellites or air-      purpose.
                                   craft. Safety demands reliable communications              Distance from shore of commercial develop-
                                   equipment. Primary reliable communication links         ments in the ocean regions is increasing, with no

                                   V146

                        compensating decrease in the need for accuracy. I     f  acoustic and optical navigation aids, such as coded
                        anything, improved accuracy will be required             transponders, Would permit periodic check of
                        because of increased operating and exploration,          position. Networks of such devices would permit
                        costs at greater distances and in deeper water.          sea lanes comparable to air lanes for navigation
                           Geodetic satellite programs on land are under         and traffic control. Both surface- and bottom-
                        way to establish a worldwide control point system        mounted units could be used. Inertial guidance
                        to an accuracy of � 10 meters in an earth-centere d      systems, if reduced in cost and complexity, could
                        coordinate system. Applications of satellite meth-       be used to extrapolate between navigation marker
                        ods to marine geodesy are under study. Satellites        locations.
                        offer unique capabilities because they are inde-             Navigation is basic to most surface and under-
                        pendent of distance from shore and provide a             water missions; it must be emphasized, however,
                        singular reference datum. Cuff ent navigation by         that position determination is a fundamental
                        polar orbiting satellites requires supplementary         technology that justifies advancement inde-
                        methods for continuous positioning in the inter-         pendently of mission requirements.
                        vals between satellite fixes. Uncertainties in ship          Evaluation of mission requirements for navi-
                        velocity and satellite orbit plus sensitivity to         gation support reveals that current capabilities are
                        azimuth and elevation of the satellite from a ship       inadequate for general nonmilitary purposes. It
                        are current sources of error in satellite navigation.    further indicates that advancement of basic navi-
                        Inertial navigation systems can be used to keep          gation technology, at least in part, should be
                        position between satellite fixes. Developments in        separated from immediate mission requirements in
                        navigation by geostationary satellites promise           order that (1) potentially useful systems not be
                        marked improvement through taking simultaneous           shelved in favor of expediency and (2) a broader
                        bearings on two or more synchronous satellites           spectrum of instruments and information systems
                        continuously on station.                                 incorporating navigation input be made available.
                                                                                     Broad future navigational needs range from
                        b. Future Needs The U.S. Government may have             precise sophisticated systems for comprehensive
                        to provide underwater navigation aids as it has          ocean surveying to simple, short range, but not
                        such surface aids as LORAN and satellite naviga-         necessarily inaccurate systems for the occasional
                        tion (Figure 8).                                         boating enthusiast.
                                                                                     The Department of Transportation presently is
                                                                                 developing a national plan for navigation through
                                                                                 the U.S. Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Admin-
                                                                                 istration. The plan will consider the development
                                                                                 and operation of navigation aids for current and
                                                                                 future aviation and maritime commerce. It will
                                                                                 identify areas of U.S. Government responsibility
                                                                                 for navigation services   and the current and pro-
                                                                                 jected technology to     carry out these responsi-
                                                                                     ities.

                                                                                 2.  Communications

                                                                                 a.  Current Status The primary communication
                        Figure 8. Coast Guard LORAN station at                   link between submersibles, support ships, and
                                                                                 bottom habitats is the acoustic underwater tele-
                        Nantucket, Massachusetts. Both LORAN-A and
                        LORAN-C signals are transmitted from this                phone. Communication is slow and difficult, par-
                        station. (Coast Guard photo)                             ticularly when multipaths and reverberation are
                                                                                 present. For short range communication links
                           Lack of long range, straightline communica-           optical systems may be practicable.
                        tions or sensing below the ocean surface severely            Transmission of submersible and station status
                        limits subsurface navigation. The addition of            and operating data by telemetry is preferable to

                                                                                                                                   VI-47

                                    voice transmission. No satisfactory equipment
                                                                                                              J01
                                    cu
                                       rrently exists for this underwater acoustic need.
                                    Development of higher data rates is greatly de-
                                    sired.
                                                                                                                    Aa

                                    b. Future Needs Needed will be a long-range
                                    acoustic communication system requiring investi-
                                    gations into the feasibility of new types of
                                    communication links perhaps through the benthic
                                    layer or solid earth. In the immediate future, an                      0e,
                                    acoustic link must be developed to test and
                                                                                                    LZ
                                    improve underwater communications and to sup-
                                    port advancement of other fundamental ocean
                                    technology. For later developments, it will be
                                    required as a primary communication link for                                                                       -4
                                    facilities where cable and radio communications
                                    are not feasible, as in remote locations.
                                       Specific developments required for communica-            Figure 9. Communications central aboard
                                    tions:                                                      USC&GSS Oceanographer, one of the most
                                                                                                completely equipped centrals aboard non-
                                                                                                military U.S. flag vessels. tESSA photo)
                                    -High   and low frequency sound (infrasound and
                                    ultrasound) sources and receivers with narrow
                                    beam and directional characteristics.
                                    -Acoustic frequency and time convers          ion meth-     ocean surface. However, for surveys below the
                                                                                                surface, for undersea construction, and for geo-
                                    ods to permit direct usage of a larger portion of           logical evaluation, the improved surface accuracy
                                    the acoustic frequency spectrum.
                                                          f                                     may be nullified by the underwater navigation
                                    -Use of refraction layers in the ocean to enhance           method used.
                                    long-range communication and minimize interfer-                 Undersea exploitation is limited by the lack of
                                    ence from components.                                       three-dimensional navigation systems, a combina-
                                                                                                tion of navigation and bathymetry. The ocean
                                    -Development of acoustic and electronic concepts            environment places severe demands upon subsur-
                                    to improve signal-to-noise ratio through signal             face navigation. To the extent that subsurface
                                    manipulation.                                               transponders or transmitters exist, accuracy is
                                    -Exploitation     of other possible communication           limited by original position determination plus the
                                    media and such advanced technology as I       Iasers.       inaccuracies of acoustic ranging and direction-
                                                                                                fix-mg.
                                       Radio frequency communications among ships,                  Acoustic communications are hampered by
                                    buoys, surface platforms, aircraft, satellites     I, and   several basic deficiencies which prevent reliable,
                                    shore stations will require adaptation of equip-            high speed, wide band, accurate, short and long
                                    ment to the special requirements of the ocean               range information exchange. Development of un-
                                    environment (Figure 9). Problems must be solved             de  .rwater acoustic link equipment is required for
                                                                                                habitat-t,o-surface communications.
                                    with respect to allocation of frequencies, and                  Increasing  surface traffic, wider utilization of
                                    bandwidths necessary to support ocean activities.
                                                                                                submersibles, and future undersea stations and
                                    3. Conclusions                                              operations will require networks of communica-
                                                                                                tions-navigation aids.
                                       Navigation is basic to most underwater mis-                  Long range acoustic communications are diffi-
                                    sions. Ocean surveying requires the same types of           cult to achieve. As alternatives, seismic and earth-
                                    basic reference systems and accuracies as on land.          field communications offer interesting possibil-
                                    Satellite navigation improves dccuracy on the.              ities.

                                    VI-48

                             Radio frequency equipment must be adapted to              ease of maintenance, ruggedness, and simplicity of
                          ocean needs, and frequencies and bandwidths must             operation. Poor underwater visibility intensifies
                          be allocated.                                                the problem. The need to resolve the tool problem
                                                                                       has resulted largely in using or modifying off-the-
                          Recommendations:                                             shelf equipment, but such equipment is not
                          A formal program applying geodetic methods and               satisfactory for the more sophisticated underwater
                          principles at sea should be initiated to achieve the         tasks. Thus, tools built specifically for underwater
                                                                                       work should be designed.
                          following:

                          -Establishment of marine geodetic ranges to                  1. Current Situation
                          validate and calibrate new systems.
                                                                                          Land tools are designed for an environment of
                          -Development of improved positioning systems                 low viscosity, high visibility, and negligible buoy-
                          for shelf surveys and future extensions seaward.             ancy. The diver depends upon a vast number of
                                                                                       these land tools modified for water use, including:
                          -Expansion of geodetic satellite methods to ma-
                          rine applications for singular reference datums and          _Tools for cutting, hammering, torquing, and
                          establishment of geodetic control points.                    welding.
                          -Establishment of a system of navigation aids                -Air tools to provide selected application of
                          permitting navigation accurate to 150 feet at a              buoyancy forces.
                          distance of 200 miles from shore.
                                                                                       -Water jet tools for clearing muds and digging
                            In addition, a comprehensive broad based devel-            trenches.
                          opment program should be undertaken to:
                                                                                       -Knives, scrapers, and pry bars.
                          Amprove subsurface navigation instrumentation
                          accuracy and reliability.                                       The effectiveness of underwater operations is
                                                                                       vitally dependent upon the adequacy of such
                          -Reduce navigation instrumentation size, com-                hardware.
                          plexity, and cost.                                              The basic characteristics-reliability, ease of
                          -Seek new media and methods.                                 maintenance, ruggedness, endurance, and simplic-
                                                                                       ity of operation-are more critical for underwater
                          -Develop equipment to establish a local vertical             ha rdware than for equipment on land. The petro-
                          reference.                                                   leum industry has modified land equipment skill-
                                                                                       fully for offshore use. Government agencies,
                          -Pursue research and development of acoustic                 oceanographic institutions, and marine equipment
                          communications and underwater acoustic links.                firms have developed hardware for many under-
                          -Develop a network of communication-navigation               water tasks. However, most existing ocean hard-
                          aids.                                                        ware items are seriously deficient in the basic
                                                                                       characteristics.
                          -Perform research on communications through                     Human underwater activity is greatly restricted
                          the benthic layers or the solid earth to determine           by extremely reduced light transmission inwater
                          their feasibility for employment in undersea opera-          compared to air. Under ideal conditions, vision is
                          tions.                                                       little more than 100 feet; by comparison, very
                                                                                       small objects can be distinguished at 2,000 feet in
                                                                                       clear air. Typically, vision on the continental
                          F. Tools                                                     shelves of the world ranges from 5 to 50 feet.
                                                                                       Where currents keep mud and organic material in
                            Those who work in the oceans agree that most               suspension, vision may be no more than a few
                          existing tools are seriously deficient in reliability,       inches.

                                                                                                                                            VI-49
                             333-091 0-69-8

                                       In order to alleviate these problems, some basic          The Naval Underwater Warfare Center has been
                                    studies are being made in tool development; a few         working on a hydrodynamic winch, a salvage lift
                                    examples are discussed below.                             padeye using explosive bolts, a buoyancy transport
                                       The hammer undoubtedly would have devel-               device which can carry objects weighing up to
                                    oped along very different lines had the human race        1,000 pounds, a position and locating system for
                                    evolved in a medium relatively as heavy and               diver use, and a diver's underwater horning system.
                                    viscous as water. Considerable energy is wasted
                                    under water during the travel of the hammerhead
                                    and shaft prior to impact. An efficient manual            2. Future Needs
                                    underwater striking tool could employ a heavy                There is an urgent need for tools designed
                                    streamlined weight traveling a relatively short           especially for underwater work. 'In addition, we
                                    distance along a straight guide. Pneumatic ham-
                                                                                              must consider the scientist's tasks that will necessi-
                                    mers accomplish the same effect with shorter              tate good tools.
                                    strokes.                                                     Future tool needs include:
                                       Explosive studs fired from a hand gun to
                                    penetrate the hull plates of sunken vessels have          -All-purpose pneumatic wrenches.
                                    been known since before World War II. Such tools
                                    still are somewhat crude, but the possible variants       -Self-contained power tools or tools with       power
                                    warrant further development. By clustering six or         supplies small enough to be placed in the diving
                                    eight stud guns around the periphery of a circular        bell and that will function for hours on the
                                    plate with a lifting eye in the center, a very solid      bottom.
                                    lifting pad can be attached quickly to almost any
                                    sunken, metal structure. When injecting breathing         -Tools adapted for -scientific work, such as coring
                                    gas or air into a compartment for buoyancy, a             tools with self-contained power supply, bottom
                                    hollow stud driven through the compartment wall           samplers with power supplies at or near the diver,
                                    can serve as the through-hull penetrator.                 and marine life sampling tools which do not
                                       Underwater welding techniques must consider            disturb the bottom.
                                    the chilling effect of the surrounding water. The
                                    problem is especially evident with some high-                In summary, the needs are for safer, more
                                    yield-strength steels. Methods currently are under        reliable tools for the commercial diver and special-
                                    development to weld in a gas-filled compartment           ized tools for the scientific diver.,
                                    erected around the work area.
                                       Steel can be cut by an electric oxygen torch
                                    with a hollow electrode. After an arc has been
                                    struck, oxygen is forced through the center of the        3. Conclusions
                                    electrode to burn the hot steel.
                                       Sonic search devices may be carried by divers in       Recommendations:
                                    poor visibility. A system presently undergoing test       New, more sophisticated tools are needed for
                                    employs a continuous transmission, frequency              deeper diving commercial and scientific divers. (Aft
                                    modulated (CTFM) signal. A hand-held device               artist's concept of a futuristic diver working at
                                    emits an acoustic signal; echoes from obstructions        great depths is shown in Figure 10.) To that end, a
                                    modulate the return signal's pitch conducted to           more concerted basic and applied research pro-
                                    the diver's earphqnes. A high pitch indicates an          gram must be implemented. Some industrial tool
                                    obstruction at close range.                               companies already are making preparations for
                                       Because of high cost,     the device is not used       such work, but Federal assistance would expedite
                                    extensively. Greater effectiveness and lower price        progress. A Federally sponsored, long-range re-
                                    should result from volume production and compe-           search and development program to provide im-
                                    tition. For many underwater search tasks, a               proved tools and tool procedures would help, but
                                    wrist-mounted magnetic compass is adequate, but           a strong interim capability is needed now to
                                    not reliable near a wreck or other large ferrous          support present programs in the commercial,
                                    structure.                                                military, and scientific community.

                                    VI-50

                                                                                 timely use in understanding and, predicting the
                                                                                 marine environment.
                                                                                    Ifighly stable ocean platforms like FLIP and
                                                                                 SPAR have been designed and constructed by the
                                                                                 U.S. Navy in conjunction with oceanographic
                                                                                 institutions to collect environmental data.
                                                                                    Requirements for improved mooring and posi-
                                                                                 tioning of floating installations will continue to
                                                                                 increase. Larger surface vessels and platforms,
                                                                                 offshore airports, harbor facilities, mobile break-
                                                                                 waters, and multipurpose floating island concepts
                                                                                 depend largely on improved mooring and position-
                                                                                 ing systems.

                                                                                 1. Mooring Systems and Buoys

                                                                                 a. Current Situation Open water mooring of
                                                                                 vessels and platforms is the traditional method for
                                                                                 stationing at sea. Anchor and cable systems are
                                                                                 used to moor buoys, dredges, pipelaying barges,
                                                                                 semi-submersible oil rigs, and drilling vessels. Brute
                                                                                 force mooring techniques have evolved for shallow
                                                                                 water locations, exemplified by the heavy sinkers
                                                                                 and chain moorings used by the Coast Guard for
                                                                                 navigational buoys (Figure 11). Excessive weights
                       Figure 10. Artist's concept of future diver-
                       operated jackhammer.

                       G. Mooring Systems, Buoys, and Surface Support
                           Platforms

                          In any underseas activity, surface support usu-
                       ally is necessary to monitor and control, provide
                       logistic support, render safety and rescue assist-
                       ance, and serve as a local terminus of operations.                           4                Ak
                       In the future submerged support will become more
                       frequent. Small moored systems classified as buoys
                                                                                                                          >
                       have a long history as navigation aids. Use of                                                     @_777N     @11
                       stationary large surface vessels, barges, and plat-
                       forms for commercial, scientific, and defense
                       purposes is increasing.
                          Moored buoys also have collected and trans-
                       mitted environmental information from selected
                       ocean areas. Study of the feasibility of ocean
                       data buoys has lead to formation of a Coast Guard
                       project office to develop a National Data Buoy
                       System. Unmanned moored data buoy networks
                       may be deployed over deep ocean and continental
                       shelf areas to measure automatically environ-             Figure 11. Typical massive anchor and chain
                       mental parameters under, on, and above the water          for mooring navigational buoys in shallow
                       surface and to transmit the information ashore for        water. (Coast Guard photo)

                                                                                                                                  VI-51

                                   prevent brute force techniques from being em-           platform and the vertical pull of the taut mooring
                                   ployed in deeper waters.                                line.
                                      In recent years, dynamic systems have been              Vertical stability can be achieved through ap-
                                   developed to position surface platforms in deep         propriate. hull shapes like that of FLIP (Figure 12).
                                   water. Water depth, positioning accuracy require-       The platform's design characteristics result in a
                                   ments, operational conditions, and platform size        hull with minimum response to the forces imposed
                                   economically justify a dynamic positioning system       by passing waves.
                                   for some applications. For most deep water
                                   floating platforms, however, direct attachment to
                                   the bottom is necessary.
                                      New materials are replacing the traditional steel
                                   cables and chains. Nylon, dacron, and polypro-
                                   pylene reduce weight and minimize corrosion
                                   problems of deep moors. New developments in
                                   fiber glass cables and chains also promise corro-
                                   sion-free, high-strength moorings. Connecting de-
                                   vices of commensurate performance are required.
                                      The stable surface platform, or specialized
                                   buoy, must perform a variety of tasks peculiar to
                                   the ocean environment. Special equipment is
                                   required to meet these needs. Surface platforms
                                                                                                           711/
                                   and buoys have particular requirements for posi-
                                                                                                   . . ....... W7
                                   tion accuracy which vary widely. The required                                          ..........
                                   position accuracy usually is stated with respect to
                                   geographic location. Horizontal accuracy is de-
                                   fined as its watch circle (the area to which the
                                   platform's horizontal movement is restrained).
                                      .A system for maintaining buoy or surface
                                   platform position with respect to geographic loca-
                                   tion or bottom reference for extended periods is a
                                   primary requirement, except for intentionally-free
                                   buoys. Fixed moors require techniques to predict
                                   and counteract forces in the mooring cables. If         Figure 12. Floating Instrument Platform
                                   embedment in rock is necessary, explosive anchors       (FLIP). Draft is 300 feet in vertical position.
                                   or equivalent techniques must be used.                  (Wavy photo)
                                      Dynamic positioning systems incorporating var-       b. Future Needs Technology leading to more
                                   ious thrust control techniques (cycloidal propel-       stable, and durable buoys and platforms is inter-
                                   lers, directable propulsion units, or bow and stern     related with many disciplines. It begins with a
                                   thrusters) must undergo further evaluation at sea.      better understanding and definition of the winds,
                                   Automatic control systems must be developed to
                                   signal corrective action depending upon inputs          sea state, and currents over long periods and their
                                   surface conditions, and navigational data; an ex'       dynamic interaction with floating vessels and
                                   perimental system should be built and tested at         platforms. The following specific improvements
                                   sea. Finally, options between fixed mooring and         are needed:
                                   dynamic positioning must be studied.
                                                                                           -Methods to survey bottom conditions and pre-
                                      The horizontal watch circle in which a moored        dict anchoring characteristics of bottom sedi-
                                   platform may move is influenced by design provi-        ments.
                                   sions. As the watch circle is decreased, greater
                                   demands are imposed on the anchor, which must           -New types of anchors with greater holding power
                                   resist both the horizontal drag of the buoy or          in different bottoms at greater depths.

                                   V1-5 2

                         -Increased fatigue life of cables and connectors to             Avoiding surface effects by using submarines is
                         reduce this most common cause of failure in                  ideal. Long endurance submersibles using nuclear,
                         mooring lines.                                               thermodynamic, or other power sources could
                         -Development of materials for higher strength                minimize the need for support ships.
                         chains and cables.                                              Current surface support systems development
                                                                                      by the Navy include a new class of ASRs (Figure
                         -More reliable, longer-life shackles, thimbles, swiv-        13). These ships, with catamaran hulls, are de-
                         els, and other fittings.                                     signed to support rescue submersibles as well as
                                                                                      other Navy missions. The ASR is a greatly im-
                         -Improved line tension          measuring equipment          proved support platform, but definitely limited by
                         for monitoring and limiting loads imposed by                 wave action in more severe seas. A test support
                         floating platforms on mooring cables.                        ship, the IX-501, will be used for surface support
                         -Analyses of the coupling of the motions between             of Sealab III (Figure 14). It depends on moorings
                         the platform and mooring cable under the excita-             and relatively protected waters to support            test
                         tion of wind and sea.                                        operations.

                         -More sophisticated      sensing and control systems
                         for dynamic positioning of large drilling ships and
                         barges. Dynamic positioning is relatively new, and
                         continual advancement will be required to estab-
                         lish its economic feasibility under all conditions at
                         sea.

                         -Low cost (high production) expendable buoy
                         technology including deployment concepts appli-
                         cable to large-scale buoy systems for use on a
                         global or quasiglobal basis.

                            Improved technology         is expected to allow          Figure 13. Artist's concept of first of new
                                                                                      series of submarine rescue ships (ASR).
                         buoys to be positioned in      remote areas to report        Catamaran hull configuration provides stable
                         synoptically observations via synchronous satel-             platform and large working area necessary
                                                                                      for launching, retrieving, and supporting Deep
                         lites using VHF or higher UHF frequencies. Partic-           Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) and
                         ular emphasis should be placed on improved                   advanced diving systems. (Navy photo)
                         reliability so the service interval can be extended.

                         2. Surface Support Platforms

                         a. Current Situation Human underseas activity,
                         except for military submarine operations, has
                         required surface support. Development of sub-
                         merged support systems will not negate this
                         requirement.
                            Today the primary operating, cost of deep
                         submersibles results from the ships and systems to
                         support them. Except for high pressure associated
                         with great depths, the greatest and most dangerous
                         ocean forces are at the surface with its attendant
                         weather and wave system. Great hazards exist for
                         the small submersible even in moderate seas during           Figure 14.  U.S.S. Elk River (IX-501), special
                         launching, retrieval, and transfer of cargo and              purpose range support ship first used in Sealab
                                                                                      111,operations, has center well, 65-ton traveling
                         personnel. A few wave lengths below the surface,             gantry crane, deck decompression chambers, and
                         wave effects disappear.                                      two personnel capsules. (Navy photo)

                                                                                                                                          VI-53

                                     The,Navy is modifying nuclear submarines and           port system could provide reliability, relative
                                  one diesel sub to test carrying the DSRV piggy-           freedom from weather and sea state conditions,
                                  back-a promising beginning of an all-weather and          safer and less costly support, and availability.
                                  under-ice submersible support system divorced                The trend is toward improved support capa-
                                  from the hazards of the ocean surface.                    bility. Development of new platforms designed
                                     Through its own laboratories and in association        specially for all-weather submersible support
                                  with academic institutions, the Navy built FLIP           whether by submarine or by deep-draft surface
                                  and SPAR, two deep draft, surface stable platform         stable vessel, is strongly encouraged. By 1980, a
                                  vessels for oceanographic and acoustic research.          more subsurface Navy and a proliferation of
                                  They have proved very successful as stable plat-          commercial submersibles will dictate improved
                                  forms; FLIP is! reported to have experienced              support systems capability. Work at continental
                                  vertical motion of only three inches in the               shelf depths and deeper will require surface
                                  presence of 35 foot waves.                                support- ships. where surface conditions are favor-
                                      7he following are important operations per-           able and where the underwater task is such that a
                                  formed by stable surface platforms:                       surface supported system can be deployed more
                                                                                            rapidly or economically. For many shelf opera-
                                  -Vehicle handling. Uunching and retrieving man-           tions'large submersibles may perform tasks with-
                                  ned and unmanned vehicles involves handling               out surface support.
                                  heavy masses through a very,rarely calm,,ocean-             , For underwater tasks requiring surface support;
                                  atmosphere interface. Equipment and techniques            a variety of ships will be used. It is unlikely that a
                                  must be improved before launch and retrieval can          single multipurpose platform could perform all
                                  be accomplished safely and routinely. Submerged           support functions. A need exists to investigate
                                  retrieval (involving underwater docking) is a possi-      platform requirements including selected model
                                  bility being developed for the Navy's Deep Sub-           studies and ancillary equipment development.
                                  mergence Rescue Vehicle.                                     Various stabilization systems are already in use
                                                                                            (e.g., stabilizers, tuned ballast, hull shaping) to
                                  -De7ballasting. Mining, construction, and salvage         decrease motion of ships under way. However,
                                  operations, at continental shelf depths may require       little has been accomplished for stationary plat-
                                  large quantities of high and low pressure air for         forms other than for FLIP and SPAR. Such
                                  dp-ballasting operations. Routine provision of air        stabilization techniques as mass traps should be
                                  supplies at depth has not been accomplished.              considered. The traps are formed by two long
                                  -Diver support. A satisfactory surface system is          plates held apart at intervals; water inside is
                                  required to continuously support extended satura-         trapped, providing an apparent mass that dampens
                                  ted diving operations at sea.                             the motion of the platform.
                                                                                               A system to maintain a surface platform's
                                  @Logistics. Surface platforms must be supplied            position for extended periods with respect to
                                  with materials and personnel while on station.            geographic location or bottom reference will be
                                  At-sea transfer techniques during severe weather          required. Project Mohole did much for dynamic
                                  must be developed; vertical replenishment with            positioning.
                                  helicopters offers a possible solution. Platforms            A variety of lifting and emplacement require-
                                  may be required to provide potable water, electric        ments will be put upon future platforms. Available
                                  power, high pressure air, heat, supplies, quarters,       equipment or technology provides for lifts up to
                                  subsistence, and medical care to personnel working        200 tons. Winches stabilized to counteract ship's
                                  at the site below.                                        motions during a lift operation have been thor-
                                                                                            oughly studied. For heavy lift or emplacement in
                                  b. Fuhm Needs        In the past there has been a         excess of 200 tons, a large floating crane or similar
                                  strong inclination to adapt off-the-shelf equipment       device must be evaluated.
                                  to needs of surface support vessels and platforms,        3. Conclusions
                                  resulting in repeated failure of equipment to
                                  function in an environment for which it was not              Mooring and anchoring techniques and hard-
                                  designed. A specially designed stable surface sup-        ware are inadequate for the heavy load and long

                                  VI-54

                          exposure demands of present and future deep                  They will serve as an upper terminus, power
                          ocean platforms and buoys. Present mooring sys-              source, supply depot, and safety monitor to deep
                          tems employing wire rope encounter problems of               ocean construction work and undersea station
                          excessive weight, corrosion, kinking, low elasticity,        maintenance. These platforms will evolve from
                          torsional unbalance, and massiveness of handling             FLIP, SPAR, and other systems which can main-
                          equipment. Systems employing nonmetallic nylon               tain remarkable stability even in adverse weather
                          or dacron ropes encounter problems of fishbite,              conditions.
                          lack of electrical cables for underwater instrumen-
                          tation, and mechanical attachment.                           Recommendations:
                             The National Data Buoy System project under
                          the Coast Guard will demand substantial develop-             Research and development should be performed in
                          ment and improvement in deep ocean mooring and               mooring technology and equipment to support
                          buoy technology, from which engineering in many              deep ocean operations at 2,000 feet in 5 years and
                          other areas will benefit.                                    at 20,000 feet in 10 years.
                             Present support for undersea activities is chiefly           Several types of buoys and platforms should be
                          by surface ships. Experience with FLIP and SPAR              investigated to determine effects of size, configura-
                          demonstrates that specially designed hulls can               tions at the air-sea interface, underwater-shape
                          maintain remarkable stability under conditions of            drag, draft, metacentric and pendulum stability,
                          severe sea and weather. Specially designed surface           platfor -in directional control, mooring attachment
                          stable platforms are necessary to support deep               location on different mooring systems, and the
                          ocean vehicles, stations, and activities. The dynam-         system best suited for each type of platform.
                          ics of various types of floating platforms are                  A National Project for a Pilot Buoy Network in
                          sufficiently different that each must be treated             support of the National Data Buoy System project
                          independently in establishing a satisfactory moor-           of the Coast Guard should be implemented.
                          ing system-                                                     The more promising cable materials should be
                             In the future, large stable surface platforms             evaluated under operational conditions.
                          may evolve into mid-ocean storage depots, trans-                Surface stable platforms capable of supporting
                          portation centers, power stations, etc. (Figure 15).         underseas vehicles, stations, and construction and
                                                                                       salvage activities to 2,000 feet in 5 years and to
                                                                                       20,000 feet in 10 years should be developed. The
                                                                                       platform must provide a surface terminal for
                                                                                       logistic support, vehicle handling, compressed air,
                                    OHIO;                                          I   diver support, heavy lift, electric power, and other
                                                                                       ser-rices as needed by the undersea activity.

                                                                                       H. Biomedicine and Diving Equipment

                                                                                          Biomedical technology must go hand in hand
                                                                                       with equipment development to (1) improve hu-
                                                                                       man capability to withstand variations in pressure
                                                                                       and temperature, (2) enhance vision, hearing, and
                                                                                       tactile perception, (3) provide mobility and orien-
                                                                                       tation, and (4) make tool use effective while in a
                                                                                       virtually weightless condition.
                                                                                          The most effective diver is one who operates
                                                                                       freely, carrying his own life support system. Thus,
                                                                                       technology must be applied to resolve diver
                          Figure 15. Artist's concept of future large                  problems through biomedical research and devel-
                          stable surface platform. (North American                     opment and design of proper suits and breathing
                          Rockwell photo)                                              rigs.

                                                                                                                                           VI-55

                                   1. Biomedicine                                              extended beyond 1,200 feet in the near future.
                                   a. Current Situation Fundamental nian-in-the-sea            Saturation diving, however, requires expensive
                                   technology is bio-engineering oriented and is par-          special life support equipment and instrumenta-
                                   ticularly concerned with human functions and                tion and so is not economical for most current
                                   performance undersea. Devices, equipment, and               operations.
                                   materials must be provided which (1) enable man                Special breathing mixtures pose a host of
                                   to withstand changes in pressure and temperature            physiological and bio-engineering problems.
                                   associated with increasing depth for extended and
                                   repeated periods, (2) accommodate his sensory               (L) Physiological Toxicity of breathing            gases,
                                   requirements to maintain adequate visibility,               individually and combined, for greater depths is
                                   orientation, feel, and hearing, and (3) provide him         not established firmly-particularly for extended
                                   with directional and locator capability, mobility,          periods of continuous exposure.
                                   and tools.                                                     The total effect upon respiration and metabo-
                                                                                               lism of operating at greater depths imposes severe
                                      Although experimental dives have been made to            restrictions on such basic operational parameters
                                   depths in excess of 1,000 feet, current technology          as rate of ascent, diving depth, duration, and work
                                   restricts operation to approximately 600 feet for           accomplished. For example, the breathing appara-
                                   relatively short intervals.                                 tus must precisely measure and control partial
                                      Scuba (untethered diving wherein the diver               pressure of oxygen when the concentration is well
                                   carries his life support system, maintains near             below one per cent.
                                   neutral buoyancy, and enjoys nearly complete                   Gas density and sound velocity change with gas
                                   dexterity) currently is most useful for shallow             composition and distort the voice, making com-
                                   short-duration dives.                                       munication difficult.
                                      Normally in commercial operations, divers are
                                   tethered to the surface. The diver receives gas from        (2.) Bio-engineeting Essentially all engineering
                                   the surface and maintains communication with top-           designs must be revised to accommodate variations
                                   side personnel who calculate his decompression              in density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
                                   time. Diver bottom time is increased over scuba.            other properties of gas mixtures employed. Mate-
                                   Deep diving systems often are employed when                 rials, equipment, and instrumentation are subject
                                   operations require dives in.excess of 300 feet for          to serious malfunction because of these variations.
                                   several hours.                                              It is a specialized engineering problem, and discre-
                                      The@ nucleus of the deep diving system is a              tion must be exercised in employing off-the-shelf
                                   pressure vessel that serves as an elevator trans-           hardware.
                                   porting divers to the underwater site. Many such               The Navy's Biomedical Engineering Program is
                                   systems provide for mating the personnel trans-             conducted as a coordinated effort of several
                                   fer capsule with a deck decompression chamber               groups. The Deep Submergence Systems Project
                                   so divers can decompress in relative comfort. Deep          and the Office of the Supervisor of Salvage are
                                   diving systems eliminate in-water decompression             involved principally with hardware development
                                   and provide backup life support to enhance safety.          for near-term application.
                                      If a man is to work for a long period at a                  The Underwater Bio-Sciences Research Program
                                   particular" depth he must adapt physiologically.            of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery is a
                                   Prolonged living under increased pressures has              comprehensive five-year plan for basic research in
                                   been demonstrated in such saturated diving experi-          support of Navy underwater operational require-
                                   ments as the U.S. Navy's Sealab and the Cousteau            ments. Concurrent human factors research is
                                   Conshelf. Using this technique, after about 24              directed by the Office of Naval Research. The
                                   hours a diver has absorbed all the gas his system           overall plan was issued by the Chief of Naval
                                   will at that depth, and the time he must spend in           Development, who enlisted the aid of several
                                   decompression remains the same. Therefore, the              organizations and the academic community.
                                   longer the diver stays, the greater his productive
                                   time compared to decompression time.                        b. Future Needs The following Navy programs in
                                      Saturation diving has been employed in the               underwater biomedical research and development
                                   open sea to about 650 feet and probably will be             are designed to meet future biomedical needs.

                                   VI-S6

                        (1) General physiology                                           (c) Psycho-physiological effects of air ions.
                             (a) Cardio-pulmonary physiology.                            (d) General atmosphere studies in isobaric
                                  (i) Pulmonary ventilation,          work of                 closed environments.
                                       breathing, and related studies.
                                  (ii) Thermal and gaseous effects on circu-         (6) Psychology
                                       lation.                                           (a) Selection and training.
                             (b)  Heat loss and caloric requirements of                  (b) Sensory and motor adjustments.
                                  underwater swimmers.                                   (c) Psycho-physiological adjustments.
                             (c)  Nutritional requirements in hyperbaric                 (d) Group functioning.
                                  environments.
                             (d)  Physiological effects    and indications of
                                  stress resulting from prolonged exposure           2. Diving Equipment
                                  to environments.
                                                                                     a. Current Situation (L) Breathing Rigs Semi-
                        (2) Decompression studies                                    closed rigs predominate when diving is sup-
                             (a)  Study of deep and prolonged dives using            ported by a submersible chamber. They also
                                  various mixtures to depths of human                are used extensively by free swimming military
                                  tolerance.                                         divers (Figure 16). The system requires less than
                             (b)  Feasibility studies of computer use for            one-tenth the gas supply of completely open-
                                  decompression computations.                        circuit breathing rigs. The diver's exhalation passes
                             (c)  Studies of basic physical-physiological
                                  factors in bubble formation.
                             (d)  Development of advanced therapeutic
                                  procedures for decompression sickness.
                             (e)  Studies of the effects of chronic            ex-
                                  posures to hyperbaric environments.

                        (3)  Studies of inert gases and artificial          atmo-
                             spheres
                                                                                                                                           _J
                             (a)  Studies of new gas mixtures and effects to
                                  depths of tolerance or to 2,000 feet.
                             (b)  Basic and clinical research in oxygen
                                  toxicity.
                             (c)  Effects of gases under pressure on cellular
                                  metabolism and neuromuscular function.
                             (d)  Solubility and distribution of inert gases
                                  in body tissu6s.

                        (4) Pharmacology
                             (a)  Evaluation of drugs in hyperbaric environ-
                                                                                                                                    @A
                                  ments.
                             (b)  Pharmacological agents to combat stress
                                  and fatigue in underwater environments.
                             (c)  Pharmacologic adjuncts . for hyperbaric
                                  oxygen therapy.
                             (d)  Prophylaxis and therapy of illness and
                                  injury from marine life.

                        (5) Atmosphere studies: isobaric and hyperbaric
                             (a)  Trace contaminants toxicity.                                                      Us.-I -
                             (b)  Toxicological appraisal of undersea con-           Figure 16. Diver @esting atethered, semi-
                                  struction materials.                               closed breathing ng. (Westinghouse photoj

                                                                                                                                        VI-57

                                       through a baralyrne or sodalime canister which
                                       absorbs the carbon dioxide, recycling most of the
                                       exhaled gas for rebreathing. Semiclosed rigs are
                                       simpler than closed-circuit, mixed-gas rigs, but the
                                       improved gas economy (duration) of the closed-
                                                                                                    'ARPLIFIER
                                                                                                                      4
                                       circuit rig compels its consideration in the future.
                                                                                                                                                      INERT-aAS@
                                         Closed-circuit pure oxygen rigs are very simple;           co2                                               BOTTLE
                                                                                                    11NN11T11
                                       however, human physiological reaction to oxygen
                                       restricts their use generally to depths of 25 feet for                         AWL
                                       ne hour. Unless there is a basic breakthrough in             -BOA
                                       0                                                               ...
                                       diving medicine, closed-circuit pure oxygen rigs
                                       will find little application.
                                                                                                    OXYGEN                                            RE(MATOR@
                                                                                                    SOME
                                                                                                                                                      SELECTOR
                                         The closed-circuit, mixed-gas rig offers the same                                                            VALVE
                                       gas economy as the closed-circuit, pure-oxygen rig
                                       (Figures 17 and 18). However, the consumption of                                               ti@             EMERGENrY'
                                                                                                                                                  -VALVE
                                       oxygen in the mixture varies with work rate and
                                                                                                                                                      I HER r-GAS
                                       depth, and addition of oxygen must reflect such                                                                BOTTLE
                                       changes. This requires precise sensors and control
                                       devices that increase cost and complexity while
                                       degrading reliability.
                                         Some of the most advanced rigs employ either
                                       polarographic or fuel cell oxygen sensors. Control
                                       of partial pressure of oxygen through cryogenic              Figure 18. Closed-circuit, mixed-gas breathing
                                       technology has been demonstrated.                            rig (back view). (Westinghouse photo)
                                         Because of the narcotic properties of nitrogen
                                       in compressed air and the very high air consump-
                                       tion rates, open-circuit sport scuba rigs and the            standard hard hat air rigs have little place in
                                                                                                    saturation diving.

                                                                                                    (2.) Protective Clothing Diving often involves
                                                                                                    exposure to cold water, making protective clothing
                                                                                                    essential. Even water that feels warm can result in
                                                                                                           ant heat loss if an exposure suit is not worn.
                                                                                                    import
                                                                                                    N
                                       !INHALATION                                    EXHALATION     otwithstanding the many advances in diving
                                       BAN                                            BAN
                                                                                                    technology, much commercial diving still is done
                                                                                                    with the heavy rubber and canvas dress associated
                                                                                                    with hard hat diving invented by Augustus Beebe
                                                                                      SELECTOR      M1837 (Figure 19).
                                                                                      PURGE
                                                                                      VALVE
                                                                                                      A recent notable departure has been the metal
                                                                                                    suits having rigid subsections with movable joints.
                                                                                                    These are one-atmosphere suits; whereas, the hard
                                                                                                    hat suits expose the diver to ambient pressure. The
                                                                                                    latest is a development from a space suit. Because
                                                                                                    of the complex geometry of the human anatomy,
                                                                                                    me joints are very difficult to make. To be useful,
                                              A@l AT.I.                                             the joints must be flexed easily while an effective
                                                                                       WRIST METER@
                                                                                                    seal at pressures of several hundred pounds per
                                                                                                    square inch is maintained.
                                                                                                       In the last 25 years, close-fitting, pliable rubber
                                       Figure 17. Closed-circuit, mi:xed-gas breathing              and neoprene suits have been developed for free
                                       rig (front view). (Westinghouse photo)                       swiniming divers. These fall into two main cate-

                                       VI-58

                                                                                       The wet suit is made of closed cell neoprene
                                                                                    sheets, and consists of a close fitting jacket,
                                                                               A    'trousers, hood, gloves, and socks. The layer of tiny
                                                                                    gas bubbles entrapped in the closed cell neoprene
                                                                                    between the cold water and the diver's body
                                                                                                                       Urn of water inside
                                                                                    provides insulation. The thin f
                                                                                    the suit is virtually stagnant and rises very quickly
                                                                                    to skin temperature. Because the flexible suit
                                                                                    material contains gas in closed cells, the increasing
                                                                                    pressure of depth compresses the material, dimin-
                                                                                    ishing its insulating value and the diver's buoy-
                                                                                    ancy.
                                                                                       Heated suits are among the most recent devel-
                                                                                    opments    they contain electric heating elements or
                                                                                    tubes for hot water circulation (Figure 20). One

                                                               A

                        Figure 19. Hard hat diver.  (Westinghouse photo)

                        gories: dry suits, intended to keep the wearer dry,
                        and wet suits, which have a thin, relatively
                        stagnant layer of water between the swimmer's
                        skin and the suit.
                           The dry suit still is preferred for extremely cold
                        water. It usually is made of rubber, relying on seals
                        at waist, neck, wrist, and ankles to keep water out.
                        Woolen underclothing may be worn inside. A
                        major disadvantage is that a tear admitting water
                        practically destroys the suit's insulating effect.
                        More sophisticated dry suits (constant volume
                        suits) now are available; a regulated gas supply
                        keeps the inside of the suit slightly above ambient
                        pressure and prevents squeeze as the diver changes          Figure 20. Model of hot water circulation suit.
                        depth.                                                      (Westinghouse photo)

                                                                                                                                        VI-59

                                     new water heated garment consists of a modified           return to the surface regardless of the time spent
                                     neoprene wet suit supplied with hot water by a            underwater and as rapidly as desired.
                                     hose from the surface or from a diving chamber.              Medical technology,has produced artificial kid-
                                     The hot water enters a simple hose distribution           neys and artificial lungs. It may be possible that
                                     system from a control block at the waist and flows        suitable extracorporeal gas exchangers modeled
                                     to the hands and feet. From the extremities, water        after the gills of fish could be constructed. An
                                     flows back over the diver's skin and exits from the       artificial gill, enabling a diver to obtain oxygen by
                                     suit to the ocean at the face and neck openings.          diffusion from the sea rather than from stores
                                        Another diver, undergarment contains tubes             carried in cylinders, would have obvious logistic
                                     stitched to the fabric, an adaptation from a              advantages. Even more important, a diver equip-
                                     cooling garment used in outer space. Water enters         ped with an artificial gill, extracting oxygen like a
                                     at the waist, is piped back again to the waist, and       fish from the water, could. never be exposed to
                                     returns thence to the heating unit. The tubes             toxic oxygen partial pressures (Figure 21).
                                     extend to hands, feet, and fingers.
                                        The bulk of a suit relying only on the insulating
                                     value of its material limits diver mobility and
                                     dexterity. In water below 450F., insulation will
                                     not protect fingers inside a glove. When manual
                                     dexterity is required, mission duration is limited to
                                     about one hour. However, a diver can be sustained
                                     indefinitely in near-freezing water by hot water or
                                     electrical energy readily supplied. Present technol-
                                     ogy would require about 500 pounds of silver-zinc
                                     batteries for the energy necessary for a six-hour
                                     mission. For this reason, such advanced concepts
                                     as isotope heat sources are being investigated.

                                     b. Future Needs The most critical problem with
                                     exposure suits is development of a light, compact,
                                     selfcontained energy pack for a free swimming
                                     diver. The most promising systems rely on silver-
                                     zinc batteries to supply electrical energy, a pyro-
                                     technic cartridge to supply heat, or an isotopic
                                     power source to supply both. Suits produced for           Figure 21. Artist's concept of future diver
                                     the astronauts may be adaptable. for underwater           wearing gill-pack.
                                     use. Because of the high cost of development, the
                                     initial versions are likely to be tailored for military      The possibility of man exchanging respiratory
                                     needs.                                                    gases directly with an aquatic environment have
                                        Diving with a selfcontained underwater breath-         not been explored seriously until the present
                                     ing apparatus is restricted by the compressibility,       decade, and it is difficult to predict the outcome
                                     solubility, and narcotic effects of gases. Increased      of such research.
                                     volumes* of gases can be made available by cryo-             Underwater breathing systems during the next
                                     genic technology. Another solution would be to            few decades will be dictated by the need -for
                                     use breathing mixtures that are not compressible.         breathing support related to man existing under
                                     Liquids such as physiologic saline solution are           high pressure. More people will spend appreciable
                                     likely to behave as biologically inert respiratory        time in wet environments operating untethered
                                     gas dilutants at great depths, in contrast to             from a habitat or diving system. Therefore, they
                                     compressed inert gases.                                   will need compact, reliable systems and the ability
                                        No excessive amounts of inert gas can dissolve         to eliminate or reduce manyfold the present
                                     in the blood and tissues of a diver with liquid filled    decompression time penalties. The technique of
                                     lungs regardless of depth. Hence, the diver could         liquid breathing, anticipated as a revolutionary

                                     VI-60

                       departure from mixed gas breathing, opens the                There is an urgent demand for breathing appa-
                       possibility of greatly shortened decompression           ratus using available breathing gases most effi-
                       periods.                                                 ciently and for a system to heat diving suits under
                          Needs in breathing gas technology include:            deep sea pressures and temperatures.

                       -New breathing mixture components that provide           3. Conclusions
                       chemical inertness and nontoxicity without unde-
                       sirable changes in density and thermal conductivity.         Current diving technology permits operations in
                                                                                protected or relatively shallow waters to a depth
                       -Better understanding of the toxic reactions of          of approximately 600 feet; however, free diving in
                       oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen.          excess of 1,200 feet will probably soon be
                       -Better understanding of the effects of various gas      realized. With proper emphasis, this capability
                       mixtures-one component on another.                       probably can be increased to 2,000 feet or more,
                                                                                but there are extremely difficult physiological
                       -Data on the physical aspects of respiration under       hurdles to be overcome in diving at much.greater
                       water during various levels of physical activity.        depths.
                                                                                    Progress of free diving at greater depths is
                       -Better understanding of the aeroembolism pro-           retarded by such numerous problems as safety,
                       cesses (blood and tissue gas dynamics) and subse-        breathing gases, body heat retention, diver speech,
                       quent establishment of more precise decompres-           and decompression. Research and development is
                       sion procedures.                                         in progress on these matters. Liquid breathing
                       -Toxicity of oxygen at high pressure and pro-            research, if successful, may provide a means of
                       longed exposures.                                        attaining depths in excess of 2,000 feet.
                                                                                    Oxygen toxicities and hypoxia. have been exten-
                                                                                sively studied, but long-term exposure to such
                       -Central nervous   system narcosis by nitrogen and       inert gas mixtures as helium-oxygen, nitrogen-
                       other inert gases.                                       oxygen, or hydrogen-oxygen mixtures at pressure
                          Closely related is the need for bio-engineering       has not been studied sufficiently to establish
                                                                                appropriate diver exposure lin-tits. Reduction in
                       development to solve the problems of:                    decompression time for saturation divers is ex-
                                                                                pected to become a critical economic factor in
                       -Equipment and materials to maintain body heat           utilization of free divers.
                       balance and to preserve tactile sense and manual             In engineering designs of diver support equip-
                       dexterity.                                               ment, specialized problems are involved and off-
                                                                                the-shelf techniques should be used with discrirni-
                       -Increased resistance to breathing under increased       nation.
                       pressures.                                                   The number of deep ocean divers is multiplying
                                                                                on all coasts, and saturation diving will become
                       -Long, slow decompression.                               common practice in the near future. There is a
                       -Loss of body heat during prolonged submer-              shortage of sustained funding for personnel and
                       gence.                                                   facilities engaged in advanced diving research and
                                                                                medical treatment.
                       -Impairment of speech by artificial atmospheres.
                                                                                Recommendations:
                       -Action of drugs and medical procedures for man          Research should be pursued to make possible.
                       in the sea.
                                                                                effective free diving at depths of 2,000 feet in 10
                          Effective, compact, and compatible swimmer            years or less, seeking to attain increased depth
                       doppler navigation and sonar systems are needed.         capabilities in 20 years by perfection of liquid
                       Today's support equipment is too heavy, bulky,           breathing.
                       and difficult to integrate into the total diver              Research and development should be acceler-
                       system.                                                  ated to improve and simplify diving techniques,

                                                                                                                                   VI-61

                                    diver safety, breathing gas technology, body heat               The near-surface environment of the oceans
                                    retention, diver speech, diver nutrition, and de-           varies greatly from place to place and time to time.
                                    compression technology. @                                   However, near-surface current velocity, sea state,
                                        Experiments should be conducted "posing                 visibility, background noise, and sound propaga-
                                    lower animals to inert gases and, mixtures up to            tion are probably less variable and influential on
                                    one month at various pressures, temperatures,               undersea systems than ocean floor and sub-bottom
                                    humidities, and activity levels to determine guide-         environmental differences like bathymetry, sedi-
                                    lines and limitation of diver exposure.                     ment distribution, and acoustic characteristics.
                                        A national program to train medical personnel           The sea floor is much less well known than the
                                    and expand facilities for diver medical treatment           nearsurface environment.
                                    and research should be established.                             Improved techniques for undersea surveys are
                                                                                                needed for economical and timely completion of
                                    1. Environmental Considerations                             such needed ocean information as         the following:

                                        The major features of the geophysical environ-          -Gross bathymetry, slope, and roughness.
                                    ment-air, sea, and the land beneath the sea-must           ,
                                    be understood to further ocean technology. The              -Small scale bottom roughness.
                                    systems and techniques to study these features              -Sediment shear strength.
                                    encompass ships, aircraft, satellites, buoy systems,
                                    undersea fixed platforms, and maneuverable sub              -Liquid-solid interaction and bearing strength.
                                    mersibles. Much basic technology of marine
                                    science is at hand to make great progress, but              -Geological patterns, salt domes, and examination
                                    efforts are fragmented and information is scat-             of outcrops.
                                    tered.                                                      -Gravity and magnetic readings and false magnetic
                                        A thorough understanding of the following               targets.
                                    factors is necessary for operations in and under the
                                    sea.                                                        -Small scale reflection profiles and seismic charac-
                                                                                                teristics.
                                    -Submarine topography, stability of slopes,                 -Temperature and heat conductance.
                                    microbathymetry, bottom composition, engineer-
                                    ing and chemical properties, and bottom currents            _Circulation and tidal currents, including turbidity
                                    (including turbidity flow).                                 currents.
                                    -Temperature, salinity, density, dissolved gases,           _Internal waves.
                                    pH, Eli, and nutrients.
                                    -Fouling, bioluminescence, dangerous animals,               -Behavior of visible light and water clarity.
                                    and false-target and sound-scattering organisms.            -Sound propagation, background noise, and false
                                    -Currents, waves, breakers, surf, internal waves,           acoustic targets.
                                    sea level, and tides.                                           Data collection techniques now utilized (mainly
                                    -Distribution, concentration, and thickness of sea          analog) require lengthy processing and analysis
                                    ice.                                                        procedures. Use of digital techniques, including
                                                                                                realtime data collection and processing at sea, is
                                    -Spatial and temporal variation, deflection of              increasing, but much still must be done to meet
                                    vertical anomalies of gravity and magnetism.                basic needs (Figure 22).
                                        It should not be inferred that knowledge is             1. Sea Floor and Bottom Strata
                                    completely lacking in the above factors, but
                                    improvements in environmental measurement and               a. Current Situation Submarine topography and
                                    prediction are essential for success in increasing          microbathymetry operations include (1) prepara-
                                    national capabilities in the ocean.                         tion of bathymetric (bottom topographic) charts

                                    VI-62

                                                                                      Research into the seafloor's changing topo-
                                                                                   graphy and structure also is necessary for both
                                                                                   military and nonmilitary use. Development of free,
                                                                                   self-propelled, unmanned undersea probes as well
                                                                                   as manned exploration submersibles will enhance
                                                                                   survey capabilities. Such systems must operate to
                                                                                   depths of 20,000 feet.
                                                                                      The Navy Shipboard Survey Development Pro-
                                                                                   gram includes capabilities to take narrow beam
                                                                                   and wide beam bathymetric data from a cable
                                                                                   towed instrument package operable to 20,000
                                                                                   feet. The system includes devices to display
                                                                                   essential data on a ship's bridge. The Navy plans
                                                                                   such capability for 11 vessels, 2 of which are now
                                                                                   in operation, US.N.S. Silas Bent and U.S.N.S.
                                                                                   Elisha Kane.

                         Figure 22. Computer aboard USC&GSS Oceanog-
                         rapher is used for data collection and processing.        2. Bottom Composition and Engineering Prop-
                         (ESSA photo)                                                 erties

                         of the oceans prepared to various scales and              a. Current Situation Knowledge of the composi-
                         various contour intervals and (2) studies of the sea      tion, properties, and mechanical behavior of sea-
                         floor to determine provinces of similar structures        floor sediments is essential for designing founda-
                         such as basins, ridges, and rises and to determine        tions, recovering minerals, predicting the behavior
                         direction and degree of slopes.                           of vehicles and equipment on or in the ocean
                            Location and description of submarine physio-          floor, tunneling, pipeline and cable laying, control-
                         graphic features are indispensable to:                    ling pollution, disposing of waste, salvaging and
                                                                                   recovering objects, and interpreting geophysical
                         -Determining areas of potential mineral or petro-         records. In underwater work, soil mechanics must
                         leum deposits.                                            be applied in drilling, coring, pile driving, dredging,
                         -Site selection for bottom installations.                 mining, and operations involving penetration into
                                                                                   seafloor sediments.
                         -Surface or subsurface navigation.                        @ Soil mechanics is established reasonably well
                                                                                   for engineering tasks on land. With very few
                         -Developing sonar techniques for finding new              exceptions, theoretical and applied ocean soil
                         fisheries.                                                mechanics (away from coastal areas) is no more
                                                                                   than 15 years old. The studies and measurements
                         b. Future Needs There have been few major                 made in this relatively short time are few. fligh
                         developments in bathymetric survey techniques             pressures, dynamic conditions, and inaccessibility
                         and systems since invention of the sonic echo             contribute to the complexity of the problem.
                         sounder and graphic recorder, although progress              The reliability of underwater soil engineering
                         has been made in precision depth recorders and            data must be better than for land applications.
                         side-looking sonars.                                      Failures of land structures due to erroneous soils
                            One major step,    digital recording of soundings      data can be remedied and normally are not
                         as a supplement to graphic recording, has cut             catastrophic. Submerged installations, however,
                         drastically the time required to produce bathy-           are not susceptible to convenient repairs; failures
                         metric charts. This development can be improved           can be costly and hazardous.
                         even further. Faster and more detailed bathymet-             Remote sediment sampling from surface ships
                         ric surveying methods based on advances in acous-         by snappers, dredges, and corers is unsuitable to
                         tic, photographic, recording, and other types of          obtain the relatively undisturbed samples needed
                         instrumentation are needed.                               for engineering purposes. In situ sediment sam-

                                                                                                                                     VI-63

                                   pling has been accomplished in shallow waters by             Research and development needed to          advance
                                   scuba divers and in deeper water by submersibles.         undersea soil mechanics capabilities include:
                                   Submersibles permit direct observation of the
                                   sampling process and can acquire samples with             -Samplers for use by divers, submersibles, and
                                   thin wall devices in the upper six feet of sediment.      surface ships.
                                      Laboratory experiments on seafloor sediments           -Instruments for on-site measurements like vane
                                   have been conducted using samples recovered by
                                   coring devices, . submersibles, or other means.           shear at several depths within a sediment body.
                                   Meaningful engineering measurements can be made           -Equipment to take long borings in deep water,
                                   in the laboratory and related to in situ measure-         including techniques to re-enter bore holes.
                                   ments. Selective sampling of large areas should
                                   yield reconnaissance information of wide applica-         Anstrument packages for narrow beam echo
                                   bility such as in preliminary site studies.               sounding and high resolution profiling devices to
                                                                                             be towed at cruising speeds.
                                   b. Future Needs Prediction of foundation stabil-          -Instruments to record properties of turbidity
                                   ity should be facilitated by determining such
                                                                                             currents.
                                   sediment properties as permeability and dynamics
                                   of water movement, depth-dependent strength                   Foun .dation engineering criteria must be estab-
                                   gradients, compressibility characteristics, and elas-
                                                                                             lished and transformed into pertinent seafloor data
                                   tic and plastic equilibrium to predict foundation         requirements. Because      underwater foundations
                                   stability. Mass sediment stability characteristics
                                   include bearing capacity, settlement, slope stabil-       will be constructed on     the basis of information
                                   ity, penetrability, and breakout forces.                  acquired under adverse     conditions, methods are
                                      These properties are important to such applica-        needed to inspect them     and surrounding soil and
                                   tions as. operation of mining machinery on the            to effect repairs.
                                   ocean floor, reflection and refraction of sound              Interaction between     underwater foundations
                                                                                             and bottom soil can result in the creation of
                                   energy striking the ocean floor, geophysical explo-       complex moments     . and forces. Techniques are
                                   ration, and foundation site selection and prepara-        needed whereby lateral, uplift, twisting, and over-
                                   tion.
                                      To determine slope stability and layer thick-          turning forces and moments can be applied and
                                   nesses, sediment properties must be known to              measured singly and in combination. Sensors to
                                   considerable depths. Properties cannot be deter-          detect changes in pressures, deflections, or dis-
                                                                                             placements would be useful in surveying the ocean
                                   mined now below the uppermost few feet. Also,
                                   there is a need to determine the probability         of   floor locally prior to and following construction.
                                   occurrence, the properties, and possible effects of                                                         I
                                   turbidity currents on installations. Instrumenta-         3. Physical and Chen-dcal Properties of Seawater
                                   tion systems able to remain submerged for long
                                   periods must be developed.                                a. Current Situation The three properties that
                                      Chemical additives or mechanical conditioning          most affect underwater design are pressure, temp-
                                   may be able to increase sediment strength or              erature, and salinity. They influence the basic
                                   prevent stirring fine particles which reduce visibil-     physical properties of seawater-density, specific
                                   ity. However, in some places the need for artifi-         volume, electrical conductivity, compressibility,
                                   cially improving visibility is eliminated since strong    sound velocity, viscosity, and surface tension.
                                   currents carry suspended sediments away.                  Osmotic pressure, freezing point, and boiling point
                                      Comparative analytical studies of all common           are determined by salinity only.
                                   sediment types are needed to relieve the     need for
                                   detailed in situ sampling. Instrumentation systems        (L) Density On the average one cubic foot of
                                   lowered to the ocean floor could transmit or              seawater weighs 64 pounds; one cubic foot of ice
                                   record data on density, sound velocity, shear             weighs 56 pounds, and one cubic meter (35 cubic
                                   strength, and sediment bearing capacity to quickly        feet) of seawater weighs one long ton or 2,240
                                   characterize an area.                                     pounds. However, these values vary with tempera-

                                   VI-64

                        ture, salinity, and pressure. The water column
                        consists of multiple density layers rather than a
                        stiadily increasing density with depth. A direct
                        method to measure density is needed.

                        (2.) Acoustic Properties Sound is        the principal
                        means of communication and detection in the sea.
                        For locating objects, positions, and terrain features
                        or for probing the nature of sediments,      I sound is
                        essential. Unfortunately, temperature changes with
                        depth bend sound waves, and the changes vary
                        with time and space.
                           For these reasons, water temperature is the
                        ocean property most widely measured. The Navy
                        alone makes more than 5,000 temperature sound-
                        ings per month. Such data are essential for        ' the
                        Naval Weather Service to derive daily maps of
                        near-surface sonar propagation conditions.
                           Sound from a source in the ocean's near-surface
                        region follows many diverse paths generally classi-
                        fied as:

                        -Surface duct. Sound travelling in the near-surface
                        region.                                                   Figure 23. STD sensor for measuring water sa-
                                                                                  linity, temperature, and depth being lowered
                        -Bottom bounce. Sound reflected off the ocean             from USC&GSS Oceanographer. (ESSA photo)
                        floor.
                        -Convergence zone. Refracted sound travelling             (3.) Electromagnetic Properties Seawater rapidly
                        along a deep path and sometimes reinforced with           absorbs almost every wave length in the electro-
                        energy from the bottom.                                   magnetic spectrum. Radio waves (except ex-
                                                                                  tremely long high-energy waves) are attenuated
                           The development of       operations in the latter      immediately in water. Infrared waves are absorbed
                        two categories requires geophysical data. New             by water molecules. Ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma
                        technology for measuring temperature, salinity,           rays are absorbed by electrons or atomic nuclei.
                        and pressure includes:                                    However, water is relatively transparent to visible
                                                                                  and near-ultraviolet light.
                        -Salinity-temperature-depth system (Figure 23)
                        which records water salinity and temperature at           (4.) Salinity     Salinity is defined in terms of
                        various depths.                                           dissolved solid material in seawater. The salts
                                                                                  of sodium and chlorine are the most important,
                        -Expendable      salinity-temperature-depth system.       accounting for approximately 85 per cent. Of
                                                                                  the various constituents, only calcium is pres-
                        -Airborne radiation thermometer which measures            ent in a state of saturation; seawater is far
                        sea surface temperature by infrared. radiation,           from saturated with the others. Seawater's ability
                        enabling an aircraft or a satellite to quickly amass      to dissolve large amounts . of solids and gases
                        data over a large area.                                   without reacting chemically with them is one of its
                        -Buoy temperature sensor cables.                          most important properties.
                                                                                      Salinity varies in different ocean areas; how-
                        -Expendable bathythermographs for measuring ever, approximately 90 per cent of seawater falls
                        temperatures at various depths by surface vessels         within 34 to 35 parts per thousand. New dis-
                        and aircraft.                                             coveries have been made in hot spots where

                                                                                                                                     VI-65
                             333-091 0-69-9

                                   salinities are as high as 240 parts per thousand. In     overlying waters. Carbon dioxide occurs in rela-
                                   some areas gold concentrations are over 600 times        tively large amounts in seawater as carbonates and
                                   the ocean average. (Such discoveries could be            bicarbonates.
                                   important in ocean mining.)                                 Some ocean areas produce abundant gas bub-
                                      The Nansen bottle, developed in the 1890's,           bles that greatly impede sound waves. In the
                                   still is used to take samples for analyzing seawater     Southern California Bight and in the Red Sea
                                   salinity. Improved instruments are needed to             virtual curtains of gas continuously are rising
                                   sample and measure very deep waters quickly and          from the ocean floor. In some areas of high
                                   easily.                                                  productivity or of stagnation (like the Black Sea)
                                      The mutual exchange of energy and material            deep waters produce hydrogen sulfide bubbles and
                                   between ocean and atmosphere at the ocean                contain little or no oxygen.
                                   surface depends largely on the chemistry of the
                                   topmost layer of water. The importance of diffu-         (6) Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) Values of
                                   sion processes near the deep ocean bottom, is just       pH a measure of hydrogen ion concentration
                                   beginning to be appreciated. In some cases these         ran'ge from zero (highly acid) through 7.0 (neutral)
                                   may be studied by such natural tracers as the            to 14 (highly alkaline).   The carbon dioxide con-
                                   upward diffusion of radium from the sediments            tent mainly detern-dnes the pH value of seawater.
                                   into the bottom waters. Mixing mechanisms and            In the deep ocean it      generally decreases from
                                   rates between upper, intermediate, and deep ocean        about 8.3 at the surface to 7.7 at depths between
                                   layers can be studied by artificial radioactive          1,200 and about 3,000      feet, below which it rises
                                   tracers as well as natural chemical tracers.             to about 7.8. Values as low as 7.5 are found in
                                                                                            areas of high biological activity because of carbon
                                   (5.) Dissolved Gases Gases constitute about 0.25         dioxide liberation. Near the shore, the pH may
                                   per cent by weight of ocean water, their solubility      drop sharply due to introduction of fresh water
                                   decreasing with increasing temperature or salinity.      streams highly charged with decaying vegetation
                                   The most important and abundant gases in the             and organic matter from the land. Sometimes a
                                   ocean are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.          sharp drop in pH is found immediately above the
                                   Dissolved oxygen is of special interest to undersea      ocean bottom because of carbon dioxide produced
                                   systems because of its corrosive effect on mate-         by such bottom organisms as bacteria.
                                   rials. Surface waters are usually saturated with
                                   dissolved oxygen.                                        (7) Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) Organic
                                      The amount of dissolved oxygen decreases with         matter also has a great effect on the Eh of water.
                                   depth until an oxygen-minimum layer is reached at        (Eh, or oxidation-reduction potential, is a measure
                                   a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. Below this oxygen        of the ability to accept or donate electrons, thus a
                                   content gradually increases until the bottom is          measure of corrosiveness.) Seawater approximately
                                   reached. Very deep bottom waters frequently have         six feet above sediment sometimes has Eh values
                                   an oxygen content approaching that of surface            of zero; below this level and into the sediment, Eh
                                   water.                                                   may drop as low as -300 millivolts. At the sea
                                      Dissolved oxygen indicates the age of deep cold       surface Eh usually is about +300 millivolts. Bot-
                                   currents entering from surface polar regions. This
                                                                                            tom topography strongly influences whether zero
                                   free oxygen is consumed by deep water marine             Eh occurs six feet above the bottom or below the
                                   life. In waters within the sediments, the oxygen         sediment surface. Thus, site selection surveys for
                                   content drops radically because of the activity of
                                   bacteria and bottom   .dwelling organisms.               bottom habitats and installations are necessary to
                                      Nitrogen in seawater, occurring as free dissolved     anticipate corrosion problems.
                                   gas or in such compounds as nitrates, nitrites, and
                                   ammonia, is essential for living matter and deter-       (8.) Radioactivity Disposal of low-activity solid
                                   mines the growth rate of ocean plants. Sediments         radioactive wastes in specified areas of not less
                                   on the bottom often have only a small amount of          than 6,000-foot depth is permitted. These wastes
                                   organic nitrogen, correlating with the concentra-        are sealed in containers and should cause no
                                   tion of organic matter in the sediments and in the       problems to underwater operations.

                                   VI-66

                            The natural occurrence of radioactive elements            like spectral components, period of maximum
                         in seawater is very small, the principal element             energy, and directional behavior.
                         being potassium740. Man-made radioactive mate-                  Older instruments to measure sea state include
                         rial enters the ocean by fallout.Although seawater           ship's wave recorders, photo wave recorders, wave
                         greatly dilutes these wastes, some radioactive               poles, and stereo photogrammetry. New instru.
                         elements are concentrated by biological organisms.           ments take continuous measurements of the sea
                         Ionization chambers, Geiger counters, photo-                 surface from ships, satellites, and aircraft, provid-
                         multiplier scintillometers, and similar instruments          ing accurate and more complete observations.
                         can be suspended from ships to measure radio-                   These include (1) the airborne wave meter
                         activity.                                                    utilizing a radar altimeter device to acquire wave
                                                                                      structure profiles, (2) a sonic echoing device
                         b. Future Needs New techniques to measure                    mounted on -a ship's bow to measure waves
                         directly temperature, salinity, and sound velocity           continuously and to compensate automatically for
                         to greater depths are needed to provide direct               ship motions, and (3) cameras'on satellites (espe@
                         digital and analog output required for realtime              cially in synchronous orbit) to produce photo-
                         data processing.                                             graphs analyzed for information on sea surface
                            Airborne and shipborne deep expendable re-                conditions. Wave sensors on fixed ocean platforms
                         cording bathythermographs for direct digital meas-           like the Argus Island permit study of storm waves
                         urements of temperature versus depth to 20,000               not normally measured by ships.
                         feet from a moving platform are needed. Direct                  Subsurface wave motion, surf conditions (im-
                         measurement of sound velocity to great depths is             portant derivatives of surface waves), and such
                         required for reliable sonar operation.                       wave processes as generation, propagation, refrac-
                            New techniques are required to permit rapid,              tion, decay, filtering, and subsurface pr6ssu're
                         continuous in situ analyses of the important                 fluctuations are little understood.
                         chemical properties of seawater and bottom sedi-                Mathematical models for computer use are
                         ments, particularly at sites considered for undersea         being developed to reduce complex wave motion
                         installations.                                               data to understandable information. The Environ-
                                                                                      mental Science Services Administration is develop-
                         4. Dynamic Factors                                           ing mathematical models of ocean-atmosphere
                                                                                      interactions and of the conveyance of heat and
                            Ocean energy decreases with depth; therefore,             water. A more sophisticated model of total world
                         practically all the ocean's environmental energy is          hydrology, including sea ice, ground water, and
                         contained in gravity waves, tides, and currents. Yet         other factors, has been developed, but its appli-
                         other factors are important because of their                 cation is limited by lack of experimental data.
                         potential hazards.                                           Instrumentation to obtain pertinent data is vitally
                                                                                      needed, and the technology to develop it appears.
                         a. Gravity Waves        Predicting the exchange of           available.
                         energy and material across the air-sea interface is             Future wave measuring sensors must measure
                         largely concerned with the growth and decay of               not only height but the entire directional spec-
                         gravity.(wind gcDerated) waves. This aspect has              trum. Knowledge of waves for engineering design
                         progressed well, making available refined forecast-,         criteria is lacking. Some numerical analysis tech-
                         ing techniques. Much data on average wave heights            niques have been developed for design criteria of
                         exist,  although data still are lacking on wave              the Polaris ballistic missile and other systems.
                         lengths. Current research is directed primarily at           These techniques have been amplified and im-
                         the fundamentals of energy exchange, seeking to              proved, but the basic problem of obtaining proper
                         diminish the heavy reliance on observation and               measurements has not been solved.
                         experimentation.
                            Early wave observations consisted primarily of            b. Internal Waves Internal waves are not well
                         random visual observations from ships. Of ques-              understood but are known to have an effect on
                         tionable accuracy, these data provide little knowl-          underwater sound transmission. Internal waves
                         edge of more sophisticated wave characteristics              usually are measured by observing short-term

                                                                                                                                            VI-67

                                    temperature fluctuations at given points in the          ena. The deep ocean depths are the coldest parts
                                    water column; however, motion of the ship or             of the seas (3.80C average).
                                    buoy from which the instruments are suspended
                                    could bias results. The very stable FLIP platform
                                    has been used for internal wave measurements
                                    with good results. To predict motions in the
                                    environment adequately, technology is needed to
                                    measure three dimensional internal wave spectra
                                    by digital data collection techniques.

                                    C. Unusual Waves-Tsunamis and Hurricane Waves
                                    Tsunamis (tidal waves) are formed by earth-
                                    quakes or by slides that dislocate the ocean floor.
                                    They are of 200 to 300 miles in length but only
                                    two or three feet high in deep water. Moving at
                                    great speeds, they usually are not detectable to the
                                    eye until they increase to as much as 20 or 30 feet
                                    in height when approaching coastlines.
                                       Hurricane waves are difficult to predict because
                                    the circular motion of hurricane winds causes the
                                    waves to move at various angles from the path of
                                    the storm. Hurricane waves generally accompany           Figure 24. Heat probe for measuring ocean bot-
                                                                                             tom heat flows and taking core sample being
                                    storm surges or storm tides that can run 4 to 15         lowered from oceanographic survey ship. (ESSA
                                    feet'above normal high water as they move toward         photo)
                                    land. Little effect from surface wave action is felt
                                    200 to 300 feet below the surface.
                                       Hurricane research is active, although a storm's      e. Currents Surface currents are horizontal move-
                                    course cannot yet be predicted, nor its fury con-        ments and include both tidal currents (produced
                                    trolled. Technology is needed to slow the process        by tidal movements of water in ocean basins) and
                                    of evaporation of water from the sea in a hurricane      circulation currents. Navy interest in currents
                                    and to disrupt the convection process that adds          traditionally has centered on their navigational
                                    the extra energy to convert a rain storm into a          effects. New developments in surface and sub-
                                    hurricane. Technology is needed also to develop          merged current measurements include the auto-
                                    improved mathematical models of storms.                  matically recording deep moored telemetering
                                                                                             buoy.
                                    d. Thermodynamics        The exchange of      thermal       Subsurface currents, important to undersea
                                    energy affects the thermal structure in the upper        operations, include deep-layer vertical movements
                                    ocean layers, generation of ocean weather, mainte-       (upwelling or sinking) and movements caused by
                                    nance of global atmospheric circulation, and pro-        tides or large-scale turbulence. Shifts of sound
                                    pagation of perturbations in climate. Unfortu-           signals is one way of measuring subsurface cur-
                                    nately, the process is little understood, and pro-       rents. Long-range sonar is affected by dynamic
                                    gress has been slow mainly because technology is         changes in location and characteristics of ocean
                                    not developed sufficiently for the refined observa-      water masses, thus requiring extensive data on
                                    tions needed to establish more effective theory.         currents to be effective.
                                       Ocean heat comes primarily from the sun. For             However, obtaining that information in deep
                                    undersea operations, however, heat flowing from          water is so expensive and time consuming that few
                                    the earth's crust also is important (Figure 24). It is   measurements have been made. A few moored
                                    practically uniform on the shelf and in the basins       current meter arrays have been installed at the
                                    but is significantly higher in areas of midocean         Navy's Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation
                                    ridges and trenches. Deep drilling into the crust is     Center and elsewhere. Variations in current are
                                    required to improve knowledge of these phenom-           computed from data taken from these arrays

                                    VI-68

                        and compared with concurrent temperature. and                 11. Materials
                        salinity data.                                                   a.    Physical Properties
                           Although deep ocean currents are generally of                       (1)   Density
                        low velocity, some evidence exists that these                          (2)   Strength
                        currents coupled with the presence of a structure                      (3)   Corrosion and Fouling
                        could create turbulence, erode the bottom, pro-                        (4)   Galvanic Table
                        duce a wake of turbid water, and affect founda-                        (5)   Welding Characteristics
                        tion stability. These effects could make a bottom                b.    Corrosion Protection
                        installation more detectable by acoustic means and               C.    Buoyancy Materials
                        could upset or bury the structure; therefore,                          (1) Efficiency Curve for Cylinder/-
                        further investigation of near-bottom currents is a                           Sphere vs. Depth
                        necessity.                                                             (2)   Syntactic Foam
                                                                                               (3) . Buoyant Outer Hull
                        L Hydrospace Handbook At present the               ocean
                                                                                         d.    Pressure Hull Penetrators
                        engineer has no single source of information                 III. Structural Data
                        summarizing data on environmental factors and                    a.    Pressure Hulls
                        their effects on materials and components consid-                      (1)   Shapes and Volumetric Efficien-
                        ered in designing ocean systems. The U.S. Air                                cies
                        Force prepared the Handbook of Geophysics and                          (2)   Design Data (Equations for transi-
                        Aerospace Materials Handbooks to provide infor-                              tion areas, viewports, hatches,
                        mation for design of aircraft, missiles, and space-                          buckling)
                        craft. A hydrospace handbook containing informa-                 b.    Wetted Hulls
                        tion on environmental factors affecting ocean                          (1) Design Data (Unstiffened, ring
                        engineering design could be invaluable. One such@                            stiffened, ring and stringer)
                        handbook is expected to be released in the near                  C.    Simple-Beam Equations for Moment,
                        future.
                           An important function of both industry and                          Shear, Deflection
                        government will be to assure that such handbooks             IV. Fluid Mechanics
                        are continuously updated and technical memo-                     a.    Fluid Statics
                        randa, failure analyses, and engineering data to                 b.    Real/Ideal Fluid Flow
                        help advance ocean capability are published. An-                 C.    Fluid Measurements
                        other responsibility is in preparing ocean engineer-             d.    Flow About Immersed Objects
                        ing texts for teaching and technical reference.                  e.    Drag, Lift, and Cavitation
                           A possible Hydrospace Handbook outline:
                                                                                      V. Thermodynamics
                                                                                         a.    Liquids and Gases
                                  HYDROSPACE HANDBOOK                                    b.    Gas Laws
                                                                                         C.    Refrigeration and Heating
                        Chapters                                                         d.    Humidity
                           1. The Marine Environment                                     e.    Air Conditioning
                              a.    Properties of Salt Water                             f.    Modeling Theory
                              b.    Properties of Soil, Silt, and Sand               VI. Hydrodynamics
                              C.    Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth                       a.    Basic Relation to Gas Dynamics
                              d.    Sound Propagation                                    b.    Propulsion
                              e.    Light Transmission                                   C.    Steady/Unsteady Flow
                              f.    Wave Motion and Forces                               d.    Skin Friction
                              g.    Sea Temperature, Salinity, Density vs.               e.    Shape/Drag Curves
                                    Depth (worldwide)
                              h.    Wave Heights, Storms, Meteorological            VII. Electrical
                                    Data, Currents                                       a.    Direct Current Circuits and Power
                              i.    Navigation Data                                            Sources

                                                                                                                                      VI-69

                                                   (1)   Batteries                                  sampling, let alone prediction. Yet these data must
                                                   (2) Fuel Cells                                   be more reliable for ocean than for land applica-
                                                   (3). Nuclear                                     tion.
                                             b..   Alternating Current Circuits                        l7of-military applications (especially in dntisub-
                                             C.    Electrokinematics and Magnetic Cir-              marine warfare) the, advent@ of new -, detection
                                                   cuits                                            systems utilizing bottom bounce and convergence
                                             d.    Electrostatics and Dielectric Circuits           zone modes has emphasized the need to measure'
                                             e.    Electrical Connectors and Cables                 ocean-floor acoustic characteristics.
                                             f.    Electromagnetic Interference Reduc-.,            -  Bottom loss characteristics are little known,:
                                                   tion                                             because present systems and techniques are inade-
                                             g.    Connectors, Conductors, and Cable                quate to measure detailed topography, acoustic
                                                   @roperties                                       properties of sediments at all frequency ranges and,
                                                                                                    grazing angles, and bottom losses. The marine.
                                      VIII. Bio-Engineering                                         geophysical surveys sponsored by the Naval Ocean-
                                             a,    H 'uman  IFactors,                               ographic Office have provided new and- valuable
                                             b.    Diver Decompression Tables                       information, but more is needed.
                                             c     Diver Gas Mixtures vs. Depth Tables
                                             d.    Life Support Systems                             Recommendations:

                                                                                                    New and improved instruments and instrument
                                        IX. Communications
                                                                                                    suits must be developed for oceanographic sam-
                                         X. Safety and-Certification
                                                                                                    pling and measurern eint including means of.
                                      APTENDIXA-Table of Definitions
                                      APPENDIX B-Milestones in Undersea History                     -improving underwater optical visibility.

                                                                                                    -Viewing and recording bottom features ',Mtholut
                                      g. Conclusions       A great need exists to map               using the'visible spectrum.
                                      synoptically the physical and dynamic ocean and
                                      ocean bottom processes. The expendable bathy-                 -Making rapid, in situ measurements of the mass
                                      thermograph has provided a revolutionary tool to              physical properties of both water and marine
                                      map temperatures. Similar systems are needed to               sediments, and of other properties to provide
                                      measure sound velocity, waves, and currents.                  engmeenng data for seafloor construction.
                                          Knowledge of probable extremes in the           ocean     -Making rapid, continuous in 'situ analysis of
                                      environment is insufficient to establish engineering          che " al properties, Eh     and pH   .,  of".sea-water and
                                                                                                       rmc
                                      design criteria. Variations within the sea and the            bottom sediments.
                                      sea floor are little known or understood relative to
                                      land variations. Exploitation of the deep sea and             -Making rapid, continuous surveys of bottom
                                      the continental shelf will require detailed informa-'         topography.
                                      tion on the interrelationships of temperature,
                                      pressure,- salinity,, and currents and.on the effects            A vigorous program should be pursued to
                                      of fou.1ing-fand corrosion on materials, bottom               examine, understand, and determine subsea physi-
                                      mounted. structures; cables, buoy moorings,., and             cal; biological, -and geologicalenvironmental condi-
                                      systems.,-                                                    tions as they affect engineering design. The data'
                                          Underwater soil mechanics affects        all missions     critical to engineering design should be'accumu-
                                      involving objects attached to.or in contact with              lated and published in handbooks, technical
                                      the ocean floor. Soils information is important to            memoranda, and engineering data sheets and up-
                                      (1) preparation-of foundations for structures and             dated continuously as knowledge permits.      -
                                      installations, (2) bottom sitting or crawling sub-               Effective    surface,    diver,   or submersible-
                                      mersibles, (3) drilling, coring, dredging, pile driv-         emplaced, engineering-oriented, in situ sampling
                                      ing, mining, and productiory, (4) waste disposal,             and measuring- devices must be developed to
                                      and (5) salvage, rescue-;@and recovery. Soil mechan-          characterize the. ocean floor-and sub-bottom and
                                      ics state-of-the-art is not adequate' for effective           to study Wrbidity currents over long pedods, if

                                      VI-70

                       seafloor soil mechanics is to be, understood. The         press digital outputs will be necessary to optimize
                       information derived should be made available in           information content, especially with buoy sys-
                       engineering design handbooks. Operational tech-           tems.
                       niques that minimize soil disturbance and ways of
                       increasing subsurface sediment structural strength        c. Data Processing With shipboard computers in
                       must be sought.                                           oceanographic measurement programs, speed of
                                                                                 data collection and processing has increased signifi-
                       J. Data Handling                                          cantly. Much processing is routine as in the
                                                                                 reduction of Nansen cast data and correction of
                          Problems of handling large quantities of diverse       reversing thermometers. Shipboard employment of
                       environmental data will continue to increase rap-         the computer as a realtime data processor has been
                       idly. The technology of fast, high-capacit:y auto-        limited. Some use has been made of realtime
                       matic data handling systems has increased mark-           collection and processing systems for acoustic
                       edly in recent years with third generation high-          studies, especially for and by the Navy.
                       speed digital computers now in general use.
                          Storage and retrieval systems can provide ran-         d. Data Relay Developments Systems are being
                       dom access to large masses of data, permitting            developed to telemeter data required at sea in
                       reduction of data storage in the computer itself.         realtime directly or via relays (ships, buoys,
                       This advanced technology has not been applied to          satellites, or shore stations) to central data process-
                       the marine program to any important degree as             ing activities (Figure 25). Here the data can be
                       yet.' Shipboard computer use was begun fairly             immediately interpreted and new instructions sent
                       recently and is increasing. However, most of these        back to the survey vehicle. This offers improved
                       computers are being employed primarily as data            accuracy and speed while making possible use of
                       storage mechanisms, not as realtime data proces-          simpler, less costly equipment aboard the survey
                       sing systems.                                             vehicle.

