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4 coastal zone J, 3tion inform Center 4A XV -k, _q; 2@ g-Q@- -A P 41 WE, -S, A, Pt Swl Er- 1 0-0 P ZONE WN 1- UtNTER .7 7n lab& to@ A* A&I 01 &Z JR9 ft- lit 'Ole, ;"Now, A*'' W. olume 1 7 P ,anel Reports the Commission Marine, wence, Engineereng and Resourc ie ic 0(0'f Science dAk et@bul-cfv COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTER and Environment UN 10 Volume I Panel Reports of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources Vi For sale by the Superintendent of Domuments, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C., 20402 of 3 Volumes only Foreword The task which faced the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources was one of unprecedented complexity and scope-to "make a comprehensive investigation and study of all aspects of marine science in order to recommend an overall plan for an adequate national oceanographic program that will meet the present and future national needs."' To meet this assignment, the Cominission necessarily needed to reach outward to tap the best thinking in a host of disciplines and fields of interest and to array volumes of specialized data. The Commission approached this task by forming seven working panels from its membership. Each of the panels, aided by staff and consultants, assumed responsibility for a major area of interest: basic science; environmental problems; education, training, and manpower; industry and private investment; marine engineering and technology; marine resources; and international aspects of marine activities. Thus the panels were the principal mechanism for assessing the status of marine matters, for identifying opportunities and problems, and for proposing measures to be taken. The reports prepared by the panels constituted the primary source material upon which the Commission based its own final conclusions. Throughout the period during which the panels conducted their separate studies, the Commission met as a whole to review and evaluate critically the findings and recommendations of these task forces. The continuing discussion and review assisted the panels in identifying needs for additional information, for clarification, and for reassessment of tentative views; they provided a means for coordination of panel activities; and, most important, they served as an educative process that prepared the Commission as a whole for the preparation of its final report. However, it was recognized from the outset that it was neither necessary nor desirable for the several panels to reach total consistency in their proposals or for the proposals to be fully consistent with positions later taken by the Commission as a whole. Although the panels have been guided in their work by the comments of the entire Commission, each panel is solely responsible for its own report. In considering the recommendations advanced by its panels, the Commission adopted some without modification, rephrased or modified others and, in some cases, took no position. During their investigations, panel members and staff contacted more than 1,000 individuals, many of whom made major contributions to the preparation of these reports. The Commission is deeply indebted to its panels for the thoroughness and comprehensiveness of reports. The panels in turn wish to acknowledge their debt to the many contributors to the work. J. A. Stratton P@esident February 9, 1969 1P.L. 89-454. Members of the Commission Chairnwn Leon Jaworski Julius A. Stratton Attorney Chairman Fulbright, Crooker, Freeman, The Ford Foundation Bates and Jaworski Vice-Chairnwn John A. Knauss Dean Richard A. Geyer Graduate School of Oceanography Head University of Rhode Island Department of Oceanography Texas A&M University John H. Perry, Jr. President David A. Adams Perry Publications, Inc. Commissioner of Fisheries North Carolina Department of Taylor A. Pryor Conservation and Development President The Oceanic Foundation Carl A. Auerbach Professor of Law George E. Reedy' University of Minnesota President Charles F. Bair& Struthers Research and Development Corp. Under Secretary of the Navy George H. Sullivan, M.D. Consulting Scientist Jacob Blaustein General Electric Reentry Systems Director -Standard Oil Company (Indiana) Robert M. White Administrator James A. Crutchfield Environmental Science Services Professor of Economics Administration University of Washington U.S. Department of Commerce Frank C. DiLuzio' Congressional Advisers Assistant Secretary- Norris Cotton Water Pollution Control U.S. Senator U.S. Department of the Interior Warren G. Magnuson U.S. Senator Affiliation as of time of appointment. Alton A. Lennon 2Appointed July 21, 1967 to succeed Robert H. B. U.S. Representative Baldwin, former Under Secretary of the Navy, who served as a member of the Commission from Jan. 9, 1967 to July Charles Z. Mosher 31,1967. U.S. Representative Panels of the Commission Panel on Basic Science Robert M. White, Chairman John A. Knauss Panel on Environmental Monitoring and on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone John A. Knauss, Chairman Frank C. DiLuzio Leon Jaworski Robert M. White Panel on Manpower, Education, and Training Julius A. Stratton, Chairman Richard A. Geyer David A. Adams Panel on Industry and Private Investment Richard A. Geyer, Chairman Charles F. Baird Taylor A. Pryor George H. Sullivan Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology John H. Perry, Jr., Chairman Charles F. Baird Taylor A. Pryor George H. Sullivan Panel on Marine Resources James A. Crutchfield, Chairman David A. Adams International Panel Carl A. Auerbach, Chairman Jacob Blaustein Leon Jaworski Staff Executive Director Samuel A. Lawrence Deputy Director Lewis M. Alexander Assistant Director, Organization and Management Clifford L. Berg John P. Albers William S. Beller David S. Browning Lincoln D. Cathers Timothy J. Coleman John J. Dermody Robertson P. Dinsmore Kenneth H. Drummond Andrew G. Feil, Jr. Harold L. Goodwin Amor L. Lane H. Crane Miller Holmes S. Moore Sheila A. Mulvihill Merlyn E. Natto Leon S. Pocinki Stuart A. Ross Carl E. Rudiger William J. Ruhe Carleton Rutledge, Jr. Robert J. Shephard R. Lawrence Snideman II Supporting Staff William L. Banks Margaret R. Bickford Lois A. Brooks Josephine V. Haley A. Louise Jones Linda J. Kuebler Helen 1. Mehl Jean H. Peterson Emily G. Reeves Joanne M. Schirk Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-I Chapter 8 Institutional Needs . . . . . 145 Summary of Findings and I. The Need for Diversity . . . . . . 1-46 Recommendations . . . . .. . . . 1-2 11. University-National Laboratories. 1-47 III. Coastal and Estuarine Laboratories 1-49 Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . 1-11 IV. Federal Laboratories . . . . . . 1-50 Chapter 2 The Science Enterprise Today . . 1-13 Chapter 9 Federal Support Services . . . 1-52 Chapter 3 Basic Science-Key to 1. Mapping and Charting . . . . . . 1-52 Understanding Our Planet . . . 1-20 Il. Navigation . . . . . . . . . . 1-53 III. Data Centers . . . . . . . . . 1-53 Chapter 4 Basic Science-Key to Action 1-24 A. National Oceanographic Data Center . . . . . . . 1-54 I. Basic Science and the B. National Weather Records Center . 1-54 Near Shore Waters . . . . . . 1-24 C. Smithsonian Oceanographic A. Changing the Shape of the Coast. . 1-24 Sorting Center . . . . . . . 1-55 B. Polluting the Waters . . . . . . 1-27 D. A Coordinated System of C. Fish Habitats . . . . . . . . 1-28 Data Centers . . . . . . . 1-55 II. Development of Living Resources 1-29 A. Fisheries-Traditional and New 1-29 Chapter 10 Federal and International B. Aquaculture . . . . . . . . 1-31 Organization . . . . . . . 1-57 Ill. Development of Mineral Resources 1-32 IV. Environmental Monitoring and I. Structural Issues in Federal Prediction . . . . . . . . . 1-33 Organizations . . . . . . . . 1-57 A. Air-Sea Interaction . . . . . . 1-33 11. Structural Issues in International B. Dynamics of Ocean Currents . . . 1-34 Organizations . . . . . . . 1. 1-58 C. Scales of Motion . . ... . . . 1-35 111. Funding Support . . . . . . . . 1-59 Chapter 5 Basic Marine Science and National Security . . . . . . 1-37 Appendix A Bibliography of Current Federal Research Programs 1-62 Chapter 6 Technology and Marine Science . 1-39 Appendix B Panel Hearings Schedule Chapter 7 Education and Training . . . . 1-42 and Participants . . . . . . 1-63 Introduction Marine affairs embrace a multitude of interrelated activities and interests which defy simple categorization or analysis. The term embraces several broad areas of program interest-the coastal zone, development of marine resources, exploration and understanding of the total global air-sea envelope, and provision of services-which became the major categories used by the Commission in organizing its report. However, attention was also necessary to the many activities contributing to the achievement of each of these programs: to basic science, fundamental and applied technology, manpower development, and observation and prediction systems. Appraising and planning the national effort also required consideration of the purposes to be served by each activity and program and of the institutional arrangements for action, including both national and international law and organization; private industry; academic institutions; capital markets; and Federal, State, and local governments. The assignments of the Commission's panels represent a necessarily arbitrary division of the Commission's total field of interest. To assure that as many perspectives as possible were brought to bear on each problem, the assignments were intended to be somewhat open-ended, and it was not uncommon for several panels to approach similar matters from their several viewpoints. Thus an interest in the economic payoffs from marine activity appears in all the panel materials. The status of marine industries is reviewed in the Report of the Panel on Industry and Private Investment; opportunities for improved returns through application of new technology are considered by the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology; industrial efficiency in meeting resource needs is considered by the Panel on Marine Resources; and so forth. Another matter of common interest was consideration of the most appropriate Federal organization to carry forward an expanded marine program. Recognizing that its organization plan must necessarily meet a variety of needs, the Commission did not establish a separate panel to investigate this subject but reserved it for consideration by the Commission as a whole. However, the Commission encouraged all panels to identify organizational implications of their proposals. This commentary is included in their reports. The field work of the panels was concentrated largely during the period September 1967 through March 1968. Report preparation continued during the spring and summer, with the cutoff date ranging from October to December for panel materials. Because preparation of panel reports preceded the Commission's final statement, findings and recommendations of the panels differ in some cases from those advanced in the Commission report rendered Jan. 9, 1969, to the President and the Congress. For example, the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology suggests 15 National Projects. In reviewing the Panel's proposals, the Commission selected five projects for immediate implementation and recommended five for more detailed feasibility studies. Further, the Commission redefined the concept of "National Project" to embrace an additional. project-construction of test facilities, which had not been so defined by the panel-and recast five panel National Projects as recommendations for applied technology programs to satisfy related needs identified by other panels.. Such shifts in emphasis and terminology were a natural result of the Commission's distillation of the great variety of panel recommendations. Although the Commission did not. adopt all elements of its panel reports, the studies provided valuable background material for its report, "Our Nation and the Sea," and will be valuable to all who wish to examine further the many aspects of our nation and the sea. Part I Report of the Panel on Basic Science Contents Volume 1 Science and Environment Foreword members of the ComTniSSi0n Panels of the Commission Staff Introduction Part I Report of the Panel on Basic Science, Part 11 Report of the Panel on Environmental Monitoring Part III Report of the Panel on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone Part IV Report of the Panel on Education, Manpower, and Training Volume 2 Industry and Technology: Keys to Oceanic Development ,Part V Report of the Panel on Industry and Private Investment Part VI Report of the Panel on Marine Engineer- ing and Technology Volume 3 Marine Resources and Legal-Political Arrangements for Their Development Part VII Report of the Panel on Marine Re- sources Part VIII Report of the International Panel Index Preface The Panel on Basic Science and Research The Role of Academic Institutions in the gathered information through public hearings Development of Marine Resources and Tech- across the Nation, in concert with the Panel on nology, Report of the Council of Oceanographic Environmental Problems; through correspondence Laboratory Directors, Sept. 12, 1967. with a cross-section of the industrial, academic, In addition, the National Academy of Sciences Federal and State scientific communities; from Committee on Oceanography contributed a authoritative reports reflecting the expertise of lengthy updating of its report Oceanography 1966 groups which have previously explored the topic; for the use of the panel. and from a variety of interviews conducted by Public hearings were held in Washington, members of the panel, its staff, and consultants. Boston, New York, Miami, Chicago, Houston, La More than 175 replies were received to letters Jolla, and Seattle, with testimony by representa- sent to approximately 500 persons whose knowl- tives of Federal and State agencies, universities, edge and opinions of the problem were solicited. industry, and others. It is not possible to acknowl- The panel also is indebted to the authors of the edge all those whose contributions are represented following reports, from whose pages substance was here; they number more than three hundred. given to its own efforts: Without their help, this report could not have been Effective Use of the Sea, Panel on Ocean- compiled. The panel expresses its sincere gratitude. ography, President's Science Advisory Committee, However, we would especially like to express our June 1966. deep appreciation to the consultants who worked Oceanography 1966 Achievements and closely with us: Dr. Karl K. Turekian of Yale Opportunities, National Academy of Sciences/Na- University; Dr. H. W. Menard and Dr. Walter Munk tional Research Council, 1967. of Scripps Institution of Oceanography; Dr. W. L Marine Science Affairs - A Year of Transition, Aron of The Smithsonian Institution, and Dr. First report of the President to the Congress on W. D. McElroy of Johns Hopkins University. marine resources and engineering development, In addition, we would like to single out others February 1967. for their special assistance: Dr. S. F. Singer, 77ze Ocean Science Program of the U. S. Navy, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Interior; Dr. Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy, June M. B. Schaefer, Science Advisor to the Secretary 1967. of the Interior; Dr. R. Revelle, Director of The Marine Science and Technology: Survey and Center for Population Studies, Harvard University; Proposals, Report of the U. N. Secretary General Dr. J. Calhoun, Chairman of the Committee on to the Economic and Social Council, E/4487, Oceanography, National Academy of Sciences; Dr. April 24, 1968. J. Lyman, consultant; and Mr. R. Vetter, Execu- 77ze Oceanographic Operations Program of the tive Secretary of the Committee on Oceanography, U. S. Navy, Office of the Oceanographer of the National Academy of Sciences. Navy, December 1967. This report could not have been written with- National Marine Sciences Program, hearings out the dedicated assistance of our Executive before the subcommittee on oceanography of the Secretary, Mr. John Dermody. Details of our Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, hearing schedules and the names of our witnesses House of Representatives 90th Congress, 1968. can be found in Appendix B. Marine Science Affairs, A Year of Plans and Progress, Second report of the President of the Congress on marine resources and engineering Dr. Robert M. White, aairman development, March 1968. Dr. John A. Knauss Summary of Findings and Recommendations 1. INTRODUCTION The enterprise has been growing rapidly. Ex- cept for the National Science Foundation, each Our understanding of the oceans is severely Government agency with an interest in the field limited. The imperatives of our time, however, undertakes mission-related marine science pro- dictate that we turn to the oceans to seek grams. They also maintain in-house laboratories. solutions to problems which are acute today and The scientific community is arranged in as which will become more intensified. The panel has complex a manner as the Federal structure with sought to clarify the present state of basic marine which it is strongly involved. Ocean science is science and to assess its relationship to the actively pursued in large, small, old, or new Nation's needs as a step toward the formulation of a coherent National policy designed to serve not institutions, in recognized oceanographic institu- tions, and in classical science departments at only the needs of the hour but those of the future. universities. The panel is impressed with the way the marine Scientists applaud the diversity of science fund- science enterprise has been conducted but it also Mg. but they foresee a need for arrangements to finds a need for change. The ways of the past and accommodate "big science" and "they see no present cannot meet the needs of the future. mechanism capable of meeting its demands. A lack of understanding of marine processes The marine science enterprise, in short, is constitutes a bar to action on programs vital to healthy, energetic and diversified in comparison National needs. National security, resource require- with a decade ago. It is beset with the normal ments, the protection and welfare of the public, strains of a quickly growing field. The panel also and the need to preserve and use effectively finds, however, that current National financial marine estuarine and coastal zones all depend stresses are beginning to inhibit its growth. The fundamentally upon an understanding of the period of rapid growth of the first half of the marine environment. decade of the sixties has stopped. It is imperative that intellectual and scientific competence be recognized as the touchstone of future greatness. No society can shape the future 111. BASIC SCIENCE-KEY TO UNDERSTAND- without it; any great society must be prepared to ING OUR PLANET direct part of its energies to understanding itself Our physical home is a composite of interacting and its environment. earth, sea, sun, and air, and an understanding of the In the light of these circumstances, basic marine oceans as a major link in the indivisible whole is science has a legitimate claim upon the Nation's science resources. vital to any real comprehension of the planet. Many of this planet's secrets lie locked in the seas. While interest in ocean science has been grow- 11. THE MARINE SCIENCE ENTERPRISE ing, its origins have been largely pragmatic; hence TODAY the pursuit of understanding has been auto- matically relegated to a lower priority in the The marine science enterprise in the United national effort. Understanding our planetary States is vigorous and diversified. Research and oceans is a vital goal of the marine science effort. development sponsored by the Federal Govern- ment accounted for $249.5 million in Fiscal Year Recommendation: 1968, an increase of $55 million over FY 1966. The Federal agencies principally involved in The Nation should establish as a major goal the basic marine science are the National Science advancement of an understanding of the planetary Foundation, the Department of Defense, and the oceans as a principal focus for its basic marine Department of the Interior. Other Federal agencies science effort. The proposal by President Johnson are substantial but smaller participants. for an International Decade of Ocean Exploration 1-2 is an excellent concept through which this major edge necessary to plan and implement programs goal can be achieved. for their protection and preservation. 2. Polluting the Waters IV. BASIC SCIENCE-KEY TO ACTION Man has brought profound upheaval in the natural balance of our environmental forces, an The principal programs advocated by the Com- upheaval which perils his own well-being and mission go to the heart of important segments of which may pose even greater danger in the future. our National life. They would be seriously im- Environmental changes are usually gradual but peded-and in some cases defeated-by ignorance they are also seldom soon reversible simply by of basic oceanic processes. The acquisition of ceasing the activities that generated them. The fundamental knowledge represents the only hope estuaries and the Great Lakes are seriously af- of success. fected by waterborne pollution. Attack on these problems must be accompanied A. Basic Science and the Near Shore Waters by an increased level of basic research on the The effective use of U.S. coastal and estuarine dynamics of estuarine waters, identification of. zones and the Great Lakes is among our most pollutants, and the tracing of their effects. The urgent marine problems; these are some of the problem of marine pollution cannot be solved in most valuable areas in the Nation. There are many isolation from the more general problem of wider conflicts among uses and users, and a prerequisite waste management and control. Whatever solu- for any rational use of these waters is an under- tions are proposed for the whole spectrum of standing of the consequences of one use on others. environmental pollution, key elements of knowl- In many cases, necessary knowledge is lacking and edge must be available on the processes in estua- here the panel senses a great need for action. rine and near shore environments. Recommendation: Recommendation: The Nation should undertake a much enhanced A much expanded basic research effort should be program of basic research into the dynamics of instituted in all marine science problems related to estuarine waters, the identification of specific estuaries, coastal zones and the Great Lakes, the pollutants and the tracing of their effects, both on effects of pollution, and the effects of changes in individual species and ecosystems, and on the the physical system on living resources. mechanisms through which organisms in the estua- rine ecosystem take up and accumulate various 1. Changing the Shape of the Coast kinds of pollutants. Much of our coastline is considered poorly 3. Fish Habitats protected or endangered, although the Nation has invested substantially in its upkeep. It is being The conservation and management of fisheries eroded both by nature and man. It is necessary to is vitally dependent upon knowledge of the near predict more precisely the consequences of shore environment as habitats. The relationship of nature's actions and man's. There is a requirement the biota to physical changes in the estuarine to know much more about the physical processes environment constitutes a major problem. Careful that shape our coastlines and estuaries. research on habitat preference and the effects of natural and man-made disturbances are needed. Recommendation: Such information cannot be obtained over the Each Federal agency concerned with near shore short term. The Nation needs natural laboratories waters should devote a considerably higher per for long-term study of the rhythms and relation- cent of its funds to basic research in the physical ships governing the estuarine environment. It is processes which shape our coastlines and estuaries. urgent that the Nation set aside enough such This will insure the availability of essential knowl- estuaries to provide these natural laboratories. 1-3 Recommendation: of potentially exploitable marine organisms should be undertaken to provide the base of understand- Specific representative sites should be selected for ing and technology necessary to make the careful, prolonged study to permit the accumula- products of aquaculture more available. tion of basic knowledge essential for understand- ing the statics and dynamics of the coastal regime. C. Development of Mineral Resources B. Development of Living Resources The principal limitations are in techno logy, Providing food for a burgeoning world popula- explorati.on, and economics. Further exploitation tion is one. of the most critical problems facing depends to a great degree upon the preparation of mankind. Insuring adequate supplies of fish can adequate inventories. The principal needs are for contribute in significant ways to the solution of topographic, geophysical, and geologic mapping these problems. and charting. Little is known about the mechanism of forma- L Fisheries-Traditional and New tion of materials on the deep ocean floors, Efficient management of traditional fisheries especially the ferro-manganese nodules. depends upon additions to basic understanding, Recommendation: particularly the relationships between environ- mental conditions and infancy and egg survival' It The basic science effort required to achieve the is necessary to understand the interaction of understanding of the planet (see Basic Science- competitor-predator systems. Better correlations Key to Understanding Our Planet) should be between environmental conditions and fish abun-. supported as a necessary National effort to provide dance, accompanied by better monitoring and the basic geological and geophysical knowledge of prediction, should enable fishermen to work more the oceans required for the National program of productively and efficiently. marine mineral resource development. The most urgent need for scientific information in new fisheries is for rapid means of stock assessment. D. Environmental Monitoring and Prediction Recommendation: The need for an environmental observation and A continued and expanded effort should be prediction services goes far beyond marine in- directed toward achieving a basic understanding of ter.ests, although they are vitally concerned. Three major problem areas require immediate expansion such key problems as fish population dynamics, the effect of environmental conditions on fish of basic research: The interchange of matter and population, and the dynamics of multi-species energy between sea and atmosphere, the dynamics systems under predation. of ocean currents, and the nature of different scales of motion in the sea. Environmental mon- 2. Aquaculture itoring is technology-limited; environmental pre- diction is science-limited. Progress has been severely limited by the lack of information on the genetics and breeding of Recommendation: potentially valuable species, food requirements of Extensive field experiments should be conducted juvenile organisms, disease, and optimum environ- to describe physical processes associated with mental conditions. ocean fluctuations. Parallel efforts in geophysical Recommendation: fluid dynamics should be mounted which can provide the theoretical and practical framework Major new efforts directed toward the understand- for the establishment of physical techniques for ing of the reproduction, growth, and development ocean prediction. 1-4 1. Air-Sea Interaction' motion and such a study should be one of the early foci for the test of the elements of the Many types of exchange between ocean and National buoy program. atmosphere need to be studied in detail. This information is important in terms of our ability to predict the state of the oceans, on the one hand, and the state of the atmosphere on the other. V. BASIC MARINE SCIENCE AND NATIONAL SECURITY Recommendation: The Nation's security has been fundamentally The Nation should continue to place a high tied to the ability of its Navy to operate in and priority on comprehensive field experiments to under the sea. There is hardly an area of marine understand air-sea interaction processes. science which does not bear directly on the effectiveness of its operation. It is largely through 2. Dynamics of Ocean Currents the Navy's support that the Nation's eminence in An attack on the problems of predicting fluctu- basic marine science is maintained. The Office of ations in major ocean currents will require both Naval Research has played a historic and unique extensive series of field observations to describe role in the Nation's marine science growth. their actual behavior in nature and supporting The effectiveness of tomorrow's Navy will be research in geophysical fluid dynamics to account determined in large part by the level of scientific for the observed properties of the currents in and technological understanding of the marine. terms of the inputs of thermal, tidal, and wind environment and all aspects of basic science in this energy on a rotating earth. It is time to marshal area are of immediate and long-term concern to it. the Nation's scientific and technological capabili- The panel strongly urges that the Navy take the ties to plan comprehensive attacks on outstanding broadest possible view of its obligations to support problems of ocean circulation dynamics, both in basic marine science. the field and in the laboratory. Recommendation: Recommendation: The Department of Defense should continue to The Nation should undertake a series of systematic recognize, as it has in the past, the vital nature of investigations into the oceans' current systems to all aspects of basic marine science research to its study their dynamics through cooperative field naval missions, and adopt the broadest possible investigations, marshalling at one time multiple view of its obligations to insure that the National ship, buoy, and aircraft arrays, as well as an basic marine science effort meet not only its expanded effort in the theoretical and mathemati- short-term needs but all possible future require- cal modelling of such systems. ments for marine information. It also should continue to function as one of the cornerstones 3. Scales of Motion for the support of the Nation's basic marine science effort. A complex pattern of small scale motions appears to be responsible for most mixing in the Acoustical energy is known to propagate over sea. Further investigation is needed to account in long distance in water; electromagnetic energy detail for the mechanisms by which they are does not. Our capability to develop techniques and produced and by which energy is transmitted from equipment which will enable us to use acoustical one type to another. The time appears to be at energy as a basis for detection depends on our hand when technology will permit a major assault knowledge of how the ocean structure affects such on this problem. energy propagation. Recommendation: The Navy has given prime attention to this area, and its detection capabilities are formidable. The There should be initiated as soon as possible a importance of the problem cannot, however, be well-defined program to study oceanic scales of overstated. The panel, recognizing the extensive 1-5 333-093 0 - 69 - 2 effort now maintained by the Navy in the field of immediate expansion in basic science. Neverthe- underwater acoustics, nevertheless feels that our less, over the long term, a fully developed national understanding of the inhomogeneities of the ocean, program of basic research must be accompanied by the effect of the biota and the boundary between an adequate level of trained manpower. air and water, and the effects of bottom topog- The basic science effort is not limited by the raphy in tenris of acoustic scattering, reflection, availability of research manpower trained at ocean- and refraction, can be significantly improved ographic institutions; a great many researchers re- through additional research. ceive their doctorates in other disciplines. An important part of the arrangements for an ex- Recommendation: panded program of professional training must be provision for support of postdoctoral programs at The Navy should maintain and, as required, marine science research centers. expand its underwater acoustic research program. The supply of, oceanographic technicians, particularly of sea-going technicians and those V1. TECHNOLOGY AND MARINE SCIENCE competent to operate and maintain sophisticated research devices, is likely over the short term to Basic science and marine technology have failed prove the most critical manpower area in the field. to achieve the level of partnership necessary to the advancement of many fields of marine science. Recommendation: Only marginal attention is paid to provision of the kind of modern engineering support required by The major educational institutions should be the growing problems of ocean science, although encouraged to maintain the vigor of graduate and industry has a vigorous marine and general engi- postdoctoral programs; estuarine and coastal neering competence. Too few engineers have been research centers should develop appropriate train- brought into the field to work on basic science ing programs in their specialties; additional train- problems, although much technology and engi- ing programs for marine technicians should be neering developed for other purposes is susceptible created- to marine science use. This lack is limiting develop- ment in some areas. The marine science com- Vill. INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS munity seems to be willing simply to use whatever technology is available. Basic marine science has Available institutional arrangements are ex- important needs for special technology, and tremely diverse, and represent a sound base on should recognize the fact and make the needs which can be built other arrangements to meet known. growing needs. They are, however, not now adequate to a task of the magnitude envisioned by Recommendation: the panel. There is emerging a need for arrange- Efforts should be initiated to increase participa- ments designed to cope with the problems of "big tion of the private sector in instrument develop- science" and those of a local nature. ment and other marine engineering work. The It is in the general area of facility support that major academic institutions should establish, or the panel sees some of the greatest obstacles facing insure access to, groups with advanced engineering the research community today. competence to work closely with marine science A. The Need for Diversity groups. Some technology development should be encouraged purely for the achievement of a better Important discoveries have been made virtually understanding of the oceans. across the spectrum of scientific institutions. There is no one best way to produce ocean- VII. EDUCATION AND TRAINING ographic scientists or oceanographers. It would be a mistake to support one institutional arrangement The Nation has a healthy program of graduate to the exclusion of the others. It would be training in marine science, sufficient to support an incorrect to suggest that all or even most progress 1-6 will be made in a single class of laboratories or by and should be provided with adequate facilities for persons with a particular type of training. There is undertaking global deep ocean programs in basic a need for various kinds and sizes of marine science. Their facilities should be available to laboratories in the Nation. scientists at other universities and Federal labora- tories for related basic science activities. They Recommendation: should be accorded adequate institutional support for maintenance and operation, and in turn should The present variety of institutional arrangements commit themselves and their facilities to serve for the development and support of oceanography needs of scientific groups affiliated with other is good and should be nurtured. Furthermore, as institutions. Such an institutional arrangement will the horizons of oceanography continue to expand, insure that the Nation's leading oceanographic new institutional arrangements can be encouraged. institutions will be provided adequate resources and support to insure their continued health and B. University-National Laboratories vigor. A small number of oceanographic institutions- large, well staffed and relatively well financed- C. Coastal and Estuarine Laboratories have been largely responsible for U.S. leadership in marine science. They represent a major National Coastal lands are some of the Nation's most investment. In planning institutional arrangements, desirable. The problems of estuaries and near- it is in the National. interest to build on present coastal areas are principally, but not entirely, local sources of strength and experience. These out- or regional. standing institutions will remain a vital part of the There is a need for the establishment of coastal base, and will be centers around which rapid and zone research institutions in association with energetic growth can occur. appropriate academic institutions to provide the There is a need for large laboratories equipped basic understanding of coastal and estuarine to undertake any tasks of a global, national or processes so that Federal, State, and local govern- regional nature, and to institute new and imagina- ments can have available information on which to tive programs. base rationally their management procedures. The Nation should designate a small group of There is sufficient difference in problems be- institutions which should include, but not be tween areas that there should be a university restricted to, those which today provide the laboratory devoted to basic and applied marine National leadershi p as "universitymNational labora- science located on every major estuarine system. tories." They should be distributed geographically The Sea Grant College Program is well suited for to cover different parts of the ocean effectively the support of the complex of coastal zone and should receive adequate "institutional sup- laboratories. It is not necessary that they be port," in return for which they would serve the identical in size and scope. needs of those affiliated with other scientific institutions. Recommendation: The laboratories should contain the necessary A network of estuarine and coastal zone research engineering staffs and support facilities, or should institutions should be established in association be able to arrange for close affiliation with with appropriate academic institutions to under- engineering groups. take the basic and applied research on estuarine Recommendation: processes so that State and local governments can have information on which to base management A small group of institutions, which should in- procedures rationally. These facilities need not be clude but not be restricted to the acknowledged large in size but should have adequate facilities and leaders, should be designated "university-National staff sizes exceeding the critical limit to maintain laboratories." They should be distributed geo- stable programs, Their activities should be sup- graphically to cover different parts of the ocean ported under the Sea Grant College Program. D. Federal Laboratories well as the continental shelves and slopes. The Federal laboratories are necessary to provide panel's proposal to establish as a major U.S. goal the understanding of the planetary ocean will be Federal agencies with the capability for carrymig closely served by the proposed Decade and its out their missions. If they are to be responsive t .o mapping and charting programs will be critically the opportunities as well as the needs of basic important. science, they should continue to devote some o The Federal Government today has no mech- their effort to basic research problems. Such anism whereby requirements of mapping and practices are also necessary to attract and maintain charting for basic science can be accommodated in a high level of scientific competence within these connection with surveys conducted for other laboratories. purposes. But with a minimum of additional Agency support for extramural research should effort, map .ping and charting can, in many in- avoid competitive struggles over fund allocations stances, satisfy certain needs of basic science. between its in-house and its extramural con- There is a need for mechanisms by which Federal tractors and grantees. Federal research programs mapping and charting are kept under frequent need flexibility which only outside grants and review by the scientific community to insure that contracts can provide. these efforts are also responsive to the needs of There is a need for Federal laboratories large basic science. enough to meet the Government's requirements. Many Federal laboratories are understaffed and Recommendation: underfinanced. There should be fewer, stronger, adequately equipped and staffed Federal labora- The mapping and charting activities of the Federal tories. Government should be made as responsive as The practice of siting new Federal laboratories possible to the needs of basic science and mecha- close to university centers should be followed. nisms should be established whereby mapping and charting operations of the Federal agencies can be Recommendation: reviewed to insure responsiveness to science needs. Federal laboratories should be strengthened by B. Navigation moving in the direction of fewer but stronger laboratories adequately funded and staffed with The Federal Government should establish a even closer affiliation with academic institutions. precise coastal navigation system which would be Steps should be taken to provide an atmosphere in available to support scientific research in the these laboratories conducive to attracting first- oceans. Such a system would be of great utility to rank scientists by providing the necessary flexi- many other marine activities. The scientific com- bility at the scientific leadership level. munity should continue to work closely with the Navy in the perfection of the satellite navigation system as a supporting service for research and IX FEDERAL SUPPORT SERVICES surveys on the high seas. The situation with regard to navigation over the Basic marine science depends on the existence outer continental shelves of the United States and of technical support services, usually provided by in coastal waters beyond the capability of visual the Federal Government, to meet many needs methods of position fixing is not as favorable. beyond those of research. Among the most im- portant are those dealing with mapping and Recommendation: charting, navigation, and data management. The Department of Transportation should- proceed A. Mapping and Charting with the installation of a precise electronic navi- gational system sufficient to cover the entire The President's proposal for an International coasts of the continental United States and Hawaii Decade of Ocean Exploration will involve exten- by the early 1970's and of Alaska and the Bering sive mapping and charting of the deep oceans as Sea by the late 1970's. 1-8 C. Data Centers the need for expediting the analysis of biological Present systems do not meet the need for a and geological samples. Sorted collections are coordinated system of data centers for archiving shipped to specialists located throughout the and retrieving oceanographic information. The world, permitting the effective use of the small efforts of the National Oceanographic Data Center number of skilled taxonomists. The Center is and the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Cen- supported both by direct appropriation and ter and the National Weather Records Center have through contracts with several Federal agencies. barely been able to keep up with the present rate Present funding levels permit the sorting of of acquisition as well as the demands for data approximately 35 per cent of the samples received. retrieval. 4. A Coordinated System of Data Centers 1. National Oceanographic Data Center The needs of basic science for adequate data centers will require that the Federal Government The inability of the National Oceanographic Insure that the activities of its principal marine Data Center to carry out its mission effectively has data centers operate as part of a coordinated resulted from its peculiar nature: funded by system. It is now a lengthy and difficult process to several Federal agencies with differing needs. combine synoptic data from different data centers. The Center, while it should be aware of naval requirements and geared to serve the Navy as well Recommendation: as other government agencies, should be located in a non-defense agency, which should budget for The National Oceanographic Data Center, the and administer the funds necessary to maintain its National Weather Records Center, and the Smith- basic operation in acquiring, coding, and storing sonian Oceanographic Sorting Center should be data. Costs of work undertaken for non-Federal adequately supported with funds to enable them agencies should be borne by requesting groups to to keep up with the growing volume of marine the extent of cost of reproduction. data and to take advantage of modem archiving The storage and retrieval of data that -do- not and retrieval technology. This will permit the primarily vary with time shoul"ot be concen- establishment of a closely linked coordinated trated in a single agency, but should be left in the system of marine data centers. The National hands of their principal users. Oceanographic Data Center should be organiza- The National Oceanographic Data Center is not tionally lodged in a non-Defense agency to permit now involved in the management of real time it to meet the needs of the entire oceanographic ocean monitoring and prediction systems and community more effectively. The basic operations should not become so involved in the future. of the National Oceanographic Data Center should be funded by the agency in which it is lodged and 2. National Weather Records Center work undertaken for other agencies should be on a reimbursable basis. The National Weather Records Center's primary mission is to archive the National and international X. FEDERAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGAN- weather records. Its marine functions include the IZATION archiving and retrieval of all ocean weather, sea state, and sea surface temperature data. The The panel has sought to determine whether National Weather Records Center has suffered over Federal or international organizational arrange- the years from the financial constrictions and is ments meet the needs of basic science, and to unable to meet fully the growing needs for marine identify organizational conditions representing data. obstacles to the effort. 3. Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center A. Structural Issues in Federal Organization The Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center Most scientists are satisfied with present institu- is a service organization developed in response to tional arrangements, but there are difficulties 1-9 within the structure for acquiring support for should strike a reasonable balance between in- facilities, large interdisciplinary programs and engi- house and out-of-house basic research. The ratio neering development. will vary, but within the basic research category a New requirements of marine science labora- target of 50 per cent for each is reasonable. tories for major facility support could be handled Competition should be minimized by establishing through the Navy and the National Science Foun- within each agency a separate office for out-of- dation, given adequate funds. The panel, however, house research programs. fears that the Foundation may become so over- The new agency recommended by the Com- committed to capital facility and institutional mission should create an office to fund institu- operation support that its flexibility would be tional grants, facility support and engineering limited. development. The specific programs recommended in this Recommendation: report clearly indicate that an increase of basic science funding is required to achieve the essential The major civil responsibility for providing institu- base of knowledge about the ocean environment tional and facility support should be invested in for presently anticipated and future unanticipated the new agency recommended by the Comniission. uses. The National Science Foundation should be re- While it is difficult to assess the exact cost of lieved of this responsibility. The Office of Naval this expanded effort, an analysis of the programs Research should continue to provide the kinds of indicate that incremental funding for the 1970's support it has in the past. Other Federal agencies should show an annual increased spending level of should provide limited institutional and facility approximately $200 million. Forty per cent of this support. increased funding would be for capital and oper- ating requirements of the university-National B. Structural Issues in International Organization laboratories, 10 per cent for the coastal labora- Marine science affairs will ultimately require an tories, IS per cent for in-house Government intergovernmental body at the treaty level, per- laboratories, and the remaining 35 per cent for haps as a separate specialized agency of the United increased Federal funding of other out-of-house Nations. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic research by the various agencies. Commission needs strengthening. Recommendation: Recommendation: The basic science effort of this Nation must be Immediate steps should be taken to strengthen the maintained and expanded to encompass the pro- Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission as grams described in this report. To achieve this an the principal intergovernmental forum for marine incremental increase of approximately 20 per cent science and to facilitate its collaborative efforts per year for operating and capital expenditures with other international intergovernmental groups. should be maintained until the current basic As an ultimate goal, a separate treaty organization science funding base has increased by $200 million should be established within the United Nations annually. system for marine science and other suitable Many institutions should continue to operate marine applications. their own vessels. The Panel does not concur with the President's Science Advisory Committee that C. Funding Support all fleets be regional. The panel's previous recom- mendation to designate university-National labora- Every Federal agency which is responsible for tories will provide regional specialized facilities marine research and maintains in-house capability such as special purpose ships. 1-10 Chapter I Introduction ... an unknown world at our doorstep ... our last for marine organisms. We use the water to dump frontier here on earth ... our wastes and in the process kill our fish. We President Lyndon B. Johnson flock to our coastline and expose ourselves to the storm surge and the hurricane. We build dams and The global sea is indeed, as President Johnson breakwaters, and upset the equilibrium of our has said, our final earthly frontier. Throughout beaches. recorded history, it has given much. We sail the We are confronted today with many impera- seas; we fish them; we extract the oil beneath their tives which in turn raise an infinity of questions. depths. We struggle to protect ourselves against Answers are to be found only through under- their hazards. We strive to learn their secrets. But standing of the complexities of the interacting an understanding of our oceans is severely limited; land, sea, and air and the biological and geological they still'retain the aura of the mysterious. resources which are sustained by the rhythms and The imperatives of our time, however, require cataclysms of nature. that we turn to the oceans to seek solutions to High on the list of these imperatives is the problems which are already acute today and will defense of our Nation in a time of surpassing inevitably be intensified. Much of the world is technology which has changed the oceans from a hungry, and we must look to the oceans to help vastness of protection of our borders to a medium satisfy that hunger. An ever-increasing need for of stealth and menace. We must be able to detect minerals presses inexorably upon us, but we know and defend against undersea weapons of enormous little of where, when, why, or in what quantity the destructive power. To detect, we must know how riches of the ocean exist, or at what cost of energy propagates through the fluid, how it is extraction. Except for isolated instances, our lack affected by the sea bottom and by living creatures. of knowledge is a source of concern. The surge of technology also compels us to As we crowd one another in our cities and seek confront a host of new problems whose solution more land for housing and industrial development, will depend on the direction and vigor of our basic we crowd our near shores and estuaries. We dredge science effort. Paradoxically, the greater o ur tech- channels for harbors, and bury our oyster beds. We nological capabilities in the oceans become the fill our wet lands and destroy the breeding grounds greater the basic science problems become. A Development of marine protein concentrate creates a need to insure adequate sources of raw 7! material; it is necessary to develop better under- standing of the nature of organic matter in the sea, and its transfer through the food web. To increase man's ability to live and work ever deeper in the @7_ sea, it is necessary to learn more of hyperbaric physiology. The proposed use of nuclear energy to 41A create new harbors, modify shorelines, or dig canals demands new knowledge about possible long term ecological effects. The building of dams brings the necessity for better understanding of the supply of riverborne sediments and the conse- quent loss of beach sand. The technological ability Figure 1. Miami Beach, Florida, September to change or regulate the flow of fresh water into 1947. A hurricane-driven wave towering many feet into the air smashes at approach estuaries requires more knowledge of estuarine to Baker's Hanlover Bridge just north of circulation. Miami Beach as the tropical hurricane struck in full fury at the coastal resort city. (ESSA The National enterprise in marine science has photo) not lacked its studies, analyses, assessments and recommendations in the past. A steady stream of The panel cannot claim to have answered all reports from such authoritative bodies as the these questions, but it hopes that the views and National Academy of Sciences' and the President's conclusions will provide a useful base from which Science Advisory Committee 2 have reviewed, criti- the nation can move ahead. cized, and recommended action. These reports can There are several overriding impressions. be said to have borne- fruit, as indicated by the Among them are the vigor and diversity of the growth in the National investment in the marine National effort; the way it has operated to react to enterprise. They have also provided a basis for the real needs of the Nation, by its flexibility in critical evaluation by the panel, and without them some areas and its rigidity in others. In short, the its work would have been infin itely more difficult. panel is impressed by the way in which the Given these reports, the panel undertook to ask enterprise has been conducted, but it also finds a and answer policy questions which it believed were need for change. The ways of the past and present of overriding importance to the Nation's marine cannot meet the needs of the future. science posture. This was done through public Considerable thought has been devoted to hearings, eliciting the information and opinions determining the right bases for justification of from leaders in the field, and from various other present and projected levels of marine science sources. The panel has sought to clarify the activity. The panel has taken the following facts present state of basic marine science, and to assess into consideration: Lack of understanding of its relationship to the Nation's needs as a step marine processes constitutes a bar to action toward the formulation of a coherent National programs vital to National needs. National se- policy designed to serve not only the needs of the curity, resource requirements, protection and wel- hour but.those of the future. fare of the public, and the need to preserve and In this task, the panel was confronted with a use effectively the marine environment require host of profound questions. What are the Nation's achievement of an understanding of marine marine interests likely to be for the rest of the processes. century? Are they achievable with our present We consider it imperative that intellectual knowledge and understanding of the oceans? If and scientific capital be recognized as the touch- not, where is our knowledge deficient? Are the stone of future greatness. No society can shape the deficiencies remediable over the time span? Are future without it; any great society must be they due to a lack of funds or technology, or just prepared to direct part of its energies to under- basic understanding? Are institutional arrange- standing itself and its environment. Understanding ments at the Federal and local levels adequate to the planet Earth is at least as important as the tasks as perceived? What should be the role of understanding the planets of space, and the hope the Federal Government and private agencies in of ultimate return is greater. marine science enterprise? How should the Federal With these beliefs in mind, and cognizant both Government'invest in basic marine science? Where of National financial constraints and the compet- should the investment be made in terms of pro- ing claims of all other areas of science, the panel gram priorities? What must be done to insure ade- has concluded that basic marine science has a quate levels of trained manpower for the tasks legitimate claim against the Nation's science re- ahead? sources. i0ceanography 1960 to 1970, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 1959; Oceanography 1966, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Pub. No. 1492, 1967. 2Effective Use of the Sea, Report of the President's Science Advisory Committee, 1966. 1-12 Chapter 2 The Science Enterprise Today Marine science, like most other science in The major customers within the Federal estab- America today, is a highly competitive field, a lishment are the National Science Foundation, the field'so much in the spirit of the free enterprise Department of Defense (principally the Navy), the system as to be an almost classic example. Department of the Interior and its many marine- It has products, buyers, sellers, and a market- related bureaus. Other buyers of scientific pro- place. Its customers, for the most part, are Federal grams and projects include the Department of agencies; its sellers are scientists and scientific Commerce (Environmental Science Services institutions; its products are ideas and programs, Administration and Maritime Administration), the and its marketplace is Washington. Department of Transportation (Coast Guard), the In fiscal year 1968, marine research and de- Atomic Energy Commission, and the National velopment in the Federal Government accounted Aeronautics and Space Administration. The size of for an estimated $249.5 million, an increase of the market provided by each of the Federal $55 million over 1966 or approximately a 28 agencies is shown in Table 2. The Department of per cent increase in two years. This is exclusive of Defense by far dominates the market, providing a $72 million investment in capital facilities such as over half the total. However, a significant change ships, some of which will be used to support basic can be observed as other aspects of marine science science. Funding of the National marine science Table 2. TOTAL FEDERAL MARINE program for 1966-1968 by various categories is shown in Table 1. SCIENCE PROGRAM BY DEPARTMENT Table 1. PROGRAM PLAN FOR AND AGENCY (i .n millions of dollars)' MARINE SCIENCES AND TECHNOL- OGY BY FUNCTIONAL AREA Estimated Estimated (in millions of dollars) FY 1967 FY 1968 1966 1967 1968 Department of Defense . . . 277.7 256.9 actual est. est. Department of the Interior . 64.1 73.5 - National Science Foundation . 24.8 38.5 Research and Department of Commerce . . 35.3 38.4 development: Department of Transportation 8.3 10.7 Research . . . . 122.3 93 '5 117.7 Atomic EnergV Commission 11.3 12.7 Development 72.4 116.3 131.8 Department of Health, Subtotal . . . . 194.7 209.8 249.5 Education and Welfare 7.7 6.4 Investment: Department of State . . . . 5.1 5.0 Ships . . . . . . 29.4 68.9 22.5 AgencV for International Major equipment . 9.1 18.4 29.6 Development . . . . . 2.0 2.6 Shore facilities . 4.8 14.5 15.2 Smithsonian Institution 1.6 1.6 Other . . . . . 3.5 2.0 4.5 National Aeronautics and - Space Administration . . . .1 1.6 Subtotal . . . . 46.8 1 103.8@ 71.8 Total agencV programs 438.0 447.7 Operations- SurveVs . . . . . 68.9 103.6 101.6 National Council on Marine Services . . . . . 20.1 19.6 23.3 Resources and Engineering Other . . . . . 2.9 1.2 1.5 Development . . . . . (0.9) (0.9) Subtotal . . . . 91.9 124.4 126.4 ommission on Marine Sciencel Grand Total 333.4 1 438.0 447.7 Engineering and Resources (0.9) (0.4) Source: 1967 and 1968 editions of Man'ne Science In this and all subsequent tables, details may not add to A flairs. totals due to rounding. 1-13 become of interest to the Nation. The Defense tion of global leadership in the field. Tables 4 and share of the market is dropping. In 1967 Defense 5 show this Nation to be first in numbers of accounted for 63 per cent of the total while in oceanographic research vessels and in marine 1968 it accounted for only slightly more than 50 scientists engaged in research. per cent. Table 4. DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANO- The market may also be characterized by the GRAPHIC RESEARCH VESSELS BY funds being allocated to specific programs as COUNTRY indicated in Table 3. Presumably the amount of Table 3. TOTAL FEDERAL MARINE Number of Research SCIENCE PROGRAM BY MAJOR Member State Vessels (15 m. and PURPOSE (in millions of dollars) Reporting larger) Estimated Estimated United States . . . . . . 188 FY 1967 FY 1968 U.S.S.R . . . . . . . . 110 Japan . . . . . . . . 42 International Cooperation United Kingdom . . . . . 28 and Collaboration . . . 7.1 7.6 Canada . . . . . . . . 22 Military Security . . . . 161.8 136.9 France . . . . . . . . 18 Fishery Development and Federal Republic of Germany. 17 Seafood Technology . . 38.1 41.2 South Africa . . . . . . 12 Transportation . . . . 11.9 15.2 Denmark . . . . . . . 11 Development of the Argentina . . . . . . . 10 Coastal Zone' . . . . 21.4 26.7 Portugal . . . . . . . . 10 Health . . . . . . . 6.6 5.2 Norway . . . . . . . . 9 Non-living Resources . . 7.2 8.1 Poland . . . . . . . 9 2 Oceanographic Research 61.5 78.4 Sweden . . . . . . . . 9 Manpower and Education 4.0 7.2 Australia . . . . . . . 8 Environmental Observation, Netherlands . . . . . . 8 Prediction, and Services . 24.4 24.5 Venezuela . . . . . . . 6 Ocean Exploration, Mapping, New Zealand . . . . . . 5 Charting, and Geodesy 77.4 74.5 Thailand . . . . . . . 5 General Purpose Ocean Engi neering . . . . . 14.8 18.2 Source: Marine Science and Technology: Survey and Pro- posals, Report of the Secretary General, United Nations National Data Centers 1.8 2.0 Economic and Social Council, April 24, 1968. Total . . . . . . . 438.0 447.7 3 Table 5. COUNTRIES REPORTING 50 OR lincludes shore development, pollution management, MORE MARINE SCIENTISTS ENGAGED recreation. IN MARINE RESEARCH 2Research beneficial to more than one of the headings 3above. State Number of .022 per cent increase. Scientists funding in each program area is a measure of the United States . . . . . . . . 2,000 priority assigned to it in the National effort. The Japan . . . . . . . . . . 1,600 overwhelming importance of National security is U.S.S.R . . . . . . . . . . 1,600 quite apparent. The priority assigned to general United Kingdom . . . . . . . 650 oceanographic research is gratifying. In 1968 it Canada . . . . . . . . . . 509 totaled $78.4 million or nearly 18 per cent of the France . . . . . . . . . . 475 total National effort. Federal Republic of Germany . . 300 This market has been growing by almost any Chile . . . . . . . . . . . 113 standards, and the United States occupies a posi- Netherlands . . . . . . . . 95 1-14 Table 5 (Continued) The market is also extremely diverse. The marine sciences are important to many agency Norway . . . . . . . . . . 95 missions. Except for the National Science Founda- Australia . . . . . . . . . 85 tion, each Government agency undertakes marine China . . . . . . . . . . 81 science programs relevant to its own mission. South Africa . . . . . . . . 78 A summary of the interests of the Federal New Zealand . . . . . . . . 71 agencies with responsibilities in the marine area is Argentina . . . . . . . . . 70 shown in Table 6. A bibliography of current Peru . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Federal research programs is given in Appendix A. Mexico . . . . . . . . . . 67 Except for the National Science Foundation, these Monaco . . . . . . . . . . 50 agencies also maintain their own research establish- Sweden . . . . . . . . . . 50 ments in the form of in-house laboratories; here Austria . . . . . . . . . . 45 to 65 lies a source of some discontent, for the non Source: Marine Science and Technology: Survey and Federal scientific community tends to regard the Proposals, Report of the Secretary General, United Federal in-house laboratory as a form of unfair Nations Economic and Social Council, April 24, 1968. competition. Table 6. MARINE SCIENCE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE FEDERAL AGENCIES Agency Mission DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE . . . . . . . All phases of oceanography relating to national security. Navy; Advanced Research Projects Agency; Naval technology. Army Corps of Engineers. Statutory Civilian Responsibilities: Great Lakes, river, harbor, coastal, and ocean charting and forecasting; Great Lakes, river, harbor, and coastal development, restoration, and preservation. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR . . . . . Management, conservation, and development of Geological Survey; Federal Water Pollution marine natural resources. Control Administration; Bureau of Measurement and enforcement of water quality Commercial Fisheries; Bureau of Sport standards. Fisheries and Wildlife; Bureau of Mines; Acquisition, preservation, and development of Bureau of Land Management; National coastal areas. Park Service; Bureau of Outdoor Recreation; Identification and development of technology for Office of Saline Water. evaluation of mineral resources. Identification of sources and interrelationships for supply of fresh water. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION . . . . Basic and academic oceanography. Facilities support. Sea Grant Colleges and Programs. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE . . . . . . Environmental prediction and description; Environmental Science Services Administration; tsunami and hurricane warning. Maritime Administration Charting and mapping of coastal and deep-ocean waters. Central responsibility for air/sea interaction program. Research on ship design, shipbuilding, and ship operations. Marine transportation and port systems. 1-15 Table 6 (Continued) Agency Mission DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. Safety and protection of life and property in Coast Guard port and at sea. Office of the Secretary Delineation and prediction of ice masses. Navigation aids; oceanographic and meteorological observations. Transport systems analysis and planning. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION . . . . . Radioactivity in the marine environment. Development of marine nuclear technology. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE . . . . . . . . . . . Human health, healthfulness of food, biomedical Public Health Service; Office of research, and support of education. Education; Food and Drug Administration. DEPARTMENT OF STATE . . . . . . . . United States' participation in international organizations. Support of international fisheries commissions. International marine policies. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . Foreign assistance and food resources for developing nations. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION . . . . . . . Identification, acquisition, classification, and ecology of marine organisms; investigations of the geophysical factors of oceanic environment. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION . . . . . . . Feasibility, design, and engineering of spacecraft and sensors for ocean observations. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF MARINE RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . Policy planning and coordination; assistance to the President. Source: Marine Science Affairs, 1968. There are currently 85 Federally-operated institutions, principally the latter. As an example marine science laboratories distributed along our of the wide-spread activity, during the period from coasts and Great Lakes. Their distribution by 1963 through 1967 the National Science Founda- agency and State is shown in Table 7. In addition tion provided marine science support to 82 dif- to this in-house research effort, Federal agencies ferent institutions in 38 States. contract for research from industry and academic Table 7. LOCATION AND NUMBERS OF FEDERAL LABORATORIES BY STATES State PHS BCF BSF&W USN ESSA OTHER TOTAL Alabama 1 1 2 Alaska 2 1 3 California 7 1 6 BuMines, USGS 16 Connecticut 1 1 2 1-16 Table 7 (Continued) State PHS BCF BSF&W USN ESSA OTHER TOTAL District of Columbia 2 1 Smithsonian, 8 CERC,SOSC, NODC, CGOU Florida 4 1 2 3 10 Georgia 2 2 Hawaii 1 1 2 Louisiana 1 1 Maine 1 1 Maryland 1 4 1 6 Massachusetts 2 2 Michigan 2 1 Lake Survey 4 Minnesota 1 FWPCA 2 Mississippi 1 LISCE 2 New Jersey 1 1 New York 1 1 North Carolina 2 2 Oregon FWPCA 1 Pennsylvania 2 2 Rhode Island 1 1 1 FWPCA 4 Texas 1 1 Virginia 2 1 3 Washington 1 3 1 2 FWPCA 8 Totals 3 34 1 6 1 22-] 8 12 86 Abbreviations PHS = Public Health Service USGS = U.S. Geological Survey BCF = Bureau of Commercial Fisherie s CERC = Coastal Engineering Research Center BSF&W = Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife SOSC = Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center USN = United States Navy NODC = National Oceanographic Data Center ESSA = Environmental Sciences Services Administration CGOU = Coast Guard Oceanographic Unit Bu. Mines = Bureau of Mines rWPCA = Federal Water Pollution Control Administration USCE = U.S. Corps of E ngi neers Source: Appendix F, Marine Science Affairs, 1968. The Federal Government has established special the trouble lay within the mechanism itself: its committees to coordinate and plan the total member agencies frequently sought to insure that National marine science effort. Until the formation their own activities were not compromised by of the Marine Council, the mechanism was the conunittee action. The defects stemming from Interagency Committee on Oceanography of the outside were the judgment of oceanographic pro- Federal Council for Science and Technology. The grams in the parent department's priority se- Interagency Committee on Oceanography and, quence; it meant that agency commitments and more recently, the Marine Council have made interests, when placed in a departmental decision serious attempts to formulate and put in being a framework, changed in the departmental budget National oceanographic program. process. The Interagency Committee on Oceanography However, by far the most serious defect was the mechanism was effective for the exchange of fact that each agency was responsible to a dif- information but seriously defective in devising and ferent Congressional appropriations committee. implementing a coherent National program. Part of Program coherence could not be maintained 1-17 through the Congressional appropriation process. None 'of this alters the fact, however, that the The Marine Council has been able to do somewhat competition of the science marketplace determines better in the formulation of National goals and which programs are funded, and to what extent. programs. Being a cabinet level coordinating and Many scientists have no real knowledge of how to planning mechanism chaired by the Vice President, operate effectively within the system. Conversely, it has had some success in providing a substantial those who are aware of its comp lexities, its rules, amount of leadership, and within the executive and its procedures are in a better competitive branch programs have retained their coherency. position. However, it has had no more success than the Although it is far from a perfect system, this Interagency Committee on Oceanography in pro- competition is at the heart of the vigor of our viding cohesiveness of programs through the Con- marine science enterprise. Given intelligent, knowl- gressional process. edgeable management within the Federal agen- Confronting this maze of the Federal market- cies-management with a broad view of the needs place is the marine scientific community, as of science in the Nation-the enterprise can con- complex and diverse as the Federal structure it tinue to prosper under this system. Because of the would interest in its programs. influence wielded by a very few Federal managers, Ocean science is where one finds it; it is found every effort should be made to insure continuation in such prestigious institutions as Woods Hole of wise, dedicated management at this level. Oceanographic Institution, Scripps Institution of Scientists, almost to a man, not only approve Oceanography, and Lamont Geological Observa- but applaud the diversity characterizing the fund- tory; in such vital and growing centers such as ing of the science effort. They view with out- Oregon State University, University of Miami, and spoken alarm anything which to them smacks of University of Washington; in such smaller labora- centralization. tories of specialized competence as the Chesapeake The fragmentation of the system, however, Bay Institute of Johns Hopkins University and the brings complaints of a lack of flexibility to deal Duke University Marine Laboratory. with emerging basic science problems. The Na- Some of the best research in the field is done at tion's scientists foresee the need for large sea and institutions distinctly removed from the main- shore based facilities, requiring large capital out- stream of marine science such as Yale University lays, which the splintering of the present market and University of Chicago. The number of institu- makes it difficult to supply. They foresee an era of tions involved in the field has grown by leaps and "big science," and they see in the present system bounds. Interagency Committee on Oceanography no mechanism capable of meeting its demands. Publication A lists 65 schools which now offer The marine science enterprise is in a period of curricula in the marine sciences.1 adolescence. The signs are everywhere. Marine The scientific community, too, has its organiza- scientists spend much time trying to define what tions for the exchange of information and the they are. They see a unity in all ocean science, but exercise of concerted action. At the apex of these this unifying concept has yet to weld a single bodies are the Committee on Oceanography of the strong scientific society which can represent their National Academy of Sciences, and the National views or provide a suitable coherent forum for the Academy of Engineering Committee on Ocean exchange of ideas or presentation of publications. Engineering. The fisheries and biology oriented marine scien- The prestigious platforms of the National tists belong to the American Society of Limnology Academies offer the scientific community a means and Oceanography, the physical oceanographers to make its opinions known and its influence felt and marine geophysicists are organized principally in the highest councils. It criticizes, reviews, and within sections of the American Geophysical recommends. Federal agencies are extremely sensi- Union, and the marine technologists in the new tive to viewpoints expressed through the Acad- and growing Marine Technology Society. These are emies. but institutional symptoms of some of the prob- 1 University Curricula in the Marine Sciences, ICO lems troubling the science-the lack of rapport Pamphlet No. 30, August 1967. between the scientist and technologist, the split 1-18 Table 8. DOCTORAL CANDIDATES AND DEGREES GRANTED AT 29 INSTITUTIONS WITH OCEAN SCIENCE CURRICULA Academic Year 1960-1 1961-2 1962-3 1963-4 1964-5 1965-6 1966-7 1967-8' Ph.D. Candidates Enrolled 76 185 284 289 382 463 499 590 Ph.D. Degrees Granted. 27 30 27 42 60 61 73 136 lAnticipated. Source: April 1968 Survey by Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities, National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development. between the physical and geophysical ocean- This growth is shown in Table 9. Since 1963 the ographers on the one hand and the marine biology rate of growth has decreased from 7.3 per cent to and fisheries oceanographers on the other. There is Table 9. NAVY AND NATIONAL SCIENCE a growing awareness of these dichotomies. These FOUNDATION OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH dichotomies worry scientists as they begin more FUNDING fully to comprehend the interdependence of their Total Research Funds disciplines and realize that the problems of the (in millions of dollars) estuaries, development of marine resources, en- Navy NSF 11 vironmental observation and prediction, can be CRP' NSF Navy Change solved only by concerted effort of interacting 1963 22 -13.6 3-5.6--- disciplines. 2.6 1964 24 14.2 38.2 If adolescence is measured by excitement and 3.0 1965 25.5 15.7 41.2 rapid growth, then the present state of marine 1966 26.5 17.3 43.8 2.6 science qualifies well for this appellation. The new 1967 27.0 18.1 45.1 1.3 excitement about the oceans has communicated 1968 -2-T. 1.1 itself quickly. The youth of our country go where - _0 1 19.21 46.2 the action is and in their mind the action in lContract Research Program. oceanography is scientifically and intellectually 2.2 per cent. The amount spent by these two exciting. An ever-increasing number of well quali- agencies over the years is shown in Figure 2. The fied students are applying for courses in the period of rapid growth of the first half of the marine sciences. Graduate schools in recent years decade of the 60's has stopped. have turned away far more qualified applicants The momentum attained over the past decade than they have accepted; graduate training today is must be maintained for at least as long as proceeding at unprecedented levels. Table 8 shows necessary to place the activity on a stable, higher the rapid growth of doctoral candidates and 30- doctoral degrees granted from 1960 to 1968. AOOOOO The marine science enterprise, in comparison 25- NAVY Contract Research Program with a decade ago, is healthy, energetic and < 20---- diversified, with the normal stresses and strains i@ that beset a vigorously growing field. 0 15--- However, the Nation's current financial stresses Z 00e are beginning to inhibit growth at a time when the enterprise at the academic institutions is on the verge of full flower. 5- As a measure of the levelling off of the financial 0- support for marine science the growth in research 1950 1965 1960 1965 19'. funds during the past five years of two of the Figure 2. Navy and National Science Founda- largest agencies which have traditionally supported tion oceanographic research funding. basic marine science research at academic institu- tions-the Office of Naval Research and the plateau that will underpin a total national marine National Science Foundation-were examined. affairs program. 1-19 Chapter 3 Basic Science-Key to Understanding Our Planet 7he spirit which has carried us to rugged mountain them to navigate by. Knowledge of the relief of peaks, remote polar ice caps,. and distant reaches the deep ocean bottom, at first pursued for purely of outer space now propels us to the ocean deeps. scientific reasons, was soon sought for practical This spirit is fortified with a confidence developed applications such as trans-ocean telegraph cables. by past contributions of science that we will not We see clearly the necessity for attacking the only conquer the ocean deeps, but will use them in problems of resource management and develop- wtisfying the needs of our society. ment, of environmental prediction, or those Hubert H. Humphrey associated with National security, but only dimly Vice President the need for the knowledge to come from the pursuit of our intellectual curiosity. In fact, the The fundamental challenge and motivation for temptation to concentrate on the solutions to science is to expand man's understanding of specific, near-term problems is almost over- himself and his environment. Society supports the whelming. scientist's quest for basic knowledge because its A program of basic marine science directed citizens share his curiosity and his faith that this toward the understanding of our whole planet knowledge will yield unforeseen advances in the must be regarded as a National investment of our quality of their lives. Our physical home is a scientific and intellectual resources with utility composite of interacting earth, sea, sun and air, above and beyond its immediate return. It must and an understanding of the oceans as a major link also be regarded as the sound way to guarantee in the indivisible whole is vital to any real that the United States has, at all times, a pool of comprehension of the planet. talented and knowledgeable manpower upon The oceans represent the dominant feature of which to draw in hours of danger to our physical our physical environment. They were the cradle of or economic health, or our National security. life and their basins were linked, in ways not yet The oceans have traditionally been a highway fully understood, to the arrangement of the of commerce, a source of nutrition, and an area of continents. Many of the world's secrets may struggle. In the future, use of the oceans as a therefore be expected to lie locked in or under the source of raw material will increase, marine foods oceans. will play an increasing role in nutrition, and it While studies aimed toward illuminating the seems certain that the oceans will remain an area fundamentafriddles of ocean science have been of power struggle. The nation must maintain its receiving increased attention and support, the reserves of marine scientists and marine expertise origins of this Nation's interest in the seas have at a level equal to the many problems likely to been largely pragmatic, and there continues to be a face us, as the seas become more important to all tendency to require at least a prospect of tangible, of the nations of the world. With increasing economic pay-off from most of the scientific frequency, crisis situations require the trained work. This requirement must not be pervasive. marine specialist, as, for example, the search for It is our view, and we wish to express it as the submarine Thresher, the search for the nuclear clearly and forcefully as possible, that under- bomb off Spain, and the cleanup of the Torrey standing our planetary oceans is itself a vital goal Canyon oil spill. of the marine science effort, and one whose How should the marine science community cogency is borne out in any historical perspective. orgiiiize for its share of the total task of planetary Science born of disinterested intellectual curios- understanding?. ity is not designed for specific gain, but it has In the light of our traditions, of the nature of produced, with compelling regularity, applications the scientists, and of our National history of which have literally changed the face of the earth. scientific achievement through freedom of inquiry, Man tried to know and measure the nature of the it is clear that regimentation is not the answer. stars and the planets long before mariners used Scientific activity gravitates quite naturally to the 1-20 SEAMOUNT -OR GUYOT. IT IS APPROXIMATELY 9 MILES WIDE AT ITS CREST AND RISES 9,000 FT. ABOUT THE SURROUNDING OCEAN FLOOR. A THIN VENEER OF SEDIMENTS OVERLIES THE IGNEOUS CORE. 71 ,@,@SEC(?N D,,B OTTO M TIPLE@_@@@; AzP �M BOTTO DEPTH 12.50 f T -t- 'F 5 MILES H 3500 -"BOTTOM DEPT ... ...... . -7@ @_N Z F I R S TBOTTOM MULTIPLE, ............. 