                       1. Current Situation
                                                                                         ESSA ODESSA SYSTEM
                                                                                          UNMANNED BUOY SYSTER FOR OltA]NlN OCEANOGRAPHIC AND NITIORGINGICAL DATA AT SEA.
                       a. Data Gathering      Many new instruments          for                 COW AN GEMEM SURVEY RESEARCH PROSPAM
                       collecting oceanographic data have been designed                           SHIP INFIERIDGAtIOUT
                                                                            are
                       for direct digital data collection. Examples
                       sound velocimeters, salinometers, and expendable
                       bathythermographs. To date, however, these gen-                                    IV   11thl
                       erally have had their own shipboard digital          re-                                 "t a      111111111.G1111 U111111
                                                                                                                         'Ac.111
                       corders.                                                                                            I'= IE,i.E,ITIONICS
                                                                                     (RETAIL
                                                                                    CC CANOGRAPHIC SENSOR PACKAGE SUR" CE BUOY   -,I,
                                                                                                     "Alff It Moo)
                                                                                                     30-300 doy ,p,bility
                       b. Data Display and Recording Both digital and
                       analog displays are being used now in marine data                  --I p.,d
                       collection, permitting immediate, rapid data evalu-
                       ation and checks on collection quality. However,
                       many techniques still are primitive. Strip chart
                       records, for example, require laborious manual                                            SENSOR PACKAGE
                       processing and analysis. Digital magnetic types are
                       in use but in lengthy experimental programs large
                       volumes of tape can be generated, creating a                       p oo'.
                       storage problem. Th    erefore, techniques to com-                       IF
                                                                                                     a, 111 acommodde up to I semp, onkAgn

                          4                                                      Figure 25. ODESSA system telemeters environ-
                           The problem of data handling is under intensive       mental data from unmanned buoys to ship or
                       study by the National Council on Marine Resources and     satellite for subsequent transfer to central data
                       Engineering Development.                                  processing facilities. (ESSA photo)

                                                                                                                                   VI-71

                                    e. Data Storage and Retrieval The data storage            stability conditions, however, effects the reliability
                                    and retrieval systems now handling marine data are        of automatic data facilities.
                                    antiquated and require either duplicate storage or           Currently, the National Oceanographic Data
                                    very slow sorting and retrieval procedures. For           Center is developing data bases for physical,
                                    example, the National Oceanographic Data Center           chemical, geological, and biological data. No data
                                    (NODC) does not possess any random access                 bases for important engineering criteria (fouling,
                                    capability.                                               corrosion, and strength of materials), bathymetric,
                                       The National Oceanographic Data Center han-            magnetic, gravimetric, bottom photography, and
                                    dles primarily ocean station and bathythermo-             sea ice exist. These data are contained in widely
                                    graph data, plus limited geological and biological        scattered generating activities and generally are not
                                    data. NODC does not handle engineering (such as           available to meet user requirements.
                                    fouling, corrosion, and strength of materials),
                                    bathymetric, magnetic, gravimetric, photographic,         Recommendations:
                                    or many other types of important marine data.             Standardized computer hardware and software
                                    These data exist at widely scattered locations            -systems should be developed for oceanographic
                                    throughout the Nation but could be much more              tasks.'Such systems should include data plotting
                                    useful if in compatible formats and located cen-          and navigational control and should become an
                                    trally.                                                   integral part of all government funded research
                                                                                              vessels. Since automatic computation equipment
                                    2. Future Needs                                           presently is available for use at sea, future large-
                                       Integrated realtime data processing systems are        scale government sponsored and conducted envi-
                                    needed to handle multiple uses of new, diverse            ronmental data missions should not be undertaken
                                    instrumentation developed with digital recording          unless onboard automatic realtime data collection
                                    capability. Thus, computer interfacing is required        and processing capabilities are utilized to assure
                                                                                              the efficient employment of scarce scientific tal-
                                    to permit immediate processing of data from these         ent.
                                    instruments in a compatible manner. Progress to              NODC should be equipped with random access
                                    date must be extended and rapidly accelerated,            capability to increase the speed and efficiency of
                                    especially in view of anticipated buoy develop-           data retrieval under various categories such as
                                    ments.                                                    cruise or institution. Branch data centers should be
                                       Random access capability is needed in data             established throughout the nation, the location
                                    retrieval from all marine data bases to ensure rapid      depending upon technical competence and user
                                    access by users. Random access-disks and magnetic         interests.
                                    drums are available but have not been used
                                    extensively in the marine field, except for selected         To be most     effective, NODC should be sup-
                                    mission-oriented Navy programs.                           ported entirely  as a line item in a single agency's
                                                                                              budget. Ibis could be achieved best as an adjunct
                                                                                              to an expanded Navy ocean mission to support
                                    3. Conclusions                                            na tional objectives (see Chapters 2 and 4), espe-
                                                                                              cially since much NODC-held data will be from
                                       A need exists for much greater realtime data           classified Navy missions.
                                    reduction and analysis at sea by computer or
                                    through relay to central data processing facilities
                                    ashore. Computers offer the advantage of reducing         K. Life Support
                                    large quantities of data rapidly into comprehend-
                                    able format for prompt review and analysis. Data             'Life support in small submersibles, cargo and
                                    from several ships can be correlated simultane-           support submarines, and ocean bottom stations is
                                    ously. The resulting on-site knowledge would              complex and challenging. Fortunately, consider-
                                    permit more efficient use of sea time for critical        able knowledge and experience exist, a large part
                                    measurements and control of data acquisition. The         contributed recently by the National Aeronautics
                                    technology of operating instrumentation systems           and Space Administration, by nuclear defense
                                    at sea under adverse environmental and platform           shelter, development, by Navy's nuclear fleet sub-

                                    VI-72

                          marine operations, and by the Navy Sealab experi-               A second method is to bleed fresh air from
                          ments.                                                      storage tanks, to filter the habitat atmosphere, and
                                                                                      to pump contaminants overboard. Considerable
                          1. Current Situation                                        power and frequent resupply are necessary; the
                              Life support activities may be divided into             method has proved to be extremely inefficient in
                          seven functions:                                            providing a uniform clean atmosphere.
                                                                                          The third and most feasible method is to
                                                                                      provide a sealed habitat with oxygen supplied
                          -Atmosphere control (breathing mixture and con-             either from storage or from      an oxygen generator.
                          taminant control).                                          Oxygen storage can be either high pressure or
                                                                                      cryogenic; the advantages and disadvantages of
                          -Climate control (temperature and relative hu-              each must be analyzed for a particular application.
                          midity).                                                        Oxygen generators have been improved over the
                          -Water supply (potable, wash, and machinery                 early years of nuclear submarine operation. The
                          makeup).                                                    current @ units provide good service but require
                                                                                      assiduous care in operation and maintenance;
                          -Food supply (preparation, refrigeration, freezing,         improvements are necessary to enhance reliability
                          and storage).                                               and safety. Currently, a very proniising oxygen
                                                                                      generator module (a byproduct of fuel cell re-
                          -Waste removal (solid and liquid waste products).           search) is under evaluation for the Navy.
                          -Habitability (human factors design considera-                  Chlorate candles and chlorate candle furnaces
                          tion).                                                      have been used on nuclear submarines. However,
                                                                                      control is presently impossible, because once
                          -Personnel (crew's psychological wellbeing).                ignited the whole candle is consumed; hence, an
                                                                                      automatic system appears impractical. Other meth-
                          a. Atmosphere Control Atmosphere control, al-               ods combining oxygen generation with carbon
                          though the most difficult of life support functions,        dioxide removal are in preliminary stages. Some
                          is not a new problem. Submarine and, more                   appear promising but only for limited compart-
                          recently, space vehicle designers have devoted              ments and small crews.
                          considerable time and effort to its solution.                   Filters, catalytic burners, and carbon dioxide
                          However, only recently have human beings been               scrubbers may be used to purify habitat
                          subjected to a completely closed environment for            atmosphere. Activated charcoal filters, electro-
                          extended periods without frequent rotation.                 static precipitators, and mechanical means may be
                          Miners, although exposed for many hours, have               considered also. Catalytic burners (as carbon
                          daily recuperative periods before re-entry into the         monoxide-hydrogen burners) perform well with
                          mine, as do diesel submariners during surfacing or          little maintenance or adjustment. Carbon dioxide
                          snorkeling. Polaris submariners regularly spend 60          removal can be accomplished by liquid scrubbers
                          or more consecutive days submerged with no                  or dry. chemical plates. To date only mono-
                          opportunity for their bodies to recuperate.                 ethanolamine scrubbers have proved efficient and
                             Since relatively little is known about the               reliable for large volume purification. Smaller
                          cumulative effects of long-duration exposure, it is         volumes may be cleaned by lithium hydroxide
                          extremely important to keep the atmosphere of               plates or crystals.
                          manned underwater structures as pure as possible.               The problems of sealed atmosphere control in
                          Once the desired atmosphere has been defined,               submerged structures can be solved with present
                          various methods to maintain it can be analyzed.             technology, but the system' selected will depend
                             The simplest method is a ducted supply and               upon the structure's volume, crew number, mis-
                          exhaust system with filters using the earth's               sion duration, and to some extent power source
                          atmosphere to provide air. This method is appli-            chosen.
                          cable to land-linked mining operations having                   Another problem is monitoring habitat atmos-
                          tunnels extending under the ocean floor or to               phere for contamination from materials and con-
                          shallow underwater habitats.                                surnables. Hardware in the market for both auto-

                                                                                                                                          VI-73

                                  matic and manual monitoring of atmospheric                  Three methods of air conditioning are available:
                                  contarninents must be considered. For most com-
                                  pounds, commercial detection units are available;        -Vapor compression.
                                  however, each has certain shortcomings. Manual
                                  sniffers are extremely reliable and should be used       -Absorption.
                                  for backup and checking automatic units. Many            -Thermoelectric.
                                  types of hardware have been employed in existing
                                  diving systems and submersibles.                            Vapor compression systems currently employed
                                     Components and materials must be screened as          in submarines are subject to leakage of refrigerant
                                  soon as preliminary designs are begun. Paints and        vapors at seals, valves, pipe joints, and control con-
                                  adhesives must be selected with care, for many           nections. Absorption systems, such as the lithium
                                  evolve toxic gases during deterioration. Consurn-        bromide type generally used, are extremely heavy
                                  ables brought into the structure must be con-            and bulky and have a low coefficient of perform-
                                  trolled, including lubricating oils, halogenated         ance. Both the vapor compression unit and the
                                  hydrocarbon solvents, and aerosol packaged prod-         absorption system use refrigerants hazardous to
                                  ucts. When passed through the catalytic burner,          personnel.
                                  many create such chemical derivatives as hydro-             For example, Freon becomes a personnel haz-
                                  chloric and hydrofluoric acid vapors, even more          ard at concentrations of 250 parts per million or
                                  dangerous than the original products. Similarly          higher. If not removed by the atmospheric control
                                  corrosion, fire, and explosion hazards must be           system, these vapors can contaminate the atmos-
                                  eliminated through constant surveillance.                phere during long periods of submergence. Fur-
                                     Emergency breathing stations should be in-            ther, Freon also can break down into more
                                  stalled in numbers to support the occupants while        harmful compounds in the presence of such high
                                  rescuing them from the station or raising it to the      temperature sources as cigarettes, galley ranges,
                                  surface. Such a system would have to be closed-          and pyrolytic burners.
                                  circuit to preclude excessive internal pressure             Various internal systems convert energy to
                                  build-up within the vehicle or station, unless           heat, which is ejected into the internal hull
                                  anticipated rescue time is very short.                   atmosphere. The heat must be passed overboard to
                                     Additionally, backpack breathing sets may be          the sea, and since many heat sources may be
                                  furnished for use in contaminated areas. These           localized, the associated heat removal devices may
                                  must be untethered to allow wearer to pass               be localized.
                                  through a lock. When personnel return from a                The magnitude of heat rejection associated with
                                  contaminated space, some of that atmosphere will         fixed and variable heat loads must be deterrnined.
                                  be brought into the general living compartments;         Fixed heat loads are generated by internal systems
                                  provision must be made -to control such contami-         which are required for performance of mission
                                  nation.                                                  functions but are essentially independent of crew
                                  b* Climate Control The function of an air condi-         life support requirements. Included are radiation,
                                  tioning system is to remove heat and humidity            convection, and conduction from hot piping,
                                  from air used as a heat sink by personnel,               machinery, and electrical and electronic equip-
                                  electronic equipment, and various auxiliary equip-       ment.
                                  ment. Within certain limits, control of compart-          . Variable heat loads are generated principally by
                                  ment temperature and relative humidity is neces-         life support functions. These include heat from the
                                  sary for personnel comfort and proper operation          waste and water system, galley, food storage
                                  of internal equipment.                                   refrigeration, laundry and showers, metabolic
                                     Design of the air conditioning system will be         water condensation, body heat, carbon dioxide
                                  influenced by:                                           absorbing equipment, and the oxygen recovery
                                                                                           and supply equipment.
                                  -Outside water temperature.                                 One approach to designing the heat rejection
                                                                                           system is to eject all waste heat to the sea through
                                  -The need to minimize the number and size            of  a single heat exchanger. An intermediate coolant
                                  pressure hull penetrations.                              can be used to collect waste heat from the various

                                  VI-74

                           systems. Alternatively, several heat exchangers            argues for a closed system, especially as depth is
                           inside and outside the pressure hull can be used.          increased.
                           Both approaches must be evaluated to determine
                           system layout, cost, and safety.                           d. Food Supply The food supply can range from
                              Another approach employs thermoelectric de-             the prepared variety used by astronauts to the
                           vices adjacent to a particular      heat source. This      kitchen-cooked meals served aboard nuclear sub-
                           eliminates movement of large volumes of air but            marines. The latter require space, equipment, and
                           requires electrical hull penetrations to a hot plate       additional atmosphere control equipment. Frozen
                           outside. Thermoelectric air conditioning can also          meals with wide menu selection and well balanced
                           be used as a heater by the reversal of the power           diet. could be furnished. Preparation would be
                           supply voltage.                                            minimal. Mission duration, crew size and composi-
                                                                                      tion, power source, and logistic procedures will
                           c. Water Supply Water is required at different             determine the most suitable system.
                           degrees of purity: potable water for drinking and
                           food preparation; fresh water for personal hygiene,        e. Waste Disposal       Solution of waste disposal
                           and rinse water in sanitation, laundry, and dish           must consider power and men available, mission
                           washing.                                                   duration, depth, and location of the habitat (or
                              Fresh water can be supplied from storage                operating depth of submersibles). Freezing or
                           tanks or extracted from sea water. For long                chemical systems supported by between-mission
                           missions and large crews, storage may be impracti-         replenishment would be most desirable for small
                           cal. Several types of fresh water machines are             to medium size crews (15 to 25 men) and less than
                           available. For very large installations, combination       120 days.
                           nuclear power generation and fresh water evapora-             However, for long missions and large crews
                           tion plants are possibilities.                             some mechanical means must be utilized. Blowing
                              Vapor compression units have been used suc-             -sanitary tanks with compressed air (as in conven-
                           cessfully on submarines and small surface ships for        tional submarines) requires greater amounts of
                           years; for steam driven ships, several firms offer         energy with increased depth; this method becomes
                           reliable compact units.                                    unpractical at great operating depths. In addition,
                              As part of water management, measures must              sewage must be removed from a habitat's vicinity
                           be taken to minimize water discharge. For exam-            to avoid contamination of intake water and to
                           ple, a system must be considered (similar to that          prevent disturbing the scientific environment.
                           used in commercial airlines) whereby toilets are              A closed system could store all liquid wastes in
                           flushed with water pumped at, high velocity from a         a waste receptacle containing a chemical disinfect-
                           drain collecting tank. The tank will accumulate            ant to arrest bacteria] activity. Garbage and fecal
                           effluent from showers and other sources.                   waste could be compressed, treated chemically,
                              In general, two basic water management con-             sealed in drums, and packed in freezer storage
                           cepts can be considered. The first is essentially a        space as food supplies are consumed. Trash could
                           closed system incorporating various forms of               be baled and stored. It is conceivable that little
                           regenerating waste water while storing on board            additional space and facilities would be required
                           waste products. It involves various filter processes.      for a closed system.
                           Little or no makeup water will be required in an
                           efficiently operating closed system.                       f. Habitability    Much work is being done in
                              The second system is the conventional open              human factors from a design viewpoint. In early
                           system that rejects unprocessed all waste water            design of habitats, little attention was paid to
                           overboard and utilizes sea water distillation as a         comfort, because major emphasis was on safety;
                           fresh water source. This is presently used aboard          however, that phase has passed. Because of con-
                           submarines. Fresh water from distillation is stored        centration on long periods of underwater habit-
                           in central tanks. Additional unprocessed water             ability, attention has been focused on the human
                           may be used for flushing toilets. However, the             factors.
                           differential between the normal internal atmos-              Habitability has become a major factor in
                           phere and the ambient pressure of the depths               designing for sustained system effectiveness. Cer-

                                                                                                                                        VI-75

                                  tain factors like ventilation and lighting may be         best .,choice will hinge on engineering analysis
                                  equated directly to performance errors during             considering vehicle or station characteristics, mis-
                                  operation. However, design of living quarters,            sion, and cost. Adaptation and improvement will
                                  recreation areas, and other nonoperational. facilities    be necessary as vehicles and stations become
                                  also can affect ultimate performance through              larger, operate deeper, and cruise longer, and as
                                  impact on morale, fatigue, and other factors.             higher standards or more difficult goals are intro-
                                      Other design factors less directly related also       duced. Reliability, maintainability, and endurance
                                  are, important. A significant considbration in the        must keep pa  'ce.
                                  crew's adjustment to isolation and confinement is             Problems remain with new hardware where no
                                  the availability of a safe, reliable escape method.       prior experience exists upon which to draw-for
                                                                                            example, the @overboard discharge of liquid and
                                  g. Personnel     More than any research project,          solid waste and the intake of sea water in
                                  nuclear submarines have shown that men can live           sufficient volume at depths to 20,000 feet.
                                  together in close confines for long periods. Person-
                                  nel selection, mobility, pleasant surroundings, ac-       3. Conclusions
                                  tivity to increase mental stimuli (school, music,             A.t depths greater than 2,000 feet, transfer of
                                  movies, machinery operation and repair, watch             sea water in and waste water out of a pressure hull
                                  standing), sanitary conditions, food preparation,         demands large energy consumption, a hazardous
                                  atmosphere, sleeping facilities, and crew size must       hull penetration, and hardware of special capabil-
                                  be considered in design of a manned underwater
                                  structure.                                                ities. Atmosphere control is by far the most
                                      Good communications keep up interest in the           difficult life support function.
                                  outside world and offset isolation. This has been             In air conditioning, factors influencing design
                                  experienced during Polaris patrols when emphasis          are outside water temperature and number and
                                  has been placed on information from families              size of pressure hull penetrations.
                                  ashore, although security regulations permit no               Utilization of energy by various internal sys-
                                  reply.                                                    tems results in heat which is rejected to the
                                      The effects of isolation and confinement upon         internal hull atmosphere. This ultimately must be
                                  human performance have been considered in                 ejected to the sea.
                                  recent manned space flight programs. Dramatic                 Operating depths greater than 2,000 feet have a
                                  changes have been observed in single individuals          major impact on design of internal systems.
                                                                                            Because of the danger inherent in taking aboard
                                  isolated for several days or weeks. In small groups       large quantities of sea water and the difficulty of
                                  (two to five individuals) some subjects developed         discharging waste water at this great depth, a
                                  regressive behavior and feelings of hostility, al-        carefully planned system of water inventory man-
                                  though anger seldom was expressed directly. Both          agement will be necessary.
                                  regression and hostility may, of course, be ex-               The solution to waste disposal must consider
                                  tremely detrimental to performance. The passage           power and men available, mission definition,
                                  of time usually increases the effects of other            depth, and location of habitat or operating depth
                                  stressful conditions like boredom, lack of com-           of submersible.
                                  munication, sexual deprivation, and machinery
                                  noise.                                                    Recommendations:
                                      To combat the negative effects described above,
                                  the habitability of both living and working spaces        A research and development program is needed to
                                  shouldbe enhanced. Several features in the current        provide safe, effective, econon-dcal pumps, valves
                                  Polaris system, for example" reflect that privacy is      and piping to transfer fluids and solids in and out
                                  important to those living in a confined space.            of pressure hulls at depths to 20,000 feet. As an
                                                                                            alternate, a completely dosed-cycle water and
                                                                                            waste system should be perfected.
                                  2. Future Needs                                               Other research and development work on life
                                      Life support functions now can be performed           support methods and equipment should be done
                                  by any of several methods and equipments. The             to support the national projects recommended in

                                  VI-76

                            Chapter 7 of this report and in particular the                                            Figure 26
                            undersea laboratories, stations, and vehicles.                         LARGE U.S. PRESSURE TEST FACILITIES

                                                                                              Maximum
                            11. TEST FACILIT        IIES                                        Static      Diameter         Length
                                                                                              Pressure                                   Location
                                The conquest of three       strange environments in             (PSI)          Feet           Feet
                            the last 30 years demonstrated the need for
                            complete and adequate testing. In striving for high                 20,000        4.0               8.0     IITR
                                                                                                15,000        5.0               8.3     Southwest Res.
                            altitude operation of military aircraft in the late                 15,000        4.0             20.0      NSRDC
                            19,30's and early A940's engineers quickly dis-                     io,ooo      10.0 Sphere                 NSRDC
                            covered that. operating conditions in the rarified                  10,000        5.0             10.0      NCCCLC
                            atmosphere above 10,000 feet were completely                         6,000        6.0             21.0      NSRDC
                            different.                                                           5,500        6.0             10.0      NCE L
                                                                                                 4,000        7.5             19.0      Southwest Res.
                                They were compelled to design and build                          3,750        4.0               8.5     Southwest Res.
                            entirely new environmental simulation facilities to                  3,000        6.0             10.0      NASL
                            test, evaluate, and qualify aircraft engines, electri-               1,300        8.0             28.0      Perry
                            cal systems, and mechanical systems. Development                     1,200        8.3             36.0      NOL
                            of the B-29 aircraft was delayed at least two years,                 1,200      11.5              33.0      NSRDC.
                                                                                                 1,200        7.5 Sphere                Southwest Res.
                            and the jet engine was delayed for an indetermi-                     1,000      .8.3              26.0      NRL
                            nate time beyond initial conceptual stages because                   1,000        7.0             14.0      Electric Boat
                            facilities did not exist.                                            1,000        7.5             19.0      Electric Boat
                                After the first supersonic flight in October                111TR - Illinois Institute of Technical Research, Chicago
                            1947, the aircraft industry encountered problems                  Southwest Res. - Southwest Research Institute, San
                            of adiabatic temperature rise in mechanical and                                Antonio, Texas
                                                                                              NSRDC - Naval Ship Research and Development Center,
                            electrical components due to ram air compression.                              Carderock and Annapolis, Maryland
                            Entirely new concepts of test equipment were                      NCCCLC - Naval Command, Control, and Communica-
                            essential to Simulate high altitude, high tempera-                             tions Laboratory Center, San Diego, Cali-
                            ture operation.                                                                fornia
                                The first Sputnik in October 1957 launched the                NCEL - Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,       IPort Hue-
                                                                                                           neme, California
                            world into the third new environment, the vacuum                  NASL - Naval Applied Science Laboratory, Brooklyn,
                            of space. Recent construction programs on large                                New York
                            and expensive space simulation facilities again                   Perry - Perry Submarine Builders, Riviera Beach, Florida
                            forcefully demonstrated that test facilities'niust be             NOL - Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, Maryland
                            provided to conquer a new hostile environment.                    NRL - Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D. C.
                                                                                              Electric Boat - General Dynamics, Electric Boat Division,
                            A. Simulation Facilities                                                       Groton, Connecticut

                            1. Current Situation                                                Few environmental tests have been conducted
                                Developing and utilizing the undersea frontier              on structures, external machinery systems, or
                            may face a completely unnecessary barrier-lack of               other deep submersible components. As structures
                            test capability to qualify, certify, and ascertain              and components are designed for lighter weight,
                            operational readiness and effectiveness of future               greater strength, and increasingly improved per-
                            deep operating equipment. Without this capability,              formance, it becomes necessary to utilize more
                            undersea development will be faced with failures,               advanced materials, which may affect the perform-
                            frustrations, wasted effort, and possible loss of               ance and fatigue life of the systems.
                            life.                                                               Navy data indicate that the fatigue life of
                                Within government and industry there are only               HY-140 steel may be only one-tenth that of
                            17 large pressure test facilities capable of simu-              HY-80 steel, and fiber reinforced plastic pressure
                            lating pressure to 2,270 feet (1,000 pounds per                 housings may have a very short life measured in
                            square inch) and five large tanks capable of                    only tens of cycles. Simple crush tests will not
                            simulating pressures to 22,700 feet (10,000 psi).               demonstrate expected performance. It will be
                            Figure 26 presents a summary of these facilities.               necessary to subject structures and components to

                                                                                                                                                     VI-77

                                    temperature and pressure low cycle fatigue tests,           production, they would require Navy simulation
                                    requiring extensive test time.                              facility expenditures exceeding $1 billion over the
                                       Once gross integrity of the hardware system              next 10 years.
                                    and- safety of man have          been,assured, it is         . If deep ocean programs merely doubled over
                                    important to determine mission effectiveness of             the next 10 -years,, existing and.@planned , test
                                    complex manned systems operating'ina challeng-              facilities would accommodate no more than 20 per
                                    -ing @ environment. Experience has indicated many.          'cent of the required development work, only 10
                                    occasions where complex interaction of vehicle,             per cent of required equipment testing, and no
                                    sensors, auxiliary systerns, and man require. prior         testing to certify the fully assembled. vehicle.
                                    analysis and simulation to determine overall effec-       -    Attempted use of off-the-shelf equipment on
                                    tiveness for mission goals. No'simulation facilities        essentially all existing vehicles forced in situ
                                    exist where relevant parameters including pressure,         testing and resulted. in a long list of equipment
                                    temperature, and salinity can be reproduced and             failures. The NR-I,is an exception; all subsystems
                                    maniliulated to assess their combined effects.              will be tested thoroughly before installation.
                                       Navy data indicate a tremendous deficiency in            Nevertheless, no facility exists to test the entire
                                    simulation test facilities, particularly for great          vehicle before launch. Initial at-sea operation
                                    depths.5 A deficiency of 430 test years in tank             without any equipment malfunction is the excep-
                                    sizes up. to 20 cubic feet at pressures over 15,000         tion rather than the rule., Because deep diving
                                    psi was noted, without including the need for               submersibles must have much equipment external
                                    low-cycle fatigue testing. This deficiency was              to the pressure hull, many new structural and
                                    calculated on currently defined five-year funding           external machinery problems are encountered.
                                    plans and did not provide for an increased national
                                    effort in the deep sea.                                     2. Future Needs
                                       "Equipment testing, to less than the full sub-
                                    merged operating pressures has.been-necessary due              Progress in undersea systems will necessitate
                                    to lack of adequate - test facilities. For example'         testing and evaluating equipment prior to selection
                                    available facilities restricted testing the pressure        and installation on vehicles. Testing, evaluation,
                                    hull for - the first Deep Submergence Rescue                and certification of whole. vehicle systems are
                                    Vehicle to only 2,700 feet rather than the poten-           needed to minimize failures during at-sea opera-
                                    tial 5,000 foot performance capability. The first           tions.
                                    Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV) capsule                 In  the decade 1970-1980, a proliferation of
                                    will be only static tested to its operating depth of        deep   ocean sirn ulat'ion 6cilities will be needed.
                                    20,000 feet-because no tank-will be available: for          When ..economical and. feasible, test facilities
                                    cyclic,testing until at- least two years after delivery.    should. have multiple capabilities. For example, a
                                                                                                vehicle test facility might be built to accommodate
                                    No chamber capable of cycling the DSSV or-
                                    similar capsule to operating depth is planned.              diver tests as wel,LRequirements include:
                                       Over the next five years, deep submergence-              -Certification and test   .facilities for small submers-
                                    programs will pinpoint operational problems en-             ibles to 20,000 feet.
                                    countered in sustained operations at 2,000 and
                                    20,000 feet. As feasibility of a.new generation of          -Certification and test facilities1or    full size deep
                                    -1-operational systems is demonstrated, new.. deep,         operating submarines and undersea stations.
                                    diving systems will be developed with markedly            " *       - I o                                      I    I
                                    increased capabilities.                                   I- ,-Anechoic test chambers for sonar equipment and
                                       Military systems could include deeper operMing           quiet operating machinery.
                                    attack submarines, new strategic missile -sub-              -C6astal, engineering facilities.
                                    marines, and bottom-sitting :oi bottom-mobile
                                    systems. If these vehicles 'were approved for               -Test facilities for pr .essure capsules and housings
                                                                                                to 20,000 feet.

                                         Navy Ship Research and Developm    ent Center,,Deep
                                    Sea Simulation Facilities Navy- Wide, Part 1, Report C        Facilities for testing external machinery and
                                    2515-1, (NSRDC, Annapolis, Maryland, 1967).                 power systems.

                                    VI-78

                        -Facilities for deep operating weapons and explo- capability is approximately 1,000 feet. A sectional
                        sives testing.                                         view of the arrangement is shown in Figure 27.

                        -Hyperbaric seawater aquaria to handle organisms
                        which live only at the deepest depths.

                                                                                       IGLOO
                        -Small hyperbaric tanks for capture, transfer, and                           RECOMPRESSION CHAASER
                        examination of specimens inhabiting the depths.                              INNER I= OUTER LM

                        -Facilities for calibrating, testing, and evaluating
                        oceanographic instrumentation systems.

                                                                                                                               ELDOEL
                        B. Hyperbaric Facilities
                                                                                                 TUNNEL
                        1. Current Situation                                                            DIVING TAW
                                                                                                        FFESSM NO PS
                                                                                                        I OEI OF 788
                                                                                                        FEEr I @ @R.
                           The term hyperbaric facility generally is applied                            -T!@ @UNEK"M
                                                                                                         22 FM @M
                        to a man-rated pressure chamber complex in-
                        tended primarily for experimental studies of hu-
                        man behavior and physiology under increased            Figure 27. Diving facilities at U.S. Navy Ex-
                        ambient pressures. Such facilities have been used      periental Diving Unit and Naval School for
                                                                               Deep Sea Divers. (Navy drawing)
                        for therapy and for commercial and military diver
                        training. Categories of man-rated chamber        uses
                        include:
                                                                                  The diving tank can be     filled to a depth of
                        -Medical and Experimental                              approximately eight feet.    A similar facility is
                           (1) Human 'physiological research                   planned for the Naval Submarine Medical Center,
                           (2) Clinical medicine                               New London, Connecticut. The complex at the
                           (3) Medical therapy                                 Medical Research Institute, being uprated to a
                           (4) Biology, especially marine biology              .1,000-foot capability, has a wet tank depth capa-
                                                                               bility of only three feet.
                        -Swimmer and Diver Development                            The 2,000-foot hyperbaric facility being de-
                           (1) Physiology, including decompression table       signed for the Navy Mine Defense Laboratory,
                                development                                    Panama City, Florida (Figure 28), when completed
                           (2) Equipment development, test, and evalua-        will be the largest, deepest, and most complete
                                tion                                           facility of its kind in the world. One' end of the
                           (3) Mission training and development

                        -Saturation Diver Work Systems Support
                           (1) Oil and mineral
                           (2) Salvage and construction
                           (3) Rescue and medical treatment                                           0
                           (4) Military

                           The Navy currently has hyperbaric chambers at
                        the Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda,
                        Maryland, and at the Washington, D.C., Navy Yard
                        Annex. The latter houses both the Experimental
                        Diving Unit (EDU) and the Naval School for Deep
                        Sea Divers, each having hyperbaric complexes
                        consisting of four connected pressure chambers.
                        An outer lock, an inner lock, and an igloo are on      Figure 28. Proposed multipurpose pressure fa-
                                                                               cility at Navy Mine Defense Laboratory. (Navy
                        one level, a diving tank below. Depth simulation drawing)

                                                                                                                              VI-79

                                   wet chamber has a full-diameter door providing           unacceptable. In addition, much work remains to
                                   access for small submersibles. Support systems           determine optimum decompression schedules. This
                                   planned include comprehensive data gathering,            is especially important since deep diving opera-
                                   evaluating, and monitoring devices and a computer        tions require several days of decompression.
                                   system to allow simulation of a large open ocean            Military activities -also will be expanding human
                                   area. Preprogramming of entire experimental runs         capability limits. Most marked needs will be in
                                   and automatic gas control will be possible. Use of       training and equipment evaluation. Industry is
                                   the chambers will concentrate on diver equipment         building additional hyperbaric facilities, but the
                                   development, evaluation, and training.                   main emphasis probably will be on exploiting and
                                      One industrial high pressure simulation facility,     consolidating diving capabilities to -depths around
                                   a three chamber complex, will go into operation in       1,000 feet. Test facilities with wet and dry
                                   early 1969 at Annapolis, Maryland. It is a               chambers will be needed to permit experimental
                                   1,500-foot facility with one water filled chamber.       diving to 2,000 feet.
                                   Support systems include a gas storage and distribu-
                                   tion system which makes possible charging any            C. Ocean Test Ranges
                                   selected chamber with air or other gas mixtures.         1. Current'Situation
                                   Decompression may be accomplished manually of
                                   automatically along a selected decohipression               Simulation facilities cannot reproduce certain
                                   curve.                                                   parameters of the ocean environment as the
                                      The largest currently operational hyperbaric          long-term fouling effects of marine life and the
                                   facility is at Duke University, Durham, North            acoustic effects of size. Test and evaluation of
                                   Carolina. Its five interconnected vessels have more      systems effectiveness during missions requiring
                                   than 9,000 cubic feet of volume. The largest, a          mobility, search, and use of acoustics generally
                                   20-foot sphere containing an operating theater, is       must be performed in ocean test ranges. Noise
                                   rated to 225 feet of seawater equivalent pressure.       quieting projects require anechoic characteristics,
                                   Three of the vessels, one a wet chamber, are rated       not yet satisfactorily simulated in a chamber.
                                   to 1,000 feet.                                              Many pieces of equipment which work well in a
                                      The University of Maryland and Ohio State             laboratory pressure tank fail in the hostile, un-
                                   University are building hyperbaric facilities with       known undersea environment. Part of the simula-
                                   1,000-foot capacity. A facility with a 1,600400t         tion problem lies in insufficient understanding of
                                   seawater rating is nearing completion at the             which parameters must be reproduced. In addi-
                                   University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.              tion, simply providing temperature and salinity
                                      Although there is widespread interest        among    control increases costs greatly. Thus, it is often
                                   the academic and industrial communities in ocean         desirable to use the sea environment for equip-
                                   related' research and hyperbaric medicine, the           ment development.
                                   substantial first cost and operating expense.deter          The Navy owns all but two of the operational
                                   many. Also, because the field is relatively new,         ocean engineering ranges (Makai Range in-Hawaii
                                   hyperbaric projects tend to be uncertain invest-         and the University of Southern California range on
                                   ments. More experience is required before the            Santa Catalina Island, California). Industry assists
                                   pattern for using these facilities is established with   the Navy in much of its range operations.
                                   confidence.                                                 The Navy's Atlantic Undersea Test and Evalua-
                                                                                            tion Center (AUTEC), with principal facilities at
                                   2. Future Needs                                          Andros Island, Bahamas, and St. Croix, Virgin
                                                                                            Islands, is conducting limited testing.
                                      Research will  be needed to better understand            When fully completed in 1970, the center will
                                   physiological phenomena, especially with the an-         have a wide range of capabilities to test, undersea
                                   ticipated increase in depth of routine operations.       vehicles, weapons, and weapon systems. Range
                                   In determining the I   imits of human endurance,         functions will include operational evaluation of
                                   experiments under closely. controlled conditions         advanced weapon systems and components, meas-
                                   are essential so immediate coffective action can be      urement of submarine noise and other target
                                   taken. In situ testing to determine human limits is      parameters, evaluation of antisubmarine warfare

                                   VI-80

                        exercises, calibration of low frequency sonar trans-     1969, upon installation of a portable seafloor
                        ducers, testing of sonobuoys, and test and evalua-       habitat complex (maximum depth 580 @ feet),
                        tion of oceanographic instrumentation and ocean          diving equipment, decompression facilities, and an
                        engineering developments. Like the model basin           operations control center.
                        facilities at the Naval Ship Research and Develop-          To test mobile systems, especially weapons,
                        ment Center, AUTEC can be made available for             ranges require detailed oceanographic surveys de-
                        commercial and scientific use. Becuase of its            pendent on precise navigational control and obser-
                        location, facilities may be valuable in biological,      vational techniques. Coordinated, closely spaced
                        chemical, fishery, and other studies.                    bottom samples, underwater photographs, and
                           An important undersea engineering range is the        depth records provide information for cable
                        Ocean Engineering Test Range operated by the             routing and bottom samples, structure design and
                        Naval. Undersea Warfare Center at San Clemente           emplacement. Data collection and emplacement
                        Island, California. This facility can be made            techniques will be augmented greatly by use of
                        available to civilian users on a cost reimbursement      deep submersibles on the AUTEC ranges (Figure
                        basis. The primary test area is a four by five mile      29). When the need for immediate, continuous
                        tract on the northeastern side of the island,            data are critical, permanent buoy arrays have been
                        featuring graduated plateaus to 4,000 foot depths        employed.
                        and a two dimensional underwater positioning                                                                   09
                        system.
                                                                                                                A@
                           The site was first developed for full scale Polaris
                        underwater launch tests and was also used for
                        Poseidon missile tests. The Navy's Sealab III
                        operation will be conducted at this location.
                        Planned additions include a marine railway, exten-
                        sive pier and breakwater facilities, and a distressed
                        submarine simulator to train crews of the Deep
                        Submergence Rescue Vehicle.
                           The range has a special purpose surface support
                        ship, the U.S.S. Elk River (IX-501), converted
                        from a World War 11 landing ship and initially used
                        to support Sealab III operations. It has a center
                        well, a traveling 65-ton gantry crane, and two deck
                        decompression chambers. The US. S. Elk River can
                        support diver and submersible operations in rela-
                        tively quiet waters.                                     Figure 29. Artist's concept of Navy's new
                                                                                 A UTEC research submarine as it works on
                           The Naval Civil    Engineering Laboratory, Port       ocean bottom obtaining scientific data by use
                        Hueneme, California, has developed techniques for        of instruments emplaced by its remotely con-
                        in situ testing to 6,000 feet in the open ocean.         trolled mechanical arms. (Navy photo)
                        Their devices include recoverable submersible test
                        units, which have carried materials samples for          2. Future Needs
                        periods exceeding one year, and a deep ocean
                        instrument placement and observation system for             In situ test ranges and facilities will continue to
                        in situ measurement of such parameters as shear          be important in measuring complete system effec-
                        and bearing strength of sediments.                       tiveness, instrument calibration, and long-term
                           The Makai Undersea Test Range is being devel-.        phenomena studies when pressure cycling is not
                        oped at Makupuu Point, Hawaii, and will include          important. In such cases, range testing may well be
                        capabilit ies to 18,000 feet within 80 miles of          less expensive than simulation.
                        shore. The range is being developed for man-in-sea,         Ranges must be fully developed and instru-
                        deep vehicle, and ocean instrumentation test and         merited and contain the proper facilities, including
                        evaluation. The man-in-sea facilities are nearest to     in some cases habitable undersea installations and
                        completion, scheduled for operational readiness in       submersibles. For testing systems sensitive to the

                                                                                                                                   VI-81
                            333-091 0-69-10

                                   environment, more abundant and accurate oceano-         Facilities for physiological research, medical train-
                                   graphic data will be required, probably through         ing, equipment development, and saturation diver
                                   greater use of submersible and advanced buoy            operational training *are grossly inadequate. The
                                   technology.                                             limits of human diving endurance cannot be
                                      Active participation by industry in establishing     determined safely in situ; closely controlled labo-
                                   and operating ranges benefits all marine activities.    ratory simulation is required. There exists a major
                                   For example, detailed bottom survey measure-            need for hyperbaric trained medical doctors. Fur-
                                   ments apply directly to ocean mining and to             ther, amateur divers often preempt government
                                   search and recovery. Equipment developed for            facilities for emergency decompression, further
                                   range monitoring can be applied in large scale          intensifying the facility shortage.
                                   environmental monitoring and prediction. The               Extensively surveyed and instrumented in situ
                                   wealth of experience accruing from installation,        facilities and ranges are being developed. These
                                   operation, and maintenance of various undersea          facilities have special advantages because of their
                                   systems will become part of the industrial base         size and total environment reproduction. Much
                                   needed to achieve the recommended national goals        work remains, however, to complete range instru-
                                   in the oceans.                                          mentation and provide such facilities with real
                                                                                           operational capabilities. Although in theory the
                                   D. Conclusions                                          Navy's ranges are available to civilian interests,
                                                                                           they quite appropriately must serve Navy needs
                                      The necessity of complete and adequate testing       first, thereby intensifying the shortage of range
                                   to conquer a strange environment has been vividly       facilities.
                                   demonstrated by aviation advancing into high
                                   altitude, supersonic, and space flight. The ocean
                                   environment is diffcult and will require a vast         Recommendations:
                                   array of test facilities to permit safe, orderly, and
                                   rapid progress. Prior operational experience has        A national facilities program should be estab-
                                   borne this out. Test facilities are a national          lished to (1) determine present and future needs,
                                   resource as important as any other single factor in     (2) develop and construct new facilities, (3)
                                   the advancement of marine technology. Insuffi-          improve test scheduling, (4) maintain an mi-
                                   cient facilities already have and will continue to      ventory of national capabilities, (5) provide cri-
                                   hamper the national ocean program.                      teria to choose between in situ and simulation
                                      Equipment, instrumentation, and systems de-          testing, and (6) establish a center of excellence in
                                   vilopment are impeded seriously by a lack of            the technology of test tank and range design. The
                                   environmental simulation facilities. Test tanks of      program's responsibility should include conven-
                                   two general types are needed to: (1) advance            tional and hyperbaric test tanks and in situ
                                   fundamental technology and prototype subsystem          facilities. Coast Guard efforts to develop diver
                                   and component evaluation and (2) evaluate vehicle       rescue decompression tanks (including chambers
                                   and system certification and effectiveness includ-      capable of being airlifted) should be related to the
                                   ing man-machine interrelationships. The former          program.
                                   category requires test tanks to simulate tempera-          Major efforts should be pursued to seek new
                                   ture, salinity, and pressure cycles to great depths.    and economical methods of simulation, including
                                   The latter requires larger, integrated facilities       such possibilities as concrete and fiberglas tanks.
                                   permitting dynamic duplication of relevant para-        Deep (2,000 to 20,000 toot) anechoic simulation
                                   meters.                                                 technology does not exist and should receive
                                      The forces of economic development, recrea-          special emphasis. If a breakthrough occurs, acous-
                                   tion, and national security already have moved          tic and noise suppression efforts will be greatly
                                   man into the sea; these forces will grow at an          enhanced through laboratory testing.
                                   increasing rate. Manrated hyperbaric facilities are        A significant increase in tank and range test
                                   needed for medical and physiological research,          capabilities is basic to the U.S. undersea program.
                                   swimmer and diver equipment research and devel          The importance of test facilities as a national
                                   opment, training, operational work, and rescue.         resource cannot be overstated.

                                   VI-82

                        III. DEEP.OCEAN ACTIVITIES                               operate reliably in the cold,, corrosive, high pres- -
                           Most nations border on and are affected by the        sure seawater environment. Successful- operations
                        sea; their people appreciate its power and hostility.    below 2,000 feet require new @approaches expected
                        An expression of determination by the United             to be valid all the way to 20,000-foot depths.. -
                        States @ to: go forward with a significant marine            Although in   'i'tial investment may,-be a little  "
                        technology program and to establish leadership in        higher, no important improvements in early pro-
                        the understanding and development of earth's last        gram schedule, or nearterm costs would occur if
                        frontier cannot go unnoticed. U.S. prestige-surely       the -deep ocean technology goal were set incre-,
                        would -be enhanced if it pursued the undersea            mentally at depths, of less than 20,000 feet.-The
                        frontier on its own initiative; the United States        same problems must be solved, and use of the best
                        would enter international deliberations on the           materials on hand- would be economically justified.
                        utilization of the sea in a position of strength         In fact, overall costs most likely would be higher
                        based upon knowledge and prior achievement.              for a program having depth goals set in progressive
                           Achieving exploration and assessment of the           increment&
                        ocean bottom, within 10 years and the capability             The sections following contain a review of the
                        to carry out useful operations in the depths within      kinds!of systems available and likely to evolve in
                        three decades requires new technology.                   performing useful missions in the undersea fron-
                         . The oceans are the operating medium of Amer-          tier. An assessment of the state-of-the-art is made
                        ica's foremost deterrent in maintaining the balance      with specific recommendations for the future.
                        of world power. The United States cannot take the        Expected- benefits range from military and scien-
                        risk that a potential antagonist might gain knowl-       tific to political, social, and economic.
                        edge the United States does not possess, thereby
                        seizing an undersea capability advantage.                A. Undersea Systems
                           In this report, thedeep, ocean is defined as open         Although nearly 10 years ago the Dieste went
                        ocean areas from the surface to 20,000 feet              to  the deepest part of the o   ,cean, nearly 36,000
                        beyond the 2,000-foot depth contour. The                 feet below sea level, submersible technology is still
                        2,000-foot contour was selected because it is            in its infancy. The deepest dive known for a
                        beyond the edge of the continental shelf and             -maneuverable nonbathyscaph was to 8,3 10 feet in
                        because 2,000 feet is the presently projected limit    -early .4968., Yet this craft is but a primitive
                        for advanced ambient pressure diving. The                forerunner of future submersible systems.
                        20,000-foot goal is important because it encom-              It is known that,all the way to the bottom
                        passes all but two percent of the ocean floor and        there is marine life and that high grade minerals
                        approximately 99 per cent of ocean volume. A few         exist on the seafloor. At the foot of continental
                        operations at intermediate depths, such as on            slopes sedimentary deposits are likely to contain
                        seamounts and midocean ridges, might justify             petroleum. Exploration and development of re-
                        exceptions to the goal.                                  sources will be@ enhanced by manned vehicles and
                           The step beyond 2,000 feet represents a tech-         remote systems that can operate.anywhere in the
                        nological challenge,.not so much against a poten-        water column.
                        tial adversary (although this cannot be certain),            It is a great advantage to the scientist to observe
                        but against a@ new Jrontier. ..The frontier exists       firsthand the environment he is studying. Ad           '-
                        primarily because there has not been a national          vanced marine technology can and must,give him
                        commitment to explore, understand, and master            basic tools to extend his senses into the undersea
                        this promising expanse.                                  frontier to unravel its great mysteries.
                           It should not be implied that the problems are            Surveys aria needed not only to understand and
                        not difficult, Experience indicatesi.that operations     measure environmental conditions but also to
                        below 2,000 feet are- limited by equipment and           determine areas worth exploring-what resources,
                        materials capabilities. Existing systems can per-        where, and in-what-concentrati.ons?-not, only on
                        form only small amounts of useful work. Tech-            the,shelf but also in the deep sea. At the same time
                        nical problems exist in developing high strength,        national security demands the ability to inspect,
                        low cost materials, compact long endurance power examine, or survey any area of interest in the deep
                        sources, and machinery and equipment that will           ocean or ocean bottom.

                                                                                                                                  VI-83

                                      Search, survey; and recovery systems to ex-             Submersible vehicles of alltypes-tethered and
                                   amine the bottom, much as one views land from a untethered, manned and unmanned-will be useful
                                   helicopter, arei- needed. Desirable capabilities in-    in ocean activities. Once each is developed to its
                                   clude hovering, close station keeping, precise          full capability, normal comparative studies will
                                   navigation, and the ability to return to a given        establish the range of conditions and operations
                                   spot. The system should be able to take biological,     for which each is most effective.
                                   geological, and chemical samples (including cores)
                                   and to map, make bathymetric: charts, photograph,       1. Submersible Vehicles
                                   listen, and touch. The floor must be explored to
                                   discover exploitable resources, to find hiding
                                   places, and to study seamounts, volcanoes, and             Submersibles have many      * operational advan-
                                   mud slides. A 20,000-foot depth capability will         tages. They function in an environment free of
                                   permit these operations in almost 99 per cent of        wave forces and the potential damage and limita-
                                   the world's ocean volume, covering 98 per cent of       tions imposed by adverse weather. They provide
                                   the ocean's floor, excepting only the deep tren-        an ultraquiet platform for acoustic studies. They
                                   ches.                                                   can take advantage of the force of buoyancy to
                                      New vehicles and equipment will be     needed to     emplace or recover objects and, perhaps most
                                   support and maintain more fixed, portable, and          important, they can bring man into the oceans for
                                   mobile undersea systems. As Dr. John P. Craven,         observation and work.
                                   Chief Scientist of the Navy's Deep Submergence          a. Current Situation      Operational submersibles
                                   Systems Project has said, "In the long run,             have demonstrated limited usefulness in several
                                   underwater transfer is the key to effective use of      exploration and inspection tasks. Many special
                                   the ocean depths." Therefore, a key secondary           purpose oceanographic submersibles exist in a
                                   mission for rescue vehicles will be underwater          wide variety of configurations, hull materials, and
                                   transfer to. supply habitats, stations, and sub-        depth capabilities. Of the 82 proposed or existing
                                   marines not in distress. Such vehicles would            vehicles for which operating depths are known, 24
                                   provide deployed underwater installations freedom       (29 per cent) are planned for operations to at least
                                   from surface support.                                   6,000 feet and only 12 (15 per cent) for opera-
                                      Inherent to practicability of these vehicles is      tions to 20,000 feet. The operating 20,000-foot
                                   substantial. payload capacity. For example, the         submersibles can be classified as unmaneuverable
                                   Navy's Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle will be          bathyscaphs. Additional technological advances
                                   able to carry internally only 4,300 pounds of           are necessary to d  evelop capability for work at
                                   personnel or cargo. Ambient pressure, wet cargo         great depths.
                                   carriers will benecessary to transport thousands of        Typical submersibles (Figure 30) now in opera-
                                   tons, especially for mining, construction, salvage,     tion have pressure hulls generally of ring-stiffened
                                   and the deployment of instruments and equip-            cylinders or spheres made of high strength steel.
                                   ment.                                                   Maximum speeds vary from two to five knots,
                                      The Navy has been pursuing actively its Deep         mission endurance from 4 to 30 hours, and range
                                   Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) and Deep              from several miles to about 100 miles.
                                   Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV) projects and             Submersibles usually are powered from bat-
                                   is conducting preliminary studies on a Deep Ocean       teries located external to the pressure hull, and
                                   Survey Vehicle (DOSV) and a Deep Ocean Tech-            have external propulsion motors. Ballast systems
                                   nology (DOT) test bed vehicle. These projects are       typically involve both soft or free-flooding tanks
                                   of the utmost importance to extend U.S. capa-           blown for additional freeboard and surface stabil-
                                   bility and knowledge of the undersea frontier.          ity and tanks or dropable weights to change
                                   Search and rescue projects certainly should receive     buoyancy at great depths.
                                   high priority, since the world has lost an average of      A number of technological deficiencies have-
                                   two submarines per year in peacetime. Recently a        reduced the efficiency and potential usefulness of
                                   one-half million dollar isotope power source was        submersibles. Most are highlighted here; more de-
                                   recovered off the Pacific Missile Range after a         tailed discussions may be found in the appropriate
                                   long, extensive search.                                 subsections of this chapter, pages 29-77.

                                   VI-84

                                                          Figure 30. Typical commercial submersible.
                                                          vehicles currently operational to depths of
                                                          1,000 feet or more

                                                                                                              U(;H

                                                                                                BEAVER IV

                       Alurninaut. (Reynolds Aluminum photo)                    Roughneck. (North American Rockwell photo)

                                                                                                              A L

                                                                                r

                      Ben Franklin. (Grumman photo)                             Deep Quest.  I(Lockheed photo)

                      Deepstar-4000. (Westinghouse photo)                       DOWB.   (General Motors photo)

                                                                                                                                 VI-85

                                    Shelf Diver. (Perry Submarine Builders photo)              Star III. (General Dynamics photo)

                                        Electrical cable failures have resulted from           fatigue strength. Critical limitations exist in ad-
                                    tearing by bubbles forming and expanding inter-            vanced materials fabrication techniques and testing
                                    nally upon ascent. Connectors with adequate                methods.
                                    insulation and reliable disconnect properties are
                                    not available. Essentially no switches, relays, or         b. Future Needs Vigorous pursuit of ocean activ-
                                    fuses have been designed for ambient operation.            ities will require continuing development, not only
                                    Usually standard equipment designed for use in air         of fundamental technology but also of submersible
                                    at atmospheric pressure has been modified for              systems. Submersible use can be forseen in many
                                    undersea use by emersing it in oil, which has led to       ocean activities:
                                    some failures attributed to carbon deposits. Per-
                                    forniance of AC and DC electric motors generally           -Fish behavior   and location studies and undersea
                                    has been poor because of bearing and insulation            fish harvesting.
                                    failures.
                                        Small submersibles have been severely limited          -Undersea core drilling, site surveying for pipe-
                                    by heavy, bulky, inadequate battery power sources          lines and structures, and operations to complete,
                                    which require time-consuming recharging. Manipu-           inspect, maintain, and repair botto.'-sa petroleum
                                    iators have proved unreliable primarily because            production installations.
                                    of electrical distribution and motor difficulties,
                                    water intrusion, and poor control systems.                 -Mineral surveys, evaluations, and observation of
                                        Hydraulic systems operated at very high differ-        seafloor mining operations.
                                    ential pressures have failed becasue of water              _Search, identification, and recovery of lost ob-
                                    intrusion and incompatibility with certain mate-           jects.
                                    rials. Lubricants operating in high pressure have
                                    caused bearing failures and efficiency losses due to       -Cargo and personnel transfer to undersea installa-
                                    increased viscosity. Pressure compensating oil and         tions. Saturated diver delivery to work sites.
                                    gasoline used for buoyancy have serious drawbacks          .Support of scientific studies of coastal and
                                    of combustibility and bulk modulus.
                                        Underwater communications, navigation, and             oceanic processes including observation, measure
                                    positioning systems and equipments for norunili-           ment, and sampling.
                                    tary submersibles are too limited in range and             _Ocean surveillance and mapping.
                                    accuracy. Materials are deficient in strength-to-
                                    weight ratios, toughness, corrosion resistance, and        -Support of underwater equipment.

                                    VI-86

                          To effect operations, submersibles must be          One of the best known one-atmosphere diving
                       designed to fulfill performance criteria for depth,    chambers is the bathysphere in which William
                       endurance, speed, payload, instrumentation, and        Beebe descended to a record depth of 3,028 feet
                       working tools. The vehicles themselves are only        in 1934. Submersible work chambers used in diver
                       one part of a total system which includes shore        operations are another type of manned, tethered
                       bases, support platforms, transportation to work       system. Some have dual compartments, one at
                       sites, maintenance equipment, supply logistics,        one-atmosphere pressure and the other at ambient
                       supporting instrumentation and tools, and person-      sea pressure with provision for diver entry and
                       nel. Integrated design of the entire system is         exit.
                       necessary for optimum performance.                        Probably the best known unmanned tethered
                          Exploration submersibles will be needed to          submersible is the Navy's Cable-Controlled Under-
                       support studies directed toward utilizing and          water Recovery Vehicle (CURV), operated from a
                       exploiting the oceans. The functions of personnel      surface ship and carrying equipment for photo-
                       and light cargo transfer and of search and rescue      graphy, television observation, limited search, and
                       should be included in their capabilities wherever      retrieval of small objects (Figure 31). Such a
                       practicable. Based on the state-of-the-art of man-     vehicle has unlimited endurance, low initial cost,
                       ned and unmanned deep submergence vehicles and         and a capability for round-the-clock operation.
                       an examination of anticipated requirements, sub-       The Navy has under construction a CURV type
                       mersible characteristics can be determined for         vehicle capable of operation to 7,000 feet.
                       many anticipated technological development tasks
                       with a minimum number of vehicle configurations.
                       Characteristics should not be constrained by the
                       current technology; rather, they should anticipate
                       subsystems and components compatible with         fu-
                       ture scientific, government, and industrial require-
                       ments in the deep ocean.
                                                                                                                            ;'M
                          Submersible requirements for both shelf (to
                       2,000 feet) and deep ocean (to 20,000 feet)
                       depths include:

                       -Power sources.

                       -Propulsion machinery and     control, variable bal-
                       last, and electrical distribution.
                                                                              Figure 31. Navy's cable-controlled underwoter
                       -Pressure hull, outer hull,   and buoyancy mate-       recovery vehicle, CUR V II (Navy photo)
                       rials.

                       -Navigation and positioning equipment, obstacle           Bottom crawling or rolling submersibles may be
                       avoidance and search sonar.                            tethered or untethered, manned or unmanned.
                       Amproved manipulators and controls.                    Several have been built for special purposes. In
                                                                              many cases, obscured vision from disturbed sedi-
                       -Magnetic and seafloor anchoring.                      ments limited mission effectiveness. However, a
                                                                              bottom crawler would be suitable on hard sedi-
                       -Underwater communications and viewing.                ments or when turbid water viewing systems (like
                                                                              acoustic imaging) become available. Recently a
                       -Emergency escape.                                     research submersible operated very successfully
                                                                              along the bottom by ballasting slightly heavy and
                       2. Unmanned and Tethered Vehicles                      riding on Wheels.
                                                                                 In recent years, several successful tethered
                       a. Current Situation Tethered submersibles his-        unmanned vehicles equipped with special instru-
                       torically were typified by diving bells or chambers.   ment suits have been built. Cable controlled or

                                                                                                                               VI-87

                                    selfpropelled, they have been used for deep ocean           Undersea construction and salvage will require
                                    search, survey, and research. Examples include the       heavy duty work systems-the counterparts of
                                    Naval Research Laboratory's towed search system          dredges, power shovels, bulldozers, tractors, pave-
                                    used to locate and identify much of the wreckage         ment layers, trucks, pile drivers, plows, drills, and
                                    of the submarines Thresher and Scorpion at about         cranes. Cable controlled or cable towed devices
                                    8,500 feet and the commercial ocean bottom               will be hampered and endangered by obstructions,
                                    side-scanning sonar platforms.                           nearby traffic, and concentration of similar devices
                                       A self-propelled, torpedo-like instrument pack-       at a given work site. The hazards of cables suggest
                                    age with a preset internal guidance system has           wireless control links from the control station to
                                    been developed with 14,000-foot depth capability         the device. An alternate approach might be small
                                    for the Navy. The probe, 122 inches long and 20          manned submersibles to serve as control cabs from
                                    inches in diameter, is launched from and tracked         which operators direct and monitor large work
                                    acoustically by a surface ship. The system has been      devices.
                                    used for oceanographic and acoustic research-               The competitive marketplace or comparative
                                    gathering data on sound velocity, thermal proper-        studies for military systems will determine which
                                    ties, and other physical properties on magnetic          devices-manned or unmanned-will best serve
                                    tape. Sinking instrument packages, launched from         particular needs.
                                    a ship and later recovered when ballast or an
                                    anchor is released, are another example of a             3. Transport and Support Submarines
                                    successful unmanned submersible platform.
                                    b. Future Needs As      .more efficient underwater       a. Current Situation Transport submarines have
                                    observational equipment and tools for underwater         b.een considered seriously for commercial use from
                                    cutting, welding, grappling, hooking, drilling, and      time to time. In contrast to surface vessels having
                                    controlled lifting become available, a vastly ex-        speed, safety, scheduling, and passenger comfort
                                                                                             governed to a large extent by weather, submersi-
                                    panded era of undersea construction, salvage,            bles can operate in an environment essentially
                                    mining, and recovery will evolve through use of          quiet and predictable.
                                    unmanned and tethered vehicles and platforms.               With the advent of nuclear power, advanced
                                    The state-of-the-art has progressed well, making         structural materials and fabrication techniques,
                                    possible design and construction of a wide variety       and development of submersibles for military
                                    of equipment for special application. Further            applications, the technical and economic feasi-
                                    development is needed to improve endurance,              bility of transport submarines continues to im-
                                    accuracy, control, reliability, compactness, manip-      prove. For transoceanic voyages, the transport
                                    ulation, and depth capabilities.                         submarine has been suggested seriously as a carrier
                                       Gross bottom reconnaissance for site selection,       of bulk liquids weighing less than water.
                                    geological searches, geodetic surveys, and biolog-          A market will exist for recreational submersi-
                                    ical sampling will require a Variety of unmanned         bles with large viewing ports if costs   Iare not too
                                    instrument platforms. In some cases, multipurpose        high. A submersible recently was a top tourist
                                    systems may be a less expensive, quickly available       attraction in Lake Geneva even though the bottom
                                    interim substitute for manned submersibles.              there is quite unspectacular.
                                       An advanced sea elevator, derivative of the
                                    diving bell, may effect transfer of man and              b. Future Needs Whereas some products recov-
                                    materials from surface support ships and platforms       ered from the sea will be transported via pipelines,
                                    to deep ocean installations on or in the sea floor.      conveyors, and s   urface vessels, submarine cargo
                                    It might carry as many as a score of men and             carriers probably will be needed between offshore
                                    supplies to depths as great as 20,000 feet. Eventu-      production sites and such intermediate points as
                                    ally, its function may be assumed by transport           undersea processing stations, storage tanks, and
                                    submersibles, free from severe waves and weather         surface platforms. A strong need will exist for
                                    and saving a step in materials handling. The sea         submersible support submarines as high endurance
                                    elevator also may be displaced or supplemented by        motherships for deep operating manned or unman-
                                    pipelines, air lifts, conveyors, and other mechan-       ned submersibles engaged in search and rescue,
                                    ical equipment.                                          wide-area ocean surveys, site selection, communi-

                                    VI-88

                        cation-navigation aid emplacement and mainte-             of submarine warfare emphasizes the necessity for
                        nance, and salvage-especially in regions where            preeminence in this field of military, readiness. The
                        ice and severe weather predominate.                       submarine in the past has developed two of the
                           The mother submarine could be the forerunner           principles of warfare to a fine quality-those of
                        of an undersea logistic vessel supporting a sub-          surprise and offensive.
                        merged Navy and a variety of manned bottom                   Since World War II a development has taken
                        installations, Further, it could be a mobile under-       place which has revolutionized the art of sub-
                        sea support laboratory. Significant performance           marine operations and made possible the true
                        parameters of this mobile support submersible,            submersible. No longer is the submarine forced to
                        recommended as a National project, would in-              depend on the atmosphere for battery- charging
                        clude:                                                    and human habitation. This development, the
                                                                                  adaptation of nuclear power to naval propulsion,
                        -Depth capability of        at least 1,000 feet. A        has enabled radically new concepts to be at-
                        2,000-foot depth capability is desirable if the           tempted.
                        primary technology to be developed (submerged                Many factors, some military and others civilian,
                        support) is not compromised.                              should be considered in the development and
                                                                                  construction of military submarines. Russia and
                        -Submerged endurance of at least 30 days, but             China are placing increased emphasis on the
                        modest speeds of five to 10 knots. Nuclear power          undersea area and are building submarines at an
                        would be desirable.                                       increasing rate. Commercial offshore technology
                        -Transport, launch, recovery, logistic support, and       development and resource recovery activities
                        command control capabilities for small sub_               (particularly oil and gas) are accelerating. The
                        mersibles.                                                capability to protect domestic ocean industry is a
                                                                                  Navy responsibility that must enlarge as offshore
                        -Saturated diver lockout, support, and decom-             activity expands. Even if international regulation
                        pression to at least 1,000 feet, preferably 2,000         and registration are established for deep sea areas,
                        feet as recommended above. Bottom sitting capa-           this capability is vital to national interests.
                        bility required.                                             All of these activities influence Navy programs.
                                                                                  In addition to well-established roles. of antisub-
                        -Retrieval and transportation of objects beyond           marine warfare (ASW) and missile launching,
                        the lift capacity of small submersibles.                  requirements for such missions as surveillance,
                        -Oceanographic data collection and survey capa-           intelligence gathering, inspection, and logistics
                        bility.                                                   support forecast an expanded military subsurface
                                                                                  role.
                        Anternal and external servicing of submersibles              The U.S.S.R. has not remained unimpressed by
                        while submerged. This servicing, would largely be         the advantages of submarine warfare systems; that
                        performed by saturated divers either in the water         strong nation maintains a huge submarine fleet and
                        or in an ambient pressure compartment.                    is rapidly converting its fleet to nuclear propulsion
                                                                                  without sacrificing numbers. It is important that
                           In addition, designs for transport and submersi-       the nation as a whole be apprised of this and hence
                        ble support submarines and for special terminals,         lend support to future oceanic plans and programs.
                        including modification of existing ports and devel-          Wartime ASW includes detection, classification,
                        opment of underwater ports, will be needed.               localization, attack, and destruction of enemy
                                                                                  submarines. U.S. submarines have benefited from
                        4. Military Submarines                                    an extensive quieting program, and it would be a
                                                                                  mistake to assume that the Soviets cannot.accom-
                        a. Current Situation Many        factors are focusing     plish a similar objective. Long term reliance on
                        upon one unassailable conclusion-the importance           present sonar detection, classification, and locali-
                        of the military submersible in modern warfare.            zation systems cannot be an acceptable alternative.
                        The advantage gained by concealment under the             Research and development on ASW implications
                        surface is of great importance. The historic success      of additional depth capability to the sound chan-

                                                                                                                                    VI-89

                                  nel and beyond are extremely important and              ocean, not simply at the limited depth near the
                                  should be emphasized.                                   surface in which submarines now operate. They
                                   . Theconcept of depth has not been neglected in        may also choose to consider- the far more challeng-
                                  the postwar era. The advent of HY-80 steel has          ing problem of being able to identify a submarine
                                  made possible the deeper employment of military         or even bottom crawler that has secreted itself
                                  submarines. In addition, other materials have been      amongst the hills and valleys of an irregular
                                  utilized for special Navy and civilian submarines,      bottom or is simply sitting on a seamount. Just as
                                  generally smaller in size than the military type.       higher altitude performance for aircraft has paid
                                  While much progress has been made in this field,        off whether it be for combat or for surveillance,
                                  new construction materials and fabrication tech-        the extended depth capability of the submarine
                                  niques must be emphasized as they will be needed        suggests the same potential benefits.
                                  to satisfy future requirements.
                                     The US.S. Albacore has made many contribu-              Submarine-based strategic missiles are vital to
                                  tions to submarine technology. The nuclear-             U.S. deterrent capability. It has been postulated
                                  powered oceanographic submersible, the NR-1, has        that in the future substantially more U.S. strategic
                                  great promise as an instrument both for oceanic         missiles may be sea-based, not only because of
                                  investigation to serve national needs and for           reduced vulnerability but also because of the
                                  experimenting with possible future military needs.      special advantage of separating military targets
                                     The recently conunissioned U.S.S. Dolphin will       from large populations.
                                  'investigate the tactical advantage of deeper depths       Leadership in understanding the oceans be-
                                  and is a triumph for imaginative planners. The          comes more important when it is realized that
                                  Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle, soon to be             America's key strategic deterrent is contingent on
                                  completed, will provide a capability for personnel      concealment, mobility, dispersion, and very long
                                  rescue from any military submersible either in          patrol time. Greater depth capability would pro-
                                  being or planned. The Alvin, a Navy-sponsored           vide a much vaster operating volume and in some
                                  development, was a key recovery vehicle in the          areas, a bottom sitting capability, thereby attain-
                                  Palomares (Spain) operation where an aircraft-          ing improved concealment.
                                  carried nuclear weapon was located and recovered
                                  in 2,600 feet of water.                                 b. Future Needs Man's projected sea activities
                                     The importance of deep oceans has not di-            will demand even more accent on new ideas and
                                  minished since the House Committee on Science           concepts for underwater effort. Where man goes,
                                  and Astronautics in July 1960 reported:                 his problems go, and this extrapolates into possible
                                                                                          new areas for conflict. The fledgling deep sea
                                  This phenomenon [deep sound channel] may                industry will grow in importance and demand
                                  serve to introduce to contention by those inter-        sophisticated protection systems.
                                  ested in the sea that the most urgent reason for           The seas suggest that they are the ideal locale
                                  penetrating the full depths is military. The sea        for locating strategic deterrence systems. Away
                                  conceals its contents. This gives the submarine its     from populations centers, the missile-carrying sub-
                                  enormous advantage of concealment and the c6n-          marine is provided with a cloak of concealment
                                  comitant property of surprise. Even with exceed-        which defies countering systems. Indeed, the
                                  ingly sensitive devices to measure the sub's disturb-   Polaris submarine is a triumph of modern science
                                  ance of the earth's magnetic field, detection from      and technology and provides an option of an
                                  the surface becomes more and more difficult as          assured response. The modern attack submarine is
                                  the craft dives deeper. It may take a deep-diving       a key factor in anti-submarine warfare and un-
                                  sub to catch a deep-diving sub [emphasis added].        doubtedly will play an ever-increasing role in'this
                                  Military strategists may thus consider how much         regard.
                                  more difficult the problem of detection would be           The Navy should accelerate its efforts to attain
                                  if the entire sea were a military arena, that           a limited ability in the oceans' third dimension and
                                  submarines were extremely -quiet requiring the use      operate effectively to 20,000 feet within two
                                  of active sonar for discovery and searching were        decades. To facilitate going deeper, studies should
                                  necessary throughout the entire volume of the           be accelerated to determine the feasibility and

                                  VI-90

                           effectiveness of carrying weapons external, to             porate a maximum number of subsystems in spite
                           submarines. In addition, many technological ef-            ,of the premium of space and weight on the
                           forts discussed in this section on undersea systems        vehicle. Some subsystems, like navigation, record-
                           -and in earlier sections on- fundamental technology        ing, readout, display,.aii& monitoring might be
                           will Airectly benefit- deeper operating military           located-aboard the.,support vessel. Support vessels
                           systerAs.                                                  should be designe&and procured as an integral
                           I Considered from a      different perspective, tech-      part of the submersible,system.
                           nology developed by 1975 might permit construc-               In open ocean areas, especially in ice and severe
                           tion of a combatant submarine by 1980 (very                weather regions,, submersible support submarines
                           -possibly of radically different design) capable of        will be needed. They will have the special advan-
                           operating at 4,000 to 8,000 foot depths. Materials,        tages of all weather availability, and covertness.
                           welding techniques, penetrations, controls and              . With the advent of the Albacore hull, HY-80
                           displays, and other advanced technology being              steel, submerged missile launching, and nuclear
                           developed for the Navy's DSRV, DSSV, and                   propulsion in the 1950's, great advancements were
                           Nuclear Research Vehicle (NR-1) should be con-             made in naval seapower. In recent years the
                           sidered for incorporation. The construction of             promise indicated by the Aluminaut, the Trieste,
                           some submersible military systems capable of               the NR-1, titanium, glass, ceramics, HY-180 steel,
                           20,000-foot operations should be considered.               syntactic. foam, fuel cells, free flooded machinery,
                           Coupled with an extensive research and develop-            and advanced sensors and controls suggest yet a
                           ment program, such systems might provide future            new era in naval seapower.
                           operational flexibility and an understanding of the
                           tactical value of depth.

                                                                                      Recommendations:
                           5.` Conclusions'
                                                                                      Development and construction of exploration sub
                            Small submersibles     capable of descending well         mersibles should begin immediately with. a goal of
                           beyond 2,000-foot depths already exist. As fixed,          operations to 20,000 feet in less than 10 years for
                           portable, and mobile habitats are established in           prime assigments in the forthcoming decade of
                           deeper waters, improved submersibles will be               exploration of earth's last frontier. These vehicles
                           required for site selection and elementary con-            should have maneuvering agility, sample-taking
                           struction. Underwater...transfer by high payload           and, small object recovery capabilities, and irn-
                           vehicles-.will. be a key to deep @ocean use. A useful      proved sensors. A National Project for an Explora-
                        -challenge is foreseen in providing 20,000-foot-;.            tion Submersible with 20,000-foot capability will
                           long-endurance- exploration submersibles to help           directly contribute to these developments. The
                           explore and assess the deep ocean within 10 years;         Navy-planned 20,000-foot DSSV should be pro-
                           20,000-foot work vehicles will follow on a sched-          -duced,with high priority because 'of its potential
                           ule dictated by needs rather than technology.              benefits to other national goals.     % -
                           Survey and work submersible prototypes will                  Work vehicles with high payload& should be
                           evolve from current vehicle technology and will be         produced as the next priority. Although to serve
                           adapted to meet concurrent needs for rescue,               undersea installations, they should be developed
                           salvage, research, and transport assignments.              for adaptation by such commercial interests as
                           4n addition,, a Yariety -of tethered, devices like         fishing, petroleum, and mining. Tethered work
                           sea elevators, instrument platforms, remote work           vehicles of the-sea elevator variety also should be
                           platforms, observation platforms,@ andi bottom             pursued for the transport of. men@:and materials.,
                           crawlers will be needed for such operations as             from surface or' submerged support, platforms,
                           bulldozing and..mineral recovery.-They could be            bottom sites, and structures.
                           available well within 10 years for 2,000-foot              . Unmanned instrument platform and remote
                           operations and later as needed for servicing under-        operating probe technology should continue to be
                           sea habitats at 20,000 feet.                               .developed. Cableless control should receive atten-
                           : Deep submersible systems may have overlooked             tion so that unmanned systems.are not automa-
                           some special possibilities. Current. designs incor-,.,     tically ruled out by cable considerations.

                                                                                                                                         VI-91

                                      Support systems should be an, integral part of       mineral extraction, sea food production, and
                                   submersible systems development. First priority         underwater transportation facilities.          w     .
                                   should be given to a submarine support system              However, environmental constraints establish
                                   that is itself a continental shelf work system and      many common technological needs. Of basic im-
                                   can handle deep submersibles- in a totally sub-         portance to site selection, construction, and em-
                                   merged mode. A National Project for a Mobile            placement operations are underwater soil mechan-
                                   Undersea Support Laboratory should be developed         ics, terrain features, and bottom currents. There
                                   within five years. Support systems are needed for a     are common needs to develop power sources,
                                   variety of purposes including supply terminal and       distribution systems, materials, viewing systems,
                                   logistic functions, power, and life support regen-      communication equipment, life support systems,
                                   eration. A prototype submerged harbor facility          and waste management and contaminant control
                                   compatible with submarine support ships should          systems. The fabrication, emplacement, assembly,'
                                   be constructed within 10 years.                         inspection, maintenance, operation, ingress/egress,
                                      The panel is pleased to note current Navy            and repair of undersea installations will place
                                   studies on new combatant submarines and their           severe demands on the entire spectrum of undersea
                                   roles. The panel endorses in concept the programs       technology.
                                   and funding levels recommended by the Deep                 Technology for underwater installations will
                                   Submergence-Ocean Engineering Program Planning          result in part from extended current marine
                                   Group.                                                  technology on mobile undersea vehicles, terrestrial
                                      The  programs recommended by the study               civil engineering, and classic naval architecture. In
                                   group'combined with those recommended by this           addition there will be new design, analysis, and
                                   panel are intended to be responsive to the national     building techniques acquired from studies of pro-
                                   need.                                                   totype installations and component and subsystem
                                      Cooperative efforts are imperative between the       experiments conducted in relatively large test
                                   naval and civilian technology groups to determine       facilities.
                                   how programs of mutual interest are undertaken             The capability to utilize the continental shelf
                                   and to facilitate the very important function of        and deep ocean areas continuously may assist in
                                   technology transfer.                                    preserving future rights of access to ocean depths.
                                      The panel believes that the national interest is     The recognized U.S. 3 mile limit of the territorial
                                   best served by having a strong technological            seas and the disputed 12 mile limit claimed by
                                   capability in both sectors.                             several nations comprise the only areas that
                                      All possible encouragement is given to the Navy      currently can be occupied legally.
                                   to.. increase its subsurface capabilities to operate       It is possible that international law will extend
                                   anytime, anywhere, and at any depth.                    the territorial sea concept seaward and allow areas
                                                                                           adjacent to bottom-oriented activities in the deep
                                   B. Deep Ocean Installations                             oceans to be occupied legally. Availability of
                                                                                           technology and capability to operate in ocean
                                      Undersea installations, portable and fixed, will     bottom areas will encourage utilization of under-
                                   have a variety of purposes. Nearterm tasks will         sea resources and will complement mobile capabili-
                                   include understanding the environment, surveil-         ties described in the previous section on undersea
                                   lance, testing, and exploration of living and non-      systems.
                                   living resources. Future uses may include territo          Within 10 years, all segments of the economy-
                                   rial protection, undersea command and control,          industrial, academic, and goverriment-may have
                                   missile and submarine basing, industrial processing,    undersea installations on the continental shelves,
                                   and power generating stations. Characteristics of       and short-time visiting will occur on the slopes,
                                   underwater observatories or laboratories will de-       seamounts, and in deep sea areas. Because of
                                   pend on surface, water column, and sea floor            immediate capability and convenience, initial ac-
                                   conditions.                                             tivity will concentrateon the shelves. However, a
                                      Plants, stations, and bases must be compatible       vigorous decade of technology development will
                                   with operational constraints. For example, petro-       permit use of selected deep ocean areas for
                                   leum recovery installations will differ from solid      commercial or military operations.

                                   VI-92

                         I - Sea Floor Habitats                                         For similar sizes, fixed bottom structures will
                         a. Current Situation      The United States has not        be cheaper than portable habitats. However, for
                         placed any habitats      at depths below limits of         maximum response, to changing situations, and for
                                                                                    work at several locations the more extensive
                         saturated diving. Such deep habitats require pres-
                         sure vessels in which     a one-atmosphere environ-        development and added construction expense for
                         ment can be maintained. Vehicles capable of                transportability will be justified.
                         transporting men and materials to a bottom in-                 Such stations and attendant      transfer and logis-
                                                                                    tic vehicles could be positioned where military or
                         stallation'will be needed to allow the habitat to          commercial needs require, such as.for recovery of
                         remain on the bottom. Power sources, life support,         scallops or nodules or for an extended salvage
                         and operational equipment must be contained
                         within the habitat or in a satellite installa.     Ition,  operation. Ocean exploration will disclose new
                                                                                    areas for exploitation in which the ability to move
                         because permanent wire cable contact with the              manned habitats quickly may be a key to profit-
                         shore or surface is undesirable.                           able returns.
                            One advanced concept is the Naval Civil Engi-              Underwater inspection, maintenance, and repair
                         neering Laboratory's Manned Underwater Station             will become increasingly important because deteri-
                         (Figure 32), designed for 6,000-foot depths. The           oration usually accelerates with time. New tools,
                         station consists of two main cylinders, one for            equipment, and nondestructive inspection tech-
                         habitation and one for a nuclear        power source,      niques must be developed; the last, in particular,
                         with small   access  and observation    spheres above      will be a formidable challenge. Underwater instal-
                         and below.                                                 lations must be specially designed for maintenance
                                                                                    and repair in a manner compatible with submers-
                                                                                    ible capabilities. Improved materials that resist the
                                                                                    sea environment will be another important factor.

                                                                  k
                                                                                    2. In-Bottom Habitats
                                                              %6_

                                                                                    a. Current Situation Construction of in-bottom
                                                                                    habitats will depend on tunneling techniques long
                                                                                    used for railroad, subway, automobile, and water
                                                                                    tunnels. Over 100 undersea mining complexes
                                                                                    exist under many tens of square miles of continen-
                              lij
                                                                                    tal shelf involving thousands of linear miles of
                             ax
                                                                                    openings. As many as 4,100 men work in a single
                             r                                                      undersea complex (Figure      33). However, all these

                         Figure 32. Artist's concept of a manned under
                         water station. (Navy drawing)

                         b. Future Needs The first portable bottom labo-
                                                                      date only
                         ratories and stations will likely accommodate only
                         small crews of 15 to 25 men. However, if mining,
                         industrial, or major military operations suggest the       Figure,33. Machine shop located in a mine
                         desirability of bottom installations, they may             1,500 feet below sea level off Newfoundland
                         become substantially larger.                               coast. (Navy photo)

                                                                                                                                       VI-93

                                     mines have been established by tunneling from                location will be required. These tasks imply
                                     land. None opens to the water column. To                     vehicles with large capacity power sources or
                                     construct in-bottom habitats or mines far from               availability of a power supply submersible or shore
                                     shore or in seamounts and on midocean. ridges,               power source. They also imply the need for
                                     tunnels driven directly from the sea floor will be           reliable large-scale external machinery, including
                                     required.                                                    motors and drives.
                                         There are three different tunneling system                  There may be a requirement to establish foun-
                                     requirements: in rock, in soft ground, and opencut           dations by such methods as pile driving on the
                                     ditches dredged from the surface. In all cases,              seafloor. More data and prediction methods are
                                     thorough preliminary. geological investigation and           needed concerning the bearing capacity of large
                                     test borings are essential.                                  diameter piles.
                                         In recent years great advances have occurred in
                                     boring machines for use in soft rock. Such                   3. Conclusions
                                     machines have many cutter bits mounted on a
                                     large cutter head with a diameter equal to that of              Dr. Carl F. Austin, of the Naval Weapons
                                     the bore. The largest boring machine in the United           Center,' China Lake, Calif., has said of undersea
                                     States has a cutter head 20 feet in diameter with            installations:
                                     43 cutter bits; five 200 hp motors rotate the head           The technology to work and live beneath the sea
                                     at 3.5 rpm. The Soviets have developed a 284oot
                                     diameter borer. A 10-foot bore has been driven as            floor is in hand at 'the present time for water
                                     much as 375 feet in one day and 6,713 feet in one            depths over the entire continental shelves of the
                                     month. Advances up to 4,000 feet per week may                world excluding areas of permanent ice cover. Let
                                     be achieved within the next decade.                          us learn to use this technology to our economic
                                     b. Future Needs In-bottom installations will be              and national advantage.   6
                                     constructed where large concentrations of men
                                     and equipment are to be assembled for extended                 Deep ocean installations will be required for
                                     periods. Sites especially suitable for tunneling are         such activities as understanding the environment
                                     seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, and large rock out-             and its processes, study and exploitation of living
                                     crops on the continental slope.                              and nonliving resources, surveillance, terminals and
                                         To date, boring machines have proved econom-             bases, and underwater power and processing
                                     ically feasible only in such relatively soft rock as         plants. A capability to utilize the slopes, sea-
                                     sandstone and shale. Studies are under way to                mounts, and deep ocean basins may be the best
                                     develop machines to bore harder rocks, Future                and surest way of preserving freedom of access to
                                     development should be directed at completely                 the land masses under the high seas. Manned
                                     mechanized and automated tunneling procedures.               stations-beginning with portable or emplaced
                                         Rapid tunneling at reduced costs depends on              types and followed by more permanent in-bottom
                                     perfecting boring machines and on such comple-               types-can achieve continuous deeply submerged.
                                     mentary technology as instrumentation to probe               operations.
                                     formations for water flows, grouting, guidance and             Prototype ambient pressure habitats have been
                                     control, lining, and material removal. A need also           built for continental shelf depths, and one-
                                     exists to develop systems for remote unmanned                atmosphere habitats could be built for limited
                                     operation at deep ocean sites.                               endurance missions at much greater depths using
                                         Work vehicles will be needed to perform such             existi ng submersible technology. Many technolog-
                                     functions as foundation preparation, leveling, and           ical needs of both habitats and submersibles are
                                     drilling. Machines analogous to bulldozers, back-            similar. On the other hand, certain technology for
                                     hoes, cranes, and emplacement systems will be                bottom habitats is in its infancy, such as under-
                                     able to take advantage of the buoyancy provided
                                     by water.
                                         'Systems for boring and drilling into the bed or            6Carl F. Austin, "Manned Undersea Installation",
                                     side of a seamount and for placing drill pipe or             Proceedings of the Conference on Civil Engineering in the
                                                                                                  'Oceans, American Society of Civil Engineers, September
                                     other surface powered devices into an exact                  1967,p.8X

                                     VI-94

                         water soil mechanics, foundations, site prepara-              Sudden storms and fog affect surface support.
                         tion, and underwater* construction equipment.              Other hazards include accidental explosions, espe-
                            Commercial mining ventures might be consid-             cially in areas containing undetonated mines or
                         ered forerunners of in-bottom facilities. Undersea         torpedoes, and operator error resulting from physi-
                         mines have been in operation off the coast of              cal or mental ill health.
                         England for over 350 years. Tunnels have been                 Deliberate enemy attack could involve forces
                         built under the continental shelves; however,              ranging from conventional depth charges to nu-
                         tunnels have never originated under water. Such            clear explosives. Research is needed to determine
                         operations might be required for searnount labora-         characteristics of explosions and other hazards at
                         tories or links between bottom-sitting stations.           great depth. Anticipation of hazards is necessary
                         Precise underwater surveying and positioning, un-          to design,. fabrication, installation, certification,
                         derwater grouting and boring, and heavy equip-             and qualification of undersea systems and their
                         ment technology are all in their infancy in relation       crews.
                         to undersea construction.                                     Several hazards directly associated with under-
                                                                                    sea systems-structural failure, power loss, and
                         Recommendations:                                           fire-perhaps are to be most guarded against. Such
                         Underwat  er working operations will require coor-         dangers should be anticipated and minimized.
                         dinated development in many basic engineering
                         and component areas. Data are needed on the                1. Safety and Certification
                         interaction of waves and currents with an installa-
                         tion. Adequate underwater power sources, equip@            a. Current Situation Orderly progress into the
                         ment, and tools must be developed. Visual obser-           undersea frontier demands that safety engineering
                         vation, television, and viewing equipment will he          start during the design process, rather than
                         required as well as command and communications             holding safety reviews of completed plans and
                         systems. Improved materials will be required for           actions. Certification of manned vehicles, sea
                         reliable and long-fife installations.                      elevators, deep diving equipment, and undersea
                            Technology to support bottom occupancy                  habitats should be the responsibility of a qualified
                         should be undertaken. This includes construction           group-
                         work systems, underwater precision surveying, soil            Comparative safety of undersea systems is an
                         mechanics, foundation techniques, and submers-             important factor in determining marine insurance
                         ible boring machines. Developing systems for               rates, a substantial addition to the cost of undersea
                         underwater construction without surface support            operations. System safety and certification are
                         could be economically rewarding.                           equally important to assure that an item is safely
                           An isolated station emplaced on a seamount               designed, well built, and adequately tested. Certifi-
                         should receive high priority. Within 20 years              cation is a continuing process that includes con-
                         laboratories should be established in waters as            cern for safe operation, maintenance, and over-
                         deep as the Mid-Atlantic   Ridge, and before the end       haul.
                         of the century an ocean bottom station at 20,000              It is important that fire, one of the worst
                         feet should be built.                                      hazards, be extinguished rapidly. Fire control
                                                                                    systems use multipurpose powders, gases, foams,
                         C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and Salvage                  or water delivered by portable extinguishers, fixed
                                                                                    pipelines, or manned hoses. Such new agents as
                           To support undersea activities, it will be neces-        high expansion foam have been tested and have
                         sary constantly to examine technological progress          possible undersea application. The National Aero-
                         and prepare for potential hazards. Loss of life in         nautics and Space Administration, with a similar
                         undersea operations would be not only tragic but           closed environment problem, has developed infor-
                         could be detrimental to the national effort.               mation on fire fighting and fire prevention tech-
                           Natural hazards include uncharted obstacles,             niques that may be applicable.
                         mudslides, sudden strong shifts of subsurface                 Whatever the technique, it must work fast; total
                         currents, marine organisms, tsunamis, and such             combustion of one pound of cellulose-like material
                         long-term effects as corrosion and fouling.                in a short period generates smoke, toxic gases, and

                                                                                                                                      VI-95

                                     enough heat to raise the temperature 500 degrees          -Minimize and/or isolate sources of ignition.
                                     in a 12-foot sphere.
                                        No single agency is assigned responsibility for        Materials to be used internally should be tested for
                                     safety and certification. The Navy has published a        flammability and behavior at high temperature.
                                     certification manual, Material Certification Proce-       Methods to suppress fire with powder or inert gas
                                     dures and Criteria Manual for Manned Non-                 will not be feasible without auxiliary oxygen
                                     Combatant Submersibles (NAVS1-11PS Publication            breathing apparatus. In compartmentalized vehi-
                                     #0900-02802010), which applies to vehicles on             cles the crew must be able to retreat from a fire
                                     which Navy personnel are diving. Legislation pro-         sea] off the area, and oxygen-starve the fire or
                                     posed to Congress would vest in the Coast Guard           extinguish it with built-in systems.
                                     responsibility to certify undersea systems.       Both        An authority for control of ocean system
                                     the Marine Technology Society (MTS) and the               safety, certification, operation, and maintenance is
                                     American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) are issuing             needed, possibly similar to the combined Federal
                                     guidelines for safety and certification of manned         Aviation Administration/Civil Aeronautics Board
                                     submersibles. The guides are similar in many              control over aircraft. The group could serve as a
                                     respects. MTS's Safety and Operational Guidelines         source of information on system safety and, like
                                     for Undersea     Vehicles will serve as an initial        Underwriters Laboratories, could develop lists of
                                     standard for the industry, while the ABS guide,           safe materials, equipments, and methods. It would
                                     willingly or unwillingly, will be followed by those       investigate accidents, report on causes, and make
                                     who wish to enjoy the reduced insurance pre-              recommendations to preven     .t recurrence.
                                     miums compliance would bring. The Deep Sub-                   The Coast Guard seems the logical agency to
                                     mersible Pilots Association (DSPA) has published          exercise this authority. Appropriate legislative
                                     Guidelines for the Selection, Training, andQualifi-       action would be required to extend the control
                                     cation of Deep Submersible Pilots. This material          now vested in the Coast Guard for surface ship
                                     was contained in early form in the MTS guidelines         activity to underwater operations. Its authority
                                     and now is available in revised form from DSPA.           would extend over the safety of vehicles, diving
                                     All these documents will be very useful to the            chambers, underwater power plants, diving sys-
                                     operator and the prospective operator of undersea         tems, on-bottom and in-bottom underwater habi-
                                     systems. None, however, to date has the force of          tats, and underwater storage facilities. Criteria for
                                     law.                                                      review authority would be that a failure could
                                     b. Future Needs Research programs are needed              affe.ct human life and safety, seriously disrupt the
                                     to , determine the likelihood of accidents, the           environment, or damage property. of a second
                                     extent of danger, and methods for anticipating the        party.
                                     hazards involved. This information should be made         2. Search and Rescue
                                     available to the designer.
                                        Emergency escape capability is needed. One             a. Current Situation The Navy has a surface fleet
                                     approach is the detachable buoyant crew capsule,          of 10 submarine rescue vessels (ASR) which carry
                                     used on Alvin and the Autec vehicles, operable by         McCann chambers. Dependable operation of the
                                     the crew or by rescue teams. Another is to develop        chambers requires diver support. As a result of
                                     points for easy attachment of lift cables.                recommendations of the Deep Submergence Sys-
                                        Protection from fire is one of the most severe         tems Review Group (DSSRG) following the loss of
                                     problems. Technology must be developed to:                the U.S.S. Thresher, the Navy (DSSP) has placed
                                                                                               contracts for two Deep Submergence Rescue
                                     -Minimize the presence of combustibles.                   Vehicles (DSRV). The first DSRV will be ready
                                                                                               for sea trials in 1969 and will be operational in
                                     -Precipitate or remove smoke particles rapidly.           1970. Design studies for another DSSRG recom-
                                                                                               mended system, the Deep Submergence Search
                                     -Inhibit the spread and duration of fires.
                                                                                               Vehicle (DSSV) to operate at 20,000 feet, have
                                     -Extinguish fires without overloading air purifica-       been completed, and a prototype vehicle contrac-
                                     tion systems.                                             tor has been selected.

                                     VI-96

                               Although both vehicles can be used for search          have manipulators that could be used to a limited
                            purposes, the DSSV has no undersea rescue capa-           extent to free entangled vehicles.
                            bility, and the DSRV capability is limited to                 The Coast Guard has the major responsibility
                            submarines modified for the purpose. On April 26,         for search and rescue at sea. It has joined with
                            1968, Hon. Paul Ignatius, Secretary of the Navy,          industry to develop expertise and tools necessary
                            in an address to the National Convention of the           for effective search and rescue. A Mutual Assist-
                            Navy League, Honolulu, made the following an-             ance Rescue and Salvage Plan (MARSAP), now
                            nouncement concerning utilization of the DSRV             being formulated, will provide the Coast Guard
                            by non-U*.S. Navy groups:                                 with a limited, interim capability for undersea
                                                                                      rescue.
                            I am pleased to announce at this time that the              . The  search phase of at-sea operations depends
                            United States is willing to share with other              on the   search rate and the search party's naviga-
                            nations the obvious benefits provided by the              tional accuracy. With aircraft and airborne radar
                            Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle. A document               the rate for surface search can be quite high,
                            has been prepared giving details and technical            perhaps 4,000 square miles per hour. Underwater
                            specifications of this submarine rescue system            search, however, undertaken by surface ships
                            which will be available to foreign navies on request      towing sensors or by submersibles, is extremely
                            through normal diplomatic channels. Nations in-           slow-about 0. 1 square mile per hour-as indicated
                            terested in this rescue system can modify their           by the Scorpion search.
                            submarines so that in the event one becomes                   This underlines the major reason for the high
                            disabled on the ocean floor, it can be mated with         cost of underwater search-the search rate. Better
                            the US. rescue vehicle. nis is another example of         surveillance of surface and underwater traffic can
                            this country's willingness to cooperate i   .n ocearn  .c improve locational accuracy, thereby decreasing
                            programs.                                                 the time and expense of search operations.

                              The DSRV mates to the escape hatch of the               b. Future Needs        The Coast Guard, working
                            submarine, and rescue is accomplished by direct           closely with the Navy, should be given responsi-
                            transfer of personnel from the stricken submarine         bility for search and rescue operations in the
                            to the rescue vehicle (Figure 34). The DSRV,              undersea frontier. It should work closely with
                            DSSV, and numerous other small submersibles               safety and certification experts in industry to
                                                                                      establish standards to minimize undersea acci-
                                                                                      dents. When determined practical by the Coast
                                                                                      Guard, safety and rescue apparatus (such as
                                                                                      tracking pingers, lifting eyes, and standard mating
                                                                                      hatches) should be required on undersea systems.
                                                                                      As the number of undersea vehicles and installa-
                                                                                      tions grows, control over vehicle movement will
                                                                                                     ssary, especially in congested or re-
                                                                                      become nece
                                                                                      stricted areas.
                                                                                          Divers and submersibles will be called on to
                                                                                      perform a variety of search, location, and identifi
                                                                                      cation tasks. These will be an essential part of
                                                                                      most salvage and rescue operations unless a target's
                                                                                      position is precisely known and the area is not
                                                                                      susceptible to ocean currents or sediment trans-
                                                                                      port. Reliable, high-resolution sensors to locate
                                                                                      small objects resting on cluttered bottoms- or in
                                                                                      sediment will be necessary.
                                                                                          Identification is a real problem. Visual observa-
                            Figure 34. Artist's concept of the DSR V.                 tion is the most reliable technique, yet is slow and
                            (Navy photoj                                              difficult without a maneuverable high endurance,

                                                                                                                                         VI-97
                                333-091 0-69-11

                            (including constant tension winches and computer          -Search, location, and identification systems.
                            solutions of buoyancy and stability problems) are
                            required. Needed are advanced attachment devices          _Lift systems.
                            to lift large, cumbersome items. A special problem        -Recovery, attachment, and viewing systems and
                            is containing and recovering dangerous liquid             tools.
                            cargoes.
                              Recovery operations at increasing depths will           Recommendations:
                            necessitate developing submersible systems with
                            specialized heavy duty external equipment. For            The Coast Guard should set standards and inspect
                            certain. applications, hovering capability during         and certify safety engineering of undersea systems.
                            operations, creation of excess buoyancy for lift, or      It should conduct research and development to
                            attachment of a recovery device to an object will         identify hazard sources, safe materials, equip-
                            be -necessary. Under conditions that obviate              ments, and methods, and document means of
                            optical observation, sensors will have to define          coping with emergencies that may occur in under-
                            precisely the position of tools relative to the           sea vehicles, structures, and operations. A principal
                            sunken object. A family of recovery devices will be       objective should be the interchange of information
                            necessary to accommodate the number of shapes,            among government and industrial designers, opera-
                            sizes, and types of objects.                              tors, and other agencies concerned with safety and
                                                                                      certification. Efforts of the group established to
                            4. Conclusions                                            develop a Mutual Assistance Rescue and Salvage
                                                                                      Dl-- ASAID40ADI --- -- ----1- -Z                  @--

                                     manned submersible equipped with observation                         Recovery of small objects from depths below
                                     systems, precise position systems, and digging and                diver capabilities has been accomplished. The
                                     scraping tools.                                                   Navy's CURV and several commercial systems
                                                                                                       have recovered numerous torpedoes on test ranges.
                                     3. Salvage and Recovery                                           However, when an object is lost in an uncharted
                                     a. Current Situation          Presently there exists a            area of rough terrain (as off Palomares, Spain) the
                                     substantial capability to locate, identify, and                   search, identification and recovery problems are
                                     recover small objects at continental shelf depths                 magnified. Relief maps of the area intist be
                                     and large objects in shallower water. In excep-                   prepared. At Palomares, they were based mostly
                                     tional efforts, recovery has been achieved at                     On observation by television cameras mounted on
                                     greater depths. The Navy large object salvage                     CURV and extensive extrapolation by graphic arts
                                     program was directed at combining surface ships,                  personnel.
                                     lift equipment, and divers to lift submarines and                    Great depths-2,850 feet at the Palornares
                                     other wreckage from depths of 850 feet. Unfortu-                  recovery point (Figure 36)-further complicate the
                                     nately, only limited funds have been available to                 operation. The lost weapon slipped several times
                                     support development in this area.                                 to greater depths. Had it slipped down the next
                                         The best salvage and recovery system depends                  steep slope, recovery by the CURV would have
                                     on the geometric configuration, condition, prox-                  been precluded by the added depth, and recovery
                                     imity to the shoreline, depth, and extent of                      by any existing system would have been doubtful.
                                     flooding and burial of target. A small surface vessel.
                                     with divers and manually controlled equipment
                                     may suffice for small objects in clear, shallow                                                          (D 1150
                                                                                                                                              3-C
                                     waters. In other operations, it could be necessary
                                     to employ large, deep
                                                                 -diving work vehicles oper-
                                                                                                                                           7(@*
                                     ating as part of a more complex system.
                                         The surface vessel approach to salvage opera-
                                     tions is obviously limited by diver depth capabilim                                                               2 Ism ft
                                     ties.  Hollow structures (like airplanes or cabin
                                     cruisers) n-dght be raised from shallow depths by
                                     filling with low-density foam (Figure 35). Durin
                                                                                                   9
                                     the Sealab 11 Pro ect in 205 feet of water, a foam
                                                          i                                                                                          @ .,.@ I I@3
                                     formed of resin, catalyst, and methylene chloride
                                     delivered through hoses by a diver-held gun was
                                     introduced inside an airplane hulk.            It displaced
                                     enough water to raise the hulk.

                                                                                                       Figure 36.  Bottom   topography off Palomares,
                                                                                                       Spain, site of nuclear weapon recovery. Points
                                                                                                       of interest are: (1) original point of weapon's
                                                                                                       impact on bottom,    (2) position to which it
                                                                                                       slid, it was first sighted, and first recovery
                                                                                                       attempts were made, (3) take-off point of
                                                                                                       CUR V unmanned vehicle for first recovery
                                                        milk.                                          attempt, (4) position of weapon after second
                                                                                                       slide, (5) ftnal lift-off point for successful re-
                                                                                                       -very. (Navy photo)

                                                                                                       b. Future Needs Better underwater observation
                                                                                                       and terrain mapping equipment, power sources,
                                     @igure 35. Artist's concept of a sunken air-                      and tools are needed for recovery operations.
                                     crailt being prepared for salvage by divers.                      Better underwater cutting, welding, grappling,
                                     (Navy photo)                                                      hooking, drilling, and methods to control lift

                                     VI-98

                                         Because of expanding industrialization and                       However, one critical problem is enforcement
                                     trade, increased leisure time, and greater dispos-                of existing standards. Research indicates that if
                                     able incomes of growing populations, the near-                    strict enforcement were applied to primary treat-
                                     shore zone has been under increasing pressures,                   ment, if each industry followed good pollution
                                     resulting in serious degradation in many places.                  control practices, and if industry would plan
                                     Multiple use of this zone must be carefully                       systematically new facilities with adequate incor-
                                     planned to accommodate the interests of recrea-                   porated advanced pollution control, pollution
                                     tion, science, waste disposal, and commercial                     would be abated effectively.
                                     development.                                                         This section is addressed only to some advanced
                                         Pollution, long a growing problem, now has                    pollution monitoring techniques and to sea oil
                                     reached proportions requiring not only positive                   pollution problems. Section V-D discusses restor-
                                     control but active restoration in some nearshore                  ative measures specifically applicable to fresh
                                     areas. Coastal scientific and engineering efforts are             water lakes.
                                     necessary to gain a better understanding of shore
                                     processes, to halt harmful erosion of beaches, and
                                     to restore selected coastlines toa useful condition.              1. Current Situation
                                         The Coast Guard role must be broadened and
                                     reinforced to provide the necessary services associ-              a. Advanced Pollution Monitoring Techniques
                                     ated with preserving nearshore areas. These serv-                  An example of an advanced pollution monitoring
                                     4            **@l
                                     .- - -             *- +11. -finn'C llfili7nfinn r)f thp.          --+,,-A                                       Ppeparrh and

                             -Estimating and mapping salinity patterns of                         The imagery -also disclosed that the salt water
                             estuaries under optimum thermal-salinity relation-               front during flood tide diverts the polluted river
                             ships.                                                           discharge to the southern shore and over the
                             -Delineating drainage patterns of - tributaries                  shallow shellfish areas, thereby causing contamina-
                                                                                              tion. Data collected orf temperature, salinity, tidal
                             having heavy overhanging foilage.'
                                                                                              fluctuations, etc., provided -a standard for semi-
                             -Identifying well mixed and poorly mixed estu2                   quahtitiative interpretation of the imagery. Dis-
                             aries.                                                           advantages of the infrared system are that it is not
                             -Identifying bed and bank sediments.                             an all-weather reconnaissance system, it reveals
                                                                                              nothing about the type of pollutant, and it
                             -Locating offshore bars and breaker regions.                     determines relative, rather than absolute, temper-
                                                                                              atures.
                             -Monitoring construction of such harbor                  engi-      Other successful experiments using airborne
                             neering structures as jetties, docks, groins,            etc.,   infrared systems for thermal pollution studies are
                             and their effect on circulation patterns and             sedi-   being conducted in the Columbia River at Rich-
                             ment dispersal.                                                  land, Washington. Infrared' imagery and radio-
                             -Locating sources of pollution having thermal                    metric measurements are being collected from
                             characteristics.                                                 aircraft, and the data are being processed by
                                                                                              several computer techniques developed to produce
                             -Detecting both submarine and terrestrial springs.               qualitative and quantitative displays. One is used
                             -Studying water turbulence.                                      for qualitative evaluation of thermal data from a
                                                                                              three dimensional color display (Figure 37).
                             -Recording wind streaks, hence wind direction.

                             -Locating shoal areas.
                             -Locating sea ice and identi6ng its type, age, and
                             fracture patterns.

                                Studies using infrared were conducted in 1966
                             on the Merrimack River Estuary, Massachusetts,
                             by the.U.S. Geological Survey. Airborne infrared
                             imagery was obtained in August and September of
                             the estuary from Haverhill to Plum Island at low,
                             flood, high, and ebb tides.
                                From the imagery, thermal effects of papermill
                                                                                                                                              Li   04 I'A S I j@@
                             waste, its diffusion in the river at various phases of
                             the tidal cycle, and individual sewage outfalls were
                             detected easily. Estuarine flushing was found to
                             vary widely in different parts of the lower estuary.
                             The surface expression of the freshwater-seawater                Figure 37. Oblique three-   dimensional display
                             interface could be seen clearly.                                 of infrared image collectedover Columbia
                                Infrared imagery in the Merrimack study pro-                  River near nuclear reactor site of the Atomic
                             vided a synoptic, integrated, comprehensive, and              .  Energy Commission's Hanford Project.
                             rapid method to detect pollution sources involving               (Battelle Northwest photo)
                             thermal differences. It was useful in determining
                             circulation patterns in the estuary. The imagery                    Turbulence patterns and mixing zones near
                             provided a synoptic view of the estuary surface's                atomic reactor coolant discharge points in the
                             thermal condition at high, low, flood, and ebb                   Columbia River are being determined. Isothermal
                             tides. It precisely delineated the salt water front at           maps of the river surface are being plotted. The
                             flood and high tides and defined the main channel                rapid scanning infrared imaging systems obtain
                             at low and ebb tides.                                            measurements that reveal detailed turbulence and

                                                                                                                                                    V1_101

                                    rnixing zones otherwise extremely difficult, if not
                                    impossible, to define. Isothermal plots of the river
                                    surface indicate the magnitude and @ aerial distri-
                                    bution of the heat discharge to the river. Hot
                                    spring development along the river bank, due to
                                    discharge of reactor coolant into a trench near the
                                    river, also has been defined.

                                                                                             S7
                                    b. Oil Pollution and Other Hazardous Substance
                                       Pollution of the environment by oil and other
                                    hazardous materials can occur almost anywhere at
                                    any time. Some recent examples in the Un ted
                                    States and its possessions are:

                                    -San Juan, Puerto Rico (1968). The tanker, S.S.               Figure 39. Pelican caught by great oil slick
                                                                                                  from tanker S.S. Ocean Eagle. (Coast Guard
                                    Ocean Eagle, carrying 5.7 million gallons of crude            photo)
                                    oil from Venezuela, ran aground, broke in half,
                                    and spilled more than 2 million gaflo.nslof oil in
                                    the water (Figures 38 and 39).
                                                                                                  miles of coastline, including recreational beaches,
                                                                                                  and many ducks and other waterfowl were killed.
                                                                                                  The source of the material was not determined.

                                                                                                  -Long Beach, California (1966). A levee around
                                                                                                  an oil company's holding pond broke in a storm,
                                                                                                  and 200 barrels of crude oil were dumped into the
                                                                                                  harbo r.

                                                                                                  -Missouri River (1966). A chemical company's
                                                                                                  storage tanks ruptured, discharging 50,000 gallons
                                                                                                  of ammonium hydroxide, 100 tons of molasses,
                                                                                                  and 1,000,000 gallons of liquid fertilizer into the
                                                                                                  river.

                                    Figure 38. Oil streaks from derelict bow sec-                 -Mississippi River (1965). A hurricane sank a
                                    tion of oil tanker S.S. Ocean Eagle. (Coast                   barge loaded with 600 tons of chlorine, necessi-
                                    Guard photo)                                                  tating evacuation of area residents in Louisiana
                                                                                                  during salVag6 operations.
                                    -York River, Virginia (1967). The Liberian regis-
                                    tered tanker, S.S. Desert Chief lost between 500              -Spring Oeek, Missouri         (1965). Railroad tank
                                    and 1,200 barrels of crude oil during unloading               cars containing 20,000 gallons of cresylic acid and
                                    operations. An estimated 10 miles of the york.                40,000 gallons of high octane gasoline were
                                    River and several recreational beaches were fouled,           derailed, spilling their contents into the creek. Fish
                                    and waterfowl were killed.                                    were killed, and groundwater supplies were con-
                                                                                                  taminated. Downstream water users were notified,
                                    -Cape Cod National, Seashore (1967). Several                  and further damages were averted.
                                    large slicks of oily material contaminated about 30           -Minnesota-Mississi 1 i Rivers (1963). Storage
                                                                                                                       1pp
                                                                                                  tanks ruptured, spilling 2,500,000 gallons of crude
                                       7Most material from here to the end of the discussion      soybean oil and 500,000 gallons of salad oil. Two
                                    on the current situation was taken from: Secretary of the     thousand ducks were killed, and recreation and
                                    Interior and Secretary of Transportation, Oil Pollution, A    wildlife areas were fouled for 130 miles down-
                                    Report  to the President, Washington: Government Print-
                                    ing Office, February 1968.                                    stream.

                                    VI-102

                           -0iattahoochee River, Georgia (1963). A burst             areas require both government and industry to
                           pipeline spewed 60,000 gallons of kerosene into           give careful attention to pollution control meas-
                           the river five miles above one of Atlanta's water         ures.
                           supply intakes. The river was polluted for three             The quantities and varieties of oils and other
                           weeks. A treatment plant supplying one-fourth of          hazardous materials transported and stored by
                           Atlanta's water was shut down for two days, after         industry are staggering. For example:
                           which greatly increased chemical treatment of the
                           water was necessary.                                      -Four billion barrels of petroleum and natural gas
                                                                                     liquids are used annually in the United States, and
                           -Coosa River, Alabama (1963). A tractor-trailer           the figure is. expected to reach 6.5 billion barrels
                           hit a bridge and spilled 25 tons of barium                by 1980.
                           carbonate. Downstream water supplies were
                           threatened.                                               -Twenty-five billion pounds of animal and vege-
                                                                                     table, oils are consumed or exported annually.
                           -Minnesota River (I 962).'A 'storage facility pipe-
                           line broke, releasing about 1,400,000 gallons of          -Eighty billion pounds (1964) of synthetic
                           cutting oil, light mineral oil, and zylene into the       organic chemicals are produced annually by some
                           river.                                                    12,000 chemical companies. These chemicals,
                                                                                     many toxic or with unknown effects on aquatic
                           -111inois River (1961). At Peoria, Illinois, a hose       and even human life, range from everyday food
                           ruptured during the unloading of anhydrous                flavorings to pesticides.
                           ammonia from a barge. Forty-two persons were
                           hospitalized, and 5,600,000 fish were killed.                No readily available    compilation exists of the
                                                                                     number, size, and character of facilities for moving
                           -Mississippi River (1960). Industry drained several       and storing these materials. However, the quanti-
                           tons of phenol into the river near Baton Rouge.           ties indicate the high probability of pollutants
                           Water supplies for New Orleans and nearby                 spilling into the Nation's waters from transporta-
                           communities were contaminated.                            tion and terminal facilities.
                             These are only a few of the almost continuous              Newspaper headlines seldom announce the flow
                           series of similar experiences reported across the         of 10 or 30 or even 300 gallons of waste oil into a
                           nation in lakes, rivers, and territorial waters.          nearby stream or lake. The event is proclaimed
                             Oil and other hazardous materials constitute a          only by the trail of grime and damage left behind.
                           major pollution threat to the Nation's water              These catastrophes might go unnoticed except that
                           resources. The danger exists both inland and along        they are repeated so often.
                           the coasts. Whether the spill is large or small,
                           occasional or continuous, each source must be             (2.) Pipelines This country is laced by 200,000
                           evaluated for (1) the relative hazards involved, (2)      miles of pipelines with pressures to 1,000 pounds
                           the preventive measures that should be instituted,        per square inch. These lines carried more than one
                           and (3) the damage-control and cleanup capabili-          billion tons of oil and other hazardous substances
                           ties that may be needed.                                  in 1965. Many sections are laid in and across
                                                                                     waterways and reservoirs. , Lines are heavily Con-
                                                                                     centrated where the. de   'mand. for petroleum prod-
                           (I.) Waterborne   Sources of Oil Pollution With           ucts is great-in the most populous areas along the
                           the growth of    world and domestic commerce,             coasts, rivers, and lakes. Thus, our pipeline system
                           increasing numbers of vessels of generally larger         threatens pollution of our waterways, port areas,
                           capacity have been. required. Almost exclusively,         and sources of drinking water. There are enough
                           oil is the fuel of the waterborne commercial fleets,      leaks from accidental punctures, cracked welds,
                           and perhaps one vessel in five is engaged also in         and corrosion to require alertness and technical
                           transporting oil. Thus, water transport constitutes       improvement.
                           a great potential pollution threat. The great
                           numbers of these possible pollution sources and           (3.) Offshore Petroleum Offshore oil and gas
                           the fact that they are mobile over extensive water      ioperations are being conducted in the Gulf of

                                                                                                                                      V1_103

                                     Mexico, off Southern California, in Cook Inlet,                                               Figure 40
                                     Alaska, in the Great Lakes, and even off the East                           ENVIRONMENTAL NUMBERS
                                     Coast. For example, in the Gulf of Mexico almost                               Cargo              Escaping
                                     6,000 wells have been drilled since 1960, and                              Condition          In    or Near      Far From
                                     thousands of miles of oil and gas pipelines                        Response               Hull        Hull          Hull
                                     crisscross the Gulfs floor.                                           Time
                                         Such operations may         pollute offshore waters            Before
                                     through well blowouts, dumping oil-saturated                       Imminent                   1       N.A.'         N.A.'
                                     drilling muds and oil-soaked cuttings, and Oil lost                Casualty
                                     in production, storage, and transportation. Pipe-                  0-24 Hours
                                     lines on the seabed from the offshore platforms to                 After Casualty             2         4              6
                                     storage facilities also threaten pollution if ruptured
                                     by storms or ships' anchors.                                       1-20 Days
                                                                                                        After Casualty             3         5              7

                                     2. Futm Needs                                                      Not. applicable.
                                                                                                        Source: Trident  Engineering   Associates, Inc., "A Possi-
                                                                                                        ble Solution to  Pollution of  the Sea and Shore by Oil
                                         A major effort must be undertaken to curtail                   Tankers," unpublished report to the Commission (An-
                                                                                                        - polis, Maryland, 1968), p. 2.
                                     oil, pollution from ships and oil rigs. A systems
                                     approach to preventing pollution spillage at sea,
                                     how to monitor it, and how to disperse it is                                                  FIigure 41
                                     discussed in the following pages.                                     CONTROL TECHNIQUES WITH APPRO-
                                         The shipping and oil industries, have some                        PRIATE ENVIRONMENTAL NUMBERS
                                     methods to prevent spills and to clean up those
                                     occurring. Most are suitable only for small spills;                   Control                                       Environ-
                                     many require bulky equipment or chemicals diffi-                   Techniques or                                      mental
                                     cult to carry to the scene. Therefore, one approach                   Systems'                                      Number2
                                     to combat oil spills is to make equipment and
                                     materials more readily transportable. Another is to                Build foam barriers into cargo tanks
                                     adapt present methods to be"effective,against the                     (oil-permeable impedance)                           1
                                     largest spills.                                                    Solidify oil    ,                                      1
                                         In chemical, food, and other industries there                  Design safety features into tank                       1
                                     are agents, systems, and procedures for the con-                   Inject foam sealant into selected tanks                2
                                     trol, dispersal, or conversion of petroleum-like                   Act to free grounded ship (sacrificial
                                     substances. A search of other industries is needed                    approach)                                           2
                                     for techniques and equipment adaptable to con-                     Gel oil                                                2(1)
                                     trolling oil spills.                                               Close tank vents (escape impedance)                    2
                                         Finding and applying existing techniques and                   Pull light vacuum on selected tanks                    2
                                     equipment may offer hope of a rapid solution to                    Unload tanks to free ship, using
                                     the oil pollution problem, but that solution may                      stored high-pressure air                            2
                                     not be best. Concurrently, research and develop-                   Sluice cargo between seldcted tanks                    2
                                     ment efforts should seek completely... new solu-                   Install water ballast tanks in
                                     tions.                                                                critical areas                                      2(l),
                                         The problem can be subdivided according to                     Burn oil above tanker                                  2
                                     the condition or location of the dangerous cargo                   Solidify oil in selected areas                         2
                                     and the response time of a remedial system. Figure                 Build sealing devices into tank                        2(l)
                                     40 lists nine combinations of cargo condition and                  Design air-tran@portable super-
                                     response time, giving each an environmental                           foam sealant system                                 3
                                     number. Figure 41 lists some remedies or remedial                  Heat oil ready   to pump                               3(2)
                                     systems and the environmental number (or alter-'                   Bring in emergency high capacity
                                     nate) to which they probably would apply best.                        pumping system                                      3

                                     VI-104

                                Figure 41 (Continued)                                           -The system will be in some way handling
                                   Control                                        Environ-      hundreds of thousands of gallons of crude oil-a
                                Techniques or                                      mental       substance normally the consistency of lukewarm
                                   Systemsi                                       Number    2   tar. The objective will be to dispose of the
                                                                                                contaminant before it damages nearby shore facili-
                                                                                                ties. Therefore, the rate at which the system works
                                Bring in high capacity fuel transfer                            is imp.ortant.
                                   system (hose, jets, helicopter-
                                   hose system)                                        3        -Tankers, like any other vessel, are more likely to
                                Bring in emergency receiving system                             suffer damage in rough weather. In such weather
                                   (corrals, flexible containers, etc.)                3        high winds move escaping contaminants toward
                                Bring in emergency pump power                                   shorelines most rapidly. Therefore, any system
                                   source                                              3        must have good sea-keeping qualities, functioning
                                Burn combustible liquids                               3        well under very unfavorable conditions.
                                Evaporate oil - high temperature                   3(5)  (7)
                                Act to free ship (sacrificial approach                          -Even the emergency equipment installed aboard
                                   with outside system for rapid                                ship to save sailors' lives often receives cursory
                                   help)                                               3        maintenance. Equipment to preserve beaches,
                                Corral oil (equipment carried                                   wildlife, and shoreline industry and property
                                   aboard tanker or with                                        probably would receive even less attention. There-
                                   helicopter aid)                                     4        fore, the system must withstand being unused for
                                Corral oil with other outside aids                     4(5)     years with little or no preventive maintenance.
                                Use foams in other ways                                4(5)
                                Use large-scale corralling                             5        3. Conclusions
                                Sink oil                                               5(7)      . Data collected by infrared imaging systems can
                                Use surface oil evaporation equipment                  5        be used for quantitative and qualitative water
                                Corral oil with equipment shipped in                   5(7)     pollution studies. Qualitative evaluations of
                                Use water surface cleaner, ship- or                             imagery using oblique three-dimensional displays
                                   air-mobile                                          5(7)     and stereo coverage will allow the interpreter to
                                Airdrop light-weight surface cleaning                           sense the true intensity relationships. The poten-
                                   materials                                           6(7)     tial of color-coding specific radiation levels and
                                Use chemical combustion promoters                               developing false color imagery has been demon-
                                Use combustion sustainers such as                               strated. These techniques and their variations
                                   artificial straw                                    6(7)     should make possible more effective systems to
                                Use surface cleaning ships (high                                monitor pollution.
                                   speed, high capacity)                               7           Oil and other hazardous substances are a
                                Use skimmer                                            7        continuing major pollution threat to the inland,
                                Use corrals                                            7        nearshore and offshore waters of our Nation.
                                iMost of the remedial systems of Figure 41 are not              Catastrophe can occur anywhere or anytime,
                                existing systems. There are few systems available now,          especially in areas of.high population concentra-
                                and existing systems either have not been adequately            tion. Methods to combat major pollution accidents
                                2tested or results of their tests have not been published.      are entirely inadequate.
                                Numbers in parentheses are alternate environmental
                                numbers.
                                Source: Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., "A Possible       Recommendations:
                                Solution to Pollution of the Sea and Shore by Oil
                                Tankers," unpublished report to the Commission (Annap-          Detailed research and development programs in
                                olis, Maryland, 1.968), pp. 3-5.                                infrared imagery use for pollution monitoring
                                                                                                should be increased.
                                   The primary development objectives are actu-                    A major systems program should be imple-
                                ally conventional, since they call for the cheapest,            mented to cope effectively with the accidental
                                lightest, smallest system. that will do the job.                pollution of the Nation's waters by oil and other
                                However, other factors require consideration:                   hazardous substances, including investigation of

                                                                                                                                                      V1_105

                                   A National Project for Coastal Engineering and               tures, and often the recreational appeal of the
                                Ecological Studies, as defined -in Chapter 7, will              seashore is lost or greatly dirriinished.
                                develop the fundamental technology to investigate                  Sand is a rapidly diminishing natural resource.
                                the unknowns with emphasis on ecological disturb-               Sand once was carried to our shores in abundant
                                ances. Near-shore ecology needs as related to the               supply by streams, rivers, and glaciers. Unfortu-
                                scientific community are described more fully in                nately, large stretches of our coast receive essenti-
                                the basic science panel's report.                               ally no replacement sand from these sources.
                                   In coastal planning the first requirement is                 Inland development by man reduces further sand
                                .adequate technical knowledge of shore processes,               available for erosion abatement of the shore. Thus,
                                storm frequencies, and storm tide elevations for                to save sand, wasteful practices must be eliminated
                                the area concerned. Espedially on the Pacific Coast             and losses prevented wherever possible.
                                (including Alaska a     'nd Hawaii), the effects of                Fortunately, nature has provided extensive
                                tsunamis (earthquake-generated waves) must be
                                                                                                stores of beach sand in bays, lagoons, and estu-
                                considered. This inform ation, applied to the topo-             aries; these can be used in some areas as beach and
                                graphy of the coastal area and the adjoining                    dune replenishment. Massive dune deposits also are
                                continental shelves, makes possible prediction of               available at some locations; however, these 'must
                                flooding and erosion hazards in each area. Such                 be used with caution to avoid exposing the ar          Iea to
                                knowledge then may be used to establish zoning                  flood hazard. Sources of sand are not always
                                n-1                          --A 41- ---A- -___ __          A

                                  methods of pollution control and restoration-                  The lack of such critical information consti-
                                  even the redesign of ships, if necessary.                   tutes a technology barrier if (1) the needed criteria
                                                                                              require- the acquisition of data which cannot be
                                  B. Coastal Engineering                                      obtained without technological advances, (2) basic
                                                                                              understanding is inadequate to permit accurate
                                     The shoreline of any nation is a natural location        interpretation of such data, or (3) the acquisition
                                  for industrial and commercial activity, transporta-         of the information requires long-term observation.
                                  tion terminals, and transfer facilities. It is where
                                  the most prized resorts and residential neighbor-              Principal inadequacies of basic engineering
                                  hoods develop and it is an essential recreational           criteria exist in environmental design, coastal
                                  area for a majority of the population. The bays,            planning, conservation of sand, construction and
                                                                                              modification technology, movement and stabiliza-
                                  estuaries, and nearshore waters rank among the              tion of sediment, and environmental protection.
                                  most important for food production and harvest-
                                  ing, not to mention hatcheries for many species                Environmental design criteria to support coastal
                                  important to the ocean fisheries. Therefore, the            modification and construction is needed in (1)
                                  shoreline (coastal zone) must be considered a vital         sub-bottom structure -and bottom topography
                                  national resource.                                          (bathymetry), (2) prevailing and maximum con-
                                      Shorelines have been misused and poorly                 ditions of wind, waves, surface currents, tides, and
                                  managed for such a long time that major advances            subsurface currents, and (3) design methods that
                                  in our knowledge and its application to the coastal         accurately acodunt for the effects of these environ-
                                  zone are essential to prevent further degradation           mental factors in planning and design.
                                  and to effect restoration. Greatly increased prior-            For the coastal zone, much technology is in
                                  ity in national planning must be given to protec-           hand. However, such information is hot readily
                                  ting existing shoreline and facilities, modifying the       available to the coastal engineer at present. The
                                  shoreline to achieve its most prudent utilization by        well-recognized need to develop environmental
                                  the many competing demands, and its extension               criteria for planning and design (particularly those
                                  by construction of inlets, peninsulas, and offshore         activities in which coastal zone development is
                                  islands.                                                    expected to be most rapid and extensive) is being
                                                                                              pursued as rapidly as time and present funds
                                  1. Current Situation                                        permit.
                                     The most effective shoreline modification and               The state of knowledge for translating environ-
                                  construction of fixed structures in the coastal zone        mental data into design criteria is not adequate,
                                  require knowledge of: (1) coastal zone oceano-              particularly for wind and wave forces. Model
                                  graphy, physiography, ecology, and substructure,            studies of natural processes at the land-sea inter-
                                  (2) the properties of sediments both above and              face have had only limited success, mainly because
                                  below the waterline, and (3) the multitude of               scale effects are poorly understood. The major
                                  natural processes occurring in the coastal environ-         concern and uncertainty are for structures, vessels,
                                  ment. Further, such modification and construction           or devices which penetrate the air-sea interface and
                                  must consider that changes in the shoreline or              are integral parts of undersea activities.
                                  bottom topography, modification of sediments,                  In undersea activities, principal unknowns are a
                                  and introduction of man-made objects will alter             knowledge of subsurface currents, the effects of
                                  natural coastline processes.                                surface waves on subsurface structures, the rela-
                                     Planning and design phases prior to modifica-            tion between subsurface phenomena and the dis-
                                  tion and construction require qualitative and               turbance of ecology, and the phenomena occuring
                                  quantitative information to provide accurate defi-          at the air-sea interface. This information is essen-
                                  nition of nearshore properties and processes. Also          tial for optimum planning, design, and modifica-
                                  the engineer must be able to predict the effects of         tion of structures in the coastal zone. Lack of
                                  these properties and processes on the modification          initiative in advancing technology for measuring
                                  or structure and, also, to predict the effects of           basic coastal environmental characteristics will
                                  modifications and structures on the environmental           have serious negative effects on all future engineer-
                                  and coastal processes.                                      ing programs in the coastal zone.

                                  VI-106

                                    Currently construction in the coastal zone is                In deeper waters, in waters with adverse surface
                                  accomplished almost entirely by surface methods             conditions, and where the bottom is coral, consoli-
                                  and equipment. Moreover, most construction tech-            dated sediment, rock, etc., subsurface drilling,
                                  niques have remained static for the past century            blasting, hydraulic jetting, and hauling may be
                                  (excluding development of new power sources).               necessary. The presence of equipment in the sea
                                  Divers are used for preliniinary surveys, inspection,       will compel the presence of men so means of
                                  salvage, simple installation, and assembly opera-           underwater communication and observation will
                                  tions, but the operations are basically dependent           be essential for supervision and control.
                                  upon land or seasurface methods.                               These requirements do not pose insurmount-
                                     It is conceivable that wave ener             will be     able problems, although considerable development
                                                                            ,gy
                                  controlled and focused to accomplish work at the            is needed. Primary is heavy machinery operating
                                  land-sea interface. Natural bottom contours guide           on the ocean floor to haul or handle material. In
                                  wave fronts, concentrating wave energy at points            coastal areas, such equipment could be powered
                                  along a coastline. If wave refraction and reflection        by cabled electric power or snorkel equipped
                                  could be controlled by the emplacement of port-             engines. Work illumination will be a major
                                  able undersea barriers, enormous work could be              problem to undersea operations; hence, further
                                  accomplished at a great saving of time and money.           development of illumination devices-even electro-
                                  Moving sediment along the coast from an over-               magnetic or acoustic-will be required.

                            the water line and sacrificial cathodic protection             @Evaluation of new methods and equipment for
                            can usually solve the problem but become pTohib-               major Shoreline modification and construction and
                            itively expensive.                                             for island building.
                                Different activities will dictate levels of expend-        -Development of faster and less costly methods
                            iture that can be justified economically. Control of           and materia   IIs to stabilizIe sediment.
                            biological encroachment and encrustation is both a
                            structural and an operational problem. It requires             -Reduction of future costs by stockpiling sand,
                            many solutions for different areas and species.                once a dredge is set up and in operation for
                            Mechanical protection against environmental                    another purpose. For example, after a dredge has
                            forces and erosion is, less difficult. Both chemical           replaced sand on a denuded beach, large stockpiles
                            and biological corrosion are technology barriers               of sand can be strategically placed so that wave
                            requiring improvements in corrosion-resistant ma-              action automatically replenishes losses over future
                            terials, protective coatings and devices.                      years.

                            b. Future Needs                                                3. Conclusions

                               The following observational and measurement                     Shore..erosion is caused by wave action, tide
                            capabilities are required to permit meaningful                 currents, rain, wind action, and severe storms and
                            study and definition of coastal zone processes:                is affected by offshore depths, slopes, shape of the
                                                                                           shoreline, and other factors. In most cases, shore
                            -Methods and instrumentation for rapid on-site                 erosion can be controlled by properly planned and
                            measurement of the engineering properties of                   executed corrective measures. Shorelines have
                            sediments (i.e., static compression and shear                  been misused and inadequately managed; major
                            strength, stability, bearing characteristics, and              advances in knowledge must precede preventive
                            dynamic response).                                             and restorative action.
                                                                                               Protection, modification, and extension of
                            -Methods, equipment, and instrumentation for                   shorelines assume greatly increased importan'ce'in
                            rapid core sampling of sediments and rapid (prefer-            national planning. Optimum modifications 'of the
                            ably automatic) analysis of cores for primary                  shoreline and construction of fixed structures
                            physical, geological, and chemical properties.                 require a- knowledge of oceanography, physiog-
                            -Methods and instrumentation for continuous                    raphy, sediment properties, and natural processes.
                            mapping of bottom sediments by primary geo-                    Planning and design prior to modifica.           'tion and
                                                                           -al proper-     construction require accurate definition of near-
                            logical classification and primary physic
                            ties (e.g., density, sonic attenuation, and shear              shore properties and processes and interrelated
                            velocity).                                                     effects.
                                                                                               Principal inadequacies of basic engineering cri-
                            -Effective experimental methods and associated                 teria exist in environmental design, coastal plan-
                            instrumentation and data processing systems for                ning, conservation of sand, construction and modi-
                            study of primary coastal processes, particularly               fication technology, movement and stabilization
                            those controlling sediment transport and deposi-               of sediment, and environmental protection.
                            tion.                                                              Coastal planning requires technical knowledge
                                                                                           of shore processes, storm frequencies, and storm
                               Special research and development programs are               tide elevations for the area concerned. Undevel-
                            required for:                                                  oped or sparsely developed areas offer great
                                                                                           opportunities for proper advance planning and
                            -Development of improved modeling techniques                   development control.
                            for the study of coastal processes, including design               Sand is a rapidly diminishing natural resource
                            of such improved model basin equipment as wind,                requiring conservation. Protection of our seacoasts
                            wave, and current generators and controls plus a               is not an insurmountable problem. Construction
                            variety of materials for simulation of water and               and modification in the coastal zone is frequently
                            sediment properties.                                           accomplished by antiquated surface methods and

                                   equipment. -Wave energy can be focused by port-           gained there.will be the foundation for the thrust
                                   able. structures to accomplish enormous work.             into the deep oceans.
                                    -,Dredging is a'.major coastal zone activity.            ' Several ambient pressure, continental            shelf
                                   Sediment stabilization @ will become a greater            habitats have'been demonstrated in recent years,
                                   problem as more complex current patterns and              in the United States and abroad. They have been
                                   more traffic result from human activity. Present          temporary installations depending -upon cables to
                                   methods of protecting materials from corrosion,           surface ships or shore for power.
                                   biological attack,. erosion, waves, and currents are         A Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory as de-
                                   inadequate or excessively expensive for many              scribed in Chapter 7 is designed to facilitate
                                   missions.                                                 development of the technology to occupy and
                                                                                             manage the shelf and to minimize logistic support.
                                   Recommendat*
                                                  ions:                                      The laboratory will be available for joint civilian-
                                   The following observational       and    measurement      academic-military use in the accomplishment of
                                   capabilities should be.developed:                         subsystem and component development tasks.
                                   -Methods and instrumentation for on-site meas-            1. Current Sitatuion
                                   urement of the engineering properties of sedi-            a. Habitats Widely varying approaches have been
                                   ments.                                                    suggested and tried for undersea habitats. Some
                                   -Methods, equipment, and instrumentation for              are quite small; others are large, providing working
                                   rapid core sampling and automatic analysis. of            space for six to eight divers. For a single worksite,
                                   samples.                                                  a relatively immobile shelter may be planted on
                                                                                             the bottom. Moving worksites for inspection of
                                   -Methods and instrumentation for continuous               communication cables or pipelines may require a
                                   mapping of bottom sediments.                              mobile habitat integral to a submersible vehicle.
                                                                                           . All systems have three features in common:
                                   -Effective experimental methodology and associ-
                                   ated instrumentation and data processing systems.         -They can maintain the diver at or near the
                                      Research and development programs should be:           ambient pressure at the worksite for extended
                                                                                             periods.
                                   conducted to:
                                                                                             -The habitat (or an elevator-like chamber inter-
                                   -improve modeling techniques for the study of             facing with it) can bring divers to the surface for
                                   coastal processes and controls.                           decompressi  .on. When an elevator is used, divers
                                   -Evaluate   new methods and equipment for major           nearly always are transferred to a separate and
                                   shoreline modification and construction a    nd island    larger chamber on the surface for decompression.
                                   building.                                                 -The chamber at the underwater worksite has at
                                                                                             least one bottom hatch from which divers can
                                   -Develop faster and less costly methods and               enter the water and return.
                                   materials to stabilize sediment.                             Functionally, seven habitat types can be identi-
                                                                                             fied: (1) continental shelf station, (2) variable
                                   C. Shelf Installations                                    depth habitat, (3) composite chamber, (4) decorn-
                                                                                             pression staging system, (5) personnel transfer
                                     In order for man to conquer the sea, he must go         capsule/deck decompression chamber, (6) vehicle
                                   into the sea. Much has been said about the                with diver lockout, and (7) hybrids.
                                   complexity of advancing technology to exploit,
                                   occupy, and manage the,U.S. Continental Shelf.            b. Continental Shelf Station The most elemen-
                                   However, it is now technically possible to occupy         tary configuration provides structural simplicity
                                   the shelf by applying devel    .opments of the past       and relative freedom for divers from the turbulent
                                   several years. Conquest of the ocean depths must          air-sea interface (Figure 42). If intended only for
                                   start on the continental shelf, for experience            bottom installation, the hull need be designed for

                                   VJ_110

                           , M,06w,

                           Figure 42. A.movable continental shelf station
                           which completed successful trials in late 1968.
                           (Oceanic Foundation photo)

                           only small pressure differentials-indeed, it may be
                           made of fabric or rubber. Providing the men in a        Figure 43. Artist's concept of a composite
                           station with electric power, food, water, sanita-       chamber suspended from a shipmounted crane.
                           tion, and supplies can be formidable, especially in     (Navy photo)
                           foul weather. For a very largevork force active
                           over acres of the sea floor, one can envision several
                           stations arranged about the worksite. The equiv-
                           alent of a fence, fixed lights, storage, implement      -With the hatch open, it can serve as an ante-
                           sheds, and the foreman's office would complete          chamber to the diving compartment or as a lock to
                           the resemblance to a job site on land.                  enter or leave the diving compartment when the
                                                                                   chamber is on deck.
                           c. Variable Depth Habitat The variable depth
                           habitat is anchored o 'n the ocean floor but can be     -If a major fault should make the diving compart-
                           floated to intermediate depths. The habitat serves      ment unusable during a dive, the divers can enter
                           as a work station, transport vehicle, and living        the observation compartment tinder pressure.
                           quarters. If the worksite extends vertically to the     (Normally, divers would work from the lower
                           level of one or more decompression stages, divers       compartment, while observers would stay in the
                           can continue useful work during each decom-             observation compartment throughout the dive.
                           pression stop. This system typically is confined to     The observers, not being subjected to high pres-
                           a small-scale operation, involving two or three         sures, can leave the compartment as soon as it is
                           divers under rather special site and task conditions.   hoisted on deck).
                                                i     I  .                           The composite chamber is quite versatile, is
                           d. Composite Chamber This sytem is virtually a          relatively easy to transport, and is more suited to
                           variable depth habitation suspended from a ship-        the smaller, short-term missions than to major
                           mounted crane (Figure 43). The diving compart-          diving projects. Without the ability to mate with a
                           ment is nearly always a pressure hull, making it        larger chamber, the composite chamber compels
                           possible to decompress divers on the surface. An        divers to remain inside until fully decompressed;
                           observation compartment (usually spherical) is          this puts a definite limit on the total time under
                           mounted atop the diving compartment and con-            pressure.
                           nected with it via a pressure-tight hatch; it
                           performs several functions:                             e. Decompression Staging System This is a series
                                                                                   of underwater stations located at principal decom-
                           -With the hatch closed, it can carry one or two pression stop levels. Personnel working at a
                           scientists or engineers in a shirt-sleeve environment   bottom site may decompress by entering the next
                           to view the underwater job site.                        higher habitat, spending a night, then swimming to

                                                                                                                                 VI-1 11

                                  the next (Figure 44). Gradually ascending through          the PTC is mated with the DDC, both, being
                                  several such stations, diving personnel undergo            pressurized equally. The PTC is lowered by a
                                  decompression and simultaneously make use of               crane. The system's pertinent features are:
                                  heretofore enforced idle time. This system is
                                  attractive only under special conditions of terrain.       -Divers live and sleep above water.
                                     Plans to expand one nonmilitary undersea test           -The PTC has horizontal mobility within the
                                  range include a series of habitats from nearshore to
                                  shelf depths, including this use of decompression          range of its surface support platform and full
                                  staging.                                                   vertical mobility.
                                                                                             -Both chambers can mate at any pressure -from
                                                                                             atmospheric to maximum rated pressure to trans-
                                                                                             fer divers. The system can be mounted on a dam,
                                                                                             drilling platform, barge, or ship.

                                                                                                Possible alternate means of operation include
                                                                                             (1) two PTCs mating with adjoining compartments
                                                                                             of one DDC or (2) PTC serving two or more DDCs.
                                                                                             Forsafety reasons, a DDC should consist of not
                                                                                             less than two self-contained pressure vessels; two
                                                                                             main chambers and an entry lock are the most
                                                                                             practical.-

                                                                                             9. Vehicle with Diver Lockout The system is a
                                  Figure 44. Artist's concept of a decompression             two-compartment vehicle with one compartment
                                  staging system. lWenin0ouse photo)                         exposed to ambient pressure (Figure 46). The
                                                                                             system is valuable for a series of short, widely-
                                                                                             spaced dives (e.g., photographing and marking
                                  f. Personnel Transfer Capsule/Deck             Decom-      damaged spots on -a submarine telephone cable).
                                  pression Chamber This system, first used for               Such a system could be used where weather
                                  commercial saturation diving, allows divers to live        restricts deployment of normal surface support
                                  in a deck decompressi   .on chamber (DDC) (Figure          methods. Currently, storage batteries are the
                                  45). A single small chamber, the personnel transfer        power source for the vehicle, limiting mission
                                  capsule  (PTC), transports divers         from deck        duration to a few hours and restricting speeds to
                                  chamber to   the  worksite. The divers enter when          less than five knots.

                                                                                                                                    t

                                                           4,
                                                         _J  @A

                                                                                                        P

                                                                                             Figure 46. A submersible vehicle with diver
                                                                                             lockout. The diver lockout hatch is located
                                  Figure 45. A personnel transfer capsuleldeck               aft on underside of hull where open hatch
                                  decompression chamber system. tWestinghouse                cover is visible. (Perry Submarine Builders
                                  photo)                                                     photo)

                                  VW 12

                          If such a system were integral to a full-size        Thought must be given to problems of logistics,
                       nuclear submarine, speed and endurance limita-          chamber operation, and maintenance; when several
                       tions would be virtually removed. The size of the       men are under pressure for a week or more, plans
                       diving team, supporting sensors, and amount of          must be made for food supply, laundry, and
                       equipment delivered to a site would extend satura-      personal hygiene. These problems are greatly
                       tion diving capability beyond anything possible         simplified if the main habitat is located on the
                       today.                                                  surface rather than several hundred feet beneath.
                                                                               Continuous, correct gas supply and carbon dioxide
                       h. Hybrids The systems described above are not          absorption must be wen planned before the
                       all-inclusive; variations on any system are possible,   operation; redundancy of systems is necessary,
                       and combinations of two or more may be effective        especially if operations are to be conducted in
                       for particular missions (Figure 47). For example, a     remote areas.
                       bottom-anchored   ' variable-depth habitat with a
                       mating trunk used with a DDC would permit               i. Availability of Decompression Chambers
                       divers to eat, sleep, and undergo decompression in      Several small decompression chambers are in use
                       a larger surface chamber. A DDC could be com-           today, approximately as follows: Gulf, 40;
                       bined with a submersible decompression chamber          California, 20; Florida, 2; and Alaska, 6. During
                       operating from a fixed winch. The submersible           peak seasons, commercial divers in the Gulf
                       chamber could be fitted with a propulsion system        number around 1,000 and in California, over 300.
                       to provide limited horizontal positioning capa-         There are approximately 25 combination person-
                       bility. The operator could remain in a shirt-sleeve     nel transfer -capsule/deck decompression chambers
                       environment inside a spherical observation cham-        today.
                       ber atop the diving chamber.
                         The main task of a diving program is to select        j. Accidents The number of divers working off-
                       the best system for a particular job and site and to    shore in the Gulf is expected to increase markedly
                       evolve a safe, economical method of operation.          in the next few years; an estimate of 3,000

                                                                                                                    I-A*

                                                                               UJU

                                  All
                                                                                                              oil

                                    MW
                                                            AP         A

                       Figure 47. Artist's concept of underwater habitat des4gns. (Napy photo)

                                                                                                                              VI-113
                           333-091 0-69-12

                                    within 10 years is conservative. Presently no          pipelines and cables include plowing, hydraulic
                                    medical facilities on the Gulf Coast are available     jetting, combined jetting and suction dredging, and
                                    and attuned to the needs of divers. Three to five      use of shaped charges.
                                    diver deaths occur each year in the Gulf.                 Protecting offshore oil and gas pipelines from
                                                                                           damage by dragging anchors, soil movement, and
                                    .k. Bottom Activities Many activities already are      underwater currents has required improved deep
                                    taking place in the shallow bottom areas. Tunnels      burying techniques. Large trenching barges can dig
                                    built on the, surface in sections can be economical    ditches 12 feet deep and 5 feet wide in water 200
                                    where the conditions are favorable, as in protected    feet deep, using a special dredging sled pulled
                                    waters with unconsolidated sediments on the            along the pipeline. Towed sea plows on sleds are
                                    seafloor. Sections of tunnel several hundred feet in   used to bury seafloor cables. A sea plow of
                                    length are fabricated,on shore, floated to the site,   sophisticated design was used to bury more than
                                    lowered into a dredged trench with a suitably          100 miles of transatlantic cable in waters from 120
                                    prepared foundation bed. The sections are joined       to 900 feet deep to safeguard it against damage
                                    together with the aid of divers, and the trench is     from fishing vessels.
                                    backfilled@ The Trans-Bay Tube now under con-             Dredging, a well-established construction and
                                    struction. for. the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid       mining technique in shallow waters, has been used
                                    Transit System is an example. It has tunnel            to deepen navigation cliannels, remove overburden
                                    sections about 48 feet wide and 22 feet high,          for foundations, excavate open-cut type tunnels
                                    located 135 feet below sea level at the deepest        and outfalls, mine and place fill materials, and
                                    point. As advances in procedures for working           recover placer and seafloor deposits. The dredges,
                                    under water are made, open-cut tunneling may be        however, are severely limited in capacity and
                                    extended to deeper, less-protected offshore sites.     cannot be considered for major seafloor construc-
                                       Tunneling in soft ground follows the same           tion or mining in deep water.
                                    general procedure as tunneling in rock, except            Construction and mining require moving large
                                    drilling and blasting are not required, and critical   amounts of material. Commercial mining requires
                                    attention must be given to temporary lining. For       production rates of thousands of tons per day to
                                    very soft and wet ground, especially for undersea      be economically justifiable. Capacities of this
                                    sites,,shield tunneling methods are used. While the    magnitude to 2,000-foot depths may be achieved
                                    technology of shield-driven tunnels is well along,     by developing improved hydraulic or airlift
                                    continued improvements. will increase advance-         dredges.
                                    ment rates and reduce costs.
                                       Site preparation can be accomplished by pile
                                    driving and caisson sinking-standard operations in     2. Future Needs
                                    conventional construction work, particularly in           Improved cements that will set rapidly in low
                                    the nearshore regions. In-the offshore petroleum       temperature sea water and concretes more resist-
                                    industry, piles and pipe caissons are being driven     ant to deterioration in sea water are needed. As
                                    from barges in water depths exceeding 300 feet-        demand grows for concrete foundations in waters
                                    The most commonly used drivers are pneumatic           to 2,000 feet, major improvements will be needed
                                    hammers, sometimes combined with such supple-          in placing concrete from surface barges. Concrete
                                    mentary means as jetting and drilling. Vibratory       mixing and emplacement on the seafloor using
                                    and sonic drivers are used occasionally and may        underwater plants or equipment may be required
                                    have considerable growth potential.                    in the more distant future.
                                       In,the nearshore zone, concrete can be placed          There will be a need to extend tEenching and
                                    underwater from the surface using either drop-         dredging operations to greater depths and deeper
                                    bottom buckets or tremies.' Bags filled with           cuts. Devices such as mobile breakwaters and
                                    concrete or grout intrusion of emplaced aggregates     pneumatic curtains to shield operations may be
                                    are sometimes used. Methods for trenching to bury      needed. The ability to observe and monitor under-
                                                                                           water would help greatly to increase operating
                                       8                                                   efficiency, but a major breakthrough in observa-
                                        Funnel-like devices lowered into the water to deposit
                                    concrete.                                              tion techniques in turbid water will be required.

                                    V1- 114

                       Assistance by submersibles probably will be             3. Conclusions
                       needed.
                                                                                  It is now technologically possible to utilize the
                          Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories capable      continental shelves in view of the progress and
                       of operation at any depth to 2,000 feet should be
                       developed during the coming decade. Each such           development of the past several years. The experi-
                       station should be equipped for submerged trans-         ence of working on the shelf should provide.
                                                                               solutions to subsequent problems of utilizing the
                       port vehicles to convey crew members or supplies        deep oceans.
                       to and from the surface or nearby shores. Crew             Several ambient pressure, continental shelf hab-
                       size will vary greatly and will be dictated by the      itats have been demonstrated in recent years;
                       mission.
                          Specialized subsea power equipment will be           however, these have been temporary installations
                                                                               depending on cables to surface ships or shore
                       required analogous to drills, cranes, bulldozers,       installations for power. Technical advances during
                       pavement layers and concrete pourers used on            the next 10 years will permit autonomous manned
                       land. Their ability to be mounted on a family of        stations on the ocean floor.
                       standardized, remotely controlled, power-driven            Present habitats and concepts for the future
                       chassis would increase their versatility. When an       have three main features in common:
                       operator is required at the work location, the
                       assembly might well be designed for temporary           _They can maintain the diver at         or near the
                       attachment of a small portable operator's capsule       ambient pressure at the worksite       for extended
                       or a small submersible vehicle.                         periods.
                          Assembly and fabrication of an underwater
                       complex completely under water may be required          -The habitat (or an elevator-like chamber inter-
                       When the entire structure is too cumbersome on          facing with it) is capable of bringing divers to the
                       the surface or the components are of a configura_       Surface for decompression.
                       tion that can be assembled only in place. Regard-       _The chamber at the underwater worksite has at
                       less of depth, the operation will require carefully     least one bottom hatch from which divers' can
                       planned evolution of an integrated system includ-       enter the water and return.
                       ing surface vessels, pontoons, submersibles, divers,
                       monitoring equipment, and automatic controls.              Tunneling in soft and hard ground      Iunder the
                          All underwater work operations will require          water is feasible and can be aided greatly by
                       coordinated development in many basic engineer-         manned underwater support.
                       ing and component areas. Soil mechanics and
                       foundation design are clearly essential, as are data    Recommendations:
                       on the interaction of waves and currents on the
                       installation. Underwater power sources, equip-          Pursue the National Projects to develop and
                       ment, and tools adequate for the tasks must be          construct Fixed and Portable Contiriental Shelf
                                                                               Laboratories; Seamount, Slope, and Abyssal Sta-
                       developed. Accurate means of locating and posi-         .
                       tioning the installation must be available. Visual      tions; and Mobile Undersea Support Laboratories
                                                                               as well as other forms of undersea habitats during
                       observation, television, acoustic imaging equip-        the 1970's.
                       ment, and command and communications systems
                       will, be essential. Improved materials are a basic      D. Transportation and Harbor Development
                       requirement for reliable long-life installations.
                          It is predicted. that within 10 years all segments      The present U.S. commercial oceanborne cargo
                       of the economy-industrial, academic, military,          trade ($36 billion annually) will continue to have a
                       and civil government-will be managing selected          major irnpact on programs to extend ocean uses.
                       portions of the U.S. Continental Shelves and            This, moreover, should continue as the value of
                       conducting exploration operations in the deep sea.      the U.S. world trade should more than double in
                       Immediate capability, convenience, cost, and            the next 20 years.
                       potential productivity dictate that initial activity       The impact of maritime transportation on U.S.
                       be concentrated on the continental shelves.             national interests is a product of underlying

                                                                                                                              VI-115

                                   technologic, economic, and political forces opera-.     York is a major port for imports; however,
                                   ting on a worldwide scale, as well as of interests      Norfolk, Virginia, is the major port for export on
                                   and policies within U.S. Government control.            the Atlantic. New Orleans is the major Gulf port
                                   These forces affect not only U.S. shipping interests    for export. Import and export trade of the Gulf
                                   but shipbuilding -interests as well. And, finally,      Coast is distributed primarily among the Louisiana
                                   programs for offshore harbor development have           and Texas ports. Similarly, import and export
                                   important interrelation with such Federal and           trade on the Pacific Coast is distributed among the
                                   State activities as urban renewal, trade promotion,     California and Washington ports. The competition
                                   and transportation development.                         between these adjacent ports is illustrated by the
                                      Revolutionary changes in merchant ship config-       fact that Long Beach harbor handled 7,582,000
                                   uration and integration of ships into multi-mode        short tons with only 1,447 receipts, whereas the
                                   transport systems for point-to-point cargo delivery     adjacent Los Angeles harbor handled 10,379,000
                                   will have great influence on developing uses of the     tons, with more than 4,000 receipts.
                                   oceans. As maritime transportation progress leads         It . is obvious that Long Beach harbor is
                                   to larger, deeper-draft ships and containerization      shipping a larger percentage of bulk cargo requir-
                                   techniques, today's ports will be unable to handle      ing less -handling and shorter turn-around times.
                                   these ships. Programs for progressively deepening       All factors'relating to packaging, equipment, and
                                   these ports now are encountering severe physical        personnel must be considered in any evaluation of
                                   obstacles, costly dislocations and ecological dis-      the influence on trade in U.S. ports.
                                   turbances created,by channel dredging.                    Competition between ports exists where more
                                                                                           than one port is in an area. This competition i     Is
                                   1. Current Situation                                    generally a stimulus to efficient port operation. It
                                                                                           requires that users and potential users be con-
                                   a. Shipping and Ports Data on past and present          vinced constantly of the economy and efficiency
                                   volume of waterborne trade by U.S. and foreign          of a port.
                                   flag vessels, compiled by the Bureau of Census,           The erection of modern physical facilities to
                                   reveal that export and import waterborne trade is       improve efficiency is only the beginning. Total
                                   increasing. During 1950, ocean shipments totalled       cost is the dominant consideration in routing
                                   159,389,000 sho   'rt tons of which 39.3 per cent       freight. Inland transportation, port charges, and
                                   was carried by U.S. flag vessels, Total tonnage         water transportation costs combined must equal or
                                   increased to some 405,205,000 short tons by             better that of a competitive routing.
                                   ,1964; however, only 9.9 per cent was carried by          Technological advances, especially automation
                                   U.S. flag ships. Tanker cargo carried by U.S. flag      and handling, are penetrating the ocean shipping
                                   vessels dropped from 53 per cent in 1950 to only        business rapidly. The port authorities must create
                                   5.9 per cent in 1964. This drastic shift from U.S.      new port facilities as they are needed-deep water
                                   flag vessels to foreign vessels is a function of        terminals, offshore terminals, and automated han-
                                   myriad factors including shipbuilding costs, wages,     dling equipment for new large bulk.cargo carriers.
                                   age of ships, and automation.                             Most other maritime nations are doing more
                                      The Atlantic coastal region in 1966 accounted        than the United States to keep pace with tech-
                                   for the major share of imports, whereas the             nological change. Gigantic superports are being
                                   combination of Atlantic and Gulf Coast ports            planned in Ireland, France, and Japan; expansion
                                   accounted for most of the Nation's exports. Cargo       is under way in Italy, Belgium, and Holland.
                                   tonnage by all vessels for coastal distribution has       During the next few years as utilization of
                                   remained approximately constant for the last 10         oceans changes, many problems must be solved;
                                   years. During 1964 the principal oceanborne             actual construction of the hardware may be the
                                   import commodities were crude petroleum, resid-         simplest. Expediting paperwork, removing customs
                                   ual fuel oil, gas, iron ore, and aluminum ore. The      bottlenecks, coordinating land and water trans-
                                   major export commodities were bituminous coal           port, developing simplified pricing system, in-
                                   and wheat.                                              creasing safety, and dislocation of ports and labor
                                      Many U.S. major ports have a disparity between will be most difficult. Port and harbor problems
                                   the amount of cargo imported and exported. New          will be solved only through systems. analysis,

                                   VI-116

                      research and development, and modern procure-          and to redistribute the cargo for overland ship-
                      ment policies. Similar procedures made large           ment.
                      defense and communications systems possible.              In the past, the Corps of Engineers has
                        The broad and complex interrelationship              responded to the demand for deeper harbor
                      between harbor and waterfront development must         facilities by progressively deepening these major
                      include the following Federal programs:                ports. However, they are encountering serious
                                                                             obstacles that constrain future dredging: (1)
                      -The civil works program of the Army Corps of          damage to water supplies by salt water intrusion
                      Engineers.                                             into aquifers, (2) dislocation of private property
                                                                             adjacent to harbors and channels, (3) relocation of
                      -The water pollution and fish and wildlife pro-        major land transportation and communications
                      grams of the Department of the Interior.               facilities, (4) replacement of such major navigati.on
                      -The urban renewal, open space, urban beautifica-      structures as locks, (5) encountering bedrock',
                      tion, historic preservation, water and sewers          conduits, vehicular tunnels, etc., (6) disposal of
                      grants, public facility loans, and public works        dredged spoil, and (7) disruption of harbor ecol-
                      planning programs of the Department of Housing         ogy.
                      and Urban Development.                                    The greatest obstacle to harbor development is
                                                                             the cost of relocations and dislocations resulting
                      -The economic development, trade promotion,            from channel enlargement. Major harbors have
                      technical assistance, business loan, and port plan-    such extensive industrial developments at waters
                      ning programs of the Department of Commerce.           edge that harbor or channel improvement requires
                                                                             relocation of industrial, commercial, and residen-
                      -The transportation systems, transportation facili-    tial structures.
                      ties, urban freeway, and Coast Guard port and             At Oakland, California, harbor deepening
                      maritime programs of the Department of Trans-          would result in very high costs for modifying
                      portation.                                             Army, Navy, and city waterfront facilities. The
                      -The surplus facilities disposal programs of the       Chelsea River Channel in Boston Harbor is dredged
                      General Services Administration and of the             nearly berth-to-berth in several locations, and
                      .Department of Defense.                                dislocations will be required if dredging proceeds
                                                                             to greater depths. In New Orleans, producing oil
                                                                             wells located on and adjacent to the banks along
                         Forecasts of port needs, identification of urban    the Calcasieu River, Pass Channel, and the Missis-
                      renewal opportunities and desirable recreation         sippi River Channel must be moved if the channels
                      areas, delineation of pollution problems, and          are enlarged.
                      determination of means of financing all need              Examples of major land transportation facilities
                      study.                                                 that must be relocated include highway tunnels at
                         The United States is on the threshold of a          Oakland, Baltimore, Norfolk, Mobile, and the
                      revolutionary change in merchant shipping. For         mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. The many highway,
                      economy of operation the trend is to larger sizes,     rail, and subway tunnels crossing New York
                      deeper drafts, smaller crews, better cargo handling    Harbor constitute an outstanding example.
                      facilities, and higher speeds. Most of today's ports      The problem of removing increasing quantities
                      will be obsolete and unable to handle the more         of rock to accomplish harbor deepening is a
                      cost-effective ships. Offshore handling and unload-    problem associated with particular harbors. On the
                      ing facilities will be needed where it will be         Gulf Coast dredging very long approaches through
                      impractical to provide for the greatly increased       unconsolidated sediments covering the gently slop-
                      ship drafts. The efficiency of larger, more auto-      ing adjacent shelf is a problem.
                      mated ships will require concentration in a few           Deeper dredging creates water conservation
                      large, well equipped ports rather than many small      problems by permitting the intrusion of the salt
                      ports. @ Ports should be located away from con-        water farther up fresh water streams or rivers and
                      gested downtown areas providing ample room to          by damage to the -protective -covering of fresh
                      exchange cargo rapidly, to return the ships to sea, -  water aquifers. The problem of damage to water

                                                                                                                           VI-1 17

                                       supplies appears to be most significant. on the            -Resolution of the conflict in use of U.S. Conti-
                                       Atlantic Coast, particularly in the Delaware River         nental Shelf areas.
                                       estuary. Potentially serious problems exist at the
                                       mouth of the.Columbia River and in San Francisco           -Reduction or elimination of wrecks, debris,
                                       Bay.                                                       pollutants, and litter on the U.S. Continental
                                          Identifiable problems exist in the Great Lakes          Shelf.
                                       and the Pacific Coast harbors:                             -Establishment of safety standards for continental
                                                                                                  shelf structures and devices.
                                       -Disturbance to harbor bottom and lake bed
                                       ecology.                                                   -Continuance of the Nation's lead in continental
                                       -Pollution affecting water quality, fish species,          shelf capabilities 'and activities.
                                       and fish habitats.                                         -Estuarine pollution, conservation, regulation
                                       -Changes in tidal flow that affect the habitats for        (tentative).
                                       fish and shellfish.                                           The present functions and activities of the
                                       -Loss of waterfowl breeding grounds through                Coast Guard are:
                                       spoil dumping.                                             -Provide search and rescue services.
                                         The effect of harbor deepening on the estuarine          -Develop and       Iadminister a merchant marine
                                       ecology has resulted in growing concern by natur-          safety program.
                                       alists and conservationists throughout the country,
                                       emphasizing the need for additional information.           -Maintain a state of readiness for military opera-
                                                                                                  tion in time of war or national emergency.
                                       b. Protection   of Life and Property The U.S.              -Provide a comprehensive system of aids to
                                       Coast Guard is envisioned as the principal agency          navigation for the armed forces and, marine
                                       for (1) rescue of ships, submersibles, and divers,         commerce.
                                       (2) safety inspection and certification of submers-        -Enforce or assist in the enforcement of Federal
                                       ibles, diving equipment, diver training, and small         laws on the high seas or waters subject to the
                                       boats, and (3) relevant law enforcement. However,          jurisdiction of the United States.
                                       it is necessary to examine the Navy's role in
                                       certification of Navy submersibles so that the             -Conduct an oceanographic program, maintain
                                       experience can be transferred to the Coast Guard.          data on ocean status, provide ice-breaking services
                                       The panel endorses the role contemplated for the           and iceberg patrol, and train officer and enlisted
                                       Coast Guard in future ocean operations.                    reserves.
                                          There is proposed legislation and discussion by         2. Future Needs
                                       the Coast Guard on a U.S. Continental Shelf safety
                                       program as an orderly, comprehensive, and co-                 Today and for the foreseeable future               the
                                       ,6rdinated means of protecting life and property on        marine transportation industry is essential to        the
                                       the shelves.9 This treatment of safety reflects this       well-being of the United States. The viability of
                                       Continental Shelf Safety Program and has been              the national economy to a large extent is depend-
                                       endorsed by the National Council on Marine                 ent upon a steady growth in world trade. National
                                       Resources and Engineering Development. The pro-            defense relies heavily on shipping and shipbuilding
                                       gram includes the following major areas of en-             to ensure adequate military response. Marine
                                       deavor:                                                    transportation and trade help maintain satisfactory
                                                                                                  political relationships between the United States
                                                                                                  and most of the maritime powers of the world.
                                         9                                                           The future of the ocean transportation industry
                                          Has not yet cleared the House Merchant Marine           is dependent on faster, more economical ships,
                                       Safety Committee; no bill number assigned as of January
                                       1969.                                                      possibly nuclear powered, that will allow the

                                       VI-118

                       United States to become a leader in world shipping               To plan properly a program for port and urban
                       once again.                                                  waterfronts, alternatives to harbor deepening must
                          A program for port and urban waterfront                   be considered if this is not economically feasible.
                       development and redevelopment should be estab-               There are basically four technical alternatives to
                       lished involving all interested Federal and State            harbor deepening. First, where there is a long
                       agencies. It should embrace a range of activities            approach channel to reach port or harbor facilities,
                       from creation of entirely new port or waterfront             offshore unloading stations within protected
                       complexes to rehabilitation and conversion of                waters may be constructed. Corresporiding han-
                       existing port and waterfront lands and facilities.           dling and transportation systems ashore must be
                       The program should entail: (1) comprehensive                 constructed or modified to deliver the bulk com-
                       surveys of port-transportation requirements, inter-          modities to their final destinations. It is conceiv-
                       facing with community needs, and studies on                  able that the construction or modification would
                       urban renewal, recreation, and pollution, (2) de-            be financed by private or joint enterprise.
                       velopment of plans for port, harbor, and water-                  Second would be a combination of lightering
                       front area renovation, and (3) integration of port           by barge, followed by transit up the channel to the
                       and waterfront planning with programs for conser-            pier head. Extensive studies reveal that, depending
                       vation of estuarine resources. The Army Corps of             on local conditions, it is economical in some cases
                       Engineers already has begun work related to the              to transship cargo and lighter by barge.
                       first two in cooperation with the Departments of                 Third is to provide more efficient scheduling of
                       Transportation, Housing and Urban Development,               the bulk carrier by determining the decrease in the,
                       and Interior as follows:                                     ship's draft due to fuel consumed en route and
                                                                                    computing the decrease in the ship's draft due to.
                       -The Department of Housing and Urban Develop-                cargo to be unloaded.
                       ment and the Corps of Engineers have conducted a                 A fourth alternative is a systems design of ship
                       preliminary survey of areas engaged in or inter-             size and port capacity in conjunction with existing
                       ested in harbor or urban waterfront renewal.                 channel depth, involving faster ships with im-
                       Waterfront renewal activities to be planned                  proved cargo handling facilities and scheduled
                       involve: (a) eliminating sources of drift and debris,        control of all ships calling at the port. As the
                       including removal of dilapidated or obsolete struc-          world's fleets increase in number and speed, it is
                       tures, (b) clearing lands for housing, open space, or        conceivable that fleet controllers similar to airway
                       recreation, (c) substituting small boat or marine            controllers may effect proper and safe traffic flow
                       facilities for abandoned commercial areas, and (d)           within. the harbor.
                       removing sludge and solid pollutants from urban                  If channels are to remain fixed in depth, and
                       harbor areas.                                                ship size and speed are to increase as predicted,
                       -The Corps of Engineers presently is engaged in              installation of offshore cargo handling facilities is
                       pilot studies in the New York and Boston areas to            necessary. Any extensive harbor and channel
                       determine what new Federal initiatives or authori-           deepening must be preceded by an extensive
                       ties are required to execute waterfront renewal              land-use pattern study. Due to consumer and locale
                       plans. The studies will identify the legal, financial     '  requirements, it also may be advantageous to
                       and associated problems of harbor area renovation            relocate the industry, shortening land routes in the
                       stemming- from abandoned private facilities and              transportation networks.
                       sunken or derelict vessels. They will recommend                  For bulk cargoes in general, it is conceivable.
                       changes in statutory authority to insure optimum             that political and economic conditions at the
                       use and effective redevelopment of the harbor area           destination may compel the preprocessing of some
                       resources.                                                   bulk cargoes for the recipient countries. This
                                                                                    would reduce substantially the backland'o
                       -The Department of Transportation is developing              requirements for bulk cargoes in U.S. ports.
                       a Port and Harbor Access Program based on
                       planning methods to determine optimum urban
                       roads, terminal points, and intercity roads and rail           10 Backland is the area of a port city where warehouses,
                       lines to serve the port area.                                terminals, etc. are located inshore from the waterfront.

                                                                                                                                        V1_119

                                       However, higher landing and ten-ninal costs may              The high rate of ship technology development
                                       result and the trade-offs must be studied.                could make a large investment obsolete before its
                                       I Of the various nontechnical alternatives to             normal economic life. (For example, general eco-
                                       channel deepening, the legal and regulatory pre-          nomic lives for systems elements are: container-
                                       don-dnate, including restrictions to ship operation,      10 years, ship-25 years, terminal-50 years,)
                                       channel regulation, and safety. As ship size              Therefore, it would seem advantageous to con-
                                       increases, directional stability at low speeds            struct the facilities that have shorter economic
                                       becomes more difficult; hence, to avoid high fees         lives and are easily maintained or replaced-
                                       for using tugs in channels, many ships maintain           pipelines, conveyor belts, long finger piers, etc.
                                       speed, creating a substantial wake that damages              Other non-technical considerations would
                                       structures along the channel. As ship size and            include the decline of the present commodity
                                       traffic in the port increase the probability of           movements, the increasing volume of new com-
                                       collisions and channel blockage also increases.           modities, shifting trade routes, population pres-
                                       Economic loss from total blockage and port                sures causing port systems to be reduced in size,
                                       shutdown is incalcuable; higher insurance costs           safety requirements, air space requirements, pollu-
                                       and port charges are a distinct possibility.              tion, etc.
                                          Large ships may create major economic prob-               The Coast Guard, as the Federal maritime law
                                       lems in regional port development. As ship size           enforcement agency, has the responsibility to
                                       increases, the tendency is to concentrate cargo           enforce Federal laws relating to water pollution.
                                       capacity at one location to the detriment of              The Coast Guard also is responsible for enforcing
                                       neighboring port facilities, causing socioeconomic        the Oil Pollution Act of 1961 which prohibits
                                       impact on the region with predictable reaction by         offshore pollution. These are largely preventive
                                       labor unions.                                             measures only, and it would appear that broader
                                          The exhaustion of bulk cargo sources threatens         responsibilities should be authorized. Over the
                                                                                                 U.S. Continental Shelf and in other Federal
                                       ports and their regions with a shift of trade routes      navigable waters, there is a need for this agency to
                                       and ports of call. If the source of cargo for large       provide greater assistance in the protection of the
                                       ships is depleted and channels have been deepened         natural resources through pollution abatement and
                                       explicitly for large ships, the huge investment in        control.
                                       the channel and perhaps in the handling equip-
                                       ment will be wasted. If channels are not deepened
                                       and ship s Iize increases, port authorities and other     3. Conclu sions
                                       regulatory bodies may impose a progressive tax on            The present U.S. commercial oceanborn`6 cargo
                                       large ships as an economic restraint on super sizes.      trade will continue to have a major impact on any,
                                       Since depth is the most expensive variable in             programs designed to extend ocean uses.
                                       channel construction, *the tax probably will be a            The future needs of the transportation industry
                                       function of ships' lengih, beam, and draft-with           are dependent on faster, more economical ships,
                                       emphasis on draft.                                        possibly nuclear powered, that will allow the U.S.
                                          As bulk ships     increase in size, so will the        to become a leader in world     .shipping once again.
                                       inherent dangers of such hazardous cargoes as                Technological advances, automation,@and need
                                       naptha and nitrates. Port authorities may restrict        for economy of operation are penetrating water-
                                       large hazardous cargo operations to remote areas;         borne shipping business at a very rapid pace. As a
                                       or by law they may restrict dangerous cargoes to          result, port authorities must stand ready to create
                                       ships of present sizes.                                   such new port facilities as deep water terminals or
                                          Regional development of port systems will be           offshore unloading terminals with automated han-
                                       influenced by the very nature of large ships              dling equipment for new large bulk cargo carriers.
                                       coupled with advanced scheduling techniques.                 Progress in marine transportation is leading
                                       Operators of super ships may find it more profit-         rapidly to larger, deeper draft, bulk carriers and
                                       able to change the schedules and use one port             high speed ships with improved cargo handling
                                       system suitably modified for their increased capa-        systems such as containers and lighters. The
                                       city.                                                     impact of container ization on the efficiency of

                                       V1- 120

                       cargo handling is revolutionary and will continue            V. GREAT LAKES RESTORATION"
                       to increase.
                          Port design in addition to ship design will pace              Virtually every activity man pursues modifies
                       future progress. The deepening of harbors to                 his environment in some way. While not all these
                       accommodate large bulk carriers is encountering              modifications are detrimental, the sum of discrete
                       such severe physical barriers as bedrock, man-made           activities undertaken to achieve specific goals can
                       tunnels, and long shallow approaches. In general,            be detrimental unless efforts are made to balance
                       terminals for containerized shipping must be                 resource utilization and environmental quality.
                       totally new and located outside downtown metro-              This balance must be sought with a full under-
                       politan areas, a trend which can release valuable            standing of the interactions between resources,
                       land for urban development.                                  benefits, detriments, and long-range costs to
                          Offshore unloading platforms and lightering               society.
                       techniques are being considered as one of the most               The public has become aware of the importance
                       progressive and economical means of handling                 of this balance only very recently; previously,
                       larger, deeper draft ships.                                  concern for preserving and maintaining our natural
                          The Coast Guard role in protection of life and            resources was subordinated by parochial interests,
                       property must be strengthened; this responsibility           This shortsightedness now demands measures be
                       for the U.S. Continental Shelf undersea activity             taken to cure the sicknesses of our environment;
                       must be consolidated under one responsible                   preventive measures alone will pass a. legacy of ruin
                       agency. It is obvious that chaos will result from            to future generations.
                       the advancing use of the U.S. Continental Shelf                  The five Great Lakes demonstrate misuse and
                       with its myriad of men and equipment unless one              abuse of environment by man. One only need
                       agency concentrates systematically on the tasks of           compare the rate of population growth in areas
                       protecting life and property.                                immediately surrounding each of the Lakes with
                          Finally, to insure proper protection of life and          the rate -of -deterioration of water quality (Figure
                       property, the Coast Guard should pursue research             48). Ranked according to impaired water quality
                       and development programs to strengthen capabili-             or interference with beneficial uses, Lake Erie
                       ties of traffic control and monitoring, search and           exhibits the greatest impairment, followed by
                       rescue (inclu  ding underwater scuba divers, sub-            Lakes Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and Superior.
                       mersibles, and habitats), pollution abatement and            Total population in the drainage basins around
                       control (oil and other hazardous materials), and             each of the lakes corresponds closely; the rate of
                       fisheries regulation.                                        population growth reflects the rate of accelerated
                                                                                    aging or eutrophication processes in the lakes.
                                                                                        The conclusion is inescapable-man is directly
                                                                                    responsible for the accelerated deterioration of
                       Recommendations:                                             water quality, If corrective action is not taken,
                                                                                    further deterioration will parallel future popula-
                                                                                    tion growth.
                       Port and harbor development should be based on a                 Fortunately, this situation has been recognized.
                       total systems approach to marine transportation,             by all sectors of our society, and preventive
                       concentrating on design of offshore and improved             measures to arrest deterioration are being imple-
                       methods of intermodal (air-land-sea) transfer. to,           mente.d.' These measures, however, probably are
                       allow more effective use of the coastal land.                not enough. Whether the lakes-Lake Erie in
                          To ensure proper protection- of life and prop-            particular-can recover from previous environ-
                       erty, the Coast Guard should pursue a research and
                       development program to strengthen capabilities
                       for traffic control, and monitoring, search and
                       rescue (including underwater divers, submersibles,               Most of the material in this subsection was taken
                                                                                    from Battelle Northwest, Research Report, Great Lakes
                       and habitats), pollution abatement and control (oil          Revtoration-Review of Potentials and Recommendations
                       and other hazardous materials), andfisheries regu-           for Implementation to the Commission (Unpublished
                                                                                    report, Battelle Memorial Institute, Richland, Washington,
                       lation.                                                      1968).