5 5 A Figure 3. (National Science Foundation photo) areas of greatest challenge and need. It should be the earth's core, that the ocean ridge system is an our inclination to support the scientist interested integral part of this process. in the basic problems of understanding the plane- The theory of continental drift was set forth tary oceans and to provide the institutional, clearly by the meteorologist Alfred Wegener mi facility, and Federal support necessary to his 1912.1 It remained largely uncredited in the work. United States until the 1960's because nobody What are some of the problems that our could account for any energy source capable of scientists find ripe for study? The nature of the moving masses as large as continents. Now, largely earth's evolution is not understood, nor why the due to the work of geophysicists and geochernists continents have their shapes and locations, nor in the ocean and on the continents, a composite why the sea floor is rugged with ridges, seamounts, portrait has begun to emerge -, based upon syste- and trenches. Scientists now believe that, given an matic measurements of the thicknesses of ocean adequate quantity and quality of observations, an sediments, the magnetic properties of ocean vol- explanation of these fascinating questions may be canic rocks, the geo-chronology of continental near. In studying them, a store of information rocks, the heat flow through the ocean floor.' about the sea floor and its composition can be The case has yet to be proven and the details of acquired for a multitude of uses which today the mechanics yet to be understood. Scientists cannot be foreseen. Scientists are coming increasingly to believe Die Enstehung der Kontinente, Wegener, Petennann's Mitt. 58,1912. that our continents have drifted to their present 2 Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence, Vine, locations in response to the dynamic currents of Science, Vol. 154, No. 3755, Dec. 16, 1966. 1-21 333-093 0 - 69 - 3 UPPER CARBONIFEROUS 310-280 Million YeamAgo V Figure 5. Twenty tons ofPacific hake (Merluccius productus) caught by Bureau of Commercial Fisheries research vessel EOCENE John N. Cobb in a one-hour midwater 53or54-37or 38 Million trawl. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Ye-Ago photo) temperature is stable and cold; the tempo of life, a crawl. There are no photosynthetic plants. The supply of energy into the food web comes from above. There is virtually no information on the rate at which organic matter is delivered, or its OLDER division for consumption among bacteria, bottom- QUATERNARY living animals or fish. If use of the deep ocean is UP to 3 Million YearsAgo anticipated, it is necessary to build our under- standing of the fundamental processes which occur there. Will they be used for the disposition of radioactive and human wastes? Will man be work- ing and operating at such depths? At great depths, Figure 4. A. Wegener's depiction ofconti- plants and animals selectively concentrate radio- nental drift for three geologic periods. Shaded area is ocean; dotted areas are shal- active isotopes, they become food for other low seas. Present-day outlines and rivers animals which may go higher and in turn become are shown only for purposes of identifica- tion. (A. Wegener, The Origins of Continents food for commercial fish. The meager store of and Oceans, trans. from the third German knowledge of this portion of the food web must edition, 1922) be materially increased. The capability to study in know what must be measured and where. One of these depths must be developed. the fundamental puzzles of the planet appears Much has been learned of the chemistry of the soluble. oceans, but major mysteries remain. Much has been learned about the living crea- The ocean is a 3.5 per cent salt solution contain- tures of the ocean; comprehension of the dy- ing all the known naturally occurring elements. namics of the food web of the seas is beginning, The major components and some of the minor but many blind spots remain. Scientists are puz- ones are present in constant proportions through- zled about life in the deepest parts of the ocean. out the world ocean. Despite the variable composi- They ask: how do animals living more than 2,000 tion of streams feeding the ocean, the constancy is meters under the sea sustain themselves? The maintained by chemical reactions in the sea, both biomass there is only a miniscule fraction of that as the result of biological activity and interaction in the shallow, illuminated layers where the with detrital material. These processes have not world's fish are harvested. There may well be no yet been fully understood, although well thought- fish crops worth seeking at those depths. Yet, out models have been proposed. Some of the trace about 84 per cent of the ocean floor hes below elements, including a few that are clearly funda- 2,000 meters, and a large part of the total mental to life processes, show variation with depth nutrients in the ocean cycle through this zone. The and geography. The significance of these variations 1-22 to large-scale processes in the ocean, such as ocean If oceanography is the study of the sea in all i ts circulation, biological productivity, and sedimenta- aspects, then marine archeology, being the physi- tion, have been guessed at but still remain obscure. cal record of man and the sea, must be an essential When will such k nowledge be required? part of the discipline and should have visibility in Other classes of chemical species that have been any comprehensive program. studied in the last decade are the stable and These questions-and others could as well be radioactive isotopes. The differences in the abund- propounded-go to the heart of our comprehen- ances of the hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in the sion of the origin, dynan-dcs, and changes in planet ocean can be related to formation of water types Earth. The search 'for answers will be difficult, but and oceanic circulation. Radioactivity can be used it will have lasting consequence for the Nation and to study oceanic processes because of its clocklike all humanity.'It is a challenge that must be met nature. with a vigorous National program. Numerous radioactive isotopes, both naturally "To probe the mysteries of the sea" was produced or man-made, have been used to eluci- identified by President Johnson as the first goal of date the mechanisms of ocean water movement, his proposal for an International Decade of Ocean both in surface and deep waters, and the kinetics Exploration. Since science is inherently an inter- of air-sea interaction. Scientists believe the pursuit national concern and the planetary oceans affect of such studies will teach more about the nature of and interest us all, it is appropriate that advances the oceans as a fluid. The applications of such in understanding the fundamental characteristics studies cannot be foreseen today; but no one of the ocean environment should be achieved as a doubts that there will be applications. cooperative, international effort. The proposed And what can the oceans tell us of climate? Decade is one mechanism by which a fruitful Scientists today appreciate the profound influence program can be organized to achieve this.3 of the oceans upon the climates of the world; they are just beginning to understand the coupling between the oceans and the atmosphere, but they Recommendation: do not fully understand how the influences are 'The Nation should establish as a major goal the propagated. A sound theory of climate would .3 account for ice ages of the past and possibly of the advancement of an understanding of the planetary future. oceans as a principal focus for its basic marine A complete understanding of the ocean must science effort. The proposal by President Johnson for an International Decade of Ocean Exploration include the study of the remains which previous is an excellent concept through which this major civilizations have left us in the sea. New tech- goal can be achieved. nology holds great promise for more efficient underwater search: side scanning sonar, metal detectors, and improved seismic and three dimen- 3 sional mapping techniques are already in use and International Decade of Ocean Exploration, Report by the National Council on Marine Resources and are being improved. Engineering Development, 1968. 1-23 Chapter 4 Basic Science-Key to Action We are just at the threshold of our knowledge marine problems facing the Nation. The Commis- of the oceans. Already their military importance, sion calls for the institution of an improved system their potential use for weather predictions, for for the rational management of these vital areas. food and for minerals are evident. Further research Near shore waters and the Great Lakes and will undoubtedly disclose additional uses. their adjacent waterfront lands are some of the Knowledge of the oceans is more than a matter most valuable in the Nation. They have a great of curiosity, our very survival may hinge upon it. variety of uses: transportation, shoreline develop- Basic research is the cornerstone on which the ment, recreation, the recovery and exploitation of successful use of the seas must rest. living and mineral resources, National defense, John F. Kennedy. wildlife preservation, and waste disposal. March 29, 1961 The Panel Report on Management and Develop- In approaching its task of defining the role of ment of the Coastal Zone investigates in detail basic science in the National marine effort 'the the problems arising from the many uses of these Panel was confronted with the question: Lsic zones. science for what purpose? A certain amount of effort must be devoted to the understanding of the processes of the oceans if only to insure the availability of knowledge about one of the most important areas of National activity. An equally pressing and more immediate need quickly became apparent: the realization that the principal programs advocated by the Commission Figure 6. Degradation of shore area due to as the very core of the Nation's thrust into the sea uncontrolled pollution, Pinellas County, Florida. (Federal Water Pollution Control would be seriously impeded-and in some caqes so Administration photo) limited as to be defeated-by ignorance of specific types of basic oceanic processes. In many parts of From the viewpoint of basic science, the these programs, acquiring this fundamental knowl- conflicts among uses and users of these areas are edge represents the only hope of success. many and of increasing severity. One cannot The programs advocated by the Commission go expect to dredge gravel from the right-of-way of a to the heart of important segments of National life. submarine pipeline, to plant stakes for a fish trap Among them are plans for dealing with the in a shipping lane, or to water ski in a gunnery management and development of our estuaries, range. Adjudicating conflicting claims to the uses coastal waters, and Great Lakes, of our living and of these valuable areas is difficult at best, but a mineral resources, for the use of the seas for prerequisite for any rational use is an understand- National security and the monitoring and pre(fic- ing of the consequences of one use on others. In tion of the ocean environment. many cases the necessary knowledge is not avail- A determination was sought as to how the able. It is here, in the management of these zones, programs were limited by scientific knowledge, that the greatest urgency for action in the face of and to attempt to make the Nation aware of those insufficient knowledge appears. areas which need radical acceleration. A. Changing the Shape of the Coast 1. BASIC SCIENCE AND THE NEAR SHORE Man's technology has given him the power to WATERS reshape his coasts, and he has used it extensively The effective use of coastal and estuarine zones and, for the most part, well. The record of the and the Great Lakes is among the most urgent past, however, will not satisfy the needs of the 1-24 future. Natural land and seascapes, the wetlands Tables 10 and 11 show the level of Federal that serve as breeding grounds for fish, and the effort in the estuaries and Great Lakes. beaches are being eroded both by nature and man. It is necessary to predict more precisely the Table 10. ESTUARIES consequences of nature's actions and man's; to do (in millions of dollars) this, substantial strides in basic science are re- quired. Estimated Estimated Keeping coasts and harbors in repair and FY 1967 FY 1968 developing them is an unending challenge. Approx- Smithsonian Institution. imately two-thirds of our coastline is considered poorly protected or endangered,' despite the fact Department of Commerce 2.0 0.6 that the Nation has invested substantial sums of Atomic Energy Commission 0.3 0.3 money in their upkeep. Department of 1 1 The Corps of Engineers has developed 500 Transportation . . . . commercial harbors with depths up to 45 feet, 250 National Science Foundation 0.5 0.6 for small craft, and has improved 23,000 miles of Department of Health, 2 intracoastal and inland waterways. Since 1946, the Education,& Welfare 3.5 1.4 Department of the Interior 19.9 23.4 Corps has undertaken more than 100 projects 1. Bureau .of Commercial Fisheries (8.5) (9.3) 2. Geological Survey 0.1) (1.2) 3. Bureau of Sport Fisheries (4.3) (5.1) 4. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (3.8) 5. Office of Saline Water (0 .0) .8) 0 V -7- 6. National Park Service (1.4) (1.8) Department of Defense . 3.9 4.5 1. Department of the Army (1.9) (2.2) t of the Navy (2.1) (2.2) 2. Departmen Total 26.6 29.4 Figure 7. Texas coast hurricane surge model. Hydraulic model constructed to a scale of Less than $50,000. 1:100 vertically and 1:3,000 horizontally is 2Includes $2.1 million in construction in FY 1967. being used to determine the most suitable plan for hurricane surge protection for the Source: Marine Science Affairs, 1968. Texas coast. Tides and tidal currents are re- produced in model by tide generator located in Gulf of Mexico portion of model. Hurri- Much more -needs to be known about the cane surges are reproduced by horizontal displacement surge gene .rator. (Army Corps physical processes that shape our coastlines and of Engine- photo) estuaries: how, for instance, combinations of designed to stop beach erosion a t a total cost of waves, tides, and currents affect depositon and $237 million, of which the Federal share was $94 erosion; the sources of beach sands, and when and how it is naturally removed from beaches; and the million. As severe storms battered our shores, effects of storm surges. $361 miRion-$253 million of it Federal funds- Simulation of observed conditions through the have been invested 'in hurricane protection under 2 construction of hydraulic scale models and mathe- Corps of Engineers direction since 1958. matical models will improve predictions of the effects of change. 'Annual Report of the Corps of Engineers, Vol. 11, More needs to be known of the marine organ- 1966. isms and biological processes of the coastal zones. 2 From information fumished the panel by Brigadier Detailed information on the food web, tolerances General H. G. Woodbury, Jr., Director of Civil Works, of each species to environmental change, and the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Oct. 9, 1967. 1-25 Table 11., GREAT LAKES of engineering problems suffers from the lack of (in millions of dollars) knowledge of the dynamics of inshore water movements. There is no theory suitable to describe Estimated Estimated the turbulent motion of water particles in the surf FY 1967 FY 1968 zone, nor can our instruments accurately measure .Department of Commerce . 0.1 0.1 currents in this area. In the process of altering our land and water for Department of beneficial purposes, man frequently produces Transportation . . . . 0.0 0.0 catastrophic side effects. Dredging is carried on for State Department . . . , 1.0 1.0 a variety of reasons: National Science Foundation .2 .2 Department of Interior . 3.3 2.9 -Creation and maintenance of navigable channels 1. Bureau of and inlets for commercial and recreational use; Comm. Fisheries (1.5) (1.8) 2. Bureau of Sport Fisheries (0.3) (0.3) -Creation of useful property, marinas, recrea- 3. National Park Service 1 (0.1) tional areas; 4. Federal Water Pollution -Improved flushing action in bays, and estuarine Control Administration (1.5) (0.7) creeks; Department of Defense. . 2.5 3.6 -Commercial mining of sand and gravel. 1. Department of the Army (2.4) (3.5) 2. Department of the Navy (0.1). (0-11) It is not only what is done along the shores that Total 7.1 7.8- affects coasts and beaches, action far upstream Less than $50,000. - may have drastic consequences. The flushing of minor embayments within estuaries is heavily influenced by seasonal fluctuations in salinity, largely through natural changes in river flow. Regulation and evening-off of river flow may T prevent flushing action and allow a buildup of predators which rob shellfish beds of much of their richness. Basic research in microscale estua rine circulation must continue if predictions of the effects of our actions in regulating the flow of rivers are to be made. A classic example of side effect has been the invasion by the lamprey eel3 when the upper Figure 8. Scripps oceanographic model tank Great Lakes were opened to the sea possibly as for simulating waves and other ocean phe- early as the opening of the first Welland Canal, in nomena is an example of the unique labora- tory facilities required for oceanographic 1833, and certainly by the time of the deepest research. (University of California photo) (and fourth) canal in 1932. The eel brought a cycle of biological change which has already distribution and abundance of organisms must be destroyed most of the lake trout. Immigration of obtained to make the most effective use of this alewives into Lakes Erie and Michigan and their rich region. large populations has resulted in the shores of Lack of basic understanding prevents the effec- Lake Michigan being littered with millions of dead tive use of near shore waters. On the one hand, the alewives. Furthermore, a new ecological balance ill effects of our actions cannot be foreseen in has yet to be reached. time to correct them; on the other, when irre- versible harm might occur, we do not know how to prescribe the right amount of corrective action 3 and are forced to base regulations on the most The Spread of the Sea Lamprey Through the Great Lakes, Hubbs and Pope, Transactions of the American conservative estimate of probabilities. The solution Fisheries Society, 66, 1937. 1-26 Knowledge resulting from research has, on can lead to increased salinity in an estuary, with repeated occasions over the years, eased strains resulting changes in the biota. between fishermen and companies exploring for Normally such environmental changes are grad- oil reserves off the Gulf and West Coasts. ual and reversible by ceasing the activities that The geophysical surveys needed to evaluate the generated tliern. The estuaries and the Great lakes oil-bearing potential of an area involve the use of where the drainage of the land is finally delivered explosives. Fishermen, fearing massive fish kills, are seriously affected by waterborne pollution. have protested vigorously when surveys were imminent. Extensive research to determine where the damage threshold lay showed the lack of danger to the fishing interests, by the use of animal cages recovered after demonstration shots. Explosions were also timed not to interefere with fish migrations. The balance between the, needs of the geophysicist and the safety of marine popula- tions was preserved. In light of the large investment made by Federal, State, and local governments to shape our Figure 9. Assorted debris, including a float- ing dock, polluting Cuyahoga River, near coastlines and estuaries to our needs, the present Ceveland (Federal Water Pollution Control effort devoted to acquiring the fundamental Administration photo) knowledge of near shore and estuarine processes is Attack on the problems of pollution must be inadequate. accompanied by an increased level of basic re- search on the dynamics of estuarine waters, on the Recommendation: identification of specific pollutants and the tracing of their effects, both on individual species and on Each Federal agency concerned with near shore ecosystems, and on the mechanisms whereby waters should devote a considerably higher per organisms in the estuarine ecosystem take up and cent of its funds to basic research in the physical accumulate various kinds of pollutants. processes which shape our coastlines and estuaries. Numerous examples can be cited where the lack This will insure the availability of essential knowl- of basic knowledge has created intolerable, condi- edge necemry to plan and implement programs tions. The introduction of modern agricultural for their protection and preservation. chemicals has created problems in our estuaries B. Polluting the Waters and Great Lakes.' Runoff of excess fertilizers contributes an over-supply of nutrients; runoff of Man has brought profound upheaval in the herbicides and pesticides is toxic to marine organ- natural balance of our environmental forces, an isms. Even when the level of concentration in the upheaval which perils his own well-being today, water is low, the pesticide can be successively and which, unless current trends are reversed, will concentrated as it moves through the food web. pose even greater danger tomorrow. The fact that, unlike municipal and industrial Usually, these disturbances are the result of pollutants, agricultural pollutants do not originate gradual accumulation or modification-the build- at a point source adds to the complexity of the ing of cities, clearing of forests, plowing of problem. prairies, leveling of duries, the addition of flush The problem of marine pollution cannot be toilets, the use of leaded gasoline or agricultural solved in isolation from the more general problem &micals, and disposal of industrial wastes. They of wider waste management and control. A par- can consist of dissolved, suspended, or floating ticularly comprehensive document in this regard is material. They can be thermal, by augmentation of the National Academy of Sciences' study, "Waste the heat content of the water mass through its use as a cooling liquid. Or they can result not from 4Great Lakes Restoration-Review of Potentials and artificial additions to the environment but from Recommendations for Implementation, Research Report to the Commission by Pacific Northwest Laboratories of artificial subtractions; the diversion of fresh water the Battelle Memorial Institute, June 1968. 1-27 Management and Control,"-s which points to the In addition, the very valuable shrimp and shellfish need for consideration of the total problem and all industry is estuarine dependent. the possible alternatives offered. The conservation and management of our fish- Whatever ultimate solutions are proposed for eries is vitally dependent upon our knowledge of the nation to. combat the entire spectrum of these regions as habitats. The relationship of the environmental pollution, key elements of knowl- biota to physical changes in their estuarine en- edge must be available on the processes in our vironment constitutes a major problem. The over- estuarine and near shore environments. lapping, often contradictory needs of this popula- Recommendati Ion: tion require careful research on the habitat. The Nation should undertake a much enhanced preferences of each species or ecosystem under consideration. Natural disturbances often have program of basic research into the dynamics of catastrophic effects upon marine populations. estuarine waters, the identification of specific Mass mortalities often result from sudden changes pollutants and the tracing of their effects, both on in salinity, temperature or the depletion of individual species and ecosystems, and on the oxygen. I . mechanisms through which organisms in the estua- Further, the changes likely to be wrought by rine ecosystem take up and accumulate various such engineering activities as constructing drainage kinds of pollutants. systems, dredging channels and disposing of spoil, C. Fish Habitats building seawalls and jetties and stabilizing dunes, all require investigation. As pointed out in "Changing the Shape of the On the other hand, modification by man to Coast" and 'Tolluting the Waters," one of the alleviate environmental stress, while impractical in principal uses of the near shore environment which the open ocean, can be accomplished in the more conflicts violently with other uses is the harvest limited confines of the estuary. Thermal changes and natural breeding ground of some of the most resulting from the operation ot power plants or valuable shellfish and fmfish. Table 12 lists the desalination facilities may be used beneficially; large number of sport and commercial species of Atlantic finfish which are estuarine dependent. 6 breakwater construction, creation of artificial reefs, dredging operations and river flow control all may serve to enhance and augment the estua- Waste Management and Control, National Academy rine and near shore habitat. of Sciences-National Research Council, Pub. No. 1400, 1966. Such information as the Nation needs cannot 6American Littoral Society, Spec. Pub. No. 5, 1967. be obtained over the short term. If we are to Table 12. IMPORTANT ESTUAR IN E-DEPEN DENT ATLANTIC GAME AND COMMERCIAL FISH' Adults found mostly in Adults found partially Adults found mostly the estuaries, some in the estuaries, some along the only seasonally only seasonally open coast Flounder (winter flounder or Stripqd bass (rockfish )2 Bluefish blackback) Fluke (summer flounder) Tautog (blackfish) Spotted trout Porgy (scup) King whiting Tarpon Weakfish (squeteague (kingfish) )2 Croaker (hardhead) or white trout) Alewife (river, herring 2 Shook Red drum (redfish-or channel Shad Spot (lafayette) bass) Atlantic mackerel White perch 2 Black.drum, Menhaden (bunker pogy) Mullet Black sea'bass IThe three categories represent a rough approximation of habitat, preference of adult fish. 2Anadromous species: Living as adults in salt or brackish water but spawning in fresh or nearly fresh water. Source: Fish and Man, American Littoral Society, Spec. Pub. No. 5, 1967: 1-28 understand the effects of change upon fish habi- learn whether basic science problems exist which tats, we need natural laboratories in which we can are critical to the expansion of our national study the rhythms and relationships governing the fisheries. physical and biological environment of the estua- It is generally admitted that providing food for rine zones, over a period of time. a burgeoning population is one of the most critical Untouched estuarine and near-coastal zones are problems facing mankind over the next 20 years. rapidly disappearing. It is urgent that the Nation The quality and very existence of human life for millions of persons depend upon its success, and set aside and preserve a sufficient number of such estuaries to provide the natural laboratories re- man must turn to the oceans for part of the quired to generate the information and under- answer to this vital question. standing that will increasingly be needed. This The report of the Panel on the World Food information will have predictive value essential to Supply of the President's Science Advisory Com- evaluation of the possible effects of planned mittee listed as its first'basic conclusion:8 environmental changes and will also provide in- sight for the correction of existing adverse condi- The scale, severity, and duration of the worldfood tions. problem are so great that a massive, long-range, The National Academy of Sciences Committee innovative effort unprecedented in human history on Oceanography recommended the establishment will be required to master it. of large scale laboratory facilities for study of the Fish is consumed in a number of ways: indi- survival requirements of young fish and shellfish.', rectly in enormous quantities, both in the United In a letter to the panel, the Committee reviewed States and abroad, through the medium of fish its previous recommendation and reiterated its meal used in the production of poultry and pork; view. and directly, as a'source of protein. Although it Unspoiled study areas must be set aside for does not appear that the sea can supply the needed permanent scientific use. As many as five such increase in carbohydrates, food from the sea can preserves will be required- one in the cool water help supply the badly needed increased amount of regions and one in the warm water regions of both protein. Among the sources of food additives now East and West Coasts and one on the Gulf Coast. being developed are leaf and oil protein, fish protein concentrate, and cultured marine algae. Recommendation: Presently, the animal protein additives contain the Specific representative sites should be selected for largest number of badly needed essential amino careful, prolonged study to permit the accumula- acids. tion of basic knowledge essential for under- Fish protein concentrate production has begun standing the statics and dynamics of the coastal but there are numerous problems to be solved in regime. adapting the process to other species. Further, if it is to be used in the tropics, the technology must 11. DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING RESOURCES be developed for making FPC from multiple- The living resources of the sea have historically species catches. For all these reasons, the problem of insuring been a staple of man's diet. Today, the technology adequate supplies of raw fish is of critical concern, of catching and marketing fish has revolutionized especially in the face of fish stocks which are finite the ways in which the riches of the sea - are in size. harvested. The National policy implications for, and the A. Fisheries-Traditional and New role of United States fisheries in the context of these rapidly-changing conditions are treated ex- Efficient management of traditional fisheries tensively in the report of the Panel on Marine depends upon the Nation's adding to its basic Resources. This panel, therefore, has sought to understanding. Particularly needed is an under- 70ceanography 1966, National Academy of Sciences, 8The World Food Problem, Report of the President's National Research Council, Pub. No. 1492, 1967. Science Advisory Committee, 1967. 1-29 standing of the relationships between environ- tions, should enable fishermen to work more mental conditions and infancy and egg survival for productively and efficiently. many of the stocks. "New fisheries" are defined as those involving Science must come to understand the inter- the harvesting either of species previously not action of competitor-predator systems, the study exploited or of previously untouched stocks of of the dynamics of multi-species systems under species that are fished elsewhere. The most urgent predation. For example, the replacement of the requirement for scientific information in the case commercially important Pacific sardine by the less of a new fishery is for rapid means of stock valuable anchovy was apparently the combined assessment. There must be determinations of result of a highly selective fishery and natural abundance, susceptibility to existing fishing tech- environmental change, the interactions of which niques, and, for effective continued use, maximum are not understood.9 sustained yield. Exploratory fishing may reveal Better correlations between environmental con- potentially exploitable stocks, but basic studies in ditions and fish abundance, when accompanied by population dynamics are necessary to evaluate the better monitoring and prediction of those condi- long term value of a new fishery. Many experts believe the harvest of currently-exploited ocean fish can be quadrupled.10 If the present 7.7 per cent annual rate of increase of world landings, which has been maintained for more than a decade, continues this level will be reached in 20 years, when many more stocks than at present will be exploited at near-maximum yields. There is, thus, an urgent need for the develop- ment of methods for fishery resource manage- ment, based on such modern technology as computer simulation models which will take into account, for each stock of fish, not only natural Y rates of reproduction and growth, food abun- dance, natural mortality, and the increased mor- tality caused by fishing, but also such economic factors as the operational effectiveness of different types of gear and processing and marketing costs. The fashioning of such models will require basic research, since simulation models are no better than our understanding of the interactions be- tween the processes they simulate. The use of an approach which fully considers the interactions among the marine organisms, their environment and modern technology, is essential for effective fisheries management. Figure 10. Global scientific expedition 1967 Recommendation: Modern oceanographic observations are utiliz- ing complex electronic instruments such as A continued and expanded effort be directed this salinity-temperature-depth sensor. Al- toward achieving a basic understanding of such though more costly than classical instruments, these instruments portray more accuracy and key problems as fish population dynamics, the realistic measurement of the actual ocean effect of environmental conditions on fish popula- structure. (ESSA photoj tion, and the dynamics of multi-species systems 9Population iliology of Pacific Sardine (Sardinops under predation. caerulea), Murphy, Proceedings of the California Acad- emy of Sciences, fourth series, Vol. 34, No. 1, July 1966; 1077ze Potential Harvest of the Sea, M. B. Schaefer. numerous publications of the California Cooperative Transactions, American Fisheries Society, Vol. 94, No. 2, Fishery Investigations (Cal. COFI). April 1965. 1-30 B. Aquaculture year, the total landings in the United States of all fish and shell fish destined for human consump- An entirely different set of requirements for tion was under 1.3 million tons. 14 basic research exists in aquaculture, the husbandry Recent reports on the Columbia River hatchery of aquatic organisms. Progress has been severely program of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries limited by lack of information on the genetics and show the potential of this aspect of aquaculture. It breeding of potentially valuable species, the food is estimated that the Columbia River system requirements of the juvenile organisms at various contributed 28 million pounds of salmon to the stages, the nature and treatment of disease, and 1967 catch, an estimated 15 million pounds of optimum environmental conditions at different which were from the hatchery operation. Cost stages of growth. benefit analyses show a ratio ranging from 2.5:1 to Although marine, aquaculture holds limited 4.5:1 for fall chinook runs and a high of 7.8:1 for promise for direct production of cheap protein coho. The figures are based mainly on the ex-vessel food in the foreseeable future, the potential is high price of the commercial catch. for food production through controlled feeding BCF estimates that the hatcheries now operate and selective breeding, and even for manipulation at 65-85 per cent of capacity, and that with full of the genetic makeup of marine species in capacity operation, plus modest investments in culture." I such equipment as automatic feeding devices, the Great success in culturing fresh-water species hatchery contribution to the fishery could be has been attained in many parts of the world. doubled. Better understanding of selective breed- ing and optimum nutritional requirements of the young could bring production up to 50 million pounds per year.'5 The farming of species spending all or part of All their lives in salt water has been drastically limited by a lack of basic information. Only luxury species such as shrimp and oysters have been commer- cially cultured, but there are many encouraging indications in the field. Research at the University of Washington on salmonoid fishes has demon- Figure 11. The advantage of scientific fish strated the possibility of hundredfold increases in breeding is vividly shown by results obtained by Professor Lauren Donaldson of the Uni- the size of cultured fish versus wild fish of the versity of Washington. The small fish are same species and age. 16 The short generation time two-year-old wild stock rainbow trout. The and high fertility of most marine organisms make large fish is of the same stock and age but is the product of many years of selective them good subjects for selective breeding. Just as breeding. (Photo by Professor Donaldson) we now breed hornless, short-legged beef that could not compete in nature, so the protection of Israel, for example, obtains from 40 to 50 percent cultured marine organisms against their natural of its fish from pond cultures. 12 Estimates for predators will permit selective breeding for char- 1960 from mainland China show annual fresh acteristics useful to man. water fish landings at four million tons, half of It is important to establish viable aquaculture which came from fish culture. 13 During the same systems and there is sufficiently great long-term promise to warrant the following recommenda- 11 The Status and Potential of Aquaculture, Ryther and tion. Bardach, Report to the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development by the American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1968, Clearinghouse for Federal. Scientific and Technical Information, Pub. No. 14Marine Science Affairs, 1968. PB 177 768. 15 These data were provided, by the hatchery evaluation 12 ' Bamidgeh, Bulletin of Fish Culture of Israel, 19(2/3) program of Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. June 1967. . 16 Selective Breeding of Salmonoid Fishes, Donaldson, 13 Economic Aspects of the Fishing Indust?y in Main- Conference, on Marine Aquaculture, Oregon State Uni- land China, Solecki, University of British Columbia, 1966. versity, Marine Science Center, May 1968 (in press). 1-31 Recommendation: to be of greater potential value than the dominant manganese or iron with which they are associated. Major new efforts directed toward the understand- The mechanism of formation of these deposits is ing of the reproduction, growth, and development obscure, and nothing is known about the processes of potentially exploitable marine organisms should that detennine their content of copper, cobalt or be undertaken to provide the base of understand- nickel. ing and technology necessary to make the prod- Because of the mineralogical dissimilarity to ucts of aquaculture more available. ores now being exploited on land, research on III. DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL procedures for separating the metals in these RESOURCES nodules is required. Although hot brines like those of the Red Sea The panel, mindful of the report of the Re- and the deposits associated with them have not sources Panel, here confines its discussions to been found in other regions of the ocean, the those aspects of resource development which are possibility that similar formations may exist in limited by the lack of fundamental knowledge. other regions of the mid-ocean ridge systems The Resources Panel has pointed out the growing should not be overlooked." Further studies of contribution to the Nation's needs for oil and gas the elements and isotopes contained in the brine and sulphur which are being made by offshore pools and their underlying sediments should be deposits, both along our own shoreline and the made for clues about their age and origin, a shorelines of other nations. It points to the need procedure which may facilitate the search for such to start now to explore the potential of our deposits elsewhere in the ocean. continental shelves for the contributions to the The panel has recommended a much enhanced Nation's future needs for hard mineral resources. program of basic science directed at understand- Mineral resource development is not presently ing our planet through research on the geology and limited by a lack of basic understanding of mineral geophysics of the ocean floor. (See "Basic formation processes in the sea any more than on Science-Key to Understanding Our Planet.") It land. The principal limitations are in technology, feels that this effort will satisfy the basic science exploration, and economics. The basic nature of needs for the mineral resource development. the processes leading to mineral deposit and oil As we have indicated, we support the objectives accumulation appear adequately understood to the of the International Decade of Exploration 19 point where they concern location and exploita- proposed by the United States. These objectives tion of mineral resources under the sea. Further include: exploitation of these resources depends to a great degree upon the preparation of a complete inven- Determination of the geological structure and tory. The needs are for topographic, geophysical, mineral and energY resource potential of the and geologic mapping and charting. There is need world's continental margins. for elucidating and portraying the details of the fteparation of topographic, geological, and ge@logical structure on the Continental Shelf and, geophysical maps of selected areas of the deep Slope; the structure of these margins is incom- ocean floor. pletely understood. Coring and drilling, on the continental margins Except for the hot brines and their associated and deep ocean 'floor in selected areas... deposits in the Red Sea, the materials of potential Investigations of evolutionary processes of economic importance presently known to exist on ocean basins. the deep ocean floors beyond the continental slope are the ferro-manganese nodules and crusts." They also contain small percentages of 18 Hydrographic Observations of the Red Sea Brines, copper, cobalt, and nickel, and these metals appear Munns, Stanly, Densmore, Nature, Vol. 214, No. 5093, 1967. 17 19 International Decade of Ocean Exploration, Report The Mineral Resources of the Sea, Mero, American by the National Council on Marine Resources and Elsevier Publishing Co.. 1965. Engineering Development, May 1968. 1-32 Recommendation: The basic science effort required to achieve the understanding of the planet (see Basic Science- Key to Understanding Our Planet) should be supported as a necessary National effort to provide the basic geological and geophysical knowledge of the oceans required for the National program of marine mineral resource development. IV. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND PREDICTION All groups using the oceans have a commonality of needs for ocean and weather observations and predictions. One would be hard put to identify any marine activity not dependent upon such services, or whose operations could not be safer and more efficient if those services were improved. National defense, marine transportation, offshore gas, oil and mineral industries, fisheries, waste management, the protection of life and property along the shoreline, recreation-all have a vital Figure 12. nis surface platform is capable of stake in it. The need for an environmental observa- being moored in deep oceans, collects over 100 oceanographic and meteorological param- tion and prediction system, in fact, goes far eters, and can trasmit them to shore stations beyond marine interests, since the oceans are a 2,500 miles away- (Navy photo) major determinant of the weather. Monitoring the Recommendation: marine environment involves the measurement of those environmental parameters which change Extensive field experiments should be conducted with time. The physical parameters of the ocean -to describe physical processes associated with and the atmosphere change and interact in com- ocean fluctuations. Parallel efforts in geophysical plex ways, contributing to changes in the chem- fluid dynamics should be mounted which can istry and biota of the sea. provide the theoretical and practical framework The Panel Report, "Environmental Monitoring for the establishment of physical techniques for and Prediction," considers in detail all aspects of ocean prediction. the problem. In particular, it points out that significant improvements in our National ability to The recommendation will be further elaborated monitor the marine environment can be achieved in the next three sections. by the application of available technology to the acquisition of data that describe the environment. A. Air-Sea Interaction However, even when there is available a complete Many aspects of research in air-sea interaction description of the marine environment, the ability are now beginning to receive attention. However, to predict its future state will still be dependent on much more remains to be done. The most obvious the degree to which we understand the underlying interchanges between sea and atmosphere are physical processes. . . those of water, heat, and momentum. Careful Three major problem areas requiring immediate measurements of radiation, temperature gradients expansion of basic research concern the inter. in the lower atmosphere and upper layers of the change of matter and energy between sea and sea, precipitation and humidity in the air, salinity atmosphere, the dynamics of ocean currents, and at the sea surface, and the formation and break up the nature of the different scales of motion in the of sea ice, can lead to understanding of the sea. mechanisms of these major exchanges. 1-33 There are, however, many other types of mental Oceanographic Commission is embarked exchanges between oceans and atmosphere, some upon an "Integrated Global Ocean Station exceedingly subtle in their requirements for obser- System" which is the ocean analogue of the World vations, all of which need to be studied in detail. Weather Program. Both of these programs call for Energy is - transferred from wind to ocean as a much expanded effort to understand the inter- kinetic energy of waves and currents, and although action between the ocean and the atmosphere. techniques are available for forecasting the ocean Parallel activity is being initiated by, all in- surface waves and currents resulting from inter- terested agencies of the United States Government action with a wind field, they are still semi- and university groups. The first series of com- empirical. Non-linearity of the interactions, and prehensive sea-air interaction field experiments the stochastic nature of the processes involved, are scheduled for the summer of 1969 off 21 make wholly theoretical solutions extremely dif- Barbados. f Critical importance attaches to the understand- icult to formulate. Severe storms, particularly tropical hurricanes, ing of the interaction between ocean and atmos- may greatly modify the ocean'layers over which phere, on the one hand for predicting the state of they pass, mixing the surface layers to produce the oceans and on the other for predicting the profound temperature and salinity changes@ Con- state of the atmosphere. versely, tropical hurricanes are generated solely over the ocean surface and deteriorate rapidly over Recommendation: colder water or land. Solid particles are likewise exchanged between The Nation should continue to place a high the sea surface and the atmosphere. Solid nuclei priority on comprehensive field experiments to play important roles in cloud physics, and their understand air-sea interaction processes. absence may be a limiting factor controlling precipitation. Some of these nuclei originate from B. Dynamics of Ocean Currents Wt spray; other atmospheric particles originating as terrestrial or cosmic dust form a significant Ocean currents may be superficially likened to fraction of pelagic oceanic sediments. the winds of the atmosphere, but except for the Gases interchanged between the atmosphere trade winds they are significantly different in their and the sea surface form still another category of persistence and behavior. In the temperate and material involved in air-sea interaction. A detect- polar regions of the earth, regions of low pressure able secular increase of atmospheric carbon tend to drift from west to east around the earth, dioxide has been traced to industrial combustion bringing with them weather patterns that com- of coal and petroleum, raising the question of monly persist only for a few days. The wind at any what effect this might have on the dissolved given locality in these regions may blow north for carbon dioxide content of the ocean. several days, and south for the following days. I A broad attack on the theoretical and tech- Ocean current systems, at least on an oceanic nological problems of providing adequate world scale, persist season after season in the same wide meteorological information is now being geographical areas. The meridional advection of planned and coordinated by the World Meteoro- heat by these persistent ocean currents has far- logical Organization under the designation of the reaching effects on climate and fluctuations in the World Weather Program." As part of this activity, transport of these current systems are very likely undertaken jointly with the International Union of one of the main causes of. variations in average Geodesy and Geophysics and the Intergovern- temperature, rainfall, and other meteorological mental Oceanographic Commission, the World characteristics of most of the earth's surface. Meteorological Organization is planning a Global Atmospheric Research Program. The Intergovern- 21 Plan For a Major Field Experiment in Support of the Federal A ir-Sea Interaction Program, Report to the Joint 20 ICO/ICAS Panel on Air-Sea Interaction by the Sea-Air World Weather Watch-the Plan and Implementation Interaction Laboratory, Institute of Oceanography, U.S. Programme, World Meteorological Organization, May Environmental Science Services Administration, March 1967. 1967. 1-34 Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio and Adjacent 22 Regions. These efforts should be intensified; the time has come to marshal the Nation's scientific a d technological capabilities to plan comprehen- n sive attacks on outstanding problems of ocean circulation dynamics, both in the field and in the laboratory. Recommendation: e Nation should undertake a series of systematic Th W investigations into the oceans' current systems to study their dynamics through cooperative field Figure 13. Florida Gulf Stream. Typical investigations, marshaHing at one time multiple meandering of the Gulf Stream is evident by ship, buoy, and aircraft arrays, as well as an color contrast and Sargasso weed accumula- expanded effort in the theoretical and mathe- tions at the Stream margins. The darker color represents the warmer Gulf Stream water. matical modelling of such systems. The photo represents the usefulness of photography in differentiating some oceanic features. (NASA photo) C. Scales of Motion Recent observations have shown that the pat- Superimposed on the great river-like flow pat- tern of permanent ocean currents near the Equator terns of oceanic circulation and tending to obscure in all the oceans is highly complex. There are their details whenever observations are closely broad equatorial currents, flowing westward in a spaced, either in distance or in time, is a complex manner that would be expected as a response to pattern of smaller scale motions. Some of this the westward component of the trade winds on motion is associated with internal waves on inter- both sides of the Equator. But, in addition, an faces between layers of differing density. Some of intricate system of powerful equatorial counter- it takes the form of eddies and gyres with currents exists at the surface and at relatively dimensions ranging from meters to hundreds of shallow depths below the surface. Although var- kilometers. Such motion appears to be responsible 23 ious mathematical models have been proposed to for most mixing in the sea. account for these current systems, at best we have Studies of the characteristics of these motions only approximate steady state models. have revealed that appreciable energy is involved, Attack on the problems of predicting fluctua- whatever the frequency or scale investigated. tions in major ocean currents will require both Further investigation of these motions, by direct an extensive series of field observations to describe observation, by operation of hydraulic models, their actual behavior in nature and research in and by computer simulation, is needed to account geophysical fluid dynamics to account for the in detail for the mechanisms by'which they are observed properties of the currents in terms of the produced and by which energy is transmitted from inputs of thermal and wind energy on a rotating one type to another. earth. This problem is fundamental, not only to the Extensive efforts, both observational and ability to understand oceanic processes in order to theoretical, have been carried out in recent years begin to simulate these processes mathematically by various government agencies and private scien- as well as in the laboratory, but to determine the tific institutions. The ability to mount meaningful nature of the sampling intervals required for ocean observational programs in the ocean as well as to develop theoretical models has increased markedly in recent years. There have been substantial 22 Established by Intergovernmental Oceanographic international collaborative efforts to study ocean Commission Resolutions H-7 and 111-5 respectively. current systems such as the International Coopera- 23 Organized Convection in the Ocean Surface Layer Resulting from Slides and Wave Radiation Stress, Kraus, tive Investigation of the Tropical Atlantic and the Physics of Fluids, Vol. 10, No. 9, pt. 2, 1967. 1-35 observation networks whose data will be the basic Coast Guard, the time is at hand when technology input for ocean and weather prediction tech- will permit a major assault on the problem. niques. Recommendations to the Federal Govern- ment have been made consistently by the National Recommendation: Academy of Sciences Committee on Ocean- ography 24 and the President's Science Advisory There should be initiated as soon as possible a Committee, 25 with little response. The time has weH-defined program to study oceanic scales of come to take action. With the decision of the motion and such a study should be one of the Government to move forward with a major ocean early foci for the test of the elements of the buoy development program under the aegis of U.S. National buoy program. 24 Oceanography 1966, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Pub. No. 1492, 1967. 'Effective Use of the Sea, Report of the President's Science Advisory Committee, 1966. 1-36 Chapter 5 Basic Marine Science and National Security Historically, the security of the Nation has been in the Nation's science growth. It has been notable fundamentally tied to the ability of its Navy to for sponsorship of long-term studies. It has also operate effectively in and under the sea, over all of provided ships for the use of its contract institu- the oceans of the world. The basic marine science tions, and has, in general, supported a broad effort of the Nation has been crucial in main- spectrum of basic. research in all sciences. Its taining naval capabilities abreast and ahead of any programs have done much to bring the Navy to its potential enemy. The Navy's operations are so far present state of scientific excellence. flung, so complex, that there is hardly an area of The Navy of tomorrow may well operate in a marine science which does not bear directly on the context which a generation ago would have ap- effectiveness of its operation. It has been the peared implausible. It may include operational agency which, out of self interest, has fostered and underwater habitats, deep submersibles and com- supported by far the largest fraction of basic plex structures on the ocean bottom. marine science research in this Nation. It has The Navy today is engaged in an imaginative conducted its stewardship well. It is largely man-in-the-sea program, designed to demonstrate through the support of the Office of Naval that its forces can not only survive but work Research that the Nation's eminence in basic effectively in an underwater habitat and overcome marine science was developed. progressively the depth and other environmental I The Office of Naval Research, which directs the limitations on such operations. It is concurrently Navy's basic science research effort, has, since its engaged in developing a capability not only to creation in 1946, played a historic and unique role operate deep submerged vehicles but to conduct rescue operations on a world-wide basis. It is also engaged in the development of buoys and buoy systems as means for sensing and recording ocean- ographic data of significance to basic research as well-as to naval operations. These programs are typical of areas in which the Navy will continue to develop, in addition to more traditional roles. Aspects of National security are involved in many of 'the areas considered in the panel's report, particularly in environmental monitoring and pre- diction. In addition to the matters discussed, many other aspects of basic research are important to the Navy. In its 1967 report, "The Navy's Ocean Science Program, the Navy named eight areas considered worthy of research in the interest of National defense: ocean dynamics, air-sea interaction, oceanic chemistry,- benthic boundary studies, sea floor topography and sediment, crustal and iub- crustal composition, oceanic biology, and under- water. sound. It added that the emphasis will Figure 14. Many modern arrays utilize sub- change from year to year, "as our realization of surface floats such as this one for the Sea- potential application grows." spider Buoy System to support theinstru- mentation. Scuba is often used in maintenance of oceanographic research equipment (Navy The Ocean Science Program of the U.S. Napy, Office photo) of the Oceanographer of the Navy, 1967. 1-37 333-093 0 - 69 - 4 Still other areas will shortly be ripe for further The ability to see, detect, or destroy the research effort, if in fact they are not already. underwater enemy depends fundamentally upon Among them are hyperbaric physiology of mam- . an understanding of energy propagation through mals, soil science and technology, and further water and the effect upon such energy propagation understanding of turbidity currents. Numerous by the ocean bottoms, the air-sea interface, etc. others might be mentioned. Electromagnetic energy such as light, radar, and It is certain, in our view, that the effectiveness radio waves is quickly attenuated in the ocean. of the Navy of tomorrow will be determined in Acoustical energy is known to propagate over long considerable part by our level of scientific under- distances in water. The capability to - develop standing of the marine environment, and that all techniques and equipment which will enable use of aspects of basic science in this area are of concern acoustical energy as a basis for detection depends to it. on knowledge of how the ocean structure affects In the light of this assessment, the panel urges such energy propagation. strongly that the Navy maintain the broadest This has been an area of basic science to which possible view of its obligations to support basic the Navy has given prime attention and its marine science. detection capabilities are forn-ddable. The im- portance of the problem cannot be overstated. The Recommendation: panel, recognizing the extensive effort maintained The Department of Defense should continue to by the Navy in the field of underwater acoustics, recognize, as it has in the past, the vital nature of nevertheless feels that understanding of the effect all aspects of basic marine science research to its of the boundary between air and water, in terms of acoustic reflections and refractions as well as naval missions, and adopt the broadest possible the effects of the bottom topography and the view of its obligations to insure that the National inhomogeneities of water masses, can be signif- basic marine science effort meet not only its icantly improved through additional research. short-term needs but future requirements for marine information. It also should continue to Recommendation: function as one of the cornerstones for the support of the Nation's basic marine science The Navy should maintain . and, as required, effort. expand its underwater acoustic research program. 1-38 Chapter 6 Technology and Marine Science Science and technology are reciprocal spurs. marine science problems, although much of the Joined in proper measure, they can bring mutual engineering and technology being developed for advances of enormous import. In marine science, other reasons is susceptible to marine science use because of the difficulty of operating in the today. oceans, the relationship must be closer than in The lack of adequate engineering development many other fields of science. Technology makes it skills specifically. associated with basic research is possible to sample the deep ocean bottom, live and limiting development in some areas. In physical work in the oceans, and acquire the data that oceanography, for instance, Professor Henry science needs for its marine effort. Yet, in general, Stommel of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- basic science and marine technology have failed to nology, said in a statement at the panel's hearings: achieve the level of partnership necessary to the "I don't think that either scientists or engineers advancement of many fields of marine science. realize the time and funds needed for good It is true that outstanding examples can be engineering in ocean instruments." cited, such as the use of deep drilling techniques Besides retarding the rate of progress in field for exploring the geophysical structure of the experimentation, this deficiency is costly. In the ocean bed. Yet examination of the activities at fields of space or communications, it would be major ocean science laboratories in the academic considered unthinkable to deploy expensive opera- community and in some Federal laboratories shows tions without properly engineered equipment of at only marginal attention being paid to provision of least reasonably assured dependability. In marine the kind of modern engineering support which the science, however, it is not unusual to expect a high growing problems in ocean science require. On the failure rate for equipment. other hand, there is a vigorous marine and general The panel is struck by the number of key engineering competence in industry but, for rea- technological developments now under way which sons not always easy to understand, that com- will have a radical impact on the kinds,of specific petence has not generally been directed toward the problems it will be possible to attack, as well as on solution of basic science problems. the manner in which basic science itself will be In their prepared statement at the panel's conducted. Several of these developments will hearings, Dr. R. A. Ragotzkie and C. H. Mortimer, bring -within reach an approach to problems which University of Wisconsin, said: previously could only have been attacked at forbidding cost, or not at all. For example, the The schism between natural scientists and engi- sophisticated modern sonar ought to be used more neers must be bridged by processes of education of for biological research. The background noise so both groups and by a recognition by fund granting troublesome to the Navy is often primary data to organizations that engineering talents are needed the biological oceanographer. in many environmental research activities. Data-sensing unattended buoys, in the next decade, will finally put oceanography in a position The report of the Panel on Marine Engineering to describe the physical state of the seas and and Technology has addressed the problems of the enable scientists to understand their fluctuations need for technology in the National marine science and to test theories for their prediction. The buoys program, giving extensive descriptions of the ad- also hold potential for the measurement of bio- vances to be expected in the next decade. This logical and chemical constituents of the oceans, report focuses upon the needs of the scientist for While today the sensor systems for the automatic technology. measurement of biological and chemical variables The total development of marine science has are limited, their development is clearly going to suffered from a failure to provide the proper kinds occur. Once operational, the data they produce of engineering support. Too few engineers have may revolutionize understanding of biological been brought into the field to work on basic processes in the ocean and the relation of those 1-39 processes to the changes of the physical environ- inent. The development of oceanographic-sensing earth-orbiting satellites is now under way.-They XNESAPEAKE BAY Will, over the next decade, have the capability of I _:A measuring such surface conditions as temperature and sea state, providing an entirely new method of global assessment of these conditions. Technological developments in deep ocean drilling pioneered by the oil industry are being used in the Ocean Sediment Coring Program, funded by the National Science Foundation, to i FLOWA provide deep cores of the crust, with attendant studies of the oceans' geophysics and geolo gy. The use of deep submersibles can lead to r at Figure 15. IR imagery of Gulf Stream., Nimbus important scientific results now obtainable, ii a H high resolution infrared image?y clearly de- all, only with great difficulty from surface vessels. picts the Gulf Stream. Temperature values were determined by microdensitometer. A submersible equipped to make temperature- Nimbus IR imagery can be very useftd in de- gradient measurements in marine sediments could termining the location, distribution, and obtain better data faster than a fleet of surface movement Of major ocean water masses. Studies of this nature will be of great value craft lowering probes on long wires on the present to oceanographers, meteorologists, and the hit-or-miss basis. A submersible capable of making worlds fishing and shipping industries. a systematic traverse of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, (NASA photo) say just south of Iceland, taking magnetic and gravity readings and drilling short cores to sample the rocks could convert sea floor spreading from a theory to an accepted scientific principle (or to an outmoded hypothesis). An under-ice penetration 'by submersible below the Antarctic ice sheet could bring back in a few weeks more data on the biological conditions in this unique habitat than could be obtained by months of sampling through holes drilled through the ice. There is no question that technology will give us a capability for the operation of manned underwater habitats, which can be used for the study of ecology and animal behavior in the marine environment. cean- The way in which we operate our o o raphic research vessels is undergoing rapid and 9 continuing change. On-board automatic data processing is becoming feasible and total systems for automated data acquisition through on-bo d ar analysis of results will speed tremendously the efforts of scientists at sea by the elimination of long waits for feedback. Technological developments clearly will have a Figure 16. Retrieving a corer from the sea bottom. Cores showing,the vertical structure pervasive impact upon basic marine science-yet of bottom sediments up to 50 feet below the the basic science community is failing to have a ocean floor have been obtained These cores are used to determine the history of geologic similar impact upon the field of marine tech- processes. INational Science Foundation nology. Except in isolated cases, the marine photo) 1-40 science community seems to be willing simply to standing. On the basis of this conviction, and in use whatever technology is available. Basic marine the light of the present degree of separation science has important needs for special technology between technology and basic marine science, the and should recognize the fact and make those panel strongly urges the following: needs known. It should further foster, within its own laboratories or through close working arrange- Recommendation: ments with industry, the development of tech- nology needed for undertaking basic research. For Efforts should be initiated to increase participa- example, technological development should be tion of the private sector in instrument develop- fostered in the handling of biological and geologi- ment and other marine engineering work. The cal samples, data processing, remote sensing instru- major academic institutions should establish, or ments, and specialized sampling devices. insure access to, groups with advanced engineering Basic scientific inquiry into the nature of the competence to work closely with marine science oceans is important enough to warrant the en- groups. Some technology development should be couragement of technological development in key encouraged purely for the achievement of a better areas purely far the achievement of basic under- understanding of the oceans. 1-41 Chapter 7 Education and Training The Nation now possesses a healthy program of crops of highly qualified applicants to the graduate graduate training in marine science and as a schools. Gradual expansion of the present capacity consequence has available a supply of young of the graduate schools win result in an increasing research-trained scientists sufficient to support an supply of trained researchers in ocean science with immediate expansion in the effort in this field. no danger of diniinishing the present high quality. Nevertheless, over the longer term, a fully de- The 1967 manpower study of the International veloped national program of basic research must Oceanographic Foundation identified 610 Ph.D. be accompanied by an expanded level of trained holders active in the profession; 325 of these manpower entering the field. reported basic research as their primary occupa- Inasmuch as a full discussion of the problems tion and 175 (including 136 university people that will be involved in maintaining an adequate heavily engaged in teaching) reported basic re- 3 supply of trained manpower to meet all the search as their secondary occupation. Thus 500 requirements of ocean resource utilization is con- of the 6 10 Ph.D. degree-holders in the comprehen- tained in the Commission's Staff Study on Educa- sive sample collected by the International Ocean- tion and Manpower, this report will consider solely ographic Foundation, or over 80 per cent, are the needs for manpower concerned with basic engaged in basic research. research. These needs can be identified in terms of Of. these 610, less than a third (169) had four main levels of training: the postdoctoral level, received doctorates in oceanography, marine the doctoral candidate, the bachelor/master's de- science, or fisheries, whereas nearly 70 per cent gree student, and the technician. (420) had received it in other disciplines. Biologi- Doctoral candidates in oceanography are now cal sciences had supplied 215, geology 98, chem- drawn from the top ranks of holders of bachelor's istry 28, physics 23, and other physical sciences degrees in one of the appropriate basic fields of 56. The field was not identified for 21. study: mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, Corresponding figures for 1964 were 353 or biology. The Council of Laboratory Directors, Ph.D.'s, of whom 103 earned their degrees in made up of the 10 largest oceanographic institu- oceanography, marine science, and fisheries, 123 tions,' has reported that in 1967 only 286 out of in biological sciences, 49 in geology, 12 in physics, 2 1,884 student applicants were accepted. Even I I in chemistry, 17 in other physical sciences, and gi allowing for a considerable mar in of duplication 38 in unidentified specialties. In this group, 211 among the student applicants to the various were engaged primarily and 84 secondarily in basic schools, these figures make it clear that the choice research; the total of 295 is likewise over 80 of individuals as entrants into present doctoral per cent of the total sample of 353. programs has become a highly selective process. The proportion of doctorates in oceanography, Under an expanded program of ocean explora- marine science, and fisheries was virtually the same tion and exploitation, the increased public atten- in both surveys, 29 per cent in 1964, and 28 per tion that will be given to ocean science as a cent in 1967. profession can be counted on to maintain the These figures show that manpower for con- present desirable trend and to guarantee continued ducting basic oceanographic research is not pri- marily limited to the output of trained doctorate degree holders from university departments of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Universtty of oceanography and marine science. The situation in Rhode. Island, Lamont Geological Observatory, Johns Hopkin& University, University of Miami, Texas A&M the oceanographic profession is unlike that in the University, Scripps. Institution of Oceanography, Oregon State University, University of Washington, University of Hawaii. 3A Study. .of. the Numbers and Characteristics of 277se Role of Academic: Ins tifutions in the De Oceano@raphic Personnel in the United States, 1967, velopment. of, Marine Resources and Technology, Report prepared by the International Oceanographic Foundation. of the - Council of Oceanographic Laboratory Directors, under National Science Foundation Contract C-469, 1967. 1967. 1-42 pansion in the total numbers engaged must involve medical profession, for example, where any ex- first an increase in the capacity of the medical schools. The conclusion to be drawn from such statistics is that National oceanographic basic science effort cannot be considered limited by the availability of potential students and trained man- i -k power at oceanographic institutions. The supply of oceanographic technicians, on the other hand, particularly of seagoing tech- nicians and technicians competent to operate and Is maintain the growing arrays of complicated sens- ing, recording, and analytical devices used on Figure 17. Research Mining ship Eastward, is research ships and at research institutions, is likely a successful experiment in training oceanog- over the short term to prove the most critical raphers at sea. Heretofore, difficulty in man- power utilization was in obtaining shipboard manpower area in basic marine research. Personnel time for training. Eastward, funded by the in these. categories are highly mobile, both National Science Foundation and operated by Duke University, has shown that training and within the ocean science and technology field and research can be accomplished simultaneously. outside it to such areas as commercial fishing, (National Science Foundation photo) space science, chemical industry, and exploration geophysics. Therefore, it is urgent to foster the establishment of additional training programs for body of scientific knowledge about the oceans, it marine technicians. These programs should involve is necessary for them to acquire some firsthand junior colleges and technical institutes, which familiarity with the properties and characteristics should be provided with suitable training vessels of the ocean environment. Such indoctrination can and prototype examples of equipment. be experienced in many ways, but it is best Requirements for baccalaureates in ocean- undergone at a large university department of ography and for baccalaureates in basic science marine science or at an oceanographic laboratory with master's degree in oceanography are consider- or institution. Here, as a member of an inter- ably less in the area of basic academic research disciplinary team, the young scientist can apply his than they are in the technological and administra- newly learned specialty to assist in the solution of tive fields related to ocean exploration and utiliza- some problem concerning the ocean; at the same tion. Such individuals are employed in research time he can acquire by direct observation the organizations chiefly as scientific aides and they knowledge of the behavior of the ocean as a have a higher degree of mobility than the doctoral system relating to his specialty, enabling him in degree holders. It appears, therefore, that whatever time to lead his own research team; Therefore, an expansion in training is necessary to produce the important part of the arrangements for an ex- numbers required for increased industrial and panded program of professional training must be governmental involvement in ocean surveys and provision for support of postdoctoral programs at ocean resource exploitation can be counted on to marine science research centers. produce numbers in this category that will be Although the methodology of estuarine studies adequate to meet,basic research needs even for an and coastal oceanography involves most of the expanded program. same basic principles and operations as the con- The Nation is better equipped than ever before duct of research on the high seas, it nevertheless in resources both of trained manpower and of contains much that is unique to its particular supporting facilities to mount an expanded pro- requirements. For this reason, a body of regional gram of basic research on the ocean. This trend is a specialized knowledge must be assembled and desirable one and its continuation should be drawn upon to meet the unique requirements of encouraged. However, before such scientists can each locality. Estuarine and coastal research cen- become effective contributors to the expanding ters should develop appropriate training programs 1-43 in their specialities, having due regard to their and postdoctoral programs; estuarine and coastal specific geographical situations. research centers should develop appropriate train- Recommendation: ing programs in their specialties; additional train- The major educational institutions should be ing programs for marine technicians should be encouraged t o. maintain the vigor of their graduate created. 1-44 Chapter 8 Institutional Needs Implementing a materially expanded program of basic research in marine science will require the proper mix of manpower, money, and institutional Y@ var> arrangements. If the funding is forthcoming, the manpower outlook is favorable. In this section, the panel addresses the institutional and facility needs of such a program. The institutional arrangements available to the Nation today for the conduct of the programs AW@ outlined are extremely diverse. They represent a sound base on which arrangements adequate to N growing needs can be built. But they are not now adequate to a task of the magnitude envisioned. Basically, there is an emerging need for institu- Figure 18. Floating Laboratory Instrument tional arrangements designed to cope with the Platform (FLIP) at Dabob Bay. This platform, requiring no surface support ship once it is on problems of "big science" on the one hand and location, may be towed as a ship and then highly specialized local problems on the other. ballasted to a vertical position. Able to sup- Basic ocean science requires large and complex port scientists at sea for long periods, its unique depth allows precise scientific measure- facilities. While they are relatively modest com- ment to be obtained. (Navy photo) pared to those the Nation maintains for space, nuclear, and health science programs, they are large tions over the past 15 years have been the Scripps compared with ocean facilities presently available. Institution of Oceanography of the University of It is important for the continued health of basic California, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- marine science that university laboratories be able tion, and the Lamont Geological Observatory of to operate major facilities comparable to those Columbia University. Some measure of their operated in the Federal establishment. growth can be seen in Table 13. Today there are at The problem of assuring adequate and stable least five additional academic institutions which support for institutional facilities was the one are comparable in size to Scripps and Woods Hole most often emphasized in the pariel's hearings, in in 1950. But it is obvious that the Nation cannot interviews, in letters received, and in a formal provide a full complex of facilities to all labora- response from the National Academy of Sciences tories or groups which would want them. More- Committee on Oceanography to a panel query. In over, the program envisioned would not require this general area of facility support lies one of the them. most troublesome obstacles facing the research . Institutional arrangements must be established community today. to provide for the necessary concentration of The problem of facility support is a difficult expensive facilities and still make sure they are one. Twenty years ago the requirements were for a available to all who need them. The Nation has few small general purpose research -vessels. Today confronted this problem before, in atomic energy, the needs range from conventional research ships space, astronomy, and atmospheric science pro- to platforms such as FLIP_ deep-drilling vessels, grams, through the establishment of certain na- deep submersibles, underwater laboratories, large tionally designated facilities. buoy, arrays, experimental coastal engineering At the other end of the scale, some of the most structures, and large open areas where it is possible urgent marine science problems are those of the to practice limited environmental control. coastal zone, which are highly localized and I highly As the need for specialized facilities has grown, specialized. Present institutional arrangements do so has the size and complexity of the institutions. not provide for the necessary facilities and institu- The three largest oceanographic research institu- tions to attack these problems. 'ei" 1-45 Table 13. COMPARISON OF THREE OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS SCRIPPS INSTITUTION OF OCEANOGRAPHY 1950 1955 1960 1965 1968 Professional Staff 42 105 105 142 187 Annual Budget (in millions of dollars) 1.1 2.9 6.6 10.2 13.8 Space (in thousands of square feet) 1 72 1 98 1 169 267 1 307 WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION 1950 1955 1960 1965 1967 Professional Staff 40 65 105 112 143 Annual Budget (in millions of dollars) 1.1 1.8 4.9 8.7 10.2 Space (in thousands of square feet) 41 69 74 128 148 LAMONT GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATORY 1950 1955 1960 1965 1967 Professional Staff 10 20 40 60 66 Annual Budget (in millions of dollars) 0.2 0.9 1.9 6.0 6.1 Space (in thousands of square feet) 11 15 19 1 79 122 The panel also has identified a number of a Similar statement can be made about nearly institutional funding problems. They will be dis@ every field of science, it is particularly pertinent in cussed in the section on Federal organization. oceanography. More than most sciences, it is In the sections that follow, the panel discusses a interdisciplinary. Discoveries and techniques from variety of necessary institutional arrangements other fields are being continually applied to which it believes essential. problems in oceanography. Oceanographic hori- zons are expanding so rapidly it would be in- 1. THE NEED FOR DIVERSITY correct to suggest that all or even most progress will be made in a single class of laboratories or by Important discoveries in oceanography have persons with a particular type of training; there is been made in the major university institutions, in a need for various kinds and sizes of marine government laboratories, in small institutions, and laboratories in the Nation. by scientists with no formal connection to any Because of the diverse and expanding nature of oceanographic department or laboratory. Further- the field, it is almost impossible to find agreement more, the scientists who are now most active in on a simple definition of oceanographic institu- oceanography received their training in a variety of tions or oceanographers. If one accepts a simple ways, some in large institutions, some in small, operational definition such as "oceanography is many entering the field from other disciplines. done by those working at oceanographic institu- There is no single best way to produce either tions and oceanographic institutions are those oceanographic science or oceanographers and it laboratories with sea-going facilities," one is left would be a mistake to support one institutional with the following kinds of problems: important arrangement to the exclusion of others. Although work on oceanic circulation theory has been done 1-46 at Harvard University,' geotectonics of the sea The major centers of oceanographic research in 2 floor at Princeton University, tsunamis and wave this country are those that automatically come to run up at the University of Wisconsin, 3 and the mind when the National oceanographic program is geo-chemical balance of the ocean at Northwestern discussed. Such institutions as the Scripps Institu- University 4 all by men with few, if any, formal tion for Oceanography, Woods Hole Ocean- ties with oceanographic institutions. ographic Institution, Lamont Geological Observa- If one assumes that oceanography is that which 'tory, and others epitomize the eminence of the is published in oceanographic journals, he can by a National effort. They represent a major National perusal of the collected reprints for 1966 of the investment. In formulating plans for suitable insti- Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the tutional arrangements for the National marine Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (two science effort, it is the strong view of the panel oceanographic institutions by everyone's defini- that we must build on our present sources of tion) find that some 287 articles were published in strength and experience. The panel is convinced more than 60 different journals, most of which are that it is in the best National interest to do so. not generally considered oceanographic journals. While future U.S. leadership in this field will Although the fact that there is no simple require additional kinds of institutions, these definition of oceanography is distressing to the outstanding institutions will rem ain a vital part of auditors and census takers of science, it represents the base of the American effort and could be one of the Nation's greatest strengths in marine centers around which rapid and energetic growth science. can take place. There is a need for large laboratories equipped Recommendation: with the complex and costly facilities that can Th Ie present variety of institutional arrangements undertake any task of a global, regional, or local for the development and support of oceanography nature and have the capability to initiate new and is good and should be nurtured. Furthermore, as imaginative, programs. It is important that they the horizons of oceanography continue to expand, have sufficient "institutional support" from the new institutional arrangements can he encouraged. Federal Government to maintain their stability, thus permitting their scientific staffs to have extensive latitude in determining the programs to 11. UNIVERSITY-NATIONAL LABORATORIES be pursued. One of the problems encountered consistently In reviewing U.S. progress in marine science in examining the activities of large and presumably since. World War 11, the panel is struck by the well funded laboratories outside the Federal degree to which the health and vigor of this Government has been the lack of provision of program and U.S. leadership have depended funda- institutional support. Most Federal funding of mentally on a small number of oceanographic oceanographic institutions take the form of institutions. These institutions-large, well staffed ,project" support. Project support enables the and relatively well financed-have been largely Federal Government to buy specific services or responsible for the fact that the Nation is in a research from oceanographic institutions. From foremost position in the field. the laboratory point of view, project support creates few problems as long as it is stable and long 1"An Investigation into the Wind as the Cause of term. However, project support has not provided Equatorial Undercurrent," Robinson, Journal of Marine adequate long-term stability for oceanographic Research, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1966. 