                                                                                                                                        VI-121

                                                                                                                           a
                                                                                                        p.

                                                                                                                                                                                                 N.
                                                                      A
                                                                   Duluth

                                                                                                          Or
                                                                                                     Pop. in                                                              Mi
                                                                                                    millions                                 0                            it-,
                                                                                                      6                                                                   2
                                                                                                      5                                                     W
                                                                                                      4
                                                                                                      3
                                                                                                      2                                                                                                    Pop
                                                                                                      I                                                                                                     Mi   ns
                                                                                                                                                                                                              4
                                                                                                   ,,,1840 1860 188r4                 94019 0            1)                     W
                                                                                                                                                                                                          02                      A
                                                                                                                                                                                                   ronto
                                                                                                                                                         Pop. I                                   oronto
                                                                                                                                                         Mil ions                         r_rT
                                                                                                                                                         11                                                              1840   1860  1880 1 UOO 1920 1940 1960
                                                                                                       M11-uk.1                                          10
                                                                                                                                                         9
                                                                                                                                                         8 -
                                                                                                                                                         7
                                                                                                                                                            rm Arbor      Detroit
                                                                                                                                                         all
                                                                                                                                                         4'
                                                                                                                                                         ,4
                                                                                                                                                                          - V
                                                                                                         Chicago                                         3
                                                                                                                                                         2
                                                                                                                                                               Toledo

                                                                                Main Commercial Fisheries Labor.a        r s
                                                                                                                          a
                                                                               Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Intengr                    1820 1840 1860      f. 18.8[0 1900 1920 1940 1960
                                                                               Other Agencies (U.S. and Canada)

                                                               Figure 48. The Great Lakes and their drainage basins, showing population increase in each
                                                               basin. (Battelle Northwest photo)

                                                               menial damage through implementation of preven-                                                            The Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
                                                               tive measures alone is debatable. The recovery                                                             tration (FWPCA) Report (1966), Water Pollution
                                                               period probably would be inordinately long and                                                             Problems of the Great Lakes Area, identifies the
                                                               the forfeited benefits considerable. Thus, restora-                                                        major physical problems of the Great Lakes area
                                                               tive as well as preventive measures must be                                                                as:
                                                               considered to achieve resource utilization and                                                             Over-enrichment of the Lakes.
                                                               environmental quality managed in the best inter-
                                                               ests of the United States and Canada.                                                                      -Build-up of dissolved solids in the Lakes.
                                                               A. Current Situation                                                                                       -Bacterial contamination of the Lakes and tribu-
                                                                    The fact,that something has gone awry in Lake                                                         taries.
                                                               Erie is obvious: People cannot enjoy its use in the                                                        -Chemical contamination from industrial waste
                                                               same ways th            .ey could 20 years ago. Southern Lake                                              discharges.
                                                               Michigan and parts of Lake Ontario exhibit some                                                            -Oxygen depletion of th                    Ie Lakes and tributaries.
                                                               of Lake Erie's symptoms. The common denom-
                                                               inator limiting the multiple use of the Great Lakes
                                                               resources is water polhition.12 Most authorities                                                           Like all lakes, the Great Lakes are undergoing
                                                               agree with this conclusion.                                                                                an aging process leading to extinction. Historically,
                                                                                                                                                                          young lakes are relatively barren of biological life;
                                                                  12                                                                                                      they are ofigotrophic. As aging progresses, the
                                                                      Testimony of Dr. David C. Chandler, Director, Great                                                 material retained by the lake gradually increases in
                                                               Lakes Research Division, Institute of Science and Tech-
                                                               nology, University of Michigan.                                                                            the bottom sediments; the sediments decompose,

                                                               VI-122

                      and the lake waters become richer in nutrients on          -Unsightly, malodorous masses of algae and other
                      which minute water plants thrive. As the plant             pollutants interfere with the recreational use of
                      population on which they 4eed increases, the               waters and beaches, clog municipal and industrial
                      population - of minute water animals and higher            water intake&, and idepress property values.
                      animals multiplies.
                         Increased biological productivity. changes both            Nearly all Lake Erie is eutrophic; Lake Ontario
                      the surface and deeper waters. The lake passes             is nearly eutrophic, and Lake Michigan exhibits
                      from the oligotrophic phase eventually into the            some symptoms of eutrophy, especially in the
                      eutrophic phase in which organic and inorganic             southwestern part. Isolated evidence of pollution
                      materials fill the basin. Rooted aquatic plants            has been observed in Lakes Huron and Superior,
                      become established, gradually converting the area          although in general, water quality in these lakes is
                      to marshland.                                              good.
                         Eutrophication, the aging process, is the process          Increases in the dissolved solids of the Great
                      of enrichment with nutrients. Accelerated eu-              Lakes have been observed over the years since
                      trophication of lakes results from the input Of            routine water quality analyses first were initiated.
                      nutrient materials, largely nitrogen and phos-             Despite dissolved solids concentrations not having
                      phorus from man's activities. Natural aging                impaired water uses seriously, local problems
                      proceeds slowly in the geological time scale;              influenced by population and industrial growth are
                      however, acceleration of the process by human              experienced near points of large waste discharges.
                      activity causes aging that can be observed within a        The dissolved solids problem probably will be
                      generation.                                                reduced somewhat through recently adopted State
                         Accelerated eutrophication is emphasized                water quality standards. Because most bacterial
                      because it is critically impairing the benefits of the     contamination can be directly traced to man, it
                      Great Lakes. It is a very difficult problem re-            can be remedied more easily.
                      quiring several remedial measures. Problems of                The accelerated aging of the Great Lakes is not
                      build-up of dissolved solids and oxygen depletion          the sole cause or symptom of deteriorating water
                      are closely associated with eutrophication.                quality. However, because other pollution effects
                         Accelerated eutrophication of Lake Erie is              are intimately linked to this phenomenon, meas-
                      manifest as follows:                                       ures to prevent accelerated aging and to restore
                                                                                 water quality help solve other problems. An
                      -Blue-green algae, diatoms, and other algal prOlif-        example is lessening oxygen depletion caused by
                      erations cause noxious odors and appear as                 the biodegradation of organic wastes.
                      unsightly scums on the water surface.                         Oxygen can be depleted through addition of
                      -These algae impart unpleasant tastes to water             organic substances to a body of water and the
                      supplies.                                                  proliferation of algae. Most organic pollutants can
                                                                                 be controlled by treatment methods consistent
                      -Dissolved oxygen levels are depressed in ther-            with water quality standards.
                      mally stratified areas.
                      -Desirable bottom dwelling, clean water animal             B. Causes of Pollution and Accelerated Aging
                      species are displaced by less desirable species
                      tolerant of pollution and low oxygen concen-                  To defime the necessary action and formulate'
                      tration.                                                   restorative methods, it is essential to understand
                      -Fish populations change from such highly-prized           the nature of causative factors. The following
                      game fish as pike, trout, and whitefish to such            factors contribute to the accelerated aging of the
                                                                                 Great Lakes:
                      coarse, less valuable fish as carp, catfish       ,  and
                      sheepshead.                                                1.1 Municipal Wastewater
                      -Objectionable filamentous algae growing in
                      shallow waters wash up onto the shores and                    Municipal sewage is     the principal source of
                      beaches.                                                   nutrients, especially phosphor-us; 75 per cent of

                                                                                                                                 VI-1 23

                                      the phosphorus, added to Lake Erie comes from             problems. Of course, the problem will grow as
                                      municipal wastewater, and 66 per cent of the              water transportation and recreational boating
                                      phosphorus is derived from detergents. Two-thirds         increase.
                                      of the phosphorous is retained in the lake,
                                      principally in its'bottom sediments. Needless to          S. Oil Discharges
                                      say, the effects of municipal wastewater discharges
                                                                                                  . Oil, discharges are undesirable, for   they cause
                                      have had 'a drastic effect on aging. There is no
                                      doubt that domestic sewage is a predominating             ecological inbalances and drastic effects on aes-
                                      contributor to the deterioration of water quality         thetics. On the other hand, special oils could
                                      because of its nutrients, as well as', its bacterial and  have limited beneficial effects by reducing the
                                      organic contamination.                                    penetration of the sunlight, necessary for the
                                                                                                growth of algae that contribute to eutrophication.
                                      2. Combined Storm Sewage                                  6. Dredging
                                         Combined storm sewage sometimes is a greater              For many years harbors and channels in the
                                      problem than municipal wastewater. Combined               Great Lakes have been dredged to provide suitable
                                      storm sewage from a heavy rainfall can overtax the        channels for waterborne transport. The spoil, rich
                                      capacity of a treatment plant; hence, substantial         in nutrients, usually consists of sediments carried
                                      volumes of untreated wastewater are bypassed to           by tributary streams and rivers and of sewage and
                                      receiving bodies of water.                                industrial waste residues. Dumping spoil in the
                                                                                                lakes, the Practice for many years, releases more
                                      3. Industrial Wastewater                                  nutrients than when sediments and residues are
                                                                                                undisturbed. Hence, dredging causes an increase in
                                         Often industrial wastes are routed to municipal        the recycling of sediment-stored nutrients, espe-
                                      treatment systems for the mutual benefit of the           cially phosphorous. Important benefits would
                                      community and its industry. These wastes gener-           accrue if the dredging spoil were deposited on
                                      ally have the effects discussed under Municipal           isolated land so nutrients would not be washed
                                      Wastewater, paragraph 1 above. However, many              again into the lakes.
                                      large industries bordering the Great Lakes find it
                                      more economical to accomplish treatment within            7. Thermal Discharges
                                      their own complex. -Many do not effect a suitable.
                                      degree of treatment, thus contributing to acceler-           Thermal discharges can have both beneficial
                                      ated aging. Nutrient-laden effluents, organic con-        and detrimental effects on accelerated aging. Dis-
                                      taminants, noxious chemicals, and sediments or            charge of such heated effluents as industrial and
                                      inorganic residues are contained in industrial            power plant cooling water can induce extensive
                                      wastewaters.                                              algal growth during seasons when water tempera-
                                                                                                tures are normally too cold. Conversely, during
                                      4. Watercraft Wastes                                      seasons when water stagnates and becomes strati-
                                                                                                fied in the Lakes, thermal discharges could help
                                         Wastes from watercraft are not treated       to the    restore circulation. Stratification causes oxygen
                                      extent of municipal wastewaters, or most often            deficiencies in the bottom waters of a lake, in
                                      not at 411. In the United States, recreational            turn, causing vastly increased nutrient recycling
                                      watercraft wastes *are'equivalent to that discharged      from the bottom sediments.
                                      by a community of 500,000. However, this contri-
                                      bution to water quality deterioration of the Great        8. Nutrient-Laden Inflow from Tributaries
                                      Lakes is insignificant by comparison with other
                                      nutrient, sources. While its treatment is beneficial,        Inflow from tributaries and impoundments add
                                      especially to public health, it is very doubtful that     nutrients to the lakes. Because impoundments
                                      watercraft wastes alone would accelerate aging of         suffer the same aging problems, both the causes
                                      the Great Lakes. However, on a very local basis-at        and remedies are essentially the same as for the
                                      a marina, for example-it may cause very serious           lakes. This illustrates the need to treat the Great

                                      VI-124

                       Lakes as a total basin, implementing preventive          As silt and erosion runoff flow into the lake,
                       and restorative measures for tributaries as well as      nutrients are dissolved and are available for bio-
                       the lakes themselves. (This aspect is discussed          logical utilization. Land use practices, especially
                       further below.)                                          land development in urban and agricultural areas,
                                                                                have contributed to accelerated aging; measures
                       9. Waterfowl                                             must be undertaken to control this nutrient

                                                                                source.
                         The Great   Lakes, on an extensively used rm*gra-
                       tory flyway, are a resting and habitat area for large
                       numbers of waterfowl. However, the birds' contri-        12. Agricultural Runoff
                       bution to eutrophication of the Lakes is a part of          Agricultural runoff, another very important
                       the natural aging process.                               source of nutrients entering the Great Lakes,
                                                                                consists of eroded soil, leached salts and fertilizers,
                       10. Fisheries                                            and excess fertilizer. Measures to alleviate some of
                         That fisheries have suffered from water quality        the nutrient contribution in the runoff include
                       deterioration in the Great Lakes is well known.          contour plowing and other land management
                       Actually, the annual catch of all species in Lake        techniques, judicious fertilizer application, and
                       Erie has not decreased with accelerated eutrophi-        control of agricultural wastewater where possible.
                       cation. However, less desirable species have             It is difficult to control nutrients in agricultural
                       supplanted the more desirable game fish, because         runoff, because treatment methods cannot be
                       spawning and rearing areas have been contami-            applied to point sources. It is a problem of,
                       nated or destroyed. The bottom fauna have been           perhaps, the same magnitude as combined storm
                       changed by pollutants and sediments, altering the        sewage. In the Midwest alone, it is estimated that
                                                                                the nutrients from animal wastes are equivalent to
                       game fish food supply so only the more tolerant,
                                                                                that from 300 million people. Obviously, only a
                       less desirable species can thrive.
                         The predation of sea lamprey has had some              fraction reaches the Great Lakes, but the potential
                       impact, but this has been less important recently        from this source is enormous.
                       in Lake Erie than in Lakes Michigan and Superior.
                         The purposeful addition of nutrients is a              13. Urban Land Drainage
                       common technique for increasing fish production
                       in lakes, while catching or removing large quanti-          Although distinguished from combined storm
                       ties of fish constitutes a reduction of nutrients.       sewage, this problem has many similar elements,
                       This is important in the Great Lakes because             assuming that a separate sewer system exists for
                       planning and management of fisheries resources           storm runoff. Urban or storm drainage is com-
                       can benefit nutrient control. For example, nutri-        posed of such nutrient materials as street sedi-
                       ent removal as part of a restoration program             ments, grit, oils, salts, and street refuse. It usually
                       requires that dead alewives which wash ashore            is discharged directly to a receiving body of water,
                       from Lake Michigan be removed. Additionally,             because the potential contamination by pathogens
                       alewives can be a source of protein. Hence, two          is quite low; yet, the nutrient concentration may
                       functions can be accomplished concurrently:              not be low, particularly     rich.soil areas.
                       nutrient removal by vigorous fishing for an unde-
                       sirable species and production of a significant          14. Subsurface Waste Disposal
                       amount of protein.
                                                                                   Rural areas and many development areas
                       11. Sediment Interchange                                 around the Great Lakes have septic fields for
                                                                                domestic wastewater disposal. Nutrients in sub-
                         Sedimentation (including silt, erosion and agri-       stantial amounts drain to the lakes in areas having
                       cultural runoff, dead biological life, and waste-        certain soil characteristics; however, these regions
                       water residues) constitute the ' second most             are fairly dispersed and do not constitute a major
                       important source of nutrients in the Great Lakes.        source of nutrients.

                                                                                                                                VI- 125

                                      IS. Atmospheric Quality Deterioration                    has occurred in other smaller lakes. The fact that
                                                                                               the FWPCA and other agencies are working to
                                         The carbon dioxide content of the world's             control elements contributing to eutrophication
                                      atmosphere has increased a small amount, and the
                                                                                               and to restore water quality reinforces Dr.
                                      temperatures of the atmosphere have increased            Brinkhurst's conclusion.
                                      likewise. Consequent temperature increases in the           Technology to control eutrophication may be
                                      water cause a small drop in dissolved oxygen.            classified as preventive or restorative. Preventative
                                                                                               measures remove nutrients from the water before
                                         It is virtually impossible to predict what would      discharge to a receiving body,., and restorative
                                      happen to. the. eutrophication trend by removing         measures remove the nutrients or the products of
                                      any single nutrient -source. While priorities should     eutrophy from the affected body of water. Meas-
                                      be established for preventive and restorative tech-      ures which reduce nutrients usually improve other
                                      niques, many. methods must be implemented                water quality parameters, (e.g., bacterial content)
                                      before restoration can be achieved. ,         . I     I  which may have little effect on eutrophication.
                                         Factors contributing to accelereated aging are
                                      ranked below according to their importance in the
                                      problem. Hence, they serve as the targets for both       C. Preventive Measures
                                      preventive and restorative measures:
                                                                                               1. Nutrient Exclusion
                                      High Impact                                                Most research has      been to' develop suiiable
                                      .Municipal wastewater                                    methods. to    remove   nutrients   from municipal
                                                                                               wastewater.   Most methods, however, can be
                                      Agricultural runoff
                                      Sediment interchange                                     applied 'also to other nutrient-containing aqueous
                                                                                               flows. The soap and detergent industry is seeking
                                      Medium Impact                                            substitutes for the phosphate in detergent formula-
                                                                                               tions, because detergents account for a substantial
                                      Industrial wastewater                                    part of the phosphorus in municipal wastewater.
                                      Combined storm sewage                                      Activated sludge secondary treatment plants
                                      Urban land drainage                                      can be operated to optinlize nutrient removal.
                                      Dredging                                                 Aeration rate, aeration time,. aeration solids, and
                                      Nutrient-laden inflow from tributaries                   return sludge 'ratios.,are critical to effective phos-
                                      Fisheries                                                phorus removall These plants also can be operated
                                                                                               to accentuate denitrification, employing a variety
                                      Low Impact                                               of operating procedures.
                                                                                                 Capitalizing on the principle that nutrients in
                                      Watercraft wastes                                        municipal wastewaters cause prolific growth of
                                      Oil discharges                                           algae, algae are cultured under controlled condi-
                                      Thermal discharges                                       tions in the treatment plant. The algae then are
                                      Waterfowl                                                harvested to remove the incorporated nutrients,
                                      Subsurface waste disposal                                leaving the effluent low in nutrient content. The
                                      Atmospheric quality deterioration                        limiting factor in the removal of nitrogen and
                                                                                               phosphorus by this metho& is the efficiency of
                                        Can the eutrophication process in the Great            algal harvesting.
                                      Lakes be reversed? -This is an extremely significant       Chemical co-precipitation with lime and
                                      question, because the effort and funds expended          hydrous aluminum and iron oxides is highly
                                      on Great Lakes restoration. will greatly influence       effective in removing phosphorus from municipal
                                      the answer. In referring to Lake Erie, Dr, Ralph L.      wastewater, but nitrogen removal is less effective.
                                      Brinkhurst of the University of Toronto said, "It's      Of all removal processes, ion exchange is the most
                                      the healthiest corpse Ive seen." He firmly believes      effective for removing. both nitrogen and phos-
                                      that eutrophication can be reversed, citing specific     phorus. Ammonia stripping also has been effective
                                      studies that demonstrate eutrophication reversal         in removing nitrogen.

                                      VI-126

                        Spraying effluent on land has been relatively        D. Restorative Measures
                     effective in removing nutrients from municipal
                     wastewater, but drainage from the land must not            Restorative measures are intended to remove
                     be allowed to flow into a receiving body of water.      nutrients from water. While prevention involves
                        Membrane processes, primarily for dissolved          millions of gallons per day, restoration in the
                     solids removal, have some capability for nitrogen       Great Lakes involves hundreds of cubic miles of
                     a.nd phosphorus removal but are expensive.              water. This point should be carefully remembered
                        Distillation is efficient for removing nitrogen      when alternative courses of action are considered.
                     and espec .ially phosphorus.                               Some restorative techniques discussed below
                        Other methods have been proposed, but most           are based on Iiinnological theory rather than actual
                     are still in the research or developmental s ages.      experimental or developmental work. Others are
                                                                             based on applications to lakes of much smaller size
                     Recent FWPCA hearings. on Lake Michigan no              than the Great Lakes.
                     doubt will accelerate efforts to evolve an efficient,
                     inexpensive method for phosphorus removal. The
                     Secretary of the Interior stated that phosphorus        1. Seating Bottom Sediments
                     removal from municipal wastewater should be                If the addition of all nutrients were terminated,
                     maximized, and municipalities that discharge ef-        recycling of nutrients from previously deposited
                     fluents to Lake Michigan should accomplish 80 per       sediments would continue accelerated eutrophica-
                     cent phosphorus removal by 1972.                        tion of the Lakes for a considerable time. One
                        Agricultural runoff, a significant source of         solution is to seal the bottom sediments from the
                     nutrients, is more difficult to control. However,       overlying waters. This seal must be renewed
                     some measures can be taken to exclude nutrients,        periodically, perhaps annually, if accumulation of
                     including land management to prevent erosion and        additional nutrients by natural causes continues.
                     subsequent pollution by siltation.
                        Measures are be-ing implemented to control           2. Flushing with Low-Nutrient Water
                     watercraft wastes, including retention of wastes           Use of low-nutrient water to flush eutrophic:
                     onboard for treatment ashore and onboard proces-        lakes has been employed with some success to
                     sing equivalent to secondary treatment and a            restore water quality. This method was used in
                     corresponding degree of nutrient removal. Consid-       Green Lake near Seattle, and similar experiments
                     erable research and development sponsored by the        are planned for Moses Lake, Washington. The great
                     FWPCA, Navy, and Coast Guard is in progress.            quantities of low-nutrient water required make
                        Another measure that can be implemented to           application of this method in the Great Lakes
                     exclude nutrients from the Great Lakes is the           questionable. Further, downstream waters may be
                     cessation of dredge spoil, garbage, trash, and refuse   adversely affected by the flushed nutrients.
                     disposal in the lakes. Of these, dredging has caused
                     concern in localized areas because of the amount        3. Nutrient Removal
                     of nutrients associated with the spoil.                    Although two-thirds of the phosphorus intro-
                                                                             duced into Lake Erie is- retained in the bottom
                     2. Nutrient Diversion                                   sediments, significant amounts also are retained by
                                                                             fish, algae, and rooted vegetation. Removal of fish
                        Diversion of nutrient-containing effluents (such     will be considered in later discussions. It is
                     as municipal wastewater) around bodies of water is      essential that algae and aquatic weeds be removed
                     a technique successfully employed in the past to        from the Lake. Cutting nuisance aquatic weeds
                     prevent accelerated eutrophication. Despite its         and leaving them in the water effects no nutrient
                     success, this method could prove shortsighted. The      removal. Furthermore, the harvested algae and
                     pollution problem merely is passed to a down-           weeds must be removed so nutrients do not
                     stream impoundment, lake, bay, or estuary. This is      reenter the lake by leaching and drainage. One
                     not acceptable resource management unless sub-          solution would be to utilize them for added
                     stantial mitigating circumstances exist for which,      benefits as sources of protein, fertilizer, mulch, or
                     the long-term effects are thoroughly understood.        animal feeds.

                                                                                                                            VI-127

                                       4. lbermal Destratification.                               measure that must be repeated at frequent inter-
                                          During seasons when oxygen deficiencies exist           vals, and the chemicals could accumulate in fish
                                       in the bottom waters of a lake, nutrient avail-            and eventually be harmful to man.
                                       ability at the sediment-water interface is greatly
                                       increased. Oxygen deficiencies result largely from         8. Chemical Inactivation
                                       water stagnation in temperature layers and from               Research is in progress for a method to chem-
                                       biological decay on the lake bottom. Destratifica-         ically inactivate the nutrients by preventing their
                                       tion or restoration of water circulation to allow          utilization by the algae. One promising method is
                                       oxygen to be absorbed from the air reduces the             to develop chelating agents which will complex
                                       availability of nutrients in the bottom sediments,         with divalent ions that function as co-enzymes in
                                       thereby arresting or retarding the aging process.          nitrogen fixation by algae and to determine the
                                          Destratification can be accomplished by mech-           types of algae growths which result.
                                       anical mixing, aeration mixing, or thermal mixing.
                                       In the first, the lake is mechanically stirred so that     9. Prevention of Light Penetration
                                       zones of stratification are thoroughly mixed. In              The development of a substance to decrease the
                                       the second, the same -mechanical mixing allows             penetration of light into the Lakes by increasing
                                       oxygen from the air to be absorbed in the       . water.   either reflectance or opacity has been proposed.
                                       In the third, mixing is accomplished by heating.           This substance must be nontoxic, biologically
                                       5. Dredging                                                stable, and nonrestrictive to oxygen transfer into
                                          Since bottom sediments are a potent source         of   the water. No known substance satisfies these
                                       nutrients, removal of the sediments has been               criteria and others required to maintain maximum
                                       recommended for restoring lakes. However, Great            beneficial use of the water resource. Further,
                                       Lakes sediments are quite thick in certain areas.          during certain seasons photosynthetic organisms
                                       This and the expanse of the Lakes dictates                 can provide measureable quantities of oxygen
                                                                                                  during hours of sunlight, so the addition of a light
                                       exertion of Herculean efforts to completely
                                       remove the sediments. Care must be exercised to            retarding substance must not disrupt this.
                                       minimize release of nutrients during the dredging          10. Rough Fish Removal
                                       operation.
                                                                                                     Part of the nutrient inventory in the Great
                                       6. Biological Control                                      Lakes is retained by the fish population, and
                                          Biological control   of algae and aquatic weeds is      removing the fish reduces the inventory. However,
                                       possible if suitable animal populations are discov-        many fish species are highly desirable for game or
                                       ered to graze on the blue-green algae and rooted           commerce. On the other hand, substantial popula-
                                       vegetation. Developing strains of viruses or para-         tions of rough fish, such as carp and alewives, are
                                       sites to prey exclusively on the algae and aquatic         undesirable.
                                       weeds is an alternative. Research to attain these             A concerted effort to remove these fish would
                                       objectives has had very little *success to date            result in.reduced nutrients. It would be prudent to
                                                                                                  consider processing these fish for usable protein, as
                                       7. Chemical Control                                        burial of the fish within the Great Lakes Basin
                                                                                                  could allow the nutrients to be washed again into
                                          Mthough copper sulphate has been very                   the lakes.
                                       successful for almost a century in controlling                Since desirable fish species are also a nutrient
                                       prolific growth of algae, it is also toxic to other        source, increased harvesting should be encouraged
                                       life forms. Research investigators are seeking             within the bounds of sound conservation practice.
                                       highly specific algacides to kill only the noxious
                                       species. Chemical control, not being a nutrient            E. Other Measures for Water Quality Improve-
                                       removal method, treats oniy@ the symptoms of                  ment
                                       eutrophication;.the dead algae settle to the lake
                                       bottom, increasing the potential nutrient reservoir           Accelerated eutrophication, the cause of the
                                       in the sediments. Further, it is only a temporary          most serious long-range consequences, is not the

                                       VI-128

                         sole cause of water quality deterioration in the         4.  Thermal Discharges
                         Great Lakes. The following paragraphs discuss                Thermal discharges should be managed so that
                         measures which will improve Great Lakes water            water quality standards are met and these dis-
                         quality. Most plans cited below are recommenda-          charges are beneficially employed wherever pos-
                         tions of the Federal Water Pollution Control             sible.
                         Administration and others who are continually
                         studying the Great Lakes Basin.                          S. Oil Discharges
                         1. Municipal Wastewater Treatment                            . Treatment of oil and other hazardous materials
                                                                                  should be undertaken to exclude them from the
                            A minimum of secondary treatment should be            Lakes.
                         provided by municipalities discharging wastewater
                         to the Great Lakes. Treatment should be efficient        F. Future Needs
                         and continuous, accomplishing 90 per cent
                         removal of oxygen-consuming wastes. Limits                   The foregoing subsections have shown that:
                         should be established for such specific pollutants
                         as suspended solids, settleable solids, ammonia,         -The causes of water quality deterioration in the
                         phenolics, oil, and those materials exerting a           Great Lakes are fairly well defined.
                         biochemical oxygen demand. The levels should be          -Technology is available to prevent most water
                         set commensurate with their ability to interfere         quality problems.
                         with beneficial uses of water. Whenever possible,
                         treatable industrial wastes should be processed by       -Technology to restore the water quality of the
                         municipal systems, and master plans should be            Great Lakes is or can be developed.
                         formulated for integrated treatment facilities in
                         urban areas. Areas with septic tanks should be               To abate pollution substantially and to improve
                         incorporated into sewerage systems as soon as            water quality before implementing restoration
                         possible. Continuous disinfection of all municipal       measures, ultimate standards should be established
                         wastewater also should be effected as soon as            in cooperation with the States, the regions, and
                         possible.                                                the Federal Government. Once fixed, the stand-
                                                                                  ards should be strictly enforced. Incremental
                         2. Industrial Wastewater Treatment                       compliance may be necessary in some instances to
                            All industrial wastes should receive the equiv-       offset the economic efforts of the ultimate stand-
                         alent of secondary treatment, and those industrial       ards and to allow time for new treatment equip-
                         wastes causing chemical pollution should be ex-          ment to be incorporated. The Great Lakes should
                         cluded from the Lakes or should receive a suitable       be used as an example for applying national
                         level of treatment.                                      standards.
                            Maximum reduction by the best available treat-            It has been determined that significant preven-
                         ment should be implemented for acids and                 tive measures are being implemented to improve
                         alkalies, oils, and tarry substances; phenolic com-      Great Lakes water quality. Undoubtedly Lake Erie
                         pounds and other organics which produce objec-           will become truly dead if accelerated eutrophica-
                         tionable tastes and odors; ammonia and other             tion proceeds unimpeded.
                         nitrogen   compounds; phosphorus; suspended                  If only preventive measures are implemented
                         materials; toxic and highly-colored materials;           and technology for improvement is only partially
                         oxygen-demanding substances; excessive heat;             applied, the Great Lakes could be restored to a
                         foam-producing compounds; and other materials            desired level of water quality, but only after
                         which detract from aesthetics or other uses of           considerable time. Some speculate that recovery
                         water.                                                   would be measured in terms of geological time.
                         3. Agricultural Runoff                                       Even if technology for improvement is fully
                                                                                  applied (i.e., full utilization of preventive and
                            Pesticides and herbicides should be applied to        restorative technology), restoration of desirable
                         minimize the amounts that drain into the Great           water quality could take as long as a generation.
                         Lakes in surface or subsurface runoff.                   This assumes that eutrophication is reversible-a

                                                                                                                                   VI-129

                              333-091 0-69-13

                                   point of considerable controversy. However,                 of benefit. Hence, Point B is commonly referred to
                                   recent research appears to confirm that reversal to         as the most economically efficient project scale,
                                   some degree is possible.                                    because this point maximizes benefits in terms of
                                      Therefore, in summary, if present resource               associated costs.
                                   management practices are not improved, Lake Erie
                                   will continue to accelerate toward its demise, and
                                   the other Lakes will likely succumb in the order:
                                   Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and Superior. If only
                                   preventive measures are taken, Lake Erie may
                                   recover in a few thousand years, and water quality
                                   in, other Lakes will be maintained; Lake Ontario                                    B                    BFNEFITS@COSTS
                                   also may show improvement. If both preventive                            ac
                                   and restorative measures are implemented, marked
                                   improvement in Lake Erie might be observed
                                   within a generation.
                                      These statements, however, are far too general
                                   to support the necessity for restoration. The
                                   question, "What is the desired level of water
                                   quality in the Great Lakes?" has never been
                                   specifically answered. The objective should be to
                                   optimize the benefits which would accrue because
                                   of enhanced water quality in terms of the cost of
                                                                                                              COSTS    C
                                   attaining such enhancement.
                                      Within the general framework of a market                 :igure 49. Benefit-cost analysis.
                                   system, there are clear-cut reasons to suppose that
                                   public intervention can control disposal of wastes            Since the degree of restoration can be directly
                                   into water bodies. Not only can government                  implied from the derived optimum cost (Point Q,
                                   intervention improve efficiency as measured in              a detailed benefit-cost analysis can identify how
                                   terms of market values, but it can and should take          much restoration is enough.
                                   explicit cognizance of extra-market values. Since
                                   the character of water courses in heavily populated            Several benefits that can be quantified:
                                   areas is such that interdependency between uses is          _Enhancement of land values.
                                   inevitable, a major problem confronting -public
                                   policy is to gauge accurately the significance of           -Reduced cost of water treatment for domestic,
                                   various interdependencies and foster the efficient          municipal, and industrial supplies.
                                   multipurpose use of the water resource.
                                      The answer, then, to the question of how much            -Enhancement of the fishery resource, both
                                   restoration is enough can be determined through a           commercial and sport.
                                   detailed benefit-cost analysis similar to that which
                                                                                               -Enhancement of water-based recreation activities
                                   long has been used to evaluate the economic
                                   feasibility of large public projects.                       and increased potential for water-based recreation
                                      Figure 49 illustrates the type of analysis re-           opportunities.
                                   quired. At the outset, the costs of improved water          -Minimized potential public health hazard.
                                   quality probably will not be matched by the value
                                   .of associated benefits. Eventually, the value of           Amproved aesthetic appeal of the Lakes and
                                   benefits will rise until incremental benefits equal         attraction of tourists.
                                   incremental costs (Point A). Benefits will exceed
                                   costs from A to B, but the ratio will gradually                Benefits derived from improved water quality
                                   decrease until the incremental benefits are again           change continually. For example, demographic
                                   equal to incremental costs (Point B). Beyond that           and sociological trends as in increased population,
                                   point, increments of cost will exceed increments            leisure time, income, and mobility will put in-

                                   VI-130

                         creasing pressure on the Great Lakes, as a recrea-             As other restoration plans proposed earlier, this
                         tional resource. The change is compounded by the           example is directed toward reducing the avail-
                         fact that as population density increases, social          ability of nutrients from bottom sediments. It has
                         pressures arise to place a higher value on recrea-         been demonstrated experimentally that the avail-
                         tional opportunities. Therefore, the value to the          ability of nutrients to the water mass is regulated
                         individual of such opportunities in the future will        by the oxygen content of a lake's deep waters.
                         be greater than today. By the year 2020, for               As these waters become oxygen deficient, decom-
                         example, the projected population in the Lake              position of organic matter without oxygen results
                         Erie Basin alone is expected to pass 23 million,           in chemically reducing conditions in the sedi-
                         compared to 9.8 million in 1960. The rate of               ments. This further results in iron and manganese
                         increase in water-based recreation demand is esti-         compounds being dissolved and sediment nutrients
                         mated to far exceed this population growth.                being released. Further study of this phenomenon
                            There has been much speculation about the               is an integral part of the National Eutrophication
                         cost of a restoration plan for Lake Erie. The              Research Program wherein pilot scale tests in
                         following example provides an order-of-magnitude           YJamath Lake, Oregon, will be used to determine
                         estimate of cotfi, for a potentially feasible method.      the influence of sediment-water interchange on
                         It already has been shown that preventive meas-            algae production.
                         Iures must be 'implemented to remove the causes of            A second effect of oxygen depletion in the
                         accelerated eutrophication. Moreover, it has been          deep waters is the marked change in the aquatic
                         stated that restorative measures must be imple-            ecology. The demise of the mayfly nymph on the
                         mented so that the time of lake recovery will be           bottom of Lake Erie is related to the low oxygen
                         short enough to avoid forfeiture of substantial            concentration. Since the mayfly provided a major
                         benefits. The example assumes that the recommen-           source of food for desirable fish species, these too
                         dations for preventive technology will be imple-           have declined. A more direct effect of low oxygen
                         mented.                                                    concentrations is the gradual takeover of the Lakes
                                                                                    by rough fish that are more tolerant of low oxygen
                            Earlier subsections on Prevention and Restora-          levels.
                         tion (C and D) outlined the technology considered             In the Public Health Service 1965 report,
                         and, in some cases, tested on a small scale. The           pollution of Lake Erie and Its Tributafies, the
                         following is one approach involving a large engi-          dissolved oxygen values in the bottom waters of
                         neering effort. It is a method to destratify Lake          the central basin of Lake Erie are described as
                         Erie by artificial recirculation. This example is not      having decreased during the past 35 years from
                         offered as the ideal solution. (Undoubtedly a              about five milligrams per liter (mg/1) to less than
                         complex of restoration methods will be required,           two, with many areas near zero. Typically, severe
                         and several techniques must be implemented.) It is         late summer stratification can occurover an area
                         intended to provide a reference concept that will          of about 2,600 square miles or about 25 per cent
                         assist in defining the necessary level of planning,        of the entire lake. The total volume of the water
                         effort, and funding   in a more quantitative manner        colurrin (average depth- 12 fathoms) in this area is
                         than previously. As such, the artificial recircula-        about 120 million acre feet or 35 cubic miles.
                         tion case study can serve as a focus for further              Carr 13 provides an excellent review of dissolved
                         evaluation.                                                oxygen conditions in Lake Erie. Although it is
                            It must be emphasized strongly that restoration         difficult to generalize, Carr's work suggests that
                         of a take as large as Erie represents a major              the oxygen-depleted hypolimnion occurs in the
                         environmental modification and, hence, must be             water column below 50 feet. For the particular
                         approached with caution. The analysis and evalua-          configuration of Lake Erie, this condition prevails
                         tion required before such an undertaking is                for about the last 10 feet of the central basin. If
                         beyond the scope of this discussion. Although
                         much information necessary to evaluate the feasi-
                         bility, engineering requirements, and effects of an          13
                         artificial recirculation project already exists, sub-          Carr, J. S., Dissolved Oxygen in Lake Erie, Past and
                                                                                    Present, University of Michigan Great Lakes Research
                         stantial additional work will be required.                 Division, Pub. 9, pp. 1-14.

                                                                                                                                       VI-131

                                     so, about 20 to 40 million acre feet are oxygen             as large as 20 times that calculated by the design
                                     deficient.                                                  method; however, for purposes of this analysis,
                                        An alternate calculation based on a 270 million          this value is not applied.
                                     pound oxygen deficit suggests that 20 million acre             Using the design methodology of Cook and
                                     feet could be seriously depleted.     14  These values      Waters 16 and the aforementioned volume of water
                                     are in sufficient agreement for purposes of this            to be circulated (i.e., 40 million acre feet in 100
                                     analysis.                                                   days), the following values result:
                                        The conclusion, then, is that artificial destratifi-
                                     cation of Lake Erie will require displacement of
                                     about 40 million acre feet of bottom water, which                         Engineering Parameters
                                     must be brought to the surface to be replaced with          Volumetric water rate                200,000 CFS'7
                                     surface water during the summer months i.e.,                Diameter of circulators.                   10 feet
                                     ibout 100 days).                                            Ungth of circulators                       50 feet
                                        Artificial destratification is not a new concept,        Number of circulators                      500
                                     but application on the scale represented by Lake            Compressed air volume
                                     Erie requires new considerations. Numerous de-                            (total)              1,300,000 SCFM"
                                     stratification tests have been conducted in the
                                     United States, Great Britain, and Europe. Whether           Compressor horsepower
                                     any permanent installations have been made is                             (HP), total            600,000
                                     unknown.                                                                       Cost Parameters
                                        Results   of these experiments have not always
                                     been predictable, probably due to the nature of             Capital costs
                                     sediments and the initial oxygen content. This                 Circulators @ $200,000                 $100,000,000
                                     experience emphasizes the obvious need for                  Annual operating costs
                                     caution in any major effort to change the environ-             Fuel (diesel)                              8,150,000
                                     Iment. A direct parallel can be seen in large-scale            Amortization (10 yrs. st. line)           10,000,000
                                     weather modification programs.                                 Maintenance and repair                     5,000,000
                                        The use of airlift recirculators has been de-               Personnel                                  5,000,000
                                     scribed, and detailed design methods have been                                                         $28,150,000
                                     developed. Airlift recirculators (vertical, open-
                                     ended pipes with compressed air introduced near             For contingency purposes, this total value can be
                                     the bottom end and discharging below the surface)           rounded upward to $30 million per year.
                                     are extremely efficient movers of water against                As presently conceived, airlift circulators would
                                     essentially  zero head. For example, air consuni-           consist of vertical, open-ended riser tubes mounted
                                     ption rates are approximately one-hundredth of a            on barges. Power, for compressing the motive air
                                     cubic foot   per minute per gallon of water circu-          introduced near the riser's bottom would be
                                     lated per    minute. Velocities issuing from. the           provided by diesel engines-approximately 1,000
                                     circulator   will be from five to six feet per              hp per circulator. Each riser would be 50 feet in
                                     second."                                                    length with the upper end terminating about 10
                                        Application to the destratification of Lake Erie         feet below the surface. Blowable ballast tanks at
                                     obviously requires considerable extrapolation. This         the lower end of the riser will allow the riser tube
                                     is particularly true of the induced circulation that        to be elevated for moving into shallow water for
                                     occurs outside the circulator. Another expert               repair and storage. With the ballast tanks flooded,
                                     estimated that the net induced circulation may be

                                                                                                    16 Ibid.
                                        14 Commoner, B., "The Killing of a Great Lake," The         I ?CFS is cubic feet per second; 200,000 CFS is
                                     1968 World Book Supplement to the World Book                approximately equivalent to the average annual flow of
                                     Encyclopedia.                                               the Columbia River at its mouth.
                                        15 Cook, M. W. and E. D. Waters, Operational Charac-        18SCFM is standard cubic feet per minute; standard
                                     teristics of Submerged Gas Lift Circulators, U.S. Atomic    refers to the conditions of average atmospheric tempera-
                                     Energy Commission Report HW-39432, Dec. 1, 1955.            ture and pressure.

                                     VI-132

                         the riser tube will hinge down from the barge and        H. Conclusions
                         lock into its operational position.
                           Mobility of the barge-mounted system will                 This section identifies and f@cuses attention on
                         permit towing to mooring sites selected on the           the action required to restore Great Lakes quality
                         basis of water quality analyses.                         to a desirable level. Accelerated eutrophication
                                                                                  and other water quality deterioration are described
                                                                                  with the contributing factors. Current technology
                         G. Institutional Arrangements                            to prevent water quality impairment resulting
                                                                                  from man's activities and to restore water quality
                           Well-founded restoration plans that incorporate        to a level that provides for optimum beneficial use
                         the best available technology are of little value        is reviewed.
                         unless institutional arrangements provide means             Also, the necessary economic analysis to iden-
                         for successful implementation. All too often,            tify the costs and associated benefits or restorative
                         desirable proposals for improved water manage-           measures are discussed. Institutional arrangements
                         ment practices have not been implemented                 are mentioned to identify the requisite characteris-
                         because constraints of existing water law, water         tics of an agency to jead the planning and
                         management institutions, administrative regula-          restoration programs.
                         tions, and water use customs had not been                   Finally, restorative techniques of the Great
                         considered adequately.                                   Lakes are discussed with one example examined in
                           It takes only a cursory examination to discover        detail to help identify the magnitude and cost of
                         that, in both the United States and Canadian parts       needed restoration actions.
                         of the Great Lakes Basin, there are a multitude of          Any plan to restore the Great Lakes will involve
                         Federal, State, and local agencies, universities,        a tremendous undertaking because of the scale and
                         research institutes, and industries with active          nature of the resources involved. Technology to
                         programs related in some manner to one or more           deal with freshwater environments is not oriented
                         aspects of the quality of the Great Lakes re-            toward solving problems of the Great Lakes
                         sources. As one would suspect, there is consider-        magnitude; however, technology developed in the
                         able overlap in interest and activity among these        marine sciences has been directed toward solution
                         programs.                                                of large-scale problems. Therefore, experience in
                           In view of the rapidly deteriorating quality of        marine technology would be highly beneficial in
                         some of the Lakes, particularly Lake Erie, it is         formulating and implementing plans to restore this
                         apparent that existing institutional arrangements        vast resource.
                         are not adequate to handle the problem. This                Two opinions often have been strongly stated
                         raises the question-should a new organization be         in both the marine sciences and Great Lakes
                         set up, or does an existing agency possess enough        research. First, the experts agree that the applica-
                         of the requisite characteristics that, given the         tion of marine science and technology skills to
                         necessary authority and funding, it could success-       study the restoration of the Lakes would be
                         fully formulate and implement restoration plans?         highly appropriate. Second, and more importantly,
                           It is essential that full advantage be taken of the    almost all the experts contacted believed that this
                         vast reservoir of knowledge and skills that exists       desirable relationship has not been exploited suffi-
                         among all the resources agencies and organizations       ciently.
                         active in the Great Lakes Basin. The problem is             Use of Great Lakes resources is limited by
                         neither a lack of capability among available per-        water pollution. Although a variety of classes of
                         sonnel nor a shortage of suitable technology with        pollution are evident, the most serious long-range
                         which to attack the water quality problem.               problem results from accelerated eutrophication or
                         Rather, it is the need for an effective vehicle with     the aging process of these lakes. Lake Erie is not
                         which to accomplish (1) needed leadership, coordi-       dead.
                         nation, and utilization of available talent including       Suitable technology is presently available to
                         the special capabilities to be found in marine           successfully undertake measures to prevent further
                         sciences and (2) successful implementation and           water quality deterioration and accelerated eutro-
                         management of a large-scale restoration program.         phication.

                                                                                                                                  VI-133

                                    Recommendations:                                          tion-indicates that this part -would cost about $30
                                    Implementation of measures to prevent, water              million annually after. a substantial initial capital.
                                    quality deterioration and accelerated eutrophica-         investment. This provides a, basis for which to
                                    tion is essential before restoration can be achieved.     examine and compare other aspects of a restora-
                                       A: detailed economic analysis should be under-         tion program.
                                    taken: (1) to identify the quantifiable benefits              A goal should be set to halt substantially any
                                    accruing for various levels of improvement in the         -further pollution and to improve the quality of
                                    quality of Great Lakes resources and (2) to               nearshOre waters. The goals of this program should
                                    determine the associated costs of achieving these         be enforced by joint State-Federal ultimate
                                    improvements. This analysis should include consid-        standards to be fixed immediately. These stand-
                                    eration of forfeited benefits if resource manage-         ards should be tailored for incremental future
                                    ment practices are not improved and should                compliance until the desired standards are
                                    encompass all significant aspects including do-           attained-
                                    mestic, municipal, and industrial water supply;              A National Project tailored to the immediate
                                    power; irrigation agriculture; watershed manage-          needs of Lakes Erie and Ontario and southern
                                    ment; and recreation and aquatic resources includ-        Lake Michigan should be funded to test such
                                    ing pleasure boating. Without the knowledge that          promising restoration schemes as artificially in-
                                    such an analysis.would provide, the most desirable        duced destratification. Existing facilities should be
                                    and justifiable level of water quality remains a          used to the fullest extent.
                                    matter of conjecture and debate, and any restora-            A restoration project for Lakes Erie and
                                    tion program would lack direction and a defensible        Ontario and southern Lake Michigan should be
                                    goal.                                                     undertaken as soon as the technology is available.
                                       A restoration program, in addition to preven-          The program should complement the implementa-
                                    tive measures, is necessary to improve the quality        tion of existing pollution abatement technology in
                                    of the Great Lakes to any significant degree within       all the Great Lakes and must be managed to
                                    an acceptable period. A detailed study of one part        accommodate Federal, State, community, and
                                    of such a program-artificially induced circula-           private interests.

                                    VI-134

                         Chapter 6 Industrial Technology

                            The technology of several domestic 'industries          insure access and availability of suitable areas and
                         with major interest in the oceans or close to shore        to zone for optimum multiple use of the resource).
                         is discussed. These include the following resource
                         industries:
                         -Living                                                                          Figure 1
                            Fishing                                                   PRESENT TECHNOLOGICAL STATUS OF
                            Aquaculture                                                  VARIOUS DOMESTIC INDUSTRIES
                         -Non-Living                                                         Type                      Examples
                            Oil and gas
                            Ocean mining                                           Existing Industries
                            Chemical extraction                                       Mature, healthy,          Oil and gas on conti-
                            Desalination                                               and growing                nental shelf
                            Power generation                                                                    Chemical extraction
                                                                                                                  from sea water
                         Recreation'  not treated separately here, is men-                                      Mining of sand, gravel,
                         tioned only for the sake of completeness. It is                                          sulfur
                         discussed more thoroughly in the Marine Re-                                            Shrimp and tuna fishing
                         sources Panel Report. Transportation, and harbor                                       Surface marine recrea-
                         development are discussed in Chapter 5 of this                                           tion
                         report.                                                      Early stages of           Desalination
                            Each industry subsection includes pertinent                growth                   Bulk and container
                         surnmaries and recommendations, with major find-                                         transportation systems
                         ings and recommendations given at the front of                                           and associated termi-
                         the panel report. Each industry's technology is                                          nals
                         treated from the viewpoint of present status and                                       Aquaculture, fresh
                         trends, future needs, and recommendations, with                                          water and estuarine
                         emphasis on recommendations that can be imple-                                         Underwater recreation
                         mented by the Federal Government.
                            There are tremendous differences in the indus-            Mature but static         Most segments of
                         tries' present and anticipated rates of growth.               or declining               fishing
                         Further, widespread differences exist among the                                        Shipbuilding
                         various segments of an industry, as in fishing.                                        Merchant shipping
                            Figure I depicts the present technological             Future Industries
                         status of.ocean industries in two broad categor-             Nearterm promising        Mining of placer min-
                         ies-existing and future industries. Assignment of             (where nearterm            erals
                         an industry to a given category has been somewhat             is less than 15          Oil and gas beyond the
                         arbitrary.                                                    years)                     continental shelf
                            When development of an ocean industry is
                         proceeding well, as in oil and gas activities on the         Long range                Sub-bottom mining
                         continental shelf, only minor adjustments in Fed-                                        (excluding sulphur)
                         eral policies and programs are indicated.                                              Aquaculture, open
                            When developments are in early stages of                                              ocean
                         potential large-scale growth, as in desalination, the                                  Deep water mining
                         Federal Government's role can be decisive in                                           Power generation from
                         maintaining the expected rate of growth. In the                                          waves, currents, tides,
                         case of underwater recreation, the roles of State                                        and thermal differ-
                         and local governments also are important (to                                             ences

                                                                                                                                   VI-135

                                          When development of an industry is not                     incentive and competition necessary for resource
                                      progressing, more drastic changes are recom-                   development by free enterprise.
                                      mended, including those of a fiscal, legal-                       The Federal Government should keep a watch-
                                      regulatory, or technological nature-all of which               ful eye on future industries with longer range
                                      are interrelated. For example, U.S. fishermen                  potential and maintain close liaison with those
                                      should be permitted to purchase vessels abroad                 industries and the acaden-dc community, as new
                                      and should not be, required to pay excessive duty              developments may reverse the outlook. Two major
                                      on foreign gear. This would help improve, for                  recommendations emerge from a review of the
                                      example, the technical position of the New                     industries' technological status.
                                      England groundfish fishermen, enabling them to
                                      compete more effectively with foreign fishermen.               Recommendations:
                                      In addition, technology's role in the Bureau of                National Projects such as the Fixed and Portable
                                      Commercial Fisheries should be upgraded con-                   Continental Shelf Laboratories should be under-
                                      siderably, with substantial emphasis given search              taken. Such projects would permit many users to
                                      and location techniques.                                       lease and use these facilities to test the economic
                                        I When an industry's development is yet to begin,            and technical feasibility of new undersea develop-,
                                      as in offshore placer mining, special incentives to            ment options.
                                      pioneers and special attention to removal of
                                      legal-regulatory and economic obstacles are                       A statutory mechanism is needed throng                .h
                                      needed. The Federal Government can do much                     which the Federal Government, State govern-
                                      prior to the beginning of a new mining enterprise,             ments, industry, and academic community can
                                      such as implementing a more comprehensive re-                  cooperate to provide responsible advice and plan-
                                      connaissance survey program of the shelves and                 ning for a truly national ocean program. Such a
                                      encouraging broad basic engineering programs pres-             mechanism would help ensure that the overall
                                      ently beyond the financial capability of most                  program makes effective use of the competence
                                      industries.                                                    and facilities of both Government and private
                                          The nature of the encouragement for other                  organizations. In addition, it could be used to
                                      potential ocean industries depends on the partic-              identify deficiencies in basic engineering disci-
                                      ular industry. Incentives for deep water oil and gas           plines, facilities, and manpower. Further, this
                                      development, for example, would be sornewhat                   mechanism could ensure consideration of impor-
                                      different from deep water mining for many rea-                 tant ocean programs not presently planned by
                                      sons, including:                                               industry or Government. Finally, this mechanism
                                      -Availability of oil and gas industry venture                  could monitor the progress of National Projects
                                      capital is different from   .that of mining.                   and the Government's fundamental technology
                                                                                                     efforts. The common need for this became appar-
                                      -The immediate past history of offshore oil and                ent in hearings and interviews conducted with a
                                      gas has created a more experienced industry.                   broad cross section of marine interests.
                                      -Extracting liquid or gas is far different from such           1. FISHING
                                      mining operations as dredging nodules.
                                                                                                        The case for a growing and stable fishing
                                          A common thread running through most ocean                 industry, as a resource of employment and Na-
                                      industries is the realization that aid in areas of             tional income was vividly illustrated by the follow-
                                      basic engineering and in costly technology devel-              ing:
                                      opment facilities (available for lease) will be vitally
                                      useful. However, it is recognized that the mining              The annual catch is worth $438 million (196 7) at
                                      and petroleum industries will wish to conduct                  dockside, but to the processor it is worth $1
                                      their own detailed surveys and develop much of                 billion. Fishermen have $500 million tied up in
                                      the final phase of the extraction technology. Both             vessels that keep shipyards and gear manufacturers
                                      are important, but if the Government performs                  busy. 7he industry and closely allied shore activi-
                                      these functions, it will virtually eliminate the               ties provide half a million jobs. U.S. fishermen,

                                      VI-136

                           whatever their present,woes, would appear to be a          critical with respect to the pelagic fish. The
                           national asset.                                            localization step may rely on sonars, odors emitted
                                                                                      by fish, lasers, etc. Localization is critical with
                           - From a technological point of view,        there is a    respect to groundfish.
                           current need within the industry to:                          Each phase is dependent on basic data provided
                                                                                      by biological research. However, it is not essential
                           -Improve capital equipment (vessels and gear).             that such research be completed in order that
                                                                                      technological advances relating to wild population
                           -Encourage more comprehensive and integrated               production and harvesting be made more effective.
                           use of marine technology.                                  Yet such research must be supported continually
                                                                                      to optimize operations and to expand the number
                              The advance of a given industry is only partially       of species which can be fished economically.
                           dependent on scientific research and discoveries. It
                           may be limited by lack of capital, technical
                           knowledge, or proper complementary equipment.              A. Fishing Vessels and Gear
                           Environmental and institutional peculiarities pose         1. Fishing Vessels-Present Status
                           problems in certain locations. The effects of fiscal,
                           legal, and regulatory problems are discussed in               The U.S. fishing fleet is numerically one of the
                           detail in the Report of the Panel on Industry and          world's largest-about 76,000 powered craft of all
                           Private Investment;. this report concentrates on           typ.es exceeded only by Japan. About 60 per cent
                           technology.                                                of U.S. vessels are over 16 years old, and 27 per
                              Research has been undertaken on a piecemeal             cent have been in service over 26 years. While the
                           basis, but the crucial interaction between compo-          fleet is in a continual state of renovation and
                           nents dictates that a more comprehensive ap-               replacement, there is much room for improve-
                           proach is needed. Fisheries technology can be              ment.
                           considered in terms of operational phases:                    The U.S. fish harvesting segment utilizes over
                                                                                      12,000 documented vessels of five tons capacity or
                           -Location, tracking, and , identification     of com-      larger, nearly 64,000 motor boats, and about
                           mercial species.                                           3,500 small unpowered boats. The 12,000 vessels
                           -Harvesting, including the concentration and con-          total more than 415,000 gross tons. Estimated
                           trol of species-preferably on a selective basis.           present market value of vessels alone exceeds $500
                                                                                      million. The range of individual vessel prices is
                           -Transporting catches from fishing ground to               from less than $1,000 to as much as $1,750,000.
                           processing facilities at sea or ashore.                       There were 128,000 domestic fishermen on
                                                                                      vessels, boats, and ashore in 1965 (U.S. figures), an
                           -Processing and preservation.                              average of less than two fishermen per boat. It is
                                                                                      obvious there is a significant number of one-man
                                                                                      boats.
                              In location, tracking, and identification there            Foreign fishing fleets off our coasts are domi-
                           are two major steps: (1) search for the general            nated by large, complex craft capable of operating
                           area in which commercial concentrations are to             thousands of miles from home port. By contrast,
                           be expected and then (2) the localization or               most U.S. fishing vessels are small coastal craft.
                           detection of the precise position of the fish. The         The small size in itself is not a deficiency because
                           long-range search involves broad-scale mapping             most fishing operations are close to our coast.
                           with heavy dependence on environmental informa-            (Figure 2 shows a departing fleet of coastal shrimp
                           tion. It ultimately could receive much support             vessels.)
                           from satellites, buoys, and computers with appro-             Although considerable variation exists among
                           priate instantaneous sensing equipment. Search is          fisheries, 95 per cent of all U.S. fishing vessels are
                                                                                      constructed of wood, while only five per cent are
                              iSenator E. L. Bartlett, Congressional Record, Jan.     of steel. Of the 12,000 documented vessels of five
                           30, 1968.                                                  tons or more, about 67 per cent have radio-

                                                                                                                                       VI-137

                                                                                           names as English sole, Dover sole, black back or
                                                                                           yellowtail flounder, fluke, rex sole, etc. For the
                                                                                           most part, however, in the United States they
                                                                                           appear
                                                                                                   on restaurant menus or in food stores as
                                                                                           fillet of sole. Such larger species as halibut often
                                                                                           are steaked, finding ready retail market.
                                                                                              Flounder is taken primarily by otter trawls, the
                                                                          1N               same gear that catch most of the cod, hake,
                                                                                           haddock, pollack, ocean perch, and many other
                                                                                           kinds of groundfish. This conglomeration of fish is
                                                                                           the foundation for the most rapidly growing edible
                                                                                           fish commodity in the world-the frozen fish
                                                          M
                                                                                           block from which fish sticks are made. The
                                                                                           demand at dockside for these fish has grown
                                                          A@7                              between 1948 and 1966 from 850 million pounds
                                                            q@
                                                       -_@      46-
                                                                                           to 1,900 @ million pounds. To compete in this
                                                                                           expanding market, U.S. fishermen must meet the
                                 Figure 2. Departure of shrimp fleet (Bureau               price established by foreign competition.
                                 of Commercial Fisheries photo)
                                 telephones, 49 per cent have depth finders, 27 per        b. Strength of the Supply          Some species of
                                 cent have automatic pilots, 19 per cent have              groundfish off our coast are plentiful enough to
                                 direction finders, and only seven per cent have           meet domestic demand and provide a substantial
                                 radar. These percentages vary greatly by fishery.         export surplus. The supply of other species,
                                                                                           however, has been considerably reduced by heavy
                                    The U.S. fishing fleet is not fully utilized, due
                                 partly to the seasonal character of fisheries and the     fishing pressures, often by foreign fishermen.
                                 inability of much of the fleet to participate in
                                 several fisheries. Some under-utilization results         c. Domestic Production Decline The New Eng-
                                 from the inability of a substantial portion of the        land otter trawlers at the end of World War 11 were
                                 fleet to compete with other more modern vessels           the strongest and most vigorously growing branch
                                 in the U.S. fleet and with foreign fishing fleets.        of the United. States flag fishing industry. How-
                                 Many vessels are unable to locate and catch fish          ever, the share of the domestic groundfish market
                                 under conditions of changing resource availability.       claimed by the otter trawlers dropped from 74 per
                                 Figure 3 shows vessel utilization by fishery for the      cent in 1948 to 29 per cent in 1966, causing a
                                 U.S. fleet. Regardless of the reason for idle time,       decline of U.S. position in the Northwest Atlantic
                                 the data indicate an inability to spread fixed costs      fishery from first to eighth or ninth place.
                                 by larger annual catches.                                    U.S. Federal policy has been partly responsible
                                   I As indicated in Figure 4, 40 per cent of the          for the decline in harvesting New England ground-
                                 documented vessels are part time (operating less          fish by encouraging other North Atlantic nations
                                 than 120 days). The figure lists fishing vessels part     (particularly Canada and the Scandinavian coun-
                                 time or full time by type of fishery in 1962. It          tries) to increase their dollar earnings. In addition,
                                 should be borne in mind in interpreting these             Canadian fishermen have received liberal vessel
                                 statistics that. -a large number of people fish           construction subsidies and much related support
                                 commercially only in summer and for additional            from both their federal and provincial govern-
                                 earnings, often. encouraged by the low cost of            ments.
                                 commercial licenses.
                                                                                           d. Effects on Domestic Fishermen Our fishermen
                                 2. Case Study of New England Ground Fishery               have been forced, as a result, to restrict their
                                                                                           activities to the higher priced resources of inshore
                                 a. The Demand Many species of flatfish inhabit            flounder, Georges Bank haddock, and scallop.
                                 the U.S. Continental Shelves; some have such trade        These species are taken by the smaller U.S. vessels

                                 VI-138

                          with more ready access than foreign fishermen to       inefficient, and obsolete vessels and men. It is this
                          the more lucrative but restricted U.S. fresh fish      fishery that is the cause of the widely published
                          markets.                                               reports that the Russians are catching A the fish
                                                                                 and crowding U.S. fishermen off their own fishing
                          e. Public Image of the Fleet It is precisely this      grounds. The reasons for this, as indicated above,
                          fishery in New. England (as well as California,        are not those generally stated. It should be
                          Oregon, and Washington) which is the origin of the     emphasized that this decadence of the fleet is not
                          popular view that the entire U.S. fishing industry     due to negligence of the fishermen and is not
                          is decadent, declining, and composed of overaged,      typical of the entire industry.

                                                                           Figure 3
                                          VESSEL UTILIZATION BY FISHERY FOR THE U.S. FLEET,                      1962

                                                             Average                Average            Average            Average
                                   Fishery                   trips per            days at sea        days at sea        days vessel
                                                                year                per trip           per year          unutilized
                                                                                                                         per year'

                          Gillnet/Drift   . . . . .               72                  1.9                137               115
                                          4
                          N.A. Trawler    . . . . .               17                 12.1                200                52
                          N.A. Dragger    . . . . .               80                  2.82               223                29
                          Oyster Dredge   . . . . .               21                  4.4                  93              159
                          Clam Dredge     . . . . .              139                  1.2                167                85
                          Swordf ish      . . . . . .             15                  5.2                  76              176
                          Menhaden Seiner   . . . .               48                  2.5                121               131
                          Shrimp Trawler    . . . .               25                  5.73               142               110
                          Snapper Boat    . . . . .               18                  5.3                  97              155
                          Tuna Seiner     . . . . .                7                 18.0                133               119
                          Salmon Seiner   . . . . .               14                  5.7                  80              172
                          Halibut Boat    . . . . .                6                 14.2                  85              167
                          Salmon Troller    . . . .               18                  5.8                105               147
                          Salmon and other Gillnet   .            16                  4.4                  72              180
                          Pacific Dragger   . . . .               24                  4.9                117               135
                          Crab Boat       . . . . . .             53                  2.3                121               131
                          Herring Seiner  . . . . .               11                  9.6                102               150
                          Lobster  . . . . . . .                  86                  1.6                137               115
                          Mackerel and Sardine    .  .            14                  5.6                  80              172
                          Industrial Fish . . . . .               24                  5.0                120               132
                          Pound Boat      . . . . .               136                 1.1                150               102
                          Tuna Clipper    . . . . .                6                 40.0                250                   2
                          Whaler   . . . . . . .                  96                  2.0                193                59
                          Scallop  . . . . . . .                  19                 10.0                190                62
                          Tuna Trollers   . . . . .                8                 15.0                122               130
                          Cannery Tender    . . . .               50                  3.0                150               102
                          Charters        : , * , , ,             21                  3.7                  77              175
                          Longliner       . . . . . .             92                  1.2                ill               141
                          I Assumes a 252 working-day year. Saturdays, Sundays, and eight holidays have been excluded.
                          22.8 represents small draggers. Large draggers average 5.6 days.
                          35.7 represents medium trawlers. Large trawlers average 15.1 days.
                          4N.A. = North Atlantic.
                          5 Vessels chartered for unspecified fisheries.
                          Source: Basic data from a private survey of the fishing industry by Fish Boat magazine.

                                                                                                                                 VI-139

                                                                                           Figure 4
                                                       U.S. DOCUMENTED FISHING VESSELS CLASSIFIED AS PART-TIME OR
                                                                           FULL-TIME, BY FISHERY, 1962

                                                                                                    Part-time                          Full-time
                                                                        Number             Nu m'ber                           Number
                                               Fishery               documented            operating         Per.cent       operating         Per cent
                                                                          vessels           under                               over
                                                                                           120 days                           120 days

                                     Gillnet/Drift       . . .              633              266               42.0             367.             58.0
                                     N.A. Trawler'     . . . .              177                -                 -              177             100.0
                                     N.A. Dragger      . . . .              875              114               13.0             761              87.0
                                     Oyster Dredge     . . . .              599              282               47.1             317              52.9
                                     Clam Dredge       . . . .              264                66              25.0             198              75.0
                                     Swordfisher       . . . .                74               53              71.6               21             28.4
                                     Menhaden Seiner     . . .              222              167               75.2               55             24.8
                                     Sardine and Mackerel       .             72               52              72.2               20             27.8
                                     Shrimp Trawler      . . .            4,024            1,127               28.0           2,897              72.0
                                     Snapper Boat      . . . .              546              207               37.9             339              62.1
                                     Tuna Seiner       . . . .              106                31              29.2               75             70.8
                                     Tuna Troller      . . . .              391              168               43.0             223              57.0
                                     Tuna Clipper
                                        (large seiner)   . . .                66                                 -                66            100.0
                                     Salmon Seiner     . . . .            1,120              504               45.0             616              55.0
                                     Halibut Boat      . . . .              383              149               38.9             234              61.1
                                     Salmon Troller      . . .            1,421              710               50.0             711              50.0
                                     Salmon and
                                        Other Gillnet    . . .              752              466               62.0             286              38.0
                                     Pacific Dragger     . . .              152                12                7.9            140              92.1
                                     Crab Boat                              480              197               34.0             283              66.0
                                     Herring Seiner    . . . .                25                 3             12.0               22             88.0
                                     Longliners        . . . . .              53               40              75.5               13             24.5
                                     Lobster   . . . . . .                    62               20              32.3               42             67.7
                                     Industrial Fish     .   .  .           206                52              25.2,            154              74.8
                                     Pound Boat        . . . .              214              160               74.8               54             25.2
                                     Whaler    . . . . . .                      5                                                    5          100.0
                                     Scallop   . . . . . .                  172                -                 -              172             100.0
                                     Cannery Tender      . . .              260              260              100.0               -                -
                                     Charter 2         . . . . .          1,467              910               62.0             557              38.0

                                            Total      . . . . .          14,821           6,016               40.6           8,805              59.4

                                      N.A. = North Atlantic
                                     2Vessels chartered for unspecified fisheries.
                                     Source: Basic data from a private survey of the fishing industry by Fish Boat magazine.

                                     VI-140

                             3. Commercial Fishing Gear Types-Present Status

                                Commercial fishermen in the United States
                             employ a variety of equipment and vessels to
                             harvest fish and shellfish. Each fishery is character-
                             ized by its specialization of fishing gear and                   I
                             vessels. Commercial fishing gear design is dictated               7-
                             by the species to be harvested, its size, habitat,
                             mobility, and by conservation requirements.
                                Commercial fishing gear may be classified as:

                             -Nets (seines, trawls, gill nets, etc.).

                             -Hook and line (hand lines, long             lines, trolling
                             lines, etc.).

                             -Gear for gathering immobile species (shovels,
                             tongs, rakes, pumps, and dredges).

                             7Traps and barriers (pots, pound nets, wires, etc.).

                                Figure 5 lists the value of catch to the
                             fishermen by type of gear for 1966. Figures 6, 7,
                             and 8 are photographs of 0 nets, a clam dredge                   Figure 6. Operation ofgill net hauler aboard
                             and a snapper trap.                                              R/V Oregon, shown hauling 6-inch stretched
                                                                                              mesh tuna gill net. (Bureau of Commercial
                                                       Figure 5                               Fisheries photo)
                                         CATCH BY GEAR TYPE, 1966
                                                    Value of             Principle
                                     Gear           Catch to             Species
                                                   Fishermen
                                                   ($ Million)            Caught

                             Otter Trawls              154          shrimp, bottom
                                                                     fish
                             Purse Seines              89           salmon, tuna, men-
                                                                     haden,anchovy
                             Pots and Traps            54           crab, lobster
                             Baited Hook
                             & Line      . . .         51           salmon, halibut
                             Gill Nets   . . .         42           salmon, shad, perch,
                                                                     bass, mackerel
                             Dredges     . . .         33           scallops, oysters,
                                                                     clams
                             Tongs and Rakes           20           oysters
                             Haul Seines .               4          bait, herring
                             Pound Nets                  3          herring
                             Hoes and Forks              3          clams
                             Fyke and
                              Hoop Nets                  2          perch, alewives,
                                                                     catfish, bait
                             Trammel Nets                2          pompano, mullet,
                                                                     weakfish
                             Other Gear                15           miscellaneous
                                                       472                                    Figure 7. Clam dredges being hauled aboard
                             Source: Office    of Program Planning, Bureau of       Com-      R/V Silver Bay. (Bureau of Commercial
                             mercial Fisheries.                                               Fisheries photo)

                                                                                                                                                  VI-141

                                                                                               Pots and Traps                6.0
                                                                                               Long Lining                   4.1
                                                                                               Other Gear                    7.5
                                                                                               Although electronic gear has been well devel-
                                                                                             oped,as navigational, safety, and fishing aids for
                                                                                             the last decade, few vessels have installed the full
                                                                                             array of available equipment.
                                                                                               Agriculture, road building, and other heavy
                                                                                             equipment industries have long recognized hydrau-
                                                                                             lics as a versatile, efficient means of transmitting
                                                                                                 r. Yet, only now is it beginning to find
                                                                                             p
                                                                                             widespread use in the U.S. fishing industry. New
                                                                                      '71    developments are being implemented in the new
                                                                                             tuna seiners and king crab vessels being built and
                                                                                             converted on the West Coast for the Alaskan
                                                                                             fisheries. The problem is not that fishermen,
                                                                                             shipyards, or naval architects who design vessels
                                                                                             are backward. Systems of this type usually must
                                                                                             be built into vessels, and when a new vessel is
                                                                                             built, it usually has this gear. However, hydraulic
                                                                                             gear is an exception as it generally was added to
                                                                                             tuna vessels (even old ones) during the purse seine
                                    Figure 8. Trap being hauled aboard with catch
                                    of red snapper. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries          revolution.
                                    photo)

                                                                                             4. Trends of Fidiing Vessels
                                       It is of particular interest that pound nets            Design trends are to:
                                    Yielded only $3 million worth of fish in 1966; yet
                                    they once were the most efficient gear for catching      -New hull shapes for greater speed, sea handling,
                                    salmon in Alaska and the Pacific Northwest. Only         carrying capacity, and saf@ty.
                                    20 years ago, more than 600 were in operation,           -Introduction of more multi-purpose concepts.
                                    catching salmon far more efficiently than any
                                    other gear since developed. The small fishermen,           Construction trends are to:
                                    more numerous than. the pound net operators,
                                    were successful in having legislation passed to          -Increased use of metals and less of wood, leading
                                    outlaw these "overly-efficient traps."        2          to stronger, more roomy vessels and greater
                                       An analysis of 9,251 fishing operations indi-         versatility in layout of quarters and holds.
                                    cates that 80 per cent of the vessels used were less
                                    than 60 feet in length, while only 4 per cent were       -Lower maintenance costs due to better materials
                                    greater than 90 feet. The following is a percentage      such as steel alloys and anti-corrosive paints.
                                    breakdown of the gear type used in the 10,666
                                    vessels represented by the analysis:                       Propulsion trends are to:
                                       Otter Trawling              37.6 per cent
                                       Troll Lines                  15.1                     -Greater horsepower for more speed. New engines
                                       Purse Seining                11.9                     have lower weight-to-horsepower ratios, requiring
                                       Gill or Trammel Nets          9.8                     less space and increasing hold capacity. (Increased
                                       Dred Iging                     8.0                    speed is especially important for tuna vessels.)
                                                                                             -Greater horsepower for better dragging power
                                       2A fishing operation is defined here as a company,    for trawlers (which in this case may be more
                                    partnership, or individual proprietor.                   important than greater speed).

                                    VI-142

                              Size trends are to:                                        -Greater use of hydraulic power throughout vessel
                                                                                         for steering, deck winches, deck cranes, hoisting
                           -Larger vessels optimized for a particular mission.           winches, etc.

                           -Crew quarters trends are t         o added sp    ace and     -Increased mechanization of existing operations
                           comfort, including improved sanitation and mess               for faster handling of lobster traps, king crab pots,
                           facilities.                                                   and clam dredges.

                           -Fuel capacity trends are to larger tanks to permit           -Newly-designed nets and fishing techniques for
                           longer trips and additional time at the fishing               faster and safer handling of fishing gear such as
                           grounds.                                                      tuna purse seines, king crab pots, scallop dredges,
                                                                                         and trawls.

                              Fish hold trends are to:
                                                                                            In summary, fishing gear has changed measur-
                           -Larger capacity due to     .better construction tech-        ably in the past decade. The king crab fishery has
                           niques, smaller engine room requirements, and                 been aided by new crab pot design. Synthetic
                           larger vessel size.                                           webbing, having swept through the entire industry,
                                                                                         has been. of great impo      rtance. The power block
                           -Better insulation materials.                                 and- large synthetic purse seines have revolution-
                                                                                         ized those fisheries usin                     The pound
                           -Sanitation improvements         by use of metal pen                                      . g purse seines.
                           boards, improved covering materials, and refrigera-           nets discussed earlier were enormously efficient
                           tion.                                                         devices, although their use is curtailed now bv. law.

                              Safety trends are to:
                                                                                         6. Federal Effort
                           -Inflatable life rafts,     stronger rigging, non-slip            Exploratory fishing and gear research-closely
                           deck materials, safety      guards, firefighting equip-       related-provide the fishing industry with informa-
                           ment, etc., particularly in new construction.                 tion concerning the location and extent of fish and
                           -Features which reduce insurance rates and im-                shellfish resources and with knowledge of new and
                           prove working conditions at sea.                              improved harvesting devices. These activities aid in
                                                                                         meeting overall industry needs by:

                                                                                         -Reducing effort spent in locating concentrations
                           5. Fidiing Gear and Operational Aids                          of commercially useful fish stocks. It has been
                              Current trends are toward:                                 estimated that fishermen now spend an average of
                                                                                         50 per cent of time at sea locating fish, although
                           -More sophisticated electronic gear for navigation            this varies greatly among fisheries, and is consider-
                           and fish finding installed aboard new and existing            ably more in some.
                           vessels.                                                      -Providing a broader base for expansion to alter-
                           -More powerful deck gear to handle larger fishing             nate fishery resources, thus reducing idleness and
                           gear being installed on new vessels and conver-               instability within the fishing community and.
                           sions.                                                        increasing the variety of fish products available to
                                                                                         consumers.
                           -Larger fishing gear being employed on vessels                -Reducing harvesting costs, thus increasing the
                           with higher engine capacities.                                ability of    domestic fishermen to compete with
                           -Larger fixed fishing gear (anchored in a single              foreign imports and other domestically produced
                           locality such as king crab pots).                             animal proteins.

                           -Greater use of snythetics in floats, pots, traps,            -Providing efficient techniques and vessels to
                           trawls, seines and ropes.                                     harvest resources not possible with existing gear.

                                                                                                                                              VI-143

                                                -Disseminating through demonstration and tech-                                                                  Figure 9
                                                nical services results of the above objectives.                                      BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES,
                                                     Figure 9 lists the Bureau of Commercial Fish-                                   BRANCH OF EXPLORATORY FISHING,
                                                eries (BCF) budget in exploratory fishing Fiscal                                              PROGRAM FUNDS, FY 1968
                                                Year 1968.
                                                     Figure 10 shows distribution of BCF personnel                                                                                      Total Funds
                                                engaged in exploratory fishing and gear research                                     Region and Location                                ($ thousa     -nd)
                                                by position type and location, Fiscal Year 1968. It
                                                should be noted that there are no naval architects,                             1 - Seattle, Washington . . . .                                  550
                                                only three mechanical engineers, and but three                                  2 - Pascagoula, Mississippi and
                                                electronic engineers working on fishing fleet prob-                                  I St. Simons Island, Georgia                             1,340'
                                                lems. With this low staffing level the Bureau                                   3 - Gloucester, Massachusetts .                                  450
                                                cannot devote adequate attention to this subject.                               4 - Ann Arbor, Michigan                 . . .                    265
                                                     Figure I I shows Bureau of Commercial Fish-                                5 - Juneau, Alaska             . . . . .                         175
                                                eries exploratory fishing vessels and missions,                                         Total    . . . . . .                                  2,780
                                                Fiscal Year 1968. Figure 12 is a photograph of one
                                                of the newest exploratory fishing vessels operated                              'includes $400,000 non-recurring cost for outfitting new
                                                ,by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.                                          exploratory fishing vessel Oregon/L

                                                                                                                           Figure 10
                                                                        BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCH OF EXPLORATORY FISHING, DISTRIBUTION
                                                                                         OF PERSONNEL, BY POSITION TYPE AND LOCATION, FY 1968
                                                       Type of Position             Seattle      Pascagoula     St. Simons      Gloucester   Ann Arbor         Juneau        Central          Total
                                                                                    Wash.           Miss.       Isle-nd, Ga.     Mass.          Mich.          Alaska        Office
                                                     Fishery Biologists                 9             14              4              5            8                 3             4           47
                                                     Fishery Methods and
                                                       Equipment Specialists.           4               4             1              2            4                 2             0           17
                                                     Mechanical Engineers               1               1             0              0            0                 0             1              3
                                                     Electronic Engineers               2               0             0              1            0                 0             0              3
                                                     Biological Aids and
                                                       Technicians . . . .              0               7             0              0            0                 1             0              8
                                                     Administrative Officers
                                                       and Assistants, clerical
                                                       personnel, Port Captains
                                                       and Fleet Supervisors .          4             12              3              5            2                 1             2           29
                                                     Vessel Crew    . . . .             7             15             10              13           3                 5             0           53
                                                              Total . . . .            27         -53                18              26           17             12               7           160'
                                                     'Total number of authorized positio-includes several vacancies.

                                                B. Hunting and Harvesting                                                       practically unutilized off the United States. Thus,
                                                                                                                                there is room to develop unexploited resources if
                                                     Many great fishery resources of the north                                  technological developments and economic
                                                temperate zone are fully exploited or overex-                                   conditions allow this expansion. Potential areas of
                                                ploited. Marine harvest has definite limits, possibly                           technological development are those concerned
                                                much lower than theorized. During the past                                      with fishing vessel design, fish detection systems,
                                                decade, fishing fleets have been expanded and new                               and new harvesting systems.
                                                areas and new species fished. Overfishing may                                        A concerted effort to upgrade the existing U.S.
                                                cause a serious decline of a species or an increase                             fishing fleet through improved capability of vessels
                                                in population of another, possibly less valuable.                               and gear, more efficient bull forms, increased
                                                     While true that many groundfish resources now                              propulsion power, more effective deck hardware,
                                                in high demand are heavily exploited, many                                      and improved capturing devices-would play an
                                                pelagic resources such as anchovy, thread herring,                              important role in improving the competitive posi-
                                                jack mackerel, Pacific saury, etc., are lightly                                 tion of our fishermen. However, if the United
                                                exploited. Many midwater resources currently are                                States is to take advantage of the biological

                                                VI-144

                                                                               Figure 11

                                               BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, EXPLORATORY
                                                          FISHING VESSELS AND MISSIONS, 1968

                            Name of Vessel               Home Port             Length           Year               Mission
                                                                                                Built

                         George M Bowers               Pascagoula,                73            1956          Inshore exploratory fishing
                                                       Mississippi                                             and gear research,
                                                                                                               Gulf of Mexico
                         Oregon                        Pascagoula,                170           1967          Exploratory fishing and
                                                       Mississippi                                             gear research, Gulf of
                                                                                                               Mexico and Caribbean
                         Oregon                        St. Simons                 100           1946          Exploratory fishing and
                                                       Island, Georgia                                         gear research, North Caro-
                                                                                                               lina to Florida and
                                                                                                               Caribbean
                         Delaware                      Gloucester,                147           1937          Exploratory fishing and
                                                       Massachusetts                                           gear research, Western
                                                                                                               North Atlantic
                         John N. Cobb                  Seattle                    93            1950          Exploratory fishing and
                                                       Washington                                              gear research, N. E.
                                                                                                               Pacif ic
                         John A Manning                Juneau, Alaska             86            1950          Exploratory fishing and
                                                                                                               gear research, biological
                                                                                                               research, Alaskan waters
                         Kaho                          Saugatuck,                 65            1961          Exploratory fishing and
                                                       Michigan                                                gear research, Great
                                                                                                               Lakes
                         Delaware //1                  Gloucester,                156           1968          Exploratory fishing and
                                                       Massachusetts                                           gear research, Western
                                                                                                               North Atlantic

                          Replaced Delaware in late 1968.

                         productivity of the oceans, plans must be initiated
                         for the orderly transition of-fishing from basically
                         a hunting process to one in which greater artificial
                         control can be exerted. This transition should
                         include:

                         -Perfecting the hunting process by maximizing
                         fish detection capabilities.

                         fishing gear.
                          Minimizing escape of fish within the influence of

                         -Leading, herding, o    .r aggregating fish to increase      Figure 12. Exploratory fishing vessel Oregon 11,
                                                                                      operated by Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
                         availability to harvesting systems.                          (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo)

                                                                                                                                        VI-145
                             333-091 0-69-14

                                     .-Developing techniques that allow harvest of the          -Does the net catch as many fish in the first 15
                                     more abundant smaller organisms in the food                minutes of towing as in the last 15 minutes of
                                     chain.                                                     towing?
                                        It is felt by many that the most urgent needs           -How can it be determined whether the. net is
                                     are to apply existing technical knowledge and to           torn during a drag?
                                     secure adequate capital for new vessel construc-
                                     tion. This should be done by making investment                These are just a few examples to describe the
                                     capital more readily available to fishermen willing        trial and error procedures of fishermen. They show
                                     to upgrade their equipment. This subject is dis-           the need for additional. development in fishing
                                     cussed more thoroughly in the report on the                systems and imply that many problems are phys-
                                     fishing industry by the Panel on Industry and              ical and, therefore, need engineering solutions.
                                     Private Investment.

                                                                                                2. Future Requirements and Possibilities
                                     1. Present Limitations
                                        A recent report described how an engineer               a. Fishing Vessels New concepts are foreseen in.
                                                                                                designing fishing vessels and deck machinery that
                                     might be impressed with the modern electronic              would allow more time for fishing and require less
                                     equipment available to locate stocks of fish,              time for handling gear. The major emphasis should
                                     navigate precisely, and stay in contact with other
                                                                                                be on developing entirely new vessels and fishing
                                     fishermen and shore facilities.3 However, he also'         strategy. Perhaps such unconventional hull designs
                                     might be disillusioned with the relative antiquity         as hydrofoils and catamarans should be consid-
                                     of the fishing gear and the fishing captain's almost
                                                                                                ered. Submersibles offer unique advantages in a
                                     total lack of information concerning its perform-
                                                                                                supporting role, their ultimate uses yet to be
                                     ance. He might ask several questions the captain
                                     would be unable to answer:                                 determined.
                                                                                                   Typical submersible advantages include free-
                                     -Why. d   Io catch rates sometimes vary g        .reatly   dom from the effects of sea surface conditions,
                                                                                                ability to operate under ice, better fish detection
                                     between   nets concurrently fishing the same spe-
                                     cies?                                                      capabilities, and the ability to observe the per-
                                                                                                formance of fishing gear and fish reaction to the
                                     -How many fish are present on the grounds?                 gear.
                                                                                                   A  systems analysis should be made of major
                                     -What is the speed of the net over the bottom?             U.S. fisheries to determine optimum fishing strat-
                                     -What is the net's speed through the water?                egy, possibly introducing radical changes in fishing
                                                                                                practices. For example, it could lead to high speed
                                     -What chang   es occur to the net when towed fast          fish detector vessels or aircraft, highly automated
                                     or slow?                                                   fishing vessels capable of remaining on the fishing
                                                                                                ground for long periods, high speed vessels to
                                     -How many pounds of tension are exerted on the             transport catches to shore, and floating processing
                                     webbing?                                                   plants.
                                     -What effect do wind, tide, and current have on            b. Search (1.) Nedictions The value of environ-
                                     gear performance?                                          mental information to the fisherman is well
                                     -How long does       it take for the net to reach          recognized. The value of predictions hes in effect-
                                     bottom?                                                    ing improvement in locating and catching fish.
                                                                                                Even now, ocean environment predictions are of
                                     -When does it leave the bottom?                            -great economic value in the North Pacific albacore
                                                                                                fishery, the Gulf shrimp fishery, and others. Yet
                                        3McNeely, R. L., "Marine Fish Harvest Methods-          the collection, analysis, and use of oceanographic
                                     Recent Advancements and Future Engineering Needs,          information by fishing captains is seriously defi-
                                     MTS Journal of Ocean Technology, April 196 8.              cient. Fishing vessel masters make decisions daily

                                     VI-146

                        as to where to. fish, and the processor and             tion. There should be nothing that an airplane
                        distributor must act on their predictions of the        spotter can see with the naked eye that a low
                        success of the fishermen. The system's economic         orbiting satellite utilizing cloud-penetrating remote
                        efficiency will be increased to -the extent that        sensors cannot,detect.
                        scientific information leads.to improved decisions.
                        Even small improvements in the precision of             (3.) Data Collection      The number of instru-
                        fishermen's predictions can effect important mon-       mented platforms established in the oceans must
                        etary savings in the multi-million dollar fishing       be increased greatly to make maximum use of
                        industry.                                               satellites. Instruments should be placed on re-
                           Predictive capabilities are closely related to       search vessels and on ships of opportunity. It will
                        variations in the ocean's circulation patterns which    be necessary to provide by mass production
                        are, in turn, related to variations in incoming solar   sturdy, simple, inexpensive and reliable salinom-
                        energy, outgoing earth heat, and associated             eters, current meters, bathythermographs, plank-
                        phenomena. The lack of regularly received data          ton samplers, and water pigment measuring de-
                        from large ocean areas and lack of understanding        vices.
                        the energy exchange between the atmosphere and             Moored and drifting unmanned buoys to sense
                        the ocean prevent systematic analysis. Synoptic         various ocean and atmospheric parameters and to
                        environmental observation requires costly and           telemeter the data to shore via satellite,,will
                        extensive collaboration among oceanographers,           revolutionize our understanding of the ocean.
                        meteorologists, and space scientists. Until this        Buoys will be particularly useful in areas seldom
                        energy exchange is understood, the quality of           traversed by ships. Production of inexpensive,
                        ocean current predictions will be poor.                 sturdy, dependable buoys from which several
                           Technology to provide the basic data is now          meteorological and oceanographic parameters can
                        available. Satellites and computers can keep the        be recorded continuously requires intensification
                        entire world ocean under instantaneous observa-         of effort. Development of instrumentation for
                        tion to provide data to help manage the harvest of      continuously recording biological parameters is
                        the ocean.                                              strongly urged.
                                                                                   Figure 13 illustrates a system of satellites and
                        (2.) Satellites fbr Navigation and Detection            buoys to collect and distribute data useful to the
                        Ocean upwellings (where schools of surface and          fisherman.
                        near-surface fish congregate, and plankton, the
                        basic food of fish, flourish) are directly observable
                        by satellite.
                           The open ocean hardly has been touched by
                        commercial fishermen except whalers and tuna
                        long-liners. The old live bait tuna clipper did not
                        range far because: (1) it was tied to coastal sources
                        of live bait, (2) it traditionally remained in known
                        tuna areas, and (3) flocks of birds, which do not
                        venture far from land, were relied upon to indicate
                        schools of tuna. However, modern tuna purse
                        seiners now are working 500 to 600 miles off-                                      p,
                        shore.
                           The fisherman frequently is led to tuna schools
                        by porpoise schools that can be detected also by
                        satellites. Possibly, satellites will be able to spot   P
                        tuna -schools directly. Fish school spotting by
                        shipborne and shorebased aircraft has been a
                        normal adjunct of tuna, mackerel, sardine, and
                        anchovy fishing in the eastern Pacific and of           Figure 13. Artist's concept showing satellites
                                                                                and buoys used for collecting and distributing
                        menhaden in the Gulf and Atlantic for a genera-         data. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries drawing)

                                                                                                                               VI-147

                                   (4.) Data Reduction Greatly improved computer           through empirical trials; some are ancient con-
                                   facilities will be required to assimilate, store, and   cepts, including nets and traps; many are quite
                                   convert into usable form the vast quantities of         inefficient.
                                   data gathered by satellites. The fishery scientist         The combined talents of biologists, economists,
                                   will become increasingly involved with ocean,           engineers, and physicists must be applied to
                                   weather, and space scientists in develop    ing pro-    increase harvest efficiency. Passive fishing systems
                                   grams to provide data to fishermen. Initial collabo-    utilizing large automated traps with electricity,
                                   ration is being developed by the U.S. Bureau of         sound, or light to herd fish are but one example.
                                   Commercial Fisheries with the National Aeronau-         Large pens or traps can be attached to the seabed
                                   tical and Space Administration, the U.S. Navy, and      where ground fish migrate. Mechanical or electrical
                                   other agencies working principally off California,      barriers can help herd fish into traps for pumping
                                   in the Gulf of Mexico, and the tropical Atlantic.       into vessels or to,processing plants ashore. Figure
                                                                                           14 illustrates this method. Floating traps can be
                                   (5.) Satellites for Data Transmission The satel-        used to harvest pelagic fish. Automated lift nets
                                   lite system also can relay computer data to             can discharge fish into holding pens.
                                   fishermen at sea-the link in the chain requiring
                                   least development. Facsimile charts already are
                                   being transmitted by Japan for fishermen at sea.
                                   Receiver costs are reasonable for oceangoing fish-
                                   ing vessels, and communication satellites could
                                   provide this service to vessels far from port.

                                   c. Fish Detection Systems Locating fish schools         1
                                   is very time consuming and costly. To reduce this
                                   time, methods to detect fish schools should be                                                         ;r
                                   investigated, including acoustical systems, pulsed
                                   laser systems, chemical techniques to detect or-
                                   ganic residues left by fish, and devices to detect
                                   electromagnetic and temperature disturbances
                                   caused by fish.
                                      Active sonar for locating and passive acoustic
                                   devices for identifying marine life by characteristic
                                                                                                                                       T
                                   noises are being used (the latter by the Russians).     Figure 14. Artist's concept showing fish being
                                   Underwater television might also be used for            pumped into a vessel. (Bureau of Commercial
                                   detection and identification. Except active sonar,      Fisheries drawing)
                                   such devices are not developed fully, and more
                                   importantly, are not in general use because of high
                                   costs. Successful application of current and               A brief review of possible future techniques
                                   improved technology will depend on mass produc-         follows.
                                   tion, volume purchases, and cost reductions.
                                                                                           (1.) Chemicals Fish respond to chemical concen-
                                   d. Harvesting Systems      Efficient harvesting of      trations of considerably less than one part per
                                   pelagic fish populations will require the capability    billion. Chemicals have been used to attract or
                                   to control the movement of species, and to              repel fish. It is possible chemicals can be developed
                                   concentrate them for capture. Various mechanical,       to concentrate commercial species selectively and
                                   cheniical, acoustical, optical and electrical tech-     repel predators during harvesting.
                                   niques have been used with varied degrees of
                                   success to -fence in desirable species, to fence out    (2.) Acoustics    Little scientific effort has yet
                                   predators and to attract and immobilize species for     been exerted to develop acoustical devices to
                                   harvest. Present methods have been devised              attract or repel fish. The Russians have repelled

                                   V1-148

                         schools of fish successfully by transmitting whale             Many excellent fishing grounds from the stand-
                         predator noises; the fish, seeking shelter, concen-         point of size, reasonable depth, availability of fish,
                         trated against the bottom. A trawl net, towed               and nearness to port are not being utilized because
                         along the bottom, thereby yielded a greater catch.          of rough bottoms. One such area off the coast of
                         Bubble fences to repel predators or guide fish to           Washington contains over 1,000 square miles made
                         entrapment devices may depend on acoustic ef-               unfishable mainly by scattered small boulders.
                         fects. Considerable research into the principles of         Explorations have located only a few small tracts
                         operation has been conducted without much                   through which fishermen can tow nets safely. The
                         success to date. Nevertheless, the industry has not         area could be a major fishing ground through use
                         exploited the results of acoustic gear research to          of pots, traps, and rugged trawling equipment.
                         the fullest. Undoubtedly, one reason is the inade-             A primary objective of technological improve-
                         quate means of communication among the re-                  ments must be to reduce present fishery produc-
                         searcher, the typical user of acoustic gear in other        tion costs. It should be economically feasible to:
                         fields, and the fisherman.                                  (1) fish in areas of low species concentration, (2)
                                                                                     fish in depths not worked now by surface fishing
                         (3.) Optics Lights to attract and direct certain            operations, (3) harvest species lower on the food
                         species are well known and widely used in various           chain, and (4) fish ocean floor areas too rough for
                         forms to improve catch. These methods are empir-            present gear.
                         ical and not based on behavioral research which
                         could perrrdt optimizing such variables as inten-           3. Long-Range Future
                         sity, spectral content, geometry, and direction.
                         Current experience indicates that such research             a. Fishing-Up One long-range concept to help
                         will be fruitful.                                           develop U.S. leadership in the world fishii@g com-
                                                                                     munity might be to fish-up (to fish waters above
                         (4.) Electficity Electrical devices to fence, at-           from a position on the ocean floor) on the U.S.
                         tract, and immobilize species have received much            Continental Shelf. Probably many of the tech-
                         interest, and their potential appears promising.            niques discussed earlier would be utilized in a
                         Immobilization is relatively predictable, and crude         fishing-up system. If successful, the Nation's fish-
                         design criteria are available. An electro-trawl for         ing capability would be increased.and the competi-
                         shrimp developed under the Bureau of Commercial             tive position with foreign nations on our own shelf
                         Fisheries is now on the market. An electric                 improved. Foreign countries, obviously, could
                         stimulus causes shrimp buried in bottom sediments           develop a similar competitive advantage,on their
                         to jump into the path of the trawl. Despite the             shelves.
                         interest in such devices, some feel its use in salt
                         water will be confined in the near future to just a         b. Modification of the Environment Modifying
                         few fisheries because of economics.                         the environment to improve productivity 6f se-
                            Future harvesting techniques will make increas-          lected species is not practiced on a commercial
                         ing use of underwater technology, including: (1)            scale. However, the possibilities of increasing
                         system designs to view catching devices in opera-           nutrient concentration through fertilizing or
                         tion, (2) more effective catching devices resulting         artificially-inducing upwelling, of providing arti-
                         from redesign based on direct observations, and             ficial cover (artificial reefs or floating plastic kelp
                         (3) submersibles for various supporting functions.          beds), and of improving or creating spawning
                            In the future, it should be possible to harvest          conditions (probably in shallow bays, lagoons, and
                         whole communities of organisms, particularly                estuaries) should be considered.
                         those in the deep scattering layers. Typically these            Increased knowledge of the ecology and physi-
                         layers contain concentrations of 10 to 12 inter-            ology of desirable species must be obtained if such
                         mingled species from a half inch to two inches              modifications are to be economically feasible.
                         long that rise to the ocean surface at dusk.                Further, economic feasibility probably will require
                         Technological developments should help in har-              establishing systems to utilize organic wastes for
                         vesting the larger organisms for volume production          nutrition and waste heat to induce upwelling or
                         of protein concentrates.                                    temperature control in confined waters. A much

                                                                                                                                        VI-149

                                         greater understanding of organic nutrients and the products, most do not change the product form.
                                         effects of organic wastes must be obtained before Figure 16 shows a menhaden reduction plant, and
                                         fertilizing can be effective. The technology to                  Figure 17 illustrates frozen shrimp processing
                                         implement these operations is available if basic                 techniques.
                                         information can be obtained.

                                         C. Processing

                                         1. Present Status

                                            The object of research in processing techn
                                                                                                 ology
                                         is to ensure the greatest variety of fishery products
                                         of consistently high quality and nutritional value
                                         at lowest cost.
                                            Processing the U.S. catch and raw imports is                                            . . . . . . . . .
                                         done in more than 4,000 plants throughout the
                                         country. The regional location and estimated                     Figure 16. Menhaden reduction plant for fish
                                         number of workers employed in 1965 are shown                     meal.   (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo)
                                         in Figure 15.

                                                                   Figure 15
                                                    PROCESSING FACILITIES (1965)

                                                                                   Persons Engaged
                                                           Establish-            Average      Average
                                          Section             ments            for season   for year

                                         New England           532               12,583          8,398                                                             J
                                         Middle
                                          Atlantic             488                 6,787         6
                                         Chesapeake            621                 9,679         7:.2:
                                         South
                                          Atlantic             443                 7,826         5,541
                                                                                                 645
                                         .Gulf                 847               18,056        12,
                                         Pacific Coast                                           746                                   7@r
                                                               557               26,207        16
                                         Great Lakes           256                 2,923         2:429
                                                                                                          i
                                         Mississippi
                                          River                417                 2,368         2160
                                         Hawaii                   24                 435
                                                                                                                                                         it
                                                                                                 357

                                            Total             4,185              86,864        61,310
                                          These totals do not include U.S. Territories.                   Figure  17. Processing frozen shrimp.      (Bureau
                                         Source: Fishery Statistics of the U.S., 1965, Bureau of          of Commercial Fisheries photo)
                                         Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Department of the Interior.

                                            Of 4,185 plants, 1,057 process and package                       A summary of processed products from domes-
                                         fresh or frozen fish and shellfish products, 324 are             tically caught fish for 1966 is shown in Figure 18.
                                         fish and shellfish canning plants, and 160 manu-                    While domestic production has been essentially
                                         facture industrial fish products. While many plants              static over the past 30 years, the domestic con-
                                         also perform a wholesale function, the remaining                 sumption has increased at a much faster rate than
                                         2,644 firms are primarily wholesalers and brokers,               the population. For example, in 1945 the demand
                                         performing minor aspects. of processing but pri-                 for fish and fish products in the United States was
                                         marily concerned with distribution. With the                     5.3 billion pounds or 41 pounds per capita in
                                         exception of a few firms who dry and cure fish                   terms of round weight, the same as the catch is

                                         VI-150

                                              Figure 18                           given in. The domestic demand in. 1967 was about
                                                                                                                                         4
                                                                                  14 billion pounds or over 72 pounds per capita.
                            WHOLESALE VALUE OF PROCESSED                          The major increase during this period was to
                                        PRODUCTS FROM                             augment domestic animal and poultry feeds. As
                           DOMESTICALLY CAUGHT FISH (1966)                        the demand for animal protein continues to grow,
                                                                                  the market for fish products should continue to
                               Item                          ($ thousand)         increase rapidly.
                                                                                     The trends in production and consumption of
                       Packaged                                                   fishery products are shown in Figure 19. Recogniz-
                           Fresh    . . . . . .                  118,329          ing that U.S. exports have been minimal, one can
                           Frozen   . . . . . .                  367,402          estimate the round weight consumption by simply
                       Canned    . . . .                         495,231          adding domestic catch to imports.
                       Cured                                     54,166
                       I nd u str ia I. . . . . .                82,830              4Comparable BCF figures are in terms of edible meat
                              Total . . . . . .               1,117,958           weight per capita. Such figures show a static trend of
                                                                                  10- 12 pounds per capita over the past 20 years.

                                                                           Figure 19

                                   PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS OF FISHERY PRODUCTS IN
                                               THE UNITED STATES, SELECTED YEARS, 1945-1967

                                                                 1945      1950           1955        1960         1965         1967
                       Population, Millions'    . . . .          129.1     150.2          162.3       178.2        191.9        195.7
                                                                 Edible Fish (round weight)

                       Domestic Catch, Million pounds .          3,167     3,307          2,597       2,498        2,586        2,385
                         Imports, Million pounds                 6803      1,128          1,332       1,766        2,576        2,683
                            Total, Million pounds                3,847     4,435          3,911       4,264        5,162        5,068
                         Per Capita Use, pounds     . . .        29.8        29.5         24.1          23.9         26.9         25.9
                             (meat weight)2     . . . .          (9.9)     01.8)          (10.5)      (10.3)       (10.9)       (10.6)
                                                                 Industrial Fish (round weight)

                       Domestic Catch, Million pounds .          1,431     1,594          2,230       2,444        2,190        1,677
                         Imports, Million pounds                 3  14       639          980         1,515        3,182        7,442
                            Total, Million pounds                1,462     2,233          3,210       3,959        5,372        9,119
                         Per Capita Use, pounds . . .            11.3        14.9         19.8          22.2         28.0         46.6
                                                                    Total Fish (round weight)

                       Domestic Catch, Million pounds .          4,598     4,901          4,809       4,942        4,776        4,062
                         Imports, Million pounds                 711       1,767          2,312       3,281        5,758        10,125
                            Total, Million pounds                5,309     6,668          7,121       8,223       10,534        14,187
                         Per Capita Use, pounds . . . 1          41.1        44.4         43.9          46.1         54.9         72.5
                       IJuly 1 population eating from civilian supplies, excluding Armed Forces overseas: beginning       1950-50 states.
                       2Computed per capita consumption on edible or meat weight basis with allowances for exports and changes in beginning
                       and end-of-year stocks.
                       3Estimate based on 1946 relationship of round to imported product weight.
                       4Estimate based on the 1946 ratio of round weight to industrial product weight.
                       Source: Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.

                                                                                                                                  VI-151

                                                         A start has been made in developing less                                                                        Figure 20
                                                    conventional uses for fish. For example, the                                               BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES,
                                                    United States can be credited with first using                                             BRANCH OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY,
                                                    canned tuna, breaded shrimp, and the fish sand-                                            PROGRAM FUNDS, FISCAL YEAR 1,968
                                                    wich. Processes have been established to manufac-
                                                    ture fish protein concentrate from lean species.
                                                    New methods are being developed to preserve and                                            Location                                           ($ thousand)
                                                    increase shelf life of fishery products.
                                                         Two tables indicate the Federal effort in                                             Seattle, Washington                                         660
                                                    processing technology. Figure 20 lists the Bureau                                          Pascagoula, Mississippi                                     135
                                                    of Commercial Fisheries program funds in process-                                          Gloucester, Massachusetts          . . .                    470'
                                                    ing, Fiscal Year 1968. Figure 21 shows distribu-                                           College Park, Maryland .                                    670
                                                    tion of Bureau personnel engaged in processing                                             Ann Arbor, Michigan              . . . . .                  165'
                                                    research by position and location, Fiscal Year                                             Ketchican, Alaska         . . . . . .                       285
                                                    1968.                                                                                      Terminal Island, California             . . .               135

                                                    2. Problems                                                                                   Total       . . . . . . . . . .                      2j520
                                                    a. Inspection With increasing mechanization and                                            IIncludes contributed   funds from other agencies.
                                                    efficiency of handling and processing, factors
                                                    affecting quality must be considered. The quality
                                                    of U.S. fishery products varies greatly; only a small                                      canners of the Pacific Northwest under an agree-
                                                    percentage is inspected by the Federal Govern-                                             ment with the Food and Drug Administration. In
                                                    .ment for quality or health hazards. Under the                                             general, the canners (particularly salmon and tuna)
                                                    Department of the Interior's voluntary inspection                                          have relatively rigid standards and inspection
                                                    services, 260 million pounds of fish and fishery                                           syste'ms. However, it appears that much more
                                                    products were inspected during 1967.                                                       effective inspection is needed for fresh and frozen
                                                         However, inspection may be conducted by such                                          fish and for small-operator plants.
                                                    other groups as the States and the National                                                A small number of food poisonings. involving
                                                    Canner's Association. The latter inspects salmon                                           fishery products have occurred and have been

                                                                                                                                Figure 21
                                                                                 BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCH OF TECHNOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION
                                                                                           OF PERSONNEL BY TYPE OF POSITION AND LOCATION, FY 1968
                                                                                                                                                              College      Ann         Ketchikan,          Terminal
                                                               Type of Position                        Seattle,      Pascagoula,      Gloucester,             Park       Arbor,                            Island,
                                                                                                     Washington      Mississippi    Massachusetts      Maryland          Michigan         Alaska           California
                                                     Chemist      . . . . . . . . . .                       22               5                 15             14                4              4            2
                                                     Chemical Engineer      . . . . . . .                   3                -                 -              4                 1              -
                                                     Mechanical Engineer       . . . . . .                  -                -                 1              -                 -              -
                                                     Food Technologist      . . . . . . .                   1                1                 6              1                 1              1
                                                     Physicist    . . . . . . . . . .                       -                -                 -              1                 -              -
                                                     Health Physicist    . . . . . . . .                    -                -                 -              1                 -              -
                                                     Microbiologist    . . . . . . . . .                    3                2                 1              -                 2              1
                                                     Statistician . . . . . .. . . . .                      -                -                 -              I                 -              -
                                                     Animal Husbandry       . . . . . . .                   -                -                                2
                                                     Nutritionist      . . . . . . . . .                    -                -                                1
                                                     Home Economist      . . . . . . . .                    -                -                                -                 1              -
                                                     Technician   . . . . . . . . . .                       -                -                 1              -                 6              1
                                                     Miscellaneous Personnel
                                                         (includes clerical, aides, and
                                                         part time)    . . . . . . . . .                    17               4                 10             30                6              1

                                                            Total (179)  . . . . . . . .                    46               12                34             55                21             8            3

                                                      Totalnumber of authorized positions, including vacancies.

                                                    VI-152

                         widely publicized. Instances involving other foods         involved mostly with biological and conservation
                         also have occurred but their public image has not          research, not having studied the environment on a
                         been damaged as severely as that of fishery                scale of interest to fishermen. By 1960 the
                         products.                                                  situation had begun to change. Now not only can
                            The consumer is developing increased awareness          the scientist inform the fishermen beneficially, but
                         of the need for quality and health protection in all       in the near future scientific data may reduce the
                         classes of food-poultry, meat, and fish. As a              fisherman's production costs substantially, ena-
                         result, mandatory inspection of fishery products           bling him to harvest a much larger percentage of
                         soon may be instituted by Federal and State                the sea's living resources. However, no presently
                         governments.                                               satisfactory mechanism exists to transmit data to
                                                                                    the fishenrian similar to the county agent organi-
                         b. New Products Emphasis also will be placed on            zation in agriculture.
                         convenience products manufactured from cur-
                         rently abundant and under-utilized marine re-
                         sources. It is estimated that over half the seafood        2. Environmental Effects on Fish Location
                         products on the market today were unknown a
                         decade ago. These include breaded fish portions,              Pelagic fishermen in particular, but bottom
                         breaded shrimp, heat-and-serve fish sticks, frozen         fishermen increasingly, require a more precise
                         fish dinners, and other convenience items that are         appreciation of the effects of environmental
                         a basic part of seafoods used by the American              changes on fish availability than any Government
                         consumer.                                                  service can provide now.
                                                                                       Great emphasis frequently is put on the lack of
                         c. Technical Barriers A chemical change in the             precision in scientific prediction. However, each
                         oil of stored, frozen, or processed fish is one major      fisherman must make decisions daily whether
                         factor causing quality to deteriorate. As yet,             scientific information is available or not. If scienti-
                         successful control has not been developed. The             fic information, theory, and models Improve the
                         antolytic enzymes in fish flesh rapidly bring about        precision of predictions by five per cent, the effect
                         undesirable textural and flavor characteristics in         on his economic success would be measurable.
                         frozen fish. Moderate quality is maintained for an
                         average of only three months. Methods to control
                         enzyme activity have not been developed. How-              3. Navigation and Bottom Charts
                         ever, the use of anti-oxidants is reportedly extend-
                         ing the shelf life of fish meal and fish oil.                 The fisherman has long used Government navi-
                                                                                    gational and bottom charts to great advantage.
                         3. Promising Technological Breakthroughs                   However, fishermen need precision navigation be-
                                                                                    yond that now provided by Governmental services.
                            Controlled atmosphere storage could retard              Satellite navigation equipment is too expensive
                         degradation of fresh fish and increase shelf life.         and bulky. Many fishing areas are not covered by
                            Such protein products as fish protein concen-           Loran C; and Loran A, a system of reasonable
                         trate could become commercially available as               price and bulk, does not adequately cover major
                         supplements to foods nutritionally deficient in            fishing_ grounds to the south of the United States.
                         animal protein. They also could be used in gravies         It is of interest that a private navigation system is
                         and soups.                                                 deployed along many foreign coasts and is used by
                            Fish oil could become a component of human              the U.S. Navy for special applications. It has high
                         food in the United States. For example, fish oil in        accuracy, reliability, simplicity, and low cost.
                         Europe is normally used to. make margarine.                   Navigation by bottom type and character al-
                                                                                    ways has had great value to fishermen. Bottom
                         D. Government Role                                         trawlers require much better knowledge of the
                         1. Technology Transfer                                     continental, shelf and slope than is available on
                                                                                    Government charts or likely in the near future.
                            Until 1950 fishermen knew more about the                Most knowledge has been acquired by individuals
                         ocean and fish than scientists did. Scientists were        through experience.

                                                                                                                                      VI-153

                                      4. Emphasis in the Bureau of Commercial Fish-                 protein concentrate (FPQ presents possibilities for
                                         eries                                                      vast increases in demand; process technology is a
                                         The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries has a small             key factor here.
                                      number of college trained engineers in exploratory               Production from the fishermen's viewpoint
                                                                                                    demands major consideration. Since the fishing
                                      fishing and gear research (Figure 10). The magm-              industry is quite heterogeneous, it is natural that
                                      tude of engineering problems in the fishing fleet             the fishing  Ifleet should also be described in the
                                      indicates that the Bureau should expand its ocean
                                                                                                    same fashion. Some fisheries, such as those of
                                      engineering and exploratory fishing efforts sub-
                                      stantially.                                                   tuna, shrimp, and Alaska king crab, have fairly
                                         The Bureau must expedite engineering of new                modern fleets; but some are static or rapidly
                                      vessels, gear, and equipment for search, detection,           declining as a result of foreign competition or
                                      and harvesting. This should be closely coordinated            fishery depletion, giving the entire industry a
                                      with the Sea Grant College Programs, especially               similar reputation. Part of the New England
                                      the at-sea technician training.                               groundfish industry is an example. The domestic
                                                                                                    fleet is second only to Japan in number of vessels;
                                      E. Conclusions                                                moreover an examination of gross tonnage shows
                                                                                                    the U.S. fleet is essentially a coastal and inland
                                         The status of the domestic fishing industry can            waterway fleet. However, this should not neces-
                                      be summarized as follows: annual production of 4              sarily be regarded as a disadvantage, because the
                                      to 6 billion pounds, static for nearly 30 years;              U.S. domestic fish production is obtained predom-
                                      market for about 14 billion pounds, growing much              inantly from fishery resources adjacent to our
                                      more rapidly than population; resources off the               coasts-
                                      U.S. coast for a catch of at least 30 billion pounds             In addition to the vessel, the production aspect
                                      per year. The question arises as to how the                   involves search, detection, and harvest. Fish hunt-
                                      domestic fishing industry can leave the first figure,         ing has been estimated to require an average of 50
                                      move toward the second, and prepare for the                   per cent of the fisherman's sea time, but in some
                                      third.                                                        fisheries it may be considerably more, thereby
                                         As in other industries, technology in fisheries is         constituting a very costly factor. Hunting itself
                                      applied to supply, demand and production prob-                consists of two steps: searching for the general
                                      lems. With respect to supply, technology is re-               area of commercial , concentrations and then
                                      quired to assess and assure the continued availabil-          detecting the - precise position of the fish. , Long-
                                      ity of fish stocks supporting traditional fisheries.          range search involves broad-scale mapping with
                                      In addition, it is required to assess and develop             heavy dependence on environmental information.
                                      fisheries for under-utilized resources (e.g., Atlantic        Ultimately, it could receive much support from
                                      and Gulf thread herring, Pacific hake, etc.). Efforts         satellites, buoys, and computers with appropriate
                                      directed toward traditional resources encompass               instantaneous      (realtime)    sensing      equipment.
                                      the technology of supporting biological research,             Search is critical to pelagic fishing. Detection
                                      as in preventing overfishing and ensuring that                relying on sonars, fish odors, and lasers is criti-
                                      conservation laws and treaties are based soundly              cal with respect to groundfish.
                                      on research, not emotion. Additional technological               There are many quite fertile under-utilized fish
                                      effort is required to prevent destruction of stocks           resource areas adjacent to our coasts. Because of
                                      by pollution. The effort directed toward under-               this and the costly time expended in hunting fish,
                                      utilized resources poses such new technology                  a concentrated effort should be made toward
                                      problems as harvesting species of low concentra-              improving vessels and gear in the hunting process,
                                      tion or fishing in depths not now feasible, Aqua-             resulting in an immediate financial return to our
                                      culture promises to increase the supply of edible             coastal fisheries.
                                      fish in fresh water and estuaries, especially the                The United States has paid relatively little
                                      luxury species.                                               attention to radically new fishing methods and
                                         With respect to demand, it is estimated that               systems linked to broad analysis of oceanographic
                                      over half the fish products on today's market were            variables. In this respect, we are far behind the
                                      unknown a decade ago (e.g., fish sticks, etc.). Fish          Soviet Union, despite the inherently greater indus-

                                      VI-154

                         trial and research capacity available to American             A field service mechanism should be established
                         industry.                                                  by the Federal Government analogous to the
                            Vessel and gear engineering (as distinct from           Department of Agriculture Extension Service to
                         biological science) and eventually the benefits of         facilitate transfer of technical information to the
                         fundamental marine technology will play a larger           fisherman at the county or fishing port level. For
                         role in general fishing technology. Benefits from          example, the Government should provide pelagic
                         advanced marine technology will arise from devel-          and bottom fishermen with information on the
                         opments in such areas as materials, advanced               effects of environmental change on fish availability
                         sonars, exploratory submersibles, buoy networks,           and knowledge of the latest domestic and foreign
                         satellites, and underwater stations.                       advances in fishing gear.
                                                                                       An updated survey should be completed of
                                                                                    promising coastal fisheries and distant water fish-
                         Recommendations:                                           eries, improving knowledge in the case of our
                                                                                    traditional stocks and delineating resources in the
                         Fishing technology should be directed toward               case of under-utilized species. The survey should
                         maximum utilization of food resources and devel-           be updated continually and should include sport
                         opment of efficient means of exploiting them. The          fisheries because of the ecological interactions.
                         major portion of the effort should focus on                   Improved charts should be provided for bottom
                         maximizing efficiency in catching fish (as con-,           trawlers in particular to portray more information
                         trasted to the processing phase), emphasizing those        on the continental shelf and slope. The charts also
                         fisheries not in danger of depletion.                      should have overprints of predicted areas of
                            To achieve a more immediate economic return,            fishery stocks.
                         effort should be concentrated initially on prob-              The ocean engineering program in the Bureau
                         lems more amenable to near-term solutions. This            of Commercial Fisheries should be expanded and
                         includes primarily learning how to reduce the time         adequately funded. A National Vessel and Gear
                         spent in search and detection. Methods showing             Development Program within the Bureau of Com-
                         promise include optical, infrared, electrical, and         mercial Fisheries should be established to conduct
                         acoustical.                                                basic bio-engineering studies and provide technical
                            Additional improvements in harvesting gear and          support of biological research relating to new
                         techniques should focus on:                                harvesting systems, new and improved fish detec-
                                                                                    tion systems, and improved performance of new
                         -Minimizing escape of fish within reach of fishing         fishing vessels. This should provide support and
                         gear.                                                      coordination to the activities of the present
                         -Leading, herding, or aggregating fish to increase         regional laboratories.
                         their availability to harvesting systems.                     The staff of this national program should
                                                                                    include engineers and biologists (or bio-engineers),
                         -Developing techniques to harvest the more                 naval architects, and other scientists to undertake
                         abundant smaller fish in the food chain.                   basic studies and provide effective liaison, with
                                                                                    private engineering firms and academic institu-
                            High speed, automated vessels should be uti-            tions. A substantial share of the program's budget
                         lized wherever possible in coastal fisheries, in order     should be used for contract studies with industry
                         to improve efficiency and become more competi-             and private institutions. A submersible should be'
                         tive with foreign fishermen.                               available to study fishing gear performance, the
                            For some fisheries attention should be directed         reaction of fish to the gear, and to explore novel
                         toward use of specialty vehicles for different tasks.      methods of detection. A modem gear research
                         This might include a high-speed vessel or aircraft         vessel capable of handling types of harv   'est systems
                         for fish detection, another type vessel for harvest@       likely to be developed would be necessary to
                         ing and a third for transporting catches (as might         demonstrate such systems to the fishing industry.
                         be used in distant water fisheries). At present we         A close working relationship should be estab-
                         combine all three functions in one vessel and              lished with Sea Grant Colleges, industrial firms,
                         thereby pay a penalty for it.                              and the fishing industry.

                                                                                                                                    VI-155

                                       11. AQUACULTURE                                                   in the United States, there is a relatively small
                                                                                                     but intensive effort to advance the field of
                                           Aquaculture today often is discussed as one               aquaculture, specifically for the most desirable
                                       part of a long-range solution, to, feeding the billions       species for the luxury market. Examples are
                                       of people expected to inhabit the-earth           *  Some     shrimp, oysters, abalone, lobster, salmon, trout,
                                       authorities claim that (except in a few, cases)               pompano, clams, and scallops. Efforts to produce
                                       aquaculture is not a viable solution to this prob-            the more common fish are minimal, primarily
                                       lem. In this. section acquaculture will be discussed          because of consumer disinterest. In Hawaii, exten-
                                       as a potential supplemental source of food. Some              sive studies are being conducted in breeding
                                       of the technology needed to enhance aquaculture               mullet, a highly prized fish food in the islands.
                                       will also be described.                                           As a matter of interest, the U.S. shrimp
                                           Aquaculture may be defined as a systematic                industry grossed $96 million in 1966 and was our
                                       and scientific farming program in restricted water            most valuable fishery. Oysters in the same year
                                       areas including inland waters, coastal waters and             ranked fifth with a catch worth $26 million. Thus,
                                       open sea.5 This definition of aquaculture is not              the American palate seems to be better pleased by
                                       intended to include advanced techniques for im-               gourmet seafoods.
                                       proved conventional fishing.                                      The pages following discuss examples of aqua-
                                       A. Present Status and Trends                                  culture being undertaken with certain gourmet
                                                                                                     species. This is not intended to encompass all areas
                                       1. General Activity                                           of aquaculture interest but illustrates a few to
                                                                                                     show the promise in this field.
                                           Aquaculture, often discussed as impractical or
                                       too visionary in the United States, is no longer a            2. Shellfish
                                       dream. Examination of the status and success of                   Shellfish farming, primarily oysters, clams, and
                                       aquaculture in other parts of the world reveals the           scallops, has been practiced for many years in
                                       practical applications of this source of food more            bays, estuaries, ocean shelves, and other shallow
                                       clearly. A. report by the Institute of Fisheries,             salty waters. A more intensive method of shellfish
                                       University of British Columbia, states that Main-             farming utilizing special methods of seeding, grow-
                                       land China in 1960 produced 2,000,000 tons of                 ing, and harvesting in ponds or sheltered enclosed
                                       fish by fresh water culture of a total 4,000,000              areas is practiced also.
                                       tons for the entire nation's inland fish catch, thus              Shellfish cultivation equipment is quite differ-
                                       50 per cent of inland fish production in Red China            ent, .depending on whether in large shallow ocean
                                       was by aquaculture. In the same period, the                   areas or small ponds and enclosed areas. In the
                                       United States produced a total      6of 1,249,000 tons        ocean areas fish cultivation requires boats, dredges,
                                       of fish for human consumption.                                nets, etc., and is to some degree a mechanized
                                           In 1966, pond culture in Israel yielded 9        ' 454    operation. In small ponds and enclosed areas
                                       tons of a total 24,503 tons of fish produced by all           cultivation is done where seeding, growth, and
                                       methods. Pond culture realized approximately 40               harvest can be regulated carefully. It is widely
                                       per cent of total production in this small country.           practiced in low labor-cost areas, as it currently
                                           Japan, long an aquacultural leader through the            requires considerable manual labor. Because this
                                       necessity of feeding her population, continues to             intensive cultivation achieves greatly increased
                                       be a leader. Today 13 per cent of the total value of          productivity per unit area (or volume), and be-
                                       Japan's marine products is derived from aquacul-              cause it is now largely a hand operation, it is a
                                       ture.                                                         fruitful field for new equipment development.
                                                                                                     Further, specialized heavy equipment is needed to
                                           SPresident's Science Advisory Committee, Effective        prepare new growing areas.
                                       Use of the Sea, Report of the Panel on Oceanography
                                       (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 10.        3. Salmon
                                           6National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer-
                                       ing Development, Marine Science Affairs-A Year of Plans           Another example of U.S. aquaculture is the
                                       and Progress (Washington: Government Printing Office,
                                       1968), p. 224.                                                salmon hatchery program on the Columbia River.

                                       VI-156

                          In 1967 the Columbia River system produced
                          about 15 million pounds of salmon by aquacul-                   80 -
                          tural methods, coAtributing to a total U.S. salmon
                          catch of 202 milli'o'n pounds. While only seven per             79 -
                          cent of total production, this contribution is
                          indicative of the potential of aquacultural tech-               78 -
                          niques.                                                         77 -
                              The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries conducted                cc
                                                                                          uj
                          a benefit-cost ratio (B/C ratio) analysis of the                U" 76 -
                          Coho and Chinook salmon produced at the
                                                                                          z
                          Columbia River hatcheries in relation to salmon                 WO 71 -
                          caught by fishermen and the results were startling.
                                                                                          l- 74 -
                          Coho ran as high as 7.8 to 1.0 and Chinook ran                  b
                                                                                          z
                          from 2.5 to 4.5 to 1.0. This ratio is conservative              w- 73 -
                          but represents a reasonable reflection of the
                          advances aqualculture can provide.'                             72 -    0
                              In addition to work progressing in the
                          Columbia River, Dr. Lauren Donaldson at the                     71
                          College of Fisheries, University of Washington, is              70 -
                                                                                                                        966 pectoral marks excluded
                          doing extensive work in aquaculture by breeding                                              11966 pectoral marks included
                          salmon. 8                                                                                        1    1     1  1 1
                                                                                                  61   61     62   63      64  65     66  i57
                              Dr. Donaldson's Chinook salmon data after                                              YEAR
                          eight cycles indicates some progress has been
                          made. Studies of the returns of Chinook salmon to               Figul, 22. Trend of body length on return
                          the University holding pond for 1960 through                    year of three-year-old Chinook salmon females.
                          1967 revealed increase in growth, length and
                          weight, as well as a significant increase in fecun-
                          dity for both the three-year-old and four-year-old
                          females (Figures 22, 23, and 24).
                              The emphasis in selection has been on the
                          three-year-old returning Chinook salmon. Al-                      7
                          though the variation from year to year is great, the
                          increase in length for females-excluding the re-
                          turns of 1966 with the pectoral mark' averaged
                          about a centimeter per year over the past eight
                          years (Figure 22). Also the average yearly increase               6
                                                                                          r
                          in weight for three-year-old Chinook females was                60@
                          about 200 grams (Figure 23). In the past eight                  2
                                                                                          z
                          cycles, egg production for the three.-year-old
                          salmon increased at a fairly steady Tate. The yearly            S2

                                                                                            5

                              7
                              This B/C ratio was based on the ex-vessel price (fish
                          gutted and gilled but not headed and not processed).
                              gThe material on Chinook salmon and trout in
                          subsections 3 and 4 was taken from reports by Dr.
                          Donaldson.
                              9For the brood years 1960 to 1966, the young salmon           4                  -1966 pectoral marks excluded
                          fingerlings were marked by amputation of a fin or the                                - - - 1966 pectoral marks included
                          maxillary bone. This procedure handicaps the fish in                                      I      I   I      I    I     I
                          varying degrees and makes exact interpretation of the                   60    61    62   63      64  65     66   67
                          results of the selective breeding difficult. Removal of the                                 YEAR
                          pectoral fins from the 1963 brood year fingerlings, which
                          returned during the fall of 1966 as three-year-old adults,      Figure 23. Trend of body weight on return
                          was especially damaging.                                        year of three-year-old Chinook salmon females.

                                                                                                                                           VI-157

                                                                                               has changed dramatically. In 1944, the first year a
                                      5400 -                                                   fair number of spawning fish of the two-year age
                                                                                               class was available, the fish averaged 36.3 centi-
                                                                                               meters forked length. By 1968, the average length
                                                                                               for two-year-old spawning rainbow trout had
                                      5000-                                                    increased to 60.4 centimeters, an average increase
                                                                                               of a centimeter a year. The three-year-old
                                                                                               spawners in the past 14 years (1954 to 1968) have
                                     o 4600-                                                   increased from 50.5 centimeters forked length to
                                                                                               68.1 centimeters, an average annual increase of
                                                                                               1.25 centimeters. An actual example (Figure 26)
                                     Z
                                      4200                                                     shows the results of controlled rearing techniques.

                                                                                               B. Future Needs

                                      3800                                                        There is a need to develop an integrated
                                                                   1966 pectoral marks excluded systems approach to the field of aquaculture,
                                                            - - -   1966 pectoral marks included consisting of effective collection, trapping, hatch-
                                                         J_    _L    J_  _L    _L   '   -      ing, stowage, and processing facilities. If such a
                                               60   61   62          .   .     51   61
                                                                YEAR                           system were adopted, industry would be able to
                                                                                               contribute heavily to expand the program. An
                                     Figure 24. Trend of fecundity on return year              example of the systems approach is found in the
                                     of three-year-old Chinook salmon females.                 oyster industry.
                                                                                                  Suspended culture of oysters is performed now
                                     average increase was about 200 eggs       per fern e,     in small areas, the oysters growing on strings
                                     from 1960 through 1967.                                   suspended from floating rafts or underwater racks.
                                        Sea survival of the Chinook salmon has been            Seeding the oysters, setting the racks or rafts, and
                                     good, returns exceeding I per cent of the finger-         harvesting are hand operations. It is technically
                                     lings released (1.0 to 3.25 per cent). The program        possible to make racks (with suitable oyster
                                     has now become stabilized; 250,000 select finger-         attachment materials already in place) to be
                                     lings are released each year and 2.5 to 5 million         installed by hand but seeded automatically from
                                     eggs are obtained when the fish return. Five to 10        nearby seed beds. Properly designed, an entire rack
                                     per cent are selected to continue the select stock.       could be conveyed to a harvesting device for
                                     Excess eggs and fingerlings are transferred to other      removing the mature oysters mechanically or
                                     streams, where we hope they will contribute to            hydraulically, sorting them and packing them in
                                     commercial and sport fisheries.                           one continuous operation.
                                                                                                  The entire growing medium could be regulated,
                                     4. Trout                                                  using three-dimensional units and controlling the
                                                                                               oysters' growth with properly regulated water and
                                        A program of selective breeding of rainbow             nutrient flows. The engineer would work closely
                                     trout has been carried on at the University of            with the marine biologist who would determine
                                     Washington's College of Fisheries for the past 36         optimum temperature, nutrient level, and water
                                     years. Changes during the past 0* years have been         turnover required to maximize shellfish growth
                                     pronounced (Figure 25). When the program was              and quality.
                                     initiated in 1932 the trout reached maturity in              He would treat the oyster farm as a system
                                     their fourth year at an average weight of l1h             (including both the physical and biological param-
                                     pounds and produced 400 to 500 eggs at their first        eters established by the marine biologist and the
                                     spawning.                                                 economic limitations imposed by product value
                                       After 36 years, the males of select stock reach         and the local labor market) to achieve the best rate
                                     maturity in the first year. and the females all           of return on investment. In a region of high labor
                                     mature in the second year. The rate of growth also        costs, the environmental control system might

                                     VI-158

                                                                     Figure 25
                                      SIZE AT SPAWNING AND NUMBER OF EGGS PRODUCED BY
                                               SELECTED RAINBOW TROUT BROOD STOCK
                                                  Number                                                  Number of eggs
                     Spawn-        Age at             of                   Fork length                   from each female
                       ing        recorded         females                 (centimeters)                  at spawning
                       year       spawning        spawning           Average       Maximum             Average      Maximum

                     1944              2              12               36.3            39.0              1,653          2,121
                     1946  .           2              39               41.9            48.0              21011          2,982
                     1948  .           2              78               41.2            50.0              1 958          3,094
                     1950  .           2              129              35.5            45.5              1,315          2,097
                     1952              2              51               40.9            45.0              2,145          3,810
                     1953  .           2              27               38.9            43.5              2,032          3,631
                     1954  .           2              47               44.6            51.5              2,377          3,960
                       -               3              36               50.5            57.0              4,042          6,106
                     1955              2              28               50.7            56.5              3,894          5,123
                       -               3              28               59.6            67.0              5,029          8,850
                     1956  .           2              84               49.0            53.5              3,281          5,915
                       -               3                9              59.2            65.0              6,149          7,331
                     1957              2              58               46.4            55.0              3,161          9,639
                       -               3              14               67.4            72.0              7,117         11,475
                     1958              2              57               57.6            66.0              5,617          9,077
                       -               3                2              73.5            74.0            15,767          16,839
                     1959  .           2              39               60.0            63.0              5,224          6,960
                       -               3                6              70.2            73.0              8,689         11,580
                     1960  .           2              63               59.6            68.0              5,132          8,268
                       -               3                6              70.8            72.0              9,030         11,186
                     1961              2              29               52.9            59.0              4,809          6,838
                       -               3                5              67.1            71.0              9,092         13,515
                     1962              2              73               57.8            68.5              6,080         13,407
                       -               3              20               66.1            72.0              9,176         16,482
                     1963  .           2              83               52.5            63.0               -               -
                       -               3                8              67.6            70.5
                     1964.             2              48               59.1            66.5              6,091          8,845
                       -               3              12               64.0            74.0              9,768         13,684
                     1965  .           2              81               58.5            65.5              6,274         11,826
                       -               3              30               68.3            78.0            11,556          16,160
                     1966.             2              131              57.0            63.0              7,798         16,872
                       -               3              32               68.7            74.5            13,304          19,922
                     1967              2              36               60.7            67.0              7,335         13,707
                       -               3              29               67.2            73.5            11,090          20,602
                     1968  .           2              70               60.4            66.0              9,259         18,144
                       -               3                8              68.1            72.0            11,718          21,288

                                                                                                                        VI-159

                                                                                 _0

                                                                                                        771

                                                                                                                             _7

                                            0

                                     Figure 26. Results of controlled rearing tech-
                                     niques with lake trout. Lower two fish grew
                                     under normal conditions.

                                     include pumps, temperature controllers, automatic
                                     monitoring of nutrients, etc. In a region having
                                     cheaper labor, the system might be largely a             Figure 27. Mackerel reared on plankton from
                                                                                              ocean, Nuthent-rich deep waters brought to
                                     manual operation with a minimum of capital               the sunlit surface support. prolific plant life on
                                     investment.                                              which fish thrive. Waste heat from fossil or nu-
                                                                                              clear power plants may benefit aquaculture and
                                        Artificial upwelling techniques, artificial reefs,    selected fisheries. (Bureau of Commercial
                                     and control of environmental temperatures can            Fisheries photo)
                                     increase fish production further. As an example,
                                     the University of Miami has a research grant for
                                     raising shrimp, using waste heat from power                Engineering aspects of shellfish farming (partic-
                                     generation plants at Turkey Point, Florida to            ularly equipment employed, means for enclosing
                                     control water temperatures. Thermal energy dis-          farming areas, and methods for controlling the
                                     sipated from nuclear installations offers a whole        growth environment) need concentrated attention
                                     new field of development, particularly in aquacul-       for improvement and economy. Very little has
                                     ture. The New England lobster population is              been accomplished in practical demonstration of
                                     declining becasue long-range climatic cycles have        open sea aquaculture techniques to date. With the
                                     reduced water temperatures below the levels favor-       proper encouragement to industry, the techniques
                                     able to their growth.                                    needed will be developed, leading to increased
                                        Heat from man-made sources, if properly ap-           catches, improved efficiency, and better fulfill-
                                                                        aquaculture and
                                     plied, potentially could benefi                          ment of needs for fish protein.
                                     selected fisheries. Basic understanding of how             A concept of an open sea aquacultural opera-
                                     waste heat can be used is being     investigated in a    tion is illustrated in Figure 28.
                                     Bureau of Commercial Fisheries project to rear
                                     mackerel artificially under controlled environ-          C. Conclusions
                                     mental conditions (Figure 27).
                                        The. United States can contribute substantially         Aquaculture can make a major contribution to
                                     to development of new and improved techniques            the war on hunger, by applying recent scientific
                                     in aquaculture by applying its experience and            and -technological advances to existing practices or
                                     competence in. such -fields as pathology, ecology,       by development of new techniques in such fields
                                     microbiology, nutrition, genetics, chemistry, and        as pathology, genetics, nutrition, ecology, and
                                     engineering. Application of techniques in devel-         engineering.
                                     oping countries could aid materially in the war on         Aquaculture is practiced in the United States to
                                     hunger. Immediate benefits to the United States          various degrees in raising luxury crops or augment-
                                     would be increased production of food items now          ing natural stocks. Aquaculture programs are
                                     considered luxuries because of limited supplies.         scattered among several groups. Real progress will

                                     VI-160

                                                                                   should be made of the rationale of changing
                                                                                   escapement quotas in certain estuaries on the West
                                                                                   'Coast.

                                                                                   III. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

                                                                                   A. Scope of Offshore Industry
                                                        Y
                                                                                   L Worldwide

                                                                                   a. Investment Cumulative investment,          now near
                                                                   4
                                                                                   $18 billion, is likely to triple in the next decade.

                                                                                   b. Production-Reserves         Free World offshore
                                                                                   production, quadrupled since 1960, now repre-
                                                                                   sents about 8 per cent of Free World output.
                                                                                   Offshore proven reserves, tripled since 1960, now
                        Figure 28. Artist's concept of open sea aqua-              account for about 14 per cent of the Free World
                        culture. (Westinghouse photo)                              total. If the figures include production from
                                                                                   protected waters, (such as Venezuela's Lake Mara-
                                                                                   caibo, which alone produces 2 million barrels per
                        require recognition of the need for a systematic           day (b/d) and bays such as along the U.S. Gulf
                        approach and a cooperative relationship between            Coast) the percentage rises from 8 to 16 per cent.
                        Government and industry.                                   The Persian Gulf in the Middle East has most of
                           Widespread, low-intensity aquaculture, as prac-         the Free World's offshore oil reserves and provides
                        ticed in many developing countries where large             about one-fourth of current world offshore pro-
                        areas are available for the purpose, may result in         duction.
                        relatively low yields and profits. The potential of           Figure 29 depicts offshore activity in the 80
                        aquaculture is greatest in these places where              Free World countries; it does not include pro-
                        improved technology may be expected to increase            tected waters but represents true continental shelf
                        yields greatly.                                            activities. Thus, whereas the figure shows 1967
                                                                                   Free World production at 2.4 million b/d, it is
                        Recommendations:                                           almost 5.0 million b/d if Lake Maracaibo and
                        A program to coordinate and foster aquaculture             other inland water areas are considered. The Far
                                                                                   East and Africa represent the fastest growing areas.
                        should be established and managed by the Federal           It is estimated that by 1980 total over-water
                        Government. This program should focus on tech-             production from the continental shelves and pro-
                        notogy needed for potential commercial applica-            tected waters will rise to 20 million b/d, or about
                        tions. Use should be made of Gov      ernment, State,      one-third estimated total production.
                        academic, and industrial facilities. The program
                        goals should be directed toward both domestic and             Offshore activity ranges from early seismic
                        world aquaculture needs.                                   work to full-scale production operations. The pace
                           An intensive program to strengthen and expand           has been increasing sharply since 1960 in all
                        the scope of Federal laboratories engaged in               geographic areas. Most jack-up and semisub-
                                                                                   mersible offshore rigs built in the past two years
                        aquaculture would be of great benefit to industry          have gone into foreign service because of the
                        and would allow further research in fertilization,         expected increased offshore activity in those areas
                        nutrition, population ecology, pathology, predator         in the next few years.
                        and pest control, soil chemistry and biology, and
                        design and construction of ponds, lagoons, and             2. United States
                        estuarine impoundments.
                           In view of the improvement in salmon produc-            a. Investment The petroleum industry has in-
                        tion, an economic, political and ecological inquiry        vested about $7.5 billion in offshore Louisiana,

                                                                                                                                     VI-161

                             333-091 0-69-15

                                                                                                                                 Figure 29
                                                                                EXTENT OF OFFSHORE CONTINENTAL SHELF ACTIVITY IN THE FREE WORLD'

                                                                   Category                      Year         U.S.A.      Canada              Latin Europe        Africa       Mideast         Far        Free
                                                                                                                                      America                                                  East       World
                                                     Countries with Offshore Activity2           1960               1            1            5           2             6                @5       4            24
                                                                                                 1964               1            1            '15         8             21               12       8            66
                                                                                                 1967               1            1            18          9             26               14    11              80

                                                     Offshore Concession Acreage    . . . .      1960               -            -            -         -               -         -            -            3003
                                                          (Millions of acres)                    1964               7            154          87        48              56               34    422          807
                                                                                                 1966               9            202          125       69              127              53    760        1,345

                                                     Geophysical Crew Months     . . . . .       1960               93           5            6         -               31        -            -            135
                                                          (Marine seismograph)                   1964           273              22           12       133              45               26    35           546
                                                                                                 1966           461              26           18       103              33               47    140          828

                                                     Crude-Oil Production    . . . . . .         1960           190              -            25        -               -         181          -            396
                                                          (Thousand b/d@                         1964           449              -            59          8             65        684             7       1,272
                                                                                                 1967           870              -            77        10              165      1,184         50         2,356

                                                     Proven Crude Reserves   . . . . . .         1960         1,700              -            220      100              -       14,750         -          16,770
                                                          Willion bbl)                           1964         2,200              -            260      100         1,050        32,300         100        35,910
                                                                                                 1967         4,100              -            330      220         3,150        43,350         1,400      52,550
                                                     I Does not take into account activity in such protected waters as Venezuela's rich Lake Maracaibo.
                                                     2Fxcludes countries where onshore concessions extend into offshore areas and where there ism offshore activitv.
                                                     3Breakdown not available.
                                                     Source: TheOilandGasJournalmaV6,1968,p.77.

                                                     and its operations have recovered about $3.5                                     United States, the Free World's only commercial
                                                     billion in revenue from oil and gas sales-a $4                                   offshore gas areas lie in the North Sea, off
                                                     billion net deficit." Yet, the U.S. industry still                               Australia, and in the Adriatic. Some however, will
                                                     regards the offshore as its last big frontier.                                   be large      producers in the future. Britain's Gas
                                                                                                                                      Council estimates England's share of North Sea gas
                                                     b. Production-Reserves Latest figures from                             the       reserves at 25 trillion cubic feet;                the search for gas
                                                                                                                                      is just beginning on the Netherlands' side of the
                                                     American Petroleum Institute place U.S. offshore                                 sea. 1
                                                     oil reserves total at 4.3 billion barrels, including                          -          There is a strong possibility that the Free
                                                     2.4 billion off Louisiana and 1.4 billion off                                    World offshore gas production will follow the trend
                                                     California. U.S. offshore oil production has                                     of offshore oil with a sudden growth spurt in the
                                                     climbed from 335,000 bjd in 1960 to over                                         next few years.,Any offshore gas discovered near
                                                     1,300,000 b/d in 1968. One major company                                         sizable market areas will find outlets.
                                                     reports that offshore Louisiana accounts for over                                        However, expensive failures                .have occured off
                                                     one-third its total production; another reports that
                                                     half its production increase in North American                                   Norway and Sweden. All efforts in the German
                                                     liquids will come from Cook Inlet, Alaska.                                       part of the North Sea ceased after about a dozen
                                                                                                                                      expensive dry holes were drilled.

                                                     3. Natural Gas                                                                   b. United States In this country offshore natural
                                                                                                                                      gas is becoming big business, and much future
                                                     a. Free World         Six   per cent of Free World natural                       growth in supply is expected to come from
                                                     gas production comes from underwater areas,                                      close-in offshore areas. For example, one company
                                                     compared to 16 per cent for oil. Outside the                                     reports that its offshore Louisiana reserves repre-
                                                                                                                                      sent over half the company's total.

                                                     10 Wilson, J. E., "Economics of Offshore Louisiana
                                                     presented before the Louisiana-Arkansas Division, Mi@_
                                                     Continent Oil and Gas Association, Sept. 12, 1967.                                       The Oil and Gas Journal, May 6, 1968, p. 77.

                                                     VI-162

                         4. Technology-The Broad Picture                              began in the summer of 1968 and shallow holes
                         a. Capability Exp     .loratory wells have been drilled      have been successfully drilled in 17,500 feet of
                         from floating rigs in waters deeper than 600 feet,           water.
                         and exploitation wells have been drilled from huge           B. Background of Offshore Activity
                         fixed. bottom-mounted production platforms in              .
                         waters deeper than 300 feet. Recently, one com-              1. History
                         pany invested almost $200 million in lease bonuses              Offshore oil was first produced about 1894 in
                         for 47 tracts in the Santa Barbara Channel, of               California from wells drilled from wooden wharves
                         .,which 16 are in water deeper than 600 feet, six
                         deeper than 1,200 feet, and one in 1,800 feet of             or from wells directed seaward from the beach.
                         water.. Exploratory wells are presently being                Petroleum operations in the Gulf of Mexico began
                         drilled in depths up to 1,300 feet, and production           in 1936. The first offshore well completed beyond
                         may be established in waters as deep as 400 feet             the sight of land was off Louisiana in 1948; a
                         during 1969. It is expected that by 1980 industry            typical early platform is shown in Figure 30. The
                         will have the capability to explore for and produce          first offshore pipeline was completed the following
                         hydrocarbon reserves in almost any area of the               year. Today production has been established more
                         world; however, alternate sources of petroleum               than 70 miles from shore and in water depths to
                         probably will enter the energy. market before                340 feet. Production pipelines have been laid
                         petroleum deposits are exploited in deep ocean               successfully in 340 feet of water. The first subsea
                         areas.                                                       well with all components under water was com-
                                                                                      pleted in Lake Erie in 1959; there      are now 50 to
                         b. Equipment There are about 180 mobile drill-               100 throughout the world.
                         ing rigs throughout the world, valued at about $1
                                                         12
                         billion, 35 per cent floaters.      It is estimated that
                         by 1980 there will be about         400 mobile units,
                         about 60 per cent floaters. To      reduce the cost of
                         development drilling, it may be necessary to use
                         multiple drilling rigs on a single floating platform.
                            In the Santa Barbara Channel it may be more
                                                                        wells on
                         economical on some leases to complete
                         submerged platforms connected to and controlled
                         from operating platforms in shallower water.
                            Extensive tests with actual underwater           wells,
                         coupled with experiments to determine diver and
                                                                                                                                         Y
                         diverless capability have provided confidence that
                         the technology to install and operate underwater
                         facilities in the Santa Barbara area can be de-
                         veloped. The method used for each lease will be
                         governed by economics, safety, and environmental
                         considerations.
                            Using Federal funds, a group of oceanographic             Figure 30. Early offshore platform beyond
                         institutions has contracted with industry to drill a         sight of land, in 50,feet of water. Designed to
                                                                                      house a crew,of 50, it was.completed in 1948
                         series of core holes to 2,500 feet below the sea             and is still in operation.
                         floors in waters to 20,000 feet deep in the
                         Atlantic, the Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico, and the
                         Caribbean Sea. This program, called JOIDES,                    Drilling capability in the last 10 years has
                                                                                      progressed from water depths of less than 100 feet
                          1211igs that do not touch bottom but maintain position      to more than 600 feet. In addition, leases have
                         by anchoring or dynamic positioning. The other two           been granted by the Department of Interior for
                         types of mobile drilling rigs are submersible and jack-up.   petroleum iexploration and production more than

                                                                                                                                        VI-163

                                     100 miles off the U.S. shores and in waters up to        be conducted, the actual cost per mile is about
                                     1,800 feet deep. About 100 core holes have been          one-third as much as on land. A sound pulse is
                                     drilled beyond the U.S. Continental Shelves, some        generated, a portion of which is reflected from the
                                     in waters nearly 5,000 feet deep in the Atlantic         layers of sediment and rock under the ocean floor.
                                     Ocean and Gulf of Mexico.                                The reflections when received at the surface are
                                                                                              recorded on a graph showing an approximation of
                                                                                              the depth and characteristics of underlying geolog-
                                     2. Phases                                                ical structures. In earlier surveys black powder or
                                                                                              dynamite was used to generate the sound pulse.
                                        Offshore activities are conducted in three            Today, electrical sparking systems, air guns, con-
                                     phases:                                                  tained-gas explosions, mechanical boomers, and
                                        Exploration consists of geophysical surveys to        other nonexplosive energy sources are used. Seis-
                                     locate subsurface structures favorable for the           mic data are recorded routinely on magnetic tape
                                     accumulation of hydrocarbons, followed by ex-            and processed by digital computers, enhancing
                                     ploratory drilling to determine the presence or          quality and reliability.
                                     absence of oil or gas under the ocean floor.     -          The above-mentioned geophysical techniques
                                        Production involves development drilling fol-         are indirect methods for examining structures
                                     lowed by installation of equipment for produc-           under our continental margins. The most satisfac-
                                     tion, well service, and maintenance.                     tory method to date for obtaining geologic sam-
                                        Storage of the product and transportation to          ples of rocks on or at shallow depths under the sea
                                     shore is the final phase of offshore activity.           floor has been with small coring devices operated
                                                                                              from a surface ship. These devices drill a hole
                                     C. Exploration                                           several hundred feet into the sea floor and recover
                                     1. Geophysical Surveys and Geological Analysis           samples of rock for further study. Similar holes
                                                                                              have been drilled in the U.S. continental margin
                                        Exploration encompasses the broad reconnais-          beyond the shelves to 1,000 feet beneath the sea
                                     sance surveys followed by more detailed surveys          floor in waters from 600 feet to 5,000 feet deep.
                                     that actually delineate the geological structures        Coring in such depths has been accomplished from
                                     that may contain oil or gas deposits (i.e., explora-     floating, dynamically positioned vessels. As long
                                     tion activities involve locating promising areas for     ago as 1961, several experimental core holes were
                                     drilling activities). Exploration begins with geolo-     drilled in 11,700 feet of water as part of the early
                                     gists making a general study of the structure of the     phase of Project Mohole.
                                     earth to select an area with characteristics possibly       Exploration technology has made rapid strides-
                                     favorable for oil or gas recovery.                       in new seismic energy sources and receiving sys-
                                        After selecting a promising area, tests pinpoint      tems. Computers permit analysis of the data while
                                     the site to probe further for possible reserves.         under way at sea. The Navy Navigation Satellite
                                     These can be simple magnetometer readings taken          System will permit seismic teams to determine
                                     from an airplane or ship. By showing a variation in      more accurately survey locations in remote areas.
                                     the earth's magnetic field, the tests indicate
                                     geologic structures below the ocean floor. In            2. Exploratory Drilling
                                     addition, towed marine gravimeters can determine            Determining the presence of oil or gas requires
                                     very small variations in the earth's gravity field.      full scale drilling operations at the site, a much
                                     Both types of geophysical surveys can be made in         more difficult and expensive task than drilling
                                     any depth of water and at any distance from land.        shallow core holes. Multiple strings of casing must
                                     However, in themselves, they usually do not              be set in the hole to keep it open. To control
                                     provide information of sufficient accuracy to            drilling fluids or fluids in the rock, large blowout
                                     permit siting an exploratory well.                       Oreventers-must be installed should high-pressure
                                        The most successful technique to locate test          oil or gas be encountered. The drilling rig must
                                     drilling sites is seismic profiling. Such surveys        maintain position at the wellsite for many weeks
                                     require much more expensive equipment but                or months. More than 10;000 wells already have
                                     because of the high speed at which the surveys can       been drilled into the U.S. Continental Shelves.

                                     VI-164

                         Most of these are for exploitation purposes and               Figure 31 shows the categories of offshore
                         have been drilled from fixed platforms, artificial         drilling platforms, their cost, daily operating rate,
                         islands, or directionally from shore.                      and depth capability. There are three general types
                           The petroleum industry has more than $1                  of mobile platforms-submersible, jack-up, and
                         billion in offshore drilling equipment presently at        floating.
                         work. Drilling contractors, hired by operating oil            The jack-up rig is mounted on a buoyant hull to
                         firms, generally bear the burden of the capital            which extendable legs are attached. The legs are
                         investments for this phase of the operation.               raised for moving the rig and lowered to the ocean
                           While the types of platforms used to support             floor to lift the platform above the ocean waves
                         the drilling rigs vary greatly, the rigs are fairly        during drilling operations (Figure 32). The number
                         standardized. They Consist of: (1) a tall steel tower      of jack-up rigs has grown steadily, with about 75
                         to hoist the bit, pipe, and other equipment in and         in operation in depths to 300 feet. Designs have
                         out of the hole, (2) a system to-rotate the pipe and       been proposed for jack-up rigs for 600 feet of
                         bit, and (3) a system to circulate fluid to the            water. Recent innovations include a self-propelled,
                         bottom of the hole.                                        jack-up rig resembling a ship, to operate in 300
                           Fixed platforms supported by pilings were                feet of water.
                         constructed in shallow offshore waters as the                 The submersible rig is mounted on a submers-
                         drillers followed the seaward extension of oil             ible hull that is ballasted with water and sunk to
                         fields. As the industry moved into deeper waters,          the ocean floor for support during drilling opera-
                         it continued using this type of foundation for             tions (Figure 33). The largest submersible rig is
                         exploitation drilling. However, for exploratory            designed to drill in 175 feet of water with 25-foot
                         drilling, where the incidence of dry holes is              deck clearance; however, most submersible rigs are
                         inherently. higher, fixed platforms soon became            limited to 100 foot water depths. About 35
                         too costly.                                                submersible rigs are in use currently, a number
                           The industry then began to develop mobile                almost constant since 1958 due to depth limita-
                         drilling platforms. This minimized the capital             tion and the increasing popularity of jack-up rigs.
                         investment chargeable to each well site. The first            The advantage of the jack-up and submersible
                         mobile platforms were submersible barges for               rigs is that they rest on the bottom while the
                         operation in 20 to 40 feet of water and evolved            platform stands clear of the highest waves, ena-
                         from the barge-mounted drilling rigs used in               bling them to operate in rough seas. The jack-up
                         southern Louisiana marshlands. Later, jack-up              rig has more depth flexibility and capability while
                         mobile platforms were developed for greater water          the submersible rig, a monolithic structure, can be
                         depths.                                                    towed more readily from one location to another.

                                                                             Figure 31
                                  COSTS AND DEPTH CAPABILITIES OF.OFFSHORE DRILLING PLATFORMS

                                                                       Initial Cost'              Day Rate  2        Typical Operating
                                  Category                             ($ million)                                      Depths (Feet.)
                         Fixed Platforms . . . .                       1.0 to 15.0              5,000- 7,000                  0-300
                         Mobile Platforms .
                           Bottom Supported
                              Submersible                              3.0 to 5.0                6,000-10,000               20-175
                              Jack -up  . . . . .                      4.0 to 8.0                6,00&15,000                20-300
                           Floating
                              Semisubmersible                          7.0 to 10.0             .12,000-17,000              130-600
                              Ship-shaped      . . .                   3.0 to 7.0               10,000-15,000               50-600
                         Depends upon soil conditions;.wave, Wind, and ice loading; and the number of wells supported by the platform.
                         2Includes rig, labor, transportation, routine daily services, and routine expendable materials.

                                                                                                                                     VI-165

                                                                                              The sernisubmersibles are floating platforms
                                                                                           supported on   tall columns which rise from buoy-
                                                                                           ant barge-like hulls or cylindrical torpedo-shaped
                                                                                           tubes (Figure  34). Upon arrival on location they
                                                                                           are ballasted  so that approximately one-half the
                                                                                           unit is below Nater-Their advantage over drilling
                                                                              M            ships. or barges is that the major structure is
                                                                                           located above or below the region of most severe
                                                                                           wave action. This configuration provides improved
                                                                                           stability by its large inertia, -and by having a
                                                                                           vertical natural frequency of movement which        is
                                                                                           affected little by wave forces.

                                    Figure 32. Self-elevating (jack-up) mobile drilb
                                    ing rig. Open fabricated legs increase strength
                                    without substantially increasing resistance to.
                                    waves. (The; Offshore Co. photo)

                                                                                                                     A

                                                                                            @; _V't'

                                                                                                                         _A
                                                                          J

                                                                                           Figure 34. Sernisubmersible -rig (SEDCO 135)
                                                                                           measures 300 feet on a side and in drilling posi-
                                                                                           tion displaces 16,800 tons. (Southeastern Drill-
                                                                                           ing photo)

                                                                                              The semi-submersibles can be raised by pump-
                                                                                           ing ballast  water from the tubes and columns.
                                                                                           Finally, they can be used to drill while resting on
                                                                                           the sea' floor if in sufficiently shaflow water.
                                                                                              Ship-shaped platforms consist of a drilling     rig
                                    Figure 33. Submersible drilling rig. (Shell Oil        supported on a barge or self-propefled ship. A
                                    photo)
                                                                                           barge, because it is not self-propelled, must      be
                                       While floating platforms lack the stability of      moved by tugs to new assignments, but it has the
                                    the bottom support type, they are not as restricted    advantage of low initial cost. The ship-shaped
                                    to a given depth of water and are cost-competitive     platform can transit at higher speeds and at less
                                    at 200 @ feet or more. The floating platform           expense. A disadvantage of the ship-shaped vessel
                                    includes two major categories: semi-submersibles       platforms is that much drilling time can be lost in
                                    and the ship-shaped type.                              bad weather due to vessel motion; however, this

                                    VI-166

                        may not be an important consideration in pro-
                        tected drilling locations (Figure 35).
                           The floating platforms can drill in depths
                        exceeding 600 feet, with some of the latest
                        exceeding 1,000 feet. The floating drilling vessels
                        normally are held over the drill hole by a system
                        of anchors; however, some of the newer vessels are
                        hold by various types of multidirectional thrust
                        systems (Figure 36). Most companies plan on
                        conventional anchoring in depths to 1,300 feet.
                        Drilling exploration wells often requires being on
                        station for long periods (100 days, for example)
                        and excessive fuel would be consumed if dynamic
                        positioning were used. However, in comparatively
                        sheltered waters with moderate winds and sea
                        states, the costs of dynamic positioning systems
                        compare favorably with       conventional mooring
                        systems.

                                   7
                                                                                 Figure 36. Artist's concept of dynamically posi-
                                                                                 t   d drilling vessel designed to maintain a fixed
                                                                                 ione
                                                                                 position without anchors. (Esso Production
                                                                                 photo)

                                               J

                                                                                 3. Delineation Drilling

                                                                                   Drilling a delineation or  appraisal well  (combi-
                                                                                 nation exploratory and development well) is be-
                                                                                 coming a common practice in the United Kingdom
                                                                                 secto of the North Sea.     The operators use the
                                                                                 wells to define or appraise a geological structure  '
                        'Figure 35. Self-propelled drilling ship Glomar          once it has been confirmed by a successful wildcat
                        Sirte measures 380 feet x 64 feet, displaces 9,500       operation. The practice has been to re-enter
                        tons, and is one of the largest drilling ships in
                        operation. (Global Marine photo)                         previously suspended delineation wells and equip
                                                                                 them for gas production, thus realizing consider-
                                                                                 able capital savings.
                          Should a drill ship  be compelled to abandon its
                        station, upon return it must be able to relocate the     D. Production
                        seafloor wellhead and reinsert the drill string.         1. Present Capability
                        Recently, acoustic systems have been. designed and
                        tested for hole re-entry. Sea floor pingers or             Recently a fixed platform was installed in 340
                        transducers will be increasingly used Ior precise        feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico. At the time of
                        repositioning, for effectively relocating the well-      installation this depth was a world record. This
                        head, and for accurately guiding the drill string.       2,900-ton structure, towering more than 550 feet

                                                                                                                               VI-167

                                       from the bottom of. its legs to the top, of the               Sometimes a contractor will be engaged differ-
                                       drilling mast, can drill as many as 18 directional         ent from the one involved in exploratory drilling,
                                       wells. Figure 37 is a photograph of-this platform.         because of the changed nature of the drilling in the
                                       Some companies believe permanent fixed plat-               development phase. Usually several holes are
                                       forms can be installed in depths of more than 600          drilled before the platform is established to pin-
                                       feet. Generally, various well and production con-          point the oil pool in quantity and quality. The
                                       trol equipment is located on the platform.                 initial well usually is drilled vertically, but subse-
                                         In some cases the subsurface reservoir is close          quent wells usually are drilled slanting out from
                                       enough to shore that the wellhead and producing            the platform to cover a wider area. Depending
                                       equipment can be located on land; in other cases           upon depth and other considerations, reservoirs
                                       man-made islands have been built to support these          more than a mile horizontally from the platform
                                       facilities. Obviously, these approaches are confined       can be reached in this manner. Such wells usually
                                       to fairly shallow waters.                                  are completed conventionally with the wellheads
                                                                                                  above water on a platform.
                                                                                                     With such a platform, it also is possible to
                                                                                                  connect more distant wells to production-handling
                                                                                                  equipment on the platform. Such wells cannot be
                                                                                                  drilled from the platform itself and require a
                                                                                                  floating rig. Some may be completed using existing
                                                                                                  u
                                                                                                   riderwater completion techniques. (Underwater
                                                                                                        I tion is discussed in a subsequent section.)
                                                                                                  comp e

                                                                                                  3. Installation of Producing Equipment

                                                                                                     After development drilling, the rigs are re-
                                                                                                  moved, and producing equipment is installed.
                                                                                                  Since crude oil usually is accompanied by large
                                                                                                  volumes of entrained. and dissolved gases (and
                                                                                               -1 eventually water), a major purpose of the platform
                                                                                                  operation is to separate these materials. If there is
                                                                                                  too much gas or water mixed with the oil, it
                                                                                                  cannot be pumped ashore efficiently or econom-
                                                                                                  ically. Provisions are, made on the platform for:

                                       Oigure 37. World's largest fixed platform located          -Measuring accurately and controlling flow rate
                                       in 340 feet of water in Gulf of Mexico off the @           from oil or gas wells..
                                       mouth of the Mississippi,River. (Shell Oil photo)
                                                                                                  -Cleaning the flow lines Jo remove sand and
                                                                                                  paraffin deposits.

                                       2. Development Drilling                                    -Injecting chemicals for control of corrosion,
                                                                                                  scale, or hydrates in the well and the flow lines.
                                         After oil is found through exploratory drilling
                                       (usually. with a mobile platform), the exploitation        -Separating entrained gases and water from the
                                       cycle is begun. First is development drilling,             raw product. (Oil, gas, water, and natural gas
                                       almost all done from a fixed surface platform              liquids seldom occur as pure products in the field.)
                                       using land technology. Associated activities and
                                       problems involving separation and subsequent               -Accessibility. for periodic maintenance.
                                       storage and transportation of the hydrocarbons             _Storage before subsequent transportation.
                                       generally dictate use of a surface platform as a
                                       base of operations.                                        -Facilities for supplementary recovery operations.

                                       VI-168

                         -Facilities for pumping the oil wells after they
                         stop flowing by natural pressure.

                         4. Lag Between Exploratory and Production Drill-
                           ing Capability

                           The ability to   explore and drill for petroleum
                         resources in deep  water exceeds the capability to
                         produce once it is found. Recent lease acquisitions
                         in depths beyond 600 feet exceed present produc-
                         tion capability. Also, the problems and expenses
                         of underwater production and well maintenance
                         are much more extensive than those of explora-
                         tion.
                           Oil and gas in relatively shallow water are easier
                         to produce on fixed platforms, because the pro-
                         duction systems and pipelines are not significantly
                         different from those on land. Many of these fields
                         have been producing for years, but of hundreds of
                         wells drilled in water depths greater than 200 feet,
                         only a few have been brought into production.
                         Costly production platforms on legs 200 to 300
                         feet high have rendered many recovery operations         Figure 38. The monopod located in Cook Inlet,
                         economically impractical. Wells in great water           Alaska. The single-leg platform, installed in 1966,
                         depths also present problems of maintenance, and         has mi"imized effects of ice loading and lends
                                                                                  itself to rapid installation in strong currents.
                         the pipelines required to connect these distant          (Brown and Root photo)
                         platforms to shore are proportionally more expen-
                         sive.
                           Some underwater wells in deep water already            5. Automatically Controlled Platforms
                         have been capped to await,such developments as:            A completely automatic platform complex has
                         (1) an increase in the price of crude oil and gas, (2)   been installed in the North Sea for gas extraction.
                         enough adjacent discoveries     to justify a joint       The entire platform and all its generators, pumps,
                         pipeline, or (3) technology advances that will           dehydrators, and other equipment run completely
                         make recovery from them profitable.                      unattended with only occasional visits by super-
                           Costs in shallow water can approach those of           visory and maintenance personnel. This platform is
                         deep water under special high risk conditions as in      monitored from shore by closed circuit television
                         Alaska's Cook Inlet. Platforms in this location          that could also indicate fire or illegal trespassing.
                         must withstand tidal currents up to eight knots            Such offshore wells are remotely controlled
                         which in the winter move pack ice as much as six,        through automatic valve actuators receiving in-
                         feet thick past the installation four times a day.       structions usually via microwave. In addition,
                         Each platform costs more than $10 million-an             these systems require communications equipment
                         expenditure for a stable base that is a minimal cost     and an electric power source to operate the valve
                         on land.                                                 motors. Pneumatic or hydraulic valve actuators
                           The largest four-legged platform is a 3,200 ton,       can be used, but these require continuous high-
                         43-well unit to be installed in 75 feet of water in      pressure air or hydraulic fluid.
                         Cook Inlet. Another unique platform rests on one
                         column which stands on a base. Steel in the              E. Pipelines
                         28-foot diameter column ranges from one to two
                         inches thick, the thicker sections being in the areas      Pipelines are laid in an offshore field to gather
                         buffeted by the pack ice (Figure 38).                    the oil or gas produced from individual wells into

                                                                                                                                 VI-169

                                  a central collecting point where it is pumped            dropped to the bottom during severe weather. In
                                  ashore via a large pipeline or stored for loading        the Cook Inlet operation, shutdowns accounted
                                  onto a barge or tanker. In some cases, portable          for more than half the elapsed time.
                                  storage facilities are installed near the platform to
                                  allow production to begin before the pipeline is         b. Short Curved Stingers The use of a short
                                  completed.                                               curved stinger with tensioning devices is an alterna-
                                     In the production phase, the offshore oil             tive having the principal advantage of reducing
                                  and gas industry is largely a single industry.           laying stresses. The advantage of tension declines
                                  Historically, additions to the gas reserves have         as pipe diameter increases, since the effect of
                                  come chiefly via the oil producers. Only in recent       tensioning is to lessen normal laying stresses which
                                  years has the search for gas as an independent           increase in proportion to the square of the pipe's
                                  commodity begun in offshore areas. The principal         diameter.
                                  activity of the gas industry in the oceans has been
                                  related to pipelines. All offshore gas is brought        2. Present Status and Problems
                                  ashore by pipelines.                                       Offshore contractors have developed methods
                                  1. Laying Techru   ,ques                                 of laying 12-inch diameter pipelines in depths up
                                                                                           to 340 feet. Lengths of pipe are joined aboard
                                     Most offshore pipelines are laid using either of      specialty designed barges. The joints are welded,
                                  two methods: a long stinger stretching from the          x-rayed, primed, wrapped, and concrete-coated as
                                  lay barge to or close to the bottom or a short           the pipeline is fed.off the end of the barge. An
                                  curved stinger in conjunction with tensioning            estimated 5,000 miles of pipe, ranging in size from
                                  apparatus. Both have limitations. Figure 39 shows        small diameter flow lines to 26-inch trunk lines,
                                  a conventional pipelaying barge with a long stinger      now traverse the sea floor in the Gulf of Mexico;
                                  which allows the pipe to follow a gentle slope to        large-diameter lines have been installed in the
                                  the bottom during the laying operation.                  Persian Gulf (to 48 inches) in depths of about 100
                                                                                           feet. Figure 40 shows a novel reel barge which was
                                  a. Long Stingers Unless efficient locating and           developed to lay up to six-inch diameter flow lines
                                  control instruments are developed, the usefulness        at high rates. Rollers straighten the pipe as it is
                                  of the long stinger is limited, especially under         laid. The tide-swept Cook Inlet has presented the
                                  adverse tide and weather conditions as in the Cook       toughest problem, and installation costs in this
                                  Inlet or North     Sea. Frequently the stinger is        area have reached $500,000 per mile even for
                                                                                           relatively small-diameter pipe.