2Midoceanic Ridges and Tectonics of the Seafloor laboratories to maintain staff or adequate flexi- Hess, Submarine Geology and Geophysics, Proceedings o' bility to enable"staff scientists to pursue problems f Seventeenth Symposium of the Colston Research Society, of opportunity as they arise .5 Institutional sup- 1965. 3Some Three-dimensional Effects in Surf, Meyer and Turner, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 72, No. SThe Role of Academic Institutions in the De- 10,1967. velopment of Marine Resources and Technology, Report 4Silica: Role in the Buffering of Natural Waters, of the Council of Oceanographic Laboratory Directors, Garrels, Science, Vol. 149, No. 3666, 1965. Sept. 12, 1967. 1-47 port implies the provision of funds on a long-term the Atomic Energy Commission and the National basis only generally constrained for broad program Center for Atmospheric Research of the National purposes. Institutional support should also enable Science Foundation. research laboratories to provide their scientists The direct management of these laboratories operating facilities such as ships or shore-based should be assigned to universities, which would laboratories on a consistent basis. make formal provision for the advice and assist- To meet the emerging National needs for ance of other academic institutions not designated adequate facilities by all scientists engaged in basic as university national laboratories in accordance marine research, the Nation should designate a with guidelines set forth by the Federal Govern- small group of laboratories-which should include ment. but not be restricted to those which today provide Without prejudging the exact nature of these the national leadership-as "university-National arrangements, it is suggested that insofar as pos- laboratories." They should be distributed geo- sible these National laboratories should not be graphically to cover different parts of the ocean started afresh, but should build upon existing efficiently. They should be provided with ade- facilities in the academic community. The facilities quate facilities for undertaking worldwide deep and programs of these university-National labora- ocean programs in basic science. These laboratories tories need not be identical. Although the exact should be accorded adequate institutional support nature of the Federal-university partnership may in return for which they would commit themselves vary from institution to institution, it is necessary and their facilities to serve the needs of scientists that the university be an active partner. There and scientific groups affiliated with other organiza- should be some university commitment for con- tions. tinuing support and activity in the marine sciences. There is apparently nothing exactly analogous The university must be more than a manager; it to what we are suggesting in the array of Federal- must have some stake in the program. University- academic partnerships, although one can find parts National laboratories must make some formal of this concept in the arrangements of such provision for providing for outside investigators. In institutions as Brookhaven National Laboratory of return for being furnished the facilities which will BUDGETS FOR FISCAL 1968 OTHER FEDERAL NAVY SUPPORT NSF NON-FEDERA-IW AEC 10 UNIV. OF ALASKA FUNDING MILLIONS -3M WOODS HOLE 41 UNIV. OF WASHINGTON OCEANOGRAPHIC RHODE INST. ISLAND 5 ,31 2 2.3 M 6 5 30 28 7M@ OREGON STATE UNIV. 9 2.2 56 SAM%, UNIV. OF HAWAII NEW YORK UNIV. 0 5 17 (INSr OF GEOPIVMCS b3 0.6 M 9.5 M 49 INCL UDES DEPr XOF OCEAIVOG JOHNS HOPKINS UNIV. &MIh, (DEPT OF OCCANOG. ONLY) 4.2 M COLUMBIA @1@ UNIV. 618 20 16 44 SCRIP S INST. ('0. LO-M 5.9 M 17 OCEAN APHY 7 UNW. OF MIAMI 2.0 M 12.0 M (& TEXAS A aM 6.3 NI ?_1M Figure 19. Major oceanography laboratories. (Photo by W. Burt) 1-48 6 enable the institution to play a leadership role, it Lakes is evident. The problems have been must provide some formal mechanism for allowing enumerated in several reports of the Commission visiting scientists to share these facilities. panels, including this one. The problems are many How large these university-National laboratories and require the skills of social scientists as well as might become and how many might be established natural scientists. While the overriding need is for is dependent upon many factors. Considering the the development of a rational management scheme present and projected growth of the national for these important waters, scientific understand- oceanographic program, we are inclined to think ing is critical if information on the complex that no more than a dozen such institutions should dynamics, ecology, and chemistry of the area is to be designated. Whatever the number, some effort provide the basis for rational decision-making. should be made to provide geographic distribution. It is in this general area that the greatest For example, there should be university-National urgency exists. Coastal lands are some of the most laboratories on the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts as desirable in the United States and many actions well as one each on the Great Lakes and in the are irreversible. Arctic, and one in Hawaii. The present institutional arrangements for pro- One of the key desiderata of the university- viding the necessary scientific support are deficient National laboratory will be to foster the partner- in number, size, and quality. The problems of ship between marine science and technology. estuaries and near-coastal areas are principally, but There should be established within such labora- not exclusively, of a local or regional nature and tories the necessary engineering staffs and engi- vary greatly from estuary to estuary, from coastal neering support facilities, or arrangements should zone to coastal zone. be made for close affiliation with engineering There is a need for the establishment of coastal groups in industry or engineering departments of zone research institutions in association with universities. appropriate academic institutions to provide the Recommendation: basic understanding of coastal and estuarine A small group of institutions, which should in- processes so that Federal, State, and local govern- clude but not be restricted to the acknowledged ments can have available information on which to leaders, should be designated "university-National base rationally their management procedures. laboratories." They should be distributed geo- These research facilities need not be large in size graphically to cover different parts of the ocean but should have adequate facilities and staff sizes and should be provided with adequate facilities for that exceed the critical limit to I maintain a stable undertaking global deep ocean programs in basic program. science. Their facilities should be available to There is sufficient difference between estuarine scientists -at other universities and Federal labora- and coastal problems from area to area, and these tories for related basic science activities. They problems are of such fundamental importance to should be accorded adequate institutional support the welfare of this country, that there should be a for maintenance and operation, and in turn should university laboratory devoted to basic and applied commit themselves and their facilities to serve marine science located on every major estuarine needs of scientific groups affiliated with other system. The relationships of oil wells to shrimp institutions. Such an institutional arrangement will and oyster fisheries in Louisiana are different from insure that the Nation's leading oceanographic those between pulp mills and salmon fisheries in institutions will be provided Adequate resources Washington and the cold water organisms of the and support to insure their continued health and coast of Maine have ecological tolerances that vigor. differ from those of the warm waters south of Cape Hatteras. Such problems are probably better attacked in university centers in their respective Ill. COASTAL AND ESTUARINE LABORA- states than through some central Federal or TORIES university-National laboratory. The need for better understanding and manage- 6Estuaries, Pub. No. 83, American Association for the ment of our coastal-estuarine zones and the Great Advancement of Science, 1967. 1-49 The National Sea-Grant College and Program problem in the different states is in part at least a Act of 19661- provides a mechanism for supporting function of geography and economics. It would the complex of coastal zone laboratories en- appear that Florida with a growing population and, visioned. First, the problems are not in the natural with 1,350 miles of general coastline bordering sciences alone but in the social sciences as well. both the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico Second, many of the problems are "applied" and faces a greater range of problems than does New are in urgent need of a solution. Third, the state Hampshire with a more stable population and 13 has an important interest in the solution of these miles of general coastline.8 States with the geo- problems and should be expected to share in the graphic coverage of California and Alaska will research program. probably need more than one such laboratory. In the report of the Commission it is recom- The problems are sufficiently different from mended that the states take a more active role in State to State to require different groups studying the planning and management of the coastal zone. their local area, but there are many classes of The states will need a cadre of well-trained problems common to all and a degree of specializa- personnel, which the universities can provide, to tion within laboratories is not only inevitable but help manage these areas. desirable. A complex computer simulation model A difficulty in many states today is lack of the may be developed for one estuary, but once research resources necessary to assist effective developed may have more general applicability. planning and managing. Such resources are usually The laws governing turbulent diffusion processes available to the Federal Government through Fed- are similar, even though their application may vary eral research laboratories and contracts and grants considerably from case to case. to industry and universities. These coastal zone laboratories should provide the studies and re- Recommendation: search on which the state may base its manage- A network of estuarine and coastal zone research ment decisions. Although the relationship of State govermnent institutions should be established in associat *ion to local universities differs from State to State, it with appropriate academic institutions to under- is usually closer than that between the State take the basic and applied research on estuarine government and Federal laboratories. The coastal Processes so that State anct local governments can zone laboratories should be operated under the have information on which to base management Sea-Grant College program, which would provide procedures rationally. These facilities need not be the necessary resources and expertise to the States large in size but should have adequate facilities and that they do not now have. The relationship staff sizes exceeding the critical limit to maintain between a university laboratory and State govern- stable programs. Their activities should be sup- ment will not and should not be identical with ported under the Sea Grant College Program. that between a Federal agency and its research laboratories. The States will have to maintain their IV. FEDERAL LABORATORIES own management and enforcement system and in some cases their own estuarine environmental Federal laboratories are maintained by the monitoring system. However, the resources of the Department of the Interior (Bureau of Commercial university coastal zone laboratories will be avail- Fisheries, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- able for research, special studies, and assistance istration), Department of Commerce (Environ- just as are those of the agricultural experiment mental Science Services Adminsitration) and stations and the extension services operated by others to work on problems of importance to the land-grant colleges. mission of the agency. Not all of the research As in the case of the university-National labora- needs of the Federal Government can be satisfied tories, the coastal zone laboratories would not be by industry and the universities. Traditionally, identical in size or scope. The complexity of the basic science.has been done mostly in university 7Public Law 89-688, Oct. 15, 1966, 80 Stat. 998, 33 87he Coastline of the United States, Department of U.S.C. 1121-1124. Commerce, Government Printing Office, 1968. 1-5, laboratories. However, a certain percentage of Testimony in panel hearings indicates the need every mission-oriented laboratory program has also for better management systems for Federal labora- been devoted to basic research related to its tories. there is concern on the part of Federal mission. The 1966 National Academy of Sciences laboratory scientific directors about the degree of Report addressed itself to this problem in some autonomy and flexibility which they possess. We detail.' We concur that these Federal laboratories detect that paperwork, red tape, government are necessary and that they should continue to regulations all mitigate against the establishment devote some of their effort to basic research of a proper atmosphere for attracting good scien- problems. Such a practice is necessary if these tists and carrying out scientific research. laboratories are going to be responsive to the A laboratory director or project leader knows opportunities as well as the needs of basic science. the capabilities of his staff and often has a better Such practices are also necessary if the laboratories understanding of the details of problems than his are to attract and maintain a high level of scientific superiors in Washington; thus, he is better able to competence within their organizations. marshal the resources of his laboratory to develop In recent years, most Federal laboratories de- a meaningful research program. On the other hand voted to marine problems have been built adjacent he is perhaps less likely to be responsive to broad to academic centers with strong marine programs. new opportunities and needs of the Nation which In fact, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, by their nature will change the focus of the which established the Federal Water Pollution laboratory. The problem is a perennial one and is Control Administration states: not unique to oceanography. In matters of scien- "Insofar as practicable, each facility shall be tific research it is better to err on the side of located near institutions of higher learning in decentralization, fully recognizing that within which graduate training in research might be every agency there comes from time to time the carried out." need to focus on new and different problems and In most cases, there is active cooperation that until such redirection is accomplished a more between adjacent laboratories from which both centralized authority may be required. The panel profit. Senior staff often serve as lecturers or encourages the Federal agencies responsible for adjunct professors in the university. Graduate these laboratories to take whatever steps are research is supported through the Federal labora- possible to minimize these constraints which scien- tories. Facilities are frequently shared. The prac- tists find so onerous. tice of siting new Federal laboratories close to The role of the Federal laboratories is critical university centers should be encouraged. not only to the missions of the Federal agencies The panel is interested in the size, distribution, but to the entire national marine science enter- and management of Federal laboratories, and it prise. sees the need for Federal laboratories large enough to meet the Government's needs. A number of new Recommendation: Federal laboratories have been authorized and some have new buildings, but almost without Federal laboratories should be strengthened by exception they are understaffed and under- moving in the direction of fewer but stronger financed. We favor fewer, stronger, adequately lab oratories adequately funded and staffed with equipped and staffed Federal laboratories. even closer an affiliation with academic institu- tions. Steps should be taken to provide an atmos- phere in these laboratories conducive to attracting 90ceanography 1966, National Academy of Sciences- first-rank scientists by providing the necessary National Research Council, Pub. No. 1492, 1967. flexibility at the scientific leadership level. Chapter 9 Federal Support Services The conduct of basic marine science is de- the bathymetry, aH keyed to the same navigational pendent on the existence of a wide variety of control. technical support services usually provided by the We concur also with the recommendation con- Federal Government. Such support services are cerning preparation of geological maps and three- usuafly provided to meet many needs beyond dimensional analyses of the continental margins. those of research, such as the needs of those We emphasize the importance of multi-disciplinary groups involved in ocean resource development, analyses of the cores that will be obtained from marine transportation, or the general public. the 100 holes of 500 to 5,000 feet deep that are Among the most important of the services for contemplated being drilled by the Federal agencies research are those dealing with mapping and for the purposes of supplying the data for three- charting, navigation and data management. dimensional analyses. Besides mineralogical and The panel has sought to identify the special geological analyses, such cores should also be needs of the research scientist for such services, to studied for their paleontology and geochemistry. identify deficiencies that currently exist, and to make recommendations for their remedy. 7 'A rHOUS - 1. MAPPING AND CHARTING Maps and charts of the bathymetry, geophysics (gravity, magnetics) and geology (sediment char- acteristics, geologic structure, etc.).are necessary for the conduct of basic science. Such maps and charts, frequently prepared to serve other needs, such as navigation, resource exploration, or na- ROCK, tional security, have proven invaluable. Programs such as that recommended by the National Academy of Sciences' for systematic deep ocean 9,,p "'5 0 surveys have had as their principal objective the -A THOMS --------- needs of basic science. The more detailed the geologic chart, the more insight one gains into the nature of the geological processes. Thus, the effort that can be expended is almost unlimited, and it is i0o, necessary to derive criteria for determining the i level of effort. The panel has examined the recommendation of the Resources Panel on the mapping and charting needs for the resource development of the Figure 20. Comparison of subsurface sediments Continental Shelf and concurs with recommenda- simultaneously taken with conventional and up- dated bottom profilers indicate improvement tions that bathymetric charts of 1:250,000 scale possible with newer equipment. tWoods Hole for the entire U.S. continental shelves and slopes Oceanographic Institution photo) be compiled within 15 to 20 years by the appropriate Federal agencies. We emphasize the The information they can furnish on past climates importance of conducting gravity, magnetic, and and sedimentation mechanisms is of high potential sub-bottom reflection surveys simultaneously with scientific value. Most survey work has as its primary objective a ]Oceanography 1966, National Academy of Sciences- purpose other than basic science, for example, National Research Council, Pub. No. 1492, 1967. navigation, national defense, mineral exploration. 1-52 However, with a minimum of additional effort, The situation with regard to navigation over the mapping and charting undertaken for specific continental shelves of the United States and in near-term objectives can, in many instances, satisfy coastal waters beyond the capability of visual certain needs of basic science. methods of position-fixing is not as favorable. The science community has used the forum of Although the present LORAN systems are gen- the National Academy of Sciences Committee on erally useful for the navigation of commercial Oceanography to express its needs for mapping shipping and aircraft, systems are available which and charting. Progress in carrying forward many of will provide continuous position information of an that committee's recommendations has been pain- accuracy of several tens of feet at ranges up to 200 fully slow due to lack of adequate funding, both nautical miles. Such a system is critically needed for ship operations and especially for shore based for basic research, for surveying, for navigation in data processing. congested shipping lanes, and for resource develop- There is a need for mechanisms whereby the ment and commercial fishing. We recommend, as Federal mapping and charting efforts are kept did NASCO and PSAC before us, the establish- under frequent review by appropriate representa- ment of such a system; the needs grow more tive bodies of the scientific community, to insure critical each year. that all mapping and charting efforts are respon- A requirement also exists for the precise naviga- sive to the needs of the science. This recommenda- tion of research submersibles. Absolute accuracy tion is particularly timely in light of the U.S. of position is required at least comparable to what proposal for an International Decade of Ocean one now achieves with LORAN-A, in conjunction Exploration which will involve extensive mapping with a system with a relative accuracy of a few and charting of the' deep ocean as well as the tens of feet. It seems unlikely that available Continental Shelf. systems which depend on the receipt of electro- magnetic transmission can be readily adapted for Recommendation: the use of small submersibles. Instead, they will The mapping and charting activities of the Federal require a system based on some other principle, Government should be made as responsive as most probably inertial or acoustic. The Navy's possible to the needs of basic science and mecha- Deep Submergence Systems Project has such a nisms should be established whereby mapping and development underway. Close liaison between that office and the U.S. scientific community is there- charting operations of the Federal agencies can be fore recommended, with the aim of making Navy reviewed to insure responsiveness to science needs' developments in this field available in the form of unclassified, moderately-priced devices for general 11. NAVIGATION civilian use. Accurate all-weather navigation on the high seas Recommendation: is now possible through the Navy's Transit satellite system. Fixes are obtainable about every 90 The Department of Transportation should proceed minutes everywhere on the earth's surface. Eco- at high priority with the installation of a precise nomical, reliable receivers for the Transit system electronic navigational system sufficient to cover are not yet generally available, but the procure- the entire coasts of the continental United States ment efforts now under way through the Office of and Hawaii by the early 1970's and of Alaska and Naval Research are expected to remedy this the Bering Sea by the late 1970's. situation in the near future. This important de- velopment will have far reaching results in increas- Ill. DATA CENTERS ing the ability to gather information pertinent to developing the seas' resources. We urge the Navy Oceanographic data are collected at great ex- to proceed with all speed to make this system pense and with great difficulty, not only by the available to all and to encourage development of Federal Government but also by private institu- low-cost receivers and navigation devices to span tions and foreign governments. These data are between fixes. indispensable for many research investigations. 1-53 333-093 0 - 69 - 5 The basic science community looks to the Federal concentrated in a single agency, but should be left Government to establish and maintain appropriate in the hands of the principal gatherers of such data centers for the archival and retrieval to meet data. Thus, the ocean charting activities of the not only the needs of basic science but a wide Department of Commerce and the U.S. Navy spectrum of other uses as well. should be the prime repository of worldwide Present systems do not meet the need for a bathymetric data, the portrayal of such data coordinated system of data centers for archiving should take the form of published bathymetric and retrieving oceanographic data. The efforts of charts at appropriate scales. In addition, the the National Oceanographic Data Center, the original data in the form of computer printouts Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center, and should be available to the scientific community as the National Weather Records Center have barely the plotted smooth sheets have been made avail- been able to keep up with the present rate of able in the past. Biological data relating to acquisition, as well as the demands for retrieval. taxonomy should be concentrated with the specialists who are concerned with these aspects-of A. National Oceanographic Data Center science, and the role of the National Ocean- hic ographic Data Center should not extend past The inability of the National Oceanograp knowing of sources of information of this nature Data Center to carry out its mission effectively has and maintaining haison with the curators to resulted from the peculiar nature of the Center, facilitate the referral of inquiries. jointly funded by several Federal agencies with The National Oceanographic Data Center differing needs. should not undertake the processing of raw data. The Federal oceanographic funding situation in Such data should be processed by the originators recent years has prevented government agencies and transmitted by them to the National Ocean- from meeting the funding needs as expressed by ographic Data Center in a form suitable for coding the Director of the National Oceanographic Data and analysis without the necessity of applying Center and approved by its inter-agency advisory calibrations or instrumental corrections. The committee. Recently, the Navy, in an effort to bathythermograph processing function should be provide more National Oceanographic Data Center returned to the Navy and the other users of support, offered to assume the entire fiscal re- bathythermographs. sponsibility for its work. Such a move will result in The National Oceanographic Data Center is not a Center less capable of dealing effectively in now involved in the management of real time international data exchange. The Center, while it ocean monitoring and prediction systems and should be aware of naval requirements and geared should not become so involved in the future. Its to serve the Navy as well as other government primary function is the acquisition of historical agencies, should be located in a non-Defense data. agency, which should budget for and administer the funds necessary to maintain its basic operation B. National Weather Records Center in acquiring, coding, and storing data. Wc@k per- formed-for other agencies in th -e-realm - ,of- data Unlike the National Oceanographic Data Cen- retrieval and analysis should be reimbursed from ter, the National Weather Records Center has been those agencies' appropriations in accordance with in existence for half a century. Its primary ' mission statutes and Federal practice. Similarly, costs of is to archive the national and international weather work undertaken for non-Federal agencies should records. Its marine functions include the archiving be borne by requesting groups to the extent of and retrieval of all ocean weather, sea state, and sea payment of retrieval and reproduction costs. surface temperature data. It is funded by the The National Oceanographic Data Center's first Department of Commerce and performs work for mission was storing time-dependent data. Re- other agencies on a reimbursable basis; it also cently, it has become concerned with non-time provides, at cost, retrieval and reproduction for dependent oceanic variables, such as bathymetry. needs of all non-Federal users. Large parts of its The storage and retrieval of data that do not marine programs are supported by the Navy under primarily vary with the time should not be reimbursable agreements. The National Weather 1-54 Records Center has suffered over the years from analyses. The remaining portions of the sample, the same financial constrictions as the National which can make up more than .90 per cent of the Oceanographic Data Center and is unable to fully collection, may remain unsorted. This residue, meet the growing needs for marine data. however, is a valuable library for future reference. Judgment of the impact of environmental change and determination of long term trends, depends C. Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center upon the availability of collections made either prior to the change or over long periods of time. The Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center is a service organization, developed in response to Adequate storage facilities and appropriate the need for expediting the analysis of biological curatorial responsibility must be assigned to assure that valuable materials will not be lost. Costs of and geological samples. Plankton samples, for maintenance are small relative to the original costs example, may include representatives of more than of making the collections and should be con- fifty major animal groups, each group requiring sidered as part of the operating expense of the examination by specialists to assure proper analy- national oceanographic program. The panel be- sis. The initial sorting, however, may be done by lieves that the Smithsonian Institution is the technician level personnel. The sorted collections proper agency to perform this function. The are shipped, to specialists located throughout the organization that collected the material should be world. This, permits the effective use of the small encouraged to make it available to the Smith- number of skilled taxonomists. The Center is sonian at Smithsonian expense. supported both by direct appropriation and through contracts with several Federal agencies, including Department of the Interior, National D. A Coordinated System of Data Centers Science Foundation, and the Office of Naval Research. Present funding levels permit the sorting The needs of basic science for adequate data of approximately 35 per cent of the samples centers will require that the Federal Government received. insure that the activities of its principal marine The parent organization of the Sorting Center, data centers operate as part of a coordinated the Smithsonian Institution, fulfills a vital national system of data centers. Such a coordinated system need, both as a reference collection of natural is' necessaryIto permit scientists to request and history specimens and as a research center. Current receive data which they need from the historical legislation (Title 20, Section 59, U.S.C.) requires archives in an expeditious manner. A scientist that all biological and geological specimens ob- studying a problem in marine fisheries may require tained with Federal funds be turned over even- not only biological information but information tually to the Smithsonian institution. The for all the marine and atmospheric physical condi- Smithsonian Institution, however, is not presently tions at specified geographical locations and for equipped to handle properly the vast quantities of specified periods of time. At the present time, it is marine material that would be left at its doorstep a lengthy and difficult process to obtain such data were this requirement of law to be carried out from the present data centers. literally. At present, the Smithsonian only exer- cises this authority in cases where it believes Recommendation: collections will be lost. The panel concurs in this interpretation of the law. The National Oceanographic Data Center, National On the other hand, biological and geological Weather Records Center, and the Smithsonian investigations carried on by mission oriented Oceanographic Sorting Center should be ade- agencies, universities and oceanographic institu- quately supported with funds to enable them to tions frequently result in the collection of large keep up with the growing volume of marine data and diverse samples. In many instances only a and to take advantage of modem achiving and small portion of the collection is actually studied, retrieval technology. This will permit the establish- for example, only the fish eggs and larvae may be ment of a closely linked coordinated system of counted, identified, and subjected to appropriate marine data centers. The National Oceanographic 1-55 Data Center should be organizationally lodged in a Oceanographic Data Center should be funded t non-Defense agency to permit it to meet the needs the agency in which it is lodged and woj of the entire oceanographic community more undertaken for other agencies should be on, effectively. The basic operations of the National reimbursable basis. 1-56 Chapter 10 Federal and International Organization In reviewing the status of marine science in the and the Navy's own highly competent ship design United States, the panel sought to determine staff.2 whether Federal or international organizational Since 1958, the National Science Foundation arrangements were meeting needs. We sought to has performed a vital role in the support of basic identify particular organizational conditions which research in the marine sciences at research institu- in themselves represented obstacles to the conduct tions across the country. The Foundation does not of the marine science effort. We found that it was operate in-house laboratories. However, it has impossible to separate clearly organizational issues encouraged the use of ships as national facilities by from funding issues. However, we have attempted funding the R. V. Eltanin for work in Antarctica to examine separately the structural organization and the R. V Anton Brunn for the International problems from the more general funding problem. Indian Ocean Expedition. The support of individual scientists working on specific projects is what the National Science 1. STRUCTURAL ISSUES IN FEDERAL OR- Foundation does best. However, over the years it GANIZATIONS has become necessary for the National Science Foundation to pick up the burden of such Most scientists interviewed were by and large essential support as block funding for ocean- satisfied with the present institutional arrange- ographic research ships and facility support for ments for the support of basic science. The marine laboratories. principal structural problems detected involved This program of the Foundation has been difficulties within the present structure of acquir- highly successful within the limited appropriations ing support for facilities, large interdisciplinary available. These two Federal agencies have pro- programs, and engineering development. vided the bulk of the large facility support for The Office of Naval Research is generally academic institutions. Facility support for in- credited with a major role in developing the house laboratories of the Federal agencies has been present level of competence and vigor in the much more consistent. Generally, Federal labora- Nation's oceanographic program. It pioneered in tories have inadequate manpower and funds to use the support of a variety of programs, especially in existing facilities to the maximum. providing many kinds of large facilities, such as The new requirements of the marine science ships and laboratories, in the establishment of laboratories for major facility support could be institutional grants, and in block funding for ships. handled through the Navy and National Science The Navy, through the Office of Naval Re-, Foundation if adequate funds for these purposes search and the Naval Ships Systems Command were provided them. While the panel sees no (formerly Bureau of Ships), has been able to fund difficulties with such a procedure for the Office of shore facilities only to a limited extent, although it Naval Research, it does have certain concerns with has been successful in providing floating facilities, regard to such a procedure for the National such as the research submersible Alvin, the stable Science Foundation; the National Science Founda- floating platform and a series of conventional tion may become so committed to the long-range research vessels such as FLIP, the R. V. Acona, and support of capital facilities and institutional opera- a series of AGOR's.1 The third generation of tions that its flexibility to support new programs AGOR's, now under construction, has been de- and young scientists would be limited. signed as the result of a close and valuable If we are to mount the kinds of programs collaboration between the user research agencies discussed in this report, some better means of 2New Concepts Applied to Research Ship Design, Reed, Sarchin and Leiby, Chesapeake Section, Society of Auxiliary General Oceanographic Research. Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, May 16, 1968. 1-57 providing long-range institutional and facility sup- We hesitate to make recommendations with port must be found. respect to organizations within the International Recommendation: Council of Scientific Unions. The basic issue to be confronted involves whether there shall be a The major civil responsibility for providing institu- separate union, dealing with all aspects of marine tional and facility support should be invested in science or whether marine science should be the new agency recommended by the Commission. strengthened within the existing unions. The Inter- The National Science Foundation should be re- national Association 'of Physical Oceanography at lieved of this responsibility. The Office of Naval the 14th General Assembly of the International Research should continue to provide the kinds of Union of Geology and Geophysics in Berne, support it has in the past. Other Federal agencies October 1967, passed the following resolution: should provide limited institutional and facility support. Resolution No. 10 ne International Association of Physical Ocean- If. STRUCTURAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL ography; cognizant of the growing need for closer, ORGANIZATIONS inter-disciplinary working contacts in the field of In general, the present governmental and non- marine sciences; requests the Executive Committee governmental international organizations which to study, in collaboration with other international enable nations to collaborate on marine science organizations, interested in oceanography, and to problems have served well. The principal inter- report to the XV General Assembly of the governmental organization is the Intergovern- Association on the desirability and feasibility of mental Oceanographic Commission' of United establishing an International Union of Marine Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Orgam- Sciences (IUMS) which would contain associations zation founded in 1961. Other intergovernmental dealing with sciences concerned with the ocean, bodies, such as the World Meteorological Organiza- that is,, with marine geophysics and geology, tion and the Food and Agricultural Organization, marine chemistry, physical and meteorological are involved in certain science problems. The oceanography, and marine biology; resolves to principal non-governmental international body convene, if practicable, its XV General Assembly which provides a forum for marine science is the jointly with the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research of the Research (of ICSU), with the International As- International Council of Scientific Unions and the sociation of Biological Oceanography (of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. IUBS), with the Commission on Marine Geology - Marine science affairs will ultimately require an (of IUGS) and with JAMAP, in particular those intergovernmental body at the treaty level, per- sections interested in air-sea interaction problems. haps as a separate specialized agency of the United The organizational problem is complex and the Nations. Insofar as the needs of basic science are panel leaves the answer for the best way to concerned, however, the Intergovernmental Ocean- proceed in the future to the scientific groups ographic Commission presently has the breadth of involved. However, we do believe that the in- charter required and provides a suitable inter- creased marine science activity, the proposed governmental forum. The Intergovernmental strengthening of marine affairs within the UN, and Oceanographic Commission, however, requires in particular the proposed International Decade of strengthening. It now has no control of its own Ocean Exploration requires some consolidation or budget. Its secretariat is too small to undertake the at least better coordination within the family of tasks required of it. It has problems of coordina- scientific unions. tion and cooperation with other international organizations such as the World Meteorological Recommendation: Organization and Food and Agricultural Organiza- tion, although increased collaborative effort be- Immediate steps should be taken to strengthen the tween the three organizations has improved Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission as the markedly in recent years. principal intergovernmental forum for marine 1-58 science and to facilitate its collaborative efforts Figure 21. Federal oceanographic research vessels with other international intergovernmental groups. As an ultimate goal, a separate treaty orkanization should be established within the United Nations system for marine science and other suitable marine ap lications. p f V i V@ 111. FUNDING SUPPORT 716, In this section, we are concerned with the OAS &W RD 7n qr amount of funding required to carry forward the marine science program recommended in this report. We are concerned with some of the Coast Guard-ocean station vessel principles that we believe should guide the funding process. The panel urges that every Federal agency i which' is responsible for marine research and maintains in-house capability should, for its own health, vigor, and flexibility as well as for that of all National marine science, strike a reasonable i balance between in-house and out-of-house basic research. The ratio of in-house to out-of-house support of basic marine science will, of course vary from agency to agency. A target of 50 per Bureau of Commercial Fisheries-fisheries cent in-house and 50 per cent out-of-house is research vessel reasonable for basic research although it is recog- nized that this ratio will be a function of agency needs as well as agency programs. The programs should not,be in competition with each other for the same funds. The National Academy of Science Committee on Oceanography in its report Ocean- 3 ography 1966, has set forth a rationale which it feels could be adopted by Federal agencies in considering the split between "discipline" oriented and "problem" oriented research. This rationale seems worthwhile and it is commended to Federal agencies for their consideration. Environmental Science Services Administration- Within the new agency recommended by the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey oceanographic Commission there should be an office whose research vessel primary responsibility is the funding of institu- tional grants, facility support, and engineering development recommended in this report. The specific programs recommended in this report clearly indicate that an increase of basic science funding is required to achieve the essential base of knowledge about the ocean environment for presently anticipated and future unanticipated Ar uses. 3Oceanography 1966, National Academy of Sciences- National Research Council, Pub. No. 1492, 1967. U. S. Navy-naval research vessel 1-59 While it is difficult to assess the exact Cost Of Figure 22. University research vessels this expanded effort, an analysis of the programs - ----- indicate that incremental funding for the 1970's should show an annual increased spending level of approximately $200 million. Forty per cent of this increased funding would be for capital and operat- ing requirements of the university-National labora- tories, 10 per cent for the coastal laboratories, 15 per cent for in-house Government laboratories, ........... _7 and the remaining 35 per cent for increased n7 Tnt: Federal funding of other out-of-house research by the various agencies. Lamont Geological Observatory- Columbia Recommendation: University research vessel The basic science effort of this Nation must be maintained and expanded to encompass the pro- gram described in this report. To achieve this an incremental increase of approximately 20 per cent per year for operating and capital expenditures should be maintained until the current basic j science funding base has increased by $200 milliop annually. The panel encountered repeatedly the problem of ship funding, both for capital expenditures and operation. We have recommended a variety of University of Washington research vessel laboratories necessary to conduct the National effort. This suggests a variety of management and funding arrangements. We do not concur with the I President's Science Advisory Committee recom- mendation that all fleets be regional fleetS.4 Many institutions can operate their own vessels and this practice should continue. We do not even suggest that all ocean-going research vessels should be operated by university-National laboratories. Al- though the university-National laboratory can be 6000--i= a-cm-aw- - expected to provide ship facilities for many Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution research scientists from non-ship operating institutions, we vessel do not think this is the only answer. Operations such as those conducted by Duke University with R. V Eastward and Scripps Institution of Ocean- ography with R. V. Alpha Helix suggest that there are other ways to provide successfully for the needs of the research community. When a laboratory is large enough to use a research vessel efficiently, it is better that the 4Effective Use of the Sea, Report of the Panel on Oceanography, President's Science Advisory Committee, Scripps Institution of Oceanography research 1966. vessel 1-60 k_ - I A 4t ORE00L -A - @0_ Chesapeake Bay Institute, Johns Hopkins University -research catamaran vessel vessel be under the control of that laboratory than Y operated as part of a regional fleet. Ship opera- tions are a major part of the costs of large research institutions, but although ship operation costs have increased in recent years, the percentages have not. The total cost of ship operations at the major oceanographic laboratories Varies between 0 20 and 30 per cent of the total institutional budget.5 The many intangible factors that determine successful sea operations are not all easily identi- University of Rhode Island'research vessel fiable, but one of the most -important is famil- Scientists within a laboratory who control a iarity with the facility. A research vessel is .a vessel can often modify it so that it can do new laboratory. Usually it is difficult for an . experi- kinds of experimental work. In a very real way, mental. scientist to go to another university as a they design programs about the facilities of a given visiting professor, walk into a new laboratory, and ssel. They know what they can and cannot do continue his research program at the same level of ve efficiency. The new laboratory will be lacking on any given ship. It would not be as easy with a certain facilities or pieces of equipment that he has regional fleet. We believe that most of the ad- at home. It takes time to learn what can be done vances in the state of the art, in terms of what one and how to get things done. can learn at sea, will continue to be made by those persons working at oceanographic laboratories. 5The Role of Academic Institutions in the Develop- Oceanographers are no different from other scien- ment of Marine Resources and Technology, Report of the tists in that, other things being equal, they tend to Council of Oceanographic Laboratory Directors, Sept. 12, 1967. gravitate to the institutions with the best facilities. 1-61 Appendix A Bibliography of Current Federal Research Programs The Federal agencies actively engaged in oceanographic missions usually publish an annual or biannual report on their research activities. A bibliography of these reports byagency is as follows: ESSA -Science & Engineering - July 13, 1965 to June 30, 196 7, U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration, April 1968, U.S. Government Printing Office. NAVY - The Ocean Science Program of the U.S. Navy, Accomplishments and Projects, Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy, June 1967, U.S. Government Printing Office. N.S.F. -National Science Foundation Annual Report 1968, NSF 69-1, U.S. Government Printing Office; National Science Foundation List of Grants and Awards 1968, NSF 69-2, U.S. Government Printing Office. Coast Guard - U.S. Coast Guard Oceanographic Reports, USCG Publication Series 373, especially Annual Report of Oceanographic Activities - 1968, Publication 373-18,. U.S. Government Printing Office. Atomic Energy Commission - Ae Atom and the Ocean, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, January 1968, available from AEC, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830; Marine Sciences Research, March 1966, Division of Biology & Medicine AEC, U.S. Government Printing Office. Smithsonian Institution - Smithsonian Year - 1968, available from Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, D.C. Department of Interior - Geological Survey Research - 1967, G.S. Professional Paper 575-A-1967, U.S. Government Printing Office; Progress in Sport Fishing Research - 1967, Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 64, May 1968, U.S. Government Printing Office; Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Federal Aid Program Activities - 1968, BCF Circular 293, U.S. Government Printing Office. Current programs of agencies not publishing specific reports are covered in National Marine Sciences Program, Part 1, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Oceanography of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, 90th Congress, I st Session, Serial No. 90-19, U.S. Government Printing Office. 1-62 Appendix B Panel Hearings Schedule and Participants Hearing Schedule Date Cyty Host Oct. 9-12, 1967 Washington, D.C. Nov. 6-7, 1967 Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology Nov. 8-9, 1967 New York Ford Foundation Dec. 4, 1967 Chicago Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Dec. 5-6, 1967 Seattle University of Washington Dec. 7-8, 1967 La Jolla Scripps Institution of Oceanography Jan. 10-11, 1968 Houston Gulf Universities Research Corporation Jan. 12-13, 1968 Miami University of Miami Persons Appearing at Panel Hearings Elbert Ahlstrom, Senior Scientist, Bureau of Commercial John De Noyer, Advanced Research Projects Agency, Fisheries, Ocean Research Laboratory, Stanford, Cali- Department of Defense, Washington, D.C. fornia John Emniick, Vice President, Foundation for Oceano- Dick Bader, Associate Director, Institute of Marine graphic Research and Education, Port Canaveral, Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida Florida L. Bajournas, Director, Great Lakes Research Center, R. G. Fleagle, Chairman, Department of Atmospheric Detroit, Michigan Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash- George F. Beardsley, Jr., Assistant Professor, Physical ington Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Glenn A. Flittner, Acting Assistant Laboratory Director, Oregon Fishery-Oceanography Center, Bureau of Commercial Harry J. Bennett, Professor of Zoology, Louisiana State Fisheries, La Jolla, California University, Bato n Rouge, Louisiana Harry W. Freeman, Professor of Biology, College of Leo Beranek, President, Bolt, Beranek & Newman, Charleston, Charleston, North Carolina Cambridge, Massachusetts Hugo Freudenthal, Chairman, Graduate Department of Donald E. Bevan, Associate Dean, College of Fisheries, Marine Science, Long Island University, East Meadow, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington New York F. G. Blake, Senior Research Scientist, Chevron Research Herbert F. Frolandez, Acting Chairman, Department of Co., La Habra, California Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, C. Bookhout, Director, Duke University Marine Labora- Oregon tory, Beaufort, North Carolina Paul M. Fye, Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- Capt. J.D.W. Borop, USN, Director, U.S. Navy Mine tution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Defense Laboratory, Panama City, Florida J. A. Gast, Associate Professor and Coordinator, Depart- Ronald A. Breslow, Executive Assistant to Commissioner, ment of Oceanography, Humboldt State College, New Jersey State Department of Conservation and Arcata, California Economic Development, Trenton, New Jersey Cecil Gentry, Director, National Hurricane Research Douglas L. Brooks, President, Travelers Research Center, Laboratory, Coral Gables, Florida Hartford, Connecticut Perry W. Gilbert, Executive Director, Mote Marine Lab- Herbert Bruce, Assistant Laboratory Director, Bureau of oratory, Sarasota, Florida, and Professor, Cornell Commercial Fisheries Auke Bay Biological Labora- University tory, Auke Bay, Alaska D. R. Gillenwaters, Oceanic Advisor to Governor and John C. Bryson, Executive Director, Delaware Water & Staff, Sacramento, California Air Resources Commission, Dover, Delaware John B. Glude,' Deputy Regional Director, Bureau of Horace R. Byers, Dean, College of Geosciences, Texas Commercial Fisheries, Seattle, Washington A&M University, College Station, Texas G. G. Gould, Technical Director, Underwater Weapons Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Station, Newport, Rhode Island Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, D.C. Herbert W. Graham, Laboratory Director, U.S. Bureau of A. J. Carsola, Manager, Oceanics Division, Lockheed, San Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Woods Diego, California Hole, Massachusetts David C. Chandler, Director, Great Lakes Research Gordon Gunter, Director, Gulf Coast Research Labora- Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan tory, Ocean Springs, Mississippi Joe S. Creager, Associate Dean, Arts and Sciences, William J. Hargis, Jr., Director, Virginia Institute of University of Washington, Seattle, Washington Marine Science, University of Virginia, Gloucester Franklin C. Daiber, Acting Director, Marine Laboratories, Point, Virginia University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware John M. Haydon, Chairman, Oceanographic Commission David Dean, Director, Darling Center, University of of Washington, Seattle, Washington Maine, Walpole, Maine J. R. Heirtzler, Director, Hudson Laboratories, Columbia Robert G. Dean, Chairman, Department of Coastal and University, Dobbs Ferry, New York Oceanographic Engineering, University of Florida, Joseph E. Henderson, Director, Applied Physics Labora- Gainesville, Florida tory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 1-63 T. F. Heuter, Vice President and General Manager, Sammy M. Ray, Director, Marine Laboratory, Texas A&M Honeywell, West Covina, California University, Galveston, Texas Dr. E. A. Hogye, Head, Science Support Division, U.S. Alfred C. Redfield, Director Emeritus, Woods Hole Navy Mine Defense Laboratory, Panama City, Florida Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts D. W. Hood, Director, Institute of Marine Science, Roger R. Revelle, Director, Center for Population Studies, University of Alaska, College, Alaska School of Public Health, Harvard University, Donald F. Hornig, Special Assistant to the President for Cambridge, Massachusetts Science and Technology, Washington, D.C. William S. Richardson, Professor of Oceanography, Nova Albert C. Jones, Acting Director, Tropical Atlantic University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Randal M. Robertson, Associate Director for Research, Fisheries, Miami, Florida National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Dale C. Jones, Manager of Policy Guidance, Vitro Serv- H. R. Robinson, Chairman, American Shrimp Canners ices, Fort Walton Beach, Florida Association, New Orleans, Louisiana Arnold B. Joseph, Environmental Sciences Branch, P. M. Roedel (in charge, marine research), State Fisheries Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. Laboratory, Terminal Island, California Bostwick.H. Ketchuni,. Associate Director, Woods Hole Harold Romer, Professor, Graduate Department of Marine Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Science, Long Island University, East Meadow, New Thomas E. Kruse, Director of Research, Oregon Fish York Commission, Clackamas, Oregon George A. Rounsefell, Director, Marine Sciences Institute, John La Cerda, Director, Florida Commission on Marine University of Alabama, Bayou La Batre, Alabama Science and Technology, Coral Gables, Florida Lyle S. St. Amant, Assistant Director, Louisiana Wildlife W. Mason Lawrence, Deputy Commissioner, New York & Fisheries Commission, New Orleans, Louisiana State Conservation Department, Albany, New York Godfrey H. Savage, Professor, University of New James A. Lee, Assistant for Environmental Health to the Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire Assistant Secretary for Health and Scientific Affairs, Milner Schaefer, Former Chairman, Committee on Ocean- Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Wash- ography, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, ington, D.C. D.C. Gordon J. MacDonald, Chairman, Panel on Oceanography, 0. E. Sette, Laboratory Director, Bureau of Commercial President's Science Advisory Committee, Washington, Fisheries, Stanford, California D.C. Walter J. Shea, Chairman, Water Resources Coordinating Frederick C. Marland, Research Associate, University of Board, Senate Office Building, Providence, Rhode Georgia Marine Institute, Sapelo Island, Georgia Island . C. S. Matthews, Director, Production Research, Shell Fred W. Sieling, Chief, Natural Resources Management, Development Company, Houston, Texas Department of Chesapeake Bay Affairs, Annapolis, Arthur Maxwell, Associate Director, Woods Hole Oceano- Maryland graphic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Rear Admiral 0. R. Smeder, Assistant Chief of Staff for William J. McNeil, Head, Pacific Fisheries Laboratory, Research and Development, U.S. Coast Guard, Oregon State University, Newport, Oregon Washington, D.C. Albert J. Meserow, Chairman, Great Lakes Commission of Arthur H. Smith, Director, Southern Maine Vocational Illinois, Chicago, Illinois Technical Institute, South Portland, Maine R. L. Miller, Professor, Marine Geophysics, University of Parke D. Snavely, Chief, Office of Marine Geology, U.S. Chicago, Chicago Illinois Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California Clifford H. Mortimer, Director, Center for Great Lakes F. N. Spiess, Director, Marine Physical Laboratory, Studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, Cah- consin fornia Stanley R. Murphy, Assistant Director, Applied Physics Harris B. Stewart, Jr., Director, Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash- Laboratories, Environmental Science Services Admin- ington istration, Miami, Florida Gerhard Neumann, Professor, New York University, New Henry Stommel, Professor, Department of Meteorology, York, New York Massachusetts Institate of Technology, Cambridge, Lloyd G. Nichols, Project Engineer, University of New Massachusetts Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire E. Kemper Sullivan, Acting Chief, Office of Research and William A. Nierenberg, Director, Scripps Institution of Development, Maritime Administration, Washington, Oceanography, La Jolla, California D.C. Carl H. Oppenheimer, Chairman, Department of Ocean- Rodney B. Teel, Chemical Group Leader, International ography, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida Nickel Company, New York, New York Col. John R. Oswalt, Director, Waterways Experiment Morris Tepper, Deputy Director, Space Applications Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi Program, National Aeronautics and Space Admin- L. G. Ottoman, Director, Production Research, Shell istration, Washington, D.C. Development Company, Houston, Texas James M. Parks, Director of Marine Science Center, B. D. Thomas, President, Battelle Memorial Institute, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Columbus, Ohio R. Van Cleve, Dean, College of Fisheries, University of John H. Phillips, Director, Hopkins Marine Station, Washington, Seattle, Washington Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California H. W. Poston, Regional Director, Great Lakes Region, W. S. Von Arx, Professor, Massachusetts Institute of Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Technology, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Department of the Interior, Chicago, Illinois Lionel A. Walford, Director, Bureau of Sport Fisheries Donald W. Pritchard, Director, Chesapeake Bay Institute, and Wildlife, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, High- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland lands, New Jersey Robert A. Ragotzkie, Director, Marine Science Center, 1. Eugene Wallen, Head, Office of Oceanography and University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Limnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. John S. Rankin, Jr., Director, Marine Research Labora- W. C. Walton, Director, Water Resources Research Center, tory, University of Connecticut, Noank, Connecticut University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota Dixy Lee Ray, Director, Pacific Science Center, Seattle, Rear Admiral O.D. Waters, Jr., Oceanographer of the Washington Navy, Washington, D.C. 1-64 J. Wayne, Associate Director, Lamont Geological Observa- Paul Wolff, Captain, USN, Fleet Numerical Weather tory, Palisades, New York Facility, Monterey, California Edward Wenk, Jr., Executive Secretary, National Council Brig. General H. G. Woodbury, Jr., Director of Civil on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Works, Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Jerome Wiesner, Provost, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- G. P. Woollard, Director, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, nology, Cambridge, Massachusetts Hawaii Frederick C. Wilbour, Director, Division of Marine Fish- W. S. Wooster, Professor, Scripps Institution of Ocean- cries, Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources, ography, La Jolla, California Boston, Massachusetts William V. Wright, Jr., Director of Science and Engi- Adm. John M. Will, Vice President, American Export- neering, Environmental Science Services Administra- Isbrandtsen Lines, New York, New York tion, Washington, D.C. Donald E. Wohlschlag, Director, Marine Sciences Insti- Jacques S. Zaneveld, Director, Oceanographic Institute, tute, University of Texas, Port Aransas, Texas Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia 1-65 ww"'S WML Figure 1. Hurricane driving sea against North Bayshore retaining wall, Biscayne Bay, Miami, Sept. 21, 1964. (ESSA photo) Part 11 Report of the Panel on Environmental Monitoring Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 1. Fixed Stations-Buoys . . . . . . 11-36 11. Moving Platforms . . . . . . . 11-39 Summary of Findings and Recommendations 11-3 111. Remote Platforms . . . . . .. . 1141 IV, Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . 114S Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . 11-8 Chapter 6 Scientific Limitations . . . . 11-47 Chapter 2 The Need for an Environmental Monitoring and Prediction 1. Sea-Air Interaction . . . . . . . B-47 System . . . . . . . . . 11-9 11. Scales of Motion . . . U-48 111. Dynamics of Ocean Currents . . . . 11-49, 1. The Need for Ocean Knowledge . . . 11-9 IV. Biological Prediction ... . . . . 11-49 11. The Need for a Common Global System .11-10 Chapter 7 Organization . . . . . . . 11-51 III. The Ocean-Earth-Atmosphere Physical System . . . . . . . 11-11 1. Basic Authorities . . . . . . . . 11-51 IV. Common Elements in Environ 11. Interagency Coordination . . . . . 11-52 mental Monitoring and III. Organizational Options . . . . . . 11-53 Prediction . . . . . . . ... 11-13 IV. Other Organizational Considerations .11-56 V. Environmental Modification . . . . 11-14 Chapter 8 International Organization .11-58 Chapter 3 The System Today . . . . 11-15 1. Intergovernmental Oceanographic 1. Historical Development t .. . . . . 11-15 Conimission . . . . . . . . 11-58 11. Magnitude of Federal Effort . . . . U-16 11. World Meteorological I 111. Programs of Federal Agencies . . . U-17 Organization . . . . . . . . 11-59 IV. Industrial Activities . . . . . . . 11-27 Ill, Other International Organizations . .11-61 V. Other Nations . . . . . . . . . 11-27 IV. Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . u-61 Chapter 4 An Appra isal of Monitoring and Chapter 9 'Payoffs from an I mproved Prediction Capabilities . . . . 11-29 Environmental Monitoring and Prediction System . . . . . 11-63 1. Ocean Temperature Structure . . . 11-29 Il. Sea-State . . . . . . . . . . 11-29 1. Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . 11-63 111. Opportunities for Immediate 11. Ocean Transportation . . . . . . 11-63 Improvement . . . . . . . . 11-29 111. Long-Range Weather Forecasting . .11-64 IV. Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . 11-34 IV. Requirements for Cost-Benefit/ V. Tsunami ., . . . . _ . . . . . 11-34, Systems Studies . . . . . . . 11-65 VI. Hurricane . . . . . . . . . . 11-34 VII. Ice . . . . I . . . ... . . . 11-35 Appendix A Acknowledgments . . . . 11-68 Chapter 5 Recent Technological Appendix B Temperate Tuna forecast Developments . . . . . . . H-36 for 1968 . . . . . . . 11-71 Preface Among the charges to the Panel on Environ- Walter H. Munk, Professor and Associate Director, mental Monitoring by the Commission was the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, examination of those problems in which the University of California oceans are but one element of the complex interacting geophysical system. The panel first The panel supplemented its own information- charted its course of action at a three-day meeting gathering activities by making extensive use of in August 1967 at the University of Rhode earlier surve@s of the field, particularly these Island. To avail itself of all possible information recent reports: bearing on its problems nation-wide hearings were scheduled, jointly with the Panel on Basic Science. Committee on Oceanography, National Academy The first hearings were held in Washington, D.C., of Sciences-National Research Council, Ocean- during the period Oct. 9-12, 1967; all Federal ography 1960 to 1970, NAS-NRC, Washington, agencies conducting ocean-related programs were D.C. (1959) (out of print). given an opportunity to describe their present Committee on Oceanography, National Academy activities and plans for the future. Representatives of Sciences-National Research Council, Ocean- of the following agencies participated: ography 1966, Achievements and Opportuni- Department of the Navy ties, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C, (1967). Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army Panel on Oceanography, President's Science Advanced Research Projects Agency Advisory Committee, Effective Use of the Sea, Department of the Interior Washington, D.C. (1966). National Aeronautics and Space Administration The panel was also in a position to review, via Department of Commerce close liaison with the National Council on Marine Department of Transportation Resources and Engineering Development, all cur- Department of Health, Education, and Welfare rent planning activities of the Federal agencies National Science Foundation participating in the Nation's oceanographic pro- Atomic Energy Commission gram. In particular, a Commission representative Smithsonian Institution participated in the meetings of the Council's At the conclusion of the Washington hearings, Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environ- the panel initiated field hearings; witnesses repre- mental Services, and the panel reviewed the report senting the university community, industry, . Fed- prepared by the Committee: eral field activities, and State and local govern- ments were heard. A schedule of the hearings and National Council on Marine Resources and Engi- a complete list of the more-than-one-hundred neering Development, Committee on Ocean witnesses appears in Appendix A. Exploration and Environmental Services, Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Predic- The panel members were assisted throughout tion, Washington, D.C., July 1, 1968. their deliberations by the following consultants: Continuing discussions were held during the S. Fred Singer, Deputy Assistant Secretary for preparation of this report with many private Scientific Programs, Department of the Interior citizens as well as Government representatives. Karl K. Turekian, Professor of Geology and Representatives of the Navy, the Coast Guard, the Geophysics, Yale University Environmental Science Services Administration, Henry W. Menard, Professor of Oceanography, the Maritime Administration, The National Aero- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, LaJolla, nautics and Space Administration, and the Bureau California of Commercial Fisheries, were especially helpful. 333 -093 0 - 69 - 6 A major review of the panel's report was viewers, does, of course; consider all findings and conducted by panel members, consultants, and recommendations the responsibility of the panel these other reviewers: members alone. Milner B. Schaefer, Science Advisor to the Secre- Finally, we must state that this report could tary, Department of the Interior. not have been written without the dedicated Roger Revelle, Director, Center for Population assistance of the panel's Executive Secretary, Leon S. Pocinki, to whom we wish to express our great Studies, School of Public Health, Harvard Uni- appreciation. versity. John Calhoun, Jr., Executive Director, Gulf Uni- versities Research Corporation, Chairman, National Academy of Sciences Committee on John A. Knauss, Chairman Oceanography. Frank C. Di Luzio The panel, while heartily acknowledging the Leon Jaworski generous assistance of its consultants and re- Robert M. White 11-2 Summary of Findings and Recommendations 1. THE NEED already available and which can be deployed at modest cost. New requirements for real time monitoring of the ocean and atmosphere, and predicting their -Development of new technology to improve data changes, make it vital to the National interest that acquisition, communications, and processing on a we take firm steps toward the establishment of a global basis, with systems studies proceeding in comprehensive global oceanographic monitoring parallel. and prediction system, in concert with other nations. The potential benefits to all marine -Research to remove present scientific limitations activities, as well as land-based activities, are on our ability to predict the state of the ocean, its substantial-in improved warning of ocean and biota, and the atmosphere. weather hazards to life and property, support to -A single civil system to meet common needs for marine transportation and resource development, environmental observations and forecasts of all and enhancement of National security. agencies and users. -The air, sea, and land are inseparable parts of a -Specialized systems to meet needs of the Depart- single geophysical system. The observation, com- ment of Defense and other agencies, planned and munication, and data processing systems-and coordinated with the common system. their supporting technologies-for the atmosphere and the oceans have many features in common. The panel proposes that the Nation establish as Winds generate sea surface waves and drive the a target the full implementation of a modernized ocean's currents. Hurricanes are generated at sea and expanded global environmental monitoring and draw their energy from the sea. To predict and prediction system by 1980. these phenomena we must understand the earth- ocean-atmosphere interactions. -The first half of the next decade should be devoted to immediate improvements in the system -Sensors aboard one platform can collect data in which could be introduced at low cost with both the air and the sea; communications systems existing technology, and to the development of can be shared. A viable oceanographic monitoring new technology which will be necessary to realize and prediction system must be planned within a the full range of possibilities. comprehensive environmental system which in- cludes the atmosphere and certain aspects of the -By 1975 the Nation should be in position to solid earth. relate the potential improvement due to deploy- ment of new technology to associated costs. Recommendation: -By 1980 the next-generation system should be in The Nation's oceanographic monitoring and pre- place to provide adequate data coverage and serv- diction activities should be integrated with the ices to meet the National needs. existing National weather system (as well as certain aspects of the solid earth) to provide a 11. NEAR-TERM IMPROVEMENTS IN THE single comprehensive system, which the panel has MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION identified as the National Environmental Monitor- SYSTEM ing and Prediction System (NEMPS). Most oceanographic and marine weather predic- Provisions should be made for: tion programs rely on data communications, processing, and dissemination provided by systems -Immediate improvements in the present system operated primarily by the Department of Defense through the increased use of equipment which is (Navy and Air Force), Department of Commerce 11-3 (ESSA), and Department of Transportation (FAA C. Hurricane Warnings and Coast Guard). A description of the way in which the system operates today is presented in The hurricane warning system performs ade- Chapter 3. quately within its present constraints. Forecasts of hurricane development and motion, and the hurri- cane-generated storm surge are, however, inade- A. Ocean Structure Prediction quate. More extensive hurricane data are needed to test mathematical models. Analysis and prediction of sea surface condi- tions are now limited by the scarcity of surface ocean and weather observations. Similarly, the Recommendation: analysis of ocean thermal structure is data-limited. The Hurricane Warning Service requires expanded Present ship-of-opportunity programs can be ex- data networks. This Service shoidd be accorded panded at relatively low cost. Needed data could high priority to take advantage of the latest be provided by additional expendable bathyther- technical and operational developments. Addi- mograph soundings from such ships. Adniinistra- tional research is needed to improve our capability tive mechanisms are already established. Improved to forecast hurricane development and motion. prediction of the sea and weather conditions in coastal areas and the Gulf of Mexico could be realized by more extensive instrumentation of D. Sea-ice Forecasting offshore platforms. The Navy and Coast Guard each operate sea-ice forecasting programs; ESSA operates a sea-ice Recommendation: mapping program. Ice forecasting has achieved a useful level of accuracy but is severely limited by The ship-of-opportunity program should be ex- lack of observational data and basic knowledge. panded immediately to provide more surface ocean and weather reports, additional ocean temperature structure data, and more wind sound- Recommendation: ings. Ships operating in regions not covered by Research efforts to improve sea-ice forecasting major merchant vessel trade routes should be should be expanded; efforts in remote sensing of included. Additional instnimentation should be glacial and sea ice, especially in sensors that can placed on offshore platforms. penetrate clouds, are encouraged. Further basic research in energy transfer through the air-ice- B. Tsunami Warnings water media to yield improved models of forma- tion, growth, drift, deformation, and disintegra- The Tsunami Warning System's ability to fore- tion of different ice types is required. cast tsunami arrival times at Pacific Ocean loca- tions is satisfactory, but tsunami runup forecasts Ill. NEW TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT are often grossly in error. To improve system PROGRAMS performance we make the following recommen- Many technological developments are at a stage dation: where they can provide a significant improvement in our ability to observe the environment, to Recommendation: transmit and process the observed data, and to retransmit forecasts. The panel has noted progress Steps should be taken to expand present tide and in the development of new data-collection plat- seismic monitoring stations in the Pacific basin. forms: satellites and buoys. Remote sensing of the International communications from South America environment from these platforms, as well as and the Southwest Pacific should be improved. aircraft, show great potential. New developments Additional research on tsunami generation and should be pursued to the point of field tests to runup problems should be instituted. permit a rational assessment of their future opera- 11-4 tional utility. Our position is summarized in the C. Earth-Orbiting Satellite following recommendation: Results from the TIROS, NIMBUS, and ESSA Recommendation: satellites indicate their potential for regular global synoptic coverage of surface ocean conditions. The Nation must push forward with a comprehen- Sensors now available or in advanced development sive and diversified program for the development can provide routine sea-surface temperature meas- of new technologies to monitor the global marine urements, ice mapping, and estimates of sea- environment. Such a program is the key to surface "roughness." The satellite can serve as a maintaining adequate surveillance over our total communications link for the interrogation of marine environment. ocean platforms and transmission of the data to central processing facilities. Recommendation: A. Buoys NASA development of satellite-borne oceano- Buoy system technology offers a promising graphic sensors, of techniques for the location of approach to the collection of oceanographic and platforms, and of transmission of data from plat- meteorological data in remote ocean areas. Cost forms should continue. Plans for early use of estimates for proposed full-scale operational buoy oceanographic sensors on board operational satet- systems indicate the need for adequate field lites should be pursued vigorously. testing before final deployment decisions are made. Experimental buoy systems could be used IV. RESEARCH PROGRAM .to advance our understanding of major scientific problems as well as provide tests of buoy hard- While environmental monitoring is technology- ware. limited, environmental prediction is seriously Recommendation: limited by a lack of basic understanding. To remove the principal scientific limitations the The National Data Buoy Development Progra .in panel makes the following recommendation: should be pursued vigorously. The program should provide for tests of alternative buoy hardware con- Recommendation: figurations, and different network spacings before Intensive research efforts should be mounted to a commitment is made to a major operational provide the necessary understanding of oceano- system; many of these tests can be conducted in graphic processes in: support of major oceanographic research efforts. -Sea-air interaction -Scales of motion B. Aircraft -Dynamics'of ocean currents Aircraft have been used effectively to collect meteorological data, measure sea-surface tempera- -Biological-physical environmental relationships. tures, launch expendable bathythermographs, and collect sea-state data. V. ORGANIZATION Recommendation: A. Agency Responsibility for NEMPS The oceanographic aircraft role in an opera- Four Federal agencies are principally involved tional environmental monitoring system must be in the provision of marine environmental monitor- reviewed. Aircraft operated for other missions by ing and prediction services: Department of De- various Federal agencies should be instrumented to fense (Navy, Air Force), Department of Trans- collect oceanographic data. portation (Coast Guard and FAA), Department of Commerce (Environmental Science Services NEMPS will generate. The National Oceanographic Administration), and Department of Interior Data Center, which is responsible for certain (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries). Present coordi- categories of oceanographic data storage and re- nation mechanisms do not provide for adequate trieval, has not been able to keep pace with planning, management, and design of a compre- growing needs. It is funded under multi-agency hensive marine environmental monitoring and arrangements and is not assigned as a major prediction system. The panel has taken the posi- mission to any one agency. Environmental data is tion that oceanographic and atmospheric monitor- also archived at other centers. For example, ing and prediction programs must be planned, meteorological data as well as surface ocean data implemented, and conducted jointly. are archived at ESSA's National Weather Records We find that, to ensure responsiveness to Center. military requirements-as well as to satisfy civil needs-suitably coordinated military and civil Recommendation: systems must be maintained. Responsibility for A coordinated system of oceanographic and other the civil system should be focused in one agency, environmental data centers should be established. for planning, funding, and management of com- `fhe NODC should be transferred to the civil mon system elements. Data acquisition and com- agency responsible for the National Environmental munications should be shared and pooled opera- Monitoring and Prediction System. This agency tions; civil and military data processing and should be given the responsibility for its funding forecasting centers should operate, essentially in and management. parallel, to ensure responsiveness to specialized requirements and also for back-up and increased C. Satellite Development and Operation reliability. Research and development in satellite tech- Recommendation: nology for oceanographic measurements should Activities in the National Environmental Monitor- remain the responsibility of NASA. Funding and ing and Prediction System serving common civil management of operational satellite systems for and military interests should be consolidated in oceanographic monitoring should be a responsi- one Federal agency; specialized military programs bility of the agency responsible for NEMPS. Such should be retained in the Department of Defense. management arrangements have worked effectively Civil and military environmental monitoring and for the National weather satellite program. prediction systems should develop within the Recommendation: following guidelines: The agency responsible for NEMPS should adopt -A common, shared data acquisition network arrangements with NASA for satellite ocean- ographic sensor development and operation similar -A common, shared communications network, to those which have worked effectively in the except where military security requires separate National weather satellite program. systems Independent, parallel data processing and fore- VI. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION casting facilities The international body responsible for coordi- -Independent, specialized data and forecast dis_ nating real-time weather and surface ocean data semination sub-systems. collection is the World Meteorological Organiza- tion. B. Data Storage and Retrieval The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commis- sion has acted primarily as an international forum The present system for storage and retrieval of for research activities in oceanography, but has in oceanographic information is unsatisfactory. Un- the past year taken steps to plan and implement a less significant changes are made, it will not be global ocean-monitoring program (IGOSS). Al- able to handle the vast volumes of data which the though these activities are coordinated with the 11-6 WMO, questions, arise regarding the respective and non-duplicating global ocean-atmosphere domains of the IOC and WMO. monitoring and prediction system. Weather and ocean monitoring and prediction programs are limited by insufficient data from the VII. SYSTEMS STUDIES world's oceans. We have noted that the World Many of the technical devices which hold Weather Program, under the aegis of the WMO, promise for an improved environmental monitor- would provide additional sea-surface and ocean ing and prediction service will be costly when fully weather data. The President has endorsed this deployed. Present cost-benefit/systems studies are program for international cooperation in meteoro- not adequate for rational decision-making in re- logical data collection, processing, and dissemina- gard to these major investments. Improved global tion to improve weather forecasting, and the prediction of oceanographic and atmospheric Congress has in its past session also endorsed the parameters depends on the interpretation of new program in its concurrent resolution. types of observational data. Studies are required to The close interaction between oceans and at- mosphere would argue in favor of consolidating determine the proper balance and mix of new international operational activities in physical data-collection platforms-satellites and buoys- oceanography and meteorology in one interna- with newly developed sensors. We must develop tional agency. If a major realignment of interna- techniques to estimate changes in forecast capa- tional agencies is contemplated, such an amalgama- bility as these potential new components are tion should be among the alternatives considered; added to the existing system. on the other hand, we recognize the close relation- Recommendation: ship between oceanographic data collection and other marine activities. Extensive analyses of design trade-offs, intended use of resulting data in prediction, and benefits Recommendation: from improved predictions must proceed in paral- lel with major technical development programs. Global oceanographic monitoring and prediction Such analyses are required to support decisions activities should be jointly planned with the World regarding operational deployment of major new Weather Program to provide a well-coordinated systems. 11-7 Chapter I Introduction During the past fifteen years there has been a Because man is dependent on the oceans, he has growing National awareness of man's dependence sought an understanding of the laws that govern on the oceans. and of the need for understanding their contents, motions, and dynamic processes, the oceans and the life they sustain. A major but he has done so under a severe handicap. On indicator of this changing awareness is a series of the one hand, it has been impossible to experiment reports on the marine sciences, reviewing the state with the ocean as a laboratory scientist would, of knowledge of the oceans and proposing future conducting experiments in a limited space. On the directions for oceanographic research. Two reports other hand, the vastness of the oceans made it were submitted by the Committee on Ocean- impossible to mount a continuous watch over ography of the National Academy of Sciences' them. Ships plying the major ocean trade routes (other pertinent reports of the National Academy cover only a small portion of the world oceans. It of Sciences are referred to later in this report); is not surprising, therefore, that present scientific another was submitted by the Panel on Ocean- knowledge of the oceans, while in some aspects ography of the President's Science Advisory Com- impressive, is fragmentary. mittee .2 These reports stimulated the scientific But new technology has opened new possibili- community as well as legislators and adminis- ties. The earth-orbiting satellite, the ocean buoy, trators with the responsibility for the formulation and associated technology provide a potential of major National programs. capability to observe and probe the oceans over There are many reasons for our present concern the entire globe-to gather the data needed to with the marine sciences. We have long recognized describe, understand, and predict ocean processes. that the oceans are primary avenues of interna- With modem communications techniques and tional trade, that the oceans are a vital theater of high-speed computers, data can be transmitted National defense, that ocean storms destroy life rapidly over global distances to central locations to and property, and that the oceans are a major be processed, analyzed, and disseminated. source of food. In this report, the Panel on Environmental More recently, our awareness of the importance Monitoring has concerned itself with how this new of the oceans has intensified. With the growing technology may be used to improve understanding world's population increasing the pressure on of the oceans and the ability to predict their food supplies, the natural resources of the oceans future state. We have reviewed present programs become vital. , The expansion of industry and and plans and future possibilities for monitoring increased population density near the coasts have the ocean and the neighboring atmosphere and increased usage of harbors, estuaries, and near- predicting their future states. Our primary concern shore waters with attendant pollution and con- has been with those programs for which observa- flicting pressures. tion are processed and analyzed within a relatively There is, in addition, the long standing recogni- short time to provide useful predictions, i.e. tion of the significant role that the oceans play in essentially real-time activities. molding our weather. The panel has concluded that the United States must accelerate its development-in concert with other nations-of a comprehensive global system Committee on Oceanography, National Academy of for the monitoring and prediction of the physical Sciences-National Research Council, Oceanography 1960 to 1970, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C. (1959) (out of environment. In the following chapters the panel print); Committee on Oceanography, National Academy will discuss the needs for such a global system, of Sciences-National Research Council, Oceanography 1966, Achievements and Opportunities, NAS-NRC, Wash- appraise present program performance, describe ington, D.C. (1967). recent technical developments, discuss National 2Panel on Oceanography, President's Science Advisory and international management and coordination Committee, Effective Use of the Sea, Washington, D.C. arrangements, and make recommendations for the (1966). future. 11-8 Chapter 2 The Need for an Environmental Monitoring and Prediction System 1. THE NEED FOR OCEAN KNOWLEDGE were along the Alaska Gulf coast and the U.S. west 2 coast caused by the resulting sea wave . The Nation has a pervasive need for detailed knowledge of the ocean's characteristics and an understanding of their changes in time and space. One of the nation's primary concerns in ocean- ography is National security. Those who deploy, route, and operate naval vessels must have detailed data describing the state of the ocean's surface and the currents at different depths. They must have forecasts of the temperature, salinity, and bio- Figure 2. General view of Kodiak, Alaska, logical composition of the oceans to ensure effec- showing damage caused by sea- wave resulting from earthquake, March 28, 1964. (ESSA tive use of sonar. Detailed analysis of the thermal photo) structure is necessary for the interpretation of T.hese are the most destructive ocean phenom- passive sonar tracking data. The Navy requires ena. But other storms, 'and the rough seas asso- forecasts of icebergs and sea-ice for operations in ciated with them, ate also dangerous and these polar and sub-polar waters. For amphibious land- storms can change quickly in intensity. They are a ings, naval forces require forecasts of tide, tidal menace to all those operating offshore rigs for the currents, and surf conditions. extraction of oil and gas. The threat can be Another major concern is the protection of life reduced by reliable forecasting of ocean condi- and property. A hurricane can generate waves tions. more than 50 feet high that batter whatever lies in In addition to these requirements there are their paths. The storm surge driven by hurricane many anticipated future needs for specialized winds erodes beaches, highways, and topples build- ocean predictions. As sea-bottom habitation and ings. Since much of the U.S. densely populated the use of deep-ocean submersibles become reali- Atlantic and Gulf coasts lies less than 10 feet ties, deep-ocean forecasts will be required. New above mean sea level, the danger is great. Hurri- transportation developments-surface-effects cane Beulah, in September 1967, left at least 41 machines and hydrofoils-will be particularly sensi- people dead, thousands homeless, and more than tive to sea-surface "roughness" and will require $1 billion in damage; the storm surge and floods special sea-state forecasts. caused most of the damage.' In recent years, mass Ocean knowledge can also serve the National evacuations have been ordered to save lives along economy in many ways. If the state of the oceans, the Gulf coast. particularly ocean waves and currents, can be Tidal waves, or tsunamis, are not generated by predicted, ocean vessels can be routed more winds but by earthquakes. Tsunamis occur most efficiently. An example of the vulnerability of often in the Pacific and are a series of long ocean major ships to the vagaries of the oceans is the waves. In deep water these waves are difficult to recent loss of the 30,000 ton tanker World Glory 3 detect and cannot be seen. They contain tre- off Durban, South Africa, with 22 hands. A mendous energy, and can devastate coastal areas, 70-foot high wave, called a "Cape-roller," snapped with waves of 100 feet or more. The Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake @f 1964 Cost 2A Proposed NATIONWIDE NATURAL DISASTER WARNING SYSTEM (NADWARN), Report with back- approximately 150 lives; almost all the deaths ground information prepared by the Natural Disaster Warning Survey Group, ESSA, Department of Commerce, October 1965. lHurricane Beulah, Preliminary Report with Ad- 3Daily Bulletin of the American Institute of Marine visories and Bulletins Issued by the Weather Bureau, U.S. Underwriters, 99 John Street, New York City, June 17, Weather Bureau, ESSA, Sept. 29, 1967. 1968. U-9 off the ship's stern. Better understanding of 11. THE NEED FOR A COMMON GLOBAL surface waves would permit improvements in ship SYSTEM design to make ships cheaper to build and more efficient to operate. Forecasts of sea-ice are These are some of the Nation's more important important for naval operations and commerce. needs for ocean knowledge. These needs can only be satisfied if we are able to maintain a continuous This knowledge is also vital for the operation of watch over the oceans and improve our capability fishing vessels. The loss of three British trawlers to forecast. But how should we do this? Should off Iceland in February 1968, points up the each activity-the Department of Defense, the De- ever-present danger. Ocean knowledge has an partment of Commerce, the Department of In- additional importance for the fishing industry. terior, the shipping industry, the fishing industry- Ocean currents, temperatures, and other physical maintain the ocean watch it needs and be responsi- and chemical conditions strongly affect fisheries. blefor the forecasts it needs? Or should we have a The fluctuations in yield of the major ocean separate system for each geographical area of the fisheries over periods of time are often a reflection marine environment? These are some of the of changes in ocean conditions. Certain species of questions addressed by the Panel on Environ- tuna are closely associated with a fixed tempera- mental Monitoring in this report. ture range in the ocean. Prediction of the location There must be a single system providing data of the appropriate isotherms increases the effi- and forecasts to meet the common needs, for what ciency of this fishery operation. emerges clearly from the description of the Na- tion's extensive needs for ocean knowledge is that These requirements-of those engaged in naval different activities share many needs in common. operations, in ensuring the safety of coastal areas, These activities should be served by a system. in operating small boats as well as ocean-going which meets the common needs in an efficient vessels, and in fishing-are operational require- way. Separate observing and forecasting systems ments. But even if we could now observe the for each major activity would result in needless oceans everywhere, we could not satisfy all of duplication. However, special classes of ocean these needs because the ability to forecast ocean "users" require specialized forecasts and/or data, conditions is limited by incomplete scientific which would be developed from outputs of the understanding of the motions of the ocians-of system designed to meet most common needs. The their scale, their kinetic energy, and the causes of military will still require specialized outputs in their fluctuations. In the last analysis, we must support of military operations, fully responsive to observe the oceans to collect the data that will rapidly-changing military requirements, provided permit the scientist to describe the initial state of by a system under control of the Defense Depart- the oceans and to establish the laws that govern ment. The system would provide data and predic- their dynamic processes. tions describing large-scale characteristics of the environment. In many cases, such as pollution The oceans are massive and sluggish and their control and marine resource management, smaller motions are in large part a response over a long scale data are required; these would continue to be period of time to motions in the atmosphere. In collected by local agencies and used in conjunc- turn, the heat stored up by the oceans helps drive tion with larger-scale information. the atmosphere. Increased understanding of the A marine environmental monitoring and predic- oceans is therefore important not only for the tion system, if it is to provide all required data and improvement of ocean forecasting but also for the services, must be global. There are two reasons for improvement of weather forecasting. Improved this conclusion: understanding is especially needed in the zone -The Nation is engaged in marine operations, or where sea and air meet. If the scientist can must be prepared to engage in them, throughout improve his understanding of the interactions the world-over all the oceans, and along every between the atmosphere and the oceans we shall coast. This is particularly true for the Navy, but go a long way in improving our ability to predict commercial vessels also traverse much of the globe the weather. and fishing vessels range Widely. 11-10 -Equally important is the fact that the oceans sensible heat directly from the ocean and through are in constant motion over the globe. What the release of latent heat by condensation of water happens in one area of the oceans can affect the vapor supplied by the ocean. oceans or coastal waters a thousand miles away. The marine environment cannot be viewed as a series of parts; only a global system can monitor the oceans and forecast its changes. Ill. THE OCEAN-EARTH-ATMOSPHERE PHYS- ICAL SYSTEM The report has thus far considered a monitoring and prediction system for the marine environment -but this is artifical because the oceans, the atmosphere, and the solid earth are not separate and distinct but are elements of the continuum which we call the geophysical environment. These elements are in constant interaction. To under- stand and predict the oceans, we must understand the total environment. Similar conclusions were reached by the Com- Academy mittee on Oceanography of the National of ScienceS4 and the Panel on Oceanography of 7_ the President's Science Advisory Committee.5 We Figure 3. Eye of Hurricane Betsy, photo- have reviewed this aspect of their reports with graphed by Air Force reconnaissance aircraft particular care, for it is crucial in determining the at an altitude of 11 miles, 90 miles north of Grand Turk Island, British West Indies, Sept kind of monitoring and prediction system the 2, 1965. (Air Force photo) Nation should develop. This panel concurs in the view that ocean conditions and processes canno On a longer time scale the oceans play a large be monitored, studied, understood, and predicted role in the general circulation of the atmosphere, in isolation, but only in the context of the total although geophysicists feel that the earth's north- geophysical environment, south energy balance is primarily maintained by The validity of this view can be seen in 6 different ocean phenomena. Ocean surface cur- atmospheric circulations. At high latitudes, for rents and the "shape" of the ocean surface, for example, cold ocean water sinks in certain regions example, are primarily the result of the winds in and flows toward the equator at great depths. the lower atmosphere. Large ocean swells observed Even a weak circulation of this type results in a relatively large transport of energy toward the on the U.S. Pacific Coast are generated by winds in poles. At present the magnitude of this oceanic the atmosphere over the Southern Atlantic Ocean. energy flux and its role in maintaining the earth's The tsunami is a destructive ocean phenomenon, energy balance is unknown. but it is generated by motions of the solid earth's At least as important is the fact that the air-sea crust. In their turn, the oceans affect what water exchange is the mechanism that provides the happens in all parts of the physical environment. water for precipitation over the globe. So pervad- The hurricane obtains its energy by absorbing ing is the total atmosphere-ocean exchange that it has been hypothesized that shifts in the positions 4Committee on Oceanography, National Academy of of major ocean currents may be responsible for Sciences-National Research Council, Oceanography 1966-A chievements and Opportunities, NAS-NRC, Wash- ington, D.C. (1967). 6Joint Panel on Air-Sea Interaction, National Academy 1 5Panel on Oceanography, President's Science Advisory of Sciences-National Research Council, Interaction Be- Committee, Effective Use of the Sea, Washington, D.C. tween the Atmosphere and the Oceans, NAS-NRC, @-'i (1966) Washington, D.C. (1962)@ 1141 1DOKM laOKM IOKM 10KII, lKM I KM ALTITUDE 100 M ALTITUDE 100M lam lam Ocean Surface Ocean Surf Im lam loom 0. 0. 90* S go's TO 30 HOURS UP TO 2 DAYS 10OKM 10OKM 1OKM IOKM 1KM lKM ALTITUDE IOOM ALTITUDE Iccm lam lam Ocean Surf Ocean Surf I m 10 oom 90* S 90 S UP TO 4 DAYS UP TO 5 DAYS lOOKM 10 KM 1KM ALTITUDE JOG m lam lam Oc@@ qqon Surface JIM lam 0 UP TO 10 DAYS U S Figure 4. Estimated initial data requirements to forecast for a point at the 500-millibar sur- face (about 6 kilometers] at latitude 450N. For a forecast period of up to 30 hours, initial data are required from a strip at the same altitude over the Northern Hemisphere; 30 hours- 2 days, a thin layer of atmosphere over part of the Northern Hemisphere; 2-4 days, a deep layer of atmosphere over most of Northern Hemisphere; 4-5 days, a deep layer of atmos- phere over the entire Northern and part of the Southern Hemisphere plus sea-surface data, 5-10 days, same part of atmosphere as for 4-5 days plus the ocean to 4 meters, and 10 days- 2 months, atmosphere over entire globe plus the ocean to 100 meters. (Adapted ftom Ballgrm, R. E., "World Weather Program, TRW Space Log, spring-summer 1968) : _@N ` N@_@N 11-12 long-term weather "shifts"7 i.e. droughts, unsea- IV. COMMON ELEMENTS IN ENVIRON- sonably warm summers, etc. Figure 4 is a sche- MENTAL MONITORING AND PREDIC- matic estimate of the dependence of atmospheric TION forecasting on oceanographic data; it shows how increasing amounts of ocean data are required as Not only are the oceans and the atmosphere the time range of a forecast for the atmosphere is linked by interacting processes, but the technolo- increased. gies for observing and communicating oceano- graphic and meteorological data have many fea- In regard to forecasting ocean conditions and tures in common. Because of the high cost of their effects on fisheries, Schaefer has stated:' acquiring data over the oceans it is necessary to share platforms for observing the ocean and the We are, I believe, on the threshold of being able to atmosphere. The Nation cannot afford separate do much better, through monitoring of atmo- satellite or buoy systems for the acquisition of spheric circulation and heat exchange between sea ocean data and atmospheric data; it cannot afford and atmosphere.... These are the principal driv- separate communications systems for oceano- ing forces on the upper layers of the sea, and the graphic and meteorological data. The marine en- dynamic relationships between them and the vironmental data acquisition systems and com- ocean circulation are becoming increasingly better munications facilities must be organized to ensure understood. It should soon be possible, given an economical operation. adequate network of stations for observations of The safety and efficiency of any enterprise, a the atmosphere over the sea and of the upper layer naval force or a fishing fleet or a shore com- of the ocean, by automatic unmanned stations munity, depends on the totality of environmental (meteorological and oceanographic buoys) both to conditions confronted. The fisherman must know keep track of what the ocean is doing, in real time, the weather and the state of the sea as well as the and to forecast changes which will affect the currents and temperature distribution within the fisheries. ocean. The coastal homeowner is concerned not only with the atmospheric winds under severe The relationship between the physical processes storm conditions but also with the storm surge. of the marine environment and of the atmosphere Our views are not abstract; today's marine is so intimate that physical oceanography and environmental monitoring and prediction systems meteorology are inextricably bound together. An are "integrated." The Navy, operating the Na- understanding of the exchange of heat between sea tion's most advanced marine environmental mon- and. air-of the ways in which the winds drive the itoring and prediction service, conducts many oceans-is integral to the scientific understanding of its weather and ocean forecasting activities of ocean or atmosphere; and it is integral to jointly at the Fleet Numerical Weather Central, forecasting in the ocean and in the atmosphere. Monterey, California. (See Chapter 3.) Both meteorological and oceanographic data are fed Any system for monitoring the oceans and pre- into computers; mathematical models describing dicting their changes must, therefore, be concerned both atmosphere and ocean are used to prepare with atmospheric data, just as any system for ocean and weather analyses and forecasts. The monitoring and predicting the weather must be Navy distributes both oceanographic and meteoro- concerned with ocean data. Logic demands a single logical "products" over a single world-wide com- monitoring and prediction system for the total munications system. physical environment. ESSA provides both weather and marine infor- mation on storm surges and sea state through a single forecasting and dissemination system. It also 7Namias, Jerome, Short-Period Climatic Fluctuations, plans to use weather satellites to observe sea Science, Vol. 147, No. 3659, Feb. 12, 1965, pp. 696-706. surface temperatures. a Internationally, most ocean data are collected at Schaefer, Milner B., Oceanography and the Marine the same time that weather observations are taken. Fisheries, Canadian Fisheries Reports, No. 5, June 1965, p.35. These observations of the ocean state are com- 11-13 municated world wide through weather communi- existing National weather system (as well as cations facilities organized by the World Meteoro- certain aspects of the solid earth) to provide a logical Organization. (See Chapter 8.) single comprehensive system, which the panel has identified as the National Environmental Monitor- ing and Prediction System (NEMPS). V. ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION During the past decade we have become in- creasingly aware of the ways in which man is inadvertently modifying his environment-through the emission of carbon dioxide, the discharge of Provisions should be made for: industrial and agricultural pollutants-and of the possible ways in which he may be able to modify _hnmediate improvements in the present system his environment deliberately-by coating surfaces through the increased use of equipment which is to hasten or retard the absorption of heat and by already available and which can be deployed at releasing chemicals into the atmosphere to alter modest cost. the ways in which it stores or releases water vapor. Inadvertent modification may pose a serious threat. -Development of new technology to improve data The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing acquisition, communications, and processing on a as a result of the burning of fossil fuels; the effecl global basis, with systems studies proceeding in of the carbon dioxide on the earth's heat radiation parallel. has caused concern, because of possible long-term climatic changes.' But the oceans affect this -Research to remove present scientific limitations process by absorbing carbon dioxide; the rate at on our ability to predict the state of the ocean, its which this occurs is not well documented. biota, and the atmosphere. Deliberate environmental modification holds -A single civil system to meet co Immon needs for out the ultimate hope that we can learn how to environmental observations and forecasts of all dissipate hurricanes and other severe storms and agencies and users. that we can provide certain areas of the world with slight increases in rainfall or small changes in -Specialized systems to meet needs of the Depart- average temperature and so make possible a viable ment of Defense and other agencies, planned and agricultural economy where none was possible coordinated with the common system. before. But modification is a matter of the total environment. When, for example, we modify the The panel proposes that the Nation establish as atmosphere, particularly on a large scale, there can a target the full implementation of a modernized be serious oceanic effects; the converse is equally and expanded global environmental monitoring true. and prediction system by 1980. An improved global environmental monitoring system will make possible the collection of data -The first half of the next decade should be vital in evaluating modification experiments. In- devoted to immediate improvements in the system creased understanding of the environment will which could be introduced at low cost with make it possible to estimate the effects of pro- existing technology, and to the development of posed modification activities. new.technology which will be necessary to realize the full range of possibilities. Recommendation: -By -1975 the Nation should be in position to The Nation's oceanographic monitoring and predic- relate the potential improvement due to deploy- tion activities should be integrated with the ment of new technology to associated costs. -By 1980 the next-generation system should be 9Environmental Pollution Panel, President's Science - Advisory Committee, Restoring the Quality of Our En- in place to provide adequate data coverage and vironment, The White House,-November 1965. services to meet the National needs. 11-14 Chapter 3 The System Today 1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT tic weather service. In 1867, tide prediction tables were published by the Coast Survey and in 1870 The Nation has long recognized the need for the National Weather Service was established as marine prediction in support of the many require- part of the U.S. Army Signal Service. ments cited in earlier chapters. The first well- The first explicit Congressional recognition of known chart of the Gulf Stream was published by the need for comprehensive marine intelligence to Benjamin Franklin in 1783, while he was Post- benefit commerce was in the 1890 legislation master General, to speed the delivery of trans- passed by the 51st Congress, which established the atlantic mail. As early as 1842, Lieutenant Maury U.S. Weather Bureau under the direction of the of the U.S. Navy began compiling wind and Secretary of Agriculture (cf. Chapter 7). The Chief current charts from reports included in the log of the Weather Bureau was assigned responsibility books of sailing vessels. Maury recognized the need for the "collection and transmission of marine for more data to make his charts more representa- intelligence" as well as weather forecasting. Since tive. He wrote letters to scientists all over the then, many agencies in the Federal Government world asking for support in establishing a universal have found the acquisition and use of marine system for collecting weather observations on sea intelligence essential to the conduct of their and land. missions. After a *period of inactive duty following an Marine environmental monitoring and predic- injury Maury was recalled to active duty on July 1, tion activities have grown in response to many 1842 to become superintendent of the Navy's needs which have developed over the years. The Depot of Charts and Instruments. The agency was panel has sought to ascertain whether this growth, then renamed National, or Naval Observatory in response to pressing requirements, has produced when it moved into new quarters in 1844. (From a system that is as efficient as the Nation needs. 1854 to 1866 it was called "Naval Observatory On the basis of data gathered by the panel in its and Hydrographical Office"; in 1866 the Hydro- hearings, and in the review of present and planned graphic Office was separated from the Naval Federal programs, we feel that certain programs Observatory.)' can be improved and other changes should be As a result of Maury's early actions, a meeting made; these matters are covered by the recom- was held in Brussels in 1853 which included mendations contained in this chapter, as well as representatives of all the world's maritime natio ns. those of Chapter 7 regarding organization. Maury tried to establish the. concept of coopera- tion in making weather observations on land, but A number of Federal agencies conduct one or that goal was not achieved; instead, it was decided more of the following activities: acquisition of to limit cooperation to observations at sea. It is physical oceanographic and related meteorological still possible, however, to trace the establishment data, the communication of such data, processing of national meteorological offices in Great Britain data, forecasting, disseminating analyses and and Germany to his influence. Later response to forecasts. A number of relatively independent Maury's influence resulted in the establishment of regional programs are also in operation to provide hy .drographic services in other maritime nations. In biological forecasts. The Departments of the In- 1854, a storm at Balaklava on the Black Sea terior, Commerce, Defense, and Transportation are wrecked the French fleet; as a result the French all involved in one or more aspects of the overall high command demanded and got the first synop- national marine environmental monitoring and prediction program. In the remainder of this chapter we describe the programs of these Federal agencies. We have not attempted to present de- iMaury, Mathew Fontaine (edited by John Leighly) tailed fiscal data for all activities described, but 77ze Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology, give general funding levels to indicate the magni- -ss Carn- The Belknap Press of Harvard University Pre bridge, Massachusetts, 1963, 427 pp..(p. xi). tude of the effort. 11-15 11. MAGNITUDE OF FEDERAL EFFORT Table 1 A summary of overall funding for the opera- ESTIMATED FUNDING LEVEL FISCAL YEAR 1969 tional marine environmental monitoring and pre- MARINE ENVIRONMENT MONITORING diction service is given below. Its funding can be AND PREDICTION SERVICES' considered in three categories: (Thousands of Dollars) -Funds expended for the collection, processing, Marine and dissemination of ocean measurements not Ocean Meteorology collected in connection with meteorological ser- (Category a) (Category b) vices. -Funds expended for specialized marine weather Commerce $ 4,868 $ 977 data collection and processing which are to meet Defense-Navy 9,267 10,311 the exclusive need for support of marine activities. Interior-BCF 175 0 Transportation- -Funds expended for associated meteorological Coast Guard 6,800 262 and oceanographic data collection and processing that are essential for ocean observation and fore- Totals $21,110 $11,550 casts, but which are also collected to meet more general, non-marine needs of the National civil and Source: Category a: National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Committee on military weather services. Ocean Exploration and Environmental Services, Federal An estimate of the present annual cost to the Plan for Marine Environmental Prediction, Washington, D.C., July 1, 1968; Category b: Office of the Federal Nation for providing marine weather and ocean Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting environmental services may be obtained by adding Research, The Federal Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, Fiscal Year 1969, Washington, the funds in these three categories: D.C. (1968) 1 Data subject to revision as spending plans become firm. a. Ocean Observing and Predic- tion Program $ 21 million b. Marine Weather Program 12 million Surface observations from cooperative coastal c. Associated Meteorological stations. Program 140 million Total $173 million -Surface and upper-air observations from the The funding estimate for FY 1969 for each of Ocean Station Vessels. the Federal agencies for ocean observation and prediction (category a.), and/or marine weather -Weather radar observation of thunderstorms and services (category b.), is shown in Table 1. precipitation over the United States, and of The National civil and military weather services tropical cyclones and storms in offshore areas. are the principal sources of weather data and fore- casts essential to support marine environmental services. The meteorological programs of the De- -Weath Ier satellite observations of the earth's partment of Commerce, Department of Def ense, cloud patterns. and Department of Transportation provide the following data under category c: -Aircraft observations of tropical cyclones and major storms over the oceans. -Surface and upper-air observations from coastal and island stations. Table 2 is a summary of estimated Fiscal Year -Surface and upper-air observations from the 1969 funding levels for the operational programs cooperative merchant ship program, and other described above, which are essential to the support vessels. of monitoring and prediction services. 11-16 Table 2. approximately 55 are equipped to make upper-air ESTIMATED FUNDING LEVEL - observations. The Navy also obtains some data FISCAL YEAR 1969 from Navy Oceanographic/Meteorological Auto- OPERATIONS TO PROVIDE DATA NEEDED matic Devices (NOMADs), now undergoing opera- TO SUPPORT THE NATIONAL MARINE tional evaluation (see Chapter 5). The Navy's ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES PROGRAM' marine observational program is conducted to (Thousands of Dollars) fulfill military requirements, but observations are (Category 0 also made available to the Department of Com- merce. The Navy's operational program is pri- Commerce 93,175 marily the responsibility of the Naval Weather Service Command. Defense Air Force 21,500 Navy 8,150 1. Naval Weather Service Command Transportation The missions of the Naval Weather Service Coast Guard 6760 Command are : 3 FAA '@90 7, TOTAL 137,475 1. Provide meteorological services for air, sur- face, and sub-surface operations of the U.S. Navy. Source: Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteoro- 2. Provide oceanographic forecasts for the logical Services and Supporting Research, Ae Federal armed services of the Department of Defense in Plan for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research, Fiscal Year 1969, Washington, D.C. (1968) order to support military plans and operations. Data subject to revision as spending plans become firm. In addition to the more familiar maritime forecasts-fog, small craft, gale and storm warn- ings, high seas warnings-the Naval Weather Service Command provides operational oceanographic sup- 'IES2 por Ill. PROGRAMS OF FEDERAL AGENC t to the fleet. Forecasts cover sea state, surf A. Department of Defense and littoral currents for amphibious operations, physical oceanographic parameters for anti- The Air Force conducts extensive environ- submarine warfare, wind-driven currents for search mental observing and prediction programs, pri- and rescue missions, sea ice conditions for polar marily the collection of atmospheric data at missions, and Optimum Track Ship Routing certain locations in the United States and overseas. (OTSR), an advisory service for ship track selec- The Air Force also operates regular weather tion to avoid hazardous wind and sea conditions. reconnaissance flights over ocean areas. However, Fleet Weather Centrals at Alameda, California; the bulk of the Defense Department activities of Norfolk, Virginia; Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; Guam; concern to the panel is conducted by the Navy. and Rota, Spain, operate as area centers. They use All commissioned naval vessels are required to the broad-scale products from the Fleet Numerical record and report weather observations when Weather Central (see next section) and from underway and, under certain conditions, while in ESSA's National Meteorological Center to pre- port. Six-hourly surface observations are made by pare detailed analyses, forecasts, and warnings non-meteorological personnel. For more accurate for their areas of responsibility (See Figure 5.) and detailed observations and duties, meteoro- Fleet Weather Central products are disseminated logical personnel are assigned to approximately 75 to naval operating forces' and to smaller naval ships. All Ahese . ships make scheduled surface environmental units by the Naval Communications observations for synoptic and aviation purposes; System. 2The descriptions of Federal agency programs have 3Office of the Chief of Naval Operation, OPNAV been reviewed by the cognizant agencies. Instruction P3140.32A. 11-17 333-093 0 - 69 - 7 FWF SOON 1 '60 750E Sul LAND-- . - -I ' 4 G R t E 70ON 70ON ;@@Y@16VE L L 3 0 70oN k 75oE Le, T, R TN A S I A A S 14 A m 1@ @cA FWC ROTA FM/C - NORFOLK FWC FW@ Aj I I A G A M PEARL HARBOR PS T PE I c I S 60oE 60oS 60oS* 60os 60oS --,16 oE VOW 30ow 60oE1 ... ....... Figure 5. Naval Weather Service Command areas of responsibility. The Navy Fleet Weather Centrals and Facilities Argentia and Kodiak provide ice forecasting serv- have operational oceanographic divisions, manned ices; Alameda and Norfolk operate the Navy's by personnel trained in both meteorology and Optimum Track Ship Routing Program (this pro- oceanography. Fleet Weather Centrals and Facili- gram provided routing services for 3980 DOD ties, acting as regional operational oceanographic ships in 1967). Guam is the site of a joint support centers, provide technical guidance to Navy/Air Force typhoon warning center. All activ- Naval Weather Service Environmental Detach- ities of the Integrated Fleet Weather Central ments (NWSED's) and mobile oceanographic System participate in the Anti-Submarine Warfare teams aboard ships in order to help tailor their Environmental Prediction System (ASWEPS). services to the user's needs. The Fleet Numerical Weather Central (FNWC), The Navy operates Fleet Weather Facilities at Monterey, California is the center of the weather Yokosuka, Japan; Sangley Point, Phillippine and oceanographic data-processing computer net- Islands; San Diego, California; Jacksonville, work; it is also the center for computer program Florida; Quonset Point, Rhode Island; Kodiak, development for the Naval Weather Service Com- Alaska; Argentia, Newfoundland; Keflavik, Ice- mand. FNWC issues operational analyses/forecasts land; and London, England as specialized centers. covering thermal structure, sound-speed structure, These Facilities provide forecasts and warnings wave conditions, and surface currents in support of tailored to specific naval operating and training fleet operations. areas. Many Fleet Weather Facilities and Weather The most significant FNWC forecasting activi- Centrals have other specific responsibilities: ties are the thermal structure programs for the @FOV r 21 5 oS O.E U-18 Northern Hemisphere, including analyses and fore- mental Data Network has been established for the casts of sea-surface temperature, and near-surface exchange of meteorological and oceanographic temperature structure. Upon request FNWC will computer products between the FNWC and the also provide bathythermograph (temperature vs. Integrated Fleet Weather Central System activities. depth) profiles from thermal structure analyses/ This network is composed of high speed digital forecasts for any location in the Northern Hemi- circuits, which also serve certain Naval Operations sphere, as required, and classified sonar analyses/ Control Centers, and selected ASWEPS units. predictions for fleet operating areas. Meteorological information, prepared by the Fleet Weather Centrals and Facilities, is trans- mitted to operating Naval forces by means of 77" Navy radio (continuous wave, teletypewriter, J @, @-, 'A , , . @: facsimile, and voice) broadcasts. The centrals and ,A @@"q facilities use their own specialized products, and U those of the FNWC as well as products of the Basic Meteorological Service and other data from the Federal Aviation Administration's weather tele- typewriter networks, the Department of Com merce's National and High Altitude Facsimile M" @T, "T J; Networks, and the Air Force's Automated Weather Network and teletypewriter systems. The primary purpose of the Navy's Integrated A, -M Fleet Weather Central System is to support opera- tional decisions. Weather service offices at all A major naval commands and aboard many larger i ships use the products of the Integrated Fleet 7- Weather Central System. They interpret these products for local use and prepare local area and route forecasts. 3. Naval Oceanographic Office (NOO) Figure 6. Portion ofsea surface temperature analysis prepared by computer installation at The Naval Oceanographic Office is responsible Navy's Fleet Numerical Weather Central, for developing oceanographic prediction tech- Monterey, California. Chart is for 0000 GMT" June 25, 1968; contour lines are marked in niques and applying them to Naval operations on degrees centigrade. an experimental basis. As methods reach opera- Wave forecasting programs for the Northern tional utility, they are transferred to the Com- Hemisphere conducted by the FNWC include mander, Naval Weather Service Command, al- twice-daily sea and swell analyses and 12-hour though NOO also conducts some operational forecasts of height, period, and direction for sea activities. and swell. NOO's ASWEPS program has both operational Surface . curr ent p Irograms conducted by the and research and development facets. A prototype FNWC include daily forecasts and twice-6 .fly system is in operation in the western North analyses of surface currents, together with twice- Atlantic Ocean which provides both daily and daily computations of the locations of major long-term forecasts of sea-surface temperature, current boundaries. thermal layer depth, and in-layer thermal gra- 4 dients. A dynamic prediction model is being 2. Navy Communications" tested to replace the analysis techniques used in the prototype system. The Naval Communications System transmits meteorological information in the same manner as 4 Forecasting procedures are described in: James, other communications traffic. A Naval -Environ- R. W., Ocean Thermal Structure Forecasting. 11-19 The ASWEPS development program is con- are studied and predictiolis made in connection tinuing toward the establishment of an operational with planned engineering developments. MARK 11 Anti-Submarine Warfare Environmental Prediction System which will give worldwide coverage. ASWEPS is also the focal point for the B. Department of Commerce development of pertinent environmental instru- 1. Environmental Science Services Administration mentation for naval ship and aircraft use. NOO (ESSA) produces operational wave forecasts by non- numerical methods5 and is evaluating numerical The mission of the Environmental Science techniques. NOO's operational ice prediction pro- Services Administration is: 7 grams include general forecasts in the Arctic and Antarctic and forecasts in support of under-ice .01 To ensure the safety and welfare of the cruises. Long-range (greater than 30 to 120 days) public, to further the Nation's agriculture, in- and 30-day forecasts are provided during March dustry, transportation, and communications, and through November for eastern North American to assist thos-eFederal departments and agencies Arctic seas, including east Greenland waters; that are concerned with the national defense, the Baffin Bay; the Labrador, Bering, and Chuckchi exploration of outer space, the management of the Seas; and limited areas of the Canadian Archi- Nation's mineral and water resources, the protec- pelago. Long-range and 30-day forecasts are pro- tion of the public health against environmental vided for Antarctic waters, including the Ross Sea pollution, and the preservation of the Nation's and McMurdo Sound, during October throu gh wilderness and recreation areas, the Administra- January. Operational sea-ice forecasts are also pro- tion shall perform the following functions: vided for under-ice submarine cruises along tracks 6 to and beneath the Arctic Ocean. a. Observe and collect comprehensive data about NOO developed the optimum ship routing the state of the oceans and inland waters, of the program based on sea and swell forecasts. This upper and Iower atmosphere, of the space program has been passed on to the Naval Weather environment, and of the earth; Service Command for operational use. However, b. Communicate, correlate, process, and analyze NOO still routes a limited number of ships in all such environmental data; order to evaluate new techniques. c. P@ovide and disseminate information about the state of the oceans and inland waters, of the 4. Army Corps of Engineers upper and lower atmosphere, of the space environment, and of the earth, and predictions The Lake Survey of the Army Corps of Engi- of their future states; neers monitors the flow in and out of the Great d Prepare and disseminate warnings of all severe Lakes. The Army Corps of Engineers is active in hazards of nature to all who may be affected; the study 'of beach erosion processes. As part Of e. &ovide nautical, aeronautical and telecom- its program, ocean waves are monitored at several munication charts and related publications and locations on the east, west, and Gulf coasts. The services; east coast stations are operated as part of a test f Operate and maintain a system for the storage, system; data is transmitted continuously to a retrieval and dissemination of data relating to central location in Washington and recorded on the state of the oceans and inland waters, of the magnetic tape. The Corps also monitors beach lower and upper atmosphere, of the space erosion and shoaling in channels; these processes environment, and of the earth; g. Explore the feasibility of modification and SThese techniques are described in Pierson, W.J., G. control of environmental phenomena; Neumann, and R. W. James, Practical Methods for Ob- h. Coordinate Federal meteorological services and serving and Forecasting Ocean Waves by Means of Wave supporting research; Spectra and Statistics. 6Short-term ice forecasting methods presently in use are described by Wittmann, W. I., and G. P. MacDowell, 7 Manual of Short- Term Sea Ice Forecasting. Department of Commerce Order 2A. 11-20 i. Acquire, analyze and disseminate data and tional forecasts of tsunami arrival times, storm perform basic and applied research on the surges, and sea-swell-surf conditions. propagation of electromagnetic waves; ESSA predicts the times and heights of high j. Perform research and development relating to and low waters for 54 stations in the U.S. and its the oceans and inland waters, the lower and possessions. These predictions are also available for upper atmosphere, the space environment, the 39 stations in 18 different nations and U.N. Trust earth, and the use of the electromagnetic Territories. Tide predictions are published each spectrum for telecommunications purposes, as year (approximately six months in advance). The may be necessary or desirable to develop an Coast and Geodetic Survey (preceding the forma-' understanding of the processes andphenomena tion of ESSA) has been publishing tide predictions involved, and research and development relating since 1867. to the observation, communication, processing ESSA also predicts the times of slack waters correlation, analysis, dissemination, storage, and the times, speeds, and directions of maximum retrieval, and use of environmental data as may tidal currents for 35 coastal and harbor stations in be necessary or desirable to permit the Admin- the United States. Charts showing the distribution istration to discharge its responsibilities. of tidal currents are available for nine major U.S. harbors and estuaries. Tidal current predictions have been published since 1890. ESSA carries out ESSA operates three primary centers which a comprehensive tide and tidal current data collec- Support its marine weather activities. The National tion program; all tide and tidal current predictions Meteorological Center (NMC) at Suitland, Mary- of the U.S. Government are based on these.data. land, provides broadscale meteorological analyses The Tsunami Warning System, in operation and prognoses on a hemispheric basis. The Na- since 1948, provides predictions of arrival times of tional Environmental Satellite Center, also at potentially dangerous tsunamis. These predictions Suitland, operates the National Operational are sent (for subsequent dissemination) to 10 Meteorological Satellite (NOMS) System to pro- nations bordering the Pacific Ocean and to the vide global cloud cover mosaics, sea-ice informa- States of California, Oregon, Washington, Hawaii, tion, and other interpretive data on a daily basis. and Alaska (including the Aleutian islands). In The National Hurricane Center at Miami, Florida, addition, U.S. possessions, U.N. Trust Territories provides hurricane forecasts and warnings in the under U.S. supervision, and U.S. military activities North Atlantic Ocean (west of 350W), the Carib- receive these tsunami warnings. bean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. A storm surge warning service for U.S. coastal Fourteen area forecast centers are operated areas on the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico is within the 50 States and Puerto Rico to provide operated by ESSA, in conjunction with the hurri- marine weather analyses, forecasts, and warnings cane warning service. In support of the storm surge for their areas of responsibility. The centers at warning service, ESSA is developing storm surge Boston, Washington, Miami, New Orleans, and San models as well as techniques for forecasting Juan provide limited forecast and warning service extra-tropical storm surges. Seiche and storm surge for fishing fleets operating in the North Atlantic forecasts for Lake Michigan and Lake Erie are Ocean (west of 60-W), the Caribbean Sea, and the issued routinely. Gulf of Mexico. Forecasts and warnings for the Surf and breaker forecasts for the Los Angeles- Great Lakes are issued by the Chicago center. San Diego coastal area are provided by the Los The Coastal Warning Display system is a co- Angeles area center in cooperation with the Navy's operative network of visual (flag and light) displays FNWC. A wind-wave and swell forecasting pro- maintained at prominent locations along the sea- gram, based on techniques developed by the Navy, coasts, the Great Lakes, and inland waterways to is undergoing operational evaluation; the program advise boating and other marine interests when uses meteorological forecasts produced by ESSA's small craft, gale, storm and hurricane warnings are NMC. in effect. Three area centers also provide analysis and ESSA publishes, on an annual basis, predictions forecast services to meet U.S. responsibilities to of tides and tidal currents. It also issues opera- the World Meteorological Organization. The center 11-21 at Washington issues high seas forecasts and processing and archiving meteorological records warnings for the North Atlantic (west of 35' W). and some oceanographic data including sea state, Similar services are provided by the centers at San and sea surface temperatures recorded by naval Francisco and Honolulu for the eastern and central and merchant vessels. Summaries are included in North Pacific Ocean. High seas service responsibili- various Commerce, Coast Guard, Navy, and WMO ties in the western North Pacific Ocean (between publications. In addition, data cards are exchanged 1350E and 1600E) are met by the Department of with other major maritime nations. The Navy Defense (see Figure 7). provides financial support. Specialized processing The Northern Hemisphere data collection pro- of weather observations from naval units, and the gram which supports this meteorological fore- preparation of marine climatological studies are casting and warning system acquires some ocean- performed by NWRC under reimbursable funding ographic data, such as sea surface temperature and arrangements. wave heights, on a routine basis. The National Meteorological Center is developing numerical 2. ESSA-Communications models for predicting monthly-mean ocean temperatures in support of research on extended The provision of marine weather services de- and long-range weather forecasting. pends on the following meteorological communi- ESSA's National Weather Records Center at cations systems, which also serve many other Asheville, North Carolina, is responsible for functions: V/_ AV .... .. 80 NORTH _16 '20 1 M ' 40 so 60 LE A @n_ ffO' A., \r Figure 7. Areas of U.S. shipping forecast and warning responsibilities under the World Meteorological Organization. 11-22 -Certain Teletypewriter Systems operated by the C. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration. -Radar Reporting and Warning Coordination 1. Federal Aviation Administration System, a teletypewriter system operated by the The Federal Aviation Administration collects Department of Commerce. meteorological data at many airports in the U.S., -Teletypewriter and high speed circuits operated and provides basic communications systems for by the Department of Commerce for collecting the transmission of weather data. and exchanging overseas information. 2. Coast Guard -ESSA Weather Wire, a teletypewriter system to, The Coast Guard operates two weather offices distribute forecasts and warnings to the press, in support of Search and Rescue (SAR) opera- radio, and television. tions. These offices, located at the Rescue Co- ordination Centers in New York and San Fran- -Facsimile networks., cisco, provide advice to commanders directing -Continuous VHF/FM radio broadcasts8 operated rescue operations and transmit specialized fore- by the Department of Commerce, casts to ships and aircraft which are engaged in SAR operations. These Centers can receive The Department of Commerce operates auto- oceanographic forecasts from the Navy's FNWC matic telephone answering systems and has ar- and disseminate these forecasts as needed. ranged for radio broadcasts to marine users over The Coast Guard provides operational forecasts Coast Guard, Navy, Army, and commercial radio of iceberg movement and ice-season severity. Ice facilities. An automatic telephone answering sys- data from aerial reconnaissance are combined with meteorological information to forecast ice- tem operates throughout the year at Baltimore, season severity prior to the iceberg season. The Washington, Juneau, Seattle, Chicago, and Los Coast Guard also conducts an annual aerial census Angeles; service is also provided at Boston and of icebergs in the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay Providence during the boating season. These sys- during September and January. During the iceberg tems provide the latest forecasts and warnings for season the Coast Guard maintains an oceanographic marine users in their areas. More than 2,000 commercial radio and tele- vision stations broadcast marine weather forecasts and warnings several times daily as a public service. Forecasts and warnings for coastal and offshore areas are also transmitted by 31 Coast Guard, 10 4@ Army (in Alaska), and 39 conu-nercial radiotele- phone and radiotelegraph installations. High seas I 777-77.%@@R analyses, forecasts, and warnings are provided to merchant ships operating in the western North Atlantic and eastern and central North Pacific Oceans by Navy and commercial radiotelegraph broadcasts. Warnings for the western North At- lantic and eastern North Pacific are also trans- mitted by commercial radiotelegraph stations. Figure 8. Us. Coast Guard Hercules ice patrol plane from Argentia, Newfoundland, tracking 8 an iceberg along the Grand Banks. The plane Communications support is provided at no cost to is also equipped with a microwave radiometer the Department of Commerce by the Coast Guard, Navy, for ice observation through clouds. (Coast and many commercial facilities. Guard photo) 11-23 ship adjacent to the North Atlantic traffic lanes; -Overflights of the Continental Shelf with airborne this ship maps oceanographic data, including cur- infrared radiation thermometers to map sea- rents. These data are correlated with sea-surface surface temperature for the Bureau of Sports temperature data and meteorological data to fore- Fisheries and Wildlife (Department of the In- cast iceberg drift and deterioration. Satellite photo- terior). graphs, airborne infrared and radiometric observa- At least half of the incoming merchant vessel tions assist in forecasting, as well as in empirical weather reports are received at Coast Guard radio studies of sea ice. Ice information is broadcast stations, from which they are relayed, via teletype, twice daily by the Coast Guard radio station, to ESSA. Argentia, Newfoundland. Special forecasts and ice Much of the Coast Guard data collection routing instructions for shipping interests are made capability lies in its major vessels. In addition to available on request. two oceanographic ships, 35 ocean station.vessels The Coast Guard provides input data to other and eight polar icebreakers are equipped with agencies' forecasting programs, including synoptic standard oceanographic equipment. Two ocean- oceanographic data from ocean stations and off- ographic vessels and one icebreaker are equipped with computers. Computers are planned for the shore light stations. The Coast Guard also supports observation programs of various governmental remaining ships. agencies, including: The four major routine data collection pro- grams carried on by Coast Guard vessels are the ocean station program, the standard monitoring -Tide level, water level, and wave observations for section program, polar oceanography, and the ESSA and the US- Lake Survey and Coastal International Ice Patrol. Coast Guard ocean,station Engineering Research Center (CERC) of the Army. vessels make routine surface and upper-air weather -Visual wave observations from CG shore stations observations and daily oceanographic casts on four for CERC. Atlantic and two Pacific stations. The standard monitoring section program consists of seasonal -Surface weather observations from CG ships and reoccupation of seven Atlantic and six Pacific stations and upper-air observations from six mid- sections. The location of the ocean stations and ocean stations, for ESSA. standard sections is shown in Figure 9. Data 70' 70' 4 ABRADO @"!k ' HUDSON A SEA 60* 6W SAY J P BRAVO [AND NEWFOUNDL OAX416A CHARLIE 0 .4 e@ 2 J_;1 \ 41 DELTA 40 40' YORK5 ECHO 5 BERMUDA EIER 6 OS VICTOR! 08 NOVEM 7 11 1AM I 20o 20' 3 4 NORTH ATLA INTIC NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN HAWAIIA OCEAN 120' 140' 160' 180, 160' 140' 120' 100, 80' 60o 40' Figure 9. Ocean stations occupied by Coast Guard ships. Meteorological and oceanographic data are collected routinely. Maps also show the "standard sections" along which hydro- graphic and oceanographic data are collected, sections are scheduled for revisit at least every three months. 11-24 from both programs are transmitted in real time to D. Department of the Interior support ASWEPS and fisheries forecasts. Environmental monitoring and research and Polar data collection is performed in both the development programs to provide the rationale for Arctic and Antarctic by the eight icebreakers, prediction are extensive, and include work of the which comprise the Federal fleet of this class of Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and Bureau of ship. Data is provided to the Navy and the ocean- Sport Fisheries and Wildlife of the Fish and ographic community. The International Ice Patrol Wildlife Service, the Federal Water Pollution Con- oceanographic operations are conducted on and trol Administration, and the Geological Survey. near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, with re- The role of environmental monitoring in Interior.is search cruises into the Atlantic sub-Arctic regions. to provide for: Another source of real-time and research data -Prediction of abundance and distribution of is the Shallow Water Oceanographic Research fishery resources Data (SWORD) System. The partially operational SWORD System consists of a network of Coast -Pollution detection and control Guard coastal facilities. The complete system Water resource development and appraisal will include offshore light towers and associated - buoy arrays, large navigational buoys equipped @Detection of geologic processes with environmental sensors, coastal stations, and light ships. -Measurement of pesticide and radionuclide con- The Coast Guard's data processing and quality centration in living marine resources. control capabilities are concentrated at its Ocean- The Department's programs are oriented ographic Unit (CGOU) in Washington, D.C. As toward the missions listed above. The Department more computers are made available to operating recognizes the marine environment as a unit and units, the data collection units will be able to encourages the study of meteorological and perform their own data processing, and dis- physical oceanographic and biological processes as seminate more data directly. Processed data is a system to facilitate understanding of the either transmitted directly from data collection mechanisms involved in the biological productivity units or from CGOU, over the Coast Guard radio of the world oceans and their temporal and spatial and landline communications network to users variations. and the National Oceanographic Data Center. 1. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF) To promote maritime safety, the Coast Guard The objective of Interior's fishery ocean- cooperates with ESSA by broadcasting coastal ma- ography program is to determine, for each major rine weather information to shipping and other fishery, how the environment affects the abund- maritime users at 31 locations. These broadcasts ance and distribution of the species and how were established to fill gaps in commercial radio changes in significant environmental features can station coverage and constitute a major effort by be predicted. Because of the many different the facilities concerned. Broadcasts are scheduled habitats of the fishery resources ranging from the at 6- or 12-hour intervals, with warnings of tropical near-surface schooling tuna to the hazardous conditions transmitted upon receipt and bottom-dwelling king crab of the boreal latitudes repeated periodically. The broadcast texts are and to the estuarine-dependent shrimp, the De- prepared by ESSA and delivered to the nearest partment's oceanographic interests cover an ex- Coast Guard communications office. There . are tensive geographic range. Consequently, the sup- 163 Coast Guard lighthouses, lifeboat stations, porting oceanographic research and development lightships, and other facilities participating in the programs are equally extensive, including studies Coastal Warning Display System. The Coast Guard of: provides support to existing data platforms in stationing, servicing, and relieving activities. The -Dynamics of the North Pacific, Pacific Equa- Coast Guard also conducts ice reconnaissance on torial, and California Current Systems by using the Great Lakes. drift buoys, research vessels, and associated sensors. 11-25 -North Atlantic and Tropical Atlantic circulations, programs similar to those of the BCF to determine with the latter of special interest for understanding relations between sport fisheries populations and variations in abundance and distribution of tuna in the environment to develop the scientific basis for the equatorial Atlantic. forecasting. These studies are carried out at the BSF&W marine laboratories at Tiburon, California; -Intrusions and mixing of water massqs over the Continental Shelf off the eastern United States Sandy Hook, New Jersey; and Narragansett, i Rhode Island. including the circulation in the Gulf of Maine and BSF&W does not make any operational ocean- the meandering of the Gulf Stream. ographic forecasts, but does conduct monthly In some fisheries, these studies have led to sea-surface temperature surveys, using an airborne operational forecast programs. The BCF Honolulu infrared thermometer, for the Atlantic Coast Biological Laboratory now makes annual avail- (Cape Cod to Cape Henlopen) and for the Pacific ability predictions of skipjack tuna in the Coast (southern and central California, northern Hawaiian area on the basis of temperature and Oregon, and Washington). This survey program is salinity data taken at Koko Head, Hawaii. The carried out in cooperation with the Coast Guard BCF Fishery-Oceanography Center at La Jolla, and Navy. California analyzes historical California Current data and sea-surface temperatures of the North 3. Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- Pacific to prepare annual predictions of locations tion (FWPCA) where albacore tuna will occur during June and The Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- July. In addition, monthly and 15-day sea-surface istration has developed mathematical models ap- temperature charts are compiled from information plicable to forecasting the impacts of wastes on supplied by the Navy, by ESSA, and by industry the estuarine environment. The models are for the sources. These charts are distributed in published most part general in nature and thus applicable to form to enable fishermen to select fishing areas. many special situations. Examples of major appli- An ocean information reporting service furnishes cations are analysis of the impact of inland wastes day-to-day information by radio to local and high- on the San Francisco Bay-Delta area in California seas tuna vessels. (A sample forecast is appended and analysis of organic and salt water intrusion to this report.) effects on the Delaware Estuary. These activities Other forecasts by the Bureau of Commercidl are not covered in detail in this report because of Fisheries, some in cooperation with international their relatively local nature and non-real-time commissions and the States, include prediction of application, as well as the coverage provided by abundance of shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico, another report of this panel. Although these groundfish and sea scallops off the New England predictive tools are applied only in planning or coast, menhaden off the United States East Coast, emergency situations, FWPCA has the technical red and pink salmon in the Pacific Northwest, capability to forecast estuarine quality . conditions halibut in the Pacific Northwest, sardine off Baja where required. California and California, and crab off California. Tuna forecasts are essentially distribution or 4. Geological Survey availability forecasts and are based primarily on empirical relationships derived between fish popu- It has been necessary to restrict attention in lations and environmental conditions. Forecasts this summary to oceanographic and marine for other species are based primarily on the relative meteorological activities. The Commission has strength of year-classes, estimated by the number noted the need for concerted action in regard to of young that are sampled several months prior to the Nation's estuaries, and we have addressed this the beginning of fishing operations. subject at length in another report. For forecasts 2. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife of environmental parameters in the estuaries, river (BSF&W) flow data is required, in addition to oceanographic parameters. (For a more detailed description of The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife the data requirements, and the interface between carries out extensive research and development estuarine and larger-scale prediction programs, 11-26 see Chapter 7.) Although river flow monitor- In addition to industrial ocean wave forecast- ing and prediction activities were nominally con- ing/ship routing activities, there are isolated in- sidere 'd outside our purview, we do wish to note stances of "one-man" oceanographic forecasting the major programs of the Geological Survey in programs in private industry. Several construction the Department of the Interior, and ESSA's firms- make use of -forecasts of near-surface hydrology program in the Department of Com- thermohaline conditions, sea-swell-surf conditions, merce. etc. provided by consultants on an "as-needed" The Geological Survey operates more than 200 temporary basis. stations at which river inflow to estuaries and In general, there appears to be little industrial other coastal Waters is measured; it obtains water activity in forecasting thermolialine structure, tide, quality measurement at more than 100 coastal current, or ice movement. However, several private stream sites. The Survey is engaged in the measure- meteorological-oceanographic consultants possess ment of sediment discharge into, and of sediment the capabilities necessary for producing detailed, movement within, many estuaries. It has de- small-scale, local forecasts of these and other veloped an operational technique for calculating parameters. A group of oil companies is embarking the flow in an -estuary from records of tidal stages on a major data collection program in the Gulf of and other data. Programs conducted in coopera- Alaska to provide information on extreme condi- tion with several States provide for measurement tions for oil-drilling platform design criteria and of several physical parameters in estuaries and mean values for logistic planning.9 near-shore zones. ESSA operates additional river flow stations and also uses data from Geological V. OTHER NATIONS Survey stations; it also uses rainfall and other meteorological data to provide daily river flow Major foreign oceanographic forecasting activi- forecasts for the Nation. Many local and State ties are government-sponsored and most fre- agencies operate similar programs. quently operated to meet military requirements. For example, the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force provides operational forecasts of thermo- IV. INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES haline structure (including sea-surface temperature The principal industrial oceanographic forecast- and thermal layer depth) and wave conditions for ing activity is in.ship routing, as extensions and/or Japanese waters. The Japanese issue fishing forecasts and report principal activities of the meteorological forecast- catch data and related environmental data on a ing services provided by industrial consultants. At world-wide basis. Fish catch forecasts are made present, firms in San Francisco, New Orleans, seasonally and for shorter periods. Many ships in Houston, New York, Baltimore, and Washington -the. fishing fleet are instrumented. to record en- provide ship-routing forecasts. The west coast vironmental parameters, and these data are re- operation prepares forecasts for Atlantic and ported to home bases. The dissemination of Pacific crossings and involves communications forecasts is implemented by the "All Japanese with the ships during transit. The New Orleans Federation of the Fisheries Association." 10 firm specializes in forecasts for tugs towing off- The 'British Naval Weather Service has an shore platforms for oil exploration and provides operational thermal structure forecasting program services for the Gulf of Mexico, transits to Africa, similar to ASWEPS. The Canadian Ocean Services Europe, and Hudson Bay. In the latter case for Defense, operating out of the Bedford Institute forecasts include ice conditions. Several of these for Oceanography, Nova Scotia and Nanaimo, com .mercial operations include specially tailored British Columbia, provides operational, long- and services, with the forecasters dealing not only with a shipping line but directly with the masters of the 9Blake, F. G., testimony at panel hearing. ships for whom they are forecasting., In certain 1017ood and Agriculture Organization of the United cases their forecasts may be used,- not only for Nations, Advisory Committee on Marine Resources Re- routing of the ships, but to determine, such other , search, Report.of ACHRR WorkingParty on Fisherman's Charts and Utilization of Synoptic Data, FAO Fisheries factors as freight. loading, harbor conditions, etc. Reports No. 41, Supp. 2, Rome, Jan. 16-21, 1967'. 11-27 short-term forecasts of several parameters (includ- Britain in Icelandic waters (Davis Strait, Nor- ing thermolialine structure, wave conditions, and wegian Sea, and Greenland Sea) in support of sea ice conditions) in support of naval operations. British fishing operations. The Soviet Union supports a large and comprehen- Another major area of international ocean- sive oceanographic forecasting effort oriented ographic forecasting is in the field of tide and tidal toward military operations. current predictions. All major maritime nations The U.S.S.R. has a well-developed operational produce operational tide (and often tidal current) sea ice prediction system for Russian Arctic and predictions for their own use. Smaller nations sub-Arctic seas, probably the most advanced in the receive necessary tide and tidal current predictions world. Canada, through both the Ocean Services from the major maritime nations. for Defense and its Ice Forecasting Central, The United States maintains a working liaison produces operational long- and short-term sea ice with nations active in oceanographic forecasting forecasts for Canadian Arctic seas (Beaufort Sea, and exchanges procedural information with them. the waters of the Canadian Archipelago, Hudson Excellent cooperation exists among British, Bay, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and the Labrador Canadian, and U.S. forecasting activities, as wit- Sea) as well as for areas of the North Atlantic nessed by frequent conferences, symposia, and Ocean. joint forecasting activities. With minor exceptions, Other nations also produce small-scale, local sea the United States has operational oceanographic ice forecasts. Germany forecasts ice in the Baltic forecasting programs comparable to, or more Sea, Finland in the Gulf of Finland, and Great advanced than, any now existing in other nations. 11-28 Chapter 4 An Appraisal of Monitoring and Prediction Capabilities The activities of the Federal Government in serve the low-level wind structure in the atmo- marine environmental prediction, described in sphere from a ship would also provide a significant Chapter 3, have tended to develop into a military contribution. system and a separate civil system, with consider- able sharing in data collection. To continue to 111. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMMEDIATE IM- insure responsiveness to rapidly-changing military PROVEMENT . requirements as well as to provide adequate We have noted, in our review of these programs, priority for civil needs, the Nation must establish that opportunities exist for immediate improve- suitable organizational arrangements. Our recom- ments at relatively modest cost. The present mendations on this issue are presented in detail in ability to analyze and predict sea surface condi- Chapter 7. tions is limited by the scarcity of surface ocean In this chapter we assess the present capabilities and weather observations. The two cases cited for forecasting oceanographic and certain meteoro- above are examples. As described in Chapter 2, logical conditions. this data "gap" is also a severe limitation on our 1. OCEAN TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE ability to predict the weather. Captain Paul Wolff, Commanding Officer of the The panel has reviewed temperature-structure Navy's Fleet Numerical Weather Central, has forecasting programs and received detailed brief- described the availability of physical oceanographic ings from the Navy, and it finds that this program data in a recent report2 (amplified in his testimony provides operationally useful forecasts. On the before the panel): basis of our evaluation, however, we have con- cluded that present capabilities fall far short of about 1,000 unique ship reports (which describe providing the accuracies required in forecasting weather conditions plus sea state and sea tempera- thermal structure in the ocean. Advanced proc- ture measurements), 125 ocean temperature versus essing and forecasting techniques are applied to depth soundings (bathythermographs), andfifteen the available data, but progress is limited by the shipboard radiosonde soundings (which contain relatively small number of observations and by pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind meas- limited understanding of the pertinent physical urements in the atmosphere) every twelve hours. processes. These figures refer primarily to the Northern 11. SEA-STATE Hemisphere, and would only be changed in a small way if Southern Hemisphere 'reports were in- Techniques for sea-state forecasting' were given cluded. By comparing these data with results of a significant impetus during World War Il and have survey reported by the World Meteorological since been developed, principally by the Navy, to Organization (WMO)3 as well as other estimates it yield useful operational forecasts. The ability to appears that the vast majority (probably greater forecast ocean-wave generation is seriously limited than 90 per cent) of the "unique ship reports" are by the relatively sparse wind data now reported made by merchant ships cooperating in the interna- over the oceans. Verification of forecasts and tional weather observing program of the WMb` (see improvement of theory are also hampered.by a Chapter 8). Figure 10 shows the geographical lack of wave spectrum data. The number of wind observations could be increased by expanding the 2Wolff, Capt. Paul M., USN, 1967: Technical Note ship-of-opportunity program. The ability to ob- No. 32, Oceanographic Data Collection, Fleet Numerical Weather Facility, Monterey, California. 3Hanzama, M., and T. H. Tourier, 1968: System for Sverdrup, H. Y. and W. H. Munk, Wind, Sea, and the Collection of Ships' Weather Reports. World Weather Swell: Theory of Relations for Forecasting, 1947, U.S. Watch Planning Report No. 25, World Meteorological Navy Hydrographic Office, Washington, D.C. Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 11-29 of-il NJ EL8 ;. '31 + +R- -4 1 Za 00 1:5 ;@ - 11- -- zs- sz, DQ `3 m ct _2N LZ ul C5- p57 z: 63- :: A N, N J1 - I "-@ " distribution and average number of daily ships' ministrative expenses, such as those incurred in weather observations during a five-day period. providing checks of instruments by Port Meteoro- Wolff also estimates that for a given day there logical Officers. The U.S.-owned ships that partici- are seven ships at sea for each ship's observation pate in this program are not reimbursed for taking received. Clearly, more data could be received by the observations, although some foreign govern- increasing the number of ships in the WMO ments do reimburse their ships. cooperative program. The ship-of-opportunity Many of these observations are first reported progTam, through which the bulk of ocean weather by radio to overseas communications centers, and and sea-surface temperature data is now obtained, then retransmitted to the United States via inter- can be expanded at low cost. national meteorological communications channels. ESSA reports that, of the merchant vessel Additional reports are submitted by mail, pri- reports received directly in the United States, marily to enhance the long-term climatological about a third are made directly to U.S. coastal data bank as opposed to real-time data processing. radio stations and processed by commercial The elaborate administrative mechanisms for the channels at an average cost of about three dollars conduct of this program are well established. (See per report; the remaining two-thirds are initially Chapter 8 for a discussion of the WMO role in this received at Government-operated communications program.) The reports are presently limited to facilities, including the Coast Guard's, and retrans- standard meteorological observations, surface ocean mitted at no additional cost to the Government. It temperature, and an estimate of sea state. is estimated that additional sets of on-board Vast areas of the world oceans are not included observing equipment could be purchased at about in the coverage of this program, primarily areas $800 per set. There are some. additional ad- not covered by merchant shipping. Figure 12 $111P CODE CARD ig_ t N _!