                                                                                                                         A.

                                  Figure 39. Conventional pipe-laying barge with
                                  a floating stinger allowing pipe to assume a             Figure 40. Barge laying small-diameter pipe
                                  gentle slope to bottom during laying operation.          from reel at a high rate. Rollers straighten pipe
                                  (Shell Oil photo)                                        as it is laid. (Shell Oil photo)

                                  V1- 170

                             Depth is probably the most immediate problem             Wall thickness and welding improvements offer
                         facing offshore pipelaying. Distance is also an              promise of reduced costs.
                         important but less urgent problem. Crude oil
                         pipelines have been laid in 340-foot waters. How-            a. Wall Thickness       Wall thickness of onshore
                         ever I, methods for laying the large diameter,               pipelines is governed by operating pressure. Off-
                         high-pressure gas pipelines have not been tested for         shore it is governed by stresses encountered in
                         water depths greater than 300 feet. Pipelines have           laying and heavy-wall pipe is used to lower such
                         been laid up to 100 miles in shallow water in the            stresses. It is estimated that $2.7 million could be
                         Gulf of Mexico. An 88-mile, 22-inch line was laid            saved in the construction of a proposed 30 inch
                         recently in the Persian Gulf in 300 feet of water. A         Red Snapper line offshore Louisiana if the wall
                         French firm demonstrated in 1966 that under-                 thickness were reduced from 0.562 to 0.500 inch.
                         water pipelines can be laid in. greater depths when          Subsequent studies found that with adequate
                         they laid an experimental, small-gauge line in the           handling equipment, the 30-inch, 0.500 inch wall
                         Cassidaigne Deep near Marseille in waters as deep            thickness pipe could be used safely in 150 feet of
                         as 1,080 feet.                                               water and that the factor of safety during the
                             The low cost of tanker transportation may limit          laying operation could be increased by continuous
                         the laying of long-distance underwater lines. Be-            applications of tension to the pipe. These findings
                         fore the Suez Canal was closed, oil could be                 emphasize the need for further improvement in
                         shipped around the Arabian Peninsula from the                pipelaying procedures.
                         Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean at the same cost
                         as it was moved less than a third that distance,             b. Other Factors Increased acceptance         of micro-
                         across the peninsula by pipeline.                            wire and fully automatic welding will contribute
                             With costs declining as tanker sizes increase and        to lower costs. The pace of welding is a piedomi@
                         with offshore lines costing two to five times as             nant factor determining the rate of offshore
                         much as onshore lines, the probability of many.              pipelaying; the other is keeping the pipelayig
                         long-distance underwater pipelines being con-                barge supplied. with pipe in rough seas. Any
                         structed seems to be diminishing. On the other               development that saves time and reduces delays
                         hand, the new supertankers have such deep drafts             will cut costs.
                         that they are unable to enter many major ports
                         and must be loaded and unloaded offshore. In
                                                                                      4. Forecasts
                         addition, mooring a large tanker is very difficult in
                         open, unprotected waters. Finally, long-distance                Since natural   gas pipelines require large      diarn-
                         underwater lines require the same support facilities         eters, they are more expensive and present          more
                         as onshore lines (e.g., stations, valves, operators,         difficult technological problems. Hence their
                         manifolds, etc.) plus much more expensive corrO-             depth and distance to shore are more restricted
                         sion protection.                                             than oil pipelines. Tankers could be used when
                             The problems of gas pipeline support appear              these depth-distance limits are exceeded; however,
                         similar to those of oil pipelines in the ocean               to do this the gas must be liquefied. Cryogenic
                         environment and in some cases are intensified                liquefaction of natural gas is economical only for
                         because of special characteristics ofgas pipelines.          long-distance transportation a     .nd requires major
                         For example, their greater diameters cause han-              installations for liquefaction, handling, and stor-
                         dling and fabrication to be more difficult and               age. Such a program is already planned or under
                         make the pipelines more vulnerable to disturbance            way between Algeria and France, between Libya,
                         and damage by subsurface ocean currents and deep             Italy, and Spain, and between Alaska and Japan.
                         turbulence created, by storms.                                  It is difficult to predict what, if any, future
                                                                                      advances may allow production of natural gas
                         3. Cost Factors                                              from greater water depths or longer distances from
                                                                                      shore. It . appears that offshore pipelines will
                             Laying an offshore line is at least twice and            continue in use primarily to transport offshore
                         more often five times as expensive as laying an              production to onshore facilities over relatively
                         onshore line, making costs a major consideration.            short distances, less than 200 miles.

                                                                                                                                         VI-171

                                      F. Subsea Operations                                             The fact that the industry is buying leases in
                                      1. Potential Advantages and Philosophy                        ever deeper waters implies that the bidders expect
                                                                                                    that it will become economically and technically
                                         The potential advantages of having          an under-      feasible to produce in deep water.
                                      water operating capability are:                                  Any discussion of subsea operations must be
                                                                                                    preceded by qualification of the type of field
                                      -Extension of production capabilities to greater              involved. Each field is different in water depth,
                                      depths than those for which fixed platforms are               size, and product nature; in closeness to shore; and
                                      economical. Fixed steel platforms (similar to                 in many other factors which must be taken into
                                      Figure 4 1) can be designed for very deep water, but          account.
                                      there is an econon-dc and technical limit to their               The requirement for collection, storage, or
                                      maximum height. Moreover, to emplace them is                  transportation a few miles off Santa Barbara,
                                      extremely risky, particularly when the site is far            California, is not expected to resemble those in
                                      from available fabrication sites.                             areas distant from shore as in the Gulf of Mexico.
                                                                                                    In the Santa Barbara area a simple pipeline
                                      -Removal of operations from the often turbulent               without underwater separation facilities may suf-
                                      surface environment to avoid loss of platforms in             fice, while- in the latter, production and storage
                                      hurricanes or damage from severe storms and                   facilities may be necessary for intermittent de-
                                      shifting foundations.                                         livery to shuttling tankers. In each case, however,
                                      -Elimination of navigation hazards.                           it is possible that employment of some subsea
                                                                                                    completion, production, and maintenance features
                                      -Additional operational options in such hazardous             may enhance the system's economic appeal. It is
                                      ice areas as Cook Inlet.                                      difficult to predict which system will ultimately
                                                                                                    prove most practical, but it is likely that several
                                                                                                    different techniques will be employed.
                                                                                                       In conclusion, future economical production in
                                                                                                    deep water will depend on a choice among surface,
                                                                                                    completely underwater, or some hybrid technol-
                                                                                                    ogy. It is reasonable to assume that the industry
                                                                                                    will continue in prototype technical work to:

                                                                                                    -Make the best economical estimates of these
                                                                                                    options.

                                                                                                    -Take maximum advantage of deep water oppor-
                                                                                                    tunities found by exploration.

                                                                                                    -Select an option that can be used side by side
                                                                                                    with its more familiar surface technology.

                                                                                                    2. History

                                                                                                       The first subsea wellheads were installed on gas
                                                                                                    wells by divers on the shallow bottom of the Great
                                                                                                    Lakes in 1959. The first oil well was completed in
                                                                                                i   1960 in the Gulf of Mexico in S5 feet of water.
                                                                                                    Underwater wells in the Santa Barbara Channel
                                      Figure 41.  Two derrick barges installing section             have been producing since 1964 in waters more
                                      of fixed platform. Equipped with 500-ton ca-
                                      pacity revolving cranes, barges are erecting a                than 2SO feet deep. There are presently between
                                      650-ton crude oil storage deck on permanent                   50 to 100 subsea completions throughout the
                                      ibilling and production platform in Gulf of
                                      Mexico. (Brown and Root photo)                                world. They are still considered experimental in

                                      VI-172

                        most cases. Limited subsea capability presently
                        exists to ocean depths of 600 feet.
                           Subsea wellhead equipment may be used when
                        directional wells drilled from a single, deepwater
                        platform cannot reach all parts of a reservoir. In
                        this case, satellite underwater completions could
                        be used. However, almost all existing underwater
                        completions are for wells producing directly to
                        shore without a production platform; several such
                        installations exist off the coasts of California and
                        Peru.

                        3. Characteristics of Subsea Production

                          The industry already is studying and developing
                        methods for sea-floor well completions, for pro-
                        duction and collection techniques, and for separa-
                        tion, treatment, and storage facilities. The partic-
                        ular choices made by the operator depend on the
                        size of the field, the location, depth, etc.

                        a. Underwater Christmas Tree The heart of the
                        well system is the underwater christmas tree-a         Figure 42. Underwater christmas tree, installed
                                                                               after drilling and completion operations, being
                        series of pipes and valves at the wellhead used to     emplaced in GulfofMexico. (Shell Oil photo)
                        control the well during drilling and production
                        phases (Figure 42). It is installed on the subsea
                        landing base by a mobile rig during or after
                        drilling. Although most underwater trees are de-
                        signed for installation by remote control, divers
                        often must lend a hand. Recently an experimental
                        robot was built to perform limited operations on a
                        specially designed christmas tree.

                        b. Divers The use of divers is being extensively
                        investigated, and studies are under way to deter-
                        mine the usefulness of divers working with diver-
                        lockout submersibles. Divers for years have had
                        the capability to work at moderate depths, but                                                       Ile,
                        only recently they have extended their operations
                        considerably below 200 feet. Even so, diving at
                        great depths is considerably more costly than in
                        shallower water where decompression time is            Figure 43  Diving bell and decompression
                                                                               chamber. Using saturation diving techniques,
                        much less.                                             divers can perform usefid work to depths of
                          The choice    of whether divers should be       an   600 feet. (Ocean Systems photo)
                        element in the system also affects the choice of a
                        specific technological system. Now that divers can        In deeper continental shelf areas, a fixed
                        work at 600 feet or more, it is possible to choose     platform can be erected to extend up to shallower
                        between diver-assisted completion methods, or          depths - and hence be more readily accessible to
                        automated or remote control completion systems.        divers and yet deep enough to escape the major
                        These choices also are available for subsea installa-  effect of surface waves. Controls, instruments,
                        tion inspection and maintenance (Figure 43).           power sources, etc. could be located on the

                                                                                                                              VI-173

                                     platform to be tended by divers. Only that                 nonproducing well in which all normal operations
                                     equipment absolutely needed at the wellhead                were performed. Later, an ocean floor completion
                                     would be located on the ocean floor.                       was made in 60 feet of water about one mile from
                                        Saturated diving techniques with diver lockout          an existing platform, and the tests were repeated.
                                     and decompression chambers have been utilized by               Dual flow lines were run to the platform to
                                     the oil industry to the limit of diver capability.         provide for remote production maintenance opera-
                                     During tests in the summer of 1967, divers                 tions in this simulated deep-water satellite well.
                                     performed functional tasks on -a simulated well-           Four hydraulic control lines also Were run to the
                                     head in 600 feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico,           platform on'the surface for remote operation of
                                     demonstrating man's ability to do useful work in           the underwater christmas tree valves. A submarine
                                     such depths.                                               cable connected the tree with the production
                                        Diver systems will require development of               platform to transmit pressure and valve position
                                     power units to augment divers' underwater phys-            data.
                                     ical capabilities. Subsea oil field hardware is                Another important feature tested satisfactorily
                                     massive; useful work by divers is limited by lack of       was a remote flow line connector for independent
                                     power,tools and equipment for direct application           installation and removal of both the christmas tree
                                     to I subsea   .hardware. The utility of divers in          and the flow lines. The flow lines and the tubing
                                     offshore petroleum activities will continue:to be          strings 'were two inches in diameter to permit the
                                     marginal until underwater work systems are devel-:         use of pump@-:down tools; the flowlines provided
                                     loped.                                                     access to the well tubing. The technology @of
                                     c Manned Submersibles The need to place              sub_  remotely controlled tools demands much ingenu-
                                     in .erged wellheads deeper than routine diving             ity to insure reliabili'ty. Thus, sending a tool to its
                                                                                                properly intended location, locking it into place,
                                     depths opens new opportunities for submersible
                                     vehicles. Several one and two-man submersibles             testing it to insure proper seating, performing a
                                     have been designed to operate at depths in excess          task, and retrieving the tool are an important feat.
                                                                                                    After completion of the test well, all produc-
                                     of 1,000 feet and could be considered for use in           tion maintenance and well control operations were
                                     future offshore oil fields. Many present submers-          performed successftilly from the remote produc-
                                     ible vehicles are unable to develop enough torque          tion platform. The well produced at its full
                                     in their mechanical arms to flange-up wellheads or         allowable rate over an extended period and suc-
                                     do other heavy work; however, their mechanical             cessfully withstood several hurricanes with no
                                     arms can operate small power tools and valves or           damage whatsoever to the underwater christmas
                                     make adjustments on instruments and controls.              tree or the flow lines. Experience with the
                                     Submersibles are of limited usefulness in strong           pump-down tools indicated good overall reliability
                                     currents. Future vehicles can be designed to
                                                                                              . of this.system for remote production maintenance
                                     overcome most of today's limitations.                    . opera  I6ons. This test demonstrated feasibility of
                                     d. Diverless Remote Control Systems                Many    such a system and will permit- large oil fields on
                                     studies and successful tests already have been             the ocean, floor with only a few strategically
                                     made on servicing underwater wells with remote             placed platforms. A number of wells can be drilled
                                     controlled televiewing robots employing through-           within a radius of several miles, using the platform
                                     the-flowline treatment tools, hydraulically con-           as home base
                                     trolled surface fines, and acoustically controlled             Suitable power is needed to control ocean floor
                                     val.ving@ systems powered by conventional and              wellheads. An isotope unit to. generate power at
                                     isotope energy sources.                                  . the location may . be used or a battery pack
                                        A recent report described an oc6n-floor well-           designed for easy replacement by wireline methods
                                     head completion and production maintenance
                                     system. 13  -Tests were made with an onshore               from a surface vessel. A power source combining
                                                                                                an isotope unit with batteries has been perfected
                                                                                                to operate electric motor driven valves. This
                                        13 Rigg, A. M., T. W. Childers, C. B. Corley, Jr.: "A   system has been installed, and has operated for
                                     Subsea Completion System for Deep Water," presented at     several months. This, however, fulfills compara-
                                     Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME Symposium,
                                     May 23-24, 1966.                                           tively low power requirements only. An urgent

                                     VI-174

                           need exists for a power unit in the intermediate             f. Floating Production Station A floating pro-
                           range between the trickle chargers and the large             duction station moored over a submerged platform
                           stationary units on land.                                    or subsea wellhead could be used instead of a fixed
                                                                                        platform.
                           e. Acoustics Remote control and monitoring by
                           a physical link to the surface have been described.          4. Underwater Drilling and Storage
                           However, there are obvious advantages of having
                           no hard wire link, relying instead on a coded                   Some petroleum operators foresee a time
                           underwater acoustic link to command the subsea               when drilling and collecting oil in water depths to
                           system to activate a particular valve mechanism.             3,000 feet or more will be common. Indeed,
                           An acoustic interrogator could be used to monitor            recent reports suggest the possibility of petroleum
                           valve position, read pressure, and obtain other              deposits on the continental margin in waters as
                           desired data. One acoustically controlled, isotope-          deep as 15,000 feet. Not everyone in the industry
                           powered wellhead was installed recently in the               agrees on the direction in which the required
                           Gulf of Mexico.                                              technology will proceed. The large power require-.
                             Acoustic links also may find an important role             ments of the drilling rigs (several thousand horse-
                           during the drilling operation itself in conjunction          power) and the advances made in mobile rigs make
                           with blowout preventers used to control the                  the economics of underwater drilling controversial.
                           tremendous pressures in deep formations encoun-              Some feel that total underwater drilling will not be
                           tered during drilling. Figure 44 shows an under-             economically justified except for large, highly
                           water blowout preventer.                             I    .  productive fields.
                             Acoustics also have been used with bottom-                    The French have developed a subsurface coring
                           mounted transponders in water depths to 5,000                rig, remotely operated from a tender ship, which
                           feet to enable a drilling ship to pinpoint the               possibly could be extended to deep coring. A
                           precise loc  'ation of a subsea wellhead            when     submarine drilling rig design of the late 1950's
                           returning to it for hole re-entry.                           proposed an automatic drilling rig mounted in a
                                                                                        submarine which would carry the necessary
                                                                                        drilling mud, drill pipe, casing, and supplies to drill
                                                                                        ful1scale wells. Aside from the formidable prob-
                                                                                        lems of generating power for such a rig, the overall
                                                                                        economics were so unfavorable that it was never
                                                                                        seriously considered. It is possible that future
                                                                                        coring r
                                                                                                 igs could be controlled acoustically; how-
                                                                                R
                                                                                        ever, it is more likely that some type of hydraulic-
                                                                                        me anical control wi I e emp oyed similar to
                                                                                        that used by the French rig.
                                                                                           Nevertheless, various ambitious conceptual de-
                                                                                        signs are being examined. At least one oil company
                                                                                        is studying the feasibility of housing both the
                                                                                        drilling equipment and crews in structures on the
                                                                                        ocean floor One concept envisions an entire
                                                                                        undersea community. The habitat, as described at
                                                                                        a recent offshore oil conference, would enable 50
                                                                                        men to live and work in depths to 1,000 feet for
                                                                                        extended periods.
                                                                                           The problem of oil storage          arises when the
                                                                                        pipeline investment becomes too        high. One solu-
                                                                                                to store the oil on or near     the production
                                                                                        tion is
                                                                                        platform
                                                                                                  and transport it to shore in barges later.
                           Figure 44. Underwater blowout preventer.                     In very shallow and well protected waters, barges
                           (Shell Oil photo)                                            often provide both storage and transportation.

                                                                                                                                           VI-175

                                  Various portable tanks, similar to the submersible     storms, fortunately the industry has not experi-
                                  barge type of mobile rigs, have served as tem-         enced a maximum intensity hurricane moving
                                  porary oil reservoirs in depths to about 40 feet. If   through a highly developed offshore area. Such a
                                  production increases or new discoveries justify a      storm will involve a combination of extremely
                                  pipeline, these storage units then can be moved to     high winds and low barometric pressure with slow
                                  another location. In the relatively calm waters of     storm progress causing tremendous wave forces
                                  the Persian Gulf, a large tanker hulk was used to      which will persist for several. hours, as with
                                  store as much as 250,000 barrels of crude, and a       Hurricane Carla. One can only speculate about the
                                  360,000-barrel tanker was used to store oil off        extent of damages such a storm could cause.
                                  Nigeria. Transport tankers moved the oil from             Problems involving environmental prediction
                                  these storage tankers to the market.                   and modification, therefore, continue to be the
                                     Subterranean nuclear blasts below the ocean         prime category in which Federal Government
                                  floor some day could carve out huge cavities to        efforts could have a major benefit to industry.
                                  store petroleum as it is extracted from the earth.     Progress in hurricane research has been disap-
                                  This might be far cheaper than storage methods         pointingly slow; better predictions of path and
                                  now in use. Under one plan, the explosive for a        energy dissipation would be of great value. A
                                  million-barrel cavity would be lowered through a       reasonable goal would be to attain considerably
                                  small diameter drilled hole 1,400 feet below the       improved hurricane understanding within the next
                                  ocean floor and detonated from the surface. The        five years and limited hurricane modification
                                  blast would create a cavity approximately 200 feet     within 10 years. Improved accuracy of weather
                                  wide and 600 feet high; all nuclear contaminants       information, wave data and predictions, and ocean
                                  would be sealed far underground, preventing their      current measurements would be extremely useful.
                                  escape into the atmosphere.                            Measuring wave heights during an actual hurricane
                                     Summarizing, various oil companies anticipate       is a promising subject for investigation. There is a
                                  that many installations in deep or hazardous areas     critical need for this data. It is extremely expen-
                                  by 1980 will be on the bottom of the sea, not on       sive to install wave measuring equipment at fixed
                                  the surface. Drilling most likely will continue from   locations and then to wait possibly for years for
                                  the surface, but oil well operations and some          the arrival of a large. hurricane at the particular
                                  temporary facilities will be on the bottom.            site. Seeking out a hurricane and taking wave
                                                                                         measurements from an airplane, for example,
                                                                                         would yield much more information on platform
                                                                                         storm damage criteria than years of monitoring
                                  G. Government Role                                     waves from a fixed platform.
                                  1. Legal-Political Environment
                                                                                         3. Information and Technology Transfer
                                     The Government should maintain a proper legal
                                  and political environment to, assure the con-          a.. From Industry The. petroleum industry has
                                  tinuance of the necessary incentives as industry       developed independently a technology for working
                                  moves into the more speculative offshore areas.        at sea. Many companies engage in cost-sharing
                                  These incentives will encourage continuing devel-      programs under unique arrangements encompass-
                                  opment of the required exploitation technology.        ing research and basic engineering on environ-
                                                                                         mental prediction, platform design, underwater,
                                  2. Environmental and Hurri   Icane Predictions         completion, materials studies, welding techniques,
                                                                                         and other subjects. Cooperative work is being
                                     Hurricane Betsy in 1965 churned a            path   performed among elements of the industry, uni-
                                  through investments by the oil and gas industry        versities, and Government. Much engineering
                                  valued at $2 billion, causing damage exceeding         knowhow evolved by the industry could be of
                                  $100. million. In the. preceding year Hurricane        'great value to the Government. In addition, many
                                  Hilda raged through an area involving $350 million     companies continue to encourage the Government
                                  in capital, causing over $100 million in damages.      to make use of their platforms for immediate and
                                  While Hurricanes Betsy and Hilda were large historical measurements.

                                  VI-176

                        b. From Government While most Federal efforts            locating a well site. The release of the Navy
                        in ocean technology were not intended to provide         TRANSIT System is an excellent first step.
                        benefits to any particular industry, there have
                        been developments of particular value to the             6. Traffic Control
                        offshore oil industry. As the Nation accelerates its        Development of marine traffic control methods
                        ocean programs and as the industry continues to
                        move -into deeper water, increased technological         for congested waters should be accelerated. Better
                        knowhow will augment greatly oil company ef-@            delineation of shipping lanes would be an   excellent
                        forts. Such Government efforts should hasten the         first step.
                        day when the petroleum industry will engage
                        technically and economically in total or partial         7. Surveys
                        subsea operations. For example, the Government              The petroleum industry makes a very strong
                        should encourage development of basic scientific         distinction between broad regional and detailed
                        and engineering data and knowledge beyond the            exploratory surveys. Detailed exploratory surveys
                        economic scope of an individual industry but             should be left to private enterprise. In general, the
                        justified by multi-industry and Government needs.        traditional guidelines established by the U.S. Geo-
                        Examples include meteorology, oceanograp S,              logical Survey (USGS) on land are believed to
                        power sources, materials, and life support syste      .  represent an appropriate separation of,the proper
                        Each industry would further develop and app              Government and industry responsibility in the sea.
                        the technology peculiar to its own business.             Thus, it is felt that the USGS should step up its
                                                                                 reconnaissance mapping program of our Conti-
                        4. Technology Requirements for Major Oil Spills          nental Shelf. The modest USGS program of
                                                                                 subbottorn mapping is also of value to the industry
                           The petroleum industry is concerned with              and should be continued.
                        preventing and combating disasters such as the              Environmental Science Services Administra-
                        Torrey Canyon grounding, and it has supported            tion's (ESSA) bathymetric: charting Of our Conti-
                        coordinated efforts with the Government to solve         nental Shelf also should  Ibe continued, -with com-
                        such problems. In fact, the industry provided            pletion of most of the shelf within two years. In
                        considerable information on the subject to the           addition, ESSA should start now to make plans for
                        joint pollution study conducted for the President        extending bathymetric chart coverage of the conti-
                        by the Departments of the Interior and Transpor-         nental slope and rise.
                        tation.
                           Improved methods must be developed. to mini-          H. Conclusions
                        mize.-the probability of major oil spills. to opti-
                        mize countermeasures, and to develop technolog-             Free World production from offshore fields is
                        ical means to identify the parties responsible for       about five million barrels of oil, per day, about 16
                        pollution. Joint efforts of the industry and the         per cent of total land and offshore production. By
                        Federal and State governments must be acceler-           1980 this should climb to 20 million barrels per
                        ated. International restrictions against pumping         day, about one third of the projected total Free
                        bilges and slush tanks into waters anywhere-in           World production. The Far East and Africa are the
                        harbors or at sea-must be established and en-            most rapid growth areas. The Middle East holds
                        forced.                                                  most of the Free World's offshore oil reserves and
                                                                                 provides about one-fourth of current offshore
                        5. Navigation and Positionig Systems                     production.
                                                                                    Offshore oil   was first produced in 1894 in,
                           Many do not consider this subject     to have the     California; petroleum operations in the Gulf of
                        high priority of environmental forecasting. Never-       Mexico began in 1936, and the first subsea well
                        theless, more emphasis must be placed on position-       was completed in Lake Erie in 1959@ I' Today
                        ing accuracy 'and repeatability in the order of 50       production has been established more than 70
                        feet as far as 200 miles from shore. Such accura-        miles from shore and in depths of 340 feet, and
                        cies are required when delineating boundaries and        more than 50 subsea wells have been completed.

                                                                                                                                VI-177

                             333-091 0-69-16

                                    Production pipelines have been laid successfully in             Most remote control and monitoring tests have
                                    340 feet of water.                                          employed a physical link to the surface; however,
                                       Drilling capability in     the last 10 years has         there are obvious advantages to having no physical
                                    progressed from water depths of about 100 feet to           link. An acoustic link has been used to command a
                                    more than 600 feet. Leases have been granted by             subsea system to supply electric current to operate
                                    the Department of the Interior for petroleum ex-            a particular valve, to monitor the position of a
                                    ploration and production more than 100 miles off            valve, and to obtain various data such as pressure.
                                    U'.S. shores and in waters to 1,800 feet deep. About        Acoustic links also are beginning to find an
                                    100 core holes already have been drilled beyond             important role during the drilling operation when
                                    the U.S. Continental Shelves, some in waters nearly         used in conjunction with blowout preventers.
                                    5,000 feet deep. It is expected that in 1969                Acoustic bottom mounted transponders are being
                                    production will be established in waters as deep as         evaluated to enable a drilling ship to return to the
                                    400 feet, and exploratory wells will be drilled in          precise location of a subsea well head and as an aid
                                    the Santa Barbara Channel in water depths ranging           to re-enter a hole on the sea floor.
                                    to 1,300 feet.                                                  The fact that the industry is buying leases in
                                       The fact that leases already have been sold in           ever deeper waters implies that the bidders expect
                                    water exceeding 1,800 feet does not necessarily             it will be economically and technically feasible to
                                    mean that the industry now is prepared to buy               produce in deep water. However, each field is
                                    leases this deep in other world areas. Many                 different in water depth, reserves, size and nature
                                    favorable factors pertaining to the Santa Barbara           of the reservoir, closeness to shore, value of the
                                    Channel more than compensated for the depths:               product, production rate, and many other perti-
                                    the prospective fields are close to land; the               nent factors.
                                    oceanographic and meteorological conditions are                 For collection, storage, or transportation a few
                                    less severe than in such other locations as the Gulf        miles offshore a simple short pipeline system
                                    of Mexico; oil is in short supply in that area; and         generally will suffice; in a distant sea, storage may
                                    there are no allowable restrictions.                        have to be provided for intermittent delivery to
                                       Underwater operation offers the following                shuttling tankers. In either case, some subsea
                                    potential advantages:                                       completion, production, and storage features may
                                                                                                enhance the system's economic capability. In any
                                                                                                particular area it is likely that several different
                                    -Extension of production capabilities to greater            techniques will be employed.
                                    depths than those for which fixed platforms are             ,   Future economical production in deep water
                                    economic   Ial.                                             will depend on the most favorable choice of
                                    -Minimization of damage to platforms because of             surface, completely underwater, or some hybrid
                                    hurricanes, severe storms, and shifting founda-             technology. The industry will continue to engage
                                    tions.                                                      in prototype undersea operations in order to make
                                                                                                the best estimates of cost and benefit trade-offs
                                    -Elimination of navigation hazards.                         and to take maximum advantage of deep water
                                    -More flexibility in operating under ice.                   reserves.
                                                                                                    In summary, various oil companies believe that
                                                                                                by 1980 an increasing number of installations will
                                       Many studies and successful tests already,have           be  on the bottom of the sea, not on the surface. In
                                    been made to service underwater wells with                  these areas drilling will continue to be conducted
                                    remote     controlled televiewing robots, with              essentially from the surface, but oil well opera-
                                    through-the-flowline maintenance and treatment              tions and some temporary storage facilities will be
                                    tools, with hydraulically cont    'rolled surface lines,    on the bottom.
                                    and with remote acoustically controlled valving
                                    systems operating from conventional and isotope
                                                                                                Recommendations:
                                    energy sources. The technology of remotely oper-
                                    ated tools in itself has required ingenuity to insure       The Government should maintain a proper legal
                                    reliability.                                                and political environment to support industry as it

                                    VI-178

                         moves into the more speculative offshore areas.         Detailed exploratory surveys should be left to
                         These incentives will encourage continued develop-      private enterprise.
                         ment by industry of much of the required exploi-           The ESSA bathymetric charting of our Conti-
                         tation technology, provided that the incentives are     nental Shelf also should continue, adhering to its
                         advanced sufficiently ahead.of the need for the         schedule of completing, most of the shelf within
                         technology. It must be clearly understood that a        two years. In addition, ESSA should start now to
                         lag of five to 10 years exists from the ti 'me a large  make plans for extending bathymetric chart cover-
                         field is discovered until volume production is          age to the continental slope and rise.
                         achieved.
                            A mechanism should be established to ensure
                         optimum information'exchange between Govern-            IV. OCEAN MINING
                         ment and the petroleum industry. This industry          A. Introduction
                         has successfully developed a major technology on
                         its own for working at sea. Considerable engineer-      1. Interest in Ocean Minerals
                         ing experience accumulated within the industry
                         could be of great value to the Government. In              The following are the primary reasons for the
                         addition, many oil companies continue to encour-        development of a domestic ocean mining industry.
                         :age the Government to make use of their plat-
                         forms for realtime and historical measurements.         a. Act of Congress Strong national impetus
                         The Federal Government'should take full advan-          toward development of an ocean mining industry
                         tage of these opportunities.                            on the U.S. Continental Shelf is provided by t    'wo
                            The Government should        seek a considerably     objectives stated in the Marine Resources and
                         improved understanding of      hurricanes within 5      Engineering Pevelopment Act of 1966:     14
                         years and capability for limited hurricane modifi-
                         cation within 10 years.                                 The accelerated development of the resources of
                            Problems involving physical environmental pre-       the marine environment.
                         diction and modification continue to be the prime       The encouragement of private investment enter-
                         technological area in which Federal Government          prise in exploration, technological development,
                         efforts could have a major impact on the industry.      marine commerce,. and economic utilization of the
                         Progress in hurricane research has been disappoint-     resources of the marine environment.
                         ingly slow. Two hurricanes in successive years,
                         1964-1965, caused over $200 million in damage to        b. Income to Nation 'The Presidential Proclama-
                         the industry. Efforts to improve accuracy of            tion of Se  .pt. 28, 1945, and more recently the
                         weather information, wave data predictions, and         1958 Geneva International Conference on the Law
                         ocean current measurements would have a signifi-        of the Sea, effectively added, with respect to
                         cant impact on offshore economics.                      natural resources, about 810,000 square miles to
                            Improved methods must be developed to mini-          the area of the United States or approximately 25,
                         mize the probability of major oil spills, to opti-      per cent of total U.S. dry-@and area. The Nation
                         mize countermeasures, and to develop technolog-         should gain knowledge of the potential resources
                         ical means of identifying responsible polluters.        of this tremendous area and should expect in-,
                         Contingency plans should be established to permit       come from leases and royalties on the exploita-
                         immediate action to contain and clean up major          tion of its wealth. Ultimately, the stimulation of a
                         on spins.                                               new industry will result in expenditures for sala-
                            More   emphasis must be placed on achieving          ries, capital, and taxes, contributing greatly to the
                         positioning accuracy in the order of 50 feet at         Nation's economy. This income.should exceed
                         distances as great as 200 miles from shore.             many times any expenditure for Government
                                                                                 services to support this exploitation.
                            The U.S. Geological Survey should accelerate
                         reconnaissance mapping of our Shelf. The modest
                         USGS program of sub-bottom mapping is also of
                         value to the industry and should be continued.            14PUblic Law 89-454, Section 2(b).

                                                                                                                                VI-179

                                   C. Potential Shortage of Metals        It is to the       developed-at least for the continental shelves.
                                   Nation's interest to promote and encourage ocean          However, unless a deposit large and rich enough to
                                   exploitation not only to support population in            offset the higher cost of underwater operations is
                                   creases but to supplement dwindling land re-              found, ocean mining development will continue to
                                   sources. It has been predicted that total demand          move rather slowly.
                                   for metals between 1965 and the year 2000 will               The mining industry on, the U.S. Continental
                                   amount to more than the total metals consumed             Shelf consists of little more than dredging non-
                                   by all nations cumulatively until the present time.       metallic deposits and sulfur extraction. The latter
                                   Therefore, technology will have to be developed to        is mined through a drill hole and is related to
                                   obtain minerals from such new locations as the            petroleum in its exploration and recovery tech-
                                   ocean. Thus, companies mining sulfur and tin              niques and problems. There are, however, success-
                                   already are forced to look more to the sea.               ful ocean mining operations in other parts of the
                                                                                             world where the legal and economic climate is
                                   d. Dependence on Foreign Sources It is advisable          more favorable and where the existence of sizable
                                   for the United States to have alternate sources of        deposits has been established.
                                   supply so that in an emergency it will not be                There is or has been exploration for gold off
                                   overly dependent on foreign sources for critical          Alaska (depth of 200 feet), phosphorite off North
                                   metals.                                                   Carolina and California (to 600 feet), and manga-
                                                                                             nese and phosporite nodules and crusts on the
                                   e. Industry Growth Mining companies are inter-            Blake Plateau (depth of 2,400 to 3,600 feet) and
                                   ested in the sea for various reasons. They must,          at even greater depths, especially in the Pacific.
                                   keep abreast of the technology of offshore extrac-
                                   tion if for no ' other reason than to have a good         3. Types of Mineral Deposits
                                   working knowledge of the competitive position of             Ocean minerals can be divided broadly into two
                                   those marine minerals that eventually might en-           categories encompassing those minerals found on
                                   hance or jeopardize their business. In addition,          the bottom and those that might be found in the
                                   they must be able to make rational decisions in           sub-bottom (within bedrock), as shown in Figure
                                   choosing between ocean and land resources for             45. Within one or the other category is a diversi-
                                   investment in new production facilities.                  fied group of minerals such as copper, iron, gold,
                                                                                             manganese nodules, oyster shells, etc.
                                   2. Present Activity                                          Each involves variations in the exploration and
                                      Not counting coal and iron presently mined             recovery types of equipment required. Hence, the
                                   from on-shore openings, about $200 million of             industry's needs will be of a heterogeneous nature.
                                                                          -wide directly     Sea water column mining is discussed in Subsec-
                                   mineral products is mined world
                                   from the ocean floor annually. This includes sand,        tion V, "Chemical Extraction".
                                   gravel, oyster shell, sulfur, and tin and iron ores          The principal operations involved in ocean
                                   but does not includ6 minerals. extracted from the         mineral exploitation follow: (1) exploration and
                                   water column. If one excludes sand, gravel, oyster        evaluation, (2) recovery, and (3) transportation
                                   shells, and sulfur, the remaining ocean mining is         and processing. These will be discussed below.
                                   only about $50 million per year for tin and iron          However, prior to this a brief description is given
                                                                            15               of some of the basic technological differences
                                   sands, heavy minerals, and diamonds.
                                     . For the most part, the present market repre           between hard mineral mining and the recovery of
                                   sents unique local deposits that serve local mar_         oil and gas.
                                   kets. The notable exceptions are tin and sulfur. It
                                   is believed that once a substantially rich deposit is     B. Hard Minerals vs. Oil and Gas
                                   found, technology to exploit it will be readily              The geology controlling the     Ioccurrence of oil
                                                                                             and gas commonly extends predictably offshore,
                                                                                             and the technology and techniques used to find
                                     15 Barnes,- S., "Mining Marine Minerals," Machine De-   and recover oil offshore have, for the most part,
                                   sign, April 25, 1968, p. 26.                              been very. similar to those on land. Exploration

                                   VI-1 80

                                                                           Ocean Minerals

                                                        Sub-Bottom                                    Bottom
                                                                                             (loosely consolidated)

                                                                     Deep Ocean
                                                F                    (basaltic rock                                  Chemical
                                      Continental Shelf              which may con-                                  precipitates
                                                                     tain chromite,                                  (manganese,
                                                                     platinum, etc.)                                 phosphorite
                                                                                             Biological              nodules and
                               Sedimentary        Igneous and                                                        crusts)
                               (oil, gas,         metamorphic
                               sulfur,            rocks contain@                                                     Deep ocean
                               coal,              ing v.ein and                                                      sediments
                             it-iron)             massive deposits                              Detrital             (red clay,
                                                  of non-ferrous                                (sand,               oozes, etc.)
                                                  and precious                                  gravel,
                                                  metals                                        placers)

                         Figure 45. Categories of ocean minerals.

                         costs are high because the target (deposit) is             a mineral discovery is made offshore the drill hole
                         concealed, but the industry has had long experi-           cannot be utilized as a producing unit. At that
                         ence on land in searching for concealed targets.           point, the explorer must decide whether to risk
                         Once an oil or gas target is discovered, the               investing a large amount -of capital to delineate the
                         discovery hole can be converted into a producing           deposit to determine its potential profitability.
                         well more readily than for hard minerals. More-               The transition from discovery drill holes to an
                         over, because of highly developed geophysical and          operating hard rock mine will require either
                         geological techniques used in locating oil and gas         development of a very large open pit or the
                         reservoirs, the ratio of target discovery holes to         penetration of the ore body by a vast underground
                         total exploration holes is high-on the order of one        network of tunnels and excavations.
                         in five in the Gulf of Mexico (one in 13 country-             Oil and mineral targets differ in relative size. Oil
                         wide, onshore and offshore).                               targets rnay be tens of miles across, while some
                            On the other hand, the hard mineral explorer is         great metal deposits are tiny by comparison. For
                         faced with an entirely different set of problems           example, one of the    largest copper deposits in the
                         than the oil explorer. Most rich ore deposits that         world is only about one square mile in horizontal
                         have sustained our Nation to the present time were         area. This compares   with an average of more than
                         exposed at the surface and discovered by surface           three square miles    for the more than 200 ofl
                         prospecting. Only in the last 15 to 20 years has the       reservoirs that have been developed in offshore
                         mining industry seriously attempted to find de-            Louisiana. Thus, the   ability to discover deposits in
                         posits not indicated by surface characteristics.           certain formations and structures appears to be
                            Techniques to discover concealed subsurface             greater for oil than for hard minerals.
                         mineral deposits on land are less developed than              Whereas a single test hole can indicate the oil
                         those for oil and gas. Offshore, virtually a whole         and gas potential of a formation over a compara-
                         new technology to discover sub-bottom lode and             tively large area, hard mineral exploration requires
                         bedded deposits will have to be devised. Further, if       extensive close-spaced drilling to determine poten-

                                                                                                                                   V1- 181

                                   tial. In addition, such indirect measurements as        bottom profiles, much more highly developed
                                   pressure and electric logging may be very helpful       devices and techniques will be needed.
                                   in evaluating fluid (oil and gas) potential, but
                                   direct measurements of recovered samples are            3. Geophysical
                                   required in most cases to evaluate the amount and          Geophysical survey methods used on land have
                                   quality of mineral deposits.
                                      Placer deposits and nodule deposits are easier to    proved readily adaptable to the marine environ-
                                   explore for than concealed sub-bottom bedrock           ment-
                                   deposits but still pose considerable difficulties.         Magnetic anomalies discovered in marine sur-
                                   Placer deposits may not extend across the shore         veys can indicate the major rock types, faults, and
                                   line, and in many cases, the beach separates            other structural features below the ocean floor.
                                   environments containing different kinds of mineral      They also indicate the occurrence of magnetic
                                   occurrences.                                            ores. Marine magnetometers allow accurate meas-
                                      A great many samples must be taken to define a       urements while under way.
                                   placer deposit. As with gold and diamonds, the             The gravity survey also is useful in locating
                                   best material is often in cracks and depressions in     anomalies. Marine gravimeters have been devel-
                                   the bedrock and is difficult or impossible to reach.    oped recently for shipborne surveys and for use
                                   Placer. or nodule mining in deep water requires         near the sea floor. While the accuracy of a ship
                                   relatively . expensive equipment, and operating         mounted unit is an order of magnitude lower than
                                   costs also are high, especially where sea state         that of analogous sea floor equipment, more data
                                   conditions are frequently unfavorable.                  can be provided in less time. Gravity data is useful
                                      The ratio of ore discoveries to targets explored     in broad reconnaissance studies for interpreting
                                   may be as low as one in 1,000 onshore and may           large subbottom structures. However, such data is
                                   be even lower offshore. Exploration of the shelf        best used together with the results of other
                                   for hard mineral deposits will be very speculative      geophysical data.
                                   for the foreseeable future, and mineral explorers          Seismic surveys indicate structure, stratifica-
                                   will require strong incentives to apply their energy    tion, and sediment thicknesses. In addition, sub-
                                   and skill in an activity where good fortune will        merged beaches, which may contain placer concen-
                                   also be required.                                       trations, may be indicated. Present sub-bottom
                                                                                           profiling techniques, however, cannot evaluate
                                   C. Exploration  and Evaluation                          mineral deposits. Sophisticated methods may be
                                                                                           able to provide much higher resolution informa-
                                   L Types                                                 tion including acoustic velocities, densities, and
                                                                                           acoustic impedances, thereby helping to identify a
                                      Mineral  exploration in the ocean requires a         particular material.
                                   sequence of activities,  many similar to those on          Recently, electrical methods, such as measuring
                                   land. These include bathymetric, geophysical, and       resistivity characteristics of rocks, radiometric
                                   geological surveys, followed by sample analysis.        techniques, and heat flow methods h         .ave been
                                                                                           suggested as additional tools for detecting anom-
                                   2. Bathymetric                                          alies.
                                      Modern echo-sounders can, when used with                For more efficient exploration, mathematical
                                   shipboard recorders and underwater devices, deter-      search models have been used in laying out grids
                                   mine details of bottom relief to within one fathom      for geophysical surveys, sampling, drilling, and
                                   in deep water and even more precisely in shallow        other exploration work." Efforts also have been
                                   water. Bottom contours, representing such fea-          made to apply computer techniques and mathema-
                                   tures as submerged river channels (frequently a         tical models to the probability of finding minerals
                                   favorable location for placers), can be detected.
                                   Interpretation of echogram characteristics also
                                   helps to identify the type of sea bottom; i.e., rock,
                                                                                                United Nations Economic and Social Council, "Re-
                                   sand, or mud. Although side-looking sonar repre-        sources of the Sea, Part One: Mineral Resources of the
                                   sents a start towards'more effective scanning of        Sea Beyond the Continental Shelf," Feb. 19, 1968, p. 44.'

                                   VI-182

                         in certain areas. Such approaches are as applicable           Petroleum core drilling systems with steel bits
                         underwater as ashore.                                     penetrate softer rock to 20,000 feet. Small dia-
                                                                                   meter diamond core drills have penetrated harder
                         4. Geological                                             rock to about 14,000 feet, although most conven-
                                                                                   tional rigs are equipped to penetrate 4,000 or
                            Confirmation of the actual minerals present can        4,500 feet.
                         be accomplished only by sampling and subsequent
                         analysis. Methods of direct observation on-site are       5. Shipboard Integrated Survey Systems
                         limited in usefulness to such items as outcrops,
                         type of bottom (sand, mud, etc.), and nodules.                Shipboard integrated geophysical systems have
                            Methods of direct observation include those by         become available recently, including automatic
                         divers and observers in deep submersible vehicles.        sensing and recording devices. These measure
                         Deep towed vehicles provide indirect continuous           simultaneously many parameters from magnetom-
                         monitoring by television and by still and motion          eter, gravimeter, echo sounder and seismic readings
                         picture photography. Observation supplemented             with reference to a synchronous clock, navigation
                         by bottom sampling is the most likely method of           fixes, and ship's course and speed. The data can be
                         evaluating occurrences of manganese nodules on            produced in both analog and digital form, includ-
                         the sea floor by estimating area coverage, nodule         ing recordings on magnetic tape, for computer
                         size, and shape.                                          processing often while still underway.
                            Because of the overriding importance of coring,
                         major emphasis should be given to techniques for          6. Required Supporting Technology
                         taking more samples and deeper cores. Coring                  Aside from ships currently Used for mineral
                         provides samples for chemical and mineralogical           survey work, the role of submersibles is beginning
                         analysis.                                                 to be appreciated. Newer versions will have
                            Much   sampling today employs conventional             greater depth and cruising range capabilities, per-
                         tools originally developed for oceanographic re-          mitting them to survey and sample. As an ex-
                         search. Excluding core drilling systems, many             ample, the Alvin has been used to recover sea floor
                         bottom sampling devices cannot probe deeper than          specimens and perform geological studies in the
                         about 20 feet, although cores of up to 90 feet have       West Indies and near Woods Hole.
                         been taken in very soft sediments. More recently, a           An accurate navigation fix is critical in undersea
                         vibratory corer has been developed that can take.a        prospecting, and as the search becomes more
                         100-foot core six inches in diameter. This has            detailed, less error in positioning can be tolerated.
                         proven very useful in evaluating mineral concentra-       The tolerable error also depends on the distribu-
                         tions on the shelf,                                       tion of the mineral deposits. When distribution is
                            Commonly used sampling devices are:                    broad and uniform, positioning requirements for
                                                                                   exploitation are reduced, and at least initial
                         -Free fall grab sampler-useful for deep nodules-          exploitation will be little concerned with precise
                         -Wireline dredge samplers-used since the Chal_            positioning. If distribution is patchy and concen-
                         lenger days; the disadvantage of dredging proce-          trations are localized, precision positioning is
                                                                                   essential both for evaluating deposits and for
                         dures is the lack of knowledge concerning the             exploiting them efficiently.
                         exact location of the sample.

                         -Free fall corers-cannot penetrate rock or gravel;
                         remote controlled rotary corers powered and               D. Recovery
                         controlled from a mother ship, will enable obtain-        1. Dredging
                         ing short cores from rock.
                         -Jet lift corer-using water or air pumped down a              Onshore placers and other various unconsoli-
                         pipe.                                                     dated deposits have been exploited commercially
                                                                                   for many years throughout the world. Underwater
                         -Vibratory corer-newest type developed.                   mining recovery can presently be accomplished for

                                                                                                                                     VI-183

                                   a number of ore deposits at depths of as much as
                                   150 feet. Current recovery techniques include the
                                   clarrishell dredge, the bucket-ladder dredge, and
                                   dredges employing air-lift or suction hydraulic
                                   systems.

                                   a. Clamshell Dredge        Clamshell or wireline
                                   dredges use large grab     buckets, clamshells, and
                                   other digging and lifting   tools lowered to the sea
                                   floor on flexible steel     cables. They have the
                                   advantage of being adaptable to work in water
                                   depths to 350 feet. Having flexible cables, they
                                   also can be used in areas of high currents or wave       Figure 46. Front view of bucket-ladder dredge
                                   motions. The main disadvantages of this method           Yuba No. 21 (C. M. Romanowitz photo)
                                   are the cost of operations in deep water because of
                                   the cycle time (which increases directly with water
                                   depth) and uncertainty in continuity of successful
                                   withdrawals. Clanishell dredgeshave been used in
                                   Thailand to recover tin ore from depths of 90 to
                                   130 feet.

                                   b. Bucket-Ladder Dredge          The bucket-ladder
                                   dredge employs an endless chain of steel buckets
                                   to dig into the bottom. The dredged material is
                                   drawn continuously up the ladder and dumped.
                                   The material is then fed to various screening and
                                   concentrating devices. Bucket-ladder dredges have        Figure 47. Rear view of bucket-ladder dredge
                                                                                            Rasep, shown mining to a depth of 100 feet
                                   good digging capability, making them especially          off island of Singkep, off Sumatra. (C M.
                                   useful for placer mining, but are limited to water       Romanowitz photo)
                                   depths of about 150 feet. Because of the rigid
                                   dredging ladder, this method is confined to pro-
                                   tected waters or fair-weather operations. Several        c. Hydraulic Dredge The hydraulic dredge uses
                                   bucket-ladder dredges mined tin deposits in 1967         either air-lift or suction techniques. Using air-lift,
                                   off Indonesia in 60 to 100 feet of water.                air is injected into the bottom of a pipe which is
                                      Bucket-ladder dredges were first used in the          submerged more than half of its length in water. A
                                   United States in the late 19th century. They have        density differential is produced in the pipe, forcing
                                   seen major service in inland waters. By digging the      the column of air-water mixture to flow upward in
                                   mineral deposit at the bow and depositing all            the pipe. This flow creates a powerful suction at
                                   barren materials (waste) at the stern, the dredge        the bottom of the pipe, bringing up silt, sand, and
                                   automatically advances to new reserves.                  gravel suspended in a large volume of water. The
                                      Figure 46 shows a front view of the bucket-           mechanism consists of two pipes which may be
                                   ladder dredge, Yuba.No. 21. Still in operation on        constructed on the site with limited shop facilities
                                   the Yuba River, Cilifornia, mining placer gold, it is    and which require only compressed air to operate.
                                   one of the last gold mining dredges in operation in      However, air-lifts are extremely inefficient when
                                   the United States. With a mining depth capacity of       operated without the assistance of water jets and
                                   107 feet and 18 cubic foot capacity buckets, it has      other devices. The depth at which airlifts can be
                                   an excellent record of efficiency.                       used efficiently is a function of the cost of
                                      Figure 47 is a rear view of the 14 cubic foot         supplying compressed air at the depth of dredging.
                                   bucket-ladder dredge, Rasep, shown mining to a              With the suction dredge, a movable suction pipe
                                   depth of 100 feet on the island of Singkep, off          with a support ladder and a discharge line are
                                   Sumatra.                                                 mounted on a floating hull. When digging in

                                   VI-184

                          semi-consolidated sediments or soft to medium            relative to the bottom mining area. The ore could
                          hard rocks, a cutter head (normally of the rotating      be dredged and piped to the surface for loading
                          hollow bit type) usually is employed. The head is        into ore barges for transportation to shore facili-
                          mounted on the lower end of the suction pipe to          ties. The ore might be concentrated at sea to lessen
                          break up the ground and direct the flow of solids        the amount of material that must be transported.
                          into the suction pipe.                                       A similar system designed in Canada recom-
                             The suction dredge method       is best suited for    mends a light-weight medium (such as kerosene
                          recovery of large quantities of unconsolidated           instead of airlift or suction) to actuate a very high
                          material. For example, this technique is used for        velocity upward flow through the conduit, lifting
                          channel maintenance as well as mineral recovery.         the heavy nodules faster than they can sink
                          Its Water depth- capability is up to 200 feet.           through the stream.
                          Dredges using a rigid ladder are limited to pro-             One of the more sophisticated ocean mining
                          tected waters or fair weather operation.                 approaches is a self-propelled bottom mobile
                             Recent improvements in size and capacity of           mining system in which a suction dredge is
                          hydraulic suction dredges for engineering construc-      mounted on a bottom mobile crawler or wheeled
                          tion work have caused renewed interest in their          vehicle. The power required for mobility, naviga-
                          application for offshore mining. Preliminary de-         tion, and dredging is supplied by cable. from the
                          signs have been made.to recover sea floor nodule         mining control vessel at the surface. The product
                          deposits at depths greater than 4,000 feet by this       must be lifted to the surface by supplementary
                          method. At such depths it probably will be               equipment.
                          necessary to establish additional submerged pump-            Deep ocean mining will require development
                          ing capacity. Hydraulic dredging will almost cer-        and evaluation of many new types of equipment
                          tainly be applied in deep sea mining.                    heavily dependent on marine technology advances.
                                                                                   Examples include: (1) submarine crawlers and
                          2. Deep Ocean Mining                                     bottom hovering vehicles to explore for and
                                                                                   recover deposits, (2) stationary or neutrally buoy-
                             The mining of deep.sea manganese nodules has          ant platforms, (3) drilling rigs on the ocean floor,
                          attracted serious evaluation and interest. It has        (4) submarine dredges, (5) high capacity, low cost
                          been asserted that nodules constitute a renewable        vertical transport systems, and (6) high capacity
                          resource, their estimated renewal rate exceeding         equipment for horizontal transfer.
                          the present world rate of consumption for the                Typical basic engineering needs of deep ocean
                          elements contained in them (chiefly copper,              mining: (1) sufficient power to lift thousands of
                          nickel, cobalt, and manganese).                          tons of minerals from great depths, (@) ultra-high
                             However, this may not be      of practical signifl-   strength, corrosion-resistant hoist   'ing cables, (3)
                          cance because in the limited      areas economic to      long, flexible pipes for deep water 'that can
                          mine, the rate of renewal is not adequate to             withstand the anticipated bending and shearing
                          sustain continuous mining. Technology for the            stresses, and (4) the ability to provide three-phase
                          :economic exploitation of deep sea, nodules has not      flow through long pipes. . Further, very high as-
                          yet been demonstrated. The problem is not only           cending water velocities probably will be required
                          that of economic recovery but also of economi-           to lift even small manganese nodules, requiring
                          cally separating the elements from the raw nod-          larger manganese nodules to be broken into small
                          ules.                                                    pieces on the sea floor or retrieved differently.
                             Various design studies have been made on              Other difficulties may be encountered where a
                          nodule recovery. One such method conceives of an         solid crust of manganese or phosphorite covers the
                          air lift or suction dredge mounted on a wheeled          sea floor.
                          vehicle or sled towed along the ocean floor by a
                          flexible pipeline secured to a surface vessel. T   'he   3. Sub-Bottom Mining
                          direction and speed of the mining device would be
                          controlled by the heading and speed of the surface           Except for sulfur. (Frasch process) and coal and
                          ship. An underwater acoustic transponder system          iron (tunnels from land) the task of extracting ores
                          would monitor the position of the mining device          from, rocks beneath the continental shelf is an

                                                                                                                                    VI-185

                                  order of magnitude more difficult than dredging         processing or enrichment of the ore generally will
                                  .shelf depth, on-bottom deposits. Yet this type of      not be necessary if storage facilities are adequate,
                                  miningjustifies continuing attention.                   although desirable if transportation costs are high.
                                     Present sub-bottom coal and iron mining opera-       Transportation from the sea surface to land can be
                                  tions extending out from land under the bottom          by surface vessel or barge, by pumping slurry, or
                                  involve only incidental marine problems, seepage        liquid through a pipeline, or by conveyor belt.
                                  the main concern. As mining progresses, the             Floating or underwater storage tanks are possible,
                                  horizontal distance from the surface entrance           and transfer to transport ships or tankers can be
                                  increases, accompanied by corresponding cost in-        accomplished in the same manner as tankers are
                                  creases. When the economic limit of such mining is      loaded or discharged today.
                                  reached or as deposits far from shore are dis-             Mining operations conducted completely inde-
                                  covered, mining through a sea floor entrance must       pendent of land (as in the deep sea or remote
                                  be considered.                                          shallow banks) will result in entirely different
                                     Although openings in the sea floor     have been     processing and transportation problems. Ore will
                                  made for tunnels and dam foundation caissons,           be loaded directly into barges, tankers, or ore
                                  water depths at the sites rarely exceed 150 feet.       transports. Immediate initial beneficiation or pro-
                                  Opening the sea floor for a permanent shaft             cessing may be necessary at sea to reduce weight
                                  serviced from  'a surface platform or a submerged       or bulk although this may require large processing
                                  base presents formidable engineering problems and       equipment on the dredging ship. If all operations
                                  costs,- especially at depths beyond practical diving    are conducted from a single vessel, this will further
                                  limitations. Utimately such objectives may be           reduce the amount of ore collected on each trip. If
                                  accomplished with sea floor entrance and undersea       multiple vessel operations are anticipated, one
                                  transfer capabilities, much of which may result         collecting and processing vessel could operate
                                  from technology developments funded under mili-         continuously while transport vessels shuttle to
                                  tary programs.                                          port.
                                     The techniques to recover offshore sulfur are
                                  similar to those for offshore oil production,           2. Attractiveness of Transportation at Sea
                                  making use of fixed above-surface platforms in
                                  shallow water. The platform supports drilling.rigs,        The relative economy of transporting bulk
                                  power plants, shops, warehouse, heliport and living     materials at sea is an attractive economic charac-
                                  quarters. The power plant heats the sea water used      teristic of working at sea. High density cargoes can
                                  to melt the sulfur, supplies the compressed air to      be transported in bulk carriers, in large quantities,
                                  lift the sulfur to the surface and provides the         and at low unit costs. Thus, a high-grade deposit in
                                  electric power to operate the rigs and other            a remote location on land could be unprofitable
                                  equipment.                                              because of the costs required to construct roads
                                     Wells are drilled directly from the platform into    and community facilities for workmen. By con-
                                  sulfur-bearing formations. Hot water is forced          trast, an offshore deposit might be more feasible
                                  through pipes into the formations to melt the           economically. These considerations already have
                                  sulfur, which is then lifted to the surface by          influenced sand and gravel operations where trans-
                                  compressed air. Molten sulfur must be maintained        portation costs are high relative to product value.
                                  at a temperature above 240 degrees Fahrenheit              Mobility of recovery platforms at sea is another
                                  during handling operations.                             attractive feature. Since dredging equipment is
                                                                                          limited to a few basic types, many systems may be
                                  E. Processing and Transportation                        applicable to other operations. This might provide
                                                                                          an opportunity for flexibility for a company
                                  1. Techniques                                           mining certain minerals in the northern latitudes in
                                                                                          the summertime but forced to disband operations
                                     @Problems of processing and transportation will      due to winter weather. The mining ships could
                                  be different for ores recovered from shallow water      move to a warmer climate and mine a different
                                  very, near to land compared to ores recovered in        material. In addition@ economic fluctuations in the
                                  deeper water remote from land bases. Immediate          values of minerals being produced could make

                                  VI-186

                          mining certain bottom deposits more attractive G. Government Role
                          than another.                                                The present Government      program to encourage
                          F. Forecast                                               the development of an ocean mining industry
                                                                                    considers the vital need to provide information.for
                             Figure 48 represents an estimated forecast for         sound economic evaluation of ocean mineral de-
                          economic ocean mining endeavors. To date ocean            posits. Because of technical difficulty and high
                          mining has not attracted significant private capital      cost, it is most logical that the Government should
                          for noteworthy domestic commercial operations.            sponsor- the initial broad surveys. When sufficient
                          There is, however, sufficient international activity      data are accumulated to warrant' further action,
                          to serve as a foundation for future domestic              the emphasis should shift to assistance in develop-
                          commercial ventures. However, before any sizeable         ing fundamental technology useful for exploita-
                          commercial ventures are attempted, much addi-             tion. However, major hardware 'commitments
                          tional exploration of the ocean is required. There        should be the responsibility of industry.
                          is not enough knowledge to motivate even the                 As far as the Department of the Interior is
                          boldest managements to commit the large sums              concerned, the task of broad-scale location and
                          required for a deep ocean venture. The assurance          delineation of mineral deposits is divided between
                          of attractive ocean bottom deposits is simply too         the Geological Survey and the Bureau, of Mines.
                          meager for more than exploratory company com-             The former is concerned principally with gcneral,
                          mitments.     Stimulus     would     be    added      if  geological characterization, while ' the. latter is
                          Government-sponsored bathymetric and geological           concerned with techniques for resource evaluation
                          survey programs provided enough "information to           and recovery technology.
                          enable managements to make confident decisions               There has been recent increased emphasis in the
                          leading to serious ocean prospecting and subse-           Bureau of Mines program for marine minerals
                          quent commitments to mining system hardware.              because of immediate needs for new sources of

                                                                            Figure 48
                                              ESTIMATED OCEAN MINING TECHNOLOGY TIME TABLE'

                                                                                            Depth of Water (feet)

                                                                                50            300             600             1,000

                          Underwater Photographic Reconnaissance
                            (analogous to aerial photographs)                1960             1964            1970            1975'
                          Submersible @for exploration
                            coring)   . . . . . . . . . . .                  1965             1967            1970            1970
                          Barge Dredge (ladder)    . . . . . . .             1900             1970               -
                          Barge Dredge (suction)   . . . . . . .             1930             1970            1980            11985
                          Stationary Mining Platform     . . . . .           1960             1970            1975            i980
                          Mining Using Air Lift Device   . . . . .           1960             1970            1975            1980
                          Mobile On-Bottom Mining Platform                   1970             1972            1975            1980
                          Buoyant Submersible Platform      . . . .           -               1975            1980            1985
                          Solution Mining (Sulfur, Potash)      . . .        1960             1980            1985            2000
                          Hardrock Mining (tunneling from land,
                            approximate dates)     . . . . . . .             1900             1920            1950            1960
                          Shaft Mining   . . . . . . . . . .                 1950             1970            1980            2000
                          Underwater Open Pit Hardrock
                            Mining    . . . . . . . . . . .                  1968             1980            1990            2000
                          'Mining in this table refers to the recovery operation.
                          Source: Adapted from Pehrson, G. 0., "Mining Industry's Role in Development of Undersea   Mining,"  MTS Transac-
                          tions, Exploiting the Ocean: 1966, p. 195.

                                                                                                                                    VI-187

                                   what are called heavy metals, represented most             Determining the topography and physical charac-
                                   importantly by gold. The program is handicapped            ter of the sea floor... Some of the existing
                                                                                                                          -densit     robes, under-
                                   .by the sketchy nature of pertinent information            geophysical tools such as           y p
                                   derived as a by-product of studies directed towards        water cameras, and manned submersibles, will be
                                   other aspects of oceanography. It also is restrained       utilized and, with modification, doubtless can be
                                   by the need for more advanced and more reliable            made more useful for mineral deposit delineation.
                                   tools and techniques for ocean bottom sampling.            But the precision that will be required in making
                                      A most urgent need is for research and develop-         these determinations, and the necessary measure-
                                   ment in delineating and evaluating marine mineral          ment of additional properties such as particle size,
                                   deposits. Most of the Bureau of Mines' present             hardness, and strength make it inevitable that new
                                   effort is concentrated on (1) data collection and          tools will have to be developed...
                                   analysis and (2) sampling equipment and methods.           Research leading to efficient methods for breaking
                                   in the former, liaison is being established to obtain
                                   from the oceanographic community data on                   sea-bottom ores.. [However], the urgency of this
                                                                                              problem cannot be determined now. It is probable
                                   known and potentially mineralized areas.
                                       Development of equipment and techniques to             that, for some time, attention will be directed
                                   sample sea bottom mineral deposits will proceed            principally to unconsolidated sediments....
                                   much faster and more efficiently as a Government-          [Mlaterials handling, or the gathering and trans-
                                   industry partnership venture. Here, industry al-           porting of minerals from the ocean floor. As with
                                   ready. is a principal participant, and its involve-        fragmentation, details of the research that must be
                                   ment can be expected to increase. Figure 49 shows          done will become clear as work progresses in the
                                   the RIV Virginia City, a Bureau of Mines research          exploration and delineation phases of the pro-
                                   vessel. Once a naval ocean fleet tug, this vessel   .has   gram....
                                   been completely refitted by the Bureau of Mines
                                   Marine Minerals Technology Center for research             Research on the problems of waste disposal. ...
                                   -on marine mineral problems.                                U] nwise dumping of the tailings, if not carefully
                                                                                              planned, could quickly foul a mining operation.
                                                                                              Furthermore, the compatibility of a marine mining
                                                                                              operation with exploitation of the other resources
                                                                                              of the sea, particularly the food resources, will
                                                                                              depend principally on the effectiveness of the
                                                                                              tailings-disposal system.
                                                         2
                                                      Y
                                                                                                 Ultimately, the bulk of the Bureau's research in
                                                                                              the marine minerals field should be concerned
                                                                                      iw@     with the technology and economics of production.
                                                                                              Now, however, the state-of-the-art and lack of
                                                                                              adequate knowledge of the resources make it
                                   Figure 49. Bureau of Mines research   vesse-I              necessary that most of the effort be devoted to
                                   R/V Virginia City, shown operating off coast               acquiring information that will enable defining the
                                   of Nome, Alaska. (Bureau of Mines photo)                   mining possibilities.

                                                                                              H. Conclusions
                                       The recent Director of the Bureau of Mines,
                                   W. R. Hibbard, has identified several key,prob-               Ocean mining is a heterogeneous industry. It
                                   lems, examples of which are: 17                            can be divided broadlyinto minerals found on the
                                                                                              bottom and in the sub-bottom (within bedrock).
                                                                                                 Despite intense interest in ocean mining, most
                                      17Hibbard, W.  R., "The Government's Program for        recent activities have been conceptual and explora-
                                   Encouraging the Development of a Marine Mining Indus-      tory. In fact, not only is information on ocean
                                   try," MTS Transactions, Exploiting the Ocean, 1966
                                   202-203.                                            'pp'   floor mineral deposits sparse, but the tools and

                                   VI-188

                        techniques for sampling in sufficient quantity and          Of various design studies 'made on nodule
                        quality require further development. During the         recovery, all require making use of advanced
                        decade of 1970-1980 there will continue to be           undersea technology. The problems of providing
                        many gaps in the required technology. The great-        sufficient power to lift thousands of tons of
                        est current need is to characterize the geology of      minerals from great depths; the need for ultra-
                        our Continental Shelf as it is critical to planning     high-strength, corrosion resistant hoisting cables;
                        economic exploitation. It is anticipated that most      the requirement to design long, flexible pipes or
                        major technical problems could be solved by the         hoses for deep water that can withstand the ocean
                        recommended decade of aggressive technological          current drag and the resulting bending and shear-
                        development during the 1970's.                          ing  stresses; and the problem of three-phase-flow
                           Sand, gravel, and oyster shell dredging (local       through such long pipes are typical of basic
                        enterprises oriented to local situations), and sulfur   engineering problems.
                        extraction (related to petroleum in its recovery            The task of extracting ores from rocks beneath
                        techniques and economic problems) essentially           the continental shelf is an order of magnitude
                        comprise the   'mining industry on the U.S. Conti-      more difficult than that of dredging shelf depth
                        nental'Shelf. There are, however, successful sea        bottom deposits. Yet this type of mining justifies
                        mining operations in other parts of the world           continuing attention. In contemplating sub-
                        where the legal, and economic climate is more           bottom mining far from land, mining through a sea
                        favorable and where the existence of minable            floor entrance must be considered. Ultimately,
                        deposits has been established. Nevertheless, there      such objectives may be accomplished with sea
                        is or has been activity involved in exploring for       floor entrance and undersea transfer capabilities,
                        gold off Alaska (depths of almost 200 feet),            much of which may result from technology
                        phosphorite off North Carolina and California           developments funded under military programs.
                        (depths of almost 600 feet), and manganese and              The shaft required for mining production is
                        phosphorite nodules and crusts on the Blake Pla-        much larger than a mining core drill hole or a
                        teau (depths of 2,400 to 3,600 feet) and at even        petroleum production hole. Furthermore, to bring
                        greater depths, especially in the Pacific Ocean.        a mine located by coring into production requires
                           Except for coal and iron, mined from tunnels         the cutting of many thousands of feet and even
                        started on land and extending out under the             miles of costly tunnels and underground excava-
                                                                                tions radiating from the mine shaft. In addition,
                        seabed, there is essentially no sub-bottom mining       the process of bringing up tons per day of solid
                        of solid minerals. Present mining concentrates on       minerals requires very expensive hoisting equip-
                        bottom deposits that require dredging operations.       ment.
                        Of dredges in current use, a modified air lift              In conclusion, deep   ocean mining will require
                        hydraulic dredge presently has the potential to         development of many       new types of equipment
                        operate to 1,000-foot depths; conceptual designs        heavily dependent on marine technology advances.
                        have been made of suction dredges capable of            Possible examples include: (1) submarine crawlers
                        recovering nodules at 4,000-foot depths.                and bottom hovering vehi    cles for exploration and
                           Mining deep sea manganese nodules has at-            recovery of deposits, (2) stationary or neutrally
                        tracted serious evaluation and interest. However,       buoyant platforms, (3) drilling rigs on the ocean
                        mining technology for economic exploitation of          floor, (4) submarine dredges, (5) high capacity,
                        deep sea nodules does not exist. The problem is         low cost vertical transport systems, and (6).high
                        not only that of economic recovery but that of          capacity equipment for horizontal transfer.
                        economically separating the elements from raw
                        nodules.
                           Small scale sampling of the deep sea floor to        Recommendations:
                        locate mineral deposits and secure samples for          Many mining spokesmen have indicated that indus-
                        specific labor'atory analyses only recently has been    try will undertake the costs of detailed surveys and
                        conducted. Sampling of the deep sea floor still is      development of mineral recovery technology. The
                        so time consuming that a discouragingly small           Government's role should be to provide the
                        number of samples come from a day's work.               following:

                                                                                                                               VI-189

                                     -Proper legal-political-fiscal environment to per-         -Provision of topographical and sub-bottom maps
                                     mit the industry to develop on its own much of             of our Continental Shelf overprinted with gravi-
                                     the required recovery technology.                          metric, magnetic, bottom type, and other geo-
                                     -Reconnaissance scale bathymetric, geophysical             logical information.
                                     and geological maps.                                       -Provision of topographical maps and characteri-
                                     -Technical services encompassing large-scale facili-       zation of the deep ocean basins.
                                     ties, technology transfer, and environmental moni-         -Establishment of a mechanism to accumulate
                                     toring and prediction.                                     and disseminate technical data applicable to off-
                                                                                                shore mining problems, including Navy data, avail-
                                                                                                able to industry with as little restriction as
                                       Identification of.    basic engineering problems         National security permits.
                                     associated with exploration and exploitation and
                                     development of tools and instrumentation re-               -Establishment of improved systems for precise
                                     quired for exploration should be undertaken                location at the sea surface, mid-depth, and on the
                                     jointly between the private sector and the Federal         bottom.
                                     Government in a properly coordinated program.
                                       Specific technology. needs identified for Gov-           V. CHEMICAL EXTRACTION
                                     ernment support of the ocean mining industry am
                                     as follows:                                                A. Introduction

                                                                                                1. Elements in the Ocean
                                     -Characterization of the geology of our Conti-
                                     nental Shelf as a guide to further and more specific           The total volume of the     oceans is estimated to
                                     delineation of mineral deposits in particular areas        be  320 million cubic iniles." Although salinity of
                                     by industry.                                               the several seas varies somewhat, the average is
                                                                                                approximately 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts,
                                     -Development of devices for rapid           underwater     equivalent to 165 million short tons per cubic
                                     exploration for minerals. Examples include equip-          mile. The world oceans, therefore, represent a
                                     ment analogous to airborne magnetometer equip-             storehouse of about 50 million billion tons of
                                     ment employed for large-scale explorations on              dissolved materials.
                                     shore and devices for more rapid deposit sampling.             Figure 50 fists a few of the more important
                                     -Information on soil properties of continental             dissolved elements.     Some 77 elements, including
                                     shelves and deep ocean bottoms in areas in which           atmospheric gases, have been detected. It is quite
                                     undersea mining operations may be undertaken or            likely that all naturally occurring elements exist in
                                                                                                the ocean. The lack of detection of the trace
                                     facilities constructed. This includes load-bearing         components is"due to analytical limitations. As can
                                     capacity, stability, possibility of submarine land-        'be seen from the table, the first eight elements
                                     slides, etc.                                               account for over 99 per ceht.'9 (-Oxygen and
                                     -Provision of large facilities for simulating deep         hydrogen elements are not included.)
                                     ocean environments to develop, test, and calibrate
                                     materials, instruments, and other devices.                 2. Extent of Present Extraction

                                     -Development of materials for cables having                a. Overall Production         The chemical industry
                                     exceptional strength-to-weight ratios, high fatigue        extracts various chemicals from the sea water
                                     resistance, and the abflity@ to retain strength in         column in commercial operations. The processes
                                     seawater.
                                     -Improvements in predicting, monitormig, and                  18 Shigley, C. M., "Minerals ftom 'the Sea", Journal of
                                     controlling major storms, earthquake waves,                Metals, January 1951, p.,@.
                                                                                          and      19
                                                                                                     McIlhermy, W. F., "Chemicals ftorn Sea Water,"
                                     other environmental. hazards to vessels and struc-         Proceedings of the Inter-American Conference on Mate-
                                     tures.                                                     rials Technology, May 1968, p. 120.

                                     VI-190

                                                   Figure 50                                 The mineral with the largest tonnage and the
                           PER CENT CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED                           greatest value is sodium chloride-common salt-
                                      ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER'                             accounting for about 45 per cent of the total
                                                                                         value. The other four products include, in order of
                              Element                          Per cent of Total         dollar value: magnesium metal, desalinated water,
                                                              Dissolved Elements         bromine, and magnesium compounds. No materi-
                           Chlorine     . . . . . .                   58.3               als other than salt, water, bromine, magnesium, and
                           Sodium     . . . . . . .                   32.2               its compounds are extracted now in commercial
                           Magnesium    . . . . . .                   4.1                quantities from sea water. It is also of interest,
                           Sulfur     . . . . . . .                   2.7                looking at this table, to n@te the importance of sea
                           Calcium    . . . . . . .                   1.23               water as a source of magnesium metal and bro-
                           Potassium    . . . . . .                   1.17               mine. About two-thirds of these minerals are
                           Bromine      . . . . . .                   0.20               obtained from the ocean.
                           Carbon     . . . . . . .                   0.09                 . Figure 52 indicates the analogous figures for
                           All others (about 70                                          production in the United StateS.2         ' The value of
                              different elements)                   Trace                annual output of these minerals and desalinated
                                                                                         water is $135 million. Magnesium metal, magne-
                                 Total  . . . . . .                 100.0                sium compounds, and bromine account for almost
                           Excludes oxygen and hydrogen.                                 90 per cent of the value of materials extracted in
                                                                                         the United States from salt water (today salt and
                           are well developed and economically competitive-              desalinated water make up only a small portion of
                           This oceanic area of interest has probably received           the value of products recovered from sea water in
                           much less attention by the public than is justified.          the United States).
                           As can be seen from Figure 5 1, nearly $400                   b. Salt The technique of obtaining common salt
                           million of chemicals or chemically related materi-
                                                                             2           by means of solar evaporation is an ancient process
                           als are recovered from sea water each year.         0 This    dating back to 2200 B.C. when it was first
                           includes desalinated water as well as the four types                                             22
                           of minerals listed in the table.                              recorded in Chinese writings.          It was discovered
                                                                                            21 Information supplied by W. F. McIlhenny.
                           20 Ibid., p. 119.                                                22 Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 3.

                                                                                  Figure 51
                                          WORLD PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS THAT CAN BE OBTAINED
                                                                          FROM SEA WATER'

                                                              World Annual
                                      Production              (million tons)                    Per cent from                     Value from
                                                                               From               Sea Water                  Sea Water Sources
                           Chemical                           Total        Sea Water                                              ($ million)
                           Salt  . . . . . .             118.6               34.6 2                    29                               173
                           Magnesium Metal .                  0.17             0.113                   65                                75
                           Desalinated Water             241.0             142.0                       59                                51
                           Bromine      . I. . .              0.15             0.104                   67                                45
                           Magnesium Compounds                11.42            0.692,3,4                  6                              41

                                 Total . . . .                                                                                          385

                           Estimated values for each commodity based on value     s reported in 1965 Minerals Yearbook.
                           2Estimated, figures not available.
                           31ncludes magnesium from dolomitic lime.
                           4Includes sea salt-bittern.
                                      Production
                           Che @tcal

                                                                                                                                             VI-191

                                                                                      Figure 52
                                                     U.S. PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS THAT CAN BE OBTAINED
                                                                              FROM SEA WATER'
                                                                   U.S. Annual                                        Sea Water
                                              Production.         (million tons)           Per cent       Annual Value         Per cent U.S.
                                                                            From             from           from Sea    s          Value of
                                     Chemical                 Total                        Sea Water      Water Source       Total World Value
                                                                          Sea Water                     1   ($ million)
                                     Salt . . . . . .          35.0        1.42                 4                 .8                   5
                                     Magnesium Metal .          0.09       0.08 13             90                57                  76
                                     Desalinated Water         60.6        22.9                38                 8                  16
                                     Bromine    . . . .         0.14       0.0685              50                30                  67
                                     Magnesium
                                       Compouncle                1.37      0.47 5              34                32                  78

                                          Total                                                                 135                  35
                                     _fhW. @UvI96@6fiig.res.
                                     2Includes solar sea salt and other solar salt.
                                     3
                                     4The only U.S. sea water magnesium facility is at Dow in Freeport (1965 figures).
                                     Includes magnesium chloride which, in turn, is used for magnesium metal.
                                     Includes sea salt-bittern.

                                     quite early that salt helped prevent decay in many      1941, extracted from the Gulf of Mexico by the
                                     foods. Present chemical usage for sodium com-           Dow Chemical Company. The process was adapted
                                     pounds is so extensive that salt is one of the          and improved from a Dow Chemical metallic
                                     primary raw materials upon which the chemical           magnesium extraction    plant near Midland, Michi-
                                     industry rests. About two-thirds of the salt con-       gan, using brine from   inland wells. Some 65 per
                                     sumed in the United States is by the chemical           cent of the world's production comes from the
                                     industry. Salt is produced from the ocean in            only two magnesium metal plants that process sea
                                     commercial quantities in about 60 countries. More       water. These are the Texas Division of Dow
                                     than 29 per cent of total world production is from      Chemical at Freeport, Texas, and the facilities of
                                     sea water. In the United States, the production         Norsk Hydro-Elektrisk in Norway.
                                     from sea water is centered in California and               In order to furnish the needs of Dow plants and
                                     accounts for only about four per cent of the U.S.       the adjacent bromine plant of the Ethyl-Dow
                                     grand total.                                            Chemical Company, ahnost two million gallons per
                                                                                             minute of sea water are pumped, an amount equal
                                     c. Magnesium Metal Magnesium is the third most          to that pumped by all other process users of sea
                                     abundant element found in sea water. Over 90 per        water in the world combined Since this figure
                                     cent of magnesium metal produced in the United          includes water required for cooling, it may be said
                                     States is obtained from sea water. It is estimated      that the Dow plants pump approximately one
                                     that a cubic mile of sea water contains roughly six     cubic mile of sea water per year, equivalent to
                                     million tons of magnesium. However, this is             almost three billion gallons per day. This is
                                     equivalent to about only one-sixth ounce per            approximately equal to what would have been
                                     gallon, worth about 0.4. cent.2 3    The first U.S.     pumped by the Bolsa Island dual purpose power
                                     magnesium metal from sea water was produced in          and 150 mgd desalination facility had it been
                                                                                             approved and constructed.
                                     23 Spangler', M. B., "A Case Study Report on the           Demand for magnesium is high during wartime,
                                     Extraction of Magnesium from Sea water," National       as it is used extensively in airplane construction
                                     "@@Proc

                                     Planning Association Report to the National Council on  and also is employed in incendiary bombs. Magne"-
                                     Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Sept.
                                     11,1967.                                                slum is outstanding in its use as a sacrificial anode

                                     VI-192

                       to protect metal surfaces against sea water corro-      to be pumped as high a vertical distance as Dow's
                       sion, and as a widely used constituent of alumi-        inland wells which are about 5,000 feet deep.
                       num alloys.                                                That lower sea water concentrations represent
                          The factors involved in extracting magnesium         no handicap was demonstrated by comparative
                       from sea water are somewhat different from those        costs published after World War 11. The Velasco,
                       of bromine. 24  From an oceanographic or climatic       Texas, plant built for the Federal Government
                       standpoint, location is not as critical. For example,   bettered by nearly 30 per cent the lowest cost of
                       water temperature has little. effect on the magne-      other Government plants using more concentrated
                       sium recovery process. More important is a loca-        magnesium sources from inland brines.
                       tion favorable to the supply of raw materials and
                       power. The proximity of abundant natural gas, the       d. Magnesium Compounds Magnesia (magnesium
                       fuel for Dow's electrical power generation, is          oxide) is the principal product of the magnesium
                       paramount. The process also requires a cheap            compounds industry. It is widely used as a basic
                       source@ of lime. For this, Dow purchases oyster         refractory for metallurgical furnaces. A moderate
                       shells   dredged    inexpensively    from      nearby   percentage of these compounds is still mined from
                       Galveston Bay (Figure 53). Another raw material,        old geological basins in Ohio, Texas, and Michigan,
                       sulfur, also is produced in south Texas and needs       with wells being drilled as deep as 5,000 to 6,000
                       to be shipped only a short distance.                    feet.
                                                                                  There are at present eight -plants in the United
                                                                               States producing magnesium oxide and depending
                                                                               on the ocean as a source of raw material. One
                                                                   7_1
                                                                                                                                 -salt
                                                   @YZ
                                                                               plant produces these compounds from sea
                                                                               bitterns, although such operations are expected to
                                                                                         25
                                                     V, i@      , "
                                                                               stop soon.
                                                                                  As Figure 52 shows, the United States produces
                                                                               78 per cent of the world-wide output of those
                                                                               magnesium compounds extracted from the sea
                                                                               water.

                                                                               e. Bromine    Of all the minerals extracted com-
                                                                               mercially from sea water, bromine is the least
                                                                               concentrated, about 65 parts per million.
                                                                                  All facilities directly processing sea water use a
                                                                               modification of the blowing-out process developed
                                                                               originally for use on underground brineS.2 6        In
                                                         -4i-M
                                                                               1931 the process was modified to use sea water as
                                                                               a raw material. The Ethyl-Dow facilities at Free-
                                                                               port, Texas, have been operating since 1940. Large
                       Figure 53. Oyster shells from Galveston Bay             sea water plants are also in operation in France,
                       serve as a cheap source of lime, required in the        Sicily, and England.
                       magnesium extraction process. (Dow Chemical
                       photo)                                                     There are a few inland brines, as in Arkansas,
                                                                               having very high concentrations of bromine ap-
                                                                               proaching 5,000 ppm. Bromine also has concentra-
                         One   aspect of extracting magnesium from sea         tions approaching S,000 ppm in the Dead Sea.
                       water, vis-a-vis extraction from inland.brines, is of   Inland brines are subject to depletion allowances,
                       special interest. The lower concentration of mag-       but this is not true of sea water sources, as they
                       nesium in sea water requires more water to be           are considered unlimited reserves.
                       pumped. However, since the Freeport plant is only
                       nine.feet above sea level, the water does not need       25 McIlhenny, W. F., op. cit., p. 123. A bittern may be
                                                                               defined as a bitter solution remaining in saltmaking after
                                                                               the salt has crystallized out of sea water or brine.
                        24 Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 7.                      2 6,bid., p.124.

                                                                                                                              VI-193
                          333-091 0-69-17

                                             Though bromine exists in the ocean with a                    precipitation of magnesium hydroxide from sea
                                         concentration only one-twentieth that of magne-                  water; oyster shell is used in Texas and dolomitic
                                         sium, its price per pound is one-third less than                 limestone in Norway.
                                         magnesium. This apparent anomaly is due to the                      In the Dow process in Texas, sea water is
                                         fact that the bromine extraction process is much                 brought into the plant through a system of flumes
                                         less costly in power, labor, and capital equipment.              and intakes and then is screened and chlorinated
                                             Favorable oceanographic and climatic condi-                  for control of biofouling (Figure 54). Either
                                         tions are paramount in extracting bromine from                   calcined oyster shell or caustic soda from a
                                         sea water.  27  The following requirements are neces-            caustic-chlorine electrolytic cell is used to precipi-
                                         sary:                                                            tate magnesium hydroxide. The precipitated

                                         -High and constant salinity conveniently avail-
                                         able.

                                         -Source free from organic contamination and
                                         undiluted by major fresh water rivers.
                                                                                                                                           J
                                         -Favorable circumstances to dispose of large
                                         quantities of processed water without mixin@
                                                                                               Y with
                                         unprocessed water.

                                         -Location in a warm climate since bron-tine can be
                                         removed at a greater rate from warm sea water.

                                         -Location near economical raw material                    and
                                         power. For example, in Freeport, chlorine, sulfur,
                                         heated sea water (cooling water from other Dow
                                         production facilities), and natural gas are in
                                                                                                          Figure 54.  Sea water intake for magnesium
                                         relatively good supply.                                          extraction. Incoming sea water passes through
                                                                                                          q screen to prevent fish and debris from enter-
                                         B. Present Techniques for Extraction         28                  ing canal. (Dow Chemical photo)
                                             Techniques for extracting salt and          magnesium                 IT 1-25
                                         compounds from sea water were mentioned on
                                         previous pages. Almost 30 per cent of world salt
                                         production is from sea water, chiefly by solar
                                         evaporation in open ponds. While some magnesium
                                         compounds also are produced in this way, most
                                         are from a process similar to the first steps
                                         employed in magnesium metal recovery. Being
                                         more complex processes, the extraction                       f
                                                                                                    0
                                         magnesium metal and bromine is described below.

                                         1. Magnesium Metal

                                             The only two plants that extract magnesium                                           i0o
                                         metal from sea water (in Norway and Freeport,
                                         Texas) employ electrolytic processes, although                   Figure 55.  Outdoor settling tanks for magne-
                                         each is different. However, both depend on initial               sium extraction. Lime is slaked with water,
                                                                                                          added to sea water, and pumped to outdoor
                                                                                                          settling tanks. Soluble magnesium in sea water
                                                                                                          reacts with lime to form insoluble magnesium
                                            27 Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 5.                            hydroxide, which settles to bottom and is re-
                                            28                                                            moved for further processing. (Dow Chemical
                                             McIlhenny, W. F., op. cit, p. 123.                           photo)

                                         V1- 194

                          hydroxide is settled in large ponds, collected,
                          filtered, and washed (Figure 55). The hydroxide is
                          neutralized with byproduct hydrochloric acid and
                          dried in fluo-solid, driers to produce a dry          free-
                          flowing hydrous feed for the magnesium cells.
                          Electrolysis is conducted in large, bathtub-shaped,                _7
                          electrolytic cells filled with a fused salt mixture
                          upon which the molten magnesium (liberated
                          during electrolysis) floats (Figure 56). The molten
                          magnesium is transferred in         large crucibles for
                          casting metal ingots.

                                                                                                                          4:@

                                                                                                            Ai

                                                                                       Figure 57. Ethyl-Dow bromine plant at Kure
                                                                                       Beach, North Carolina, as it appeared in 1940.
                                                                                       (Dow Chemical photo)

                          Figure 56. Electrolytic ceii for magnesium   ex-             added, and the reaction products are absorbed in
                          traction. Cells operate at about 700'C, using
                          greater than 100,000 amps of direct current.                 an aqueous acid solution. The acid solution is
                          Each cell rests in a brick-lined furnace. Magne-             rechlorinated and steam-stripped to produce a high
                          sium chloride is fed to cell and electrolyzed to             quality bromine which can be reacted with ethyl-
                          magnesium metal and chlorine. (Dow Chemical
                          photo)                                                       ene to produce ethylene dibromide.

                                                                                       C. Future Extraction of Other Chemicals
                          2. Bromine
                                                                                       1. Future Possibilities
                            All facilities directly processing sea water brines
                          use a modification of the blowing-out process                   Figure 58 shows the abundance of several
                          developed originally by Dr. Herbert H. Dow for               critical elements contained in sea water. Magne-
                          underground brines. In about 1927 when it be-                sium and bromine also are shown for comparison.
                          came apparent that additional production facilities          Uranium is by far the most valuable element per
                          would be required, the process was modified to               cubic mile. Bromine, the least concentrated of the
                          use sea water as a raw material. A plant was                 commercially produced elements, is over 30,000
                          constructed at Kure Beach, North Carolina, in                times as plentiful as uranium and over 10 million
                          1933, was expanded several times, and operated               times as plentiful as gold.
                          until 1946. Figure 57 shows the Kure Beach plant                Several sequential operations are required to
                          as it appeared in 1940. The present Ethyl-Dow                produce a chemical from a raw material like sea
                          bromine production facilities at Freeport, Texas,            water. The desired element must be separated,
                          have been operating since 1940 and have been                 concentrated, and processed to a marketable qual-
                          enlarged several times.                                      ity. Processes have been proposed or developed to
                            In the blowing-out process, incoming sea water             recover almost 0 the dissolved elements. How-
                          is screened and acidified to pH 3.5. Chlorine is             ever, when all costs are considered (e.g., handling
                          added to oxidize the bromide to bromine, which is            the large volumes and the amortization and main-
                          stripped from the sea water by a countercurrent              tenance of the necessary equipment), they cannot
                          stream of air. The bromine-laden vapor is led into           be supported by the value of the chemicals
                          a baffled mixing chamber where sulfur dioxide is             recovered.

                                                                                                                                           VI-195

                                                              Figure 58                               2. Long-Range     Technology
                                             ABUNDANCE OF SOME CRITICAL
                                                  ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER                                  To obtain minute quantities of elements it is
                                                                                    Average           necessary to modify the present philosophy of
                                                Element                        Concentration          processing 100 per cent of sea water, 96.5 per cent
                                                                                  Mg/Literl           of which is water, to recover only very small
                                                                                             -        amounts of chemicals. It may be preferable to
                                       Presently produced:                                            remove desired solids from the sea water'at sea and
                                          Magnesium      . . . . . .                1,350             then handle only    the useable material.
                                          Bromine        . . . . . .                    65               Present desalting methods concentrate * brines
                                       Not Produced:                                                  by a ratio of about two to one. However,
                                          Uranium        . . . . . .                0.003             concentrations of up to three to one have been
                                          Silver     . . . . . . .                  0.00004           reported feasible, and pretreatment processes such
                                          Tin     . . . . . . . .                   0.0008            as ion exchange may allow concentration ratios as
                                          Gold    . . . . . . . .                   0.000004          high as five to one. Future techniques may further
                                          Zinc    . . . . . . . .                   0.01              increase the ability to concentrate brines. Im-
                                          Titanium       . . . . . .                0.001             proved extraction processes using concentrated
                                        Note that 1 part per million equals 1.026 Mg/ Liter.          brines (as may be available from desalting facili-
                                       Source: Goldberg, E. D., "Minor Elements in Sea Water,"        ties) will permit more economical recovery of
                                       Chemical Oceanography, vol. 1, J. P. Riley and G. Skirrow      various chemicals.
                                       (ed.), Academic Press, London, pp. 164-165.                       Extraction directly from the sea using natural
                                                                                                      processes, another potential method of recovery,
                                                                                                      will require considerable additional basic research
                                          Most dissolved elements found in the ocean are              into sea water chemistry, biology, and extraction
                                       being recovered more economically from other                   processes. For example, iodine has been extracted
                                       sources. Possibly the next material to be extracted            commercially from certain seaweed that concen-
                                       commercially from sea water will be uranium. The               trates the element. Some marine organisms con-
                                       English are reported to be experimenting with a                centrate trace elements . in ratios as great as
                                       uranium process, but prospects for its commercial              100,000 to 1, as with vanadium. Lead is concen-
                                                                     29                               trated as much as 20 million to I in certain fish
                                       utilization are not known.
                                          The economics of bromine versus magnesium                   bones.
                                       extraction is a good illustration of why one should             . Biological concentration suggests future tech-
                                       not be too pessimistic about the commercial                    niques of recovering valuable trace elements by
                                       possibilities of extracting less concentrated ele-             learning which organisms can concentrate the
                                       ments. Sea water contains only 65 ppm (parts per               desired elem  ents best, culturing them in sea water,
                                       million) bron-dne versus 1,300 ppm magnesium.                  harvesting them, and extracting the elements, or
                                       Yet bromine sells for about 25 cents per pound                 learning the processes and adapting them to
                                       versus 35 cents for magnesium. The bromine                     industrial practice.
                                       extraction process is less costly than the magne-
                                       sium process because it requires only 2 process                D. Conclusions
                                       steps to extract and convert the bromine to a
                                       salable form, whereas 10 steps are required for                   Extraction of magnesium compounds, magne-
                                       magnesium metal.                                               sium metal, bromine, and salt from sea water is
                                          This indicates that other elements, even though             highly successful. World-wide, salt is the most
                                       less concentrated than bromine, may be produced                important product. Almost 30 per cent of the
                                       at lower costs per pound than bromine if the                   total world production of salt is from sea water.
                                       technology can be developed along with the                        U.S. industry has been profitably extracting
                                       required market.                                               magnesium and bromine from sea water for over 25
                                                                                                      years. About 90 per cent of all magnesium metal
                                                                                                      and 50 per cent of all bromine production in the
                                         29 Spangler, M. B., op. cit., p. 9.                          United States is derived from sea water.

                                       VI-196

                          The concentration of magnesium in sea water is          Techniques for concentrating brines from de-
                       1,300 parts per million. By contrast bromine is         salting plants win improve the possibility of
                       only about 65 ppm, or one-twentieth that of             by-product recovery. Hence the technology to
                       magnesium.   Yet the cost per pound of extraction       permit commercial utilization of these techniques
                       of bromine is one-third less than magnesium             should be encouraged to allow recovery of chem-
                       despite the  lower bromine concentration. These         icals either now or projected to be in short supply.
                       lower total  costs for bromine are due to fewer         Examples include potassium compounds, uranium,
                       processing steps and to lower power, labor, and         and boron.
                       capital equipment costs. Bromine is released di-        I
                       rectly from sea water as an element while mag-          V1. DESALINATION
                       nesium is not. Thus the experience with brornine
                       encourages a belief that, if the technology can be         Sea water can be used for human consumption
                       developed, other elements with even lower concen-       if its saline content is reduced from 35,000 parts
                       trations may be economically extracted from the         per million (ppm) to 1,000 ppm or less. However,
                       sea.                                                    the U.S. Public Health Service has established
                          To obtain other elements from sea water, it will     standards that good drinking water should not
                       be necessary to modify current extraction tech-         contain more than 500 ppm. The term desalting
                       niques. For example, brines in desalting processes      actually refers to more than just extraction of salt.
                       are reaching increasingly higher concentration          It also encompasses removal of other impurities,
                       ratios. Eventually this may permit economical           such as those found in brackish inland water and,
                       recovery of additional chemicals.                       pollutants, from waste water. Salt is one of the
                          Attention should be given to the possibility of      most highly soluble pollutants, and any process
                       local concentrations in the ocean environment that      designed to remove salt from water usually re-
                       may have future economic importance. For ex-            moves other contaminants.
                       ample, gold concentrations in sea water have been          In contrast with extraction of minerals from sea
                       as high as 60 milligrams per ton, compared to an        water, desalination has received much attention by
                       average sea water gold content of 0.04 mg per ton.      the public and the Federal Government, especially
                       More recently, attention has been focused on the        through the establishment of the Office of Saline
                       hot spots at the bottom of the Red Sea       ' where    'Water (OSW). Desalination is important because an
                       bodies of stagnant or semi-stagnant waters have         adequate fresh water supply is essential for life-
                       been found to contain zinc, copper, and other           for drinking, cooking, cleansing, diluting, irriga-
                       mineral constituents in concentrations ranging          tion, industry, fish, wildlife, etc. Despite its
                       from 1,000 to 50,000 times normal.                      recognized importance, the total effort in desalting
                          Extraction of elements directly from the sea         has been small compared to many other research
                       using natural processes is another potential            and development programs.
                       method. Some marine organisms concentrate trace            The Honorable Stewart Udall, Secretary of the
                       elements in ratios as high as 100,000 to 1, as with     Interior, stated that: 30
                       vanadium. Lead is concentrated as much as 20            We are directing our efforts to the solution of two
                       million to I in certain fish bones. Biological          separate problems simultaneously. A way must be
                       concentration suggests future techniques of re-         found to supply the water needs of large metropol-
                       covering valuable trace elements. One could learn       itan areas near the coast where conventional water
                       which organisms concentrate the desired elements        i.s i.n short supply. Equally important, we need to
                       best, culture them in sea water, harvest them, an       develop a process that will improve the quality of
                       extract the elements; or better yet, imitate the        brackish and minerally charged waters for inland
                       biological technique and synthesize it industrially.    communities at prices that will make this improve-
                                                                               men t economically feasible.
                       Recommendations:
                       Further research and development on ion ex-              30Hearings befare the Senate Subcommittee on Irriga-
                                                                               tion and Reclamation of the Committee on Interior and
                       change and biological techniques should aim at          Insular Affairs, 89th Congress, First Session, on S. 24,
                       extracting elements with low concentration.             May 1965, pp. 5, 9.

                                                                                                                              VI-197

                                         The Secretary went on to say:                               It is not always practical to attempt to assign a
                                                                                                     reasonable market value to water. One thing is
                                       The new program that has been devised to advance              absolutely clear-there is no water as expensive as
                                       desalting technology will change the character of             no water.. The cost of water itself becomes less
                                       the program . by placing greater emphasis on                  important when considered in the light of the
                                       engineering problems and the development of                   economic impact of water rationing. Many indus-
                                       hardware for prototype plants ranging up to .50               trial plants require great volumes of water for
                                       million gallons per day.                                      processing, and water use restrictions can cause
                                                                                                     production cutbacks which diminish profits and
                                         The increase in water use in the United States              paychecks. But even more important than eco-
                                       has been phenomenal. At the turn of the century,              nomic consideration is the relationship of water
                                       40 billion gallons per day (gpd) were used. By                supply to human needs, especially the detrimental
                                       1920 use had doubled; it doubled again by 1944                effects on health that can result from water
                                       and still again by 1965. The use of water now is              shortages. Inadequate supplies offresh water serve
                                       estimated at 375 billion gpd. It has been predicted           to compound pollution control problems. Without
                                       that by the year 2000 our population will double,             sufficient water for dilution of the effluents we
                                       and within another 35 to 40 years it will double              pour into our rivers and streams, they can become
                                       again, but the problems involved in maintaining an            so choked with pollutants as to lose their natural
                                       adequate supply of water are compounded by the                ability to regenerate the water to a usable condi-
                                       fact that per capita demand is constantly                     tion. To alleviate this adverse situation, we suggest
                                       increasing.                                                   that it is now time for saline water conversion
                                          Thomas    K. Sherwood, Professor of Chemical               plants to be considered as a practical supplemental
                                       Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of                 source offresh water supply.
                                       Technology, testified in 1965 that:     31
                                       The most significant water statistic.is the rate of           A. History and Trends
                                       "consumptive" use of water. This refers to water              I Past Activities
                                       withdrawn from streams, lakes, and aquifers, used
                                       once, and then lost by evaporation or in other                   For many years desalination equipment was of
                                       ways so as not to be available for reuse- The                 major interest @only to the maritime industry.
                                       consumptive use of water within the continental               For this use there were two principal 'criteria:
                                       United States is not known accurately, but is                 reliability of operation and the space required for
                                       evidently between 10 and 20 per cent of the total             the equipment. Cost of conversion was a minor
                                       ftesh water which might sometime be obtained                  consideration.
                                       from natural sources by present technology. Not               ' In 1952, the Congress, through the Saline Water
                                       only are the demands increasing steadily, but                 Act of 1952 and by subsequent legislative amend-
                                       water supplies vary enormously with time and                  ments, authorized the Secretary of the Interior
                                       place, so to me this is a frightening figure. I am            through the Office of Saline Water to conduct a
                                       further convinced that desalination is one of the             research and development program for new or
                                       several practical approaches to the problem. Two-             improved low-cost desalination processes. Primary
                                       thirds of the population lives in the 25 states               objective was to lower the cost of desalted water
                                       which border on the oceans, and many of the                   so that desalination will be a feasible alternate
                                       other 25 states have large supplies of brackish               source of fresh water to meet future needs.
                                       water.                                                        Generally, the U.S. Government program has been
                                                                                                     conducted by supporting research and develop-
                                          With respect to the importance of water, Mr.               ment grants and awarding contracts to individuals,
                                       Frank Di Luzio, former Assistant Secretary of                 universities, private research organizations, indus-
                                       Interior, has stated that:  12                                trial firms, and other government agencies.
                                                                                                        Desalting processes were improved as they
                                         31 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 212.             advanced through laboratory and pilot plant stages
                                         32,bid., p. 144.                                            to prototype and operation. In 1958, Congress

                                       VI-198

                          authorized $ 10 million for construction of several              Figure 59 shows three separate groups: (1)
                          demonstration plants. Each plant was to utilize a             world total, (2) world total built by the United
                          different promising desalting process. By recent              States, and (3) total located in the United States,
                          legislation these plants are now designated as test           including U.S. possessions and military bases.
                          beds for experimental operations.                                While there are only 28 sea water feed plants
                             During 1952 to 1967, public funds totaling                 located in the United States, there are almost 100
                          approximately $88 million were invested in efforts            U.S.-built plants around the world, indicating that
                          to develop desalting processes and to lower                   U.S. investments are located mostly abroad. In
                          CoStS.3 3                                                     fact, more than 50 per cent of all sea water
                                                                                        desalination plants throughout the world were
                          2. Current Status                                             built by the United States. Figure 60 shows the
                             The present value of desalinated water from                geographical distribution of desalting plants and
                          world-wide sea water plants is about $50 million a            plant capacities as of Jan. 1, 1968.
                          year, accounting for about 15 per cent of the                    Government activities have been focused on the
                          world's total production of chemicals from sea                operation of demonstration plants and special
                          water. By contrast,. the value of desalinated water           processes as the key to economic desalting. Four
                          produced in the United States is about $8 million,            plants in the continental United States have
                          representing only six per cent of the total chem-             capacities of at least one million gallons per day
                          icals produced from sea water.                                (mgd); three are OSW demonstration plants. The
                             Figure 59 indicates there are over 150 land-               largest, with a capacity of 2.6 mgd, became
                          based desalination plants throughout the world                operational in 1967 in Key West, Florida.
                          using sea water. Actually there are more than 600                Overall, Government has recognized the follow-
                          plants, but as in the. United States, most are for            ing examples of how desalting facilities can help
                          powerhouse boiler water production and operate                meet water needs in the United States and the
                          on brackish or sliglitly saline water.                        world:
                           33 Letter to the panel from W. F.       Savage, Assistant    -To supplement an inadequate existing water
                          Director, Engineering and Development, OSW, Dec. 20,          supply by furnishing water as in the and zones and
                          1967.                                                         supplementing existing sources to meet the de-

                                                                                Figure 59
                                               PRODUCTION CAPABILITY OF DESALINATED WATER, 1966
                                                                                 Number of                  Annual                 Capacity
                                                                                   Plants'               Production            (Million GPD)
                                                                                                      Value (Willion)
                          All Feed Water Sources2
                                World Total      . . . . . . . .                     6693                                             158.6
                                Built by U.S   ... . . . . . . .                     3763                                             74.8
                                Located in     U.S.4                                 289                                              40.9
                          Sea Water as Feed Source
                                World Total      . . . . . . . .                     153                    51                        94.1
                                Built by U.S   . . . . . . . . .                      87                    24                        45-.2
                                Located in     U.S.4 . . . . . . .                    28                      8                       15.1

                          All greater than 25,000 GPD.
                          2This includes plants which operate on brackish or slightly saline water.
                          3Approximate capital investment: $200 million, and $115 million respectively.
                          4Includes U.S. Territories and military bases.
                          Source: Unpublished information compiled by W.F. McIlhenny, based on Appendix E of the 1966 OSW Saline
                          Conversion Report.

                                                                                                                                            VI-199

                                    mands of rapidly growing major population cen-           3. Future
                                    ters.
                                                                                             a. Near-Term Forecasts During the past 7 to 10
                                    -To improve the quality of an existing supply by         years, the growth rate of commercial facilities has
                                    upgrading water where a supply is adequate but of        been approximately 30 per cent per year. At this
                                    substandard quality (mixing desalinated water            rate it is estimated that the total commercial
                                    with the natural supply), supplementing water in         capability should be about one billion gallons per
                                    inland or coastal areas where pumping ground             day by 1978. With this capacity, the sale of
                                    water has resulted in brackish or sea-water intru-       desalinated water would exceed $250 million per
                                    sion, and serving as one of several tools to convert     year (based on 75 cents per thousand gallons),
                                    polluted water into usable water.                        approximately five times the 1966 value. Total
                                                                                             investment in 1978 should approximate $1 billion
                                                                                       :3 4  (estimated at the rate of $1 per gallon per day).
                                       Mr. Frank Di Luzio, in this regard, has stated        Figure 61 shows construction starts of desalting
                                                                                             plants world-wide during 1967 by number and
                                    It is anticipated that cost competitiveness with         capacity.
                                    water firom conventional sources will not always
                                    constitute the first limiting factor to the utiliza-     b. Role of Distillation Plants Future giant facili-
                                    tion of saline water resources. Eventually, every        ties obviously could alter greatly the figures given
                                    major water utility may incorporate a desalting          above. Although firm plans are difficult to pin
                                    unit in its treatment plant. A water-quality con-        down, a list of giant facilities being contemplated
                                    scious population is likely to insist on higher-than-    is shown in Figure 62. As presently foreseen they
                                    minimum water-quality standards.                         will be based on the distillation principle.
                                                                                                To help delineate the role of future facilities
                                                                                             OSW has been conducting studies on the potential
                                                                                             usefulness and feasibility of desalting as a way of
                                       34 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 146.       drought-proofing northern New Jersey and New

                                                                                       Figure 60
                                                 WORLDWIDE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DESALTING PLANTS
                                                  AND-PLANT CAPACITY, IN OPERATION OR UNDER CONSTRUCTION
                                                         AS OF JAN. 1, 1968 - 25,000 GPD CAPACITY OR GREATER
                                                           Continent or Country                           Number of                Total Plant
                                                                                                             Plants             Capacity (MGD)

                                      1.   United States   . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                         288                     39.6
                                      2.   U.S. Territories   . . . . . . . . . . . . .                        15                        7.5
                                      3.   North America except U.S. and its Territories                                                 8.4
                                      4.   Caribbean   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                           24                      16.9
                                      5.   South America      . . . . . . . . . . . .                          20                        3.7
                                      6.   Europe (Continental)     . . . . . . . . . . .                      77                      26.3
                                      7.   England and Ireland   . . . . . . . . . . . .                       62                      14.1
                                      8.   Australia   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                             7                       1.9
                                      9.   Asia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                             18                        2.1
                                    10.    Middle East     . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                         63                      50.1
                                    11,    Africa   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .                            35                      10.8
                                    12.    Union of Soviet Socialist Republics   . . . . . . .                   7                     40.9

                                                    Grand Total     . . . . . . . . . . .                      627                     222.3

                                    Source: Information supplied by OSW.

                                    VI-200

                          York City involving 100 to 300 mgd facilities. The          c. Role of Membrane Processes It is predicted
                          metropolitan areas of eastern Pennsylvania, New             that within the next 10 years numerous inland
                          Jersey, and New York City experience cyclic                 communities in the United States may.have to
                          drought during which the water supply is inade-             shift to some new, more effective form of water
                          quate to meet demands. The study indicates that             purification for their progressively more brackish
                          appropriately placed desalting plants in this size          water supplies. Estimates indicate that over 3.5
                          range, integrated with the existing water system,           million people in 1,150 U.S. inland communities
                          could provide the additional supply needed.                 have water supplies exceeding 1,000 ppm total
                             One of the most ambitious studies is that being          dissolved salts; over 6,000 communities with a
                          .conducted jointly with Mexico under the auspices           population of more than 40 million have waters
                          of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Water            that do not meet the 500 ppm Public Health
                          requirements of portions of the states of Baja              Service recommended water standard       .35
                          California and Sonora in Mexico and of California
                          and Arizona, with needs for electrical power, are               Dr. Donald F. Hornig, Director of the Office of
                          being projected through 1995. At present, parts of          Science and Technology, in testimony before the
                          this area are irrigated with water from the Colo-           Senate pointed oUt:31
                          rado River and from underground aquifers. It is             One o  If the complicating -features of research on
                          anticipated that the prospective dual-purpose,              desalting brackish and waste waters is the wide
                          nuclear-powered electric generation and one bil-            diversity in the chemical composition of these
                          lion gallons per day desalting plant will satisfy the       waters. A process which is highly successful in one
                          -power needs as well as providing irrigation water          application may encounter serious difficulties in
                          to irrigate the vast and region and to support              others. That is not an insurmountable obstacle,
                          growing municipal and industrial needs. Additional
                          comments on the possibilities of desalination for               35 Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 24, June 13,
                          irrigati on are made in Subsection C, Projection of         1968, p. 2.
                          Water Costs.                                                    36 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 3 1.

                                                                              Figure 61
                                                      DESALTING CONSTRUCTION STARTS IN 1967
                                    Continent or Country                    Number of Plants                    Plant Capacity
                                                                                                                     (MGD)

                          United States and Its Territories   .                       13                             10.63
                          Canada   . . . . . . . . . . .                                  1                          0.20
                          Mexico   . . . . . . . . . . .                                  1                          7.50
                          Bermuda      . ... . . . . . . .                                1                          0.10
                          St. Martin/French      . . . . . . .                            1                          0.13
                          Honduras     . . . . . . . . . .                                1                          0.17
                          Gibraltar    . . . . . . . . . .                                1                          0.23
                          Europe (Continental)      . . . . . .                           7                          14.10
                          England and Ireland    . . . . . . .                            3                          1.24
                          Australia    . . . . . . . . . .                                1                            .22
                          Middle East     . . . . . . . . .                           10                             15.72
                          Ascension Island/British     . . . . .                          1                            .03
                          Canary Islands/Spanish    . . .                                 1                          5.28
                          Asia . . . .                                                    3                          2.83

                                Grand Total      . . . . . . .                        45                             58.38

                          Source: Information supplied by OSW.

                                                                                                                                        VI-201

                                                                                            Figure 62
                                                        CONTEMPLATED NEW PLANT CONSTRUCTION FOR DESALTING
                                                                                    (Greater than 10 MGD)

                                      Location                           Size (MGD)                       Owner                      Operation

                                      Gulf of California                    1,000.0                 U.S.-Mexico
                                      Israel-Jordan    . . . .              1,000.0                 Israel (public-private corp.)
                                      Bolsa Island     . . . .               150.0                  Metropolitan Water
                                                                                                    District of Southern
                                                                                                    California                        (Cancelled)
                                      Almeria   . . . . . .                  130.0                  Spain                                1970
                                      Donbass Region      .   .  .           130.0                  U.S.S.R.                              -
                                      Sidi Kreir   . . . . .                 100.0                  U.A.R.                            1970-1972
                                      Athens    . . . . . .                   50.0                  Pueblo Power Corp.                    -
                                      Escombreras      . . . .                26.0                  Spain                                1970
                                      Kuwait    . . . . . .                   12.0                  Kuwait                               1970
                                      Kuwait    . . . . . .                   10.8                  Kuwait                               1970

                                      Source: Water Desalination Report Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan. 4,1968, p. 3.
                                      but simply another variation that must be coped               When we concentrate ocean water, for example,
                                      with.                                                         about twice its natural level of salt concentration
                                                                                                    we still do not have a brine that has great value as
                                      The membrane processes may also prove useful in               a source of by-product recovery. If our technology
                                      processing waste water from industries and munici-            continues to improve, that is, our ability to
                                      palities for reuse. Some 60 billion gallons of such           prevent scale formation, our ability to minimize
                                      waste waters are produced daily. They contain                 corrosion, and we are able to go to higher
                                      from a few hundred to perhaps 2,000 parts per                 concentration ratios, we will come to a point
                                      million of salts. These waters because they are               where by-products can be effectively recovered.
                                      already at centers of use, may be reclaimed at
                                      costs competitive with the cost of providing                  I think it must be kept in mind, however, that if
                                      "new" water in many instances.                                we depend upon by-product recovery as a means
                                                                                                    of making desalting plants economically valuable,
                                      In the long run, it seems likely that membrane                we are chasing an ever diminishing circle, because
                                      processes can be developed to the point where                 with the chemicals from the brine we could
                                      they will become the most efficient means of                  saturate a good portion of the earth with chem-
                                      desalting sea water. This possibility is certainly not        icals, and obviously they would. become less
                                      practicable now, but the membrane research which              valuable as supply overtakes demand
                                      is currently aimed at small-scale plants is likely to
                                      provide the technological base for future genera-             it does have potential, but it is not a solution.
                                      tions of large-scale plants.                                  [I] n the west coast test center near San Diego we
                                      d. Potential of By-Product Recovery A question                have made an arrangement with a sea water salt
                                      arises as to the potential value of solids removed as         company to take our brine effluent, which is
                                      byproducts from the concentrated brine in the                 concentrated by a factor of two, and somewhat
                                      desalting process. Dr. Jack Hunter, Director of               warmer than ocean temperature. In that operation
                                      OSW, has answered this point in the followin                  we will determine whether there is economic
                                      Way: 3 7                                                  9   benefit to the production of sea salts.
                                                                                                    We have also conducted some examination, and
                                       37Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Water           industry has on its own conducted additional
                                      and Power Resources of the Committee on Interior and          investigation of the economics of extraction of
                                      Insular Affairs, 90th Congress, First Session, on S. 1101,
                                      March 1967, p. 22.                                            by-product chemicals.

                                      VI-202

                         In general, where we now have concentration                                    Figure 63
                         ratios of two, studies. indicate that we begin to               CLASSIFICATION OF DESALTING
                         have economic potential if we reach concentration                           TECHNIQUES
                         ratios of about 5 to Z The principal chemicals in
                         which we are interested are phosphates, chlorine,                 Type                         Examples
                         bromine, sodium, and magnesium.                          Distillation
                            As a result of continued research in this area, it      Submerged Tube             Ships, Offshore
                         has been demonstrated that it is feasible to raise                                      Platforms
                         concentration ratios to around four to five.               Film
                                                                                       Climbing Film           Submarines
                         e. Long-Range Estimates Long-range estimates
                         indicate that by the year 2000 world desalting                Multiple Effect         OSW Test Bed
                         production should be about 30 billion gpd com-                Falling Film            Freeport, Texas, 1961
                         pared to about 0.10 billion gpd today        .3 8 This        Example: Long           1 mgd
                         long-range forecast is significant in stating the             Tube Vertical
                         unquestioned need for at least this much addi-                Evaporation
                         tional fresh water above and beyond the natural               (LTV)
                         supply. The 30 billion gpd capacity, while seem-           Flash                      OSW Test Bed
                         ingly large, is about eight per cent of U.S.                  Single Effect           San Diego, California,
                         domestic consumption today and presumably less                Multiple Stage          1962
                         than one per cent of present world consumption.               Flash (SEMS)            1 mgd (36 stages)
                         It is within our technical and financial abilities to                                 Later transferred to
                         build and put into operation 30 billion gpd                                             Guantanamo Bay
                         capacity by the year 2000. An overriding need for
                         water suggests that the long-range forecast is             Combination of f i Im      OSW Test Bed
                         perhaps conservative.                                         and flash               (Clair Engle),
                                                                                       Example: Multiple       San Diego, California,
                         B. Techniquesof Desalination                                  Effect-Multi-Stage      1967, 1 mgd
                         1. Classification                                             Flash (MEMS)
                            Figure 63 shows a listing of various major              Vapor Compression          OSW Test Bed
                         techniques of desalination. The processes can be                                      Roswell, New Mexico,
                         divided into four broad categories: distillation,                                     1963, 1 mgd
                         crystallization, membranes, and advanced pro-            Crystallization
                         cesses in initial development.                             Director Vacuum            Eilath, Israel, 1963
                                                                                    Freezing                   240,000 gpd; OSW Pilot
                         2. Distillation                                                                       Plant, North Carolina,
                                                                                                               120,000 gpd
                         a. Multiple-Stage Flash Almost all large desalina-
                         tion units now in operation or under construction          Secondary Refrig-          OSW Pilot Plant, North
                         use multiple-stage flash distillation. Incoming sea        erant Freezing             Carolina, 15,000 gpd
                         water and recirculated brine are preheated by the
                         condensation of product water in a series of stages        Hydrate                    OSW Pilot Plant
                         at consecutively higher temperatures. The heated                                      North Carolina
                         sea water is elevated to the maximum operating
                         temperature by condensing steam from an external         Membranes
                         source. The hot sea water is allowed to flash to           Reverse Osmosis            OSW Pilot Plants:
                                                                                                               Colorado, New
                           38 Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan. 4,                               Mexico, 50,000 gpd
                         1968, p. 4.                                                       (Continued on following page)

                                                                                                                                  VI-203

                                      Electrodialysis             OSW Test Bed                     Although somewhat costlier, the process has
                                                                  Webster, South                 the following important advantages over the multi-
                                                                  Dakota, 1962                   stage flash concept:
                                                                  250,000 gpd
                                                                                                 -Less pumping power required.
                                     Advanced Processes as        OSW Mobile Pilot
                                     Ion Exchange                 Plants                         -Less inherent temperature losses.
                                                                                                 -Fewer stages or effects required.
                                     vapor in a successive series of flash chambers, each
                                     at a lower temperature and pressure. The flashed            -The hottest brine is generally more dilute, an
                                     vapor is condensed by the circulating sea water             advantage in scale control.
                                     and is collected. A final condenser, using addi-            _A smaller volume of sea water handled.
                                     tional cooling sea water, maintains the final
                                     vacuum.  39                                                 It is anticipated that this technique will be used
                                        The advantages of this flash method are as               with increasing frequency in the future.
                                     follows:' 0
                                                                                                 c. Multiple-Effect, Multiple-Stage Both multiple-
                                     -It has been demonstrated satisfactorily in several         stage flash and multiple-effect processes have
                                     moderate-size plants throughout the world.                  certain advantages; some designers now are consid-
                                     -The equipment configuration and process flow               ering various combinations of the two. One is the
                                     are relatively simple.                                      multiple-effect, multiple-stage concept. In this
                                                                                                 design, several stages of a conventional multistage
                                     -Scale control by acid injection is within present          plant are grouped into one effect to provide the
                                     technology.                                                 heat input for another group of stages or effects.
                                                                                                 Principal advantages are: (1) It approaches the
                                        An OSW     demonstration plant was built in San          generally more efficient multiple-effect concept
                                     Diego in 1962 rated at one million gallons per day.         while retaining most of the structurally simple
                                     It subsequently was transferred to the Guan-                features of the multistage flash design, and (2) the
                                     tanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba in 1964 and was               brine concentration at the hot end of the plant
                                     expanded by the Navy to produce 2.1 mgd; it still           normally approximates that of sea water rather
                                     :is operating on a day-@to-day basis to provide the         than being the double concentrated sea water
                                     total water requirements of the base.                       often used in multistage flash plants.
                                                                                                    The Clair Engle OSW Demonstration Facility
                                     b. Multiple-Effect, Falling-Film Multiple-effect,           (Figure 64) completed in 1967 uses this technique.
                                     falling-film distillation, sometimes referred to as
                                     vertical tube evaporation, has been used success-
                                     fully to produce fresh water from sea water in the
                                     Office of Saline Water Test Facility at Freeport,
                                     Texas. Sea water is evaporated from a thin film on
                                     the interior periphery of an evaporator in a series
                                     of effects. Heat released by the condensation of
                                     vapor from a previous effect is used to vaporize
                                     the water, and the condensed vapor is collected as
                                     the plant product. A large distillation plant now
                                     under construction in the Virgi                       use
                                                                         n Islands will
                                     multiple-effect, falling-film distillation.
                                        39 Mcllhenny, W. F., "Chemicals from     Sea Water,   11 Figure 64. San Diego saline water test facility,
                                                                                                 Clair Engle Plant. The one-million-gallon-per-
                                     Proceedings of the Inter-American Conference on Mate-       day desalting plant tests advanced design multi-
                                     rials Technology, May 1968, p. 125.                         effect, multi-stage flash distillation sea water
                                        40 Porter, J. W., "Water Desalination by Distillation,"  conversion process. (Office ofSaline Water
                                     Ocean Industry, Vol. 2, No. 8: 39-45, 39, August 1967.      photo)

                                     VI-204

                       While in operation only since August 1967, it            erant process also is in operation at Wrightsville
                                                                                        41
                       already has achieved a performance ratio of 20           Beach.
                       pounds of product water for every pound of steam             Freezing has a unique role to play in brackish
                       input, double the performance ratio of the plant         and polluted water conversion in the salinity range
                       OSW operated in San Diego in 1962-1964.                  of 9,000 to 20,000 ppm, as well as in plant sizes
                                                                                from one to 10 million gallons per day. Electro-
                       d. Vapor Compression Vapor compression distil-           dialysis, although suitable for lower salinities, is
                       lation is very competitive in small portable plants.     too expensive in the salinity range of 9,000 to
                       In addition, it has primary application to plant         20,000 ppm. And, because of the typical higher
                       systems where water, rather than a combination of        concentration of scale-forming compounds in
                       power and water, is produced. It is also of interest     brackish waters, evaporation or distillation proc-
                       for the following reasons: (1) It may be considered      esses require expensive treatment to remove these
                       when only electrical energy is available, and (2)        compounds. Freezing, because of low operating
                       unlike the multiple-effect and multistage flash          temperatures, largely eliminates scale. In addition,
                       distillation processes, no large heat sink is re-        it requires considerably less energy."
                       quired. This can be an advantage at inland sites.            In view of these potentials, a mobile vacuum
                          The largest plant of this type is the OSW Test        freezing pilot plant now is under construction and
                       Bed at Roswell, New Mexico, operating on brack-          will be tested on a number of brackish waters to
                       ish well water, producing one million gallons per        determine basic system economics.
                       day.
                          Multiple-stage flash can be combined with             4. Membranes
                       vapor compression or vertical tube evaporation to
                       better utilize thermal energy. Such combinations             Membrane processes involve diffusion through a
                       have been termed hybrid processes, and work now          semipermeable membrane. While still in the liquid
                       is under way on analytical investigations of such        state, salt solution and water are separated. The
                       processes for a wide variety of water delivery rates.    major types are electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
                       One such study considers an application whereby          The electrodialysis process uses membranes with
                       the shaft power from a gas turbine will drive the        electric current as the driving force. This process
                       vapor compressor,.and waste heat will be used to         has reached commercial acceptance in brackish
                       preheat the water in a multiple-stage flash              water applicable up to 5004000 gpd and salinities
                               41                                               up to 5,000 ppm. Modifications of this process are
                       system.                                                  being  stu.,died to reduce capital costs which could
                                                                                result in substantial reductions in the cost of
                       3. Crystallization                                       water.
                           The major crystallization process is freezing,           In the reverse osmosis process, pressure is the
                       involving separation of pure water solids (ice) from     driving force. Pressure in excess of the osmotic
                       a salt solution. Crystallization also can occur          pressure of the saline feed is applied to a special
                       through a process whereby a hydrate-forming              membrane and water passes through.
                       material combines with water to form a solid. Of             Both processes appear to be economical for
                       the two processes, vacuum freezing and secondary         desalting brackish waters. However, efforts also are
                       refrigerant freezing, the former is more advanced.       being directed toward development of membrane
                       The vacuum freezing test bed, which produces             processes economical for desalting sea water.
                       over 100,000 gallons per day of fresh water at the       Presently, the reverse osmosis process is in the
                       Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, has been run-        pilot plant stage and is considered advanced
                       ning life tests to determine long-term maintenance       technology for ultimate application in converting
                       and operating problems and system economics.
                       The first pilot plant utilizing the secondary refrig-      42 Text of presentation to the Marine Engineering and
                                                                                Technology Panel by W. F. Savage, OSW, Nov. 16,1967,
                         41 Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Water    p. 2.
                       and Power Resources of the Committee on Interior and         Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by J. W. Pike,
                       Insular Affairs, 90th Congress, Second Session on S_     President of Struthers Scientific & International Corpora-
                       2912, February 1968, p. 24.                              tion, pp. 37-38.

                                                                                                                               VI-205

                                   polluted water. Three modular designs are being           installations around the world, according to Senate
                                                                                                                46
                                   tested at plant sizes ranging from 1,000 to 5,000         testimony in 1965.     It was further stated that:
                                   gpd. It is believed that this process will have
                                   commercial application in sizes suitable for major
                                   municipal and industrial use in the next two to
                                   three years.
                                                                                             .-Au

                                   a. Reverse    Osmosis The unique membranes
                                   utilized in  the reverse osmosis process resist the       IR,
                                   passage of    most dissolved contaminants. As a              1W
                                                                                                                Wikii
                                   result, the  process promises to be useful in a
                                   variety of applications. The rejection of ordinary
                                   salinity, the major sea water contaminant, and of
                                   hardness, scale and alkalinity factors predominant
                                   in many brackish waters make its use obvious for
                                   such purposes. Furthermore, the membranes hold            Figure 65. Electrodialysis test bed at Webster,
                                   back organic matter, including detergents, a major        South Dakota. In operation since 196Z plant
                                                                                             converts brackish well water to 250,000 gal-
                                   constituent of waste water. The membrane also             lons of fresh water dady. (Office of Saline
                                   rejects bacteria and virus so that the product is         Water photo)
                                   sterile. Mine drainage water also may be purified
                                   by this process as well as water contaminated by          Electrodialysis has the great virtue of being a
                                   chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive                simple process with high operating reliability. It is
                                          44
                                   agents.                                                   good for small towns in that the conscientious
                                       One major problem in this technique is the            personnel available in small towns can do the job
                                   development of longer-life membranes.                     easily as shown in Buckeye and in Coalinga, Calif
                                       Virtually all potential advantages of the reverse     In Buckeye, the operator spends a good bit ofhis
                                   osmosis process derive from its room temperature          day with other duties, such as repairing cars and
                                   operation. No intermediate formation of steam or          trucks. Constant attention to the plant is not
                                   ice is required which, for the distillation and           needed and no attention is provided during the
                                   freezing processes respectively, leads to the ex-         two night shifts. Since it does not involve compli-
                                   penditure of large quantities of energy. Reverse          cated, high-pressure equipment, but electricity, the
                                   osmosis, on the other hand, requires only pressuri-       local utility can be called on for help when
                                   zation energy, and the energy cost is relatively          needed.
                                   low. Furthermore, there is practically no scaling
                                   and little corrosion resulting in low maintenance         Furthermore, the only sure, longrange source of
                                   costs; these advantages combine to promise an             water for most communities will be water that is
                                   extremely low total operation   CoSt.4 5                  reused. Water once used by a community has its
                                       OSW has defined 10 types of brackish water            mineral content increased by 300 to 400 parts per
                                   typically found in the United States. It plans to         million. Normal water treatment plants remove
                                   develop data concerning the best process for the          suspended and organic matter, but not the miner-
                                   particular type of water.                                 als. Mild salinity of this order of magnitude is ideal
                                                                                             for economic processing by electrodialysis.
                                   b. Electrodialysis Figure 65 is a photograph of             Although electrodialysis works well in Arizona
                                   the OSW Test Bed at Webster, South Dakota. It is          and South Dakota, it requires a substantial chem-
                                   rated at 250,000 gpd and uses the electrodialysis         ical engineering effort to learn how to pretreat
                                   principle. Electrodialysis is currently in use at 125     these brackish waters so that the process operates
                                      44 Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by Dr. B.      efficiently. Thus, if iron manganese is present in
                                   Keilin, Aerojet-General Corporation, p. 81.                46
                                      45                                                        Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by R. L.
                                       Ibid., p. 81.                                         Haden, Jr., President of Ionics, Inc., pp. 130-13 1.

                                   VI-206

                        brackish water it would foul up the membrane           total. Only about five per cent was for labor and
                        unless an adequate iron manganese removal filter       general administrative expenses. The remainder
                        were inserted.                                         comprised materials and electric power. Figure 66
                           OSW program for 1969 will test electrodialysis      shows the proposed Bolsa Island dual nuclear
                        techniques on 10 types of brackish water typical       power and desalting plant that was to be located
                        of those found in the U.S. west central area.          near Los Angeles.
                                                                                   Recently the Bolsa Island plans were termi-
                        5. Advanced Processes in Initial Development           nated by mutual agreement of all participants,
                                                                               because escalating costs over the past three years
                           The quest for new processes has led to promis-      made it uneconomical. However, the Office of
                        ing findings in the area of electrode demineralizers,  Saline Water has indicated new plans are being
                        environmentally modulated ion absorption beds,         prepared for an alternate dual purpose desalting-
                        new hydrate processes, electrogravitational separa-    power plant having a comparable capacity at a
                        tion techniques, and the transport depletion and       more favorable location.
                        electro-sorption processes. Recent developments            A reduction in water costs is enabled by use of
                        indicate that ion exchange may be competitive as a     dual purpose plants. During the 1965 hearings Mr.
                        means of desalting brackish water having less than     Dusbabek stated   :4 9
                        3,000 ppm.
                                                                               When a sea water distillation plant is coupled with
                        C. Projection of Water Costs                           a steam powerplant, both plants benefit from the
                           Mr. Frank Di Luzio, in testimony before the         more efficient use of heat. If all of the benefit is
                        Senate, stated :4 7                                    ascribed to the waterplant and, depending upon
                                                                               the economic situation, we would expect a reduc-
                        The factors that  influence the cost of water to a     tion in water costs.
                        customer fall into two main areas: First, factors      Such reduction in water costs has been estimated
                        that occur "within the skin" of the plant itself,          re recently to be about 20 to 25 per .cent.
                        engineering optimization of such effects as heat       mo
                        transfer rates, steam temperatures, chemistry of           Figure 67 is a recent projection of desalting
                        feed water, scaling, corrosion, fuel cost, construc-   costs made by OSW for a range of plant sizes. It is
                        tion costs, and many other factors. The second set     based on distillation technology. Note that the
                        of factors are those outside the characteristics of    Price per thousand gallons is expected to decrease
                        the desalination plant. These include the cost of      to 50 cents for plants with capacities up to 10 mgd
                        money; the amount of water needed for a specific       during the five years 1969 to 1973. Indications
                        area-that is, size of the plant; availability of a     also are that during the same period, the larger
                        properly sized storage and distribution system; the    dual-purpose plants, 50 to 150 mgd capacities,
                        geographical need for large blocks of power in the     may produce water for 20 to 30 cents per
                        case of a dual-purpose plant. Much too often we        thousand gallons. Such cost reductions would
                        concentrate on the first set of factors and ignore     attract municipal and industrial users where water
                        the second                                             is in short supply or of poor quality.
                                                                                   Beyond 1975 the cost of desalting in large size
                           Testimony from Mr, Mark Dusbabek of the             plants may decrease sufficiently for such water to
                        Fluor Corporation, Ltd., during the same hearings      be used for agricultural irrigation. However, these
                        emphasized several points in estimating costs for      decreases hinge on technological innovation in
                        the Metropolitan Water District of Southern Cali-      large scale desalting developments and on the
                        fornia (MWD); i.e., the Bolsa Island 150 mgd           attainment of such low-cost heat sources as nu-
                        distillation plant." Cost for heat energy and          clear breeder reactors.
                        capital amounted to about 70 per cent of the               During the 1967 Senate hearings it was pointed
                                                                               out that even at 22 cents per 1,000 gallons of
                        47                                                     water (slightly more than $80 per acre-foot), this
                          Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 137.
                        48 ]bid., p. 123.                                      49 Ibid., p. 123.

                                                                                                                               VI-207

                                                                                     A,-

                                                                                                                                                                  E-

                                         Figure 66.   Proposed Bolsa Island nuclear power and desalting plant near Los Angeles, once
                                         scheduled for completion in the 1960's, would have been rated at 150 million gallons per day.
                                         (Office of Saline Water photo)

                                            00                                                                providing additional incremental water for irriga-
                                                                                                              tion, or perhaps better quality water for irrigation,
                                                                                                              then I think we are much closer to economic
                                                                                                              practicality than people think.

                                                                                                                 In a subsequent dialogue at the same hearing
                                                                                                              between Senator Jordan of Idaho and Dr. Jack
                                                                                                              Hunter, Director of the Office of Saline Water,
                                                                                                              Senator Jordan pointed out that even at 16 cents
                                                                                                              per 1,000 gallons ($50 per acre-foot), possibly
                                                                                                              achievable with a billion gallon per day plant, this
                                                                                                              is still not cheap enough for agricultural water.
                                                                                                              However, conceivably at that cost it might,be used
                                            10                                                                once in several years as a supplemental supply of
                                                                                                              irrigation w   ater to save a citrus crop or a citrus
                                                                                                              orchard.5 '
                                                                                                                 Mr. Hunter's reply indicated a subtle point:               52
                                             1.65       19M         1975                   1985         199.
                                         Figure 67. Projection of sea water desalting
                                         costs for a range of plant sizes.                                    I would also again like to remind you that the high
                                                                                                              quality water that we are speaking of has a value
                                         is a long way from being applicable economically                     beyond much of the natural water available in, for
                                         for irrigation. However, Mr. Di Luzio pointed                        example, the Southwest. . . For example, 10-cent
                                         out: 5 0                                                             desalted water might have equal value with 5-cent
                                                                                                              natural water.
                                         If you     mean the cost of the present irrigation
                                         water, Senator, the answer of course is, "Yes. " If
                                         you would expand that statement to include                           51 Ibid., p. 23.
                                         so Senate Hearings, March 1967, op. cit., p. 11.                     52 Ibid., p. 23.

                                         VI-208

                              In certain locations following a drought it                and chemical industries has shown an excellent
                          might take as much as seven years to replace a                 payoff record. Research of this kind is a form of
                          seriously damaged crop. This being so, it is cheaper           gambling, but the odds are excellent.
                          in the long run, even now, to employ desalting
                          plants selectively for. this purpose (as is being done         2. Scientific Problems
                          with olive  .trees in Cyprus).                                    Desalination processes are limited by lack of
                          D. Desalination Problems                                       fundamental knowledge. Typical questions to
                                                                                         which we have incomplete answers are:
                          1. General
                                                                                         -Why is the aqueous component so sensitive to
                             In testimony before the Senate Committee on                 heat and to voltage while salt is not?
                          Interior and Insular Affairs, Thomas K. Sherwood,
                          professor of chemical engineering at the Massachu-             -Why does pressure affect water so much more
                          setts Institute of Technology, discussed the re-               than salt?
                          search and engineering problems to be solved           :5 3
                                                                                         -Why is it that some natural membranes can
                          The desalination program would appear to have                  desalinate?
                          two objectives-first, to do better with the proc-
                                                                                         - What takes place at and near the surfaces of
                          esses we have; and second, to discover and develop             growt .ng i.ce crystals?
                          a new and much better process. The first will be
                          accomplished by engineering-by simpler design                  Thus, research in desalination must remain as an
                          concepts, inventions of process modifications, the             important aspect of our national program.
                          use of cheaper materials of construction, and the
                          development of more efficient system compo-                    3. Engineering Problems.
                          nents. To accomplish these things the engineers
                          will draw on the fmits of the basic research                      Although large desaftnation facilities have been
                          program devoted to materials, corrosion, scale,                built (in the one to five mgd range) and much
                          properties of brines, and on the supply of data                larger ones are being planned (in the 100 mgd
                          basic to the design of the heat and mass transfer              range), almost all distillation plants built were
                          equipment which is involved.                                   based on empirical designs relying mostly on art as
                          It is most important to do better with the                     a prime factor. Several plants did not meet
                          processes we now have, if only for the reason that             capacity or economy requirements and in some
                          we may never find better ones. Even modest cost                cases had to be scrapped. Occasionally, a different
                          reductions would justify the expenditure of a great            distillation technique was substituted, without
                          deal of money for research and development. A                  much better results.
                                                                                           A major challenge to the Nation is the require-
                          cost reduction of only 10 cents per 1,000 gallons              ment to build giant desalination' facilities (100      , to
                          would mean a saving of $73 million in the 20-year              200 mgd size) to augment water supplies for large
                          lifetime of a singlelOO-million-gallon-per-day                 population centers and as a possible forerunner to
                          plant.                                                         large agro-industrial complexes which may require
                          The second part of the desalination program                    1,000 mgd sizes. To supply such large water
                          encompasses the basic research which would lead                capacities may require full-scale model testing of
                          to a really cheap process. Scientists, engineers, and          critical parts to improve present reliability levels.
                          inventors must be intrigued, stimulated, and sup-                A typical engineering problem in distillation
                          ported. New ideas must be tested and promising                 facilities is given to illustrate this point. The
                          leads pursued. It is a matter of faith that some-              problem involves guaranteeing the proper rate of
                          thing enormously important will come of this, but              heat transfer for a fixed performance ratio at a
                          research on similar problems in the petrochemical               54 Hearings before the Committee on Interior and
                                                                                         Insular Affairs, U.S. Senate, 90th Congress, First Session,
                          53                                                             on Scientific Programs in the Department of the Interior,
                            Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., pp. 212-213.            May 18, 1967, pp. 80-82.

                                                                                                                                            VI-209

                                  given top operating temperature. To increase plant          The least understood of the various compo-
                                  capacity from 1 to 10 mgd, the heat transfer             nents in the overall heat transfer coefficient is the
                                  surface area must be increased tenfold to maintain       fouling factor, a strong function of the system's
                                  the same heat transfer rate (assuming a linear           cleanliness and the degree of deaeration and
                                  extrapolation).                                          decarbonation of the feed sea water. A research
                                      Going to 50 or 100 mgd would then require            program is needed to isolate the fouling factor
                                  still further size increases. It is clear this would     experimentally and to study its dependence on
                                  result in undue requirements for plant size and          system variables.
                                  corresponding increases mi material costs. In other      C. Scale Control Formation of calcium carbon-
                                  words, how can a plant be scaled up so its new size      ate, magnesium hydroxide, and calcium sulfate
                                  need not be increased in direct proportion to its        scales is a major problem in sea water distillation.
                                  new capacity.                                            Formation of the first two compounds can be
                                      Many substantial technical factors other than.       prevented by injecting acid into the circulating
                                  heat transfer rates must be considered, such as          brine stream and through subsequent deaeration.
                                  scale control and construction materials. They are       However, this does not prevent calcium sulfate
                                  discussed in greater detail below.                       deposition.
                                  a. Materials of Construction       The single most          The accepted scale control technique in multi-
                                  important capital cost item in a multistage flash        stage flash distillation is to inject about 120 ppm
                                  distillation system is the condenser tubing (as          of sulfuric acid into the sea water feed followed by
                                  much as 20 to 36 per cent of cost). The condenser        deaeration. Calcium sulfate scaling is prevented
                                  tubing's longevity is, of course, very important,        simply by operating. the plant at temperatures and
                                  and much more must be learned about the                  concentrations at which the solubility product of
                                  materials exposed to hot concentrated brine.             calcium sulfate is not exceeded.
                                      The diversity of opinion regarding tube material        The addition of sulfuric acid normally adds
                                  is demonstrated by a recent group of conceptual          about three to four cents per 1,000 gallons to
                                  designs requested by the Office of Saline Water.         water. Accordingly,.it might be economical to
                                  Three contractors specified titanium, three chose        manufacture sulfuric acid at the plant site, partic-
                                  aluminum-brass, four selected 90-10 copper-nickel,       ualarly in the case of very large plants.
                                  and two chose 70-30 copper-nickel, while three           4. Brine Disposal
                                  used some combination of these materials. The
                                  70-30 copper-nickel has had somewhat longer                 Disposal costs of the brine from      desalination
                                  exposure to hot brine in actual operations than the      processes must be considered; they may be as
                                  90-10 combination. However, the latter indicates a       much as one-third of desalting expense for inland
                                  higher life expectancy, which could result in lower      sites. It may be necessary to dispose of the brine in
                                  overall costs. The 150 mgd Bolsa Island facility         man-made evaporation ponds. Membranes have
                                  would have required about 15,000 miles of                been developed to curb pond leakage and prevent
                                  copper-nickel tubing.                                    contarninating aquifers or other underground
                                                                                           water sources.
                                  b. Heat Transfer Rates Basic heat transfer in a             Concerning   sea disposal, primary effort will be
                                  multistage flash plant is from condensing steam          to determine   the ecological and other effects of
                                  through a tube wall to the circulating brine. An         contaminants resulting from the plants themselves:
                                  increase in the heat transfer coefficients would         copper from heat exchanger* tubes; iron from
                                  reduce the tubing area and result in reduced costs.      wat-er boxes, evaporator shells, and piping; and
                                      Resistances to heat flow from condensing steam       trace elements from several sources.5 5
                                  to circulating brine are found in the brine's film
                                  resistance, tube wall resistance, outside or, con-       S. Inland Brackish Water Resources
                                  densing steam film resistance, and in a fouling
                                  factor that includes the resistance due to scale or         Although unlimited sea water exists, many
                                                                                           areas where additional fresh water supplies are
                                  dirt on the tube or to non-condensable gases in the
                                  system.                                                     Senate Hearings, February 1968, op. cit., p. 24.'

                                  VI-210

                        needed are too far inland for sea water desahna-        We propose to maintain a balanced program. This
                        tion to be feasible. One alternative is inland          is what we keep repeating over and over again. We
                        brackish water-but, at present, knowledge of            are not going to sacrifice reasonable expenditure
                        these resources is very limited. Because the feasi-     of funds in these other areas which are also the
                        bility of inland desalination will depend greatly       responsibility of the Office merely to put on a
                        upon improved information as to availability and        spectacular.
                        characteristics of inland brackish water resources,
                        the need for regional and individual project studies       The desired role of the private sector as seen by
                        and inventories is immediate.                           OSW was expressed by Mr. Di Luzio during the
                           A start has been made to determine these             1967 Senate hearings  :5 8
                        inventories (OSW with the      U.S. Geological Sur-
                        vey), but this program should be accelerated and        The private sector is involved in our cycle of
                        expanded.                                               development from the beginning. Most of our pilot
                                                                                plants and most of our programs are proposed by
                        6. Computers                                            the private sector. In many cases, private firms
                                                                                have designed pilot plants. OSW can carry this
                           The diversity of world-wide economic condi-          technology up through the largest practical units
                        tions necessitates consideration of many different      to demonstrate, one, its technological capability to
                        costs for steam, power, interest, insurance, and tax    produce water; and two, the economics of the
                        rates (the last as they apply for Government or         production of water. Industry will take over as
                        private customers). A tabulation of variables will      soon as we have demonstrated this technology to
                        yield about 80,000 different cases, requiring a         our satisfaction, and to the satisfaction of the
                        computer to establish a suggested optimum design        customer-which, if you will consider for a mo-
                        for each case. Such a program for multistage flash      ment will be government bodies of various kinds.
                        and vertical tube evaporator types of distillation is   Aese plants are not being bought by private
                        .presently under way by OSW.                            individuals, they are being purchased by villages,
                        E. Government- Industry Roles                           towns, states, and federal agencies. We think that
                                                                                putting money into carrying this technology to the
                           The U.S. Government's future role will con-          absolute proof of the economic feasibility of the
                        tinue to be one of encouraging increased use of         process and the design of the hardware is the better
                        science and technology to lower water costs.            way of spending our money, and as soon as we
                        Nearing completion in San Diego is a very impor-        prove that, industry takes it from that point on.
                        tant facility for the OSW engineering development
                        program, a module of a 50 million gpd multistage        F. Conclusions
                        flash distillation plant. Several of these modules      1. Background
                        would make up a full-size plant. This provides an
                        economical method of confirming the essential              The term desalting generally refers to obtaining
                        process and structural designs required for the         usable water by removing salt from sea water.
                        efficient and economical design, construction, and      Perhaps equally as important, it also encompasses
                        operation of very large desalting plants. The           removal of such other impurities as those found in
                        experimental module will produce about 2.5 mil-         inland brackish water and pollutants from waste
                        lion gpd, using pumps, evaporators, and other           water.
                        components sized to 50 million gpd production.'      6     The U.S. Government has been in a substantial
                           Mr. Di Luzio has stated that OSW intends to          expansion phase of its desalting program, with
                        increase its activity in brackish water areas and       increasing emphasis on engineering development
                        take a hard engineering look at the potential of        through module and prototype plant construction.
                        desalting acid mine waters. This would comple-          The program recognizes the needs in the United
                        ment the effort on large plants:"                       States and the world community, which include
                        56 Ibid., p. 7-8.                                       supplementing an inadequate water supply and
                        57 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p.146.          58 Senate Hearings, March 1967, op. cit., pp. 9-10.

                                                                                                                               VI-211

                                    improving the quality of existing water. These            full-scale model testing of critical parts to improve
                                    needs stem from the rapid depletion of available          reliability levels. Engineering problems include
                                    natural sources of water, severity varying with           heat transfer rates, suitable materials (materials
                                    specific locality. In addition, the quality of exist-     presently constitute up to 20-30 per cent of total
                                    ing water is being degraded in - many places.             capital cost), and scale control techniques. As an
                                    Desahnation techniques applied to sewage treat-           example, long period operating experience with
                                    ment and brackish water represents a powerful             several types of materials is needed urgently, under
                                    tool for meeting these needs.                             varying conditions of temperature, oxygen con-
                                                                                              tent, brine concentration, and flow velocity.
                                    2. Technology Status and Problems
                                                                                              3. Outlook
                                       Desalination processes can be divided into four
                                    broad categories: distillation, crystallization, mem-        Desalination is in an embryonic stage with a
                                    branes, and advanced processes in initial develop-        very optimistic future. Many ideas are being
                                    ment. Four operating plants in the continental            advanced to bring costs down, some either about
                                    United States have capacities of at least one             to be or already in practice. These include dual
                                    million gallons per day; all use the distillation         plants for simultaneous electricity generation and
                                    technique. Three are OSW demonstration plants.            desalting, the use of waste heat from incinerator
                                    Indeed, the distillation technique, in a very ad-         plants, the ability to concentrate the brines suffi-
                                    vanced state of development, is being used widely         ciently to extract useful chemicals economically,
                                    and will be the basis for all very large plants (50 to    and the use of chemically pretreating brackish
                                    100 mgd) in the near future.                              water. Finally, low-cost, small desalination plants
                                       Nevertheless, no single technique is best for all      for islands and hotels appear to be a promising
                                    kinds of water. While distillation will produce           source as soon as improved technology permits
                                    fresh water from any kind of water, it may not be         costs and reliability to improve.
                                    economical. It should not be used to desalt water
                                    with 9,000 parts per million or less. At present,         Recommendations:
                                    numerous small communities use electrodialysis on         The OSW research and development program
                                    available inland brackish water supplies. Yet even        should continue to be directed toward solution of
                                    electrodialysis cannot process all kinds of brackish      two problems:
                                    water, nor can reverse osmosis, the newer mem-
                                    brane technique being developed. This is because          -Development of technology to supply large-scale
                                    there are certain kinds of contarrdnants in water as      regional water needs, including those of metropol-
                                    silicates, calcium, and iron which will foul the          itan areas near the coast, utilizing such tools as
                                    membranes very quickly.                                   dual-purpose power plant-sea water conversion
                                       The freezing process, operating at low tempera-        complexes. As a long-range consideration, efforts
                                    tures, is not fouled by contaminants in certain           should be continued on technology requirements
                                    kinds of brackish water. For all the processes            to meet agricultural water needs.
                                    mentioned for brackish water, pretreating may be
                                    an important key, rather than attempting to design        -Development of processes to make use of brack-
                                    a plant to treat all kinds of water.                      ish water supplies adjacent.to inland communities
                                       While the reverse osmosis membrane process is          and to purify waste water from industries and
                                    in the pilot stage, the technique is being consid-        municipalities for reuse.
                                    ered as an advanced technology to be used
                                    ultimately in converting of polluted water to fresh.         Greater emphasis should be placed on solving
                                     I A major challenge to the Nation is the capa-           engineering problems in those processes now tech-
                                    bility to build giant desalination facilities (100-200    nically feasible in order to maximize plant relia-
                                    mgd) to augment water supplies for large popula-          bility, lengthen plant life, and minimize water
                                    tion centers and as a forerunner to large agro-           costs. Development of hardware for prototype
                                    industrial complexes producing 1,000 mgd. Sup-            plants ranging up to 50 rnillion. gpd and more
                                    plying such large water capacities might require          should be pursued.

                                    VI-212

                             The OSW desalination program should continue            discharges located seaward to minimize thermal
                         to encompass basic research on the newer mem-               effects. The second category encompasses genera-
                         brane processes for use with brackish and waste             tion of electric power from the energy of ocean
                         waters.                                                     tides, waves, currents, thermal gradients, and
                             OSW's prime mission should continue to be               geothermal sources.
                         advancing desalting technology, not supplying                  Energy devices of lesser magnitude carried into
                         water. The final step in developing new or im-              the undersea environment to supply power for
                         proved processes should be based on two major               submersibles, habitats, etc., are discussed in Chap-
                         approaches, both in 6ooperation with private                ter 5, Subsection IB, Power Sources.
                         industry:
                         -OSW sponsorship in constructing and operating              A. Power Generation in the Ocean Environment
                         prototype or demonstration plants.                          1. Current Situation

                         -0SW participation with water supply a
                                                                      ,gencies in    a. Nuclear Power Station Concept The concept
                         constructing and operating such plants.                     of huge nuclear electric generating stations built
                                                                                     on the ocean floor or on artifical islands provides a
                         Thus State, municipal, and private water supply             possible alternative to the use of increasingly rare
                         agencies would have an opportunity to utilize new           land sites. In addition, it represents the possibility
                         desalting technology in a first-of-a-kind plant             of the system's effects being utilized to ecological
                         wherein the risk is shared through Government               advantage rather than creating a thermal pollution
                         financial support.                                          problem in rivers and estuaries.
                             To permit reduced water costs, the OSW                     The role of nuclear power systems in the sea's
                         program should direct engineering efforts on heat           exploration and exploitation is as certain as man's
                         transfer rates, steam temperatures, feed water              ability to develop the technology, equipment,
                         chemistry, scaling, and corrosion. Emphasis also            plans, and support operations to delve into the
                         should be given such other factors as the cost of           environment-and his determination to do so. In
                         money, amount of water needed for the specific              fact, nuclear energy already is playing a role of
                         area, geographical need for large blocks of power           growing importance in oceanic activities in the
                         in the case of a dual-purpose plant, and availability       form of electric power from nuclear land sources
                         of properly sized storage and distribution systems.         supplied to various locations by undersea transmis-
                                                                                     sion cables and of propulsion systems for sub-
                                                                                     marines and surface ships.
                         VII. POWER GENERATION                                          Although conversion of nuclear energy. to elec-
                                                                                     tricity is relatively new, the growth and acceptance
                             Major power generating concepts to exploit the          of nuclear electric power over the past few years is
                         ocean's potentials fall in two categories: (1) those        spectacular. While total world electric power con-
                         which employ the advantages of the sea environ-             sumption is increasing steadily, installation of nu-
                         ment and (2) those which derive power from the              clear sources is growing much faster. In 1960, for
                         various forms of abundant energy found in the sea.          example, about one-tenth of one per cent of total
                         The first category includes power plants (conven-           electric power was derived from nuclear sources.
                         tional and nuclear) installed on the ocean floor, on        In 1967, nuclear capacity was one per cent of total
                         artificial islands, or possibly on large stable surface     electric power. But the real period of explosive
                         or subsurface" platforms moored off the coast.              growth, based on projections of current orders,
                         This category also would include power plants               will occur between now and 1980. Nuclear capa-
                         built on shore with their cooling water intakes and         city will grow to an estimated 12.5 per cent by
                                                                                     1974 and about 30 per cent by 1980. Most recent
                           59 Where the water is deeper than 200 feet, a neutrally   estimates are 50 to 100 per cent higher than
                         buoyant subsurface platform moored at a 150 to 200 foot     orecast three to four years ago. The effect of this
                         depth would be advantageous, being easily accessible,       demand for nuclear plant construction is a six to
                         clear of surface traffic, and beyond the effects of waves
                         and winds.                                                  eight year backlog of orders.

                                                                                                                                       VI-213

                                       Larger individual plant capacity, increased            c. Plant Design Two basic' designs were exam-
                                    greatly from earlier years, makes nuclear electric        ined, both dependent on the not-so-obvious fact
                                    power more economically competitive. Nuclear              that nuclear reactors do not need air to operate.
                                    fuel costs are lower than fossil fuel costs in a             The first design places the reactor with the heat
                                    growing number of locations. The equipment to             exchangers on the ocean floor. The power-
                                    generate electricity is very expensive, whether           producing turbines and generators are above the
                                    conventional or nuclear. Planners for undersea            water surface, resting on a platform with founda-
                                    operations also will have to take such factors as         tions in the sea bottom. A vertical pipe carries the
                                    size, distance from shore, and weather conditions         superheated steam from the reactor to the tur-
                                    into account when considering the costs of their          bines.
                                    projects.                                                    The second design calls for both the reactor and
                                                                                              electrical system on the sea floor. While the
                                                                                              reactor can operate in a liquid environment, the
                                    b. Studies    Several studies have been made by           turbines and generators require a gaseous envelope
                                    industry and government to determine the phys-            to function properly. Hence, a caisson must be
                                    -ical and economic feasibility of placing a nuclear       built around the power-producing unit. If the gas
                                    reactor with its power generating plant on the U.S.       pressure inside is the same as the hydrostatic
                                    Continental Shelf. One such study made by the             pressure outside, the structure need support only
                                    University of California, Davis Campus, described,        the pressure difference between the top and the
                                    as an example, advantages and disadvantages of            bottom of the caisson or pressure vessel, allowing a
                                    such a system in the New York area.                       shell structure of considerable cost saving.
                                       The first consideration was reactor safety. The           A platform with foundations on the sea floor
                                    radiation shield usually found on dry land reactors       must be built for the first design, in which the
                                    would be replaced by the water surrounding the            generating station is above the surface. At depths
                                    pressure vessel. To be safe, a minimum of about           of 150 to 300 feet, it is possible to build this
                                    100 feet of water between the top of the vessel           structure using modern offshore oil platform
                                    and the surface had been set; this put the bottom         technology.
                                    on which the reactor is placed at about 150 feet.            A compact system of turbines and generators
                                    The additional 50 feet of water overburden would          will be arranged on the platform located immedi-
                                    act to reduce the spread of radioactive debris in         ately above the reactor so the platform legs can
                                    the unlikely event of an accident involving the           support the steam-carrying pipes. The turbines and
                                    core.                                                     generators are of conventional design, requiring a
                                       The oceanographic characteristics of the sea           minimum of maintenance. The steam cycle is
                                    south and southeast of Long Island were very              closed, the steam of lower temperature and pres-
                                    important from a viewpoint of currents as well as         sure returning to a condenser located on the sea
                                    climatic conditions.                                      floor. Having concentric pipes, carrying the hot
                                       More important for their potential to damage           steam upward within the innermost pipe, reduces
                                    underwater structures are the large number of             heat losses to the sea.
                                    storms and hurricanes in this area. However, when            In the second design, the turbine-generator
                                    a storm has reached as far north as New York, it          system is installed underwater beside the reactor,
                                    has usually diminished substantially in intensity.        eliminating the platform. The gaseous environment
                                    Except for the largest storms, little disturbance is      in a caisson allows personnel to enter regularly to
                                    produced at depths greater than 200 feet.                 operate the system, to perform maintenance, and
                                       Interference with the maritime and fishing             to respond to accidents. They can stay indefi-
                                    industries was considered. The reactor must not           nitely, inconvenienced only by the prescribed
                                    impede existing shipping lanes, and the fishing           decompression cycle when returning to the Sur-
                                    industry must not be affected by contamination of         face. Alternatively, the entire plant may be oper-
                                    fish near the reactor. Further, system design plans       ated by remote control, personnel entering only
                                    have provided for a possible nuclear accident or          occasionally for regular maintenance or in case of
                                    explosion.                                                accident.

                                    VI-214

                          d. Construction     To build either plant, large        sediments, making excavation relatively inexpen-
                          sections must be preassembled on shore. Modules         sive.
                          weighing up to 1,000 tons would be transplanted            Embedded reactor design was studied recently
                          on barges, sunk in place, and assembled under-          by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the
                          water by methods similar to those developed for         Bechtel Corporation. They proposed an artificial
                          veWcular tunnel construction.                           island one-half mile from shore in which a caisson-
                                                                                  enclosed reactor is embedded to a depth of 130
                          e. Storm Threat There are      no technological or      feet. Total costs estimated by adding cost of
                          physical impossibilities in constructing a plant        building an artificial island and the enclosing
                          having its generating equipment on the surface.         caisson plus the cost of a conventional plant
                          However, the frequency of storms on the Atlantic        ashore appear unsatisfactory.
                          Coast cannot be ignored, and provision must be             A plant built for the ocean bottom is similar
                          made to evacuate and secure the station before          except that the compact and efficient high temper-
                          large storms. The surface structure and equipment       ature gaseous reactor is placed in an excavation at
                          is subject to the full force of the storm. The          a depth of 150 to 200 feet. (The excavation could
                          structure could be made sturdy to withstand a           be made by nuclear explosion like those of Atomic
                          500-year storm  6 0 but this is not economically        Energy Commission Plowshare projects.) No cais-
                          feasible.                                               son would be required, and water and sea floor
                            The plant having generating equipment on the          sediments would serve as the radiation shield. The
                          ocean floor is protected from storms, as the largest    turbine-generator system on the sea bottom at 50
                          storms would produce only minor disturbances at         to 60 feet would be filled with air at ambient
                          150 to 200 foot depths. However, transporting           pressure. At this depth, decompression is minimal,
                          manpower to and from the sea floor station,             simplifying maintenance problems.
                          performing maintenance on the large turbines and
                          generators, and providing personnel quarters and        h. Costs    A rough cost comparison with an
                          subsistence would increase operating costs.             onshore site can be formulated, although this is
                                                                                  not possible if an onshore site is not available. The
                          L Transmission Extra-high voltage cables in oil-        first major savings are in land cost and construc-
                          filled pipes could be laid on the ocean floor to a      tion of the radiation shield.
                          distribution net ashore or to undersea sites. How-        Large units (500 to 1,000 tons) of the sub-
                          ever, the maximum length of cable would be about        merged nuclear power plant would be built on
                          20 miles due to power losses; relay stations for        shore, floated to the site, and sunk in place,
                          longer distances add considerably to the cost and       making the cost of the turbine-generator equip-
                          difficulties. Both designs require a site at 200 feet;  ment the same as for an onshore plant. The cost of
                          the mean distance of such sites from the U.S.           excavation on the U.S. Atlantic Shelf could be less
                          Atlantic Coast is 50 miles. A 50-mile line with two     than building a suitable island to support the
                          relays could be a very costly venture-an excessive      plant. The other large item of expense is the
                          amount for power transmission.                          structure containing the turbine-generator system.

                          g. Embedded and On-Bottom Plants On the
                          Atlantic Coast or Gulf Coast distance between the       2. Future Needs
                          power plant and the shore must be reduced. Five
                          miles from the Atlantic Coast the depth averages          With the continued need of nuclear power
                          about 60 feet. The reactor could be placed at the       plant, to supply economical power, offshore sub-
                          required depth by embedding in the ocean floor. A       merged plants must be given serious consideration.
                          hole 100 feet deep in the sea floor would provide a     The foregoing example of a submerged nuclear
                          total depth of 160 feet. The sea floor of the U.S.      power plant illustrates the feasibility of such a
                          Atlantic Continental Shelf is basically alluvial        project. Added advantages which improve eco-
                                                                                  non-dc considerations are use of the ocean as a heat
                          60 A 500-year storm is the most severe storm statisti-  sink, improving ecological situations, and avoiding
                          cally predicted to occur in such a period.              thermal pollution problems ashore. An artist's

                                                                                                                               VI-215

                                    concept of a submerged nuclear power plant is            Power Project was not economically feasible under
                                    shown in Figure 68.                                      present conditions. However, the lJC said that the
                                                           -------                ---------  combination of the Passamaquoddy Tidal Power
                                                                                             Project with incremental capacity at Rauben
                                                                                  r          Rapids on the Upper St. John appeared feasible. In
                                                                                             May 1961, the Secretary of the Interior was
                                                      X@
                                                                                             requested by the President to review and evaluate,
                                                                                             the report.
                                                                                               In December 1961, the Passamaquoddy Upper
                                            _7%                           d
                                                                                             St. John Study Committee of the Department of
                                                                                             Interior had a load-and-resources study made in
                                                                                             the New
                                                                                                       Brunswick, Canada-New England areas
                                                                                             (Figure 70). Its study clearly indicated that the
                                                                                             Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project would be
                                                                                             feasible if developed as a peakdng power plant sized
                                                                                             for 11000 megawatts instead of 300 megawatts as
                                                                                             studied in the IJC report. This is consistent with
                                    Figure 68. Artist's concept of submerged nu-
                                    clear power plant. (Westinghouse photo)                  current practices in the electric utility industry
                                                                                             that tends increasingly to use large thermal con-
                                                                                             ventional nuclear electric generating units to meet
                                    B. Power from Ocean Energy                               the base load and to use conventional and
                                                                                             pumped-storage hydroelectric power to meet peak
                                    1. Tidal Power                                           demands. The study concluded that the project
                                                                                             was economically feasible (benefit-cost or B/C
                                    a. Current Status The concept of harnessing tides        ratio of 1.27/1.0) and should be initiated.
                                    as a -commercial source of electrical power has
                                    been studied by several countries in close proxim-          In order to validate the recommendations, a
                                    ity to large tidal channels, specifically in France,     review of power values used in the Department of
                                    Australia, Siberia, Canada, and the United States.       the Interior report was made by the Federal Power
                                    One example dramatizing feasibility of such a            Commission at the request of the Bureau of the
                                    project is the International Passamaquoddy Tidal         Budget. Due to the then-lower power values
                                    Power Project (Figure 69) between Maine and New          published, the benefit-cost (B/C) ratio dropped
                                    Brunswick.                                               from 1.27/1 to 0.89/1. As a result, further action
                                                                                             on the project was stopped.
                                    (1.) Passamaquoddy An eminent American engi-
                                    neer, Dexter P. Cooper, proposed a plant in 1919         (2.) Other Tidal Developments The only actual
                                    to harness the high tides in the Passamaquoddy           development for tidal electric power under full-
                                    area. Electric power was to be generated by              scale construction is the LaRance Tidal Project in
                                    building dams and sluiceways in the openings into        France, the largest such project in the world. It has
                                    the Bay of Fundy and a powerhouse between                an initial power installation of 240 megawatts in
                                    Passamaquoddy @Bay and Cobscook Bay. The                 24 turbine sets, and could have an ultimate
                                    proposal lay dormant until 1956 when the Inter-          installation of 320 megawatts. It represents the
                                    national Passamaquoddy Engineering Board was             continued effort of French engineers over a
                                    appointed jointly by Canada and the United               20-ye-ar period to harness the tides at San Malo
                                    States. The board detern-dried that a tidal power        where ideal conditions exist-a narrow estuary
                                    project could be built and operated in the Passa-        with a tidal range of IN meters (about 44 feet).
                                    maquoddy area and that a two-pool arrangement            The LaRance Tidal Project is operated for peaking
                                    was best suited for the site and water conditions of     capacity or energy. Since the units are reversible,
                                    Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays. (Figure 69.)            the project is designed to take maximum advan-
                                       In April 196l'the International Joint Commis-         tage of the flood and ebb tides to supply power to
                                    sion (IJC) declared that the Passamaquoddy Tidal         the French electric system.

                                    VI-216

                                                                          Figure 70
                                    PEAK ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND ESTIMATES FOR 1960,1970, and 19801

                                                                            1960         1970                      1980
                                                                             Peak         Peak       Peak          Re-        Require-
                                                                          Demand      Demand        Demand        serves       ments
                                                                            (MW)         (MW)        (MW)          (MW)        (MW)

                        UNITED STATES
                           Maine    . . . . . . . . . . . .                   575          920         1,390         167         1,557
                           New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,                                                  -
                              Rhode Island, Connecticut       . . . .       5,820        9,740        15,170      1,820        16,990
                           Upper New York State     . . . .                4,900        8,800        12,900       1,548        14,448

                        CANADA

                           New Brunswick      . . . . . . . . . .            227          520          1,190        178         1,368
                           Nova Scotia    . . . . . . . . . .                258          610          1,460        219         1,679

                        TOTAL    . . . . . . . . . . . . .                11,780       20,590        32,110       3,932        36,042

                        Obtained from the Federal Power Commission and the New Brunswick       Electric Power Commission. Peak loads are
                        expected to occur in December.
                        Source: Department of the Interior, The International Passamaquoddy   Tidal Power Project and Saint John River,
                        United States and Canada, Load and Resources Study, Report to Passamaquoddy-Saint John River Study Committee
                        (Washington: Department of the interior, 1961), p. 2.

                        b. Future Needs The U.S. electric power indus-            2. Other Ocean Power
                        try needs economical peak capacity to satisfy
                        future demands. In the New England area, the              a. Current Status Several concepts have been
                        Passamaquoddy project, if economically feasible,          suggested to harness natural ocean energy of
                        could- contribute to peak power needs. Re-                waves, currents, thermal gradients, and geothermal
                        evaluation of this project should be made, con-           sites. The best known devices to harness ocean
                        sidering recreational values. Techniques developed        energy on a small scale have been in use for
                        by the Atomic Energy Commission in Project                years-bell buoys and whistle buoys, simple mech-
                        Plowshare to reduce dam construction costs also           anisms that convert ocean wave energy to sound
                        should be evaluated.                                      energy. A few other small test projects have been
                           Recreational aspects of the Passamaquoddy              conducted, but no significant technical break-
                        Tidal development-Passamaquoddy Bay and                   throughs have been accomplished.
                        Cobscook Bay, where the Passamaquoddy Tidal                 Ocean waves, generated mostly by winds,
                        Power Project would be located-offer a panorama           possess tremendous kinetic energy. A four-foot
                        of water and scenic views complemented by the             wave striking the coast every 10 seconds expends
                        Fundy Isles of Campobello, Deer Island, and               more than 35,000 horsepower per mile of coast-
                        Grand Manan.                                              line, but only an extremely small fraction is
                           The power   project itself would be the principal      useable. In an attempt to harness such energy on
                        attraction to tourists. Operation of this engineer-       the Algerian coast, waves are funneled through a
                        ing marvel would feature the rise and fall of the         V-shaped concrete structure into a reservoir. Water
                        tides, the impounding of water in two natural             flowing from the reservoir operates a turbine to
                        pools, navigation locks for unrestricted movement         generate power.
                        of boats,. emptying and filling gates, and power            Temperature differences between surface and
                        transmission.                                             deeper waters are a potential source of energy.

                                                                                                                                 VI-217
                            333-091 0-69-18

                                                                                  N       E    W             B     R U           N S W I C K

                                                                                                                                                                    St.George

                                                                                                                                                                M.g

                                                                                                     PASSAMAQUODDY
                                                                           V,
                                                                                   SLAnd    S

                                                                                                                  BAY,

                                                                                                                                                  IF G
                                                                                               HIGH           POO L                                                            P r,
                                                                                                                                 *4

                                                                                                                PENDLEYON
                                                                                                                 PASSAGE

                                                                                                                                             0 C E AN                 BAY
                                                                                                               DEER ISLAND
                                                                                                      0                                                                @OF
                                                                                                      'A
                                                                                    POTENTIAL                                                                      FUNDY"
                                                                                      SECOND                                       E 0
                                                                                      POWER                                9
                                                                                                                         %
                                                                                                                       IF G                                      WATAM
                                                                                                                                                                     POWERHOUSE
                                                                     COBSCOO            -BAY      FIRST                       10                                  FO FILLING GATES
                                                                                                  POWE       Eastper                                              1@ EMPTYING' GATES
                                                                                                  PLANT
                                                                                                                                                                 @t-_ LO C A
                                                                                                                           A,
                                                                                   L,OW                    POOI

                                                                                                                                                    iNTERNATIO441. JOINT COMMISSION
                                                                                                               Lubet                              PASSAMAQUODDY TIDAL POWER SURVEY
                                                                                                                                               TIDAL POWER PROJECT
                                                                                                                                                         SELECTED PLAN
                                                                                                                                                     GENERAL ARRANCEMENT
                                                                                                                       QUO                     (MODIFIED BY DEPARTMENT OF THE @4TERIIBR),
                                                                                                                              J,          N\                  July 1963

                                             Figure 69. Source., Department of the Interior,            The International Passamaquoddy Tidal Power
                                             Project and Upper Saint John River Hydroelectric Power Development, Report to President, 1963.