@Tl IT d Figure 11. Schematic representation of use of weather data collected by merchan t ships of opportunity. Insert (upper right) shows a portion of standard instructions for coding these data by merchant vessels. Lower right photograph shows a member of ship's company tak- ing wet and dry bulk temperatures, part of the data encoded in the sample teletype message. Map on lower left shows a portion of a surface weather map on which this and other merchant ship weather reports are plotted U-31 ZE-II ,ty 'n -XT -0 kc@,@ 't:! N u :a Q - - I 1W -an fb 61 00 Ilk, w 1 4;;: 11 F @av zjj Ll- -T-7- ci shows this graphically; it indicates world merchant ship density on June 12, 1964, and clearly demonstrates that there are great areas of the world oceans that are not covered by merchant ships in appreciable numbers, or in some areas at all. The WO is looking into the possibility of obtaining reports from world fishing fleets, some of which operate, at least for part of the year, in 4 areas not frequented by merchant shipping. One @direction for expansion of this program should therefore be the inclusion of ships not now 7 participating, particularly fishing fleets such as Twan,_ those of Japan, Tai and Korea. As noted above, the Navy's program in the analysis and prediction of near-surface ocean thermal structure is data4imited. Needed data could be provided by additional expendable bathyther- mograph soundings (this equipment is described in , rW Chapter 5). Of the 12S bathythermographs re- 0 jt;z A r 7, ported by Wolff the majority are provided by naval vessels, with some reports from ships of opportunity 'in a cooperative Navy-Bureau of Commercial Fisheries program. Additional ocean temperature data could be collected by expanding these programs; this effort should be tailored to fill in at least some of the gaps in data coverage. Work should continue on the development of automatic . .. ... data encoding and transmitting devices. (See Chapter 5.) Although the expendable bathyther- Figure 13. Release of radiosonde aboard ship. mograph probe is lost in the data collection, (ESSA photo) quantity' production has reduced the cost to approximately $20 per instrument. The installa- observation, with an additional cost of about tion of a relatively simple on-board launcher and $100-150 for personnel. Additional sets of ship- 'data recorder is estimated to cost approximately board receiving equipment which interprets the $5,000. data transmitted by balloon-carried instrumenta- . In addition to the temperature data in the tion would probably cost (at today's prices) ocean's near-surface layers, broader data coverage somewhat less than $10,000 per installation. It is required in the lower layers of the atmosphere; should be noted that a principal manpower cost in this is now limited to the relatively few radio- connection with this program is "dead time" when sondes launched from ships. The radiosonde obser- a merchant ship is in port; expansion of the vations are taken from the Coast Guard Ocean program to permit efficient transfer of the men Station Vessels, as well as by about 15 ESSA from ship to ship would reduce the labor cost per teams aboard a limited number of MSTS, ESSA, observation. and merchant ships in the Pacific. Rough esti- In certain coastal areas including the Gulf of mates indicate that the equipment expended in a Mexico, platforms have been erected for the ex- shipboard radiosonde program.costs about $40 per 'traction o-foil and natural gas; at present a limited number of offshore platforms are instrumented to 41966: Meteorological Observations from Mobile and provide environmental data for major forecasting Fixed Ships, World Weather Watch Planning Report No., programs. For example, ESSA's New Orleans of- 7, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzer- fice regularly receives standard meteorological data land. 11-33 333-093 0 - 69 - 8 from three oil-drilling platforms in the Gulf of forecast tsunami arrival times at Pacific Ocean Mexico. Oil companies collect various data in sup- locations appears to be adequate, but runup port of the development of engineering design cri- forecasts are often grossly in error. The Tsunami teria. There is a critical need for wave-height data Warning System performance is limited by lack of from these offshore installations. Additional plat- sufficient near-shore and deep-ocean_ tidal and forms could be instrumented economically. Plans seismic data, as well as inadequate theoretical under- are already underway to 4iistrument additional standing of energy-focusing processes. Additional Coast Guard navigational buoys and offshore light instrumentation is required in the Pacific, possibly stations. at is-land stations, and further development of deep-ocean tidal instrumentation is needed. Recommendation: To achieve the required coverage, ESSA esti- The ship-of-opportunity program should be ex- mates that the number of tidal stations in the net- work should be tripled (from 40 to 120); the num- panded immediately to provide more surface ber of seismic monitoring stations should .be in- ocean and weather reports, additional ocean tem- creased by about 50 per cent (from 15 to 25). perature structure data, and more wind soundings. Ships operating in regions not covered by major The present warning doctrine provides magnitude, merchant vessel trade routes should be included. location, and time of the originating disturbance, Additional instrumentation should be placed on to give some measure of the expected threat. offshore platforms. Recommendation: When the distribution is considered, in addition Steps should be taken to expand the present tide to the number of observations, it is even clearer and seismic monitoring network in the Pacific that improved ocean data coverage is needed. Ini- basin. International communications from South tially, expanded programs for collecting such data America and the Southwest Pacific should be im- by ships-of-opportunity, with existing technology proved. Additional research on tsunami generation as recommended, would constitute a significant im_ and runup problems should be instituted. provement. Further technical developments to improve instrumentation are under way. (See V1. HURRICANE Chapter 5.) In the final analysis other alternatives The operational hurricane warning system de- must also be pursued to provide adequate data scribed in Chapter 3 performs adequately within from those areas of the world's oceans not present constraints. In part the system's satis- routinely visited by merchant or fishing vessels, factory performance has been due to the excellent at an acceptable cost. This is the challenge posed to response of the citizenry in the hurricane-prone technology, and to which buoy development and I areas of the country (principally Florida and the satellite sensor developments are addressed (See Gulf Coast), as well as the cooperation of the mass Chapter 5.) communication media. The ability to track exist- IV. OCEAN CURRENTS ing huff icanes by satellite, aircraft, and shore- based radar is satisfactory. The earth-synchronous Present operational surface current forecasting satellite (ATS-3) in a "stationary" position over is essentially limited to "persistence" or "clima- the mid-Atlantic can provide a picture every 20 tology." At this point we can simply state that minutes showing the major hurricane areas of the expanded research efforts are required. But the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic; it will reader is referred to Chapter 6, Scientific Limita- provide a major assist in hurricane tracking. tions, where this subject is addressed further. However, improvements in our capability to fore- cast hurricane development and motion, and the V. TSUNAMI storm surge are still urgently required. The scope of the operational forecasting activi- The panel has evaluated the tsunami warning ties, as well as each hurricane season's data program and has noted the significant progress collection program are limited by present budget since its inception in 1948. The present ability to levels. 11-34 Hurricane data collection, much of it per- tional research is needed to improve our capability formed by Navy, Air Force, and ESSA aircraft, to forecast hurricane development and motion. must be augmented by additional high perform- ance aircraft with up-to-date instrumentation. In VII. ICE addition, there is a continuing operational require- ment for more detailed meteorological data over In reviewing the programs described in Chapter the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, specifically: 3, we find that aerial iceberg observation services are useful and effective with regard to ship routing -The network of upper air sounding stations in in the North Atlantic, but capabilities of pre- the West Indies and the Carribean should be dicting iceberg motion and sea ice distribution are improved. still limited. A fundamental lack of understand- ing exists in regard to the transfer of heat and -Additional routine air reconnaissance to the stress from the air above and the water below to African coast should be instituted. the ice interface. Predictions of the subsequent motions and deformation of sea ice require an -Upper-air wind measurements should be obtained improved capability to forecast the wind near the from merchant ships in tropical areas. ocean surface. Since the most severe stresses are imparted to the ice during periods of darkness -Early deployment of buoys to the east of the and/or severe storms, with thick clouds prevalent, Lesser Antilles to provide surface weather data li-im-agery acquired by airborne and satellite remote should be accomplished. sensors (see Chapter 5) is a requirement for rapid 'Ibe data collected should be used not only to advances in our understanding of sea ice dynamics. support day-to-day forecast activities, but also to Recommendation: test mathematical models and hurricane-modifica- Research efforts to improve sea-ice forecasting tion hypotheses. should be expanded; efforts in remote sensing of glacial and sea ices, especially in sensors that can Re 'commendation: penetrate clouds, are encouraged. Further basic The Hurricane Warning Service requires expanded research in energy transfer through the air-ice- data networks. This Service should be accorded water media to yield improved models of the high priority to take advantage of the latest formation, growth, drift, deformation, and dis- technical and operational developments. Addi- integration of different ice types is required. 11-35 Chapter 5 Recent Technological Developments In recent years significant advances have been Fixed stations now routinely collect data that made in data-collection devices and their asso- includes temperature, acoustics, salinity, sea state, ciated platforms. Application of these advances, currents, and near-sea weather. Additional meas- together with technology now under development, urements are technically feasible and may be promise dramatic improvements in our ability to included in future programs; these include oxygen; observe the total environment, process and trans- nutrients such as phosphates, nitrates, and nitrites; mit the resulting data. Extrapolations of present chlorophyll; bioluminescence; transparency; and a technology make it appear feasible that the future measure of biomass by acoustic or photometric environmental monitoring and prediction system techniques. will provide automatic processing of data com- Because of the special current interest and municated (possibly relayed from satellites) from possible wide application, we have concentrated over the entire globe in real time. Computers here on buoy development; sensors developed for would test data reliability. Some environmental buoy applications are also useful for other plat- sensors would be in near-continuous operation, forms. Several recent developments will be briefly permitting computer systems to operate in a discussed and the present -status of the field continuously updating mode. At regular intervals surveyed; the panel has not attempted a compre- the system would produce required forecast charts hensive review of the field since recent reports 2 and other processed data which would be dis- present a thorough description of current capa- seminated to users. The system could also be bilities and design considerations. interrogated to yield specialized forecasts on de- Buoy instruments to sense pressure, tempera@ mand. New display devices will supplant the ture,. salinity, sound velocity, current speed and present printed chart, telephoned forecast, and direction are now generally available. Basic meas- personal briefing. urements are converted into electrical impulses for It is not yet possible to stipulate the complete transiriission. Reliable transmission of the data and detailed composition of the system; the from the platform to a shore station still requires evaluation of the proper mix of platforms and further test and evaluation. The ocean platform instruments, based on performance, cost, and typically consists of the flotation hull, power reliability, is one that must be addressed (cf. supply, mooring, and aids to navigation. It is Chapter 9). generally recognized that extensive efforts are still In this chapter several current efforts in the required in the development of reliable anchors, technology associated with environmental moni- moorings, power supplies, and hulls. The buoy toring are reviewed. system, to be operationally useful, must be capa- 1. FIXED STATIONS-BUOYS ble of rough handling and easy serviceability. Fixed stations, on which to install automatic Support may include ships for routine-service as instrumentation, include buoys, islands ' radar well as on-station replacement, shore stations to towers, oil rigs, and ocean bottom facilities. Some support the service ships, communication stations fixed stations offer a relatively inexpensive plat- to provide the transmission link, and associated form for the collection of marine data. Earlier in training, repair, and supply support. For an effec this report the panel has recommended that tive large-scale system, it will be necessary to additional offshore oil-drilling platforms be instru- consider the design of the service ships and the mented. Towers extensively instrumented, for re- search purposes' have adequately demonstrated 2,, A Study of the Feasibility of National Data Buoy feasibility. Systems"-Final Report, July 1967. TRC Report 1 7485-256, Prepared for the U.S. Coast Guard under LaFond, E.C., The U.S. Navy Electronic Labora- Contract No. TCG-16790-A; Transactions, 2nd Interna- tory's Oceanographic Research Tower; Its Development tional Buoy Technology Symposium/Exposition; Sept. and Utilization. Research and Development Report, 18-20, 1967. Washington, D.C., Marine Technology NEL/Report 1342, Dec. 22, 1965. Society. 11-36 shore support facilities. Overall costs are greatly influenced by the maintenance requirements. A. Navy Developments The Navy has invested considerable effort in development of automatic reporting ocean- ographic and meteorological buoys. 3 One is the 20-foot long, 10-foot beam boat type "NOMAD" (Navy Oceanographic and Meteorological Auto- matic Device), on which are mounted sensing devices for air temperature, wind, pressure, and sea V- Figure 15. The Monster buoy (Ocean Data Station) leaving San Diego on July 29, 1968, under tow, -to a test site in the North Pacific. T e buoy s now successfully moored he buoy (General Dynamics photo) Figure 14. Navy's NOMAD (Naval Oceano- research, but is capable of measuring and trans- graphic and Meteorological Automatic De- mitting surface meteorological data. It can remain vice). This buoy, the N3S, is powered by the SWAP- 7D nuclear power device and is deep unattended in the deep ocean for up to one year. moored in the Gulf of Mexico. (Navy photo) Present plans call for two buoys to be on station in temperature. The buoy has been successfully the North Pacific for approximab@ly a year begin- ning in the summer of 1968, as part of an air-sea moored at a depth of 11,000 feet. Underwater interaction experiment. Meteorological and ocean- temperatures and pressures to 1,000 foot depths ographic data will be transmitted to shore stations; have been measured and transmitted to shore satellite relay of data will also be tested. stations. A device to measure sea state is under The Navy deployed a network of buoys in the development. Tests have been conducted of a ,Navy Acre"-an area bounded by 330N-34ON and version powered by the SNAP-71) nuclear power 730-74OW; during the period September 1966 - generator, engineered for a two-year service in- terval and an estimated 10-year lifetime. early 1968. Several buoy types were included, The Navy has also sponsored the development with considerable success reported for the of a small-scale NOMAD, with dimensions about NOMAD; its mooring and communications one-half the original. Its quantity cost is estimated checked out. Some difficulty was experienced in at about one-half the cost of the larger buoys. getting data from the submerged oceanographic The so-called MONSTER buoy, now referred to sensors. At present two operational NOMAD as the "Ocean Data Station," 40 feet in diameter, buoys are on station in the Gulf of Mexico. has been developed primarily for oceanographic B. ESSA Developments See the following reference for a non-technical review of the Navy's buoy developments: Mottern, The ODESSA (Ocean Data Environmental Captain R. E., USN, E. F. Corwin and A. F. Pyle: The Science Services Acquisition) System consists of- Meteorological Buoy Programme of the U.S. Navy. The Marine Observer, Vol. XXXVII, 1967, pp. 178-185. two main instrument assemblies. The first is the 11-37 receiving station and console; this equipment as satellite. A test- platform was moored at station well as the transmitting-receiving equipment and . "ECHO" in the North Atlantic (350N, 480W) on auxiliary read-out equipment, may be located May 23, 1968 at a depth of 14,000 feet, and aboard ship or at a shore station. The second isthe remained in place until September 1968. instrument moorings, which consist of the surface In the majority of buoy installations, the Coast buoy,@,(receiving, transmitting, recording and con- Guard has cooperated by providing the mooring tr&electronics with power supply) and subsurface vessel, as well as considerable expertise. digitizer sensor packages. The sensors measure current speed and direction, water temperature, conductivity (salinity), and the depth of the C. National Program-Coast Guard measurement. The. system has been operated with In 1966 the Ocean Engineering Panel of the several buoys reporting to one ship. Recent tests ICO (Interagency Committee for Oceanography) have indicated that the buoy can successfully iecommended that a coordinated effort be under- transmit its data via satellite. taken in buoy development. A feasibility and ESSA has also gained some experience in the state-of-the-art review, funded jointly by several development of stable platforms-i.e., buoys that agencies, was initiated. The Coast Guard acted as remain essentially fixed below the surface. In the executive agent for the study, completed in addition, ESSA is developing a low-cost buoy October 1967. The National Council on Marine platform for instrumentation to be interrogated by Resources and Engineering Development, after reviewing the study, concluded that extensive research, development, test, and evaluation were required, leading eventually to the establishment of a National Data Buoy System. The 'Coast Guard, designated as the responsible agency for system development, established its National Data Buoy Systems Project Management Office in December 1967. This system is viewed as one major subsystem of , the total national marine meteorological/ oceanographic data acquisition system, which has not yet been completely defined. It has been recognized that improved estimates of user bene- fits are required. Chapter 9 contains the panel's views in this area. The panel finds that adequate field testing should be required before a corn- rye mitment is made to a full-scale operational system, n because of its estimated cost. Experimental sys- AWN 4', tems can be used to advance fundamental under- standing of the partition of energy among differ- a ent scales of motion, sea-air interaction, and ocean current dynamics (cited in Chapter 6 as major scientific limitations on our ability to predict oceanographic parameters). In particular, knowl- edge of scales of motion is vital for planning an operational buoy network; research -experiments would also provide opportunities for hardware Figure 16. Buoy under development at ESSA, tests. after being moored at Ocean Station "ECHO" (35'N, 48W) on May 23, 1968. In back- Operational buoys will provide platforms for ground is the Coast iGuard cutter Casco, which assisted in the mooring operation. (ESSA sensors to collect biological and chemical data as photo) well as physical parameters. Such employment of 11-38 the platforms would provide valuable data at very as the Hardy Recorder or by sampling through hull small additional expense. Further, data describing penetrations is also feasible. For more than 15 biological degradation of moorings and hull struc- years the British have used the Hardy Continuous tures will be required in developing planning Plankton Recorder on North Sea steamers to factors for reliability and maintenance require- obtain data valuable in managing the area's herring ments. fisheries. Obtaining information about the sub- surface waters from a ship underway is consider- Recommendation: ably more difficult. The recent development of the The National Data Buoy Development Program expendable bathythermograph (XBT), however, should be pursued vigorously. The Program pro- has pointed the way to the possibility of a family vides for tests of alternative buoy hardware con- of sampling devices for use from ships,.cruising at figurations, and different network spacings before high speed. a commitment is made to a major operational 1. Expendable Bathythermograph system; many of these tests can be conducted in support of major oceanographic research efforts The needs for temperature-depth data in sup- (cf. Chapter 6). port of many operations, particularly the predic- tion of sound propagation conditions, have been 11. MOVING PLATFORMS discussed previously. Until recently, this data was Moving platforms for the collection of ocean- collected by means of the mechanical bathyther- ographic data include ships and drifting buoys. mograph, which records a temperature trace as a Ships on oceanographic cruises have traditionally function of pressure. Use of this instrument has, provided the bulk of oceanographic data for provided valuable insight into ocean temperature research. For the purposes of collecting data on a structure. The ship's speed was restricted during synoptic basis, i.e., at many points at the same the lowering and retrieval of the instrument. time, the principal concern is with ships of opportunity-ships at sea for purposes other than oceanography that can collect useful data on a not-to-interfere basis. Drifting buoys have long been used in such I primitive forms as drift bottles to gather ocean- 1 ographic information. Current technology makes it -1@ I possible to use such buoys to collect data which I would be transmitted via satellite relay. A. Ships of Opportunity J@ Cargo, research, naval, and fishing ships offer relatively cheap sources of good data and should Figure 17. Launching an expendable bathy- be fully exploited. Fully automated data collec- thermograph. tion devices are most desirable for fishing and commercial ships to permit their operation by Collection of these data is now facilitated by personnel who are not technically trained. The the development of the expendable bathyther- equipment -should not interfere with normal ship mograph which can be launched by a ship under- operations. way, with no speed restriction. Although the Obtaining useful data from the surface waters is instrument is lost in collecting the data, quantity relatively simple. It is technologically feasible to production has resulted in a reasonable cost. The.. automate the monitoring of a number of im- probe remains connected to the ship by wire, portant parameters including temperature, salinity, running off two spools, during the data collection. chlorophyll, and certain nutrients. The collection Aboard the ship the data record provides a of samples through the use of towed devices such temperature depth profile. A small computer can 11-39 process the data to provide a standard bathyther- this instrument transmits a signal to the ship by mograph report in the form of a punched paper cable, where it is recorded on a paper graph. tape to be fed into the ship's radio transmitter. Under preliminary development by the Navy is . The expendable bathythermograph has made it a portable oceanographic' data collection "pack- possible for naval,, shipsJo take temperature/depth age" for use aboard ships of opportunity, with observations while underway. The Navy's Fleet emphasis on development of an expendable Numerical Weather Central collects some BT data temperature-sahnity-depth unit. from fishing and research ships in the Pacific, Equipment to provide "winds aloft" eco- which are transmitted to the Bureau of Com- nomically from a moving ship is in an advanced mercial Fisheries station at Scripps Institution of state of development. Previous methods of track- Oceanography. The Navy also collects some ing a radar target involved the measurement of synoptic BT data in the North Atlantic from elevation angles, requiring antenna stabilization. commercial vessels. The Bureau of Commercial The new technique eliminates this requirement, Fisheries, in cooperation with the Navy, regularly and the antenna stabilization problem has been obtains temperature structure data, by use of the made tractable. The objective of this program has expendable bathythermograph from the Matson been.to produce an instrument suitable for instal- Line freighter Californian, between San Francisco lation aboard merchant ships. and HonolUIU.4 Tests have also been made using tuna fishing craft. B. Drifting Buoys Ships of opportunity are also used in the collection of surface temperature, salinity, and Drifting buoys, long in use, have recently been current data using drift bottles in a BCF program proposed to achieve a grid spacing suitable for in the western tropical Atlantic and Caribbean. numerical weather forecasting. Floating buoys can The approach used in the expendable bathyther- be monitored from ships, shore, or by satellite. mograph is adaptable for other sensor systems. Experiments have been conducted with a soil- bearing meter and a velocimeter. It is technically feasible to develop a family of instruments using a similar "free-fall probe" approach. In other cases the probe may be too expensive for expendable I Aff use or require actual samples for analysis. In these @Lj cases it may be feasible to employ a conductor cable of sufficient strength to recover the sensor. This permits the measurement of a number of other parameters. A, 2. Other Developments Other recent developments that enhance the capability of a ship to collect vital data at sea are the several versions of the salinity-temperature- depth recorder (STD). One version is self- con ty, tained. and battery powered; it records salinity, temperature, and depth data on a graphic plotter. This is a reusable instrument; another version records data on magnetic tape. A later model of 4 An analysis of data collected in this program is contained in: Saur, J. F. T. and Dorothy D. Stewart, 1967: Expendable Bathythermograph Data on Sub- surface Thermal Structure in the Eastern North Pacific Oceam United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Figure 18. Launching STD (salinity, tempera- Scientific Report -Fisheries No. 548, Washington, D.C. 70 ture, depth) and sound velocity sensor. pp- (ESSA photo) 11-40 satellite. The Navy also has an air-droppable drifting buoy in an early development stage. Among buoy types being considered for the future are a steel spar buoy, and a light sphere floating like a "beachball" on the ocean surface. Another possibility is a large rugged balloon partially filled with helium which could be equip- ped with a version of the electronics package under development for constant-level atmospheric balloons; its position on successive satellite passes would yield integrated surface wind data.' -7- 7_ 111. REMOTE PLATFORMS Among the most dramatic developments is the ability to collect useful ocean data from a remote vantage point. Earth-orbiting satellites have demonstrated an operational capability to provide global cloud photographs; they have now demon- strated a capability to collect and transmit useful oceanographic data. The satellite is also useful as a data communication relay. Aircraft have been used to test satellite sensors, and have also demon- strated an independent capability to collect ocean ographic, data. A. Aircraft Observations The instrumented aircraft, operated in its own right and as a test bed for satellite instruments, has demonstrated its usefulness as an oceanographic 6 data collection platform. The.Coast Guard uses J@'p@ @4 aircraft in ice reconnaissance. The Navy has had /A, considerable experience in flying an instrumented aircraft. The instrumentation has included an infrared device (8- to 13-micron region) to sense Figure 19. Launching free-drifting buoy with temperature and salinity sensors in the Pacific, sea surface temperatures, Field accuracies of as part of BCF program. Data are transmitted approximately -one-half degree Centigrade have to shore station by radio. (Bureau of Com- mercial Fisheries photo) been reported. Recent developments include an infrared thermometer that operates outside the The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries is using SPanct on International Meteorological Cooperation, drifting telemetering buoys in the North Pacific. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, ne Feasibility of a Global Observation and Analysis At present two buoys are instrumented to measure Experiment, NAS-NRC, Washington; D.C. (1966). temperature, depth, and salinity; drift and current 6Much of the experience in aircraft observation of the are measured by obtaining successive bu Ioy posi- oceans has been conducted by NASA,and other agencies, in support of satellite programs; these activities are tions. In experiments to date radio direction- d.escribed in satellite technology. A useful compendium of finding bearings have been used to track the buoys, aircraft/spacecraft oceanographic data collection experi- inents is provided in a report prepared for the National and data transmission has been successful up to a Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop- range of 900 miles. Consideration is now being mcnt: The Potential of Observations of the Ocean From Spacecraft, The General Electric Company Missile and given to tracking the buoys and relaying data via Space Division, December 1967. 11-41 The Navy's instrumented aircraft has provided a considerable amount of valuable oceanographic data.7 NAS aircraft test-flying satellite instru- ments have also proved the feasibility of cdl- lecting oceanographic data by aircraft. Other _-Z agencies are proceeding with plans to develop 3_ similar capabilities. Satellite instruments tested aboard aircraft may prove useful for operational employment aboard aircraft. We are aware of the considerable aircraft reconnaissance capability of the U.S. Air Force. Consideration should be given _4 to full utilization of this capability for ocean- ographic measurements by installation of ap- propriate sensors. Efforts aimed at making air- 4 borne oceanographic sensors more rugged and reliable are worthwhile. Further development of n the air-dropped expendable BT, with a view to cost, may make an "aircraft-of- decreasing @,k'u opportunity" program feasible. Energy flux .4=_ measurements from aircraft would be extremely -'@@O 'v -sea interaction research. The role of useful in air the aircraft in an observational system, which includes b uoys, ships, and satellites, requires further study. A Recommendation: Figure 20. Navy oceanographic aircraft flying The oceanographic aircraft role in an operational over ARGUS island instrumented tower. environmental monitoring system must be re- (Navy photo) viewed both as an alternative data-collection method and as a means of collecting data of a kind water vapor absorption band, and therefore is not not easily obtainable by other means. Aircraft to any absorption "on the way" to the operated for other missions by various Federal aircraft. Interest is being shown in the develop- agencies should be instrumented to collect ocean- ment of an instrument that would measure water ographic data. vapor in the lower layers of the atmosphere over water by making use of the selective water-vapor B. Satellite Observations absorption of infrared radiation. The TIROS, NIMBUS, and ESSA series of The Navy's aircraft has also carried a radar that satellites have already amply demonstrated the provides a sea-surface profile, which can be modi- operational capability to provide useful global fied for comparison with the usual point spectra. environmental data (cloud photographs), and other In addition, work is under way on a ra applications are under development. The ATS scatterometer, as well as a laser wave gage, to series in earth-synchronous orbits have demon- provide higher resolution than existing instru- mentation. strated the ability to keep major portions of the atmosphere and ocean under constant daytime Aircraft can also make ocean temperature surveillance. soundings using an expendable bathythermograph. The buoy transmits a signal to the aircraft, where 7Schule, J. J., Jr., and Wilkerson, J. C., Informal it is recorded in both analog and digital forms. The Report, An Oceanographic Aircraft, Naval Oceanographic sensor is a free-falling thermistor probe, attached O@fice, Washington, D.C. 20390, January 1967 (Re- printed April 1967) and testimony by Dr. C. Bates before to the buoy by a conducting cable. Marine Commission. 11-42 To test potential satellite instrumentation, sea observe the atmosphere and ocean in both the surface temperature discontinuities have been de- infrared band and the visible band. This will tected from aircraft in the visible, inftared, and provide daytime cloud/non-cloud discrimination, microwave regions of the spectrum. Infrared in- and indicate when the infrared radiometer is struments have been used to map and measure sensing the sea surface. A possible future develop- areas of strong thermal contrast-It also has been ment is the laser altimeter to give precise measure- possible under night-time, cloud-free conditions ments of the mean sea surface from a satelhie. to detect areas of sharp temperature contrast, Such data, when used with appropriate equations such as currents and upwelling, from NIMBUS of motion for the ocean, could yield estimates of Satellite High Resolution Infrared (HRIR) imagery, major surface current speeds. and several sea-surface temperature analyses have been prepared.' Most available sea-state data are visual observa- TIROS-M, planned to be in orbit in 1969, will tions made aboard ships; for wider coverage, have a two-channel radiometer on board, to sea-state information is inferred from wind data. Possible methods for determining sea-state from 8An excellent summary of work in this field to date is orbital altitudes are based on changes in the provided by Warnecke, G., L. M. McMillin, and L. J. Allison, Ocean Current and Sea Surface Temperature reflective properties of the ocean surface. Photo- Observations from Meteorological Satellites, NASA Tech- aphs of "sun glitter" or "sun glint" have been nical Report, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, gr Maryjand,__in press. Infrared instrumentation is reviewed made from aircraft and satellites. Another optical in Goldberg, 1. L., 1968: Meteorological Infrared Instru- technique, to yield a directional distribution of sea ments for Satellite, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. Slope as well as information about wave fre- E LONGITUDE E 1315' 140' 14-5.' 150o155'160'165117011751 1-80' 13511.40,1451150'155,160"165'1701"175'1810', -40, N 361N 32'N 28'N -24-N 20-N -N 9 @ *7 121N C 4 81N M 41 N 0@ 4'S 3 8.s 12'S EQUIVALENT BLACKBODY TEMPERATURE I' K) AND APPROXIMATE CLOUD TOP HEIGHTS <230->@11KM M259--260-:6.5-8.OKM E7-1280'-290':1.5-15KM 230'-240 :9.5-11 KM /5 260'-270':5.0-6.5KM 290'-300':0-1!5KM >300- Figure 21. Comparison of satellite infra-red "picture" (NIMBUS II) and TVphotograph (ESSA 3) of typhoon Marie, Nov. 1, 1966. Infra-red data have been converted to cloud- top height estimates (right) to provide analysis of visible cloud structure (left). (NASA photos) 11-43 76* W 75*W 74* W 73*W 374 @@ "- ) 8* 7 "I_; 37*N 290* 2906 Be- \ / 288. 292 289 292* 2 .,@4 C@ 256 290*_ 290* 290, 288-"@' CM0 2880 287 290* M6 281 292-- 2S8* D \ @ 67 30c(. cz 290* 26 292* _29 2920 286* 298* 288* 292* 298, 296* 294* 286* 36*N 36*N (:S@020 296* 290, @n5 01 292 e 298* 294' 298' 300 298 288 292* 292' 298* C291@ 4- 35*N Z94* 2 35* N ,_2 -29 . 76*W 74* W 73* W Figure 22. Comparison Of simultaneous NIMBUS 11 HRIR (orbit 238) and aircraft radiometric night-time measurements (0300 to 0630 GMT) of sea surface temperature near northern Gulf Stream boundary, June 2, 1966. Heavy dots represent Gulf Stream boundary detected in aircraft. Numbers along tracks of aircraft horizontal temperature profiles are average sea surface temperatures between tick marks. (NASA photo) quencies, involves the Fourier transform of a sea intermediate sea-surface roughness data over the surface photograph. oceans. 9 The cloud cover constraint on optical tech- Plans are now being made for a major field niques has led to the study of passive microwave experiment during early 1969, involving several radiation and radar reflectance for sea-state de- aircraft using sensors operating in different fre- termination. Both of these measurements can be quency bands. In addition to analysis of radar made with no appreciable attenuation in the scatterometer data, the Doppler-shift spread due presence of storms and clouds. Microwave to reflection by the "rough" sea surface will be radiometry data has yielded unique signatures as a analyzed. The Ocean Station Ships in the North function of viewing angle for different surface Atlantic will provide "ground truth." roughness. Television and infrared sea ice data have been Airborne radar scatterometer data indicate that regularly obtained from the polar-orbiting the return signal yields signatures characteristic of meteorological satellites (TIROS, ESSA, NIM- the sea surface energy spectrum, which in turn can 9 Pierson, W. J., 1968: A proposed method for the be related , to the sea-surface winds. If this analysis of surface wind field for the Southern Hemi- approach becomes practical, a spacecraft in a near sphere using land stations, ship reports, and spacecraft cloud and radar scatterometer data Paper delivered polar orbit would be capable of providing regu- before - 49th Annual Meeting, American Geophysical larly spaced wind speed reports as well as the Union, April 8-11, 1968, Washington, D.C. 11-44 bu. 40W--- -30W-,' k C. Satellites-Communications The United States has several programs de- V. signed to demonstrate the feasibility of using satellites to locate, interrogate, and relay data from meteorological and oceanograpMe buoys, stream gauges, drifting balloons, ice islands, and 0 ther environmental data platforms. One program P is OPLE (Omega Position Locating Equipment), a prototype of which has flown on the synchronous ATS-3 (Application Technology Satellite). 60 OPLE is capable of interrogating thousands of separate surface units deployed at random, ac- curately fixing their positions, and recording their data twice daily. This system would provide a means of obtaining data from instrumented buoys as well as sensors on other platforms. Another related program is IRLS (Interrogation, Recording and Location System), planned for flight testing aboard a future polar-orbiting NIMBUS satellite. Figure 23. ESSA 6 satellite photograph of These techniques must be compared for cost and ice and cumulus clouds, Labrador Sea, March effectiveness with other, more conventional ap- 18, 1968. Note solid ice cover over Greenland (top centerl- (ESSA photo) proaches; such comparisons are in progress. BUS). The International Ice Patrol regularly uses Recommendation: satellite ice data to augment information acquired by ships and aircraft. The U.S. Army Cold Regions The development of satellite-borne oceanographic Research and Engineering Laboratory, the Uni- sensors as well as techniques for the location of, versity of Michigan, and the Naval Oceanographic and transmission of data from, other platforms Office are conducting research in the use of now in progress at NASA should continue. Plans infrared radiometry for sea ice surveys. for early use of oceanographic sensors on board These techniques suffer from an inability to see operational satellites should be pursued vigorously. through clouds that are common in the polar and sub-polar areas where ice is present, as well as the limited daylight hours over a portion of the year. IV. APPRAISAL As a result, recent studies have turned to the Many technical developments are at a stage development of other techniques; sidelooking where they can provide a significant improvement radar and passive microwave imagery. The Coast . Guard is investigating the use of microwave in observing the environment, transmitting and processing the observed data, and retransmitting imagery for iceberg and sea ice surveys. NASA has forecasts, Progress has been noted in the develop- reported considerable success in airborne tests of I this technique;" it may be possible to obtain ment of new data@collection platforms: satellites useful ic-e-thickness measurements, as well as other and buoys-. Developments for remote- sensing of related data. the environment from satellites, as well as aircraft, Spectral analysis techniques have been sug- show great potential. New data-processing capabili- gested for -mapping chlorophyll on the ocean ties, under development primarily for other surface for use in forecasting fish abundance. reasons, also promise an improved capability to process incoming data and provide accelerated loCatue, C. W. Nordberg, P. Thaddeus, & G. Long. forecasting capabilities. Progress in data processing 1967: Preliminary Results from Aircraft Flight Tests of and communications offers the promise of being an Electrically Scanning Microwve Radiometer, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, (X-622-67-352) able to transmit vast quantities of data rapidly and 35 pp. economically. 11-45 Recommendation: of new technologies to monitor the global marine The Nation must push forward with a com'prehen- environment. Such a program is the key to sive and diversified program for the development maintaining adequate surveillance over the total marine environment. 11-46 Chapter 6 Scientific Limitations The panel finds that we are at an early stage in and other currents, and fluctuations in surface the development of a scientific capability for temperature over large areas are all examples of "ocean environmental prediction." time-dependent fluctuations. These phenomena Until the start of World War II, predictions of are not yet adequately observed nor their dy- ocean parameters were essentially limited to those namics understood; they therefore cannot be periodic phenomena with well-understood physical accurately predicted. mechanisms: tides as well as the motion of easily observed physical singularities such as icebergs. 1. SEA-AIR INTERACTION Tidal predictions are still imperfect; improvements Research on the interactions between the at- are under way to take account of nonlinear effects mosphere and the oceans is necessary for progress and transients caused by surface winds and local in ocean and weather forecasting. A successful pressure changes. Iceberg forecasting has improved research program in this field could lead not only because of the improved data available. Since the to improved weather forecasting, but also, since end of World War 11 (and, in at least one of the the upper layer of the ocean and the atmosphere cases, stimulated by war-time research) methods are both part of the same physical system, to the have been developed for:' ability to forecast conditions in the upper layer of -Surface-wave prediction based on observations the ocean. and predictions of surface winds' A theoretical upper limit for predicting the behavior of individual mid-latitude weather details -Warnings of tsunamis produced by earthquakes, is estimated to be :3 detectable at great distances. Further, at the Navy's Fleet Numerical Weather about two weeks in winter and somewhat longer in Central, Monterey, California, computer programs summer; the practical upper limit is now about have been developed to provide surface wave three or four days .... A reasonable estimate for predictions. Other forecast parameters describe the the practical limit in the foreseeable future seems temperature structure of the oceans for sound to be about one week, with the possibility that propagation prediction. This program is based on some trends for temperature and precipitation could be predicted for the second week. an empirical approach and additional effort is required to establish a firmer scientific basis. For these time intervals the fluxes of energy, Further improvement in wave prediction is tied momentum, and water vapor to and from the closely to the prediction of the wind field in the atmosphere, neglected for short-range forecasting, lower layers of the atmosphere, for which more become significant. Because these exchanges occur observations of the atmosphere over the oceans are on scales of motion very much smaller than the required. Similarly, po'diction of the near-surface scale of any existing or economically-feasible thermal structure is strongly related to the ex- observing system, a major goal of air-sea inter- change of heat between atmosphere and ocean. action research is to relate these fluxes to data A wide range of time-dependent phenomena collected on a much larger scale. occur in the ocean; there is really no reason why Boundary-flux estimates representative of areas ocean "weather" is not as varied and complex as of about 250,000 square kilometers and time the weather in the atmosphere.' Internal gravity intervals of 3 to 12 hours may be required.' waves, inertial motions associated with the earth's 3Committee on Oceanography, National Academy of rotation, turbulence, meanders in the Gulf Stream Sciences- National Research Council, Oceanography 1966-A chievements and Opportunities, NAS-NRC, Wash- ington, D.C. p. 112. Panel on Oceanography, President's Science Ad- 4Panel on International Meteorological Cooperation, =,Committee, Effective Use of the Sea, The White National Academy of Sciences- National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (June 1966). Me Feasibility of a Global Observation and Prediction 2Ibid. Experiment, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C. (1966). 11-47 Present estimates indicate that the flux estimates the sun. Although still largely empirical, long-range will be required in the absence of any direct weather forecasting techniques require extensive measurements of flux. Therefore, it must be ocean surface temperature data. Anomalies in sea possible to estimate the fluxes from standard surface temperature have been found to be closely observed data: air and water temperatures, associated with major shifts in weather. Some humidity, wind speed, and sea state. success has been achieved recently by computer- It should be noted'that this scientific Imitation prepared forecasts of monthly and seasonal has been recognized for some years, and was temperatures in the atmosphere-ocean-continent outlined by the Joint Panel on Air-Sea Interaction system, which included ocean surface tempera- of the National Academy of Sciences in 1962.5 tures as a forecast parameter. The model has also Their report sparked the formation of the Air-Sea been used to forecast monthly departures from Interaction Panel, reporting to the Interagency normal of the ocean surface temperature '; this Committee for Oceanography and the Interdepart- model requires extensive atmospheric data as mental Committee for the Atmospheric Sciences; input." Additional research is in progress, relating the Air-Sea Interaction Panel has served as a forum large-scale atmospheric and sea-surface tempera- for exchange of information among the different ture anomalies in the Pacific, using data provided Federal agencies conducting programs in this area. by satellite infrared sea-surface observations*8 As a result of the Panel's motivation several such interactions have been noted by other Federal agencies are planning a series of major investigators.9 Numerical calculations have been sea-air interaction field experiments coordinated conducted, which include the effect of the sea- by the Department of Commerce. surface temperature field on the large-scale atmo- The first is planned for the summer of 1969 in spheric circulations. 10 the Barbados area. 6 These experiments will pro- Progress is also being made in the development vide the opportunity to develop the parameteriza- of computer models which attempt to unify the tion called for above, as well as to cross-check the atmosphere and the ocean; some success has been data collected by different sensors. achieved in predicting the gross features of both I The need for atmospheric wind data in forecast- the atmosphere and the oceans." ing ocean waves and swell has been stressed. With an understanding of sea-air interaction, and ade- 11. SCALES OF MOTION quate near-interface data our ability to forecast As additional data describing both near-surface ocean temperature, depth of mixed layer, and and deep ocean currents become available, we find near-surface currents would be enhanced. The atmosphere and oceans interact on many that the observed current may actually have only a different scales and modes. The exchange of gases weak relation to the mean currents. To study between atmosphere and ocean requires further 7Adem, J., On the physical basis for the numerical investigation; this may yield the key to the final prediction of monthly and seasonal temperatures in the disposition of carbon dioxide dispersed into the troposhere-ocean-continent system, Monthly Weather Re- view, 92(3). pp. 91-104, 1964; Experiments Aiming at atmosphere. The sea is the source of salt particles, Monthly and Seasonal Numerical Weather Prediction, which play an important role as nuclei in the Monthly Weather Review, 93(8) pp. 495-503, 1965; Numerical prediction of mean monthly ocean tempera- formation of precipitation, as well as of the water ture, Unpublished manuscript. itself. 8Personal communication from L. Allison, NASA. At the other end of the spectrum the atmo- 9Narnias, J., 1959. Recent Seasonal Interaction be- tweer@ Northern Pacific Waters and the Overlying Atmo- sphere-ocean interaction plays a key role in the sphene Circulation, Journal of Geophysical Research, global redistribution of the energy received from Vol. 64, pp. 631-646. 5 10 Mintz, Y., 1965, Very Long-Term Global Integration Joint Panel on Air-Sea interaction, National Acad- of the Primitive Equations of Atmospheric Motion, emy of Sciences- National Research Council, Interaction Technical Note No. 66, WMO-IUGG Symposium on Between the Atmosphere and the Oceans, NAS-NRC, Research and Development Aspects of Long-Range Fore- Washington, D.C. (1962). casting, Boulder, Colorado, 1964. 6Plan for a Major Field Experime*n t in Support of the 11 Manabe, S., and K. Bryan, Numerical Results From a Federal Air-Sea Interaction Research Program, U.S. De- Joint Ocean-Atmosphere General Calculation Model, partment of Commerce, ESSA, Institute for Ocean- paper presented at 14th General Assembly, IUGG, Lu- ography, March 1967, Washington, D.C. cerne, September-October 1967. 11-48 seasonal and other variations the oceanographer longer-term variations in the flow of the major faces problems in the geographical and time current systems. Data is collected by Coast Guard spacing of the observations; this difficulty is a ships en route to ocean stations, as well as by Coast manifestation of our ignorance of the spectrum of Guard oceanographic vessels; additional data is variations in the sea's motions. The National provided by Canada. These measurements are Academy of Sciences Committee on Ocean- usually made on a seasonal basis-four times per ography has stated: 12 year. Recently, the Pacific sections have been sampled almost monthly. The data collected in- 77ze classical oceanographic cruise is inadequate to clude temperature and salinity down to 1,500 sample the high-frequency and small-scale meters, or the bottom, whichever is lesser, with phenomena, and oceanographic expeditions are intervals selected on the basis of the dynamic generally not long enough or extensive enough to gradient. sample the low-firequency or large-dimension phe- nomena. III. DYNAMICS OF OCEAN CURRENTS Data provided by moored buoys have improved The general positions of the ocean's major our understanding of the time distribution of current systems have been fairly well established horizontal motion, but little in spatial variations. for more than 50 years. As more detailed observa- Transient inertial currents account for a large tions are made of the current systems, however, fraction of the kinetic energy, For periods shorter more is learned about their non-uniformity. Re- than 12 hours (corresponding to horizontal dimen- cent observations have shown, for example, a sions of 10 kilometers or less), the energy density highly complex structure for the pattern of ocean of velocity fluctuations decreases with frequency. currents near the Equator in all oceans. The Vertical scales are not known. general driving force of the ocean's current sys- tems are the more-or-less permanent atmospheric Considerable statistical similarity of the velocity wind systems, combined with the earth's rotation. fluctuations is found in this frequency range at all This response, and the relationship of the fluctua- depths and locations sampled The energy conte nt tions of the ocean currents to the turbulent at frequencies below one cycle per day tends to character of the atmosphere's wind, are poorly increase with decreasing frequency, but the knowl- understood. Ocean currents are roughly the edge of temporal and spatial distribution is scanty. equivalent of atmospheric-wind systems, on an 77te requirement for long@term records from many ocean-wide scale, with a degree of persistence, sampling points has made the larger-scale low- month after month, not characteristic of the ftequency portion of the spectrum relatively in- corresponding atmospheric circulation. The gen- accessible. eral direction of the major current systems' flow is easily predicted. The meridional advection of heat Data. collected by research and survey ships along by persistent ocean currents is a major influence 11 standard sections" can supplement arrays of on global climate. fixed current meters. NASCO has indicated that Additional data is required to define the de- standard sections can be designed with the aid of tailed structure of the current systems; this must measurements from anchored instruments and be coupled with basic research into the atmo- periodic series of ship observations. 14 The Coast spheric wind-ocean current energy exchange as Guard has established standard oceanographic sec- well as studies of bottom effects on ocean cur- tions in the North Atlantic and North Pacific rents. Research efforts have achieved computer Oceans to provide information on the seasonal and simulations of the major features of the atmo- sphere's general circulation and the ocean's broad 12 Committee on Oceanography, National Academy of current features. Sciences -National Research Council, Oceanography 1966-Achievements and Opportunities, NAS-NRC, Wash- IV. BIOLOGICAL PREDICTION ington, D.C. (1967). I 'Ibid. Man's increasing dependence on food resources "Ibid. from the sea and his growing capacity to modify 11-49 333-093 0 - 69 - 9 the environment lend urgency to the requirement Recommendation: for improved biological prediction. Capabilities for Intensive research efforts should be mounted to biological prediction now. are relatively primitive provide the necessary understanding of oceanic and limited to a few commercially significant species. To improve the efficiency of fishery processes m: operations accurate forecasts of the abundance -Sea-air interaction and distribution of major marine populations must be made. Rates of production and mortality, -Scales of motion interactions with other species and with the -Dynamics of ocean currents environment must be predictable, not only from the point of view of developing new food sources -Biological-physical environmental relationships and gauging the effects of existing fisheries, but also to evaluate the effects of man's modification Such understanding is essential for development of the environment. of a wide range of environmental predictions. 11-50 Chapter 7 Organization 1. BASIC AUTHORITIES telegraph lines and the collection and transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce The Navy, under its broad authorities, main- and navigation. tains an extensive oceanographic and meteoro- The Environmental Science Services Adniinis- logical data collection, processing, and dissemina- tration, established by Reorganization Plan No. 2 tion system. SECNAVINST 5430.70 of Aug. 19, of 1965, combined the Weather Bureau, the Coast 1966 established the Office of the Oceanographer and Geodetic Survey, and the National Bureau of of the Navy, to exercise centralized authority, Standards' Central Radio Propagation Laboratory. direction, and control of the Naval Oceanographic ESSA's primary mission includes the description Program. The program encompasses science, tech- and prediction of the physical environment. In nology, engineering, and operations, including transmitting the Plan, President Johnson spoke of essential personnel and facilities to explore and lay ESSA as providing: the basis for exploration of the ocean and its a single national focus for our efforts to describe, boundaries for naval applications to enhance se- understand, and predict the state of the oceans, curity and support other National objectives. The the state of the lower and upper atmosphere, and Department of Defense service concept is to meet the size and shape of the earth. military requirements by providing forecasts and analyses tailored for the individual military user or ESSA has specific authority for comprehensive operation; the Navy provides oceanographic sup- programs with respect to meteorology and ocean- port to U.S. and NATO forces worldwide. ography. Various provisions require collaboration The Coast Guard (Department of Transporta- in the collection and dissemination of weather tion) under 14 USC �90 operates and maintains data, and the conduct of meteorological research, floating ocean stations for search and rescue, between ESSA and such other agencies as the communication, and meteorological iservices in Department of Defense and the Department of such ocean areas as are regularly traversed by U.S. Transportation. Included is authority for ESSA to aircraft. The section states that the: act as Federal coordinator for meteorological requirements. Coast Guard shall conduct such oceanographic The Secretary of the Interior is authorized to research, use such equipment or instruments, and carry out extensive oceanographic, biological, collect and analyze such oceanographic data, in technological, statistical, and economic programs cooperation with other agencies of the Govern- to ensure rational use of marine resources. The ment, or not, as may be in the national interest. role of environmental monitoring in the Depart- rnental programs is to provide those data needed Under 46 USC �738, the Coast Guard is to support development of marine food, recrea- charged with the responsibility for "patrol and tional, mineral, and water resources. service for the study of ice endangering the Under the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956, as shipping tracks of the North Atlantic Ocean." amended, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and The U.S. Weather Bureau was established in the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife are 1890 and operates under the authority of 15 USC authorized to take such steps as may be required � 3 11, which states, in part, that: for the development, advancement, conservation, and protection of fishery resources. To carry out ne Chief of the Weather Bureau shall have charge this policy the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of the forecasting of the weather, the issue of and the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife storm warnings, the display of weather and flood collect, analyze and disseminate those environ- signals for the benefit of agriculture, commerce, mental data needed for predictions of abundance and navigation, the gauging and the reporting of and distribution of fishery resources to ensure rivers, the maintenance and operation of seacoast proper management and rational development. 11-51 To fulfill responsibilities under the Federal and rescue missions. Those ocean stations that are Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, the the responsibility of the United States are manned Federal Water Pollution Control Adn-dnistration is by Coast Guard ships. As a major rnission, these authorized to collect and disseminate data on ships also collect meteorological and ocean- chemical, physical, and biological water quality ographic data. The Department of Defense funds and other inforrhation insofar as such data or environmental observations taken aboard the ships other information relate to water pollution and by transferring funds to the Department of Com- the prevention and control thereof. The Geological merce to provide observing teams for the ships. Survey monitors geologic processes in the marine Additional data are collected by Coast Guard environment; it is authorized to determine the personnel. source, quantity, quality, distribution, movement, Special arrangements exist for the collection of and availability of both surface and ground water, meteorological data in support of aviation in- including the estuarine and other coastal waters, terests, between the Federal Aviation Administra- and fresh water sources beneath the coastal zone. tion and ESSA. The Coast Guard transniits many The Survey is further authorized under Bureau of ESSA forecasts and warnings to marine interests. the Budget Circular A-67 to operate and maintain Since the passage of the Marine Resources Act, a National system for water data coordination, the National Council on Marine Resources and which includes data from estuaries. The Geological Engineering Development has provided a focus for Survey does much of the data collection itself, coordination of the National oceanographic pro- mainly through cooperative investigations with gram. It has been able to establish clearly defined States and other local agencies. agency responsibilities for some major programs and insist on program coordination although these IL INTERAGENCY COORDINATION decisions may not have been optimum or popular Management, planning, and coordination of with all agencies. various environmental monitoring and prediction The Council has established the Interagency programs is vested by statute or by executive Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environ- agreement in various agencies and in the Executive mental Services charged with developing a Federal Office of the President, including the Bureau of Plan for Marine Environmental Prediction. The the Budget, the Office of Science and Technology, Committee has considered the problem of coordi-, the Federal Council for Science and Technology, nating the activities of the several agencies in the Marine Council, and the Water Resources executing the plan, but has limited its considera- Council. Particular departments are given coordi- tion to means for coordinating the activities of nating responsibilities over certain of the marine several independent agencies. programs, such as the Department of Interior for The Committee has stated that a program fisheries and water resources, and the Department planning steering group and project coordination of Commerce for meteorology. mechanism are required; it is not in a position to It is clear Ahat the elements comprising the propose any changes in statutory responsibilities. National marine environmental prediction service It is the panel's opinion that devices of this now reside in several agencies of the Federal character will not be completely effective in Government. Other agencies are involved in related developing an efficient National Environmental atmospheric monitoring and prediction activities. Monitoring and Prediction System. The scattering of responsibilities through many Several efforts have been made to provide Federal agencies has caused funding and manage- interagency coordination in meteorology. The ment difficulties. Department of Commerce established the Office The complexity of the problem is illustrated by of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological the ocean-station-vessel program. This ii1terna- Services and Applied Meteorological Research in tional activity is under the jurisdiction of the response to Bureau of the Budget Circular A-62 to International Civil Aviation Organization. The provide a focus for review and coordination of ships serve as communications relays in support of meteorological service and supporting research commercial aviation, as well as performing search programs. As part of its mission this office has 11-52 recently completed the preparation of a Federal The principal value of interagency coordinating plan for Marine Meteorology coordinating the committees in the past has been the exchange of activities of all participating Federal agencies. information describing agency programs. Such The Office of the Federal Coordinator has the committees can only have an indirect effect on responsibility for the coordination of meteoro- agency budgets, and thus they tend to be ineffec- logical programs only. It has no directive authority tive in "moving" an agreed-upon-multi-agency over governmental agencies. It has been able to program. In some cases, where it was advantageous effect a policy of sharing facilities and, in some to all agencies involved, it has been possible ' to cases, has been able to forestall the establishment eliminate duplication. This has been particularly of duplicate facilities. true when the duplication was in regard to the In addition, the Interdepartmental Committee planned establishment of new facilities. for the Atmospheric Sciences coordinates "basic" The lead agency concept has not proved effec- research in meteorology, reporting to the Federal tive in advancing National program objectives. The Council for Science and Technology. lead agency has tended to be the agency with the responsibility, but often without the budget to 111. ORGANIZATIONAL OPTIONS' carry out its responsibility. Recent experience, A viable marine monitoring and prediction supported by testimony of witnesses before the system depends both scientifically and techno- panel, indicates that the citation of the lead logically on close integration with the corre- agency responsibility as a funding argument has sponding meteorological system. Operational costs not been very successful. (3) Conduct of the entire program by the can be significantly reduced when common plat- Department of Defense is an option which might forms are used for observing both elements of the result in civil requirements being placed after environment. The same argument applies to the military requirements. The military chain-of- use of communications links, data processing, and command tends to operate in such a fashion that dissemination systems. Therefore, the marine e,- military commanders must be satisfied; this may vironmental monitoring and prediction system for be expected to cause delays or priority reductions both ocean and atniosphere should be planned and in purely civil aspects of the program when operated to the extent possible as a single system. conflicts occur for application of relatively scarce Of the organizational options identified by the resources. panel for the expanded environmental monitoring Military security considerations may tend to and prediction program, the first two would con- hinder development of the civil portion of the tinue present agency responsibilities, (1) including program. It is usually easier to classify an entire appropriate interagency coordination or (2) as- program than -to carefully examine it- to determine signing coordination responsibility to a lead @Ahe,,activifies that can be unclassified (or declassi- agency. fie d)Land'those -that -are gemiinelyYcritical._-! Either of these options would continue@_the As a result, orderly developmenvofithe-environ- present fragmentation of effort with attendant mental monitoring;and predictibn-pr6igram''by the management and funding difficulties. Neither a full participation of the scientific -6omniunity may coordinating committee nor the lead agency con- be restricted if some aspect of the program causes cept has proved fully effective. Experience to date significant portions to be over-classified. has indicated that the coordinating committees In some countries the military has the responsi- serve as forums for the discussion of the programs bility for all national environmental programs of the individual agencies, which each agency (Italy is an example); in such cases civil require- funds. Agreements reached in committee, assign- ments do not usually receive required priority, and ing individual agency responsibilities, cari founder representation at international functions is due to inadequate funding in any of the participat- hampered. In other countries (England and Canada ing agenIcies. are examples) a civil agency provides environ- mental services to the defense establishment. The various options are intended to provide for the The scale of the Defense Department budget conduct of operational activities and supporting research, but not for basic research. would probably make funding of the environmen- 11-53 tal monitoring and prediction program consider- (7) All programs, including those in support of ably easier than it is today, if the program were military operations, could be consolidated in one entirely in the Defense Department; it is the@ civil agency. This option would necessitate the question of whether these. funds would be allo- establishment of a means to assure the Defense cated for the best over-all interests of the Natiorr Department that military requirements could be that influences the panel's opinion with regard to adequately met by the civil agency. this option. - The civil agency would have to gear its opera- (4) Present DOD programs could be continued tions to provide rapid response to military require- and the civil program in several Federal agencies ments. In general, experience is such that military expanded, possibly including some not now active requirements and, in particular, the required im the program. This option miglit increase the quick-response capability, necessitate a system number of civil agencies in the total program and that is under military control. thus increase its fragmentation with an accom- The panel favors option (5) or (6) but an panying lack of economy. With increased funds in explanation is required to indicate, in detail, the this program the present or any alternate inter- nature of the responsibility that would be assigned agency coordination scheme would be less effi- to the new or modified existing Federal agency, as cient than such coordination is today. well as that to be retained in the Department of (5) The military-related program in the Defense Defense. It is not intended that DOD would Department could be retained with consolidation maintain facilities duplicating those of a civil of all civil activities in one Federal agency, except agency in all respects. As now established in for the Coast Guard's logistic support services, or meteorology the collection of basic oceanographic (6) The logistic support agency could be placed data would be a shared responsibility; in effect all within the major civil agency. observed data would be pooled and available both These options would continue the separate civil to the responsible civil agency and the DOD. and military systems, but could achieve significant Some environmental service requirements are economies by concentrating the civil program in common to both civil and military users. The one agency. Coordination and lead agency prob- National upper-air sounding network, operated lems would be significantly eased, and the number principally by ESSA, is an example of a civil of committee meetings required to coordinate the program that satisfies both military and civil National program would be significantly reduced. requirements. This program provides upper-air Program management and system design efforts meteorological data to the Nation's basic meteoro- would be strengthened if the civil program were logical service (civil) as well as the corresponding unified in one agency. At present there is, for military programs. As additional planned services example, no clear agency resporisibility for eval- to civil users are implemented, many of the uating the total system in terms of the trade-off products of the civil agency will meet such between, satellite and buoy data collection sys- common requirements. This will free some mili- tems. -tary resources to concentrate on requirements In oneicase.,(5) the marine logistic capability Of unique to military operations. the Coast Guard would be called on by the . Until services to civil users have been expanded, responsible operating agency; in another (6) these products designed for military users which are activities would be absorbed into the operating appropriate and can be made available will be used agency. In these options, the civil agency may to meet requirements of civil users. This use of operate a facility for joint civil/military use, such military products will be "ad interim" except in as the National Envirom-nental Satellite System. those cases where common requirements can be The establishment of unified Federal positions in met most effectively and economically by their regard to international meteorological and ocean- continued use. ographic prediction activities, now a relatively The basic data collection network would be a difficult problem requiring coordination and re- joint operation in this sense, although military and view by many agencies, would be greatly facili- civil data collection stations would be operated. tated if the responsibilities for the civil programs Thus data collected aboard naval vessels would be were centered in a single agency. available to the civil agencies, and data collected 11-54 aboard merchant vessels would, be available to the operating in the public interest are conducting Navy; this is essentially how the present system monitoring programs that include measurements works although it is more fragmented. In meteor- of physical, as well as chemical and biological ology, basic data are collected by the Department parameters. Such measurements are conducted of Transportation, the Department of Defense, with specific reference to controlling pollution Department of Commerce, and certain properly levels and examining the effects of such pollution certified private groups. on marine life, and would normally be the A single civil communication system would be responsibility of an agency charged with a mission established for the collection of data by the civil related to estuarine pollution control and abate- agency. For purposes of reduced vulnerability and ment. military security some portions of the network The data collected in such programs will be on would exist in parallel with DOD. a scale considerably smaller, and often on a greater For data processing and forecasting it is essen- frequency, than those required to support the tial that the civil agency and the DOD maintain major environmental prediction services con- separate facilities. As the scientific basis for sidered in this report. The relatively small-scale environmental prediction is strengthened it will be behavior of an estuary, however, is strongly possible to rely on high7speed electronic com- influenced by the larger scale motions of the puters for more of the supporting operations: for oceans and the atmosphere. For this reason, the example, data checking and communication buf- local agencies conducting estuarine-oriented pro- fers. With increasing automation of the forecasting grams must be assured rapid availability of appro- process the system becomes more reliant on such priate data collected by the larger scale network. automatic equipment, and as a corollary, more The data collected and forecasts issued by the vulnerable. To provide back-up and increased NEMPS would serve as major inputs to the more reliability it is essential to the National interest detailed forecasts and resulting regulatory actions that such major environmental data processing of the estuarine agencies. On the other hand, the centers operate in parallel. special n-dssion-oriented data collected, typically . The military and civil services must tailor their on a relatively fine mesh, within the estuary would forecasts for particular classes of users, and it is not be required for the operation of the NEMPS. expected that both the civil agency and the DOD In some cases a single data collection station might would maintain relatively independent forecast serve both a local estuary activity as well as the dissemination activities. As in meteorology today, broader mission of the NEMPS. the civil agency would provide broad forecasts for In the atmosphere an essentially analogous the general public, industry, and other Federal situation occurs in the monitoring and control of agencies including the military; in cases where pollution. As a result of recent legislation, it is these must be refined to meet the needs of special intended'that Regional Aiv:Quality Commissions interests the refinement would be the responsi- will be,established" which inay indildbIrridie than bility of the private sector. In some cases other one local political subdivision. In order to Web- Federal agencies would refine the basic forecasts -tively'-0f6tedt:th6 publid,-'a regional'dir@p-bllution to serve special classes of operations. DOD would control agency Will r6quire@ lbc@llhe@surem@nts of continue to provide specialized environmental the concentrations of major pollutants as well as services to meet military requirements. . appropriate meteorological data. The dispersion of In addition to the provision of broad services to these pollutants within the region is a function of the private sector, and special military require- these parameters as well as of measurements that ments, there are many environmental services describe the "large-scale" meteorological situation. required by public agencies at all levels of Govern- The regional pollution control agency will ment. therefore require data describing the relatively Special consideration must be given to the large-scale meteorological situation in addition to interface between a local small-scale environmental meteorological and air pollution concentration activity and large-scale global services. One ex- data on a much finer grid within the control ample of special interest concerns the myriad of region. In many cases, physical parameters meas- activities in the Nation's estuaries. Many agencies ured for the purpose of serving the National 11-55 forecasting system will also be useful to the local Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, National Science control authority. Generally, the regional control Foundation, Atomic Energy Corrunission, and the agency therefore will require the data describing Weathe -r Bureau. These agencies agreed to jointly t1fe large-scale atmospheric behavior in addition to fund the NODC, with actual operation the re- its own local data, while the national meteoro- sponsibility of the Navy. The basic operating funds logical forecasting system will not require the fine for the NODC are now provided by: National scale data collected within the control region. Science Foundation, Atomic Energy Commission, Biological data requirements are both qualita- Coast Guard (DOT), Coastal Engineering Research tively and quantitatively different than either Center (Army), Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, physical or chemical measurements. Biological pre- Geological Survey, and Federal Water Pollution diction programs probably will be best accom- Control Administration (Interior), Department of plished within the individual agency; close coordi- Health, Education and Welfare, ESSA, and the nation - should be maintained with NEMPS to Navy. assure compatibility and effective use of systems The funding arrangements have limited the for sensing, communication, and data processing. modernization of NODC's physical plant, and In many cases sharing of data-collection platforms severely hampered expansion generally. In partic- can be achieved. ular, the application of modern electronic corn- puters to oceanographic data processing has not Recommendation: proceeded at a satisfactory pace. Indeed, for such Activities in the National Environmental Monitor- data processing as NODC does perform it must ing ana Prediction System serving common civil find '.'time" on one of several computer systems and military interests should be consolidated in operated by other agencies. one Federal agency; specialized military programs For these reasons, we feel that NODC should be should be retained in the Department of Defense. part of a major Federal agency. . A considerable Civil and military environmental monitoring and amount of surface oceanographic data is now prediction systems should develop within the archived by ESSA's National Weather Records following guidelines: Center in addition to meteorological and other geophysical data. All physical environmental data -A common, shared data acquisition network should be available through a common source after a suitable standard request. Further, vast quanti- -A common, shared communications network, ties of data for the proposed atmospheric/ocean- except where military security requires separate ographic data bank will be provided by the normal systems operations of the NEMPS. -Independent, parallel data processing and fore- Recommendation: casting facilities A coordinated system of oceanographic and other -Independent, specialized data and forecast dis- environmental data centers should be established. semination sub-systems. The NODC should be transferred to the civil agency responsible for the National Environmental IV. OTHER ORGANIZATIONAL CONSIDERA- Monitoring and Prediction System. This agency TIONS should be given the responsibility for its funding and management. A. National Oceanographic Data Center The National Oceanographic Data Center now B. Satellite Data Collection archives marine environmental data, providing such data in various forms to Federal agencies and As new oceanographic sensors become available other research groups under appropriate reim- for satellite operation, questions arise as to their bursable funding arrangements. The Center was mode of employment. established in 1960 by Interagency Agreement The relationship of ESSA's weather satellite involving the Navy, Coast and Geodetic Survey, program to NASA provides an example of a 11-56 successful working arrangement. NASA now has ocean and atmosphere sensors aboard the same the responsibility for the development of new satellite. NASA considers the development of sensors to be carried aboard meteorological satel- ocean sensors as part of its earth resources lites; the performance specifications are prepared program; thus future developments may lead to by ESSA. NASA launches the satellite and places ocean sensors being coupled with sensors de- it in the prescribed orbit. When certified as fully veloped to map specific resources. Conceptually, operational, the satellite is turned over to ESSA satellite oceanographic sensor development should which maintains operational control, receiving be considered part of the environmental sciences data through its own read-out stations, and trans- effort. Wherever feasible, these sensors, if not mits appropriate raw and analyzed satellite data requiring a separate satellite for engineering rea- over standard meteorological communications cir- sons, should be co upled with atmosphere sensors. cuits. These arrangements have yielded excellent system performance. In regard to new oceanographic sensors the question arises as to whether they should be flown Recommendation: aboard specific "oceanographic" satellites or, The agency responsible for NEMPS should adopt where feasible, share a platform. In many cases, it arrangements with NASA for satellite ocean- is desirable to obtain physical oceanographic and ographic sensor development and operation similar meteorological data from the same area simul- to those which have worked effectively in the taneously; for this reason it would be well to fly National weather satellite program. 