                                            VI-218

                       However, practical utilization is not likely to be        nation to do so. It is technically feasible to design
                       competitive except where thermal gradients are            and build an underwater nuclear reactor plant. The
                       large and near the consumer. One power 'plant             cost effectiveness of such a system depends on
                       applying this principle near Abidjan in West Africa       many factors-site, distance from land, depth of
                       has been under development for several years but          water, local use, and consideration of such advan-
                       is not yet in operation.                                  tages as thermal effect for ecological benefits and
                                                                                 safety to the populace.
                       b. Future Needs Power generation from waves,
                       currents,  thermal gradients, geothenrial sites, and      Recommendations-
                       other ocean sources offer potential. Continuing           Proceed with a program to construct and operate
                       effort should be applie  d to improve our capability      as a National Project an Experimental Continental
                       to exploit these potential power sources.                 Shelf Submerged Nuclear Power Plant in the
                                                                                 ocean.
                       C. Conclusions                                                Periodically evaluate the feasibility of a tidal
                                                                                 power project, particularly in the New England
                          A tidal power plant is technically feasible under      area. The funding of this project, if proven
                       special geographical conditions to meet peaking           economically acceptable, should be by private
                       powe  .r requirements. The New England Passama-           capital- The Federal Government should assist in
                       quoddy Bay area offers the most logical U.S. site         such areas as navigation, safety,. and recreation.
                       for such a propo- sed project.                               Implement a continuing study proj      ect to moni-
                          The role of nuclear power systems in the               @or'progress, and seek technical and economical
                       exploration and exploitation of the sea is as             means to generate large amounts of power from
                       certain as man's ability to develop the technology        tides, waves, currents, thermal gradients, ocean
                       to utilize the ocean environment-and his determi-         floor geothermal wells,'and other ocean sources.

                                                                                                                                VI-219

                                                    Commercial recovery of bromine from seawater, 1933; magnesium from seawater, 1941
                                                    Introduction of nylon purse seine, 1956-58  ,
                                                    First 1 million gal. per day clesalting plant, Freeport, Tex., 1961
                                                    First city to use seawater for water supply (2.6 MGD), Key West, Fla., 1967
                                                 0  U.S. Government approval of FPC, 1967                                                                      Sea Level
                                              0............................................................................            ..............................

                                                    20 First workable scuba, James, 1825
                                                      33 CONSHELF 1, 1 wk., Sept. 1962
                                                       36 CONSHELF 11, 1 mo., June 1963
                                                         50  First oil well offshore, bevond siqht of land, La., 1948

                                                               85 CONSHELF 1, 5-hr. work day, Sept. 1962
                                                                90 - CONSHELF 11, 1 wk., June 1963
                                           100 -                  100 "Aqualung," Cousteau & Gagnan, 1942 (approx. 100')

                                                                        165 CONSHELF 11, work camp, June 1963
                                                                           192 Sealab 1, 10 days, July 1964
                                                                            200 First at-sea saturation dive, Stenuit, 1 day, Sept. 1962
                                           200 -                             205 Sealab 11, 45 days, Aug.-Sept. 1965
                                                                               220 Scuba dive, Dumas, Oct. 1943
                                                                                 243 Squalus recovery, 1939
                                                                                  250 Oil production-California 1961
                                           300 -                                    285 Oil production-Gulf of Mexico, 1966
                                                                                     328 CONSHELF 111, 22 days, Sept. 1965
                                                                                       340 Oil production-Gulf of Mexico, 1967
                                           400 -                                  Co'    432 open sea saturation, Stenuit & Lindbergh, 48 hrs., June 1964
                                           560                                               525 Oil well repair, 25 min., Sept. 1964
                                                                                 0,    ;@
                                           600 -                                   '(51 1P,    630 Exploratory oil well-Gulf of Mexico, 1965
                                                                                    0    T             Diver lockout from Deep Diver, May 1968
                                                                                          !,3.    700
                                                                                           0
                                                                                            ;1-     835 Navy lab.saturation with excursion to 1,100', Feb. 1968
                                          1000 -                                                      1,000 _Open sea bounce dive, Keller, 1962
                                          Lu                                                                  Navy/Duke labsaturation, Dec. 1968
                                          uj                                                       'o
                                          LL                                                              1,300  Exploratory oil well-Santa Barbara channel, 1968
                                          1                                                         1tP.
                                          i:t                                                         V96
                                          a-                                                            019
                                          Lu
                                          2000 -                                                                 2000'
                                                                                                                   2,500 H-bomb recovery, April 1966
                                                                                                              0     3,028 "Bathysphere," Beebe & Barton, 1934

                                                                                                                      4,000 Deepstar 4000-500th dive, Nov. 1968
                                                                                                             0
                                                                                                             0
                                                                                                              0-
                                          5000 -                                                               '@P
                                                                                                               01- P      6,000 Alvin, April 1965

                                                                                                                            8,310 Deepquest, Feb. 1968
                                                                                                                              8,400  Trieste recovery of portion of
                                                                                                                                      Thresher, June 1963
                                          10,000-                                                                             10,000' 12,000 Scorpion located, 1968
                                                                                                                                         13,287 FtVRS-3, 1954

                                                                                                                             ,-65,
                                          .20,000                                                                                 01116@6110 il)s      20,000'
                                                                                                                                          -11'ee /
                                          36,000                                                                                    Deep Trenches          35,800' Deepest
                                                                                                                                                               dive by man,
                                                                                                                                  2% of Bottom Are            Trieste, 1960
                                                                                                                                                    a/

                                                                        Landmarks in the D        evelopment of Ocean Technology
                                                                                                                                         13,2t

                                          VI-220

                         Chapter 7 National Projects for Marine and               Undersea Development

                            A series of National Projects in the 1970's is          1. RELATIONSHIP OF NATIONAL PROJECTS
                         recommended to help assess and develop the most               TO THE DEVELOPMENT CYCLE
                         economical methods for this Nation to advance
                         into the oceans and to provide a springboard for              It is suggested that the Ten-Year Program of
                         continuing developments in the period 1980 to              Undersea Development can achieve technological
                         2WO. The United States can and should be the               progress more rapidly by integrating fundamental
                         unquestioned world leader in ocean technology              technology development with a series of national
                         well before the turn of the century.                       facilities, programs, and projects generically called
                           Extensive new benefits from the oceans will              National Projects. National Projects will help
                         require hard work, and not all will be immediately         advance fundamental technology, broadening the
                         apparent. Unfortunately, today, most marine oper-          base for better future utilization of the ocean
                         ations are restrained by tradition and outmoded            environment. Accomplishment of these projects
                         technology. A bold, challenging, and carefully             will give incentive and support to numerous
                         planned marine engineering and technology pro-             subsystem and component developments. The
                         gram is essential to the national goal of establish-       knowledge, experience, and confidence gained win
                         ing the capability for exploring, occupying, utiliz-       enable the design, construction, and operation of
                         ing and managing the oceans. The series of                 many operational systems. These will produce
                         National Projects will assist materially in develop-       manifold expected benefits-economic, social,
                         ing the capability to reap the ocean's potential           political, scientific, and military.
                         benefits and to establish a foundation for future             The sequence of steps in Figure I suggests that
                         national growth.                                           numerous interchanges and feedbacks will

                                                                     NATIONAL       PROJECTS

                                        Fundamental Technology                            Subsyst rn and Component Development

                                              Fected Benefits                                       Operational`Z4sterns

                         Figure 1. Simplified nwrine technology depelopment cycle.

                                                                                                                                      VI-221

                                    strengthen the entire cycle. Subsystem and compo-          D. Operational Systems
                                    nent developments will make possible new opera-               Operational systems will be built by the inter-
                                    tional systems. Expected benefits have been a              ested group and operated to achieve expected
                                    primary concern in selecting these particular
                                    National Projects. It is difficult to foresee and          benefits. For example, a commercial firm might
                                    define all the expected benefits; some endeavors           establish a large scale shrimp raising operation for
                                    will yield substantially greater benefits than origi-      profit, based on advances in technology resulting
                                    nally anticipated. History proves that new and             from the national fisheries and aquaculture pro-
                                    unexpected applications will evolve as technology          gram.
                                    expands.                                                   E. Expected Benefits

                                    A. Fundamental Technology                                     Expected benefits from each National Project
                                                                                               are highlighted in each project description. These
                                       The encouragement and advancement of funda-             benefits will accrue in many areas, including
                                    mental technology is mandatory to provide the              economic, social, political, scientific, and military.
                                    knowledge base for expanded and improved ocean
                                    operations. Upon this planners and engineers can           11. DESCRIPTION OF NATIONAL PROJECTS
                                    make decisions on future programs and projects.               The essence of each suggested National Project
                                    In many cases this improved fundamental tech-              is outlined on the following pages, together with a
                                    nology will be directly applied to or further              pictorial representation of the more significant
                                    developed through the mechanism of National                elements. The projects are described in some detail
                                    Projects.                                                  but considerable additional studies and.trade-offs
                                                                                               must be conducted before a given project is
                                    B. National Projects                                       considered firm. It is expected that the advisory
                                                                                               committee recommended by the panel will review
                                       National Projects    is the generic name used to        projects prior to initiation to recommend their
                                    identify projects, facilities, and programs large in       goals and sponsoring agency. National Projects
                                    scale and best accomplished by a unified and               have the following characteristics:
                                    concentrated effort. Proper planning and execu-
                                    tion of these projects often will facilitate applica-      -Scope sufficient to engender widespread usage
                                    tion of fundamental technology initially to sub-           and support by many sectors of the economy.
                                    systems and components and later to operational            -Established in anticipation of future national
                                    systems. Several projects have been selected for           needs.
                                    consideration which span the field of technology.
                                    More details on these projects can be found in the         -Challenging for a spectrum of technology and
                                    latter part of this chapter.                               disciplines.
                                    C. Subsystem and Component Development                     -Conservative enough to assure success.
                                        New subsystems, component developments,                -Capable of providing education and training.
                                    and pilot developments will be undertaken by               -Generally in need of major U.S. Government
                                    government, industry, and the academic commu-              participation.
                                    nity. These tasks may be performed at a facility
                                    provided by a National Project or by application              These National Projects have been developed,
                                    of information and experience originating from a           reviewed, and evaluated with emphasis on, the
                                    project. Results will supply information, experi-          ultimate expected benefits, avoiding projects that
                                    ence, skills, and confidence applicable to opera-          would be mere spectacular performances. The
                                    tional systems. The responsibility and cost of a           primary orientation of some projects is industrial,
                                    task will be borne by the interested group or              while others are directed more toward military,
                                    mission agency.                                            scientific, and regional needs.

                                    VI-222

                             Several projects include the need for facilities         extensive investigations to understand the environ-
                          which the Federal Government will establish and             ment, develop less expensive equipment, or im-
                          continue to operate in close coordination with              prove procedures for undersea operations.
                          industrial and acadernic communities. Where suit-               It is anticipated that industrial groups would
                          able facilities already exist, the project will utilize     initiate projects that essentially are commercial
                          them to advance ocean technology and engineer-              operations, to be assisted by the Federal Govern-
                          ing. ,All National Project facilities will be available     ment in ways appropriate to the particular project.
                          to interested parties on a cost-reimbursement               Expected primary and secondary beneficiaries of
                          basis, affording an econonfical means to conduct            various projects are shown in Figure 2.
                                                                                Figure 2
                                                                  LIST OF NATIONAL PROJECTS

                                                                                             Beneficiaries
                                                                                   (P-Primary             S-Secondary)
                                  National Projects              Industry                Federal                Regions            Science.
                                                                                      Government

                          National Undersea Facilities
                               1. Fixed continental
                                    shelf laboratory                  S                      P                     S                  S
                               2. Portable continental
                                    shelf laboratories                P                      S                     S                  S
                               3. Mobile undersea
                                    support laboratory                S                      P                                        S
                               4. Seamount station                    S                      P                                        S
                               5. Deep ocean stations                                        P                                        S
                          National Marine Programs
                               6. Pilot buoy network                  S                      P                     S                  S
                               7. Great Lakes resto-
                                    ration program                    S                      S                     P                  S
                               8. Resource assay equip-
                                    ment development program          P                      S
                               9. Coastal engineering and
                                    ecological studies program        S                                            P                  S
                             10. Fisheries and aquacu I- ,
                                    ture program                      P                                            S                  S
                          National Marine Projects
                             11. Experimental conti-
                                    nental shelf submerged
                                    nuclear plant                     P                                            S
                             12. Large stable ocean
                                    platform                          S                      S                                        P
                             13. Long-endurance explora-
                                    tion submersibles with
                                    20,000-foot capability            S                      S                                        P
                             14. Prototype regional pollu-
                                    tion collection, treat-
                                    ment, and processing system       P                      S                     P
                             15. Prototype harbor develop-
                                    ment project                      S                                            P

                                                                                                                                        VI-223

                                       1. FIXED CONTINENTAL SHELF LABORATORY
                                          The U.S. capability to perform useful tasks in the sea is limited by sea keeping capabilities of surface
                                       support vehicles. In an area of such high work concentration as an offshore oil field an economic and
                                       effective support facility, in the 200- to 2,000-foot depth range would be fixed on the bottom.
                                          The design of the Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory suggested by the panel should include one
                                       atmosphere living and working quarters complemented by specially configured sections which can be
                                       pressurized to support divers performing long endurance saturation dives. An exit and entrance lock for
                                       easy access to the undersea work area and the pressure complex for comfortable decompression are
                                       needed. Logistic support for crews of 15 to 150 men will be supplied from shore, surface umbilicals, or
                                       submerged power sources. Additional support can be achieved via support submersibles with a mating
                                       capability.
                                          A diver is uniquely suited to perform routine maintenance and repair functions necessary in offshore
                                       oil fields and to support mining, fisheries, and undersea test ranges. The laboratory will provide in an
                                       economical and timely manner the large amount of underwater operating time needed to evaluate
                                       undersea concepts. In addition, much beneficial technology will be gained for the future development of
                                       manned undersea military stations.

                                       2. PORTABLE CONTINENTAL SHELF LABORATORIES
                                          Exploration and resource development of the total continental shelf dictate the need for several
                                       Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories for manned habitation to 2,000-foot depths. Similar in many
                                       ways to the fixed station, a portable laboratory allows the utilization of a broad ocean area with a rela-
                                       tively small number of portable habitats. With the ability to deballast and be towed to another location,
                                       these laboratories, capable of supporting from 5 to 75 men, will provide comfortable one atmosphere
                                       living. Divers will be able to operate from and decompress in the pressurized section.
                                          The three laboratories proposed will be funded initially by the U.S. Government. Government
                                       agencies, private industry, and scientific institutions will be able to utilize the facilities on a cost
                                       reimbursement basis for scientific tasks or resource development. The flexibility of the portable concept
                                       for resource exploration and development provides access to all continental shelves. Military use could
                                       include training, logistics, and technology development as well as quick reaction monitoring in areas
                                       requiring intense surveillance.

                                                                                       NATIONAL PROJECTS

                                                                           1. Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory
                                                                          2. Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories

                                                         Fundamental Technology                              Subsystem and Component Development

                                              Survey equipment                                             Fish survey methods
                                              Decompression techniques                                     Fish attraction methods
                                              Helium speech unscrambler                                    Artificial upwelling
                                              Coastal ecology                                              Foundation techniques
                                              Soil mechanics                                               Geophysical sampling methods
                                              Group interactions                                           Submerged submersible support
                                              Diver suits and tools                                        Pilot underwater fuel storage
                                              Toxic materials                                              Submerged oil well completion methods
                                              Navigation and positioning                                   In-bottom tunneling and lock construction
                                              Power sources                                                Mating of transfer vehicle to habitat
                                              Corrosion and fouling prevention                             Mid-depth pipeline support
                                              Underwater viewing                                           Local resource surveys
                                              Anchoring and mooring devices                                Experimental dredging techniques
                                              Data handling                                                Underwater maintenance techniques
                                              Environmental considerations                                 Underwater logistic support

                                       VI-224

                                                  Operational Systems                                             Expected Benefits

                                Economic                                                          Economic
                                   Bottom based fishing system                                         Fishing
                                         - Attraction devices                                             -   Reduced harvesting costs
                                         - Pumping to surface                                             - Selective harvest
                                         - On-site processing                                                 - Conservation
                                         - Artificial upwelling                                               - Market demand
                                                                                                          -   Improved quality of catch
                                   Bottom based oil production system
                                         - Drilling                                                   Petroleum and Minerals
                                         - Completion                                                     - Lower off shore costs
                                         -Crude treatment                                                 - Increased reserves
                                         -Storage
                                                                                                      Coastal activities
                                   Ocean pipeline                                                         -   Improved dredging
                                         - Fresh water                                                    -   Undersea construction industry
                                         - Petroleum                                                      -   Larger bulk carriers
                                         - Chemicals                                                      -   Freedom of terminal location
                                         - Slurry                                                         -   Feasible ocean pipelines
                                                                                                          -   Generally lower offshore costs for
                                   Continental shelf mine                                                      services and activities
                                         - Completely in bottom
                                         - Peel im i nary. prc?cessi ng

                                   Deep water (100-500 feet) dredge
                                                                                                  social

                                                                                                          -   Dredging for channels minimized
                                                                                                          -   Greater recreation potential
                                                                                                          -   Reduced thermal pollution problem
                                                                                                          -   Reduced urban congestion
                                                                                                          -   Technology for coastal management

                                Economic-Social                                                   Political-Economic

                                   Undersea petroleum tank farm                                           - Food from the sea programs
                                                                                                          -   Protected access for U.S. industry to
                                   Off shore bulk terminal                                                    shelf resources
                                                                                                          -   Increased raw material reserves
                                   Nuclear station on shelf                                               -   Better international bargaining position
                                         -Electricity                                                         on shelf definition
                                         -Fresh water
                                         -Safety

                                Scientific                                                        Scientific
                                   Ocean monitoring station                                               - Scientists in the environment
                                         -Currents                                                             regardless of diving qualification
                                         - Pollution                                                      - Data
                                         -Nutrients                                                              More reliable
                                         -Fish populations                                                       More easily collected

                                Military
                                   Undersea command and control system                            Military
                                                                                                              Improved undersea capability
                                                                                                              Stronger industrial and manpower base
                                                                                                              Concealment and hardness

                                                                                                                                                     VI-225

                                        Z

                                                                                          L-7

                                                                                                       Figure 3. Fbced continental shelf laboratory.

                                                                                           'N4

                                                                                                       Figure 4. Diver adjusting tow line on sea plow
                                                                                                       used to bury undersea cables below ocean floor.
                                                                                                       P@esence of man on the continental shelf is
                                                                                                       necessary for conduct of many operations.
                                                                                                       Divers will also be useful in resource recovery
                                                                                                       operations, which will become increasingly im-
                                                                                                       portant as terrestrial sources are depleted.
                                                                                                       (American Telephone & Telegraph photo)
                                     O'R

                                     VI-226

                                                                                                   k4i.

                                                                                       0
                                                                                                              9@ -

                           Masbrzz- -v@

                           Figure 5. Portable continental shelf laboratory.

                                                                                                       -----------

                           Figure 6. School of grunt with background
                           of staghorn coral. These fish are edible but
                           are not commercially fished; they may have
                           potential as food supply. A portable labora-
                           tory would allow a detailed study of the
                           species. (Photo by Bates W. Littlehales, (D
                           National Geographic Society)

                                                                                                                                            VI-227

                                                                                                                  4@"
                                                                TWI,

                                    Figure 7. Mobile undersea support laboratory.

                                                                                                                                             @X

                                                                                                                                                   W

                                    Figure 8. School of migrating tuna. Following and
                                    studying fish during migrations are necessary to
                                    understand and improve fishery yields. (Bureau of
                                    Commercial Fisheries photo)

                                    VI-228

                              3. MOBILE UNDERSEA SUPPORT LABORATORY

                                   The hostile interaction of the ocean surface with the air is the major limiting factor to effective ocean
                              support activities. A specially configured nuclear submersible vehicle capable of operating in the
                              1,000-foot depth range will be of great value in eliminating this difficulty for a wide variety of underseas
                              tasks.
                                   The Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory will possess long endurance and a high degree of mobility
                              and maneuverability necessary for support and work missions. As a submerged support ship, it can
                              carry submersibles to mate with Fixed and Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories, seamount
                              stations, and other deeper ocean habitations for the purposes of effecting routine logistics, crew
                              rotation, and emergency support.A broad suit of operational instrumentation, manipulators, lights, and
                              observation ports, plus a diver lock-out capability will permit observing fish population densities,
                              resource exploration and development, salvage tasks, and insurance investigations.
                                   Much beneficial technology from the construction of this submersible win be applicable to possible
                              future naval and commercial undersea capabilities. It will serve as an ideal test bed for instrumentation
                              and equipment development.

                                                                                   NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                      3. Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory

                                                 Fundamental Technology                                    Subsystem and Component Development

                                   Survey equipments                                                    Fish population surveys in selected areas
                                   Navigation                                                           Mineral surveys in selected areas
                                   Anchoring and mooring                                                Study of deep scattering layer
                                   Environmental data acquisition                                       Upwelling using waste heat from reactor
                                                           plus                                               lation patterns in selected areas for
                                     Most of the advanced fundarn           I teehjxolegTder--                        migration
                                   velopments associated with theflixe"rid-Portable                               ollu     n dispersal
                                   Continental Shelf Laborato#6,
                                                                , ,    . tith the added data            Use of su          irsit s as part of an integrated fishing
                                   and experience gained froffi moving from one marine                     system
                                   environment to a                  /utine basis.                      Submerged saIv e preparation
                                                                                                        Selected drilling fo oil\
                                                                                                        Broad ocean data co action completely submerged
                                                     7                                                    and using submersi6l@ft
                                                           ad Benefits                                                     oper#tfonal@_V"S_
                                   Scientific        I
                                       Whenever the o server is remote from the area
                                   under examin4ionj the question arises as to the
                                   meaning and volic[hy of the samples and measure-
                                   ments taken. T@husl this mobile undersea labora-
                                   tory will provide ttfollowing'advantages:
                                                     I                                                                             f__@
                                   Physical Oceano rao y                                               Bottom based fishing system,
                                                                                                       Continental shelf min:e
                                       Raise confidence ctor in oceanographic measure-
                                   ments since by u of        bmersibles associated with               Bottom based oil fiel
                                   the mobile laboratky o        can actually view the
                                   instruments working                                                    In general, the      ;ile system developments and
                                                                                                       benefits will be si I      o those listed under the Fixed
                                   Geological Ocean    .ography\                                       and Portable C%5@ntiThtal Shelf Laboratories, the
                                       Can                      Ole
                                            take selective sarr     s an   hereby provide              main differe6ce bptng that this mobile laboratory will
                                                                                                       provid_a@Mforrnotiion in selected areas which pertain
                                                                                                             %
                                                                                                             A
                                                                                                                      m i!
                                                                                                                    lUft   "di
                                                                                                                  o'"      _
                                                                                                                           _b
                                                                                                                sub        Mb es a
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                                                                                                               e, @ed.@l
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                                                           P@bmersi   b es
                                                                 can actu,

                                                              m
                                                           'sa @
                                                                ples an
                                   a more effective means to ob      =ne@de        ate.
                                                                                                  --to-tZ reso        e (oil, gas, ore,,Iish) of interest.
                                   Biological Oceanography
                                       At present, conventionally                       b_8
                                   data is in doubt because of the difficulty of knowing
                                   what samples are actually being taken.

                                                                                                                                                              VI-229

                                           4. SEAMOUNT STATION

                                                A natural evolution and extension of the Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory will be a Searnount
                                           Station permanently fixed on a submerged seamount at a depth less than 2,000 feet. The station,
                                           capable of supporting a crew of from 10 to 50 men for long periods, will receive power from a nearby
                                           nuclear reactor.
                                                Because of its size and cost, it is anticipated that the Seamount Station will be funded by the U.S.
                                           Government and will be available to other Federal agencies, universities and private industry. Located
                                           on a seamount such as the Cobb off the State of Washington, it can serve as a traffic and weather
                                           monitoring station. It also will provide an ideal station for taking geophysical data and the operational
                                           testing of broad ocean surveillance and data collection systems.
                                                Many tasks and experiments would be programmed for the Seamount Station. One task of
                                           considerable interest is the establishment of a secondary station tunneled into the bedrock below to
                                           provide additional living space and work area. The tunneled area could provide lock-out facilities for
                                           both divers and submerged vehicles. Experience gained in tunneling will provide technology of value to
                                           subsea petroleum and mineral production.

                                                                                                  NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                                                     4. Searnount Station

                                                               Fundamental Technology                                    Subsystem and Component Development

                                                                                                                         Open ocean
                                                                                                                             - Fish surveys
                                                                                                                             - Attraction techniques
                                                Group interactions                                                           - Upwelling
                                                Long range communications                                                Diver installed transducers
                                                Information handling                                              --t-we-laying and protection
                                                                                                                               an
                                                Environmental data acquisitio                                            SfQ19 and     bmarine tracking
                                                Soil mechanics                                                           Geoph@tica
                                                                                                                                     '1@aaivity measurements
                                                                       p1=Us/1'L1                                        Data transmis@ion
                                                                   e of f   aTental technology listed                    Nuclear plant at@@               pport deeper stations
                                                    Continuaric             a                                                               4ep h to su
                                                under Fixed and Potiabi Continental Shelf Labora-                                               on\
                                                tories                                                                   Tsunami measure           t
                                                                                                                         Submerged tunnell
                                                                    //7                                                                             s\
                                                                   pe -
                                                              Ex ct@d Benefits                                                            Operatiiornaf@'_'
                                                                                                                                                        sy'stems
                                                Legal and Political,                                                     Ocean weather statio
                                                    I mp rove k nbwl'f   ge and confidence for inter-                    Ocean surveillance st
                                                national negot' tio     s on legal status of seamounts                   Command and control station
                                                                   r
                                                Scientific         .I                                                    Undersea broad ocean support site
                                                    - Tsunamii\vvar@ing system
                                                    - Mid ocean tide measurements
                                                    - In situ laboratory
                                                Militarv            X I L            ersea capability
                                                    - Generally impfQve und
                                                    - Extended sea 0ower\\
                                                    - Improved broa&"ansu rvei I lance
                                                    - Broadened ocean              0'rt independent
                                                          of surface
                                                                                 to

                                                                                                                                            A,

                                                                                                                                              mer
                                                                                                                                              I i n\9

                                                                             7 in
                                                                                      _ aepenaent

                                           VI-230

                                                 -7

                           Figure 9. Seamount station.

                                                                                      040S

                                                                                                                       PV

                           Figure 10. Tsunamis generated by submarine
                           earthquakes or slides may strike with disas-
                           trous effect over thousands of miles, severely
                           damaging and tossing boats and even ships
                           hundreds of feet inland A seamoun t station
                           could provide valuable input to a tsunami
                           warning system. (ESSA photo)

                                                                                                                                        VI-231

                                                                               j
                                                                    4W,

                                                                                                                                                     M

                                   Figure 11. Deep ocean station.

                                   Figure 12. Manganese nodules on ocean floor.
                                   Recovery of metal-rich nodules will require
                                   deep ocean accessfor mining operations. Dis-
                                   tance between reference marks on line is about
                                   one yard. (Bureau of Mines photo)

                                   VI-232

                          5. DEEP OCEAN STATIONS

                              Utilizing the technology and techniques developed for shallower facilities, Deep Ocean Stations will be
                          established on the continental slope, on the midocean ridge, and in the deep ocean up to 20,000 feet.
                          Continental slope and midocean ridge stations will be in depths of about 8,000 feet and will be
                          autonomous facilities supported by their own nuclear power plants. Accommodating crews of from 10
                          to 50 men at one atmosphere and supported by deep diving submersibles, these stations will be located
                          in unique geographical areas. The deeper 20,000-foot depth station will serve to advance fundamental
                          technology for understanding and utilizing the deep ocean.
                              These stations should be made available to the scientific community and private industry to pursue
                          scientific or resource development programs. These stations will serve to increase the Nation's fund of
                          basic knowledge while evaluating the economic and military significance of deep ocean systems. As an
                          example, deep ocean stations will be required if we are to develop techniques for deep ocean petroleum
                          production and the mining operations for copper and nickel nodules abundant in certain areas of the
                          deep ocean.

                                                                           NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                           5. Deep Ocean Stations
                                                                               -Continental Slope
                                                                               -Midocean Ridge
                                                                               -Abyssal Depths

                                            Fundamental Technology                                  Subsystem and Component Development

                              Small group interactions                                        Open ocean surveys with submersible vehicles
                                                                                               operated from station
                              Materials and structures                                        Work tasks with submersibles
                                                                                                      nsducer placement
                              Construction techniques
                                                                                                          a ing and protection
                              Buoys and moorings                                                               hic sampling
                                                                                              Ship and su          tracking techniques
                              High pressure sealing t   W     as
                                                                                              Geophysical ac         easurements
                              Buoyancy control                                                Logistic support t   M    es
                                                                                               - Personnel exch
                                                                                               - Supplies
                                                                                               - External main an

                                                                                              Acoustic measureme              ents and effect of
                                                                                               different depths
                                                 peted Benefit.                                               Operatioi    Systems

                              Legal and Polit                                                 ocean surveillance station
                                Improvelkno A-4 and confidence for inter-
                              national negotia     s@on legal status of continental           Deep undersea broad o          pport site
                              slope, ocean ridge*;a-    abyssal depths                        Command and contr           ion

                              Scien tific

                              In situ laboratory
                                                                                                                 M

                              Military
                              Deep broad ocean undersea supporfir-

                                Improve understanding of tactical ad a a
                              of three-dimensional naval operations

                                                                                                                                                 VI-233

                                      6. PILOT BUOY NETWORK

                                         An ever increasing demand for oceanographic data and global weather prediction information has
                                      accompanied the increased use of the ocean. A network of data-gathering buoys will provide information
                                      required to utilize more fully the sea and understand and predict the influences of the oceans on global
                                      climate and weather.
                                         The Pilot Buoy Network program is the logical next step in the development of a world-wide system.
                                      Included in this program will be development of buoys to support sensors and withstand sea forces, a
                                      buoy service ship including a handling system to launch and implant buoys, and a sensor suit requiring
                                      minimum maintenance and repair. Techniques and developments in the areas of deep ocean anchoring,
                                      improved instrumentation, system reliability, and data transmission will be undertaken.
                                         Meaningful engineering information for maritime, oceanographic, fishing, and resource development
                                      industries will be generated. In addition, the engineering developments generated in the pilot program
                                      will provide technology which can be applied to other national ocean programs.
                                         The Pilot Buoy Network will be tied into existing data centers maintained by military, space, airline,
                                      and maritime groups. This effort will complement other national programs for rapid taking, sorting,
                                      evaluating, disseminating, and storing data to assure safer and more economical operations on land as
                                      well as at sea.

                                                                                    NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                                     6. Pilot Buoy Netwo    rk

                                                     Fundamental Technology                                 Subsystem and Component Development

                                            Long life power systems                                    Buoy handling and maintenance

                                            Corrosion resistant materials                                ar ous anchoring concepts

                                            Anchoring and mooring devic                                             didate
                                                                                                                        ents
                                            Environmental data acqui                                                      getechniques
                                                                                                                Data         ssion techniques
                                            Information handlin                                                 Materia

                                                                                                       Buoy spacing
                                                        E44@ Benefits                                               Operatio

                                            Scientific

                                            Acquisition of     that will improve weather                  Complete system o            buoys
                                               prediction
                                                            -Al
                                                                                                          World buoy system
                                            Acquisition of     tific data to increase greatly
                                               knowledge        oceans and the                            Special purpose buo      stems for selected areas
                                               atmosphere                                                   of interest

                                            Economic- ilita

                                            Provides aluable         navigation aid

                                                  -Political         K,
                                            Social

                                            Provides a program satisfy        eeds of many
                                               Federal agencies

                                            The world buoy system will establish a
                                               for international cooperation

                                      VI-234

                         Figure 13. Pilot buoy network.

                                                                                   ;-Z

                         Figure 14. Above, hurricane winds battering
                         the Florida shore. Below, storm damage to a
                         shore residence. Improved weather forecasting
                         and storm warning on land or sea require data
                         gathered simultaneously from hundreds of
                         locations on the world's oceans. (Upper photo
                         by Otis Im boden, Q National Geographic
                         Society; lower photo by B. Anthony Stewart,
                         0 National Geographic Society)

                                                                                                                                    W!,

                                                                                                                                  VI-235

                                     Figure 15. Great Lakes restoratio&

                                     Figure 16. Down Ohio's Cuyahoga River glide
                                           -like masses of detergent suds carrying
                                     iceberg
                                     large quantities of nutrients to overly enriched,
                                     severely polluted Lake Erie. (Photo by Alfred
                                     Eisenstaedt, Life Magazine (D Time Inc.)

                                                     A-
                                                                                                               Nor

                                                                                                                77 77
                                                                    V

                                                                            54 -

                                                                                                                     77@,A,

                                     VI-236

                              7. GREAT LAKES RESTORATION PROGRAM

                                  Increasing populations, industrialization, and pollution have created within the 20th.century a decline
                              in fresh water resources. The fresh water resources of the Great Lakes and major rivers inust be
                              protected and controlled. The establishment of the Great Lakes Restoration Program will provide the
                              knowledge and technology necessary to reverse the disastrous trends of declining natural fresh water
                              resources. Pollution can be controlled through new abatement technology coupled with effective
                              legislation. These steps are necessary before a fresh water restoration program can be implemented.
                                  Emphasis will be placed on basic ecological understanding of the Great Lakes. Possible restorative
                              actions might include algae removal, restocking, the introduction of various forms of beneficial plant and
                              animal fife, and artificial destratification.
                                  Considerations must be made of the beneficial and detrimental effects of increased population centers
                              and their basic social needs. A complete cost-benefit analysis will be a logical first step. Techniques
                              successful in the Great Lakes will be applicable to other fresh water resources.

                                                                                       NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                             7. Great Lakes Restoration Program

                                               Fundamental Technology                                              Subsystem and Component Development

                                    Pollution measurement                                                    Aeration techniques

                                    Light transmission                                                       Outfall design

                                    Air and oxygen solubility                                                seo a       itives

                                    Fresh water ecology                                                            a        ixing techniques

                                                                                                             I r   uctiGp o      @ious forms of plant and animal
                                                                                                               life
                                                                                                             E ect of blo@@in\g ff nlight

                                                                                                             Use of artificial botto         tings

                                                                                                             Use of thermal heat for p III

                                                                                                             Filtering of inlet

                                                                                                             Harvesting algae

                                                     E\        d Benefits                                                      Operati      I ystems
                                                       @ec@
                                  Economic                                                                   All out program to lion /p the Great Lakes
                                  Develop a whole n@ I d try of fresh water renovation                       Reservoirs and art' We akes for urban areas
                                                           7
                                  Protect and enhance coa           I  operty values                         Control stati $to         mbat unfavorable effects on
                                  Social                                                                           f sh        la s
                                  Provide additional fresh wa er are4ks ralea          nough for                   Indu ' s to accomplish clean-up tasks, e.g.
                                      recreation                                                                       e ation of water
                                                                                                                   7@,A.
                                                                                                                     Artificial bottoms
                                  Provide satisfaction that pollution I
                                                                             s not a necessa                          Circulation
                                                                                                        __Q        f ddi

                                                                                                               ge  We       ixing

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                                                                                                             t.
                                                                                                                            of
                                                                                                             n od.,-,.%.
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                                      result of civilization and that the trend can be                             - Surface covers
                                      reversed                                                                     - Algae removal
                                                                                                                   - Destratification

                                                                                                                                                                        VI-237

                                       8. RESOURCE ASSAY EQUIPMENTD.EVELOPMENT PROGRAM

                                           Before any meaningful national program to utilize the world's oceans can be effectively implemented,
                                       precise surveys of the ocean must be conducted. Utilizing every resource which can be brought to bear
                                       upon the problem, the United States must begin immediately to survey accurately the continental
                                       shelves and deep ocean and measure and sample anomalies of interest.
                                          The Resource Assay Equipment Development Program is a cornerstone for exploration, utilization,
                                       management, and development of ocean' resources for commercial, scientific, and military programs. It is
                                       considered that this program will provide the basic broad scale resource information necessary for
                                       industry to plan and evaluate commercial operations realistically.

                                                                                        NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                       8. Resource Assay Equipment Development Program

                                                         Fundamental Technology                                 Subsystem and Component.Development

                                             Survey techniques                                            Evaluate a variety of platforms
                                                 - Magnetic                                                     - Surface ships
                                                 - Acoustic                                                     - Submarines
                                                 - Gravimetric                                                  - Airplanes
                                                 - Towed and untethered                                         -  owe devices
                                                                                                                      ethered vehicles
                                             Testing techniques
                                                                                                          Evaluate se'    's  r particular applications
                                             Environmental considera                                              oil
                                                                                                                  G
                                                                                                                   as
                                             Navigation and positi                                                Metals
                                                                                                                  Fish
                                             Underwater viewi                                                     Aquifers

                                             Data handling                                                 Evaluate sample extraction,eqvipments

                                             Soil mechanics

                                                            E;--p-a4.d Benefits                                          Operational Systems

                                             Economic

                                                                d            ake decisions con-
                                             Provide data for in           m                               U.S. continental shej       urce assay
                                                 cerning exploitationpf  *.Frn resources                        followed by s        of slope, rise, and
                                                                                                                deep ocean ,

                                             Military

                                             Provide data to assess status and availability of
                                                                                                                  T     d
                                                                                                                      7
                                                                                                                            "7r"cu'a
                                                                                                                        Is

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                                                               nd

                                                 critical raw materials

                                                                                                                                                                     L

                                       VI-238

                                                                                       A
                                                                                       A

                                                                             W,

                        Figure 17. Resource assay equipment develop-
                        ment.

                        Figure 18. ECHO soundings allow accurate depth
                        measurements from a transitory ship. Greatareas                                     0
                        of little known ocean bottom and the need to
                        evaluate resource potentials require yet more
                        sophisticated and advanced rapid survey equip-
                        ment and systems. (Coast and Geodetic Survey
                        photo)

                                                                                                                                   VI-239

                                                                                                                       @,-" @W'
                                                                                                                                Z''
                                    Figure 19. Coastal engineering
                                    and ecological studie&                            @11N@ wror-

                                                                                                              C

                                                                                                                  OR,
                                                                                         , 4'r,"VI

                                                                                                        o,

                                                                                                                k'

                                    Figure 20. Storm wapes'damage to valuable beach front Assateague Island, Maryland, erosion
                                    Of barrier beach, left, May 25,1961, tight, March 24,1962. (Coast and Geodetic Survey photos)

                                                           "clam
                                                          LN
                                                                                                ".1 w""Olik
                                                                                                                                  AP

                                                                          V

                                                                                                    W@
                                                                                                     X@

                                    VI-240

                            9. COASTAL ENGINEERING AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES PROGRAM

                               The persistent natural and man-induced coastal process, considered in light of requirements of a
                            growing population for living and recreational areas along the coasts, dictates that coastal zones be well
                            understood and carefully managed. Requirements for increased use of coastal lanes for transportation,
                            mining, fishing, and waste disposal complicate this multiple-use situation.
                               Systems solutions must be sought. Particularly, the national program to develop valuable waterfront
                            must concern itself with the possible disastrous effects of coastal development on the ecology of
                            marshes, rivers, estuaries, and the near ocean. This area includes the spawning grounds of the majority
                            of the ocean's living resource. Its natural balances are fragile and can be disastrously disarranged by
                            seemingly minute adjustments of marine ecology. Changes in water quality can make waters aesthetically
                            undesirable and unsafe for recreation.
                               The Coastal Engineering and Ecological Studies Program stands as a major requirement for maxin-dzing
                            the benefits and utilization of coastal areas.

                                                                                NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                            9. Coastal Engineering and Ecological Studies Program

                                              Fundamental Technology                                     Subsystem and Component Development

                                 Power sources and machinery                                       Outfall design
                                 Materials                                                         Large scale mixing techniques
                                 Tools                                                             Introduction of various forms of plant and animal life

                                 Coastal engineering                                                  ects and U e of waste heat

                                 Biomedicine                                                              'Cal-      ives
                                                                                                           call-
                                                                                                    hemLcall
                                 Underwater viewing                                                Applied coas            eering
                                                                                                       - Beach cre 4.0
                                 Environmental conside',                                               - Beach repla
                                 Data handling                                                                          s
                                                                                                   Aeration technique

                                 Coastal ecology

                                 Soil mechanics d        diment transport

                                 Modeling techni     u,
                                      - Mathem
                                      - HVdrauli
                                      - Ecologic
                                                   E4*pipd Benefits                                                 Operation-N"'ns
                               Economic
                               Develop an entireIV         h clustry of coastal and                 All-out program to cl           U.S. estuaries and
                                   estuarine water ren          n
                                                                                                        coastlines
                               Protect and enhance coa       a     pertyvalues
                                                                                                    Stations for cc           ter quality control
                               Social
                               Provide additional coastal areas c-,      an        or               New in,,-           r water quality renovatiop
                                   recreation
                                                                                                               alteration
                               Provide satisfaction that pollution is not a nece
                                   result of civi I ization and that the trend can be
                                   reversed

                                                                                                                                                         VI-241

                                   10. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE PROGRAM

                                   . The pl@enomenal expansion of world population has challenged the ability to produce and distribute
                                   protein vitally needed for nutrition and health. A national program utilizing the combined resources of
                                   science and engineering to increase the quantity and quality of marine life is a necessity.
                                      Some knowledge has been gained in increasing marine population growth and shortening the life cycle
                                   of marine organisms in controlled experiments. The continuation of this effort requires the compilation
                                   of information on species' behavior and the development of scientifically based resource management
                                   schemes. In addition, harvesting and processing technology in combination with distribution systems
                                   must be developed, with regard to both natural marine populations and controlled aquacultural projects.
                                     Available resources such as waste heat, chemical additives, and natural nutrients can be coupled with
                                   predator control, species control and selection, and improved processing and distribution techniques to
                                   derive from the ocean increased amounts of protein rich foods.

                                                                            NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                     10. Fisheries and Aquaculture Program

                                                 Fundamental Technology                        Subsystem and Component Development

                                        Fence effectiveness                                 Feeding rates
                                              Air screen
                                              Chemical                                      Harvesting methods
                                              Nets
                                                                                                     tives
                                              Acoustic

                                        Ecological engineering                              use o
                                           - Environmental co
                                           - Predator contr                                 Small fish prot      ethods
                                           - Metabolic
                                                                                            Special feeding pri    rvest

                                                                                            Selective breeding
                                                                                                                    ;4-
                                                                                            Larva control

                                                    @i4ected Benerfits                                   Operational Systems

                                        Economic                                             Fish farms for high-val _,ecies
                                        The developme  ot' n entirely new marine food           -  Lobster
                                           industry                                             -  Clams
                                                                                                -  Oysters
                                                                                                -  Salmon
                                        More stable 3nd reli to& rce of selected marine
                                           products                                             -  Scallops
                                                                                                -  Shrim
                                        Better quality control                                     Cr
                                                                                                           finfish

                                                                                                     s for low-cost protein

                                                                                                   Mullet
                                                                                                   Milk fish
                                                                                                   Mussels

                                                                                             Farms for commercially usefu I algae

                                   VI-242

                                                                                      N4@-p xn --s;,

                                                                                                                              7

                                                                                                                         N'.

                                                                                                                                     t

                                                                                       -04.

                                                                                                                                J,

                                                                                                                   Z

                        Figure 21. Fisheries and aquaculture.

                                                                                                 ;P

                        Figure 22. The world's growing food problems call for active
                        fisheries and aquaculture programs to help meet nutritional de-
                        mands of an expanding world population. (Photo by Terence
                        Spencer, Life Magazine (D Time Inc.)

                                                                                                                                  VI-243

                                      Figure 23. Experimental continental shelf sub
                                      merged nuclear plant.

                                                                                                                                                        .7a

                                                                                                                   iFo

                                                                                                                        Op

                                                                                                                        9".

                                      Figure 24. A thickly populated coastal area The
                                      increasing scarcity of Large, unpopulated areas
                                      suitable for nuclear power stations will require
                                      construction of plants in the sea. (Port of New
                                      York Authority photo)

                                             @e t4@"'

                                      z@

                                      VI-244

                          11. EXPERIMENTAL CONTINEN[TAL SHELF SUBMERGED NUCLEAR PLANT

                             Generation of @arge quantities of power will be -required for the development of the resources of the
                          continental shelves. In addition, expanding population and industry require increasingly large amounts
                          of economical electrical power. The intensive development of coastal regions for living, recreational, and
                          commercial purposes greatly limit the availability of large tracts of land needed for nuclear power
                          generation facilities.
                             Shallow submerged areas where adequate cooling capacity is available provide ideal near shore
                          locations for the establishment of submerged nuclear facilities. The development of an Experimental
                          Continental Shelf Submerged Nuclear Plant will prove the feasibility and cost effectiveness of placing
                          future large power generating stations in close proximity to major urban areas.
                             Other benefits expected to be derived from this experimental facility are support for subsea oil and
                          minerals production, aquaculture and continental shelf laboratories. Power generation for deeper ocean
                          tasks will evolve logically from the technology developed in this program.

                                                                          NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                    11. Experimental Continental Shelf Submerged Nuclear Plant

                                             Fundamental Technology                             Subsystem and Component Development

                                Soil mechanics                                              Comparison of operation at one atmosphere versus
                                                                                                ambient pressure
                                Underwater construction methods
                                                                                            Use of waste heat for useful applications:
                                                                                                       Upwelling
                                Handling heavy loads at sea                                            Warming swimming area
                                Materials                                                              Melting harbor ice
                                                                                                        quaculture
                                                                                            Combi            desalting plant with nuclear plant
                                                Exp@@ed*enef its                                          '@'"Y'altk-nal Systems
                                Economic-Social                                             Large municipal s;ta@ion P to 500 megawatts)
                                                                                                located at sea pro ld@i
                                Technical soluti n t, the thermal pollution problem                - Power          19
                                   that presen y t reatens many rivers and estuaries               - Fresh       er
                                   and will W'ilh ti e threaten coastal waters                     - Warm        t to assl
                                Source of po:er qnd fresh water close to source of                        Aqu ult
                                   demand                                                                 Ice r   oval
                                                                                                          Recreation
                                Availability o wa@ a heat to improve other activities       Modest size (2,000 to 10,000 kilowatts) underwater
                                        Re'crea                                                 power source to sup      exploitation of shelf
                                              Ion
                                       Harbor @7 r moval                                        resources
                                                                                                   - Oil and Gas/
                                Release valuab e       ine r more people-oriented                  - Mining
                                   uses                                                            - Fishi@ng
                                                                                                   - Survei n        ation

                                Economic-Military
                                ress vulnerable system for P     r ge     ion and
                                   fresh water

                                Power for future commercial and military
                                   undersea operations
                                                                                                          @de
                                              F,a
                                              ti nt    the
                                                     eate
                                                yt r   t                                                     wate@r
                                               h ti @eh                                                       we  "t'"I'm
                                                                                                                   't
                                                                                                               ac it
                                                                                                               em
                                                 @-a' noerfor more @Pop'ie     em:eci
                                                                           -or

                                                 y
                                                 'st   f p r ge
                                                     em                   _on and

                                                                                                                                              VI-245

                                            12. LARGE STABLE OCEAN PLATFORM

                                                 Scientific investigations and resource exploration in remote ocean areas will benefit greatly from a
                                            multipurpose Large Stable Ocean Platform. The utilization of semi-submersible drilling platforms by the
                                            petroleum industry has proved that this all-weather concept is technically sound and economically
                                            acceptable.
                                                 Self-propelled, relatively insensitive to adverse sea conditions, and large enough to support the heavy
                                            equipment necessary for deep ocean work, the Large Stable Ocean Platform will provide a highly flexible
                                            multipurpose island which can remain on station in the open ocean for long periods of time.
                                                 Similar platforms located for resource recovery or military considerations, could also provide at-sea
                                            bases for weather monitoring, aircraft traffic monitoring and control, and surface and subsurface vessel
                                            replenishment. By virtue of its great size, stability, storage capacity, and long endurance station keeping
                                            capability, the Large Stable Ocean Platform will be a mid-ocean facility of great military, commercial,
                                            and scientific significance.

                                                                                                    NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                                             12. Large Stable Ocean Platform

                                                               Fundamental Technology                                        Subsystem and Component Development

                                                   Fabrication techniques                                                Deep ocean drilling

                                                   Wave motion dynamics                                                  Support a wide range of oceanographic investigations
                                                                                                                             in broad ocean areas
                                                   Mobile breakwaters theory
                                                                                                                         Resource surveys
                                                   Damage stability criteria                                                         Oil and gas
                                                                                                                                       inerals
                                                   Concrete construction

                                                                                                                         Larg   deep        0, eavy lifts

                                                                                 Y
                                                                   E x p         a n e f i t s                                           Op\.1'at. ",I Systems
                                                                         41

                                                 Social                                                                   Off sh re airport
                                                 Move activities a4;,orom the coastline                                   0
                                                                                                                            ff sh:re city
                                                 Scientific
                                                                                                                          Mid ocean basing SV           for he military
                                                 Provides valua$le        me base platform for scientific
                                                                  )@ _1                                                           - Obt           on
                                                      investigatic  r's   broad ocean areas
                                                                                                                                  - Surveillance
                                                 Military                                                                         - Logistic support
                                                                                                                                  - Airfield
                                                 Provides knowl6          as to the usefulness of a mobile
                                                      ocean basing,,--    em. it would allow support of
                                                      operations in        ar corners of the world without                Fishing system with. t           a facility to:
                                                      mak i ng the! c        ment necessary when most
                                                      logistic suppo          ovided from the land                                     P o e
                                                                                                                                       Provi  a
                                                                                                                                      Store        U until pick-up by ship
                                                 Economic
                                                 Provides inexpensive to                  ort for as-yet                  Mining sy         w     top side facility to:
                                                      undefined ocean resour                 ing systems
                                                                                                                                       P-    ss ore
                                                                                                                                        rovide power
                                                                                                                                       Store product until picked up by ship

                                            VI-246

                                                                                                                             A@ -7

                         Figure 25. Large stable ocean platform

                                                                                                                    7

                         Figure 26. Turbulent sea surface. Hazardous con-
                         ditions of working on the ocean surface will necessi.
                         tate development of large stable ocean platforms.
                         (Photo by Ellsworth Boyd)

                                                                                                                                       VI-247

                                       13. LONG-ENDURANCE EXPLORATION SUBMERSIBLES WITH 20,000-FOOT CAPABILITY

                                           Effective utilization and management of the deep ocean must be based on thorough knowledge of the
                                       environment. The 20,000-foot depth capability provides access to 98 per cent of the total ocean. bottom
                                       area. Many military, scientific, and industrial programs could benefit from an ability to do useful work
                                       for long periods in the deep ocean.
                                           There is no substitute for human involvement in a remote environment. A long endurance capability
                                       must be developed to operate effectively at great ocean depths.
                                           Since the commercial value of the deep ocean areas is as yet undefined, the U.S. Government should
                                       assume responsibility for the initial development of these submersibles. Technology created in this pro-
                                       gram will have far reaching benefits not only in submersible technology. but also -in almost all other areas
                                       of undersea exploration and usage.
                                           Based on experience and expertise developed to date, the Long-Endurance Exploration Submersible
                                       can be started immediately. The utilization of this submersible will benefit many ocean programs and
                                       will be especially important to support subsea laboratories and stations.

                                                                                       NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                              13. Long-Endurance Exploration Submersibles
                                                                                      with 20,000-Foot Capability

                                                          Fundamental Technology                              SubsVstem and Component Development

                                             Power sources and machinery                                 Deep ocean resource surveys

                                             Materials                                                   Acoustic propagation

                                                                                                                     su rv
                                             Test facilities
                                                                                                                      surveys

                                                                                                                              rume
                                             Navigation and positionin        "j,                        E q u i p m`e hi %6-64'   nt evaluation

                                             Vehicle tools                                               Navigational   e     noI

                                             Communications

                                             Underwater vie

                                             Environmental 61    iderations

                                             Buoyancy ma      to- s

                                                                   ted Benefits                                        Operational Systems

                                           Political                                                       Deep ocean station (cle        20,000feet)
                                           Improved knowl              confidence for international
                                                            0
                                               negotiations          status of deep ocean basins                       Military m esto

                                           Scientific
                                           Short term (f e1w days         measurements                                Long t        entific investigations
                                           Military                                                                   Su      16 traffic control
                                           Improved understanding o          it   dvantages of
                                               truly three-dimensional  n     Q e@ions

                                           Economic
                                           Improved technology available for a variety
                                               yet-to-be-cletermined tasks

                                       VI-248

                         Figure 27. Bottom of Romanche Trench at a depth
                         of approximately 24, 000 feet. Note tiny fish or
                         shrimp, four or five can be spotted by their shadows
                         on the bottom. A long-endurance exploration sub-
                         mersible with 20, 000-foot capability will help
                         uncover the many mysteries of deep ocean areas.
                         (Photo by Harold E. Edgerton)

                                                                                                                       @7

                                                                                                    N,
                                                                                                              0.

                         Figure 28. Long-endurance exploration submersible
                         with 20, 000-foot capability.

                                                                                                                                       M'

                                                                                                                 M-
                                                                                                                        Mu
                                                                                                                         0-

                                                                                                                                     VI-249
                            333-091 0-69-19

                                        14. PROTOTYPE REGIONAL POLLUTION COLLECTION, TREATMENT, AND PROCESSING
                                            SYSTEM

                                            To date, one of the penalties of increased population and industrial centers has been intensified
                                        pollution of rivers, estuaries, and bays. At the same time, requirements for fresh water and recreational
                                        areas have been increasing. The construction of a Prototype Regional Pollution Collection, Treatment,
                                        and Processing System will serve as an important step in a long range program to stem the disastrous
                                        effects of pollution while providing additional fresh water and other usable products.
                                            It is well within existing technical capability to design and construct this type of system. Conversion
                                        of former waste products into usable products may wen serve to offset the costs of the system for
                                        municipalities or public utilities.
                                            The disposal of untreated or partially treated pollutants into fresh and salt water areas greatly reduces
                                        their utility. As populations increase and available land areas diminish, space requirements for urban
                                        pollution treatment systems will become more critical. Immediate implementation of this program is of
                                        real importance to the national interest.

                                                                                       NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                                        14. Prototype Regional Pollution Collection, Treatment,
                                                                                          and Processing System

                                                         Fundamental Technology                             SubsVstem and Component Development

                                            Basic treatment technology                                    Development of useful and marketable products

                                            Contaminant measurement devices                               Rational division between primary industry treatment
                                                                                                              and that performed by regional system
                                            Coastal ecology                              --------------
                                                                                      ,7 Fu
                                                                                          --777'7!, 72"In
                                            Environmental considerations '.1 A@'

                                                         -ering
                                            Coastal engine
                                                                    . /A
                                                            Ex   /-@')dnefit.
                                                             Pao"                                                         @i@nal Systems

                                            Social-Economic                                               Regional pollution  c      on. treatment and
                                            Opening of man       stal areas closed because of                processing systems-'-
                                               excessive po      n

                                            A technology tot--  ill save presently unpolluted
                                               areas from       a pollution

                                            Reuse of mater       at are presently discarded.
                                               This is of in     ng economic importance as
                                               raw material       as become more expensive
                                               to extract

                                            Creation of a new po         equipment industry                                 F
                                                                       T
                                                                                                                         0:

                                            Improved health and enjoyrn             sent
                                               and future generations

                                        VI-250

                                                                                                                          v

                                                                                             Y-

                                                                                                          Ile

                       Figure 29. Prototype regional pollution collection,
                       treatment, and processing system.

                                                                                                                                          Aq
                                                                                    F

                       Figure 30. Typical urban water pollution. Growing
                       industry and increasing population burden local
                       waste treatment plants, making it necesswy as well
                       as economical to construct regional pollution col-
                       lection, treatment, and processing systems.
                                                                                                   @k
                       (FWPCA photo)                                                             14 -H

                                                                                                                                      VI-251

                                                                                      AL

                                                                                                  -7-777

                                     Figure 31. Arototype harbor development project.

                                                                                                             411

                                                                                           41
                                                                                                                              '777 7@

                                     Figure 32. A crowded, degenerated water-
                                     fron t area. Ne w su pertan kers with deep
                                     drafts and container ships with require-
                                     ments for new cargo handling systems will
                                     compel construction of new offshore har-            D-
                                     borfacilities, releasingformer waterfront
                                     lands for urban development. (Portof
                                     New York Authority photo)

                                     VI-252

                         15. PROTOTYPE HARBOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

                             Growing international trade requires larger ships and more efficient handling systems. Antiquated
                         port -facilities severely limit the application of improved ship designs. New harbors and handling systems
                         must be developed and existing facilities improved. Private industry, stimulated by funds from various
                         levels of government, should take the lead in harbor development programs.                       -
                             A Prototype Harbor Development Project will serve as a model program upon which to create new and
                         improved techniques for cargo handling and storage, all-weather navigational aids, ship handling
                         concepts, fast and accurate record keeping, and data processing facilities. Additional benefits which win
                         derive from -the prototype harbor project will include new underwater construction techniques, -
                         increased knowledge of soil mechanics (of particular importance in the areas of anchoring and mooring),
                         and sediment stabilization technology. In addition, consideration will be given to the very important
                         problems relating to labor, urban population, pollution, and the economic impact on business.

                                                                          NATIONAL PROJECT

                                                               15. Prototype Harbor Development Project

                                             Fundamental Technology                               Subsystem and Component Development

                                Soil mechanics                                                Methods of moving various dry cargoes by:
                                Underwater construction                                                  Pipeline
                                                                                                         Conveyor
                                Coastal engineering                                                      Barge

                                Environmental data acquis'.    Ir                             Uncle      ro tachment methods

                                Anchoring and moor'-          ces                             Off shore bul         e

                                                                                              Various mobile bre        ers

                                                                                              Underwater navigatio    as

                                                 _;j
                                                          Benefits                                        Operati-na           s
                                                                                                                             M

                                Social-Econo                                                  Large, deep-draft dry bulk carriers

                                Minimize dr        and associated harmful effects
                                                                                              Entire new port comp4ms remote from present
                                                                                                  cities which have    n7s  m effect on coastline
                                Increased free  rr,@ f port location
                                A technology t  a ,--a11,1 s design of future systems         Offshore bulk termi al's
                                                    V.-l-
                                   to minimize co         e conf I icts

                                Construction and oper           considerably more
                                   cost effective ships

                                More coastal areas available for ot
                                  commercial and industrial uses

                                                                                                                                                 VI-253

                                         Appendix A Acknowledgments

                                             Many persons and organizations were contacted by panel members and staff during the preparation of
                                         this report. Following are the names of those individuals who contributed through interviews, con-
                                         ferences, submission of written materials, and review of report drafts.' Every effort has been made to
                                         make this list inclusive and the panel apologizes for any inadvertent omissions. Although the report
                                         reflects these contributions, the recommendations               are those of this panel, arrived at after study of all
                                         materials and comments.

                                         Name                                             Organization    Name                                             Organization
                                         Abel, Robert B          . ..........     NSF-Sca Grant Program   Coene, G.T. (R)          ......... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                                         Allen, Robert C. .      .U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory       Compton, Frank           .... North American Rockwell Corp.
                                         Anderson, Richard       ........         Battelle Memorial Institute Corel], Roger        ............. The Oceanic Foundation
                                         Andrews, Dan            ........ Naval Undersea Warfare Center,  Corley, C.B., Jr         . ....... Humble Oil and Refining Co.
                                         Arata  ., Winfield      ................     AIAA-Northrop       Cotter, Edward           ....... Delaware River Port Authority
                                         Arnold, H.A. (R)        .............    National Council on     Coyle, Arthur J          . ......... Battelle Memorial Institute
                                                    Marine Resources and Engineering Development          Craven, John P. (C)      .............         Navy Department
                                         Aron, William (R)       ..........       Smithsonian Institution Cristen, Robert E. .     U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory
                                         Austin, Carl            ...............  Naval Weapons Center    Culpepper, William B     . ......    U.S. Navy Mine Defense
                                         Bagnell, Fred (R)       ........         Westinghouse Electric Corp.                                                Laboratory
                                         Bankston, G.C           . ...................    Shell Oil Co.   Dalton, George F.           MTS-General Electric Company
                                         Barker, Samuel B        . ...........    University of Alabama   Damskey, L.R             . ..................   Bechtel Corp.
                                         Bascom, Willard (R)     . Ocean Science and Engineering Inc.     Davidson, W.H. .         ..Transcontinental Gas Pipeline Corp.
                                         Bates, Charles          ...........      Coast Guard Headquarters Davis, Berkley (R)      ........    General Electric Company
                                         Bavier, Robert N        . ........       Yachting Publishing Corp. Davis, James           ....... Wilmington (North Carolina) Port
                                         Beek, Earl              ........ Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory                                                   Authority
                                         Bennett, J. E           . ....... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Dean, Gordon (R)        ...............       Bureau of Mines
                                         Beranek, Leo (R)        ........         Bolt, Beranek and Newman Dishman, MX             . ...................   Shell Oil Co.
                                         Bermas, S  . ......     Columbia Gas Systems Service Corp.       Doig, Keith (R)          ...................     Shell Oil Co.
                                         Bernstein, Harold (R)    .......         DSSP-Navy Department    Donaldson, Lauren        ..........  University of Washington
                                         Beving, Lcdr. D.U       ..........       Naval Material Command  Donner, Hugh             ...................   Marcona Corp.
                                         Blake, F. Gilman        ........         Chevron Research Company Duffy, Ben King         .............   National Council on
                                         Blanford, Russel. Staff, House Armed Services Committee                     Marine Resources and Engineering Development
                                         Boatwright, V.T         . ..... General D ynamics -Electric Boat Dunsmore, Herbert J      . ............        U.S. Steel, Lorain
                                         Boller, Capt. Jack W. USN (R)            ...... Navy Department  Eckles, Howard (R)       .......     Department of the Interior
                                         Bolton, G.H             . .... Columbia Gas Systems Service Corp. Ela, D.K . .............       Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                                         Booda, Larry            ...............  Undersea Technology     Eliason, J. (R)          .................     Battelle Northwest
                                         Borop, Capt. J.D.W., USN      ....       U.S. Navy Mine Defense  Elliot, Francis E. (R)   ......      General Electric Company
                                                                                            Laboratory    Ephraim, Frank G         . ........  Maritime Administration
                                         Boyd, Walter K          . .........      Battelle Memorial Institute Evans, W. ...........    Naval Undersea Warfare Center
                                         Brauer, Ralph           ........ Wrightsville Marine Bio-Medical Feil, George             .................     Corps of Engineers
                                                                                            Laboratory    Feldman, Samuel          ..........  DSSP-Navy Department
                                         Breckenridge, R.A       . .........      Naval Civil Engineering Flack, Newton D          . ..............      Cleveland Electric
                                                                                            Laboratory                                          Illumination Company
                                         Breslin, John           ..........       AIAA-Davidson Laboratory Fortenberry, LP         ...... Tennessee Gas Transmission Co.
                                         Britain, K.E            . ............   Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co- Foster, William C. (R) ...........          Ralston Purina Co.
                                         Brown, G. Edwin (R)      ...  Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc.      Fries, Robert            ............ Battelle Memorial Institute
                                         Bugg, Sterling          ..... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Frosch, Robert (R)       ..............        Navy Department
                                         Burk, Creighton (R)     ................        Mobil Oil Co.    Full, Ray    ..................      Kishman Fish Company
                                         Burkhardt, William .    .Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory      Fulling, Roger (R)       ... E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.
                                         Bussmann, Charles       ...........      Undersea Technology     Garrison, M.E            . ......... Office of the Oceanographer
                                         Cain, Stanley           ............     Department of the Interior GascoiWne, Earl       ................      Cedar Point, Inc.
                                         Caldwell, Joseph        .......          Coastal Engineering Research Gaul, oy D          . .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                                                                                  Center-Corps of Engineers Germcraad, Donald      ..... AIAA-Lockheed Missiles and
                                         Carpenter, Cdr. M. Scott, USN            . DSSP-Navy Department                                                 Space Company
                                         Carsey, J. Benjamin     ........         American Association of Geyer, Leo               ............. AIAA-Grurnman Aircraft
                                                                                  Petroleum Geologists                                                   Engineering Co.
                                         Carsola, Alfred         ...........      Lockheed California Co. Gillenwaters, T.R        . .............       State of California
                                         Cestone, Joseph         ...........      DSSP-Navy Department    Gilman, Roger H          . ...... Port of New York Authority
                                         Chapman, Wilbert M. (R)       .....      Van Camp Sea Food Co.   Glasgow, James S         . ........  Battelle Memorial Institute
                                         Clark, Allen F          . ............   Philadelphia Port Corp. Glass, Cdr. C.J., USCG      .....    Coast Guard Headquarters
                                         Clark, John             ........ Lorain County Regional, Planning Gluntz, Marvin          .........   Society of Naval Architects
                                                                                           Commission
                                         Clark, Robert           ...................    Hayden, Stone
                                         Clay, E.J  .......................             Hahn and Clay      (C), Consultant, denotes persons who provided broad
                                         Clotworthy, John H      . ..........     Oceans General, Inc.    policy guidance . and review; (R), Reviewer, denotes
                                         Cloyd, Marshall P       . ...........    Brown and Root, Inc.    persons who reviewed portions of panel report
                                         Coates, L.D. (R)        ..........       Lockheed California Co. preliminary drafts.

                                         VI-254

                             Name                                              Organization    Name                                              Organization
                             Goehring, RAdm. Robert W. USCG           ......   Coast Guard     Koch, Robert 0            . ....... Texas Gas Transmission Corp.
                                                                               Headquarters    Konecci, Eugene           ..............      University of Texas
                             Gonnella, A.M       . ................        Boeing Company      Kozmetsky, George         ............        University of Texas
                             Goodfellow, RAdm. A Scott USN            ............     Naval   Kraft, WW .... American Institute of Chemical Engineers
                                                                           Material Command    Krenzke,,Martin           .... Naval Ship R&D Center, Carderock
                             Goodman, M.W        . ........     Westinghouse Electric Corp.    Kretschmer, T             . .... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
                             Goodwin, Harold L. (R)      .....    NSF-Sea Grant Program        Kruger, Frederick C. (R)           ........   Stanford University
                             Gordon, William (R)    ..........        Bureau of Commercial     Kuebler, Wolf             ..............      Northrup, Corporation
                                                                                   Fisheries   Kumm, W.H                 . .......... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                             Gosser, Stuart      .................         Cedar Point, Inc.   Kylstra, Johannes         ................    Duke University
                             Gould, Gerald       .... Naval Underwater Weapons Research        LaCerda, John             ........ Florida Commission on Marine
                                                         and Engineering Station, Newport                                           Sciences and Technology
                             Gould, Howard       ...........      American Association of      LaQue, Francis L. (C)     .......    International Nickel Co.
                                                                      Petroleum Geologists     Larson, Howard            ............        Outboard Marine Corp.
                             Grosvenor, Gilbert     ............      National Geographic      Latham, William C         . ...........       National Geographic
                             Hahn, Welford G     . ......       Saline Water Research Station  LeDoux, John C            . ........ Flow Corp. Nuclear Division
                             Halstead, Bruce W   . .......      MTS-World Life Research        Leigh, F. Donald          ..................     Shell Oil Co.
                                                                                    Institute  LeMaire, Ivor P           . ...... Naval Undersea Warfare Center
                             Hansen, Whitney     .....   Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.       Lesser, Robert            ............ Lockheed California Co.
                             Harlan, William     ..........     Battelle Memorial Institute    Lill, Gordon              ......... MTS-Lockheed California Co.
                             Harvey, D. B        . ..........   Westinghouse Electric Corp.    Link, Edwin A             . ..............    Ocean Systems, Inc.
                             Haydon,John         ........       Oceanographic Commission of    Litchfield, John H        . ....... Battelle Memorial Institute
                                                                                Washington     Longfelder, J.H           . ...............   Boeing Company
                             Hayes, Earl         ....................      Bureau of Mines     Lowe, B. James (R)        ......   Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                             Hedgepeth, Charles (R)      .........    Ocean Systems, Inc.      Lowe, Capt. G.H. USN               .......    Navy Undersea Warfare
                             Heindemarm, T.E     . ..............          Boeing Company                                                               Center
                             Heinemann, E.H      ............         General Dynamics, Inc.   Lowry, Frank W            . ...................   L.M.B., Inc.
                             Heroy, William      .................         Teledyne Corp.      Lubinski, Arthur          ......   Pan American Petroleum Corp.
                             Heuter, T.F         . ...................     Honeywell, Inc.     Lubnow, Harold A          . ........ U.S. Navy Mine Defense
                             Hodgman, Capt. J., USCG . . . Coast Guard Headquarters                                                                Laboratory
                             Hogge, Ernest A.       ........      U.S. Navy Mine Defense       Lundell, Ernest           ......   AIAA-General Dynamics Corp.
                                                                                Laboratory     Luskin, H.T               . ...............   American Institute of
                             Holden, Donald      .........      Society of Naval Architects                                       Aeronautics and Astronautics
                             Holm, Carl H. (R)      .... North American Rockwell Corp.         Lynch, Capt. Edward, USN           ........   Navy Department
                             Horton, Thomas F    . ...........        Oceans General, Inc.     Lynch, John F             . ................  Sea-Land Service
                             Howe, Richard J. (R)     .....     Humble Oil & Refining Co.      Lyons, Carl J             . ........... Battelle Memorial Institute
                             Howley, Lee C       . .... Cleveland Electric Illumination Co.    MacCutcheon, Edward M              . .... SNAME -Environmental
                             Hull, Seabrook      ..............       Ocean Science News                                          Science Services Administration
                             Hunter, J.A. (R)    ............         Office of Saline Water   Macovsky, Morris S. (C)            Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                             Huth, J.H . ..........             Naval Ship Systems Command     Mariott, Frank F          . ....... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                             Irwin, John R       . ..........   Battelle Memorial Institute    Markel, Arthur L          . ............      Reynolds Submarine
                             Jackson, Charles B  ..........       MTS-San Diego Section                                                       Services Corp.
                             Jackson, Capt. L.L., USN           ..... Atlantic Undersea Test   Martin, George (R)        ....     Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.
                                                                      and Evaluation Center    Martin, William R         . .......... MTS-San Diego Section.
                             Jamieson, William M    . ......    Battelle Memorial Institute    Maxwell, Arthur           ........ Woods Hole Oceanographic
                             Jasper, Norman H    ..........       U.S. Navy Mine Defense                                                              Institute
                                                                                Laboratory     McAnneny, A.W             ...............     Trunkline Gas Co.
                             Jenkins, Capt. Walter USCG         ...........   Coast Guard      McDonald, Capt. C.A.K. USN (R)                .... Navy Department
                                                                              Headquarters     McGinnis, Joseph          .............       Ocean Systems, Inc.
                             Jentzsch, Richard A    . .......     Lorain County Regional       McHugh, J.L               . ....... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
                                                                      Planning Commission      McIlhenny, W.F. (R)       ............        Dow Chemical Co.
                             Jones, Douglas      .............        Office of Congressman    McIntosch, Billy          ......... McDonnell Douglas Corp.
                                                                            Alton Lennon       McLean, Noel B            . ...............   Edo Corporation
                             Jordan, Arthur      ........       Cape Fear Technical Institute  McLean, William (C)       ....     Naval Undersea Warfare Center
                             Jordan, Samuel      .........      Westinghouse Electric Corp.    McNitt, RAdm. R.W. USN             .......    Navy Post-Graduate
                             Jorgenson, John H. (R)      ...........       National Security                                                 School, Monterey
                                                                      Industrial Association   Meloy, Thomas P           . .....................       Melpar
                             Kane, Eneas D       . .........    Chevron Research Company       Mero, John L              ...............     Ocean Resources, Inc.
                             Kapland, Mitchell (R) Trident Engineering Associates, Inc.        Meyers, Kenneth           .......... Maritime Administration
                             Kavanaugh, Thomas . . National Academy of Engineering             Miller, William 0         . ....... Lockheed Shipbuilding and
                             Keach, Cdr. Donald L. USN          ..........  Naval Material                                                   .Construction Co.
                                                                                 Command       Minor, L.E  . ...............                 Brown and Root, Inc.
                             Keim, Russell (R)   ....    National Academy of Engineering       Moore, Donald (R)         .....    Naval Undersea Warfare Center
                             Keller, Karl        ....... Naval Ship R&D Center, Annapolis      Moothart, K               . ......... U.S. Navy Underwater Sound
                             Kelty, Kenneth      ..............       General Electric Co.                                                         Laboratory
                             Kennedy, A          ...................       Boeing Company      Mourad, George A.                  MTS-Battelle Memorial Institute
                             Kies, Joseph A      . .........    Naval Research Laboratory      Mueller, Joan             ...................   Life Magazine
                             Kildow, Alfred G    . ...........        American Institute of    Munk, Walter              .... Scripps Institution of Oceanography
                                                                Aeronautics and Astronautics   Murphy, RAdm. Charles P. USCG                 .........  SNAME-
                             Killgore, A.B       . ..............     Brown and Root, Inc.                                        Coast Guard Headquarters
                             Kimball, Keith      ...............      General Electric Co.     Myers, H.E  . .........            Mobile Chamber of Commerce
                             Kinne,lvan L        . ..........   Battelle Memorial Institute    Nakatsuka, Lawrence       .........           Office of Senator Fong
                             Kirk, Will W        . ............   International Nickel Co.     Nash, Harold              .......... U.S. Navy Underwater Sound
                             Kirkbride, Chalmer G. (C)          .............  Sun Oil Co.                                                        Laboratory

                                                                                                                                                       VI-255

                                        Name                                              Organization-    Name                                               Organization

                                        Nelson, J    . ..........                    Naval Undersea Warfare Center Schuerger, Richard G. ...........    Cleveland Electric
                                        Nelson, Thomas W     . .............         Gulf Publishing Co.                                                 Illuminating Co.
                                        Niblock, Robert W    . .............         Oceanology Week.      Schuh, Niles              ..... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory
                                        Nicholson, Capt. William H. USN              ........  DSSP-Navy   Sezack, Stanley           ..... Naval Applied Science Laboratory
                                                                                           Department      Shaw, Frederick G         . .....  Port of New York Authority
                                        Odom, William T. (R)      .......            U.S. Navy Mine Defense Shaw,John     ..............         International Nickel Co.
                                                                                            Laboratory     Shaw, Milton              ........... Atomic Energy Commission
                                        Olson, V.A   . ...........                   Society of Naval Architects -Sheets, Herman     ..... SNAME-Electric Boat Company
                                        Orlofsky, S. (R)     .............           Columbia Gas System   Shigley, C. Monroe (R)        ..........     Dow Chemical Co.
                                                                                         Service Corp.     Shumaker, Larry           ..... Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.
                                        Osborne, J   . .........                     Department of Transportation Shykind, Edwin B. (R)  .........      National Council on
                                        Osri, Stanley M      . ......                American Institute of Chemical   Marine Resources and Engineering Development
                                                                                              Engineers    Siebenhausen, C.H. (R)        ..............      Shell Oil Co.
                                        Owen, Lynn W., Jr    . ........              U.S. Navy Mine Defense Sieder, E. (R)           ..............     Office of Saline Water
                                                                                            Laboratory     Simons, Manley            ......... Marine Technology Society
                                        Paden,John           ............            Department of the Interior Simons, Merton (R)   ..........         Phillips Petroleum Co.
                                        Page, Rye B  ...........                     Greater Wilmington Chamber Singer, S. Fred . . ;........ Department of the Interior
                                                                                         of Commerce       Singleton, Leon           ...............    Gulf Publishing Co.
                                        Pahnstrom, William        .....              National Georgraphic Society Small, Fred ............    Office of the Oceanographer
                                        Parker, John M       . ..........            American Association of Smeder, RAdm. O.R. USCG          ...........     Coast Guard
                                                                                     Petroleum Geologists                                                     Headquarters
                                        Parkinson, John B    . .....                 AIAA-National Aeronautics Smith, Blakely        ..................   Houston, Texas
                                                                                     and Space Administration Smith, Cdr. Frank USN      ...........    Atlantic Undersea
                                        Paszyc, Alex         ...... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory                                        Test and Evaluation Center
                                        Penberthy, Larry     ...........             Penberthy Electromelt Smith, H.J. (R)           ...... LockheedMissiles and Space Co.
                                        Peterson, Stanley S  . ..........            U.S. Navy Underwater  Smith, Ray J   . .....    Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
                                                                                     Sound Laboratory      Snyder, Capt. J. Edward, USN          ...... Navy Department
                                        Petrie, Benjamin R   . ........              Naval Material Command Sorenson, James E        . ....... Battelle Memorial Institute
                                        Podolhy, William     .........               United Aircraft Corporation Sorkin, George      .......  Naval Ship Systems Command
                                        Pomponio, Albert          ......             Port of New York Authority Sorrell, Samuel      ...............    Gulf Publishing Co.
                                        Porier, Ruber H      . .........             Battelle Memorial- Institute Spadone, Daniel (R) ........   DSSP-Navy Department
                                        Porkolab, Alfred     .............           Lorain County, Ohio   Sparks, William L         . ....... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                                        Prior, W.W   . .................             Trunkline Gas Co.     Speakman, Edwin A. . . . Department of Transportation
                                        Pruitt, M.E  . .................             Dow Chemical Co.      Spiess, Fred              ..... Scripps Institution of Oceanography
                                        Pruter, Al (R)       .......                 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Spodak, William  ..........  DSSP-Navy Department
                                        Quick, Stanley S. (R)     .....              Westinghouse Electric Corp. Steele, Harry       ............. Water Resources Council
                                        Rawls, John          ..........              University of South Alabama Stephan, Edward (C) ............       Ocean Systems, Inc.
                                        Ray, C.T     .....................           Boeing Company        Stephen, Charles R        . ....... Florida Atlantic University
                                        Raynor, Albert C     . ......                Coastal Engineering Research Stout, Ernest      ........ AIAA-Lockheed California Co.
                                                                                     Center-Corps of Engineers Stover, Lloyd A       . .............    University of Miami
                                        Rechnitzer, Andrew (R)      .....            North American Rockwell Stowers, H.L . .........         Texas Gas Transmission Corp.
                                        Rice, RAdm. J.E., USN       ......           ASNE-Naval Electronics Strobel, Joseph J. (R)   .........          Office of Saline Water
                                                                                     Systems Command       Styles, Fred              ......... Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
                                        Rich, G.E    . .........    Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.        Sullivan, E. Kemper       ........    Maritime Administration
                                        Richards, Ralph A. . . . . Alabama Fisheries Association           Sutton, Sheldon S         . ...... Westinghouse Electric Corp.
                                        Richter, Cdr. T. USN      ........           Bureau of Medicine and Swain, James C           . ......... Battelle Memorial Institute
                                                                                                Surgery    Swift, Ward (R)           ...............    Battelle Northwest
                                        Rickover, VAdm. H.G. USN                     ......... Atomic Energy Swigum, George          ........... Naval Material Command
                                                                                           Commission      Taggert, Robert           ........ SNAME-Robert Taggert Inc.
                                        Robb, J.E. (R)       ................        Bechtel Corporation   Talkington, Howard R      ........    Naval Undersea Warfare
                                        Robinson, Charles W       . ..............     Marcoria Corp.                                                                Center
                                        Rockwell, Julius     .........               Department of the Interior Tate, Robert H       . ..... Greater Wilmington Chamber of
                                        Rogers, Hon. Paul G       . .......          House of Representatives                                                   Commerce
                                        Romano, Frank        .......                 Naval Ship Systems Command Teague, Dorwin       ..............     Dorwin Teague, Inc.
                                        Rorholm, Niels       ..........              University of Rhode Island Thomas, Bertram D    . ...... Battelle Memorial Institute
                                        Rowley, Louis N.          ...........        American Society of   Thompson, Floyd L         . .........        American Institute of
                                                                                     Mechanical Engineers                                     Aeronautics and Astronautics
                                        Russell, J.S . ..................            Boeing Company        Tibby, Richard B.             University of Southern California
                                        Rylands, R. N        ............            B.F. Goodrich, Avon Lake Touhill, C. Joseph (R) ...........        Battelle Northwest
                                        Saunders, Capt. E.M., USN                    ......... Naval Facilities Treadwell, Capt. T.K., USN . Naval Oceanographic Office
                                                                                     Engineering Command   Tuthill, Arthur (R)       .........   International Nickel Co.
                                        Saunders, Capt. L.N., Jr. USN                .......... Naval Civil Vaeth, Gordon (R)        ..... Environmental Science Services
                                                                                     Engineering Laboratory                                                Administration
                                        Savage, G.H  ...........                     University of New Hampshire Valerio, Gerald A   . ............     Annapolis, Maryland
                                        Savage, William      .............           Office of Saline Water Van Antwerpen, F;H       ............       American Institute
                                        Saville, Thornkike        ......             Coastal Engineering Research                                       of Chemical Engineers
                                                                                     Center-Corps of-Engineers Vetter, Richard C     . .....  National Academy of Sciences
                                        Sawyer, George       ...............         Battelle Northwest    Vidal, Numa               ..............     Ohio Edison Company
                                        Shaefer, George V. . MTS-Naval Oceanographic Office                Vine, Allyn    ......     Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
                                        Schafersman, Dale         .........          Natural Gas Pipeline Co. Vyhnalek, Henry J. . Cleveland Electric Illumination Co.
                                                                                            of America     Wakelin, James H., Jr. (C)         .....     Ryan Aeronautical Co.
                                        Scheel, Alvin J      . ................      U.S. Steel, Lorain    Waters, RAdm. O.D., USN            ......... Navy Department
                                        Schmidt, Howard R.          Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.        Wedin, John (R)           ... Staff, Senate Commerce Committee

                                        VI-256

                           Name                                             Organization    Name                                             Organization

                           Weinberger, Leon    .........    Department of the Interior      Williams, William H  .........       U.S. Navy Mine Defense
                           Weir, Carl L ..............         Maritime Administration                                                         Laboratory
                           Weisnet, Donald   .........     Naval Oceanographic Office       Williamson, William R. (R)     .....  American Machine and
                           Weiss, A.M  . .............         Natural Gas Pipeline Co.                                                      Foundry Co.
                           Welling, C.G . .......     Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.       Wolff, Capt. Paul USN      ......    Fleet Numerical Weather
                           Wenzel, James G. . .     . Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.                                                              Facility
                           Wheaton, Elmer P. (C)      Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.       Wolff, Richard   ................         Garcia Corporation
                           Whiddon, Frederick     .....   University of South Alabama       Wood, L.A   . ..................            Boeing Company
                           Wieskopf, Al   .........     Mobile Chamber of Commerce          Woodbury, Brig. Gen. H.G. USA        .... Corps of Engineers
                           Wilcox, R. Howard    .....   Naval Undersea Warfare Center       Wooldridge, Dan E    . .........      Ohio Edison Company

                                                                                                                                                   VI-257

                                                                                                        U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1969 0-333-091

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