11-57 Chapter 8 International Organization 1. INTERGOVERNMENTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC positions are generally developed by the agency COMMISSION members of PIPICO (Panel on International Pro- grams and International Cooperative Organiza- As a result of the impetus of the International tions), which reports to the CIPME (Cominittee on Geophysical Year in promoting joint scientific International Policy in the Marine Environment, attack on the ocean's problems, a resolution was an interagency sub-cabinet level committee); both introduced in 1958 at the Tenth General Confer- committees operate under the Department of ence of UNESCO which led to a Preparatory State. They serve as advisory bodies to the Meeting of the Intergovernmental Conference it- Department of State, which establishes the final self in Copenhagen in July 1960. Following the U.S. positions. No single Federal agency has the recommendations made at these meetings, the responsibility for leading in the establishment of Eleventh General Conference of UNESCO in 1960 U.S. positions, as is customary for many other established a UNESCO Office of Oceanography international organizations such as the Department and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com- of Health, Education and Welfare with regard to mission. The Comniission held its First Session in the International Health Organization and the Paris in 1961, and subsequent sessions in 1962, Department of Labor with regard to the Inter- 1964, 1965, and 1967. General Sessions are national Labor Organization. This has caused usually held every two years, at which time the difficulties from time to time in establishing U.S. Commission's work is reviewed, and general policy positions, as well as in general participation in IOC for the next two years is established. Sessions also affairs. elect the officers and select the Bureau and The Comrru;ssion Secretariat is provided by the Consultative Council (BCQ which meets at least UNESCO Office of Oceanography. IOC has no those years that the IOC does not meet and other funds of its own; UNESCO provides most services, times as required. The BCC carries on executive although other agencies or governments,may con- functions of the IOC. tribute. International cooperative programs are The purpose of the Commission is "to promote coordinated by International Coordination scientific investigation with a view to learn' ing Groups; the chairman of each group is the Inter- more about the nature and resources of the national Coordinator for the expedition. Other oceans, through the concerted action of its mem- IOC projects, such as coordination of international bers." The Commission attempts to stimulate oceanographic data exchange and study of various national interest in oceanography and ocean- scientific problems, are undertaken by working ographic research, both national and cooperative. groups., The Commission fosters international cooperation, The commission receives advisory services from and is charged with reviewing thd results of two bodies designated at its Second Session: scientific investigations, defining the basic prob- lems requiring international cooperation, and -The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research recommending the nature, form, and methods of (SCOR) of the International Council of Scientific oceanographic data exchange. Unions (ICSU is a non-governmental body) advises Commission membership is open to all mem- IOC on broad scientific aspects of . oceanography. bers of UNESCO, the UN, or other UN agencies, that are willing to participate in oceanographic -The Advisory Committee on Marine Resources programs that require concerted action. Its present Research (ACMRR) of the Food and Agriculture membership is 58 countries. The U.S. delegation Organization of the UN advises,IOC on the fishery to IOC meetings usually includes representatives of aspects of oceanography. several governmental agencies as well as non- government scientists; the changing character of The IOC has sponsored several major inter- this representation is a continuing problem. U.S. national cooperative expeditions, such as the 11-58 International Indian Ocean Expedition. In addi- -A program using advanced technology, to be tion, the working groups have engaged in a variety developed for consideration and approval at the of activities directed toward specific scientific IOC and WMO Congress meetings in 197 1. problems. At its meeting in October 1967 the IOC moved Various working groups and panels of experts to engage in operational activities and established have been established to examine specific aspects the IGOSS (Integrated Global Ocean Station of this program: Requirements, Telecommunica- System) Working Committee, and a number of tions, Data Exchange, and Legal Aspects. associated panels and working groups. The first meeting of the IGOSS Working Committee was 11. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZA- held in April 1968; the Committee prepared a TION number of findings.' The purpose of IGOSS is to To facilitate international cooperation in provide more extensive and timely information on, meteorology and organize the necessary mecha- and prediction of, the state of the oceans; it is nisms for exchange of weather data, the Interna- intended to be a global oceanic system, consisting of national facilities and services to be provided tional Meteorological Organization wasestablished largely by the participating countries. The Com- in 1873 by the directors of national weather .es. This was replaced in 1951 by the World mittee recommended that IGOSS be planned and serv1c operated in close coordination with the World Meteorological Organization, a specialized agency Weather Program. of the UN, which now has 130 member nations. Tentative plans call for the IGOSS to include The WMO is organized in several commissions, the following components: including the Commission on Synoptic Meteor- ology and the Commission on Maritime Meteor- -An observational network comprising all types of ology. The WMO has set the standards followed in .ocean data stations and observational techniques: all international meteorological data collection and automatic telemetering buoys transmission. Generally, the WMO has established coastal stations and research vessels the practices and procedures for weather reporting fixed ocean stations and mobile ships at sea, and the provision of meteorological service fixed off-shore platforms for shipping. Of special interest is the program for observational satellites the collection of meteorological data by merchant other new means that may be developed. ships at sea, which has evolved into its present form over about a 50-year period. All aspects of -A communication service for data transmission. this program are coordinated and organized by the WMO:2 -Centers for collection, processing, retrieval, and dissemination of data. -Standards have been established for instrument calibration. Instruments are usually furnished by The Working Comiriittee adopted guidelines for national weather services, and the WMO publishes the plan and implementation program of IGOSS. a worldwide fist of instrument repair facilities. The implementation of IGOSS is planned in two -Coastal radio stations are designated throughout phases: the world for the reception of weather reports -A program using existing technology to be from ships at sea. developed for consideration and approval by the -WMO has established standard transniission pro- appropriate IOC and WMO bodies in 1969-to be cedures. correlated with World Weather Program imple- mentation plan. The cost of transmission to the United States is 1UNESCO, IOC, Recommendations of the First repaid to the ship; and transmission from coastal Meeting of the IOC Working Committee for an Integrated station to the National Meteorological Center is Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS)-UNESCO, Paris, 2 April 2-5, 1968 (Annex 11). WMO Publication 9. T.P. 4-Vol. D. WMO, Geneva. 11-59 covered by ESSA. The United States receives -A comprehensive, long-term research program on about 900 such worldwide reports daily relayed global weather systems, including the associated from "collection points" to which they have been data-collection effort, and on the atmosphere- radioed by the ships. The WMO is now seeking to ocean and atmosphere-land interactions. expand this program, including participation by fishing fleets not now in the program. The research program is intended to yield an The WMO meets in "Congress" every four improved understanding of the atmosphere's gen- years, and maintains a continuing Secretariat in eral circulation. The World Weather Watch would Geneva. Operational activities are primarily co- exploit new developments in space technology, ordinated by six Regional Associations (R.A.), instrumentation, data processing, and communica- which meet every four years, usually not in the tions, as well as traditional techniques. Both same years as Congress (the United States is a portions of the World Weather Program are under member of two R.A.). Between sessions of the active planning, not only in the WMO, but also in Congress the work of the WMO is furthered by ICSU for the Global Atmospheric Research Pro- annual meetings of the executive committee. gram, including the Air-Sea Interaction Research The U.S. delegation to the WMO Congress is Program. chaired by the "permanent representative to the Under the existing international weather sys- WMO," normally designated by the Secretary of tem, the world exchange of data, analyses, and State as the Administrator, ESSA. U.S. positions forecasts cover many parts of the globe, but there are recommended to the Secretary of State by the are several deficiencies in the system: in observing permanent representative, in consultation with all the atmosphere, in data processing, and in com- agencies conducting meteorological operations, in- munications. cluding the Defense Department; the Secretary of The first phase of the World Weather Program is State then reaches final positions, and makes them intended to remedy the current 'deficiencies. The known to the permanent representative. In addi- second phase includes the introduction of new tion, the WMO maintains several Conunissions, technology, major research efforts in the general organized by disciplinary areas, such as the Com- circulation of the atmosphere, and in air-sea mission on Maritime Meteorology. The WMO seeks interaction. The United States is actively partici- technical expertise by forming suitable Working pating in all aspects of this program. Agreement on Groups and Panels of Experts; membership in steps to be taken by member nations as their part these groups is usually open to any interested in implementing the World Weather Program is nation. reached in the WMO; each nation is responsible for The WMO is also taking a major role in the funding those activities agreed upon. U.S. posi- establishment of the World Weather Program. This tions are coordinated by the State Department, program originated in two UN resolutions, one and represent the consensus of agency positions adopte .d in 1961, and the second a year later; the reached in meetings of the Federal Committee on UN recommended that all member states and Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. appropriate international agencies seek to improve In its review of Federal agency programs, the weather forecasting and to further scientific re- panel members were briefed on this nation's plans search on the atmosphere. The resolutions called to participate, on a cooperative basis, with many upon the .WMO, in collaboration with UNESCO other nations in the World Weather Program. The and ICSU, to develop a program to help meet President has endorsed this program for inter- these goals. national cooperation in meteorological data collec- Out of the ensuing discussions have come the tion, processing, and dissen-driation, to improve proposals .for what is now identified as the World weather forecasting. The program has also been Weather Program. This program is two-fold: endorsed by the Congress of the United States in concurrent Resolution No. 67. -World Weather Watch-a new international sys- Recommendation: tem for observing the atmosphere over the entire globe, and transmitting, processing, and analyzing Global oceanographic monitoring and prediction the world-wide weather data. activities should be jointly planned with the World 11-60 Weather Program to provide a well-coordinated reduce such pollution. IMCO also has been active and non-duplicating global ocean-atmosphere in establishing the legal framework for the sta- monitoring and prediction system. tioning of floating stations (including buoys) in the open ocean, and cooperates with the WMO in III. OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZA- encouraging weather reporting by merchant ves- TIONS sels. At its fifth Assembly in October 1967, IMCO The Food and Agriculture Organization of the adopted a resolution that invited member states to United Nations (FAO) is concerned with world encourage owners and operators of ships sailing fishery problems, and the influence .of marne under their flag to participatein the voluntary physical parameters on the location and extent of weather reporting programs of the WMO. living resources. The FAO Fisheries Division was The International Civil Aviation Organization raised to the status of a department in 1966. The has the "housekeeping" responsibility for the department now has two divisions: Fishery Re- North Atlantic Ocean stations. Eight ships are sources and Exploitation, and Fishery Economics maintained on station, four of them by the United and Products. The first is concerned with scientific States, to provide navigational references, and a problems related to the evaluation of living re- search and rescue capability, in support of inter- sources, their relation to their environment, and national aviation; the level of each nation's partici- with the scientific and technical problems of pation is based on its North Atlantic air traffic harvesting and management. It maintains the volume. All ships on station provide routine Fishery Data Center and the other division covers meteorological and surface oceanographic observa- technical aspects of fishery resource utilization, tions. development of statistical systems for resource assessment, fishery- related economic research, and 'V- APPRAISAL training arrangements. In 1961 FAO established As a result of a review of the activities of the the Advisory Committee on Marine Resources international bodies active in environmental Research (ACMRR) to advise FAO on marine monitoring and prediction, the panel finds that the fishery research, particularly the fishery aspects of WMO has extensive "machinery" in operation for oceanographic research; the ACMRR also serves in the collection of environmental data at sea. The an advisory role to the IOC. At. the Fourth Session plans of the IOC for the establishment of the of the ACMRR (Rome, Jan. 16-21, 1967) the IGOSS could result in much duplication of admin- istrative and management mechanisms for the Working Party on Fishermen's Charts and the 3 Use transmission of data in real time. The expendable of Synoptic Data distributed its draft report. At bathythermograph makes it feasible to consider the meeting, cooperation between fishing fleet expanding the merchant shi weather reporting operators and the WMO to secure additional., p meteorological data at sea was encouraged. program to include subsurface ocean data. In The International Maritime Consultative Or- addition one of the important "needs for'6cean data is t* o-, inipro@e -Vveather predictiori 0`h lifid as ganization, a governmental body, is primarily 'well as'sea: concerned with safety at sea under the Safety of Some of these pertinent Jonsi&6'tions were Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention-within which is recently stated in a Report of the Secretary- included the International Ice Patrol. The opera- General of the United Nations Economic and tions of the International Ice Patrol are assigned to Social Council :4 the United States, with funding shared inter- nationally. IMCO has the responsibility for reduc- Great attention is being given by States mem- ing oil spillages from tankers and other merchant bers of WMO to expand the meteorological shipping outside national territorial waters, and observational system over the high seas. The cost encourages research and protective measures to of this part of the meteorological network and its 3Food and Agriculture Organization of the United supporting facilities is very high and the incorpora- Nations, Advisory Committee on Marine Resources Re- tion of certain oceanographic observations in this search, Report of A CMRR Working Party on Fishennen's Charts and Utilization of Synoptic Data, FAO Fisheries 4Marine Science and Technology: Survey and Pros- Reports No. 41, Supp. 2, Rome, Jan. 16-21, 1967. pects, Annex XIII, April 24, 196 7, p. 6. U-61 system requires urgent consideration if the cost nism be found for their immediate and effective effectiveness of the programme is to be, maxi- joint action. mized Thus, it is urgent that oceanographers and For these reasons, in any realignment of inter- meteorologists meet to co-ordinate the observa- national organizations @active in the marine field, tional programme on moored and drifting auto- consideration should be given to effective mecha- matic stations, on island and coastal stations and nisms for the conduct of activities related to the on ships of opportunity specially provided with collection of physical oceanographic data requiring observing personnel. This would permit maximum near real-time processing with similar meteoro- oceanographic utilization of the meteorological logical activities. One possibility that should be network. Meanwhile, oceanographers must ascer- considered is combining the WMO and proposed tain their own requirements for a monitoring operational activities of the IOC. Extensive ar- network, so that a scheme can be developed for rangements have been made by both the IOC and supplementing the observations derivedfrom the the WMO to assure adequate coordination between meteorological network where necessary. This the two agencies. In regard to IGOSS there have supplementary network could be used to some been established joint IOC/WMO Panels of Experts extent both for oceanography and meteorological on Coordination of Requirements, on Telecom- purposes. munications, among others. The WMO has recently It is therefore essential to ensure effective co- established an Executive Conunittee Panel on the ordination of oceanographic and meteorological Meteorological Aspects of Ocean Affairs.' activities. A first attempt in this direction was The close relationship between the physical, made by the establishment of joint WM01I0C biological, and other aspects of oceanography, now working groups, but there is doubt as to e facilitated by the present IOGUNESCO organiza- tion is recognized. Further, there will continue to adequacy of such arrangements in view of the be research needs in physical oceanography that complexity of the problems involved and Of the do not require rapid transmission of observed data difference in. the present international institutional that may be of relatively little significance in arrangemen ts, includingfunding, There is as yet no forecasting the behavior of the environment. For experience in joint action on important matters such as the desirability and design of a joi .nt these reasons, the panel does not consider it meteorological-oceanographic network. Because of appropriate to make a recommendation on this the extremely close interrelationship of these two matter. disciplines, it is essential and urgent that a mecha- 5WM0 Executive Committee XX Resolution 17. 11-62 Chapter 9 Payoffs from an Improved Environmental Monitoring and Prediction System There are a number of potential payoffs to be with the Navy (a sample forecast is attached as obtained from an improved environmental mon- Appendix B). Seasonal forecasts are issued in the itoring and prediction system. The panel, in review- spring, and are revised by daily advisories during ing much of the material that has been prepared the fishing season. Evidence to date has indicated on this subject, has been forced to recognize the that the fishing fleet has been able to make difficulty of prescribing dollar benefits that would profitable use of this information by shifting their be achieved by an improved system-it is indeed operations; processing plants use the seasonal difficult to assess the dollar benefits associated forecasts to schedule their activities and shift with the existing system. This subject will require sources of supply. increasing attention as major expansions, involving During one year's operations the major portion relatively large expenditures, are contemplated. of the California albacore tuna fleet moved to Several operations which would be improved as their Oregon fishing grounds more than two weeks a result of the expanded environmental monitoring ahead of their normal schedule, as a result of and prediction system are presented below with advisories broadcast by the Bureau of Commercial limited estimates of dollar benefits. Fisheries. It was estimated that this shift added approximately 1,350 to 1,800 tons to the season's 1. FISHERIES catch, with a dockside value of $585,000 to $780 '000.2 A major ocean-oriented activity affected by the quality of environmental predictions is the fishing 11. OCEAN TRANSPORTATION industry. Fishing areas are affected by changes in ocean currents, temperature, and other physical, The sea remains a major international transport and chemical parameters. The fisherman tries to highway, and will probably remain so for many anticipate these changes to improve his efficiency. generations. In 1967 imports to and exports from The individual fisherman can only do this to a the United States in ocean-borne commerce hn-dted degree, although in some cases even this is totalled 386 million tons, with a value of $37 worthwhile. billion .3 The Maritime Administration now esti- Among the parameters that are especially mates the annual volume of cargo in international significant to the fisherman are sea-surface and commerce with the United States to be.564 4million.. subsurface temperatures, depth of the mixed layer tons, with a value of $73.5 billion by 1980. Many and structure of the thermocline, and boundaries outputs of the environmental monitoring and between water masses. The relationships of the prediction system have a direct bearing on ship- harvestable fish to concentrations of their food Ping. organisms is also a potentially useful indicator, Better surface wave statistics should make it although not yet very well developed. For ex- possible to improve the design and lower the cost ample, fishermen in the North Sea and Barents Sea of new ships; improvements in wave, wind, and can improve their location of herring by their own current forecasts would permit improved min- plankton collection, by exploiting the relationship imum time ship routings. Improved sea-shore wave between herring and the copepod Calanus on and current data should improve the design of which it feeds.' harbor facilities. Forecasts of the position of critical isotherms 2 (60-66*F) for albacore tuna fisheries off the U.S. Flittner, Glenn A., 1967, Forecasting Availability of Albacore Tuna in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, presented at Pacific Coast are now issued routinely by the the 17th Annual Meeting of the International Commission Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, in cooperation for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, Boston, Massachu- setts, May 30, 1967. Schaefer, Milner B., Oceanography and the Marine 3Statistical Series of the Maritime Administration. Fisheries, Canadian Fisheries Reports, No. 5, June 1965, 4Internal planning factors developed by Maritime pp. 29-35. Administration. 11-63 A. Ship Design Especially needed to improve these techniques Wind-generated ocean surface waves produce are better knowledge of winds and currents near the major strains on a ship, and the wave spectrum the sea surface, improved understanding of the must be considered in design. Waves cause heavy generation, propagation, and decay of ocean sur- slamming and propeller emergence that produces face waves, and the effects of waves on ships. dangerous vibrations, and they are of basic im- It is not yet feasible to estimate the overall portance in designing for freeboard, stability, an.' potential savings to the maritime industry from a hu .II strength. . d perfected ship routing program. Prom data cover- Loss of speed in heavy weather is a major factor ing MSTS ship routings during 1958, analyzed by in fuel consumption and power requirements. the Naval Oceanographic Office, it was estimated Better statistical descriptions of ocean wave prop- that an average of at least $3,000 was saved per erties are essential to design ships with higher ship-crossing of the North Atlantic and North payload/weight ratios and narrower tolerances. At Pacific, due to a reduction of at-sea time.s In present, this statistical information is not adequate addition to time saved, there is a potential saving as a yardstick by which to measure the degree to in unproved ship routing by reducing storm which test and model basins simulate the real damage to ships and cargo. The provision of ocean. ship-routing forecasts to commercial shipping lines Recent reductions in new ship costs per cargo by private consultants is further indication that ton have been achieved by improvements in ship the technique is economically worthwhile. machinery and construction technology, but In addition to ships there are a growing number further reductions seem possible through improved of stationary platforms at sea-oil-drilling rigs on design, resulting from. increased understanding of the Continental Shelf are a prime example. Opera- the ship's physical environment. tion of such platforms requires improved forecasts In addition to the savings that could be effected of environmental parameters. Under certain con- by improvm*g the design of conventional ships, ditions, the working crews aboard the platforms radical departures in design now on the horizon, are removed; longer range, and more accurate such as hovercraft, hydrofoils, and cargo-carrym*2 predictions of those parameters associated with - the decision to halt operations would provide a submarines, will require improved and specialized considerable dollar benefit to the operators. environmental predictions. The impact loading on a hovercraft due to wave action is a major design III. LONG-RANGE WEATHER FORECASTING factor; hovercraft on long voyages will require specialized routings to avoid strong winds and high A significant improvement in long-range waves. weather forecasting requires improved understand- B. Minimum Time Paths ing of the large-scale interactions between the oceans and the atmosphere. Such studies are The ability to forecast the propagation and presently hampered by a lack of data. Present decay of ocean waves is limited by the lack of long-range forecasting accuracy is fairly low, but it theory-observation feedback. Increased data would is clear that considerable economic benefit would enable the scientists to advance their theories and result from any significant improvement in this test them more adequately. Even with our present capability. Several examples are: timing the plant- understanding of ocean wave phenomena, it is ing and harvesting of crops; planning seasonal fuel possible to predict the sea surface conditions to be transportation and storage, timing road construc- enco untered by a ship along any given route. Ships tion, and flood and drought prediction. can be routed along a minimum time track, or Flood damage, could be reduced by manage- routed for maximum comfort or safety. Such a ment of flood control structures, for example, by program is now conducted by the Navy, as well as lowering the water levels in reservoirs prior to in other countries, on the basis of available data. periods of heavy precipitation or snow melt. The Several commercial operators also use least-time. 5Anon., How Optimum Routing Saves Shipper .track forecasts, usually prepared by private fore- Services Millions, MSTS Magazine, Vol. 9, No. 11, casting services. November 1959, pp. 14-16. 11-64 magnitude of this problem can be indicated by As these alternatives encompass increasingly data that show that the estimated damage from sophisticated technology with associated cost in- floods in the United States alone was $4.2 billion, creases, decisions to deploy major systems cannot an average of $280 million a year, over the 15-year be based primarily on intuition. The cost asso- 6 period from 1946-1960. Such data alone do not ciated with the conduct of appropriate studies prove that a great benefit could be achieved by represents a relatively small fraction of the cost of improved long-range forecasting, but it is clear that some of the new hardware being considered, and the potential exists for better decision-making becomes a relatively more easily justifiable ex- based on improved forecasting to @chieve sizeable pense. New technological development should not dollar benefits. be delayed, but analyses should be undertaken in Construction costs could be lowered by parallel to provide a suitable decision-making scheduling labor and equipment to take advantage ramework when advanced major systems are of good weather. The costs of fuels and electric ready for implementation. power used in space heating and air conditioning The proper selection of alternative schemes for would be reduced if public utilities and fuel improvement and expansion of the National producers could plan production, transportation, Environmental Monitoring and Prediction System and storage on the basis of reliable forecasts of hinges on an approach that requires three types of warm or cold winters and hot or cool summers. studies that are conceptually relatively inde- There are other, potentially much greater, pendent: benefits possible as the result of present-day _Study 1. For the time table being considered, atmospheric and oceanographic research. Meteor- alternative methods of expanding the National ologists now believe that we are close to being able to achieve some measure of control over the Environmental Monitoring and Prediction System weather. Hurricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons should be reviewed; this will primarily include in the western Pacific are born and nurtured over alternative data acquisition systems, but may also the oceans. Research efforts are now underway to include new communications and data processing- develop and test methods for blunting the in- facilities. The alternatives should be specified in tensity of these storms. Again, progress is as much detail as possible, including capability and hampered by a lack of suitable meteorological and operating cost data. oceanographic data. Potential benefits are great. -Study 2. For the time period being considered, estimates should be made of the improvement in IV. REQUIREMENTS FOR COST-BENEFIT/ monitoring and prediction that can be achieved by each of the alternative sub-systems proposed in SYSTEMS STUDIES Study 1. In many areas of decision making, extensive use -Study 3. The economic benefits resulting from is made of techniques referred to as "cost- the improvements in the outputs of the monitor- effectiveness analysis" and the closely-related ing and prediction system obtained in Study 2 methods of "systems analysis" or "operations should be estimated. research." At the present time, the application of such techniques to. environmental problems has Study I would use technical data descriptive of been rather limited. The techniques of systems new developments. The study would recognize analysis will have to be widely applied to the that, in general, new technology is being considered examination of alternatives in expanding the Na- as an "add-on" to the Nation's existing environ- tion's environmental monitoring and prediction mental monitoring and prediction system. This programs. investigation should include parametric analysis of new data collection systems, to yield, for example, 6 information on cost as a function of data accuracy Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, so that the trade-off between numbers of systems UNESCO, Draft of a General Scientific Framework for World Ocean Study, UNESCO, Paris (1964). deployed and data accuracy can be examined. 11-65 333-093 0 - 69 - 10 Study 2 would concentrate on estimating the techniques to include unconventional. data col- improvements in forecasting that would be lected by platforms now under development; for achieved by adding the new sub-systems -con- example, satellite observations which would yield sidered in Study 1, as well as the potential for average values of environmental parameters over forecasting parameters that are not now regularly fairly large areas, as opposed to the conventional predicted. It is in this area where the environ- point observations. mental scientist must make his strongest contribu- In many cases, the combined outputs of the tion. Some work has already been conducted in first two studies would be extremely valuable. We this field in connection with numerical (i.e., would be able to relate the projected ability to computer) weather prediction,7 to establish cri- forecast environmental parameters to proposed teria for required data density and accuracy, where characteristics of the expanded environmental the question has generally been limited to the monitoring system. We would further be able to acquisition of additional data similar to that make statements relating system performance to already acquired, as well as data observing ac- increased cost. curacy. Theoretical studies of the behavior of errors (i.e., perturbations) in the initial data field In Study 3 we are faced with the problem of during forecast calculations have also been made.8 estimating benefits to various segments of the economy resulting from environmental prediction Similar analyses have been conducted to esti- mate the density and accuracy of observations services. This is typically a difficult problem, and required to describe adequately the sea-surface the panel has found a limited number of ex- temperature structure. In one study9 relationships amples.10 The strongest requirement is the de- were obtained between desired accuracy of the velopment of a detailed understanding of the analysis, and the density and accuracy of observa- operation under study, rather than understanding tion. the behavior of the environment. Thus, to study the impact of improved ocean temperature pre- At present, much of the expectation for im- dictions on the fishing industry, it is more im- proved long-range forecasts is based on the use of portant to understand a particular fishing opera- data not now available. Attempts should be tion, and the dynamics of the fish population, made to simulate the effects on prediction per- than it is to understand the physics of the ocean's formance of postulated new data. Where it is temperature structure. difficult to adequately test new hypotheses with- Such studies may be initiated before the results out adequate data, data collection experiments of Studies I and 2 are available if reasonable should be planned so that the, impact of new data improvements in the environmental prediction on prediction performance can be tested on as "products" are postulated. Such studies must small a scale as feasible before making a com- concern themselves with realizable benefits in a mittment to major new data-collection systems. Among the serious questions to be considered is given operation, as opposed to potential benefits. the feasibility of modifying numerical forecasting Although the considerable difficulty in achiev- ing benefit estimates is recognized, it is equally 7Alaka, M. A.. and F. Lewis, Numerical Experiments clear that proposals for increased major invest- Leading to the Design of Optimum Global Meteorological ments associated with the expansion of the Na- Networks, Technical Memorandum WBTM- 7, U.S. Depart- tional Environmental Monitoring and Prediction ment of Commerce, ESSA, Washington, D.C., February 1967, 14 pp; Panel on Observations Over Sparse Data Service must be supported by estimates of the Regions, Plan for Meeting Meteorological Obserpation type outlined here. Decisions regarding deploy- Requirements Oper Sparse Data Regions, Technical Plan- ning Study No. 1, U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1963, 51 pp. 10 8Thompson, P.D., Uncertainty of Initial State as a A. J. Russo et al., The Operational and Economic Factor in the Predictability of Large Scale Atmospheric Impact of Weather on the Construction Industry, The Flow Patterns, Tellus, vol. IX, No. 3, 1957, pp. 275-295. Travelers Research Center. Inc.. Hartford, Conn., 1965; 9 Kolb, L. L. and R. R. Rapp, Utility of Weather Forecasts James, Richard W., Data Requirements for Synoptic to the Raisin Industry, The RAND Corporation, Santa Sea Surface Temperature Analyses, Special Publication, Monica, California, 1961; Demsetz, H., Economic Gains Naval Oceanographic Office, Washington, D.C., 1967, 29 firom Storm Warnings: Two Florida Case Studies, The PP. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California, 1962. 11-66 ment of new, technology are closely related to from improved predictions must proceed in paral- expected benefits. lel with major technical development programs. Recommendation: Such analyses are required to -support Aecisions Extensive analyses of design trade-offs, intended regarding operational deployment. of major new use of resulting data in prediction, and benefits systems. 11-67 Appendix A Panel Hearings Schedule and Participants Hearing Schedule Date Cyty Host Oct. 9-12, 1967 Washington, D.C. Nov .6-7, 1967 Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology Nov. 8-9, 1967 New York Ford Foundation Dec. 4, 1967 Chicago Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Dec. 5-6, 1967 Seattle University of Washington Dec. 7-8, 1967 La Jolla Scripps Institution of Oceanography Jan. 10-11, 1968 Houston Gulf Universities Research Corporation Jan. 12-13, 1968 Miami University of Miami Persons Appearing at Panel Hearings Elbert AhIstrom, Senior Scientist, Bureau of Commercial John De Noyer, Advanced Research Projects Agency, Fisheries, Ocean Research Laboratory, Stanford, Call- Department of Defense, Washington, D.C. fornia John Emmick, Vice President, Foundation for Oceano- Dick Bader, Associate Director, Institute of Marine graphic Research and Education, Port Canaveral, Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida Florida L. Bajournas, Director, Great Lakes Research Center, R. G. Fleagle, Chairman, Department of Atmospheric Detroit, Michigan Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash- George F. Beardsley, Jr., Assistant Professor, Physical ington Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Glenn A. Flittner, Acting Assistant Laboratory Director, Oregon Fishery-Oceanography Center, Bureau of Commercial Harry J. Bennett, Professor of Zoology, Louisiana State Fisheries, La Jolla, California University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana Harry W. Freeman, Professor of Biology, College of Leo Beranek, President, Bolt, Beranek & Newman, Charleston, Charleston, North Carolina Cambridge, Massachusetts Hugo Freudenthal, Chairman, Graduate Department of Donald E. Bevan, Associate Dean, College of Fisheries, Marine Science, Long Island University, East Meadow, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington New York F. G. Blake, Senior Research Scientist, Chevron Research Herbert F. Frolander, Acting Chairman, Department of Co., La Habra, California Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, C. Bookhout, Director, Duke University Marine Labora- Oregon tory, Beaufort, North Carolina Paul M. Fye, Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- Capt. J.D.W. Borop, USN, Director, U.S. Navy Mine tution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Defense Laboratory, Panama City, Florida J. A. Gast, Associate Professor and Coordinator, Depart- Ronald A. Breslow, Executive Assistant to Commissioner, ment of Oceanography, Humboldt State College, New Jersey State Department of Conservation and Arcata, California Economic Development, Trenton, New Jersey Cecil Gentry, Director, National Hurricane Research Douglas L. Brooks, President, Travelers Research Center, Laboratory, Coral Gables,_.Florida Hartford, Connecticut Perry W. Gilbert, Executive Director, Mote Marine Lab- Herbert Bruce, Assistant Laboratory Director, Bureau of oratory, Sarasota, Florida, and Professor, Cornell Commercial Fisheries Auke Bay Biological Labora- University tory, Auke Bay, Alaska D. R. GMenwaters, Oceanic Advisor to Governor and John C. Bryson, Executive Director, Delaware Water & Staff, Sacramento, California Air Resources Commission, Dover, Delaware John B. Glude, Deputy Regional Director, Bureau of Horace R. Byers, Dean, College of Geosciences, Texas Commercial Fisheries, Seattle, Washington A&M University, College Station, Texas G. G. Gould, Technical Director, Underwater Weapons Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Station, Newport, Rhode Island Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, D.C. Herbert W. Graham, Laboratory Director, U.S. Bureau of A. J. Carsola, Manager,. Oceanics Division, Lockheed, San Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Woods Diego, California . Hole, Massachusetts David C. Chandler, Director, Great Lakes Research Gordon Gunter, Director, Gulf.Coast Research Labora- Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan tory, Ocean Springs, Mississippi Joe S. Creager, Associate Dean, Arts and Sciences, William J. Hargis, Jr., Director, Virginia Institute of University of Washington, Seattle, Washington Marine Science, University of Virginia, Gloucester Franklin C. Daiber, Acting Director, Marine Laboratories, Point, Virginia University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware John M. Haydon, Chairman, Oceanographic Commission David Dean, Director, Darling Center, University of of Washington, Seattle, Washington Maine, Walpole, Maine J. R. Heirtzler, Director, Hudson Laboratories, Columbia Robert G. Dean, Chairman, Department of Coastal and University-, Dobbs Ferry, New York Oceanographic Engineering, University of Florida, Joseph E. Henderson, Director, Applied Physics Labora- Gainesville, Florida tory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 11-68 T. F. Heuter, Vice President and General Manager, Sammy M. Ray, Director, Marine Laboratory, Texas A&M Honeywell, West Covina, California .University, Galveston, Texas Dr. E. A. Hogye, Head, Science Support Division, U.S. Alfred C. Redfield, Director Emeritus, Woods Hole Navy Mine Defense Laboratory, Panama City, Florida Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts D. W. Hood, Director, Institute of Marine Science, Roger R. Revelle, Director, Center for Population Studies, University of Alaska, College, Alaska School of Public Health, Harvard University, Donald F. Hornig, Special Assistant to the President for Cambridge, Massachusetts Science and Technology, Washington, D.C. William S. Richardson, Professor of Oceanography, Nova Albert C. Jones, Acting Director, Tropical Atlantic University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Randal M. Robertson, Associate Director for Research, Fisheries, Miami, Florida National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Dale C. Jones, Manager of Policy Guidance, Vitro S- H. R. Robinson, Chairman, American Shrimp Canners ices, Fort Walton Beach, Florida Association, New Orleans, Louisiana Arnold B. Joseph, Environmental Sciences Branch, P. M. Roedel (in charge, marine research), State Fisheries Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. Laboratory, Terminal Islafid, California Bostwick H. Ketchum, Associate Director, Woods Hole Harold Romer, Professor, Graduate Department of Marine Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Science, Long Island University, East Meadow, New Thomas E. Kruse, Director of Research, Oregon Fish York Commission, Clackamas, Oregon George A. Rounsefell, Director, Marine Sciences Institute, John La Cerda, Director, Florida Commission on Marine University of Alabama, Bayou La Batre, Alabama Science and Technology, Coral Gables, Florida Lyle S. St. Amant, Assistant Director, Louisiana Wildlife W. Mason Lawrence, Deputy Commissioner, New York & Fisheries Commission, New Orleans, Louisiana State Conservation Department, Albany, New York Godfrey H. Savage, Professor, University of New James A. Lee, Assistant for Environmental Health to the Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire Assistant Secretary for Health and Scientific Affairs, Miner Schaefer, Former Chairman, Committee on Ocean- Department of Health, Education and' Welfare, ography, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, Washington, D.C. D.C. Gordon J. MacDonald, Chairman, Panel on Oceanography, 0. E. Sette, Laboratory Director, Bureau of Commercial President's Science Advisory Committee, Washington, Fisheries, Stanford, California D.C. Walter J. Shea, Chairman, Water Resources Coordinating Frederick C. Marland, Research Associate, University of Board, Senate Office Building, Providence, Rhode Georgia Marine Institute, Sapelo Island, Georgia Island C. S. Matthews, Director, Production Research, Shell Fred W. Sieling, Chief, Natural Resources Management, Development Company, Houston, Texas Department of Chesapeake Bay Affairs, Annapolis, Arthur Maxwell, Associate Director, Woods Hole Oceano- Maryland graphic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Rear Admiral 0. R. Smeder, Assistant Chief of Staff for William J. McNeil, Head, Pacific Fisheries Laboratory, Research and Development, U.S. Coast Guard, Oregon State University, Newport, Oregon Washington, D.C. Albert J. Meserow, Chairman, Great Lakes Commission of Arthur H. Smith, Director, Southern Maine Vocational Illinois, Chicago, Illinois Technical Institute, South Portland, Maine R. L. Miller, Professor, Marine Geophysics, University of Parke D. Snavely, Chief, Office of Marine Geology, U.S. Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California Clifford H. Mortimer, Director, Center for Great Lakes F. N. Spiess, Director, Marine Physical Laboratory, Studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, consin California Stanley R. Murphy, Assistant Director, Applied Physics Harris B. Stewart, Jr., Director, Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash- Laboratories, Environmental Science Services Admin- ington istration, Miami, Florida Gerhard Neumann, Professor, New York University, New Henry Stommel, Professor, Department of Meteorology, York, New York Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Lloyd G. Nichols, Project Engineer, University of New Massachusetts Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire E. Kemper Sullivan, Acting Chief, Office of Research and William A. Nierenberg, Director, Scripps Institution of Development, Maritime Administration, Washington, Oceanography, La Jolla, California D.C. Carl H. Oppenheimer, Chairman, Department of Ocean- Rodney B. Teel, Chemical Group Leader, International ography, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida Nickel Company, New York, New York Col. John R. Oswalt, Director, Waterways Experiment Morris Tepper, Deputy Director, Space Applications Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi Program, National Aeronautics and Space Admin- L. G. Ottoman, Director, Production Research, Shell istration, Washington, D.C. Development Company, Houston, Texas B. D. Thomas, President, Battelle Memorial Institute, James M. Parks, Director of Marine Science Center, Columbus, Ohio Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania R. Van Cleve, Dean, College of Fisheries, University of John H. Phillips, Director, Hopkins Marine Station, Washington, Seattle, Washington Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California W. S. Von Arx, Professor, Massachusetts Institute of H. W. Poston, Regional Director, Great Lakes Region, Technology, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Lionel A. Walford, Director, Bureau of Sport Fisheries Department of the Interior, Chicago, Illinois and Wildlife, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, High- Donald W. Pritchard, Director, Chesapeake Bay Institute, lands, New Jersey Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 1. Eugene Wallen, Head, Office of Oceanography and Robert A. Ragotzkie, Director, Marine Science Center, Limnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin W. C. Walton, Director, Water Resources Research Center, John S. Rankin, Jr., Director, Marine Research Labora- University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota tory, University of Connecticut, Noank, Connecticut Rear Admiral O.D. Waters, Jr., Oceanographer of the Dixy Lee Ray, Director, Pacific Science Center, Seattle, Navy, Washington, D.C. Washington 11-69 J. Wayne, Associate Director, Lamont Geological Observa- Paul Wolff, Captain, USN, Fleet Numerical Weather tory, Palisades, New York Facility, Monterey, California Edward Wenk, Jr., Executive Secretary, National Council Brig. General H. G. Woodbury, Jr., Director of Civil on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Works, Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Jerome Wiesner, Provost, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- G. P. Woollard, Director, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, nology, Cambridge, Massachusetts Hawaii Frederick C. Wilbour, Director, Division of Marine Fish- W. S. Wooster, Professor, Scripps Institution of Ocean- eries, Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources, ography, La Jolla, California Boston, Massachusetts William V. Wright, Jr., Director of Science and Adm. John M. Will, Vice President, American Export- Engineering, Environmental Science Services Admin- Isbrandtsen Lines, New York, New York istration, Washington, D.C. Donald E. Wohlschlag, Director, Marine Sciences Insti- Jacques S. Zaneveld, Director, Oceanographic Institute, tute, University of Texas, Port Aransas, Texas Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virgima 11-70 Appendix B Temperate Tuna Forecast for 1968' The statements which follow constitute the eighth consecutive annual prediction to.be issued for the summer season albacore and bluefin tuna fisheries off the Pacific Coast. The merger of the former California Current Resources Laboratory and the Tuna Resources Laboratory to form the Fishery-Oceanography Center (see August, 1967, issue of this publication) has placed the former Tuna Forecasting Program as a project within a new Fishery-Oceanography Program. Although the mandate of the new program is broader than previously, our staff has yet to realize significant gains to date in either personnel or funds because of restrictions presently affecting Federal activities. Nevertheless, advances during the past year were made in the areas of environmental monitoring and prediction; these advances were in heat budget studies, the analysis of sea temperature anomalies, and in the interpretation and application of the wealth of data made available to us through the cooperative data exchange program between the Fishery-Oceanography Center and the Naval Weather Service's Fleet Numerical Weather Central at Monterey, California. Satisfactory measurement of biological aspects of the temperate tuna populations and the effects of varying economic conditions has continued to lag far behind our progress in monitoring and understanding the environment. No meaningful progress has been made on the estimation of year-class strength, apparent fish abundance, and fishing effort for either albacore or bluefin tuna. Early subscribers to this publication should note that these 1968 forecast statements are being made about 3-4 weeks later than in previous years. The delay in issuance of our predictions arises from experience accumulated during the past 8 years, which has shown that prediction techniques once thought to be valid have not withstood the test of time satisfactorily. Our prediction techniques were based upon the expected persistence of large-scale sea surface temperature anomaly patterns; consequently, the offshore thermal trends observed in April of each year were assumed to persist at least through the following month of July. Last year, this assumption failed: the abnormally cold conditions observed in April, 1967, were the basis for our predicting a late, more southern fishery than in 1966. Subsequently, intense early-summer warming completely overtook the previous cooling trend, and by July 15, abnormally warm conditions were established in the Pacific Northwest and then persisted for the remainder of the season. The. albacore responded rapidly to these dynamic changes, producing near-record catches off Oregon and Washington while California experienced very poor fishing. This experience dictates that we substantially alter our approach for the 1968 season. One major change will be the temporary suspension of long-term quantitative landings and area forecasts. The secbnd major change will be to make heavier use of short-term projections of conditions based on current information issued in the form of outlooks and occasional bulletins. These bulletins which received highly favorable response last year, will include: changes in oceanographic and atmospheric trends; changes in location of productive fishing areas; changes in total fishing effort; and other data that are pertinent to the fishing community. As in previous years, the success of these operations necessarily depends upon the input of first-hand information from the fishermen at sea, dock operators and processors. Our staff continues to be hampered by a scarcity of timely information of this kind. ALBACORE TUNA Previous knowledge of the high correlation between catch and sea temperature, combined with an 8-year experience in observing and summarizing sea surface temperatures at 15-day intervals from April to October, provides us with the basis for depicting the shaded areas in Figure I The isotherm fields for the first and second halves of July represent our long-term averages for each interval. The shaded areas Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Interior, California Fishery Market News Monthly Summary, Part 11, Fishing Information, May 1968, pp. 1-5. 11-71 54, JULY 1-15 JULY 16-31 LONG-TERM AVERAGE LONG-TERM AVERAGE 50* 50* 56 U.S. DEPAR MENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR TI 56 Fish and Wildlife Service 58 Fiah Ind Wildlife Service Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Bureau of 0 .."tal Fisheries 0 Fishery-Oceaography Center Fihery-Ccearegraphy Center @58 58 P* 0, B- 271 P.O. Box 271 La Jolla, California 92037 La Jolla, California 92037 45' b 6 6 BLANCO MENDOCINO 40' 4 5E 6 35- PT CONCEPTION 35- PT CONCEPTION -6@ 30. 30' 68 .70 .70' 68 170 . . . 135. 130' 125- 120- 115. 135' 130' 125- 120- 115' Figurel. Average sea surface temperature fields for the July 1-15 and 16-31 intervals. Shaded zone delineates region where most of the albacore would be available under these conditions. delineate the region where, on the basis of sea temperature averages, most of the albacore would be available in July. Since the prevailing weather and sea temperature patterns may deviate considerably from these averages during the period, we expect to have to modify and update our projections as conditions indicate; these will be forwarded to the fishing community as soon as practicable. Preseason scouting activities will be minimal this year. The California Department of Fish and Game R/V N.B. Scofield is undergoing shipyard overhaul, and has been unable to embark on her usual May-June offshore scouting cruise. The loss of Scofield's valuable preseason participation has already resulted in substantial reduction of our ability to make early-season judgments based on data normally acquired during the cruise. The BCF R/V David Starr Jordan is presently at sea running the CaICOFI sardine-anchovy survey grid lines and is trolling for albacore in the nearshore region from Punta Eugenia, Baja California, northward to off Monterey Bay before returning to port on June 22. Jordan first reported taking four albacore near San Juan Seamount (330 N, 1210 W) on June 12. This catch is the first authenticated report available this season, and suggests that the fish may be arriving on the Pacific Coast feeding grounds up to 2-3 weeks earlier than in the past 3 years. IThe open ocean in the region encompassing the general migratory route of albacore (130-1500 W) has shown large-scale warming trends in late May and early June. Thus, if the warming trend continues, we expect to see an appreciable portion of the incoming migrants diverted into northern waters instead of southern California. The Guadalupe Island area and the region to the northwest may produce some early-season catches, but we expect the fishery to advance rapidly northward from San Juan Seamount to west of Davidson Seamount by the end of July. July landings in southern California should reflect a return to more normal conditions and be near the 1940-66 average of about 6,600,000 pounds (3,300 tons). Total California season landings cannot yet be estimated, but we expect that they may also fall near the 1940-66 average of 30,000,000 pounds (15,000 tons). The Oregon-Washington region is expected to receive a significant portion of the total U.S. West Coast albacore production this year, but total landings are expected to fall somewhat below 1966-67 levels. The BCF R/V Jordan's recent early-season albacore catch continues to demonstrate the value of preseason scouting cruises to determine the arrival time of the albacore tuna in Pacific Coast offshore waters. Even if successful forecasting of environmental conditions were possible, knowledge of these trends would not necessarily enable us to predict the availability of the fish in both time and space. Without having additional life history and other vital statistics from the entire North Pacific albacore population, we can make only certain conclusions which are based on other information sources. R/V David Starr Jordan is scheduled to survey the northern California-southern Oregon offshore region from July 15 to August 16. Major objectives of this cruise will include establishing the distribution and availability of albacore in offshore waters during the middle of the Pacific coast season, and to test prospects for commercial exploitation of albacore beyond the traditional limits of the fishery (about '300 miles). During the cruise, pertinent information will be radioed daily to WWD for re-broadcast as part of the daily albacore fishing information summary. The information gained from Jordan should be of prime value to fishermen and processors in updating mid-season projections this year. BLUEFIN TUNA The high-seas purse seine fleet has already begun intensified scouting in the Cape San Lazaro-Cape San Lucas, Baja California offshore region. Boats returning from the yellowfin fishing area south of Cape San Lucas have reported sighting bluefin "jumpers" in cold, green water near Cape San Lucas and northward to near Point Tosco in the past 2 weeks. In addition, one sportfishing boat recently reported taking a few 10-15 pound bluefin in the Guadalupe Island area, about 400 miles to the northwest. In recent years, bluefin fishing activity has commenced in lower Baja California by the last week of May. This year, however, the fishery is expected to develop later than usual because of significant 11-73 changes in climatological *events in that region. To date, lower Baja California has experienced a spate of strong northerly winds. The heavy weather' created by these winds has severely limited fishing activity and has caused greatly-intensified upwelling. This upwelling.has created a nearshore band of considerably colder than normal sea temperatures and green water. These events have 'combined to delay the onset of the fishery well into the month of June, and may cause the bluefin to remain farther offshore than usual. One consequence of the delay in commencement of the bluefin season will be a northward shift in the center of production and a delay in the period of maximum production. Rapid warming in the region north of Guadalupe may cause bluefin tuna to appear earlier than last year in southern California offshore waters. Meaningful estimates of total 1968 bluefin landings are not available. We have no data on which to make projections of abundance. Likewise, we are unable to forecast fishing effort which will be diverted to bluefin because of uncertainties associated with the establishment of a closure date teFniinating fishing for yellowfin tuna. June 13, 1968 Staff, Fishery-Oceanography Program 11-74 ,44, The coastal zone is the transition area between the land and the sea. Its resources and use must be carefully developed for the benefit of pres- ent and future generations. (Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife photo) Part I I I Report of the Panel on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone 7We Nation behaves well if it treats the natural resources as assets which it must turn over to the next generation increased and not impaired in value. Conservation means development as much as it does protection. Theodore Roosevelt Contents Preface . . . . . . . 111-1 II. Shoreline Damage by Storms 111-34 III. Dredging and Filling . . . . . 111-36 Summary of Findings and IV. Loss of Wildlife and Nutrient- Recommendations . . . . 111-2 Rich Areas .. . . . . . 111-37 V. Modification and Diversion of 1. The Need for Planning and Flow . . . . . . . ... 111-39 Management III-2 VI. Eutrophication . . . . . . 111-42 II. The Need for Research and A. Municipal Wastewater . . . 111-44 Training . . . . . . .. . 111-3 B. Sedimentation . . ... . 111-44 Ill. The Need for Federal Surveys C. Agricultural Runoff . . . . 1I1-44 and Projects . . . 111-3 VIL Proliferation of Pests and Other IV. The Need for a Systematic Ap- Species . . . . . . . . 111-45 proach to Waste Management. 111-4 A. Jellyfish . . . . . . . . 111-45 V, The Need for Immediate Action . 111-5 B. Alewives (Pomolobus pseudoharengus) 111-46 Chapter 1 The Coastal Zone 111-7 C. Eurasian Milfoil (Myriophyllum Spicatum) . . . . .. . 111-47 Definition 111-7 D. Water Hyacinths (Eichornia II. The Shorelie crassipes) .. . . . . . 111-47 111. The continental Shelf 111-7 IV. Estuaries 111-8 Chapter 4 The Pollution Menace . . . I1-49 V. Jurisdictions 111-9 V1. The Great Lakes . . . . 111-10 1. Background for Crisis 111-49 VIl. Socioeconomic Trends 111-10 11. Types of Pollutants 111-50 Ill. Pollution Pressures 111-51 Chapter 2 Uses and Conflicts in the IV. Federal Acts, Orders, and Coastal Zone 111-12 Agreements 111-53 A Unclear Authority 111-55 Urban and Commercial B. Insufficient Authority III-56 -57 Development 111-12 V. Priorities in Waste Management III 11. Industrial Development 111-13 Vl. Cost of Waste Treatment . . . 111-59 III. Housing Development 111-15 VII. Future Trends . ... . . . . 111-60 1V. Recreation -Beaches and Parks 111-15 Recreation-Boating 111-17 Chapter 5 Port Development and Rede- V. Sport Fishing and Hunting 111-19 velopment: A Problem and VI. Commercial Fishing . . . . . 111-20 an Opportunity 111-61 V11. Aquaculture . . . . 111-22 VIII. Marine Petroleum Exploitation 111-23 1. Background of Federal Policy 111-61 IX. Marine-Mining . . .. . . . 111-24 11. Physical Obstacles to Harbor X1. Nvigtion and Spatial Deepening . . . . . . . 111-64 Conflicts . . . 111-25 Ill. Commodity Movements 111-64 IV. Trends in Vessel Size and Chapter 3 Problems of Natural and Man- Implications 111-65 Made Changes in the A. Petroleum Vessels 111-65 Environment 111-29 B. Dry Bulk C arriers . . . . 111-66 C. Vessel Size Projections 111-66 1. Shoreline Erosion . . . . . III-29 V. Transport Cost Implications 1II-66 A. Tankers . . . . . . . . 111-66 X_ Office of Water Resources Re- B. Containers . . . . . . . 111-68 search (OWRR) . . . . . 111-89 V1. Implications for Harbors and X1. Environmental Science Services Terminals . . . . . . . HI-68 Administration (ESSA) 111-90 A. Harbor and Channel XII. Maritime Administration Dimensions . . . . . 111-68 (MARAD) . . . . . . . 111-92 B. Landside-Tern-drial )(111. Economic Development Admin- Requirements . . . . . 111-69 istration (EDA) . . . . . 111-93 C. Dislocations and Major XIV. U.S. Coast Guard . . . . . . 111-93 Relocations . . . . . 111-69 A. Search and Rescue . . . . 111-94 D. Changing Construction B. Aids to Navigation . . . . 111-94 Conditions . . . . . . IH-69 C. Law Enforcement . . . . 111-94 E. Spoil Disposal . . . . . . 111-70 D. Port Security .. . . . . . 111-9S F. Additional Factors in Port E. Recreational Boating . . . 111-95 Improvements . . . . . 111-70 F. Icebreaking . . . . . . 111-95 Vil. Economic Issues and Impacts . . 111-72 XV. St. Lawrence Seaway Develop- VIII. An Outline for Progress . . . 111-72 ment Corporation . . . . 111-95 XVI. Department of Health, Education Chapter 6 The Role of Basic Research 111-74 and Welfare (HEW) . . . . 111-96 XVII. Department of State . . . . 111-96 1. The Needs . . . . . . . . 111-74 XVIII. Corps of Engineers . . . . . 111-97 U. Waste Treatment . . . . . . 111-75 A. Navigation Projects . . . . 111-98 III. The Effects of Pollution on B. Beach Erosion . . . . .. . HI-98 Living Organisms . . . . . IB-75 C. Hurricane Protection . . . 111-98 IV. Estuarine Dynamics 111-76 D. Lake Survey . . . . . . 111-99 XIX Navy . . . . . . . . . . 111-100 V. The Monitoring Problem . . . 111-77 V1. The Need for Base Line Studies 111-77 XX Smithsonian Institution 111-102 XXI. National Science Foundation VII. Coastal Engineering Research . 11178 (NSF) . . . . . . . 111-102 XXH. Water Resources Council, . . .111-104 Chapter 7 Activities of the Federal XXIII. Atomic Energy Commission Agencies and States . . . . HI-81 (AEC) . . . . . . . . 111-104 XXIV. Federal Power Commission 1. Bureau of Commercial (FPQ . . . . . . . . 111-105 Fisheries (BCF) . . . . . 111-81 XXV. State Activity . . . . . . . 111-IOS A. Mapping Resources of the U.S. Continental Shelf . . . 111-82 Chapter 8 Developing Law in the B. Aquaculture . . . . . . 111-82 Coastal Zone . . . . . . IH-107 C. Estuarine Research and Management . . . . . 111-84 1. Boundaries and Ownership 111-108 Il. Federal Water Pollution Control . A. Coastal Boundaries . . . . 111-108 Administration (FWPCA) . . 111-84 B. Tidelands Ownership . . . 111-109 in. Geological Survey . . . . . IH-84 C. Limits of the Public Trust in IV. National Park Service . . . . Tidelands . . . . . . 111-112 V. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and D. Limitations on Tideland Wildlife . . . . . . . . 111-86 Disposal . . . . . . . 111-113 V1. Bureau of Land Management . . 111-88 E. The Federal Navigation Vil. Bureau of Mines . . . . . . 111-88 Power 111-114 VIII. Office of Saline Water (OSW) . . JU-88 F. Submerged Lands . . . . 111-115 Ix. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation L. The Submerged Lands (BOR) . . . . . . . . IH-89 Act . . . . . . . 111-116 2. The Outer Continental - V. The Need for a Systematic Ap- --proach to-WasteManage ment,,. 111-146, 3. The. Second Louisiana Case Chapter 10 A National Program for the .4. Convention on'the Terri- Management and Development torial Sea and the Con - of Coastal Waters and Lands . lll@ 148 tiguousZone' 111-118 5. The Second Calif6r -148 1. National Interests . . . . . Case 111-119 11. Proposed Legislation . . . . 111-149 .1Q.Pending and Prospective. Ill, The Federal Role . . . . . . 111-150 Problems 111-120 IV. Possible State Management H. Regulatory Authority 111-121 Systems . . . . IH-150 A. Land Acquisition and Open,. V. Coastal Zone Authority . . . 111-151 Space Preservation 111-122 -152 Land-Use Regulations 111-123 A. Planning . . . . . . . B. Public Regulation . . . . 111-152 1. Flood Plain Zoning 111-126 C. Zoning . . . . . . . . 111-152 2. Administrative Permi'ts`,.'- HI-126 D. Regulation by Permit . . . I'll-I 52 -126 3. Legislative Perrnits III E. Acquisition . . . . . . 111-153 4. Techniques Combining-, F. Research 111-153 Regulation and Purchase .111-126 V1. Federal Funding . . . . . . 111-154 :5. State-Wide Land-Use Zoning A. Planning 111-154 or Regulations IR-127 B. Operations 111-154 C. Establishment of Bulkhead C. Enforcement . . . . . .. 111-154 Lines 111-127, D. Research and Training HI-I 55 Protection Laws HI-127 E. Acquisition and E. Regulation of Wharves, Piers, and Other Structures. 111-128 Development . . . . . 111-155 VII. Federal Review . . . . . . HI-155 F.-.*Dredgingand Filling. HI-130 VIII. Management in Interstate .,,@.G.-Surnmary . . . Hi-131 -156 Estuaries III Ix. Management of the Outer Chapter,9 What NeedsToBe Done 111-133 Continental Shelf 111-156 I. .,:'The Need for Immediate Action 111-133 A.. Use of Existing, Authority .111-134 Appendix A Work of the Panel . . . 111-158 Action on Existing Recommendati 4ofts . . . 111-135 Appendix B Recreational Boating 11. Need for Federal Surveys Data . . . . . . . . 111-164 Projects . . . . . . 111-139 A Comprehensive National Appendix C Port and Harbor Data., Inventory and Survey HI-140 Major Obstacles to B,-.`A National Shoreline Erosion Harbor Deepening 111-166 ,Survey. c."National Port Requirements Appendix 0 Summary of State Activities in Coastal Management . . 111-170 Survey . . . . . . .. 111-142 :-D...Great Lake's Restoration Project 111-143 Appendix E Funding Implications .111-178 111. -The Need for Research and Training . . . . . . . . 111-143 Appendix F Sample Suggested Federal IV. @,Tfie Need for Planning and Legislation for Coastal Management. 111-145 ZoneManagement AII-183 Preface This Panel Report deals with environmental The pa nel also was aided greatly by many problems, management, and development of the reports and documents generously provided by coastal zone. The decision that the coastal zone agencies, institutions and associations too numer- should involve a separate report was based on the ous to list. Reports and references upon which public attention and concern recently focused on much of our studies have been based are cited this environment and the awareness that our throughout the text. coastal waters are a vital National resource being We are indebted particularly to consultants and subjected to the growing pressures and conflicts of reviewers whose time and efforts have contributed a burgeoning modern economic and industrial significantly to this report. They, along with the society. staff membership, are listed in Appendix A. . Therefore, we have compiled a report ex- The report contains 10 chapters and several amining in detail the many uses of the coastal appendices of related data and tabular material. zone, the roles played by the participants, and Chapter I defines the scope and importance of the both the natural and man-made problems of this coastal zone. environment. Chapters 2 and 3 detail uses of the coastal zone A large part of the fact finding and study was and subsequent results. Chapters 4 through 6 done in close concert with the Panel on Basic emphasize pollution, transportation, and Science. 'We found from the outset that the research.' A review of the activity of Federal problems of the nearshore environment are ines- agencies is given in Chapter 7, along with a capably related to the fundamental sciences under- summary of State activity. Chapter 8 discusses the lying them. complex arrangement of laws of the coastal zone. Information was gathered by the panel in Chapter 9 presents the panel's basic assessment several ways, chiefly through informal hearings of what should be done. Obviously it was not held in various parts of the Nation. A total of 126 possible to include every recommendation or persons testified, representing the Federal Govern- requirement considered and even discussed in ment, coastal States, research institutions, and earlier chapters. industry. Appendix A lists the schedule of hearings Finally, in Chapter 10 we propose a National and those persons appearing, to which the panel is program for a State-Federal partnership in the highly indebted. management and development of the coastal zone. In a further effort to solicit the views of experts on the nearshore environment, over 600 individ- uals were corresponded with or interviewed. Their John A. Knauss, Chairman response contributed greatly to the panel's work Frank C. DiLuzio and are gratefully acknowledged by the listing in Leon Jaworski Appendix A. Robert M. White 'Such important coastal zone roles as recreation, fishing, petroleum, and mining are the principal subjects of other Panel Reports. 333-093 0 - 69 - 11 Summary of Findings and Recommendations The coastland of the United States is, in many ities are often without real power. Under such respects, this Nation's most important and valu- circumstances it is particularly difficult for plans able geographic feature. It is at the juncture of the to be designed, made authoritative, and enforced. land and sea where industrial development is Viable mechanisms to manage these areas must be heaviest and the greater portion of our trade takes established both at the Federal and State levels. In place. The shoreline is the most popular locale for general, State leadership is to be favored. Each residence and recreation. The waters off the shore coastal State should develop a strong organization are among the biologically most productive regions which can deal with the powerful and often of the Nation. The uses of valuable coastal areas conflicting local interests and with the many generate issues of intense local interest. Yet the Federal agencies with interests in the coastal zone. effectiveness with which we use and protect the resources of the coastal zone is also a matter of Recommendations: National importance. Economic development, rec- reation, and conservation interests are shared by 1. Federal legislation should establish State Coastal the Nation and the States. Zone Authorities whose functions shall include In view of the many important uses served by planning, regulation, (including zoning where nec- these waters and the growing pressures on them, essary), funding, acquisition, development, and intelligent management of this vital National re- enforcement. source is imperative. It will require application of many kinds of tools and techniques, ranging from 2. The Coastal Zone Authority should- be a State fundamental research to regulatory changes and agency. The form of the agency may be left to the public education. A National policy for the man- discretion of the States, but its guidelines must agement of our coastal environment is urgently meet Federal standards and approval to be eligible needed. for Federal assistance. This panel's recommendations are summarized under five categories: 3. The Federal role should be to establish stand- ards based on National surveys; to provide tech- -The Need for Planning and Management nical assistance; to provide matching Federal grants for coastal land acquisition, research, devel- -The Need for Research and Training opment, and enforcement; to assist State acquisi- -The Need for Federal Surveys and Projects tion and development through bond guarantees; and to review Federally financed State programs -The Need for a Systematic Approach to Waste for standards of performance. Further, Federal Management funding should be initiated to provide annual assistance to State Coastal Zone Authorities in the -The Need for Immediate Action following amounts: $2.5 million for planning and operation, $2 million for enforcement, and $25 1. THE NEED FOR PLANNING AND MANAGE- million for coastlands acquisition. MENT 4. Interstate problems should be solved by the Man's past actions affecting estuaries and shore- appropriate State Coastal Zone Authorities acting fines have been poorly and incompletely planned, through interstate and regional commissions and often unimaginative and frequently destructive- compacts. The Federal Government should act as a Present priorities in uses of the coastal zone often mediating and review authority in interstate mat- do not reflect the best interests of the public. ters. Many State and Federal agencies have overlapping and fragmented authority. The limit of State and 5. Marine sanctuaries or preserves should be estab- local responsibility is often obscure; the author- lished to protect and manage endangered areas 111-2 identified by National and State surveys and for governments can base their management proce- ecological base-line studies. In general, State dures. jurisdiction of any proposed sanctuary is favored. However, specific ram environments are a special 2. The National Sea Grant College and Program National resource which may need to be protected Act of 1966 provides a suitable mechanism for and managed by the Federal Government, and the supporting the work of the coastal zone tabora- Department of the Interior should continue to tories here envisioned. Accordingly, Sea Grant acquire and manage such areas. funding for coastal zone research should be in- creased over the next 10 years to provide, in 6. Management and development of the shoreline addition to other Sea Grant programs, institutional and Continental Shelf requires that State and support for 30 coastal laboratories at an annual shoreline boundaries be precisely determined rate of about one-half million dollars each. based on geographical coordinates. This should be accomplished by a Seashore Boundary Commis- 3. In addition to institutional support for coastal sion working in conjunction with the U.S. Coast zone laboratories, Sea Grant funding should be and Geodetic Survey, other affected Federal agen- further increased to provide support for research cies, and the coastal State. Authority of such a problems and manpower training related to the commission. should include making proposals for coastal zone at an annual level of about $12 clarifying whether artificial structures should af- million. fect offshore boundaries; the impact of natural and artificial coastline changes caused by erosion, 4. Two marine.preserves should be established on accretion, storms, and other processes; and how each coast reserved for ecological base-line studies. best to resolve conflicts that will arise. These areas should be identified by the National inventory and studies now being conducted by the 11. THE NEED FOR RESEARCH AND TRAINING Department of the Interior. They should be managed by the Federal Government. Effective management and development of our coastal waters, lands, and resources require that 111. THE NEED FOR FEDERAL SURVEYS AND man understand and predict the consequences of PROJECTS his actions. Although our understanding has in- creased markedly in the past 20 years, it is far Sound management and development of the from complete. The problems of the coastal zone coastal zone will require the benefits which large are diverse and require the talents of economists, Federal surveys and projects are able to provide. sociologists, engineers, ecologists, and community These do not, however, replace the more detailed planners. Although the problems are similar from continuing studies at a regional or State level one part of the country to another, each estuary is which can focus on individual problems. The different and requires study peculiar to its individ- Federal Government often must take the initiative ual characteristics. Moreover, manpower must be in projects to demonstrate the feasibility of or to trained to conduct and apply research in both develop the technology. While comprehensive management and development. The Sea Grant recommendations of all surveys of importance to concept appears well designed to meet these needs. the coastal zone are not possible, we have singled out several of special significance. Recommendations: 1. A coastal zone research institution devoted to Recommendations: basic and applied marine science should be located 1. There should be a comprehensive inventory of in every coastal State and affiliated with one or estuaries, coastal waters, and the Great Lakes. The more academic institutions. These research labora- survey should consider all phases of use, devel- tories need not be large but should have adequate opment, and preservation of the coastal zone. facilities and staff to maintain a stable program. Balanced consideration should be given to poten- These groups'can provide many of the studies and tial for commercial, industrial, recreational, and information upon which Federal, State, and local urban development. The Department of the Inte- 111-3 rior presently is conducting two similar studies by important problem. It is the one problem in which different agencies of that Department. These there is the greatest public awareness, and it is one studies should supplement one another to achieve problem about which there is the most action at the foregoing goals and the broad purposes of their all levels of government. It is evident that the legislation. people of this Nation are upset about pollution 2. A National,Port Survey should be conducted by and they aim to do something about it. The problems of pollution, however, are more than the Department of Transportation in cooperation marine problems. V&fle manifestly acute in our with the Departments of Army, Commerce, and estuaries, Great Lakes, and nearshore waters, the Housing and Urban Development to define,th.e problem is a total National one wherein water, Nation's requirements in terms of major ports, land, and air pollution should be treated together offshore terminals, and other facilities for mari- and at the sources which often lie far from the time commerce. On the basis of this National Port coastal zone. Survey, a rational scheme for port and harbor development can be established against which the Recommendations: real needs of this country can be measured. 1. Municipal sewage is one of the greatest sources 3. The National Port Survey should examine of pollutants in estuaries. Only through modem, closely the Federal-local cost sharing relationships efficient sewage treatment plants can this be to determine whether the local government should abated. Federal funding has been proposed and be a stronger participant in the development of its authorized by Congress but the money is not being port facilities. appropriated as authorized. As a matter of Na- 4. Much of our Nation's shorelines are eroding, tional urgency, Federal funds for assistance in and are inadequately protected. The causes are waste treatment works should proceed without both natural and man made. There is required a delay at full authorized levels. thorough survey of our beach resources and the 2. The advent of secondary and tertiary treatment practices which endanger them. The Corps Of in sewage disposal plants requires greater profi- Engineers has been authorized to conduct such a ciency of operator capability. Present problems are study. Funding is required. Such a study should often traced to careless and inexperienced opera- include a review of Federal-local funding arrange- tion. State health agencies should aid in training of ments and set standards for shoreline protection and require certification for operators of waste and regulation. treatment plants. 5. The water quality problems and the effects of 3. Although the oceans' capacity to assimilate eutrophication are becoming increasingly apparent wastes is immense, it must not be considered the in the Great Lakes and especially Lake Erie. ultimate solution. The full effects of dumping Urgent and immediate action ranging from pollu- wastes at sea or the use of ocean outfalls for tio.n. abatement to lake restoration is required. disposal must be better understood. The Corps of Abatement is under way under the leadership of Engineers, which regulates dumping at sea; State the Department of the Interior and local authori- health agencies; and the Federal Water Pollution ties. Restoration is not. Experimental programs in Control Administration should take immediate lake restoration should be explored and a project steps to study these effects and institute adequate undertaken leading to an attempt to restore Lake controls. Erie. 4. The Secretary of the Interior should prepare IV. THE NEED FOR A SYSTEMATIC AP- biennial reports of the pollution level of each of the Nation's estuaries and tell how it relates to the PROACH TO WASTE MANAGEMENT progress the various States are making in their The coastal zone is the ultimate sink for many pollution abatement programs under the Water of our waste products. The capacity to receive Quality Act of 1965. these wastes is being exceeded. In many of the 5. In final analysis, pollution of coastal waters is coastal zone areas pollution is the single most only one part of a National waste management 111-4 problem involving the interlocking effects of air, 3. The Oil Pollution Acts of 1924 and '1961 land, and water and complex economic and social should be amended to resolve jurisdictional con- issues. Burning wastes instead of dumping them in trol and to provide for equipment certification and streams alleviates the water pollution problem but liability of polluters. Pending such amendments, may create an air pollution problem. The fanner present laws should be enforced to the fullest. This who sprays his field with pesticide is not respon- responsibility is shared by the Federal Water sible for this material when it drains into the Pollution Control Administration, the Coast estuary, and he has little economic incentive to Guard, and the Army Corps of Engineers. search for alternative methods of insect control. A total integrated approach to waste management is 4. Executive Order 11288 directs that Federal necessary, and there should be established a agencies comply with water quality goals in the National Commission to study and deal with the construction and operation of Federal facilities total waste management problem. and in awarding Federal grants and contracts. Action to meet this directive must be increased. V. THE NEED FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION Agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission Our knowledge of the coastal area is incomplete should apply this directive in its licensing pro- and will remain so for some time. It will probably cedures. Enabling legislation should be enacted if take a number of years before an adequate necessary. management system is developed and translated 5. The amount of shoreline available for public into legislation. In the meantime, pressures of use should be doubled over the next 10 years. development and competition will accelerate- Priority should be given to near metropolitan areas Although new legislation is required in some areas, where public areas are most urgently needed. More there are laws which, although perhaps in need of imaginative attempts are required to integrate amendindnt, still can be used effectively if en- recreational projects with other uses of the coastal forced promptly and vigorously. In addition, zone such as conservation and industrial uses. recommendations of other groups which, have 6. Non-uniform and often conflicting State boat- studied these problems should be adopted. Ur- in laws confuse a burgeoning recreational boating gency is the keynote. 9 public. Model State boating laws have been pro- Recommendations: posed through the National Association of State Boating Law Administrators. These laws should be 1. The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, adminis- adopted by the States. tered by the Corps of Engineers, is the major 7. A review of boating accidents shows that Federal control over development of the coastal . zone. The basis for Corps permits under this Act is increased public education and enforcement of the effect of the proposed development on naviga- boating laws, and not further regulatory licensing, tion. This Act should be amended to empower the is the more effective path to recreational boating Army Corps of Engineers to deny a permit in safety. The Coast Guard and State agencies should order to preserve important recreation, conser- increase their efforts in that direction. vation, and aesthetic values or to combat pollu- 8. Improved mapping, charting, and navigation tion. systems are essential to the safety and separation 2. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act has of activities competing for use of the coastal zone. resulted in the establishment of water quality They are also necessary for the orderly research standards which become both State and Federal and development of resources. The Coast Guard law. This is a major step forward in controlling should take the lead in developing and installing a pollution in our coastal waters. State agencies precise electronic navigational system with an must develop and implement enforcement capabil- accuracy in the order of � 50 feet up to 200 miles ities. The Federal Government should assist and from shore. back up State enforcement capability through 9. The increasing number of offshore structures funding assistance and the development of moni- and the growing size and hazardous nature of toring technology. ships' cargoes necessitate ship traffic control pro- cedures. The use of methods such as sea lanes and be accomplished by amending the Submerged fairways should be extended to all congested areas. Lands Act and Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. Authority for regulation and enforcement "should be vested in the Coast Guard. 11. Conflicting and often obsolete State fisheries laws aggravate a rational balance of use which is 10. The Federal jurisdiction on the Continental detrimental to industry, wise conservation, and Shelf should include the regulation of all fixed other uses of the coastal zone. A legal framework structures both surface and subsurface, including relating to the coastal fisheries should be estab- pipelines, wrecks, and lost or abandoned property. lished through the medium of regional fisheries This jurisdiction should include considerations of commissions which are sufficiently species ori- navigation, safety, resources development, conser- ented, non-discriminatory, and rooted in scientific vation, and pollution. These recommendations can knowledge. Uniform State laws should result. 111-6 Chapter I The Coastal Zone 1. DEFINITION Table 1 LENGTH OF COASTLINE OF THE UNITED The coastal zone is a region of transition STATES, BY COASTAL REACH between two environments, the lAnd and the sea. (Statute miles) The coastal zone has been defined as that part of 1 2 Tidal3 the land affected by its proximity to the sea and General Tidal that part of the ocean affected by its proximity to Coastal Reach Coastline Shoreline Shoreline the land. In addition to the shoreline, the coastal Detailed zone includes the inshore part of the Continental Atlantic Coast 2,069 6,370 28,673 Shelf seaward and the estuaries landward. It also New England (473) (1,395) (6,130) Middle Atlantic (285) (947) (4,112) includes the Great Lakes. The Marine Resources Chesapeake (143) (1,019) (6,505) and Engineering Development Act of 1966' de- South Atlantic (1,168) (3,009) (11,926) fined the area as: Gulf Coast 1,631 4,097 17,141 Pacific Coast 7,933 17,542 41,767 (a) the oceans, (b) the Continental Shelf of the Hawaii 750 900 1,052 U.S. Territories United States, (e) the Great Lakes, (d) seabed and & Possessions 729 820 1,487 subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent to the Total U.S. coasts of the United States to the depth of two Seacoast 13,112 29,729 90,120 hundred meters, or beyond that limit, to where Great Lakes 4,678 - 10,980 the depths of the supetiacent waters admit of the Exterior and Interior Coast- exploitation of the natural resources of such areas, lines 17,790 33,262 101,100 (e) the seabed and subsoil of similar submarine rce: Information for this table was prepared in part areas adjacent to the coasts of islands Which by Surveys and Research Corp., 1967, for the National comprise United States territory, and (f) the Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop- ment, based on data from Department of Commerce, resources thereof Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Department of Defense, Corps of Engineers (for Great Lakes information). For more detailed data by States, see Tables 1 and 2, For this report the coastal zone is taken as the Chapter 2. immediate shoreline, the Continental Shelf, eStU- 'Measurements were made with a unit of 30 minutes lati- aries, and the Great Lakes. tude. The corresponding mileage varies slightly, but at the latitude of San Francisco, 30" is about 34.5 miles. Shoreline of bays and sounds is included to where such waters narrow to the width of the unit measure, and the IL THE SHORELINE distance across at such point is included. As above, except that a unit measure of three statute The immediate shoreline is the most visible part 3miles was used. of the coastal zone-and the most turbulent. As above, except that a unit measure of 100 feet was Shown by Table 1, the total coastline of the used. United States may be represented as 17 or 101 Ill. THE CONTINENTAL SHELF thousand miles in length depending on the defini- tion of detail. The Continental Shelf generally has been recog- Within the U.S. coastline ranging from the nized as the waters and seabed extending seaward Alaska Arctic to Florida Tropic can be found from the coastline to about 100 fathoms (600 virtually all the classic coastal landforMS .2 feet), where the sea floor commences a steep slope to the ocean depths. The shelf s width is approxi- mately 50 miles but varies considerably depend- P.L. 89-454, 33 U.S.C. 1107. ing on geornorphology. The shelf has been given 2A presentation of coastal landforms is contained in new importance in recent years by the ratification Natural Coastal Environments of the World, W. C. Putnam of the International Convention of the Continental et al., Office of Naval Research Contract, 1960 , (Nonr- 233(06), NR 388.013). Shelf in 1958. Here the shelf was defined.as: 111-7 The seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas definition may include bays, sounds, inlets, fjords, adjacent to the coast but outside the area of the and lagoons. Estuaries have been variously defined territorial sea, to a depth of 200 meters (657feet) and classified by geomorphology, circulation, sali- or, beyond that limit, to where the depth of the nity, origin, biology, and politiCS.3 superadjacent waters admits of the exploitation of The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 4 the natural resources of the said areas; to the established the following definition: seabed and subsoil of similar submarine areas For the purpose of this subsection, the term adjacent to the coasts of islands. 'estuarine zones' means an environmental system The United States, under the terms of this consisting of an estuary and those transitional convention, acquired the right to exploit shelf areas which are consistently influenced or affected resources extending over an area of 850,000 by water from an estuary such as, but not limited square miles, roughly equivalent to the . 1803 to, salt marshes, coastal and intertidal areas, bays, Louisiana Purchase. harbors, lagoons, inshore waters, and channels, and The area of the U.S. Continental Shelf is shown the term 'estua?y'means all or part of the mouth in Table 2. of a navigable or interstate river or stream or other body of water having unimpaired natural connec- IV. ESTUARIES tion with open sea and within which the sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived The Coastal Zone's third major domain, the ftom land drainage. estuaries, comprizes the landward boundary of the It is the estuaries which experience the greatest land-sea transition zone. Historically the term impact of man's effect on the coastal zone. "estuary" has been applied to the lower tidal Consequently, most current attention being direc- reaches of a river. The broader contemporary ted at the coastal zone is focused on the Nation's estuaries and the Great Lakes. Table 3 shows the Table 2 areas of U.S. estuarine waters by region. AREA OF THE UNITED STATES CONTINEN- TAL SHELF BY COASTAL REGION$ Tabl e 3 (Thousands of square statute miles) ESTUARINE AREAS Area measured from coastline Area .bounded by Region (Square Miles) 3 100 1,000 New England . . . . . . 3,149 Nautical Fathom Fathom Mile Band Contour Contour Middle Atlantic . . . . . 6,719 Atlantic Chesapeake . . . . . . 1,688 Coast ... 6 140 240 South Atlantic . . . . . 14,359 Gulf Gulf of Mexico . . . . . 3,837 Coast ... 5 135 210 Pacific . . . . . . . . 19,680 Pacif ic Great Lakes . . . . . . 60,306 Coast ... 4 25 60 Alaska Total estuarine . . . 109,838 coast ... 20 550 755 Source: Figures based on Coast and Geodetic Survey. Hawaii . . 2 10 30 Based on "low water line mapping," they may not in- Puerto Rico clude marshlands and certain "inland waters." For a complete discussion of these and other statistics, refer to and Virgin Shore and Sea Boundaries, A. L. Shalowitz, U.S.C.&G.S. Islands ... 2 2 7 Publication 10-1, 1964. Total .... 39 862 1,302 Source: Information for this table was prepared in part 3A discussion of the definition and terminology is by Surveys and Research Corp., 1967, for the National contained in Estuaries, Publication No. 83 of the Ameri- Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop- can Association for the Advancement of Science, 1967, ment, based on data from Department of Commerce, particularly Section 1: papers by D. W. Pritchard, Hubert Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Department of Defense, Caspers, and K. 0. Emery. Corps of Engineers (for Great Lakes information). For 4 more detailed data by States, see Tables 1 and 2, 70 Stat. 499, 33 U.S.C. 466c. This Act directs that a Chapter 2. National Estuarine Study be conducted. See Chapter 9. 111-8 C-DA CANADA U.S. C-INENTM. SHELF -NTI. CO-T 14a.MSCIUARE MILES - I U.S. CONTINENTAL SHELF U.S. C@TINENTAL SHELF GULF COAST PACIFIC COAST x1co 1WI-SQUAREMILES 25,000 SQUARE MILES Figure 1. V. JURISDICTIONS Within the limits of the coastal zone are five jurisdictional belts. Bays, estuaries, and other semi-enclosed areas are classed as internal waters. Over these, individual States have jurisdiction; in some cases the States have transferred this jurisdic- tion to counties or municipalities. Seaward of the internal waters, and of the low-water line along uninterrupted coasts, is the territorial sea, extend- ing to three miles from shore. Here again, indi- MEXICO vidual States have ownership over the waters, the Figure 2. seabed, and the subsoil.5 Between three and isobath (657 feet), although nations may claim twelve miles from the shore is the contiguous zone jurisdiction beyond this limit if they are capable of in which the Federal Government may act to exploiting the resources of the seabed and subsoil. prevent the infringement of certain laws, particu- To date, the U.S. Government has not officially larly those relating to customs, immigration, and claimed control beyond the 200-meter line. sanitation. Within this zone, also, the United States exercises exclusive fisheries rights; foreign vessels are enjoined from fishing in this area unless by special agreement. Except for these provisions, U.S. CONTINENTAL SHELF the contiguous zone, together with the waters ALAS@ C@A which lie seaward of it, has the status of the high -,0XISQUAREM1UES seas, accessible to all nations. The seabed and subsoil beyond territorial limits T are known as the "Outer Continental Shelf" and are under the jurisdiction of the Federal Govern- ment. The shelf extends out to the 200-meter a Both Texas and Florida, along their Gulf coasts, have IF13@,,@.@00@@3@ State boundaries extending out to nine nautical miles from shore on the basis of "historic rights." The breadth of the territorial sea off Louisiana is being reviewed in the E courts. Figure 3. 111-9 VI. THE GREAT LAKES Irish Sea. Because of their size, they frequently are The Great Lakes are included within the scope referred to as inland seas, laboratory sized oceans, and the mid-continental coastal area. of this report under the provisions of the Marine The maximum lengths of the Lakes range from Resources and Development Act of 1966. 350 miles (Superior) to 193 miles (Ontario); Within the boundary of the States of the maximum breadths range from 183 miles (Huron) United States and the provinces of Canada which to 53 miles (Ontario); maximum depths range adjoin the Great Lakes is an area with a population from 1,333 feet (Superior) to 210 feet (Erie); and of 55 million. It is the source of almost 80 per the mean depths range from 487 feet (Superior) to cent of the steel, 40 per cent of the agricultural 58 feet (Erie). produce, and the greater part of the equipment The Great Lakes are subject to essentially the and products of heavy industry made in the same physical, chemical, biological, meteoro- United States and Canada. Much of the growth logical, and geological regimes as the oceans, but, and potential of this region is based on the vast in addition, possess definite boundaries and each Great Lakes waterways which, until 1959, had no generally has a single weather system over it at a link to the ocean for the passage of deep-draft . . vessels. given time. Furthermore, the Great Lakes drainage basin is a discrete physiographic unit, within which When the. St. Lawrence Seaway was officially exist integrated social, political and economic opened on June 26, 1959, making the Great Lakes regimes directly dependent upon the Lakes. accessible to such vessels, a fourth U.S. seacoast was created that added even more potential to,the VII. SOCIOECONOMIC TRENDS heartland area of this country and also of Canada. The Lakes contain the largest mass of fresh Seventy-five per cent of our population now water on the earth's surface, and represent approx- lives in States bordering the ocean and the Great imately 40 per cent of the surface waters of the Lakes. This population is growing at a faster rate continental United States. Furthermore, their than the total U.S. population. There is developing combined area of 95,170 square miles is about the a nearly continuous urban concentration along the same as that for each of the following seas: Persian Atlantic Ocean from Boston to Norfolk. The same Gulf, English Channel, Gulf of California, and the phenomenon is appearing along the California INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY - - - - MINNESOTA DULUTH S@ CANADA MARQUETTE ST. MARYS RIVER AND SOO LOCKS ,MICHIGAN STRAITS OF MACKINAC "1, SAULT STE. MARI WISCONSIN ATLANTIC OCEAN 1000 MILES MONLTREAL V 4: Av MICHIGAN MILWAUKEE MUSKEGON CITY 8 ST. LAKE ST. CAIR RI ER WELLA CAN L NIAGAZA RIVER BUFFALO CHICAGO DETROIT DETROIT RIVER NEW YORK ILLINOIS INDIANA TOLEDO I OHIO CLEVELAND PENNSYLVANIA Figure 4. The Great Lakes-America's fourth seacoast. III-10 600.4 SOO LOCKS 578.8 570.4 WELLAND CANAL HLORCON 'EFUE- 244.6 ST. LAWRENCE SEAWAY M 20.0 ATLANTIC SEA LEVEL ON OCEAN (LONG TERM AVERAGE LEVELS) Figure 5. Profile of the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence Seaway. coastline and in the central Gulf Coast, as well as industries as well as a major factor in considering along Lake Michigan and Lake Erie. uses of the coastal zone. Although we do not yet Before the new concentration of people living know the full extent of offshore petroleum re- year round in our coastal cities, the seashore was a serves, they appear to be vast. Also not yet fully favorite site for seasonal recreation. Currently, assessed is the potential for producing other water-based recreation is one of the fastest resources from the little-known geologic structures growing activities, and shows no sign of leveling of our Continental Shelf. off. Greater leisure, easier access to water, im- The living resources of the sea are a valuable provements in such facilities as small craft harbors part of our domestic food supply and loom now as and marinas all are contributing to this trend. one important part of a program to feed the The coastal zone is also the site of increasingly world's population, critically short of protein. A important economic activity. Traditionally, the large portion of U.S. shellfish, salmon, and other coastal zone has been the staging area for transfer marine food resources is dependent on the coastal of goods to maritime transportation. Storage zone habitat for part of its life cycle. functions near ports, and shipbuilding and vessel In view of these factors, the Nation has an services were located in the coastal zone very early important stake in the coastal zone and with this in our history. Industries utilizing water transpor- in mind the panel established its goal: tation have located in the coastal zone, and on navigable rivers, in response to the competitive economics of location. To achieve a quality of environment which 411 Within the last 20 years the offshore produc- ensure enjoyment, economic development and tion of oil, gas and sulfur have become major sensible utilization of our resources. "UPCON 'E@FUE MI L A@ EV@E Chapter 2 Uses and Conflicts in the Coastal Zone To understand the problems confronting the The coastal zone is not a single resource, but an coastal zone, the panel examined the activities agglomeration of resources that includes the dry relating to this environment. shore lands, marshes, the submerged lands, the Our nearshore waters and coastlines are sub- overlying waters, and the plants and animals jected to often conflicting activities and from within. them stem physical changes, -legal entanglements, I Uses of the coastal zone described in the and institutional competition, the major contribu- following pages are directly dependent on one or tors to the regions' problems. more of these shoreline resources. In addition, the various uses of estuaries are not independent; A single action may have relatively little impact instead, they are essentially interdependent and on the Nation's shoreline. Over time, however, the thereby constitute multiple-use systems. result is that the resource base for certain uses is Specific uses are many and varied but have been eroded. For example, private ownership and devel- generally classified as follows: opment has in many places severely reduced public access to beaches. The destruction of estuarine -Waste disposal (municipal sewerage, industrial habitats by dredging and ' filling, acre by acre, wastes) ultimately can destroy a large part of U.S. fishing potential. -Shoreline development (industrial, housing, ports, etc.) The pollution of estuarine'and coastal waters by cities and industries, imperceptible at first, can -Exploitation of living resources (fisheries, aqua- and has reached conditions that destroy the areas' culture) usefulness for fish and wildlife and recreation. -Recreation (swimming, boating, sport fishing) Water resources (municipal and industrial supplies) =70-W-0 L-Transportation (shipping, waterways, harbors) 7 -Wildlife and estuarine preservation -Exploitation of non-living resources (oil, gas, gravel, etc.) The following sections discuss each use in some _14 detail. Presented are many facts and other data concerning man's activities in the coastal zone :7%: upon which the panel has based its conclusions. For additional discussion of many of these uses 14zrMF the reader is referred to appropriate reports of other panels. 1. URBAN AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOP- MENT Figure 1. Uses of the coastal zone vary greatly. 7he greatest pressure now comes from housing Most major U.S. urban areas are situated on and recreation. (Federal Water Pollution Con- trol Administration photo) coastlines, bays, or the shores of the Great Lakes. 111-12 Several recent studies of urban waterfront areas Table 2 have focused on current land use allocations BALTIMORE REGIONAL PORT SHORELINE (Tables 1-3). LAND USE' Apparent in recent Seattle' and San Francisco Use Miles Per cent Bay2 Studies is the fact that most new waterfront Residential . . . . . . 147 55 commercial development is public-oriented (i.e., Industry . . . . . . . 42 16 restaurants, motels, parking lots, etc.). Government . . . . . . 13 5 Many commercial developments (restaurants, Recreational . . . . . . 24 9 motels and hotels, retail shops, and office build- Unused . . . . . . . 40 15 ings) can derive significant benefits from a location Total . . . . 266 100 on the waterfront. With the exception of vacation- Source: Chesapeake Bay Case Study, report by Trident oriented activities, they usually are located in Engineering Associates to the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Sept. 28, 1967. urban areas. iThe Baltimore Regional Port Shoreline is defined as the Waterfront uses in urban areas have generally western coastline from the Chesapeake Bay Bridge to the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, a distance of 266 miles of been incompatible with most commercial uses. water front, Manufacturing and distribution industries and ter- minal facilities, primarily located in the urban waterfront areas of cities, have tended to deter 11. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT commercial development. Significant exceptions Use of coastal lands and waters for industrial are urban renewal projects to redevelop old and development is an important part of the economic abandoned port facilities such as in Baltimore and growth of any given area. Industry is expected to Philadelphia. continue as a major competitor for use of a coastal environment. Problems associated with industrial Table 1 development are: SEATTLE HARBOR WATERFRONT LAND USE INVENTORY 119601 -Pollution due to industrial wastes (thousands of square feet - Net Area) Use Area Per cent -Space conflicts with other growing uses both on Residential . . . . . . . 18 - the nearshore and backshore accesses Commercial . . . . . . . 9,321 19.8 1 nclus try . . . . . . . . 10,711 22.9 -Loss of aesthetic attractions Transportation2 . . . . . . 13,814 29.5 Government and Institutional . . 4,624 9.9 Factors affecting waterfront location by indus- Cultural and Recreational . . . 58 - trial firms: Undeveloped and Misc.3 . . . 8,402 17.9 Total . . . . . . . 46,948 100 Transportation. Either the raw materials or fin- Source: Records of the Puget Sound Regional Trans- ished products processed or distributed by the portation Study. iShoreline Utilization in the Greater Seattle Area, study firm require water transportation and additional by Management & Economics Research Inc., January, costs would be incurred if a waterfront site were 21968. not obtained. This is the most obvious and One-fourth of this figure is for auto parking lots. 30ne-third of this is reserved for facilities already under compelling reason for such locations. construction or planned (1967). -Water use. Many industries use water in their manufacturing processes. Industrial use far exceeds household use. Only a small portion of the IShoreline Utilization in the Greater Seattle Area, industrial water intake is actually consumed. study by Management & Economics Research Inc., Brackish (saline) water is satisfactory for many January 1968. industrial purposes. Approximately 20 per cent of 2Report on Waterfront Industry prepared for San the water used by U.S. industries in 1965 was Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commis- sion, February 1968. brackish (saline), and this percentage is rising each 111-13 Table 3 SAN FRANCISCO BAY SHORELINE LAND USE' JULY 1966 Use Rank Miles Per cent Per cent Order Total Occupied Residential . . . . . . . . . . 2 36.97 10.7 20.3 Commercial . . . . . . . . . 12 7.35 2.1 4.0 Services . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.61 0.5 0.9 Parking . . . . . . . . . . . 16 0.11 - - Water-related industry 2 . . . . . 5 19.05 5.5 10.5 Other industry . . . . . . . . 7 14.08 4.1 7.7 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . 11 7.87 2.3 4.3' Transportation 2 . . . . . . . . 4 34.28 9.9 18.8 Institutiona 12 . . . . . . . . . 9 13.07 3.8 7.2 Recreation . . . . . . . . . . 6 17.33 5.0 9.5 Marinas and related . . . . . . . 14 1.75 0.5 1.0 Salt evaporators . . . . . . . . 10 9.88 2.9 5.4 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . 8 13.57 3.9 7.4 Forestry and related . . . . . . . 13 5.42 1.6 3.0 Subtotal Occupied . . . . 182.34 52.8 100.0 Marsh . . . . . . . . . . . 1 126.95 36.8 Vacant . . . . . . . . . . . 3 35.97 10.4 Total Miles Shoreline . . . 345.26 100.0 Source: Report on Waterfront Indus" prepared for San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Com- mission, February, 1968. Military use of the San Francisco shoreline for depots, maintenance centers, bases, and airfields totaled 31.81 miles, representing 17.4 per cent of the developed shoreline. These military measurements were distributed 2among water-related industry, transportation, and institutional uses. Includes river areas outside the Say proper. The total mileage of Bay shore is approximately 276 miles. 3 year. An abundant supply of such water is thus (Exceptions are World War II Government-built an attraction for many industries. plants located inland for reasons of security.) Now the absence of deep water ports to receive modern -Waste disposaL Disposal of wastes make a water- supercarriers4 places U.S. 'steel mills at a disadvan- front location an advantage but is often incompat- tage in world competition. ible with other uses of the shoreline and water, Increasing property taxes force most private and is under increasing pressure by pollution land investors to dispose of their land as quickly as control authorities. possible, which often involves subdividing or sell- ing smaller portions. Local government units, The deep-water urban regions have a special anxious to increase the tax base, are not likely to role in the National economy. U.S. dependence on preserve large and valuable shoreline parcels for an foreign sources for oil, iron ore, and other primary indeterminate future use. Suitable sites for heavy, metals makes deep-water sites for basic industry a water-oriented industry, important to the balanced National requirement. For example, all but two of economic growth of a region, thus are rapidly the Nation's major steel mills are located at ports. becoming scarce. 3 1965 Census of Manufacturers, Water Use in Manu- 4 See Chapter 5 and Appendix C for data on port facturing. facilities. 111-14 Figure 2. Industrial use of the waterfront-a fish processing plant. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo) It appears that recent pollution control legisla- It seems probable that if current trends con- tion will reduce the advantages of waste disposal tinue all wetlands win be filled and used for home previously inherent in a waterfront location. In building. Figure 3 shows the degree of develop- most cases, however, it is likely that industrial ment which has occurred in Boca Ciega Bay, location decisions will not be significantly Florida, between 1949 and 1965. In San Diego, a affected, since the industries concerned usually house sells for 40 per cent more if it is on the derive other benefits from a waterfront location. waterfront. Apartments in Columbus, Ohio, rent It is within the technological and economic for 15 per cent more per month if they have a capability of the industries requiring waterfront view of a 71@ acre "lake" which the builder sites to comply with regional standards for com- salvaged from an abandoned sand pit. On Long patibility, i.e., not pollute the air or water, Island, waterfront plots can command a pren-dum interfere with other public uses or despoil a of $5,000 to $15,000 over other lots.' shoreline's appearance. A survey in 1966 by the Fish and Wildlife These industries seek waterfront sites in metro- Service indicated that commercial and private politan regions to achieve major savings in raw housing development (and related ventures) was materials transport, processing, and product distri- the second principal cause in the loss of estuarine bution, and their managements are aware that the area. It is estimated that by 1975 housing develop- costs of operating in metropolitan areas include ments win have become the leading cause.' pollution abatement equipment and well- Furthermore, sewage from waterfront homes maintained plants and grounds. often seeps directly into nearby waters, adding to If remaining shoreline resources are to be pollution. adequately managed, it is important that addi- tional information be obtained regarding the IV. RECREATION-BEACHES AND PARKS economic importance of waterfront location to Competition for land and water is sharpest various industries. precisely where the need for water-based recre- III. HOUSING DEVELOPMENT ation is greatest-near metropolitan areas. The Housing is a major factor affecting coastal zone 5National Home Builders Institute, Washington, D.C. development. Both demographic and socio- 6Report of Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife to economic trends project a rapid increase of private House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee, 90th waterfront development. Congress, March 6, 1967. See Table 1, Chapter 3. 111-15 A?--Ar" X _Wk Figure 3. Boca Ciega Bay near St. Petersburg, Florida, showing land de velopment for housing. The upper photograph shows the Bay in 1949. The lower photograph shows the same area in 1965. Ecologists claim that excessive development can destroy the biological productivity of an estuary. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo by Airflite, St. Petersburg) 111-16 problem involves not so much the water's physical for the year 2000 indicate some changes in ranking amount as its quality and accessibility. with the following the top eight activities: swim- Outdoor recreational facilities are most ming, playing outdoor sports, walking for pleasure, urgently needed near metropolitan areas. As a driving for pleasure, sightseeing, picnicking, and result of continued urbanization, three-quarters of boating. the U.S. population will live in these areas by the The present shoreline given to recreation is turn of the century, and they will have the greatest shown in Tables 4 and 5." At present about 6% requirement for outdoor recreation. per cent of the total recreational shoreline is in Table 4 public ownership. To meet demands it is con- REGIONAL SHORELINE ALLOCATION sidered essential that about 15 per cent be available for public use.9 Detailed Recrea- Public recre- Private enterprise plays an important role in Shoreline shoreline tion ation outdoor recreation in coastal areas, a role not location (statute shoreline shoreline always recognized. The enormous private invest- miles) (statute (statute miles) miles) ments in such resort cities as Atlantic City, Miami Beach, and their numerous but smaller counter- Atlantic parts provide services and facilities for people Ocean ..... 28,377 9,961 336 seeking a variety of outdoor recreation experience Gulf of ranging from big-game fishing to lounging on the Mexico .... 17,437 4,319 121 Pacif ic patio of a luxury hotel with a seascape as Ocean ..... 7,863 3,175 296 background. Great The technical relationships between recreation Lakes ..... 5,480 4,269 456 and other uses are complex. Partially treated U.S. total. . 59,157 21,724 1,209 domestic sewage may render water unfit for swimming or drinking but may act as a fertilizer The competition for land use poses both a for fish production. Some recreational uses are challenge and an opportunity for those metro- incompatible with others, e.g., water skiing and politan areas situated near the coasts and the Great fishing. ftat share of the salmon supply should be Lakes. Although such areas may not be able to re- allocated for food and what for recreation? Rarely serve facilities for the complete range of water- will the answer be all or none; more likely it will associated recreational activities, the potential to be a rational balance of values. On the other hand, secure some is shared by all. certain rare environments like the Indiana dunes Population pressures on public and outdoor must be reserved intact or lost completely. recreation facilities are exceeding previous expec- Perhaps more than in any other coastal appli- tations by wide margins. A 1965 survey 7 conducted cation new concepts of engineering and tech- by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, indicated nology can assist or join with other uses. For that visits to beaches and seashores in 1980 would example, large new offshore port complexes also total nearly 10 billion, more than double the same could serve as public recreational sites. Shorelines estimate made in 1960. Projected visits in the year can be lengthened by dredging new harbors and 2000 would be nearly 17 billion, four times the spoil can be used to create islands and peninsulas. 1960 estimate. Based on the 1965 survey the most popular V. RECREATION-BOATING summertime activities ranked in order are: walking for pleasure, swimming, driving for pleasure, play- Boats in the United States total about 8.3 ing outdoor sports, bicycling, sightseeing, picnick- rnillion, about 80 per cent of which are located in ing, fishing, attending outdoor sports events, boating, nature walks, and camping. Projections 8Shoreline Recreation Resources of the United States, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission Re- 7Department of the Interior, Outdoor Recreation port No. 4, 1962. Trends, April 1967. 90ur Vanishing Shoreline, 1966. 111-17 333-093 0 - 69 -12 Table 5 ESTIMATED MILEAGE, BY STATE, OF THE U.S. RECREATION SHORELINE, BY TYPE, OWNERSHIP, AND DEVELOPMENT STATUS Type Ownership Total Public State (miles) Beach Bluff Marsh Privately Develop- (miles) (miles) (miles) Recreation Restricted owned ment areas areas (miles) status (miles) (miles) Alabama . . . . 204 115 .... 89 3 1 200 Low. California . . . . 1,272 283 883 106 149 100 1,023 Moderate. Connecticut .. 162 72 61 29 9 .... 153 High. Delaware . . . . 97 41 .... 56 9 9 79 Moderate. Florida . . . . . 2,655 1,078 406 1,171 161 122 2,372 Low-mod. Georgia ... .. 385 92 .... 293 5 .... 380 Moderate. Illinois . . . . . . 45 13 32 .... 24 4 17 High. Indiana 33 33 .... .... 3 .... 30 Do. Louisiana . . . . 1,076 257 819 2 .... 1,074 Low. Maine . . . . . .2,612 23 2,520 69 34 .... 2,573 Do. Maryland . . . . 1,368 40 912 416 3 113 1,252 Do. Massachusetts . 649 240 288 121 12 6 631 High. Michigan . . . . 2,469 292 1,959 218 357 .... 2,112 Low. Minnesota . . . . 264 22 175 67 19 .... 245 Do. Mississippi . . . 203 134 .... 69 .... 25 178 High. New Hampshire 25 7 9 9 3 .... 22 Very high. New Jersey . . . 366 101 33 232 18 15 333 Do. New York . . . . 1,071 231 590 250 47 .... 1,024 Moderate. North Carolina . 1,326 285 260 781 139 42 1,145 Low. Ohio . . . . . . . 275 20 195 60 9 5 261 High. Oregon . . . . . 332 133 181 is 101 .... 231 Moderate. Pennsylvania 57 9 44 4 19 .... 38 Do. Rhode Island 183 39 145 4 8 10 170 High. South Carolina 522 162 .... 360 9 10 503 Moderate. Texas . . . . . .1,081 301 421 359 5 18 1,053 Very low. Virginia . . . . . 692 160 118 414 2 26 664 Low. Washington . . . 1,571 121 1,294 156 46 27 1,498 Moderate. Wisconsin . . . . 1 724 1 46 1 634 1 44 1 13 1 48 1 663 Do. - Total . . . . . 121,724 1 4,350 1 11,160 1 6,214 1 1,209 1 581 1 19,934 the 30 coastal and Great Lakes States." Projec- Presently boating regulations are administered tions indicate that the number of boating partici- as follows: pants will more than double by the year 2000." Safety is the greatest concern in recreational -Federal Motorboat Act of 1940 which sets basic boating. The annual number of major boating boat classes and equipment safety standards 14 accidents has increased 34 per cent in the last five -Federal Boating Act 1958 which permits certain years.' 2 In 1967 over 4,000 accidents involving 1,312 deaths were reported by the Coast Guard. 13 State regulation and control' 5 10 Boating Indust7y Magazine, National Industrial Asso- -Specific State watercraft regulations which do ciation-National Association of Boat and Engine Manufac- not require uniformity or national guidelines. turers, January 1968. The number of boats actually registered in 1967 was 4,458, 893. See Appendix B. 14 11 Act of April 25, 1940, as amended, 54 Stat. 163, 46 Ibid. U.S.C. 526-526t, 12 Boating Statistics 196 7 CG-357. 15 Act of September 2, 1958, as amended, 72 Stat. 13 Ibid. 1754, 46 U.S.C. 5261,o,u, 527-527h. 111-18 -Approve State boating safety programs designed % to reduce boating accidents if they comply with certain Federal requirements -Make grants-in-aid to the States to assist in carrying out their boating safety programs. VI. SPORT FISHING AND HUNTING Figure 4. Recreational boating and public access to the vxter are a major concern in future use of Sport fishing and hunting, both important in the coastal zone. (Coast Guard photo) coastal areas, are increasing at a rate faster than A su .mmary of the number of boats presently National population growth. Estimates place the registered by States, along with abrief statement number of serious salt water sports fishermen at of State numbering requirements, is shown in 8.3 million. An additional three million participate to a lesser extent and on the Great Lakes." In Appendix B. 1966, 97 million man-days and an estimated $800 A review of boating accident statistics indicates million were spent on the sport.' 9 By the year that improved boating safety is perhaps a matter 2000, the number 'of anglers is expected to of sound education and not regulatory licensing. 16 triple.'o If trends continue, salt water angling will The Coast Guard has proposed legislation to:'? represent about one-third of the National sport -Establish safety standards applicable to the fishing effort. manufacture of recreational boats and associated The Department of Interior's Bureau of Sport equipment and regulate as necessary items of Fisheries and Wildlife estimates that there are equipment carried on recreational boats about I I million persons who do not hunt or fish, W@ el Figure 5. 7here are over 8 million sports fishermen who constitute an important use of the coastal zone. (Bureau of Outdoor Recreation photo) 16 Statement of Rear Admiral W. L. Momison, U.S.C.G., 18 Progress in Sport Fishery Research, Department of Assistant Chief of Staff for Boating Safety, cast the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Resource Publication 39, April 1967. Guard, to Special Studies Subcommittee of the Co mit- 19 tee orrGovernment Operations, July 1, 1968. Ibid. 17 H. R. 15223 and S. 3015 of the 90th Congress, Estuarine Programs, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and entitled Recreation Boat Safety Act. Wildlife report, January 1967. 111-19 but pursue birdwatching, wildlife photography, more than 500 miles and an area of more than 18 and other forms of nature study." million acres, of which 682,000 are estuarine. Many frequent coastal areas because of the Twenty-four States operate coastal waterfowl abundance and variety of fife there. By 2000, this preserves with funds provided under the Pittman group is expected to exceed 40 million. Robertson Act .24 The more recent Dingell- All marsh species, shore birds, and the miscella- Johnson ACt25 is not being significantly utilized neous fish-eaters have a function in coastal ecol- for the preservation of estuarine and marine areas ogy, and their presence gives added pleasure to primarily because matching funds are unavailable. millions of visitors. Most State fish and game departments operate on North America is endowed with many species license revenues. Licenses are not required for of birds whose natural habitat is in or near the fishing in many coastal areas and this creates water. Waterfowl were hunted in 1967 by nearly reluctance to spend license revenue on marine two million individuals, who spent over $87 Projects. million on this sport.21 This gap is especially acute in the South A principal role in sport fishery and wildlife Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. These Acts authorize management is played by the National Wildlife the appropriation of funds collected from Federal Refuge System. Activities include planning and excise taxes on sporting arms and ammunition and execution of a balanced wildlife management on sport fishing tackle. The funds, apportioned as program for migratory waterfowl, upland wildlife, matching grants to the respective States, are used and other forms of wildlife on these areas; the to study problems of fish and wildlife restoration preservation of rare and endangered species; soil and management; to purchase, develop, manage and water conservation; and compatible outdoor and administer lands and waters; to restore natural recreation. habitat; and to maintain completed projects. Of the 312 units in the Refuge System, 78 are Many National Wildlife Refuges are super- coastal installationS2 3 with a combined shoreline of imposed upon such other Federal projects as water source and reclamation works. Close coordina- tion is r equired between agencies to insure that lands are managed to the best interest of wildlife consistent with the primary purpose of the project. Joint use is possible with proper planning. The combined Assateague Island National Sea- shore and Wildlife Preserve instituted by the Department of Interior in 1968 is an excellent example of effective joint use. @a MW VII. COMMERCIAL FISHING The 1967 U.S. commercial fishing catch at dockside was approximately four billion pounds $438 million." Of this catch some 70 valued at Figure 6. Great concern for the wildlife and per cent worth $300 million was caught in the 27 its environment is shared by the dramatic voice U.S. coastal zone. Of the total, 24 per cent by of the amateur naturalist. (National Park Serv- ice photo) 21 24 Act of September 2, 1937, as amended, 50 Stat. 917, Information furnished by the Bureau of Sport 16 U.S.C. 669-6691. Fisheries and Wildlife. 25 Federal Fish Restoration and Management Projects 22 Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, National Act, Act of August 9, 1950, as amended, 64 Stat. 430, 16 Survey of Fishing and Hunting, 1968. U.S.C. 777-777k. 2 3 The locations are shown in Fig. 4, Chapter 7. See also 16FisherieS of the United States-1967, Bureau of the description of the activities of the Bureau of Sport Commercial Fisheries Publication CFS-4700, April 1968. Fisheries and Wildlife in that chapter. 27 Ibid. 111-20 dollar value was shrimp." U.S. coastal waters Such provisions have the overall effect of have an estimated annual sustainable total fish depressing the commercial fishery resource to the yield of 30 billion pounds .29 detriment of the State, industry, and wise conser- Coastal and estuarine waters and marshlands are vation. it is probable that the near-shore fishery vital to the nutrients and fife support of about two could double without depletion if certain measures thirds of the entire marine fisheries harvest. Seven including adequate regulatory provisions were of the 10 most valuable species in our commercial adopted. fisheries spend all or important portions of their A legal framework relating to the coastal waters life cycle in estuarine waters and at least 80 other should be established sufficiently uniform to commercially important species are dependent on accommodate the continuous natural system it estuarine areas. seeks to regulate. The basic objective of State laws The fisheries in the estuarine zone are charac- and regulations should be a healthy commercial terized by their diversity. As in all cases where and sport fishery consistent with multiple or political boundaries are superimposed on natural shared use, economic efficiency, and maximum systems, systems of laws and regulations have sustainable yield. developed in many States that impede wise These objectives should be attained on a resource exploitation or preclude truly adequate regional basis or on a National scale through conservation. Many species of fish have either life greater uniformity in State laws and regulations ranges or migratory and distribution patterns that which are species-oriented, non-discriminatory, cross the artificial political boundaries. rooted in scientific knowledge, and motivated by A few examples illustrate some of the prob- the desire to exploit living resources to the fullest lems. Many States have laws established either extent possible consistent with efficiency and upon unsupported assumptions or to accommo- maximum sustainable yield. Certain local peculi- date a particular interest group, often the sport arities would necessitate variations, but laws and, fisherman, at the expense of the commercial regulations among the States must be inter- 30 fisherman. related. For instance, in Maine it is prohibited to take tuna other than with a harpoon or hook and fine. No rational purpose seems to exist for this prohibition and the use of appropriate equipment conceivably could double the tuna catch while both maintaining the tuna stock and preserving sport fishing. In Connecticut, "Blue Laws" prohibit commer- cial fishing for stnelt, tomcod, shad, alewives, and glut herring from Friday sunset to Monday sunrise. This measure seriously inhibits commercial fishery development. In Alaska, certain types of vessels and fishing gear are excluded in. taking salmon, shrimp, and Figure 7. Ae role of the fishing industly is often hampered by obsolete equipment and clams without a clearly established scientific or conflicting laws. tCoast Guard photo)t conservation basis. If the mentioned resources are to be exploited consistent with efficiency and Next to economics and legal problems, the maximum sustained yield these regulations should fishing industry is concerned over the encroach- be modified. ment of the petroleum industry on what here- tofore have been exclusive fishing grounds. Recent 28 Ibid, 29 Report of the Panel on Fishing at the Second 3OFisheries problems are discussed in greater detail and Conference on the Continental Shelf, National Security specific recommendations are contained in the Report of Industrial Association-Ocean Science & Technology Advi- the Resources Panel of the Commission on Marine sory Committee (OSTAC), November 1967. Science, Engineering and Resources. 111-21 activity off New England and in Lake Erie has the Interior 34 will attempt to identify endangered caused particular worry. areas critical to wildlife preservation. The New England Fisheries & Conservation Committee 3 1 has expressed alarm that oil explora- Vill. AQUACULTURE tion on Georges Banks imperils a resource that is a Aquaculture today is of minor importance vital industry to New England and "constitutes 12 although in the future it could increase dramatic- per cent of the world's fish supply." There is ally our domestic fish production. Depending on concern that an accident similar to the oil well blowout at Cook Inlet, Alaska, might cause pollu- market demands and research and technology, tion ruinous to New England commercial fisheries, aquaculture can be expected to reach significant sport fishing and the recreation industry. proportions in 20 to 30 yearS.3 5 Conflicts presently exist between the shrimp Systematic production of both fimfish and and oyster fisheries and the oil industry along the shellfish could reduce present demand for offshore Gulf Coast, particularly in Louisiana. In a report water and bottom space but also could stimulate 32 further demand for marsh lands and shallow to the panel, Dr. Lyle S. St. Amant, Assistant estuarine waters. Director, Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commis- Aquaculture is em loyed widely in Asiatic sion, stated: p countries: 5 per cent of Japan's total fish catch The growing of oysters and the harvesting Of comes from coastal areas with retention devices. shrimp in Louisiana is a big business-but it is only China, Taiwan, the Philippines all report consider- 36 a small fraction as big as the petroleum industry in able "pondfish" production. the state. In 1966, according to the Independent Excluding leased shellfish beds, marine aqua- Petroleum Association of America, the value of culture activity in the United States is limited to crude oil, natural gas liquids and natural gas, at the developmental and pilot studies. However, thriving well in Louisiana was approximiltely freshwater commercial trout and catfish "farms" $3,194,341,000 and the petroleum industry paid have developed recently; production can be in- 46 per cent of the State's revenue. creased tremendously if markets are available. For example, it is estimated that in a five-State south 7he value of Louisiana fisheries in 1966 was central region about 13 million acres are suitable 31 approximately $100 million. for conversion to catfish ponds. Aquaculture is attractive because it offers relief Because of the high productivity of both the from the greatest handicap of the fishing indus- mineral and seafood industries, it is apparent that try-reliance on an uncertain common property every reasonable effort must be made to allow the resource. Because a fish farmer has full control of two industries to operate in the same area without serious conflict. 34 Public Law 90454 of the 90th Congress, Aug. 3, The Federal Government, State and local gov- 1968, (formerly H.R. 25) authorizes the Secretary of the enor, in coopera ernments, National conservation organizations, !nt ' tion with the States to conduct an inventory and study of the Nation's estuaries and their and private citizens have expressed grave concern natural resources. An additional study authorized by f Section 5(g) of the Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966, in recent years over the increasing destruction .o Act of November 3, 1966, 80 Stat. 1246, 33 U.S.C. 431, estuaries providing critical habitat for a major various sections, is being conducted by the Federal Water portion of the marine, sport and commercial Pollution Control Authority. See Chapter 9. 35 Report of the Panel on Fishing at the Second fisheries, waterfowl and other wildlife resources of Conference on the Continental Shelf, National Security 33 the Nation.. Reflecting this concern, the Industrial Association-ocean Science & Technology Advi- National Estuarine Study of the Department of soy Committee (OSTAC), November 1967. 36 Ryther and Bardach, The Status and Potential of Aquaculture, report to the National Council on Marine 31 Report of meeting of New England Fisheries & Resources and Engineering Development by the American Conservation Committee, Nov. 10, 1967. Institute of Biolgoical Sciences, Publication PB 177 768 32 of the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Presented at panel hearings, Houston, Jan. 24, 1968. Information, 1968. 33 See Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion on 37 Report of Depart.ment of Interior at panel hearing, losses in wildlife and nutrient areas. Oct. 10, 1967. 111-22 r Mdi- L tilt "'La A 7" 7 w@ Z 'Y Figure 8. Aquaculture (portrayed here is an artist's conception) is attractive because it offers relief from the handicap of reliance on an uncertain common property resource. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo) the resource and harvest it is to his advantage to Oil and gas exploitation locations are shown on improve his technology and management proce- Figure 11. Of particular significance is new activity dures. Farming of shrimp, other crustaceans, fish, beginning off Alaska, the New England Coast, and and especially mollusks is possible at the edges of in Lake Erie. the sea. It is even possible to envision aquaculture Current offshore oil production technology is operations sharing controlled water resources, applied primarily to the design and installation of transportation, and space allocations with other fixe! structures with platforms elevated above the industries. For example, plans are being made to water. The largest of these, installed during 1968 use the waste heat from a power plant to warm the in the Gulf of Mexico in 340 feet of water, water of an oyster farm on Long Island. involves a total tower height of nearly 500 feet. Designs for water depth of 600 feet are under IX. MARINE PETROLEUM EXPLOITATION consideration. Similarly, structural towers with the platform and equipment submerged to diver depth The petroleum industry is the largest commer- are in design stages. cial enterprise exploiting subsea mineral reserves. Divers utilized by the oil industry are con- The number of offshore oil, gas, and sulfur stantly extending the hn-dts of diving capability. facilities has increased dramatically in the past 10 Saturated techniques with diver lockout and years. Figure 10 shows the number of new oil decompression chambers have been developed. wells drilled each year in U.S. coastal waters. The Recent tests of divers performing functional tasks total presently existing is in excess of 16,000. on a simulated wellhead in 600 feet of water 111-23 I., Numberof NewWells A 14 1000-- ;r 800 600 400 200 0 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 YEARS est. Figure 10. Number of new oil wells drilled off the U.S. coast 1960-1970. (Source: American Petroleum Institute) Figure 9. There are more than 12, 000 offshore -Surveys. Bathymetric and reconnaissance oil wells off the U.S. coasts. Along with trans- mapping of coastal waters is an effective means to portation and flshing, this industry now con- reduce user spatial and time demands as well as stitutes a major use ofthe Continental Shelf. (Shell Oil Co. photo) improve the effectiveness of user operations. demonstrated man's ability to perform useful -Jurisdictions. It is in the interest of all users of work in such depths. coastal spaces to determine Federal-State jurisdic- Many problems faced by the petroleum indus- tion, and resolve unclear or nonuniform regulatory try are common to other users of coastal waters procedures. and their resolution is in the best interest of all. X. MARINE MINING These include :38 Marine mining, although under a great deal of -Improved navigation. The oil industry believes study and exploration, is not increasing substan- there is a pressing need for improved navigation systems. Accuracies in the order of � 50 feet up to 200 miles from shore are indicated. -Environmental forecasts. Better understanding and predictions of wind, sea, storms and, other environmental data is needed to effectively plan and utilize personnel and materials. b -Traffic control in congested waters. This is important for the safety of oil rigs as well as the vessels transiting or operating in congested areas. 38 These problems were identified by the Panel on A area of present and future activity. Petroleum at the Second Conference on the Continental Shelf, National Security industrial Association-Ocean Figure 11. Offshore oil and gas exploitation ac- Science & Technology Advisory Committee (OSTAC), tivity. (Source: Offshore Magazine, June 1968) November 1967. 'NA an tur. activity. 111-24 tially at this time and projections are that with the some instances such as oyster shell dredging in exception of sand and gravel it is not likely to do Texas the conflicts with neighboring fishing indus- so in the near future. Chief industries at this time tries are severe. In Maryland, however, where are: management is under a single State agency, oyster shell dredging is regulated and conducted without -Sand and gravel. Production of sand and gravel conflict. from marine deposits is not reported separately by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, but is estimated at X1. NAVIGATION AND SPATIAL CONFLICTS roughly $15 million annually. Ship collision is neither a new problem nor is Plentiful deposits are available on land and can the frequency projected to increase. On the be worked with a small investment, but the cost of contrary, although ship tonnage is predicted to transportation is a large part of the selling price, and the product is used mostly in urban centers. increase, the actual number of ships may decrease With the growth of our cities, and the zoning out and improved safety equipment should result in of nearby gravel pits, the shorter haul with cheaper fewer collisions. A significant consideration, how- sea transportation from offshore sources make ever, is the increasing size of ships. Further, them increasingly attractive and it can be expected because of the exotic and often hazardous nature that growth of this industry will accelerate. of the cargoes, the consequences of a collision or grounding become increasingly serious. -Oyster shell. Production remains approximately High traffic density occurs: constant at an estimated $30 million annually. The -Where ships alter course to round a headland and product is used for aggregate in concrete and road are likely to keep the same distance offshore. material in the manufacture of portland cement and lime, and for - poultry grit and fertilizer -Where traffic is confined to a narrow strait, e.g., additives. Although ample deposits exist, those the Strait of Florida, through which pass about nearer the market are gradually being depleted, 150 ships per day. and the increased transportation costs in working -In the approaches to large ports, e.g., New York, more distant deposits will raise the market price. where about 70 large ships per day enter or depart. Total production is not expected to increase substantially. A more recent navigational problem has re- sulted from offshore oil installations, the outstand- -Other minerals. Only very limited sampling ing example being the Gulf of Mexico. Here there operations have been conducted for other minerals are about 6,000 oil or other platforms offshore, and there is no production as yet. with about half in or near shipping lanes. The daily Phosphorite deposits of considerable extent deep draft traffic out of Gulf ports is over 300 have been explored along the southern California vessels, and over 50 collisions have occurred since coast and the coasts of North Carolina, Georgia, 1960 between ships and structures. Pipelines pres- and F orida, but it does not appear that they can ent added problems to fisheries and anchorages. be mined profitably in competition with amply Installations may be outside shipping lanes and available sources on land. still cause interference with navigation. Off the -Heavy metals. Gold, tin, and platinum have not Port of Galveston, a ship lost 37 hours anchored in been produced from the U.S. shelf except for fog because its radar could not differentiate minor amounts during sampling operations. During between the sea buoys leading into the port and 1966 two U.S. companies undertaking offshore nearby oil installations. Off New Orleans ships gold-bearing placer exploration in Alaskan waters have had difficulty in locating by radar the key sea decided to discontinue their efforts, but a third buoy marking the channel entrance because it was 39 was sufficiently encouraged by results of its 1966 hidden by an oil installation. pilot production to resume in 1967. 39 W. L. Griffin, Accommodation of Conflicting Uses of Ocean Space with Special Reference to Navigation Safety The marine mining industry faces the same Lanes, Second Annual Law of the Sea Institute, Univer- problems described in the preceding section. In sity of Rhode Island, June 1967. 111-25 The foregoing "spatial conflict" situations con- harbor entrances, with inward and outward traffic tain a distinction relevant to the accommoaation separated by a safety buffer zone similar to the problem: traffic densify involves conflict between dividing strip on highways. like users of the same ocean space for,the same Fairways through Continental Shelf installa- type of use. The shipping and shelf installation tions make use of the Corps of Engineers authority problem involves conflict between diffeient types under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of users of the same ocean space. (1953) to grant permits for offshore structures. A solution to spatial conflict is to designate sea Fairways are sea lanes that the Corps, after lanes. The idea of marine traffic lanes is over a consultation with the shipping and oil industry, century old, but as yet has only limited adoption. has agreed to keep free of fixed oil or other The current North Atlantic Track Agreement installations. Such fairways are not mandatory and involves only 16 shipping companies flying six may be changed. They presently exist only in the different flags. The use of these lanes by the Gulf and while providing a partial solution to the Andrea Doria and the Stockholm undoubtedly problem of cargo carriers attempting to reach port, would have prevented their collision. they do not solve the fishermen's difficulties. Separate upbound and downbound courses for Structural standards for offshore platforms ships belonging to the Lake Carriers Association have been self-imposed by industry. Experience were adopted for Lakes Superior and Huron in gained in recent hurricanes indicates that the 1911 and have since been extended to Lake predicted severity of conditions was less than Michigan (1926), Lake Erie (1947), and Lake actually encountered, and many underdesigned Ontario (1949). These lanes have proved very structures failed. Their dismembered portions lit- effective. ter a considerable area of the seabed. Presently, sea lanes constitute two categories: Although industry is obligated to remove such traffic separation lanes for vessels and fairways wreckage located on drilling sites, debris that has through Continental Shelf installations. settled elsewhere remains. The larger pieces are Separation lanes established by the Coast Guard menaces to surface navigation and vessels have consist of two-way shipping lanes leading to been damaged or sunk by them. At the least, they 41 New York City 11.nl.;ket Shoals l,ka(,d New Jersey A BROSE NANTUCKET SHOALS 40'N L/V 72'W 70*W BARNEGAT L/V _39*N _udson Canyon FiVE FATHOM BANK L/V Del. Bay 39'N - Buffer Zone P, PN4,1 ocep"'i DELAWARE L/V L@ A@ 75 W 74oW 73.W -380N- 75W Figure 12. U.S. Coast Guard sea lanes for vessel traffic con trol. 111-26 impede trawling, and since the shrimp fishery on usually are abandoned and are not noted on the Gulf Continental Shelf is the country's largest, nautical charts. The majority of pipeline casualties the matter is of great concern. occurs as the result of storms. Ships' anchors can Wrecks, in the ordinary sense 'of sunken vessels, break them even if buried 10 to 20 feet beneath are an increasing problem. Extant wreck legislation the seabed. deals only with territorial waters, and admiralty Although most new problems are related to the law concerning wrecks beyond territorial waters is petroleum, gas, and sulfur industries, it can be sparse. The size of mobile drilling platforms is such anticipated that experimental and exploratory that the wreck of one of these can be a hazard devices not connected with these industries will even in 100 fathoms. The Corps of Engineers has also present difficulties when developed. Sub- no authority to remove wrecks on the Continental marine data collection installations, manned and Shelf beyond territorial waters and since some of unmanned, paralleling present weather and seismic these contrivances are considered vessels, no pres- data collection stations can be expected. Under- ent legislation applies. water recreational activities will increase. Each will Pipelines on the shelf in the Gulf of Mexico had tend to complicate matters further. a total length of over 1,800 miles in 1968, and Federal jurisdiction with regard to such matters more are being laid. Pipelines no longer utilized as navigation safety, obstruction control, naviga- Figure13. TEKTITE I undersea habitat to be established in 1969. Such new activities must be included in the management and safety concerns for coastal waters. (U.S. Navy photo courtesy General Electric Co.] 111-27 tional markings, etc., exists by virtue of one set of The Convention on the Continental Shelf, statutes for U.S. territorial waters, and for the Article 5(l) states: Outer Continental Shelf via the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. 40 The exploration of the continental shelf and the Many matters not directly provided for by this exploitation of its natural resources must not statute have been covered by terms of lease or result in any uniustiflable interference with naviga- construction permits. For example, unused or tion, fishing or the conservation of the living 41 damaged structures are required to be removed resources of the sea. from the site. However, items not located on the lease/perniit site, or not "fixed structures or This is one of the first major actions to relate artificial islands" such as vessels or mobile drilling the competition of interest. However, no agency units not engaged in drilling, do not come within presently appears to have the authority to enforce the purview of these provisions. this provision. 40 Act of August 7, 195 3, 67 Stat. 462, 43 U.S.C. 1331-1343;. United States v. Texas, 363 U.S. I (DWIL United States v. Rorida et al, 363 U.S * ffl_(1960). By the 1960 Supreme Court decisions in the United States- Texas-Florida litigation-the Outer Continental Shelf commences three marine leagues (nine miles) off the Gulf Coast of these States. Since territorial waters extend only to three miles, there exists off these States a belt six miles wide in which no clearcut jurisdiction exists over naviga- 41 tional matters. 15 U.S.C. 471 (1964). @d-28 Chapter 3 Problems of Natural and Man-Made Changes in the Environment Despite natural changes, both long term and -Eutrophication catacylsmic, the more serious disturbances to the coastal environment that we have to consider are -Proliferation of pests and unwanted species. those caused by man. Man's uses-and abuses-of the Nation's shoreline outlined in Chapter 2 are Pollution, the most severe problem, has been producing changes in our environment that we are singled out for special emphasis in Chapter 4. The only beginning to understand. Ample evidence others are discussed in the following sections. exists that many rivers and estuaries were polluted Such other problems as shoreline subsidence, by industrial waste before 1900 and will require ecological disruptions, and socioeconomic and major efforts to restore.' More recently, stories of legal considerations are discussed where associated the effects of pollution in Lake Michigan and Lake with the more fundamental cause or in other Erie have attracted considerable attention. reports of the panel or the Commission. Construction activities are increasing rapidly in the coastal zone as population pressure mounts L SHORELINE EROSION and. economic development continues to expand. Erosion of beaches and shorelines is a serious The' impact on the coastal environment and National problem. Shoreline erosion is due to both ecology is evident as works associated with mod- natural and man-made effects. Sand is a diminish- ern technology after the tidal regimen, and degrade - or enhance shore and water areas of substantial ing important natural resource and its conservation value. must be considered in long-range planning. The Land fill and dredging, harbor and channel Corps of Engineers reports that about 65 per cent construction, jetties and breakwaters, causeways of the Nation's coastline is inadequately protected or endangered.' hurricane barriers, salinity control structures, and The principal factors in shoreline erosion are: artificial beaches may generate important ecolo- gical changes. In present knowledge, many effects -Damage by storms are obscure and a better understanding of relation- ships is needed. Systematic studies of preventive or -Shoreline construction affecting beach processes corrective action and a full evaluation of man's effects are necess Iary to realize the potential and to -Inland development that curtails normal beach nt destruction of our coastal resources. sand nourishment. preve Based upon the material made available to us and She great interest we have noted, the following The U.S. coastline (including Alaska, Hawaii, problems have 'been identified involving natural Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) is 89,548 and artificial changes@m' our coastal environment. miles, of which Alaska alone accounts for 33,900 miles.3 This mileage includes tidewater areas up to -Pollution locations where the stream or embayment width becomes less than 100 feet. To this can be added -Shoreline erosion the 4,776-mile U.S. shoreline of the Great Lakes, -Shoreline damage from storms for a total of 94,324 miles. The characteristics of these shores may vary -Loss,of wildlife and nutrient areas from the broken, varying shoreline of New England to the broad sand beaches of the Gulf and -Silting and shoaling Pacific; from the low tidewater backshores of the 2Annual Report of the Corps of Engineers, Vol. 2, 1966. Restoring the Quality of Our Environment, Report 3 of the Environmental Pollution Panel of the President's Coast and Geodetic Survey, Shore and Sea Bound- Science Advisory Committee. aries, Publication 10-1, 1964. 111-29 @w 611 4 Figure 1. Storm waves striking a Florida coast. Planned use of the coastal zone must in- clude protection against the flooding and erosion effects of storms. (U.S. Weather Bureau photo) Carolinas to the coral shores of the Hawaiian It is not realized that sand is a rapidly diminish- Islands. The combined forces of nature are contin- ing natural resource. Once carried to our shores in ually eroding and, at some locations, building up abundant supply by streams, rivers, and glaciers, the beaches along U.S. seacoasts. geological processes are such that large areas of our The erosion problems are many and varied; coast receive no supply from these sources.' they are pressing in some areas and of little Currently, with few exceptions, streams are immediate concern in others. The Corps of Engi- adding little material to the beaches, and loss from neers estimates that about 56,000 miles of shore- the beaches is essentially permanent. Development line need some type of assessment of erosion of inland areas tends further to affect erosion of problems. Of this about 16,000 miles already have the upland with results in reduced in sand supply been studied and about 7,000 miles currently are to the shore. The construction of dams and the being studied (1967)." A breakdown by States is curtailment of stream flow further reduces the given in Table 1. coarse sediment load carried to our coastal zone. The most critical areas requiring restoration or For some time, the source of sand for beach nourishment are the entire Atlantic shoreline of restoration and nourishment has been from la- New Jersey, the coastline of Florida between Cape goonal and inland deposits. However, recently it Kennedy and Miami, the Gulf of Mexico shoreline has become increasingly difficult economically to in the vicinity of Galveston, the California shore- obtain suitable sand from these sources in suffi- line from Santa Barbara to San Diego, and the cient quantity for beach fill purposes. This is due south shoreline of Lake Erie. 5 primarily to the increased value of marginal and 4Information on Federal Shore Protection Activities, inland lands, including development by public and Report by Corps of Engineers, Nov. 28, 1967. 6 5Shore and Beach Protection, Corps of Engineers, Land Against the Sea, U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Coastal Engineering Research Center, July 21, 1967. Research Center bfisc. Paper 4-64, May 1964. 111-30 Table 1 hoarding of beach sand at the expense of adjoining SHORELINE STUDIES AND NEEDS - 1967 areas but rather the elimination of wasteful prac- Shore tices and the prevention of losses whenever feasi- State Total Shore being Appraisal ble. shore studied studied needed Mechanical bypassing of sand at coastal inlets (Figure 2) is one means of conservation that should come into increasing use. Removal of beach Maine .......... 3,478 10 3,000 sand for building purposes, formerly common, is New Hampshire .... 131 18 .... * ... rapidly being curtailed as coastal communities Massachusetts ..... 1,519 245 5 1,000 Rhode Island ..... 384 40 .... 300 learn the need to regulate this practice. Modern Connecticut ...... 618 618 .... .... hopper dredges, used for channel maintenance in New York: coastal inlets, are being equipped with pump-out Atlantic ....... 1,850 200 150 500 capabilities so their loads can be discharged on the Great Lakes ..... 408 8 .... 400 shore instead of being dumped at sea. Losses from New Jersey ....... 1,792 200 150 100 Delaware ........ 381 200 200 100 this practice are expected to be eliminated ulti- Maryland ........ 3,190 .... 3,190 .... mately. Virginia ......... 3,315 15 3,200 100 On the California coast, where large volumes of North Carolina .... 3,375 400 .... .... sand are lost into deep submarine canyons near the South Carolina .... 2,876 300 .... 2,000 Georgia ......... 2,314 200 .... 1,000 Florida ......... 8,426 8,426 500 .... Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands .... 875 24 50 800 Alabama ........ 607 20 .... 500 Mississippi ....... 359 50 .... 300 z Louisiana ........ 7,721 50 10 7,000 Texas .......... 3,359 50 10 3,000 California ........ 3,427 3,000 100 200 Oregon ......... 1,410 .... .... 1,000 Washington ...... 3,026 10 .... 3,000 Alaska .......... 33,904 10 5 5,000 Hawaii .......... 1,092 1,000 .... .... Pennsylvania ...... 140 20 .... .... ........ 2,883 32 .... Ohio ........... 312 312 5 Michigan 2,800 Indiana ......... 45 .... .... 45 Illinois 83 83 .... .... Wisconsin' * * ' * * ' * ' ------- R- Gl- . 820 100 .... 700 7 Minnesota ....... 188 188 AVON A AN71C Total ......... 94,324 15,621 7,575 33,034 private interests, and the added cost of transport- V ing sand from remote inland areas. Materials composing the bottom and sub-bottom of estu- aries, lagoons and bays, in many instances, are not T-. ------- -------- suitable for long-term stabilization. BEL. Regardless of suitability, restraint also is in- creasing in the use of any materials in tideland areas, as evidenced by the many laws and ordi- Figure 2. Construction of harbor breakwaters nances prohibiting such use due to the potential may disrupt the longshore movement of beach ecological imbalances that may result. sand replenishment as shown here at Shark River Inlet, New Jersey. The Corps of Engineers has It thus becomes apparent that consideration installed a sand bypassing facility which trans- must be given to conserving sand to the most ports sand from the "borrow area" south of the inlet to three "feeder" areas on the north practicable extent. This does not mean local side. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photo) 111-31 shore, faci lities are being provided to trap the sand reducing the rate of loss or increasing the rate of before it reaches the canyons and transport it supply or a combination of the two. The loss rate mechanically to a point where it can resume may be reduced by means of impermeable groins normal beach movement. Planting dunes with or jetties, or it may be compensated for by appropriate grasses and shrubs reduces windborne periodic "nourishment" by adding sand on the losses and aids in preservation. beach. The Corps of Engineers has been authorized by The most suitable method depends upon char- Congress' to conduct a National Study of Shore- acteristics of a particular area. A beach is the most line Erosion. This will be a three-year study effective absorber of wave energy. Therefore, a dealing with the overall problems of beach erosion protective beach is frequently the most suitable and including advisory services to State and local measure. However, it is often not feasible to retain activities. a beach on headlands or exposed shores, and a The Corps also proposes to expand a Program type of armoring of the shore must be used. initiated in 1964 to determine if large deposits of Protection of a short individual property on an suitable fill material exist in the offshore zone. eroding shore is uneconomical, as the adjacent The program involves the accumulation of data on shores will continue to recede and the protection the characteristics of material composing the will be outflanked. bottom and sub-bottom between the 15 foot and Early efforts at shore protection used groins. 100 foot depth contours. However, since sand moves along shore, groins Since 1964 sand inventories have been com- which can abstract normal sand movement along pleted along the New Jersey and Florida coast- the beach often cause erosion of adjacent shores lines. Preliminary analysis of data indicates many farther in the direction of along-shore transport. large deposits of suitable material in the offshore Examples of failure to obtain satisfactory results zone. For example, about 600 million cubic yards by use of groins alone can be found in New Jersey, of suitable material are off the Florida coastline Palm Beach and Miami Beach, Florida, and the and about 1.5 billion cubic yards along the New Presque Isle Peninsula, Pennsylvania. Jersey coastline, at distances ranging from one to Typical of present methods of protection is the six miles offshore. Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina project, which Data have recently been collected along the combines beach erosion and hurricane protection. New England coastline and the area from Cape Wrightsville Beach is a small island off the Charles, Virginia, to the North Carolina line. The souteast coast of the State, about 10 miles east of remainder of the Atlantic and the Gulf, Pacific, Wilmington. It is separated from other portions of and Great Lakes offshore sand deposits are pro- the barrier beach by Moore Inlet at the north, by posed for study in future years as required. The Masonboro Inlet at the south, and from the present problem is to develop the best method of mainland by a sound about 1% miles wide, placing offshore deposits on the eroded beaches consisting of open channels, salt marsh, a small and additionally provide a better means of creating island (Harbor Island), and the Atlantic Intra- artAicial islands and providing harbor channels. We coastal Waterway. have much to learn about beach erosion and shore Here a dune with a top width of 25 feet and a protection and not all our past efforts in this area top elevation of 12 feet above mean low water was have been successful. constructed. The inshore toe of the dune is at or Available methods of shore protection are of near the building line. Figure 3 shows the beach two general types. The first consists of interposing before and after restoration. structures to prevent waves from reaching erodible One of the first requirements for coastal plan- material, such as offshore breakwaters, seawalls, ning is adequate technical knowledge of shore bulkheads, and revetments. The second consists processes, storm frequencies, and storm-tide eleva- generally of stabilizing or restoring a beach by tions for the area concerned. On our Pacific Coast, including Alaska and Hawaii, the effects of tsu- 7River and Harbor Act of 1968, Public Law 90-483, namis (earthquake-generated waves) also must be 82 Stat. 731, Aug. 13, 1968 (forinerly S. 1262 of the considered. This information, applied to the topo- 90th Congress). graphy of the coastal area and the adjoining 111-32 ----7 Continental Shelf, makes possible the prediction of flooding and erosionhazards in each area. Such knowledge may then guide the establishment of I local zoning and building regulations as well as the RUM i needs, types, and dimensions of flood prevention and erosion control. In highly developed areas the value of lands and improvements, and other economic considerations, will usually ensure the provision of protective works. Timely construction of such works, will ensure the preservation of existing resources and values. Correction of zoning and building regula- L tions. in developed areas cannot rectify past errors, but can aid in attaining the long-range develop- N" ment objective. Underdeveloped areas offer a much more fertile field for advance planning and development con- trol. Procedures can be adopted to conserve remaining natural protective features. Regulation Figure 3. Beach restoration at Wrightsville can minimize the costs of protective measures, can Beach, North Carolina. Upper photo shows severe erosion; lower shows same beach after ensure that adequate protection is provided before restoration. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photos) Table 2 MAJOR STORMS ON THE ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS FROM 1954-1967 Storm Area (United States) Damage Deaths $Millions 1954-Carol Atlantic coast 60 439 1954-Edna New England 21 41 1954-Hazel Mid-Atlantic 95 200 1955-Connie Carolinas 25 46 1955-Diane Atlantic coast 184 832 1955-lone North Carolina 7 42 1956-Flossy Gulf of Mexico 15 10 1957-Audrey Gulf of Mexico 390 138 1958-Helene North Carolina 0 11 1959-Gracie Mid-Atlantic 0 14 1960-Donna Atlantic coast 50 426 1961-Caria Texas 46 408 1962-March Storm Atlantic coast 33 200 1964-Cleo Florida-Virginia 3 130 1964-Dora Florida 5 250 1964-Hilda Louisiana 38 125 1965-Betsy Florida- Louisiana 75 1,420 1967-Beulah Texas 15 208 1968-Gilda Florida 2 - Average Annual Damage $353 Million Source: Environmental Science Services Administration. 111-33 333-093 0 - 69 - 13 it is too late, and can maintain substantial areas of -Improved forecasts of storms and waves. the coast in its natural or near-natural state. Protection of our seacoasts is by no means an Much previous discussion on shoreline erosion insurmountable problem. It is a task and a also is applicable here inasmuch as the more responsibility that has increased in importance in striking results of shoreline erosion are caused by the past 50 years and is destined to become of severe weather and storms. even greater importance. Damages due to particular storms during the 8 While the cost will mount as time passes, it will period 1954-1968 are shown in Table 2. be possible through careful planning, adequate A chart showing principal storm tracks affect- control, and sound engineering to do the job ing the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts is shown in Figure properly. 4. Panel hearings which offshore industries indi- 11. SHORELINE DAMAGE BY STORMS cated that, from the standpoint of safety and Protection of the shoreline and its associated economy, improvements in environmental predic- nearshore and offshore activities from storms is of tions are vital to these industries. vital importance to the development and use of Storm protection for backshore areas (as con- the coastal environment. This protection includes: trasted to beach stabilization) is handled under a separate policy initiated in 1958 as a result of a -Shoreline stabilization and beach protection -Protection of estuaries, harbors, and ports 8Figures furnished by Environmental Science Services Administration. Damages are approximate based on best against wave damage available records. HAZEL EDNA J, CAf z @Auo REY It HILDA FLOSSY - - - - - - -PRE AND POST HURRICANE STAGES HURRICANE STAGE RA CIE N EtENE DORA,' @Q" DIAN co N N IE CARLA IONE z, DONNA CLEO - - - - - - - - - - Figure 4. MajorAttantic storm tracks 1954-196Z (Source: Environmental Science Services Administration) 111-34 .series of hurricanes along the Atlantic Coast in the adequate- storm protection for a 1,400-acre estu- 1950's. arine area. A complicating factor is that Federal participa tion in coastal storm protection is more libera than that provided in shore stabilization. Federa aid in construction is 100 per cent for Federa frontage and up to 70 per cent for all other frontages regardless of ownership. No distinction is made between public and private frontages and benefits. Some 30 Federal projects have bee n instituted for storm protection, 10 of which are either completed or under construction. An ex- ample is the protection barrier constructed in 1966 at New Bedford-Fairhaven Harbor, Figure 5. New Bedford, Massachusetts, harbor Massachusetts, shown in Figure 5. This project, hurricane protection barrier. This barrier pro- tects 1, 730 acres of coastland from damage with a total cost of about $18,million, had a which reached $33 million in the 1954 hurri- Federal share of about $11 million. It provides cane. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photo) ERMONT, NEW HAMPSMIRE ,rV,__ A S S. AS 111117 01 (SODDING, 1954 HURRICANE is 7 TIES IRI C 0 N N i FAIRHAVEN"" kk STATE PIIIL.@ A VE #1 VE 6 Ito C V1411 _', , - ::.I- ", " - N11 LOCATION MAP @Tj ru, HUI Q N r- W BEDFORD OPINING % LRILLi "HIT 01 110011", DID '3 PAL N 0111.1 I IPROS II,, IWO 1@ _7 ATED CONDUITS U CUD,- 10 W YtHANCt M MAN L:, AN PUMPING, STATION GE STR 11 A I @q yv, 0, 'iX NERAL PLAN SCALE IN FEET CLARK COVE 11 low SOO 0 1000 2000 SINIII GAtt 111-35 However, such projects have aroused contro- -Value of bottom rehabilitation by means of versy concerning the possible harmful effects on dredging wildlife and pollution flushing rates. A massive project proposed by a Corps of -Effect of dredging on salt water intrusion Engineers Study9 responding to Congressional -Pollution control versus salinity control action envisioned a storm protection barrier across the mouth of Narragansett Bay. The pro- -Effect of dredging of inlets and their stabiliza- posed -barrier was opposed by many interests on tion the grounds that it would adversely affect recrea- tion, water quality, and fishery resources in the -Disposition of dredging spoil. Bay. Responding to the many questions raised, the Army reported against the project to Congress. Presently the principal control over dredging Combined hurricane protection and beach sta- a.nd .filling operations is incident to obstruction to bilization projects such as the Wrightsville Beach, navigable waters by the River.and Harbor Act of North Carolina, described in the preceding section 189910 and control is administered by the Corps of Engineers on a permit basis. met with greater favor. The multiple benefits of shore protection and recreation are more apparent. III. DREDGING AND FILLING Dredging and/or filling in coastal waters is the means by which most shoreline and port develop- ment is accomplished. It constitutes one of the major controversial issues today and perhaps the most severe problem of the future. Dredging can be defined as the removal of submerged material from the water bottom and can include the placement of such material as fill, or the overboard dumping of dredged spoil into Figure 6. Dredging and filling of estuaries has become a highly controversial issue Estuaries adjacent waters of an estuary or lake. are necessary to the life cycles of many im- Dredging is carried on for a variety of reasons: portan t fish species. (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife photo by John Clark) -Creation and maintenance of navigable channels Because of the responsibilities inferred by the and inlets for commercial and recreational use Federal Water Pollution Control Act," the Fish -Creation of useful property, marinas, and rec- and Wildlife Coordination Act 12 and the Execu- reational areas tive Order on Federal Water Pollution Activity 13 and the proposed legislative threat of' a "dual -Improved flushing action in bays and estuarine permit" system, the Secretary of Interior and creeks Army enacted a "Memorandum of Understanding" -Commercial mining of sand, gravel, and oyster on July 13, 1967 in which the Corps of Engineers would consider the effects on fish and wildlife, shell. recreation, and pollution in the Corps of Engineers Much debate arises out of lack of knowledge navigation control projects and in the issuance about the consequences of dredging. The areas io Act of March 3, 1899, 30 Stat. 1151, 33 U.S.C. needing clarification include: 401-418. 1 lAct of July 17, 1952, as amended, 66 Stat. 755, 16 -Influence of dredging on fish and shellfish U.S.C. 466-466k. ecology 12 Act of March 10, 1934, as amended, 48 Stat. 401, 16 U.S.C. 661-666c. 9 Act of June 15, 1955, Public Law 84-71, 69 Stat. 13 Executive Order 11288, July 2, 1966. This order 131, authorized a hurricane survey of the Narragansett requires compliance, insofar as practicable, by Federal Bay area. The report is House Document No. 450, 89th departments and agencies *ith the Federal Water Pollu- Congress, May 31, 1966.1 tion Control Act (33 U.S.C. 666h). 111-36 of Corps permits. However, a recent, court Table 3, prepared by the Fish and Wildlife order 14 indicates that this arrangement may not Service,' 7 shows a summary of A 20-year record of be a means of effective control. the loss of important fish and wildlife estuarine Spoil disposal from dredging operations is a habitat. significant hindrance to the increased utilization of Of the tidal wetlands along our North Atlantic coastal and estuarine waters. Maintaining water- Coast, from Maine to Delaware, 45,000 acres of ways and dredging them deeper produces great marshland were destroyed in the 10-year period amounts of spoil to be disposed of. Despite careful 1955-1964. An inventory kept in the last five of diking or other placing, spoils often encroach on those years shows that 34 per cent was lost to valuable wildlife or shellfish lands. Spoil dumped dredge spoil deposit; 27 per cent to fill for housing in deeper water may degrade water quality and developments; 15 per cent to recreational develop- cause undesirable sedimentation. ment (parks, beaches, marina); 10 per cent to bridges, roads, parking lots, and airports; 7 per IV. LOSS OF WILDLIFE AND NUTRIENT- cent to industrial sites; 6 per cent to garbage and RICH AREAS trash dumps; and I per cent to other causes.' 8 Among the more serious effects man is pro- Awareness of this problem is growing and ducing on the coastal environment is the loss of States have taken action. Rhode Island passed a wildlife and nutrient areas, principally in the Marshland Zoning Act in 1965 (H-1643) to restrict estuarine regions. The central causes are identified use of coastal wetlands to public health, marine as pollution and the filling of marsh lands. fisheries, wildlife and other conservation purposes. As noted in -Chapter 2, coastal and estuarine The Rhode Island Department of Natural Re- waters and marshlands are vital to the life support sources has gained some measure of zoning power of about two-thirds of the entire fisheries harvest. over the marshes from this legislation. - During the past 20 years about seven per cent of A large-scale survey of that State's wetlands led important estuarine fish and wildlife habitat has to designation of areas that should be protected. been lost to shorelands development. Priorities have been assigned to areas deemed Research reported in 1960 by Dr. E. P. valuable. An acquisition program has begun, and Odom" showed the productivity of Georgia under it the State was authorized to purchase estuarine waters to be about 10 tons of dry marshland and hold it in public ownership for organic matter per acre per year. This is nearly conservation. @twice that of the best agriculture lands and In 1963 and 1965, Massachusetts passed approximately seven times greater than Conti- amendments to its Coastal Wetlands Laws which nental Shelf fishing banks, and 20 times greater gave authority for protection of wetlands. The than the open ocean. State can acquire land by eminent domain and Located at the mouths of rivers, estuaries are compensate the owner when the action amounts particularly vulnerable to the. ill effects of pollu- to land-taking. Also the State was given authority tion and sediment from the river basin and from to establish regulations and restrictions to govern the great coastal cities that have arisen from the wetlands alterations. early centers of ocean commerce. At the same In the first court action since enactment of the time, land fills, dredging, draining of marshes, and Massachusetts Coastal Wetlands Laws, the right of dumping reduce their surface areas. For example, the State to prevent a construction firm from about 80 per cent of the 300 square miles of tidal filling over a marsh with dredge spoil was wetlands that originally surrounded San Francisco upheld.' 9 The court ruled that "Marsh is ... Bay have been loSt.1 6 14 ZaW V. Tabb, No. 67-200, Civ-T, Middle District, 17 Report of Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife to Florida, March 14, 1968. See discussion of this case in House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee, 90th Chapter 8. Congress, March 6, 1967. 15 Eugene P. Odum, "Estuarine Agriculture," in Sympo- 18Report of Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife to sium on Estuarine Ecology: Coastal Waters of North the National Audobon Society Convention, Boston, Carolina, University of North Carolina, 1966. Massachusetts, October 1965. , 16 Report of the San Francisco Bay Conservation and "Commission of Natural Resources v. S. Volpe & Co., Development Commission, 1968. 349 Mass. 104, 206 N.E.2d 666 (1965). 111-37 Table 3 LOSS OF WILDLIFE AND NUTRIENT AREAS Acres of estuaries Area of Area lost by Per cent Tota I area important dredging loss of State thousands) habitat and filling. habitat .(thousands) (thousands) Alabama . . . . . . . . 530 133 2 1.5 Alaska . . . . . . . . . 11,023 574 1 .2 California . . . . . . . . 552 382 256 67.0 Connecticut . . . . . . . 32 20 2 10.3 Delaware . . . . . . . . 396 152 9 5.6 Florida . . . . . . . . . 1,051 796 60 7.5 Georgia . . . . . . . . . 171 125 1 .6 Louisiana . . . . . . . . 3,545 2,077 65 3.1 Maine . . . . . . . . . 39 15 1 6.5 Maryland . . . . . . . . 1,406 376 1 .3 Massachusetts . . . . . . . 207 31 2 6.5 Michigan . . . . . . . . 152 152 4 2.3 Mississippi . . . . . . . . 251 76 2 2.2 New Hampshire . . . . . . 12 10 1 10.0 New Jersey . . . . . . . . 778 411 54 13.1 New York .. . . . . . . . 377 133 20 15.0 New York State (Great Lakes) 49 49 1 1.2 North Carolina . . . . . . 2,207 794 8 1.0 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . 37 37 2 .3 Oregon . . . . . . . . . 58 20 1 3.5 1 2 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . 5 5 2.0 Rhodelsland . . . . . . . 95 15 1 6.1 South Carolina . . . . . . 428 269 4 1.6 Texas . . . . . . . . . 1,344 828 68 8.2 Virginia . . . . . . . . . 1,670 428 2 .6 Washington . . . . . . . . 194 96 4 4.5 1 2 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . 11 11 .0 Total . . . . . . . 26,618 7988 569 7.1 Source: Fish and Wildlife Service. In Great Lakes only shoals (areas less than 6 feet deep) were considered as estuaries. Less than 500 acres. necessary to preserve and protect marine fish- areas lost were shellfish grounds. Of 22 seacoast eries." States, loss of important habitat was reported for A significant part of the problem in destruction oysters and crabs in 18, clams in 14 and shrimp in of coastal habitats is the loss or restriction of sport 10. or commercial shellfishing due to shorelands devel- Early maps of the San Francisco Bay Area show opment or pollution. A current suivey2 0 of nearly all shoal waters producing oysters. and shoreline uses by coastal states showed the greatest clams. Recent studies" estimate 175,000 acres of 20 John I. Thompson & Co., A Perspective of Regional potential oyster bottom remain, including areas and State Marine Environmental Activities, contract 21 report to the Institute of Public Administration, February Report of the San Francisco Bay Conservation and 1968. Development Commission, 1968. 111-38 to aquatic life. Ditches at sea level can be beneficial by providing entry to the marsh for fish, by allowing better irrigation of the. marsh by tidal action, and by facilitating passage of nutrients out of the marsh to the bay. Impounding marshes with dikes or levees to prevent mosquito breeding tends to make fresh water lagoons of the marshes and to eliminate them as places which can support marine and brackish-water life. Here the conflict of public interests requires a balancing of the value of marine fish resources against the nuisance of mosquitoes. Furthermore, diking proposals also may involve balancing bene- Figure 7. In the last 20years more than seven fits to marine fish resources against benefits to percent of the Nation's important estuarine waterfowl and fresh water fish resources, since area has been lost, principally to housing de- current waterfowl improvement techniques often velopment. (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife photo by Richard Stone) involve diking off salt water areas to create fresh water impoundments. contaminated by pollution., Since an estimated 83 V. MODIFICATION AND DIVERSION OF per cent of estuarine marshlands has been elinii- FLOW nated in San Francisco Bay, one may calculate at least an equal loss of oyster bottom, or about Coastal engineering projects such as harbor 825,000 acres. In 1936@ 61/a million pounds of Bay channels, power plant and flood control diversions shrimp were harvested, but only 10,000 pounds in can affect the circulation, flushing and mixing 1966. Softshell clams have vanished from the Bay. dynamics of coastal or adjacent waters. At the peak of the Connecticut shellfish indus- Estuarine waters usually are low in salinity, try in 1900, approximately 27,000 acres of marsh- with salt water from the sea continually bemig land existed .2 2 Today only approximately 9,000 diluted with fresh water from rivers. This dilution acres remain and the rate of loss is alarming. In sets up a pattern of decreasing salinity from the Fairfield County alone between 1954 and 1964, ocean, up through the bays and into the tidal 933 acres of marshland or 45 per cent of the rivers. Since the whole variety of estuarine life is marshland that existed in 1954 were destroyed by adjusted to salinity patterns, changing them can development. Of Fairfield County's remaining have disruptive effects. 1,100 acres of marshland, only approximately 100 Many human activities affect the quantity of acres is assured as a wildlife preserve. Thirty per fresh water inflow, its temporal distribution, and cent of the shellfish grounds in Connecticut contents. River flow can be reduced, especially by presently are closed by the State Health Depart- diversion for cities, for irrigation of agricultural ment because of poorwater quality. land, and by intentional or accidental use of Mosquito control projects have devastating side spillways or breaks in levees. effects on fish and other aquatic life. Although Conversely, flow is increased in the basins DDT and other insecticide pollutants are the most receiving the diversion. Frequently, increased total dramatic killers, there are other damaging control output is the result of denuding the watershed by activities. removing vegetation and by other activities that Drying marshes by cutting drainage ditches is a decrease absorption and subsurface retention. In- popular method of preventing mosquitoes from crease in runoff is especially vivid in paved urban breeding. This has complicated effects in relation areas and along highways where as much as 30 acres per mile is paved or carefully sloped to 22Report of J. Richard Nelson, Chairman, Connecticut maximize runoff.2 3 As. a consequence, there is Shellfish Commission to Subcommittee on Fisheries and 23 Wildlife Conservation of the House Merchant Marine and C. E. Renn, "Man as a Factor in the Coastal Fisheries Committee, March 1967. Other statistics in this Environment," Transactions of North American Wildlife paragraph also come from this report. Conference, 1956. 111-39 greater variation in river flow, greater flooding in layered flow pattern with a surface layer flowing high-flow periods, and drought in low-flow sea- seaward and a deeper layer flowing up the estuary. sons. Thus, Charleston Harbor became a trap for the Counteracting forces do exist, however, in increased amounts of sediment, and dredging improved general conservation practices and in the required to maintain the channel has increased increasing number of small and large dams, many from less than SOO,000 cubic yards prior to 1942 specifically. designed for moderation of river flow to a current volume of over 10,000,000 cubic and planned release of water. yards. Dams can interrupt natural flow and salinity One proposed solution" to Cooper River levels by storing fresh water for long periods and shoaling is, to divert the water back into the Santee then quickly releasing large quantities. The inter- River. This is an alternative to an original proposal mittant flow, with sudden changes in salinity and to divert the fresh water into a high-salinity coastal heavy silt load, may be a strong deterrent to fish marsh habitat which would have had a serious and bottom life. effect on valuable fish nursery grounds (see Figure However, the converse, reducing large 'seasonal 8). variations in fresh water flow by controlling the I@ORIGINAL river discharge through dams and low-flow aug- -DAM (1942) mentation can cause ' problems. For example, ^./ I I I circulation in the small tributary embayments of FINAL RECOMMENDED Chesapeake Bay is produced by salinity differences SOLUTION 24 between the tributary and the Bay proper. Since the water is derived from the main Bay, the Lale . u It. salinity in the tributary must lag behind Bay M ,i, salinity. If the Susquehanna River discharge were to be controlled to the extent that seasonal IRST changes in upper Bay salinity disappeared, then 'PROPOSED @0 the prime mechanism for flushing of several DIVERSION tributaries also would disappear. Pollution -prob-. lems within the tributaries would increase and lead to significant ecological effects. Engineers concerned with estuarine environ- _901 tell, ment problems also have become keenly aware in Price Inlet recent years that the amount of fresh water Oh4deaton discharged into an estuary, and the degree to which it mixes with sea water, are major factors in Atlantic Ocean establishing the hydraulic and shoaling regimens of the estuary. An example of what can happen by a change in the density structure of estuarine waters is CHARLESTON HARBOR, S.C. Charleston Harbor, located at the mouth of the Figure 8. Water diversion: Cooper and Cooper River. Prior to a water diversion made in Santee Rivers, South Carolina 1942, the amount of fresh water flowing down the A coastal bay or estuary has a complex ecology Cooper into the estuary was small compared to the related to the physical characteristics of its basin. inflow and outflow of the tide, and the estuary Natural processes such as storms and slow climatic was vertically homogeneous. When fresh water was changes will disturb this balance and man can added from the Santee River to provide a source drastically, alter it. of hydroelectric power, it changed into a two- Coastal and inlet deep draft channel openings can contribute to salinity intrusions while hurri- 24D.W. Pritchard, "Modhication and Management of Water Flow in Estuaries," Symposium on Beneficial 25U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, District, Charleston, Modifications to the Marine Environment, Washington, Survey Report on Cooper River, S.C. (Shoaling in D.C., 1968. Charleston Harbor), July 1966. 111-40 cane barriers and similar structures can reduce the An example of tradeoffs is the Bonnet Carre salinity inflow, with commensurate changes in the Spillway constructed in 1932 to protect New ecology of the area. Orleans from Mississippi River floods. When Water diversion may disturb the migratory opened under flood conditions, it diverts water patterns of fish. It has been found 16 that the flow into Lake Pontchartrain, and eventually the Gulf reversal in the San Joaquin River, because of of Mexico. All the receiving area is estuarine. In exportation of water through a power plant, has Lake Pontchartrain, motile organisms are driven apparently affected salmon runs, presumably be- out, and many non-motile forms are killed by low cause "home stream" water was not present to salinities. Most or all oysters in mud covered beds stimulate ascent and spawning. Further, the vigor are destroyed, with lower loss over a wider area, of estuarine circulation, greatly affected by flow, although oyster pests and predators are also killed. determines the reproductive rate necessary for Nutrient is added to the area in great quantities. maintenance of plankton populations.2 7 Following return to normal salinities, unusually Management authority is faced with the diffi- great production of shrimp and other marine life is cult task of weighing beneficial aspects against observed. Following a careful stud y28 it has been harmful results in deciding on man-made changes submitted that the total beneficial economic effect to an environment. outweighs the partial oyster mortalities that occur 26 D. Gaussle and D. W. Kelley, "The Effect of Flow in some years. A photograph of this project is Reversal on Salmon," in Annual Report, Delta Fish and shown in Figure 9. Wildlife Protection Study, 196 3. 27 B. H. Ketchum, "Relation Between Circulation and 28 G. Gunter, Mortality of Oysters and Abundance of Planktonic Populations in Estuaries," Ecology, Vol. 35, Certain Associates as Related to Salinity, Ecology, Vol. 1954. 36,1955. & !N1 @4_ K;l Figure 9. Bonnet Carre Spillway, Louisiana. Mississippi River floodwater is diverted into saltwaters of Lake Ponchartrain. Here flood protection must be weighed against attendant shellfish losses. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photo). 111-41 A classic example of a permanent man-made some of the same symptoms as Lake Erie. Dr. change is the conversion of the Zuider Zee in the David C. Chandler, Director of the Great Lakes Netherlands from a salt water estuary to a fresh Research Division, Institute of Science and Tech- water lake between 1932 and 1940. nology, University of Michigan, in testimony This modification added land area and fresh before the panel 'stated that the common denomi- water resources and decreased thevulnerability of nator limiting the multiple use of the Great Lake the area to winter storms. Valuable mussel and resources is water pollution. Most authorities oyster industries were destroyed but a limnetic agree. fimfish industry has been established. The Federal Water Pollution Control Bold actions such as this should be included in Administration 30 identifies the major physical long range planning to cope with the increasing problems of the Great Lakes area as: demands of the Nation's development. However, planning must always be accompanied by an - Over-enrichment of the lakes attempt to understand thoroughly the physical - Build-up of dissolve Id solids in the lakes and biological consequences. - Bacterial contamination of the lakes and tribu- taries Chemical contamination from industrial waste discharges Waddenzee Oxygen depletion of the lakes and tributaries. Historically, young lakes are relatively barren bodies of water in terms of the amount of biological life which they support. As aging prog- resses, the material retained by a lake gradually increases in the bottom sediments. Through bac- terial and other decomposition of sediments, the lake waters become richer in nutrient materials to AMSTERDAM which phytoplankton, the population of zoo- plankton, and higher animal forms respond as the food supply increases. Finally, deposits from biological activity, both organic and inorganic, and materials from the tributary waters fill the basin to Figure 10. ne old Zuider Zee, cut off by an the extent that roo 'ted aquatic plants take com- enclosure dike to convert an estuary to a lake mand and gradually convert the area to marsh and dry land land .31 The aging process is known as "eutrophica- V1. EUTROPHICATION29 tion," which can be defined as the process of enrichment with nutrients. 3' Accelerated eutro- Sophisticated instrumentation is hardly neces- phication or over-enrichment of the lakes results sary to alert the public to the fact that something from the input of nutrient materials, mainly has gone awry in lake Erie. People cannot enjoy nitrogen and phosphorus, from man's activities. its use in the same ways that they could 20 years ago. It is also evident that the southern part of 30 Water Pollution Problems.of the Great Lakes Areas, Lake Michigan and parts of Lake Ontario exhibit 1966. 31 Clair N. Sawyer, "Basic Concepts of Eutrophica- 29 in a tion," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, pp. Much of the material in this section was taken fto 737-744, May 1966. contract report of the Commission, Pacific Northwest 32 Laboratories, Battelle Memorial Institute, Great Lakes K. M. Stewart and G. A. Rohlich, Eutrophication-A Restoration-Review ofPotentials and Recommendations Review, report to the State Water Quality Control Board, for Implementation, June 17, 1968. State of California (1967). 111-42 Normally, the natural aging process proceeds at a to the coarse, less valuable fish such as carp, slow pace measured by the geological time scale. catfish, and sheepshead. However, man has so accelerated this time scale, through his discharge of nutrients to the lakes, that 7 Nuisance filamentous algae growing in shallow significant aging is observed within a generation. waters near shore@ break loose and wash up onto, Accelerated eutrophication is emphasized in shores and beaches. this report because it is the most critical problem, - Unsightly, odorous conglomerates of algal and in terms of impairment of benefits, facing the other pollutants interfere with recreational use of Great Lakes. Its remedy will require a number of waters and beaches, clog municipal and industrial curative measures. Other problems such as buildup water intakes, and depress property values. of dissolved solids and oxygen depletion are closely 33 intertwined with eutrophication. Water quality assessments indicated that nearly 0 of Lake Erie is eutrophic, Lake Ontario is on Accelerated eutrophication of Lake Erie is the verge of becoming eutrophic, and Lake manifest in the following ways: Michigan is exhibiting some of the symptoms of eutrophy in certain areas, particularly in the Blue-green algal blooms and other algal groups southwestern portion. Isolated examples of pollu- such as diatoms produce noxious odors and at tion have been observed in Lakes Huron and times appear as unsightly scum on the water Superior, although their water quality is generally surface. 34 considered good. Oxygen can be depleted through the addition These same algae impart unpleasant tastes to of organic substances to the receiving bodies of water supplies. water and the proliferation of algae associated - Dissolved oxygen levels are depressed in ther- with eutrophic conditions. Organic pollutants, mally stratified areas. where controllable, can be dealt with by implement- ing treatment methods required to meet water - Bottom-dwelling fauna change from clean water quality standards. forms to less desirable forms that are tolerant to The principal nutrients of concern in the pollution and low oxygen concentration. enrichment process of eutrophication are phos- phorus and nitrogen compounds. Other nutrients - Fisheries resources have changed from highly also' have been implicated as contributors to prized game fish, such as pike, trout, and whitefish accelerated eutrophication, including vitamins, growth hormones, and arnino acids. In addition, 33 J. F. Carr, Dissolved Oxygen in Lake Erie, Past and trace elements are known to play a major role in Present, University of Michigan Great Lakes Research the process, but their relative importance is 91- Division Publication No. 9, pp. 1-14. 3-1 defined. The most important contributors to eutrophica- tion ranked in order are: Municipal wastewater @T Sedimentation Agricultural runoff. 34 Alfred M. Beeton, "Indices of Great Lakes Eutrophi- cation," Proceedings, Ninth Conference on Great Lakes Figure 11. Symptoms of accelerated eutroph- Research, Great Lakes Research Division, University of ication in the Great Lakes include odorous and Michigan, Publication No. 15, 1966. unsightly algal blooms which foul beaches and 3 deteriorate water quality. (Department of the sE. J. Martin, and L. W. Weinberger, "Eutrophication Interior ph o to) and Water Pollution," ibid. 111-43 A. Municipal Wastewater comprised of eroded soil, leached salts and ferti- Nitrogen can be fixed directly from the atmos- lizers, and excess fertilizer. Measures to alleviate phere by biological life. But phosphorus is a more some nutrient contribution from agricultural run- readily controllable nutrient. In the Great Lakes off include land management techniques (contour the dominant source of nutrients, especially phos- plowing, for example), judicious fertilizer applica- phorous, is municipal wastewater, mainly sewage. tion, and where possible, controlled water addi- A Federal Water Pollution Control Agency survey tion. Because treatment cannot be applied to point has shown that 75 per cent of the phosphorus. sources, it is difficult to control nutrients in added to Lake Erie annually comes from' munic- agricultural nmoff. This problem is a major one in ipal wastewater. Moreover, about 66 per cent of terms of accelerated eutrophication of the Great the phosphorus is associated with detergents. Lak es- Approximately two-thirds of this nutrient is re- tained in the lake, principally by incorporation in bottom sediments. Needless to say, the effects of municipal waste- water discharges have drastically effected the aging of the Great Lakes, Lake Erie in particular. There can be no doubt that the discharge of domestic sewage has been a predominating contributor to the deterioration of water quality, not only because of nutrients but also because of bacterial and organic contamination. Whereas eutrophication is measured on a geo- Figure 12. Eutrophication is a natural, long- logical time, scale under natural conditions, acceler- term process of lake aging. However man-made ated eutrophication resulting from man's activities accelerated eutrophication through pollution may transform a lake into a swamp within a is evident in a single lifetime. lifetime. (Department of the Interior photo) B. Sedimentation The preceding discussion identified municipal Other contributors to eutrophication having a wastewater as the principal source of nutrients in lesser but still significant impact are: the Great Lakes. 36 Sedimentation, including silts, - Industrial wastewater erosion and agricultural runoff, dead biological - Combined storm sew .age life, and wastewater residues, is the second most important source of nutrients. - Urban land drainage As silts and erosion runoff flow into a lakej nutrients are dissolved and are available for biolog- - Dredging ical utilization. Land use practices, especially land - Tributary inflow. area development practices in urban as well as agricultural areas, have contributed to the prob- Still others have been identified but having a low lem. If measures are not undertaken to control this nutrient source, accelerated eutrophication will be impact are: rapid, second only to municipal wastewater @1- Watercraft wastes effects. C. Agricultural Runoff - Oil discharges Agricultural runoff is also a significant source - Thermal discharges of nutrients entering the Great Lakes. It is - Waterfowl 36 L. R. Webber and D. E. Elrich, "The Soil and Lake - Subsurface disposal Eutrophication," Proceedings, Tenth Conference on Great Lakes Research, ibid., pp. 404-412, 1967. - Atmospheric quality deterioration. 111-44 Obviously, ranking is general and for local -Jellyfish: Atlantic coast, especially Chesapeake problems it may not fit. But in the Great Lakes it Bay indicates orders of magnitude. ds: New England, Long Island, Accelerated aging or eutrophication of certain -Aquatic Wee Great Lakes is not the sole cause or symptom of Chesapeake Bay, South Atlantic and Gulf water- deterioration of water quality. However, because ways the effects of other pollutants are so intimately -Sharks: many coastal areas linked to this phenomenon, preventing accelerated eutrophication and restoring the water quality in -Alewives: Great Lakes. eutrophic lakes will help to improve other quality Marine pests can be a very real problem which problems such as oxygen depletion caused by the can affect the economy and the development of a biodegradation of organic wastes. region, It must be realized that predicting what would Man often has contributed to dramatic in- happen to the eutrophication trend through re- creases of marine pests by increasing nutrients, moval of any single nutrient source is virtually accidentally introducing the species, modifying the impossible. While priorities should be established salinity, or eliminating the predators. to deal with both preventive and restorative techniques, many methods will have to be imple- A. Jellyfish mented before effective restoration is achieved. Any plan.for restoring the Great Lakes is a All waters surrounding the United States con- tremendous undertaking because of the scale and tain venomous jellyfish and other related orga- nature - of resources involved. Technology for nisms. The East Coast and Gulf Coast States are dealing with freshwater environments is not ori- affected at times by invasions of jellyfish, leading ented toward problems of this magnitude; how- to severe restrictions of water-based activities. ever, technology in the marine sciences has been The notorious portuguese man-of-war directed toward the solution of large scale prob- (Physalia) is virulent and sometimes so abundant lems. that'it forces the closure of major beaches,, and Note- EutTophication, both in the Great Lakes and in gravely damages the image and quality of Florida's general, has been the subject of much research and many greatest asset. The coastal areas of the New scientific and popular articles discuss this topic. Readers England States aiyd New York are subject to will find the following papers useful: Lake Erie Basin Committee, League of Women Voters, Lake Erie: Re- intermittent swarms of jellyfish, brought to the quiem or Reprieve?, 1966; K. M. Stewart and G.A. inshore areas by vagaries of the coastal currents Rohlich, "Eutrophication-A Review," Publication No. 34, State Water Quality Control Board, State of and winds. California, 1967; C. F. Powers and Andrew Robertson, In Chesapeake Bay, the problem is particularly "The Aging Great Lakes," Scientific Amen .can, pp. 94-104, November 1966; W. J. Oswald and C. G. Golueke, acute because of the summer sea nettle (Chrysaora "Eutrophication Trends in the United States-A Prob- quinquecirrha), which on contact with a bather lem?, Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, pp. 964-974, June 1966; E. G. Fruh, K. M. Stewart, G. F. produces a skin irritation so severe. that swimming Lee, and G. A. Rohlich, "Measurements of Eutrophica- in Chesapeake Bay virtually ceases when the pests tion and Trends," ibid., pp. 1237-1258, August 1966; B. Commoner, "The Killing of a Great Lake," The 1968 appear from late June to early October. The World Book Supplement to the World Book Encyclo- common sea nettle is umbrella shaped, is about pedia; Department of Health, Education and Welfare, U.S. Public Health Service, Pollution of Lake Erie and Its eight inches in diameter and has tenacles streaming Mbutaries-Part], 1965. up to 30 inches beneath. Under severe conditions as many as 50 sea nettles per cubic yard have been counted .3 " The sea nettle also presents problems VII. PROLIFERATION OF PESTS AND OTHER to industrial boating and commercial fishing inter- SPECIES ests by clogging pump intakes and nets, causing nets to rot, and causing skin irritations to those The existence of or proliferation of unwanted handling these materials. species is a problem of many regions although the 37 L. E. Cronin, Director, Chesapeake Biological types and effects of the species vary considerably, Laboratory, testimony to House Merchant Marine and These include: Fisheries Committee, Sept. 28, 1967. 111-45 In 1967 CongreSS3 8 appropriated $100,000 in Michigan Tourist Association estimated that resort 39 matching funds to provide research on control or owners lost more than $50 million in 1967 . elimination ofjellyfish and other pests. Alewives were noted first in Lake Ontario in 1873, a few years after the introduction of shad B. Alewives (Pomolobus pseudoharengus) "into that lake. The alewives might have been accidentally included in the plantings of shad. The unnatural condition of alewives in the The Welland Canal was completed in 1829, but Great Lakes, especially Lake Michigan, was caused it was not an easy route for fish. The first sea primarily by the sea lamprey destroying large lampreys were not found in Lake Erie until 1921. predator fish. In the absence of predators the Alewives were reported in Lake Erie in 1931, in alewife thrived to the detriment of other fish. Lake Huron in 1933, Lake Michigan in 1949, and The explosive increase in recent years and the Lake Superior in 1954. severe die-off in 1967 were costly to States, The alewive was common in Lake Erie by 1942, communities, and industries on the lake. The West but never became extremely abundant. In Lake 38 39 Special Report to panel by Dr. J. L. McHugh, Deputy Jellyfish Control or Elimination in Coastal Waters Director, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Feb. .13, 1968. Act of November 2, 1966, Public Law 89-720, 80 Stat. This and the following material on the alewife problem 1149. was taken from that report. 4 IV A zl'P@@_ Figure 13. Alewife die off in Burnham Harbor, Lake Michigan. (Chicago Sun Times photo by Bob Langer) 7- FF I 111-46 Huron a large population of trout and other The Rivers and Harbors Act of - 1965 designated predators existed in 1930, but sea lampreys Eurasion Milfoil a major noxious aquatic plant and virtually eliminated them by the early 1940s. authorized the Corps of Engineers to investigate Alewives were abundant in Lake Huron by the mid methods of control and eradication. - 1950s. In Lake Superior, they are not yet abun- The University of Maryland 4' has conducted dant because of the large number of predators experiments to test milfoil as poultry or cattle remaining and because of the cold water. food. Results so far show it to be unfavorable as In Lake Michigan large predators were almost poultry food, but as good as high-quality hay for gone when the alewives were first found there in cattle. However, beginning in 1964 a disease has 1949. By 1956, they were abundant throughout infected the milfoil in Cheasapeake Bay which the Lake and, during the early 1960s, the number threatens to eliminate it.as either a nuisance or a of adults more than doubled each year. The use. As the milfoil recedes in Chesapeake Bay, population reached a peak in 1966-67. As they other aquatic plants such as water chestnuts increased, yellow perch were crowded from off- (Trapa natans) and sea lettuce (Uva ulvacede) shore areas. appear to be taking its place. The best control for alewives is the predator. The introduction of coho salmon in Lakes D. Water Hyacinths (Eichornia crassipes) Michigan and Superior suggests this species may be the most effective predator the lakes have ever For several years the growth of water hyacinths known. The coho, introduced by the Michigan has been an acute problem in South Atlantic and Conservation Department in 1966, has had a Gulf Coast States. These floating plants choke surprising growth rate. The mature fish average of waterways and obstruct navigation, recreation and 12 pounds may be reached in one year. Lake trout fishing. Added nutrients to coastal and estuarine normally require I I years to reach 12 pounds. waters appear to increase the plant's proliferation However, the introduction of salmon may and that of a similar pest, alligatorweed. result in a further imbalance of the ecology of the - ---------- Great Lakes. C. Eurasian Milfoil (Myriophyllum Spicatum) This species of aquarium plant, probably intro- duced into Chesapeake Bay by discarding a house- hold decoration, becomes a nuisance when it forms extensive beds that interfere with boating, swimming, and fishing. Dense beds of milfoil create muddy bottoms by serving as settling basins for silt particles. Extensive beds damage oysters and clams by reducing water circulation and cutting oxygen supplies to them. It was estimated Figure 14. Water hyacinth jam in a F7ofida in 1964 that about 100,000 acres of the Bay and waterway. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers its tributaries were infested with milfoil, although photo) some estimates ran as high as 200,000 acres.40 Milfoil usually grows in depths less than eight In 1958 legislation" first provided for control feet, but has been found at 12 feet. It grows best and progressive eradication of the water hyacinth, in fresh water but has shown a tolerance of up to alligatorweed, and other obnoxious aquatic plant 15 parts per thousand salinity, or half the concen- growths from the navigable waters, tributary tration of seawater. streams, connecting channels, and other allied waters in the States of North Carolina, South 40 Chesapeake Bay Case Study, report by Trident 41 Ibid. Engineering Associates to the National Council on Marine 42 Resources and Engineering Development, Oct. 20, 1967. Rivers and Harbors Act of July 3, 1958. 111-47 Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Act of 1965 further modified the project: that, Louisiana, and Texas. effective in 1968, all planning is wholly a Federal obligation, that the project area shall include all The 1958 Act provided that 70 per cent of the States, and that Eurasian milfoil is named with cost would be borne by the United States and 30 water hyacinth and alligatorweed as major obnox- per cent by local interests. The Rivers and Harbors ious aquatic plants. 111-48 Chapter 4 The Pollution Menace Man easily surpasses nature in his energy and inventiveness in polluting his environment. A river abrades its banks and muddies the downstream waters. A hurricane tears at a shoreline and buries a few acres of shellfish under the debris. An underwater volcano erupts and parboils nearby fish. But nature had to create man to create, in. turn, the devil's potion of pollution: oil spreading into the ocean from a stricken tanker; phosphates from washday detergents leaching into the estu- 7 T. aries; phenol and cyanide escaping from industrial 77L @7 - processing plants; waste-laden effluents pouring from some sewage treatment plants poorly de- signed or badly operated. Figure 1. Where they are needed most, many Pollutants are resources where they do not beaches in urban areas are closed or restricted belong. Pollution is an undesirable change in the because of pollution. (Federal Water Pollution characteristics of the air, land, or water that is Control Administration photo) harmful to human life and living conditions, or to 1. BACKGROUND FOR CRISIS the life of other desirable species. It occurs when 'we dump the residues of things we make or use, Pollution gains strength from increasing popula- the pollutants, into the environment. tion and increasing industrialization, and flourishes In this chapter, we concentrate on the pollution under inadequate management of the natural of our coastal zones. We recognize that this is Only environment. one aspect of the problem, w1dch is remindful of The Nation would be playing a fool's game if it the thermodynamic equation that states -that the expected that acts of Congress or improvements in energy going into a system equals the energy technology, no matter how imaginative, would be leaving a system. So, too, the products of industry able to clean up the pollution left by a population and agriculture, and the energies entering, say, an that increases without end. We agree with Stewart urban 'area are equal to the wastes leaving that L. Udall when he says, "No comprehensive policy area. To get rid of these wastes, we pour them into of our environment can fail to include recognition the passing estuaries; or burn them so that the of the hazards of irresponsible population growth. winds carry them away, or perhaps let them hang The Federal Government has for too long resisted as smog over the city; or bury them or lay them on involvement in this central issue." the land. We do not consume these products and If this issue is not addressed in time, then the energies, only use them. people of the Nation, like bacteria in a petri dish, Because we emphasize here the problems of will continue to multiply until they are poisoned disposing of the wastes through the Nation's by their own wastes. However, the dominant waterways, we are not in any way suggesting that factor is not ' the expanding population but the it is preferable to dispose of them into the air Of expanding' economy. Industrial pollution is in- on the land. If choices must be made, then we creasing at 4.5 per cent a year, or three times as 2 suggest that they be studied carefully and related fast as the population. to the short-term and long-term anticipated uses of the environment and the effects of the pollutants lRemarks of Stewart L. Udall, Secretary of the on these uses. The ideal solution would be to have Interior, before the Joint House-Senate Colloquium on a self-contained system within an urban area National Policy for the Environment, July 17, 1968. wherein the wastes are recycled to yield usable 217ederal Water Pollution Control Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior, The Cost of Clean Water, products. 1968, Vol. 1, p. 20. 111-49 333-093 0 - 69 - 14 We can gauge the size of the water pollution plants and a swimming area can coexist in the problem by considering the relation between the same area. Water quality is the common denomi- amount of fresh water available in the Nation and nator for the shared or multiple-use concept. the amount needed to carry away its wastes. The amount of fresh water that flows from the 11. TYPES OF POLLUTANTS continental United States and discharges into the To reduce the study of p .ollutioIn, its causes and oceans does not vary its total much and averages out at about 1,100 billion gallons a day. It is effects to a manageable form, the National Acad- estimated that in 1954 about 300 billion gallons of emy of Sciences-National Research Council the total available supply of water were withdrawn broadly classifies pollutants entering watercourses daily; of this amount, 190 billion gallons were in eight categories: 4 used to return wastes to the streams. It is further estimated that at the end of this century, nearly 1) Domestic sewage and other oxygen-demanding 750 billion gallons of water will be needed to carry wastes. Ordinarily these wastes are reduced to away our population's wastes. At that time, the stable compounds through the action of aerobic Nation will be withdrawing a little more than 80 bacteria that require and obtain oxygen from the per. cent of its total flow of fresh water, and will water. At excessive residue levels, the resultant be contaminating with polluted returns about oxygen reduction can have a serious impact on the two-thirds of the total floW.3 The Ancient life in the water. The oxygen-demanding fraction Mariner's lament, "Water, water everywhere, but of domestic and industrial waste is growing much not a drop to drink," could have greater relevance more rapidly than the efficiency of waste treat- to modern society than Samuel Coleridge could ment, so that by 1980, it is estimated, the oxygen ever have dreamt. demand of treated effluents will be great enough Predictably, pollution and its effects are felt to consume the entire oxygen content of a volume most strongly and do the most damage in our of water equal to the dry-weather flow of all of estuaries and Great Lakes. One reason is that the United States'22 river basins. populations tend to cluster in these zones. An- 2) 14ectious a gents. Although modern disinfec- other is that these areas are the most valuable tion techniques have greatly reduced the dangers portions of our marine environment and also the from disease-causing organisms in water, incom- most vulnerable to pollution. The hydrological and plete elimination of these agents from sewage and geological characteristics of estuaries make these domestic water supplies poses a continuing health waters a sink for the non-degrading wastes flowing hazard. in the river basins. Of the world's 10 largest metropolitan areas, 7 3) Plant nutrients. Growth of aquatic plant life is have developed on major estuaries. Today, 70 per directly related to the availability of mineral cent of our Nation's population lives within one hour's drive of an estuary, ocean or the Great 4Ibid. Lakes. Their personal and industrial wastes, r__ treated and untreated, pour into theseVaterways. Almost as important as the existence of water itself within the coastal zone is the quality of the water. Since the same water is often called upon to serve more and more masters, plans for shared use must be carefully laid, and compromises intro- duced in order to permit desired competing use to s L coexist. For example, harbors and healthy oysters can coexist if pollution levels are held down; similarly, properly designed sewage treatment Figure 2. Industrial wastes are a major source of water pollution. Besides blocking recreation ac- 3 cess to the waterfront, obsolete industrial plants National Academy of Sciences-National Research contribute to the total pollution problem: water, Council, Waste Management and Control, 1966, p. 12. air, and land (U.S. Coast Guard photo) 111-50 substances in solution -particularly nitrates and Ill. POLLUTION PRESSURES phosphates. Such minerals are a normal constit- Even as we write, pressures continue to mount, uent of land drainage and are also present in which increase the pollution problem. Some of highly concentrated form in domestic, industrial, these noted in chapters 2 and 3 include: and agricultural wastes returned to streams. PW- lemsfrom algae blooms and excessive plantgrowth a.re i.nereasingly troublesome in many of the -Rapidly increasing population. The demand for, nation's major lakes and effective remedial meas- water within the next 50 to 60 years will triple ures are largely lacking. while the population doubles. The increased per capita use of water will be caused by increased 4) Organic chemicals such as insecticides, pesti- urbanization and industrialization; rising levels of cides, and detergents. These substances are highly income; and increased leisure and outdoor recrea- toxic at very low concentrations. They have tion. Rising demand also involves requirements for caused spectacular kills of fish and wildlife. Of higher quality water than we have today. particular concern is our lack of knowledge of the effects of long-term and sublethal exposure. At -Greater mining of sand and gravel and possibly present, prospects appear poor for developing phosphates from off-shore locations. As we indi- methods either of effective treatment or of re- cated earlier (Chapter 2), although there are ample moval of the substances from water supplies. land-based deposits of sand and gravel for con- struction purposes, the cost of carrying these 5) Other minerals and chemicals. Included in this deposits to urban areas is high. In addition, the -group of industrial wastes are chemical residues, movement to "Keep America Beautiful" is tending petrochemicals, salts, acids, silts, and sludges. to close down some of the sand and gravel pits Some 400-500 new such chemical substances are near large cities. Consequently, off-shore deposits created for use each year. Many are known to be of these materials have become very attractive toxic although full knowledge of their exact when they are close to metropolitan areas. biological effects is lacking. Methods of removal -Increased desalting of estuarine and coastal are poorly developed. waters as technology improves, creating brine, heat and radioactive waste disposal problems. 6) Sediments from land erosion. Settleable and _Increased housing and commercial sites in estu- suspended solids resulting from land erosion fill aries, causing filling-in of marshes and bays, runoff stream channels and reservoirs, necessitate expen- of urban debris, and soil erosion. Commercial and sive additional treatment of water supplies, reduce private housing development was marked as the a stream's ability to assimilate oxygen-demanding second major cause of the loss of estuarine areas; wastes, blanket fish nests and food organisms and tend to mask out the light required by aquatic -7 plants. 7) Radioactive substances. Intense public concern has led to the successful development of tech- niques to prevent contamination under present conditions. ne anticipated large increase in nu- clear power reactors by the year 2000 poses a serious additional challenge, however. 8) Heat from power and industrial plants. Since the amount of dissolved oxygen that water can contain decreases with increasing water tempera- ture, introducing heat into a stream has an effect Figure 3. Massive oil spills from the tanker equivalent to that of introducing oxygen consum- Ocean Eagle off San Juan, Puerto Rico. (U.S. ing waste. Coast Guard photo) 111-51 by 1975, such developments will be the chief fueled power plants, are expected to supply cause. about half of the new generating capacity be- tween now and 1975. It is estimated that, by Ancreased volumes of pollutants such as pesti- 1980, the power industry will use one-fifth of cides, lead oxide from automobile exhausts, and the total fresh water runoff of the United States other industrial and agricultural wastes, most of for cooling. which eventually, end up in the Nation's coastal The -thermal effects of placing power plants zones. along an estuary or a coastline have yet to be fully investigated. The temperature of the cooling water Ancreased recreational demands, resulting in more channel dredging for marinas, Iand small-boat leaving a power plant is about 15-25* higher than harbors, shoreline modification for beach stabiliza- when it enters. This thermal shock is lethal to a tion, and pollutants from recreational vessels. The variety of marine animals, particularly in their recreation industry is one of the fastest growmig in larval stages. In addition, higher water tempera- the Nation and the recreation needs are growing tures produce heavier growths of aquatic algae and vegetation that are often undesirable. Such ecolog- much more rapidly than the population. ical changes can prevent the production of game Ancreased dredging for larger and deeper ports fish and otherspecies, resulting in their eventual and harbors, with accompanying loads of spoil. elimination. High temperatures may not only be Dredging activities do not necessarily pose major lethal but also may be a barrier to necessary pollution problems, although all dredging increases movement of migrant species of fish. water turbidity and hence has some ecological _7 effects. However, the major pollution problem Pw m7wX-1- with dredging is when the spoil itself is polluted. Once it is stirred up or deposited in other water 7@ areas, its effects are obviously spread. Lake Michigan currently is having problems stemming from the deposit of polluted dredged material. This was brought out during a conference held in Chicago early in 1968 composed of officials of the Federal Government and the four States bordering on Lake Michigan. The officials recognized that "the maintenance of waterways for commercial and navigational use is a constant y necessary activity." They concluded, however, Figure 4. Although massive oil spills are dis- astrous and must be controlled, a greater that "the continued deposition of dredged mate- problem exists in,smaller chronic spills from rial containing nutrients, oil, and solids of sewage Pass'.ng ships and loading piers, rendering many beaches continually unfit.for use. and industrial wastes in Lake Michigan poses a (photo by Kirk Reid) distinct threat to the quality of the lake." The Corps of Engineers agrees that wherever -Oil pollution and pollution from other hazardous practicable and as soon as practical dredge disposal materials. Pollution of the marine environment methods should be modified so that they will not through massive oil spills has received increasing unreasonably accentuate the water pollution prob- public notice because of several recent dramatic lem. situations involving damaged tankers. These occur- rences highlighted the ease with which natural -More and bigger nuclear-fired electric power resources and the economic life dependent upon plants located on the shorelines in order to obtain them could be wiped out by one unfortunate large quantities of cooling water. Electric power incident, and focused attention on the possibility production in this Nation has doubled during, of other such incidences.'Yet the most pervasive every decade since World War 11. Nuclear-fired pollution comes not from headlined oil spills but power plants, with their lower Rankine efficiency from the many activities that take place every day and therefore higher unit heat loss than fossil- underwater. There are about 16,000 oil wells off 111-52 .the continental United States, and the number is increasing by more than one thousand a year. There is rightful concern that oil well blow-outs, W@9 Wand leaks in pipelines, and storm damage can cause pollution that could ruin large parts of commercial fisheries, sportsfishing, and recreational areas. The extent of the oil pollution problem is PRIMARY AREA OF STUDY, intimately connected to the fact that nearly a billion barrels of oil a year are carried along the 90,000 miles of U.S. coastline and enter this Nation's ports. A Congressional committee found Mud& st-@ that Gil DIMI W.M. .1d of the various threats to our environment from oil pollution, the most serious occurs during transport of oil. This includes movement, loading, unloading, transfer, and cleanup. It includes bulk Wmcks movement by vessel, river, and lake barge, pipe- lines, road and rail tank cars, terminals, pump 1 1% 'X stations, and bulk marketing. Accidents, poor maintenance, carelessness, shortcutting of cleanup Figure 5. Waste dumping areas off New York operations, 'the apparatus and the methods used- More must be learned about the effects of all contribute to the problem.' dumping wastes at sea The immediate need is to stem the heavy damage to the Nation's resources arising from the panel believes that there should be appropriate 2,000 or more spills of oil and other hazardous limitations to a polluter's liability. However, the materials that occur each year in U.S. waterways. liability should be high enough to effectively deter The Administration took a commendable step potential polluters, and to cover much if not all of toward solving this problem when it formulated the cleanup-but not so high as to make insurance the National Multi-Agency Contingency Plan last unavailable. f 6 all. This panel endorses the concept of the Government reacting quickly and expeditiously to IV. FEDERAL ACTS, ORDERS, AND AGREE- stem the deleterious effects of an oil spill, as MENTSr detailed in the Plan. We believe, though, that its Federal interest in water pollution dates back creators were restrained by lack of sufficient legal many years, the first major effort occurring with authority to assign fiscal responsibility to those the Oil Pollution Act of 1924.' However, the agents, land-based or sea-based, responsible for . acts leading to pollut .ion of our waters by oil or intense public interest in pollution is a relatively similarly hazardous material. We endorse legislative new phenomenon. Congress has responded by creating the Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- efforts to assign such fiscal responsibility to the ministration through legislation passed in 1965. A owners and operators of offending vessels and year later Congress passed additional water pollu- installations, sea- and shore-based. One -_ practical-problem in assigning financial tion control legislation. Both pieces passed with- responsibility is that the effects of pollution may out a single dissenting vote, thereby underscoring. go on and on with no end to the legal liability of Congress' interest in clean water. This goal was the polluters. Insurance companies are loath to further stated by the President in Executive Order underwrite policies to cover all contingencies. This 11288, signed July 2, 1966. The Water Quality Act of 1965, one of the two 5Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of recent amendments to the Federal Water Pollution 1967, Report of the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Senate, Report No. 917, Dec. 11, 1967. 7 6 33 U.S.C. 431 et seq. This Act prohibits the National Multi-Agency Oil and Hazardous Materials discharge of oil from any boat or vessel into navigable Contingency Plan, September 1968. waters of the United States or upon the shoreline. 111-53 Control Act,8 contains a requirement of historic additional executive and legislative action will be significance -that water quality standards for inter- needed. state waters be set by the States, and then be Each State, having set its water quality stand- approved as Federal standards by the Secretary of ards, has the responsibility to monitor the waters the Interior. Congress defined "interstate waters" to which these standards apply and enforce their to include all coastal waters. Coastal waters are application. those waters affected by the ebb and flow of the The Nation should know how well this program tide and clearly include estuaries.' is proceeding. Therefore, this panel recommends All States, the District of Columbia, Puerto that the Secretary of the Interior prepare a Rico, and the Virgin Islands have subn-dtted water biennial report of the pollution level of each of the quality standards. By the middle of 1968, most Nation's estuaries and how it relates to the had been approved as Federal standards. The progress the various States are making in their remainder were under review by the Department pollution abatement programs under Ahe Water of the Interior. Quality Act of 1965. Data for the inventory The standards identify uses of the waters, should be gathered by the individual States with including agricultural, municipal, industrial, recrea- the cooperation and support of the Federal Gov- tional, fishery and wildlife. They indicate the ernment. water, quality necessary to support each use, and Long-range water quality planning is clearly include plans to implement and enforce this essential (1) to satisfy the needs of local commu- quality. nities, States, and the Nation, (2) to allocate The Nation does not yet have enough experi- ence to know whether the Water Quality Act of @7@ , 19 1965 will be effective in protecting and enhancing @MMOW*WOMOM 0i the waters of its coastal zone. Suggestions have been made that the Secretary of the Interior be given authority to seek court action against poten- tial polluters. We feel that such authority would 'L not necessarily be more effective than the means that the States and Federal Water Pollution Con- trol Administration already have. Moreover, awarding such authority would be premature since time must be given to test -and appraise adequately t the effectiveness and enforcement of the water LzVlh quality standards. Through effective State-Federal relationships in carrying out the provisions of the Water Pollution Control Act, we see a powerful instrument for fashioning a healthy coastal zone system. The intent of this act would be further abetted if 6, public hearings were called prior to any action that would appear to affect significantly the water quality of the coastal zone. Such public hearings I_II,1:i.41 are now required only if standards are to be 7,- changed. If after sufficient experience the Nation finds that the water quality of its coastal zone is -%t nonetheless being unacceptably degraded, then 8 33 U.S.C. 466. 9 Contained in memorandum of June 13, 1966, to Figure 6. "Combined" storm sewers are a Commissioner, Federal Water Pollution Control Admini- major source of water pollution by municipal stration from Solicitor, U.S. Department of the Interior, sewage. (Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- Interior Memo No. M-36690. ministration photo) 111-54 effectively the energies and money to reach these When that Act was passed, commerce and not ends, and (3) to realize them expeditiously. We pollution attracted National attention. Thus, the therefore suggest that States look ahead 10-20 Act is concerned solely with the navigational years and enunciate their long-range plans and aspects of waterways. More recent Federal regula- priorities for the water quality of their coastal tions appear to give the Corps the added responsi- zones. In turn, the Federal Government should use bility of preventing undue destruction of the .these programs and priorities as guides to rank resource-rich estuaries. Literature of the Corps Federal priorities and assign funds to States. states: The second of the recent amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Clean The determination as to whether a permit will be Water Restoration Act of 1966, authorized $3.4 issued will be based on an evaluation of all relevant billion in Federal grants to municipalities over a factors including the effect of proposed work on four-year period to help build sewage treatment navigation, fish and wildlife, conservation, pollu- plants and interceptor sewers. This money is tion, and the general public interest. 77ie Corps intended to help remove the backlog of con- will accept comments on these factors, which will struction of waste treatment plants and to help be made part of the record and will be considered keep pace with the need for new construction in determining whether it will be in the best public created by increased population and output of interest to grant a permit. effluents. On a cost-sharing basis with municipalities and Yet whether the Corps can deny an applicant a the States, the money would buy about $8 billion permit on any basis except navigation has not yet of construction. However, Congressional appropri- been fully tested in court. 12 ations have lagged authorizations. Starting in FY Several regulations purport to affect the grant- 1968, the annual authorized funds are as follows: ing of Corps' permits for reasons other than $450 million, $700 million, $1 billion, and $1.25 navigation. One of these stems from the Fish and billion. But the appropriation for FY 1968 was Wildlife Coordination Act. 13 This was amended in only $203 million, and for FY 1969 only $214 1958 to require the Corps, and any other private million. In other words, about $1.7 billion of or public agency needing Federal permission to municipal waste treatment plants and sewers envi- alter the course of any body of water, or phys- sioned in 1966 will not be constructed within the ically change it even for a navigation or drainage time originally anticipated. We urge that funds for end, to consult both with the Fish and Wildlife waste treatment works be appropriated at author- Service of the Department of the Interior, and ized levels in the remaining two fiscal years. with the Wildlife Resources Office of the affected State. The Act requires that the recommendations A. Unclear Authority of both these resource agencies regarding the In the face of the Nation's clean water goal, wildlife aspect of the project be explicitly consid- some Federal agencies have unclear or insufficient ered in the planning. The second influence on the Corps resides in an pollution control authority to carry out the agreement 14 between the Corps and the Depart- Nation's desires. ment of the Interior, signed in 1967, in which there The Army Corps of Engineers has probably was a declared policy to combat pollution in dredg- affected the shape and ecology of many of the Nation's estuaries and much of its coastline to a greater extent than any other Federal agency. The Office of the Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Civil Regulatory Functions, ER1145-2-303, sec- Corps' influence stems from the Corps' own tion 4d. dredging activities in addition to its power to grant 12 Zabel v. Tabb, No. 67-200, Civ-T, Middle District, or deny permits for dredging and filling navigable Florida, Mar. 14, 1968. See discussion of this case in Chapter 8. waters, an authority based on the Rivers and 13 Act of March 30, 1934, 48 Stat. 401, 16 U.S.C. Harbors Act of 1899.10 666c, ch. 55. 14 Memorandum of Understanding between the Secre- I 0Act of March 3, 1899, 30 Stat. 1121, 33 U.S.C. 407, tary of the Interior and the Secretary of the Army, July ch. 425. 13,1967. 111-55 Executive Order 11288,15 issued by President Johnson in July 1966, provided encouragement and direction for pollution control but is not a source of new authority. The Order insists that all '4 Federal polluters take corrective action. Further, the Order requires water quality to be an impor- tant consideration in all planning and construction and operation of new Federal activities, building and water resources projects, including additions and rehabilitation. The Order also commits the A Federal establishment to what the States are requiring of their cities- secondary treatment of all wastes. The AEC has stated that Executive Order 11288 does not enlarge the agency's authority to permit consideration of thermal pollution. The Department of Justice agrees with this view and says: It is evident that Section 7 [aimed at controlling Water pollution stemming from activities using Federal loans, grants or contracts] is not intended as an independent source of agency authority, but rather a direction to the several agencies to con- Figure 7. At the present rate it is estimated sider using such authority as they. . . have . . . that by the year 2000, man will be using and contaminating more than two-thirds of the The Department of Justice also ruled out Section Nation's fresh water flow. (Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife photo by M. Fahay) 11 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act'? as authority for the AEC to consider thermal pollution. This section directs Federal agencies ing, filling, or excavation of U.S. navigable waters. with "jurisdiction over any building, installation or As a result of this agreement, field representatives other property" to prevent or control water of the Corps and of the Department of the Interior pollution. This, the Justice Department says, confer before the Corps decides whether to grant a means proprietary jurisdiction, not regulatory ju- permit affecting any navigable water. risdiction. There is a fundamental weakness in a procedure In view of the instances of unclear or non- that attempts to persuade the Corps that factors existent Federal authority to deal with water other than navigational ones should be considered pollution control problems, this panel suggests in its permit-granting activities but, at the same that Federal agencies having responsibilities in the time, does not give the Corps the needed clear Nation's coastal zone also have a responsibility to authority to act on these considerations. see that their work and programs fully meet water quality goals. The panel therefore recommends B. Insufficient Authority that each Federal agency having such programs or sponsoring such programs be assured prior to Some Federal agencies seemingly have no au- approving them that they will not frustrate water thority to consider the effects of their activities quality goals. If the programs do, then this upon water pollution. For example, the Atomic Energy Commission issues licenses for nuclear 15 F.R. Doc. 66-7460, filed July 5, 1966. power plants whose waste heat could seriously 16 Letter from Department of Justice to General Coun- pollute coastal zones. Yet this agency is not held sel of AEC, April 25, 1968. accountable for such thermal pollution. 71bid. 111-56 circumstance should be a sufficient condition for goals. This is evidenced by the minimum wage discontinuing them or withholding Federal sup- provisions called for in the Davis-Bacon Act and port. Moreover, Federal contracts, loans, grants, with the civil rights provisions that have become leases, licenses and permits should require their standard in Federal contracts. holders to conform with water quality standards. If an agency does not have the authority for the V. PRIORITIES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT above actions, it should be given in appropriate legislation. Solutions to the pollution problem require This panel notes that Section 7 of Executive consideration of factors well beyond the charge of Order 11288 has in general been used with great this Commission. We agree with others who have timidity by the various Federal agencies. We urge considered this problem that prevention is more these agencies to use more aggressively the powers effective than abatement. The best solution to given them under this Order and other authori- pesticides finding their way into our Nation's ties. Holders of Federal grants, loans, contracts streams is not to devise a method of removing and other devices certainly can be called upon to them from the water, but to develop degradable arrange their activities to conform with State and less lethal pesticides, better controls on their water qua .lity standards. And there is obvious use, and, ultimately, alternative methods of insect precedent for effective provisions to be included in control that will not contaminate our environ- Federal instruments to help attain various National ment. Fi@ure 8. A dump at a Navy installation at Indianhead, Maryland An often overlooked Presidential Order directs Federal agencies to comply with the goals of water pollution con- trol. (National Park Service photo) 111-57 Prevention of pollution is accomplished in one the waterways that flow nearby to process pollut- of two ways: first, and most effective, by reducing ants. This procedure has the advantage of initial the generation of wastes initially; second, by economy and the backing of tradition. Moreover, treating wastes after they have occurred but before there is no way to escape the fact that the coastal they enter public waterways. Treatment may be at zone will have to absorb some pollutants. This the source of the pollutants or at some collection leads us to the conclusion that we must preserve as point located before the disposal point. much of the assimilative powers of these water- A third alternative in waste - management- ways as we can because population and industrial managing wastes in the waterways through stream- growth alone will of necessity impose greater flow regulation, natural assimilation, dispersion of demands on them. Even treatments that remove wastes and other techniques-is classified as clean- 95 per cent of the pollutants in waste water leave up of pollution after it has occurred. 5 per cent to be assimilated, still a very large At present our private economy is geared amount. The assimilative powers of the coastal toward getting goods to the consumer. But, zone must also be preserved to take care of unfortunately, the consumer consumes very little. non-point-source pollutants, and pollutants gener- At most, he transforms it. This panel is of the ated by natural and man-made emergency situa- opinion that this Nation must develop a program tions such as hurricanes or inadvertent dumping of which places sufficient responsibility on the pro- toxic materials into coastal waters. ducer, whether it is the producer of insecticides or Pollutants whose. origins are not easily traced, plastic bottles, to consider the consequences of the "non-point-source" pollutants, are often intro- retrieving his goods once they have reached the duced by agricultural runoffs of fertilizers and consumer. pesticides, watercraft discharges, acid mine drain- The first impulse of municipalities and in- age, storin runoffs from city streets, and runoffs dustry is to use the natural assimilative powers of from animal feed lots. An 00 0:0 A NUCLEAR PLANT CAPACITY (KILOWATTS) LEGEND A OPERABLE 2,810,100 OPERAB@E 0 (16) A BEING BUILT 14,657,400 BEING BUILT A (21) PLANNED REACTORSORDERED 32,210,800 *PLANNED (Reactors Ordered) 0 (401 REACTORS NOT ORDERED 10,100,000 12 m ie reactors with over 10, 100,000 kilowatts have TOTAL Tg-,778,300 been"announced for which reactors have not yet FL CTRIC UTILITY CAPACITY By CONVENTIONAL been ordered. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission MEINS AS OF OCT. 30, 1967: 26 292,537 KILOWATTS December 31, 1967 Figure 9. Existing and planned nuclear power plants. (Source: Atomic Enersy Commission) 111-58 To help preserve the assimilative powers of the -Operation and maintenance costs for the re- waterways, industry should be encouraged to quired treatment works are estimated at $1.4 reduce or recycle its waste products. Production billion for the five-year priod Unlike annual systems and equipment supporting them should be construction costs, which can be expected to level designed with this in view. off after the initial backlog has been eliminated, Many waste-treatment plants are not working at operation and maintenance costs will continue to maximum efficiency because unskilled or un- rise as more sewage treatment plants are placed trained personnel operate them. Responsible into operation. governmental agencies should help train and require certification of operators of waste- -Construction of sanitary collection sewers will treatment plants. If this action is to be fully require an estimated $6.2 billion over the next five effective, it should be coupled with adequate years. These costs will be an integral part of staffing and pay scales within the plants. necessary expenditures for waste disposal by the communities involved V1. COST OF WASTE TREATMENT We note that the Senate Public Works Commit- The price the Nation will have to pay to assure tee has indicated in one of its reports that the total itself of adequate waste treatment systems was cost may be much higher than stated in the recently reported on in- a Department of the Interior study, amounting to "at least $20 billion" Interior study. 18 to meet the cost of waste treatment plant con- It essentially covers the five-year period from struction needs by 1972 .2 0 The Committee's view 1969 to 1973 for projecting its costs. The costs is probably closer to the truth. Interior notes that given are based on waste treatment plants process- its study does not take into account the cost of ing various point-source pollutants to meet the sanitary collection sewers or processing the more water quality standards established through Fed- difficult pollutants. eral legislation. Costs are expressed in "constant Manufacturing remains the chief source of 1968 dollars": 19 controllable waterborne wastes. In terms of quan- tity of waste water discharged, and the standard -The cost of constructing municipal waste treat- biochemical oxygen demand, wastes from manu- ment plants and interceptor sewers is estimated at facturing establishments are about three times as $8 billion, exclusive of land and associated great as those from the Nation's sewered costs ... By 1973 the urban population required population .2 1 Moreover, as we noted earlier, the to be served will comprise about 7_57o of the total volume of industrial production that gives rise to U.S. population ... Currently, [the wastes of] industrial wastes is 'increasing at about 4.5 per cent only 55% of the urban population is receiving a year, three times as fast as the population. adequate treatment. It is estimated that, to meet I Estimates from the Cost of Clean Water study water quality standards by 1973, [the wastes of] indicate that the mmiimurn investment for plant 9011o of the urban population will require second- and equipment to attain water quality standards ary treatment, and 1075 primary treatment. by fiscal 1973 for major water-using industrial establishments is in the $2.6 to $4.6 billion range. -7here may be significant opportunities for re- If the estimates include operating expenses and ducing the costs' as well as for contributing to also the charges for restoring thermal discharges to more effective pollution control, through estab- stream temperatures, then the total industrial cost lishment of intermunicipal sewage treatment and rises to between $8.3 and $10.7 billion for disposal systems and districts. In many cases, pollution control for the five-year period. however, it will be ' necessary to overcome the. -existing institutional obstacles to develop effective arrangements for such systems. 20 Steps Toward Clean Water, Ireport to the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Senate, from the Subcommittee on 18 Air and. Water Pollution, January 1966, p. 3. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 21 19 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Vol. Ibid., Vol. 1, p. HE 1, p. 20. 111-59 These estimates are based -on the assumption important that we develop better methods for the industries generally will have to provide a level responding to these accidents. It is hoped that the of treatment of industrial wastes at least equiva- proposed National Contingency Plan will be ade- lent to secondary treatment of municipal wastes. quate for the task. One activity that concerns this panel is the use V11. FUTURE TRENDS of ocean outfalls and waste disposal at sea. The ocean is treated as an infinite sink in its ability to We must look ahead to see how well secondary absorb wastes, just as our land-contiguous waters sewage treatment will be serving us over the next were until very recently. several decades. We must see 'if need for waste Ocean outfalls are used extensively in California treatment goes beyond the secondary stage now and, in some instances, have prevented disastrous proposed in the water quality standards. It will not pollution of estuarine areas. Very little is known be surprising to find after significantly decreasing about the ecological effects of ocean outfalls and or removing point sources of pollution that the waste disposal at sea. California is starting to non-point sources will be credited with having exan-dne this problem from the point of view of brought us the most grief. the San Francisco Bay-Delta water quality control Our last defense against pollution is to clean it program. 22 up after it has occurred. No matter how well we This panel feels that responsible Government plan, accidents will occur as witness the Torrey agencies should take immediate steps to learn the Canyon and Ocean Eagle oil spills. The number of effects of ocean outfalls and waste disposal at sea. such accidents may or may not decrease in the future, but the potential danger of a single 22 accident whether it be an oil tanker, an industrial Raymond Walsh, "San Francisco Bay-Delta Water Quality Control Program," Journal of the Water Pollu- plant, or a nuclear power plant will increase. It is tion Control Federation, p. 24 1. HI-60 Chapter 5 Port Development and Redevelopment-A Problem and an Opportunity 1. BACKGROUND OF FEDERAL POLICY harbors and coastal rivers as arteries for trade and opening new areas for settlement. Colonists The material in this chapter comes from a cleared snags and other obstructions from seg- report of the same title by the U.S. Army Corps of ments of main coastal streams and constructed Engineers. The Corps of Engineers, through the port facilities to accommodate trade with Rivers and Harbors Acts, has the basic statutory European countries. responsibility for the planning, development, and National interest in and support of improved maintenance of the Nation's navigable waterways navigation facilities were evidenced even prior to and harbors. The material has been made available establishment of the Union. In 1787, two years through the courtesy of the Director of Civil prior to adoption of the Constitution, the North- Works, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Depart- west Ordinance was passed,' representing the first ment of the Army. National declaration of navigation development Since colonial times coastal harbors and than- policy. That Act declared inland navigable waters nels, and later those on'the Great Lakes, have to be common highways and forever free. played an important role in the Nation's commer- cial and industrial growth. Early settlers used U. S.C.A. Constitution, Art. 1, � � 1-9. ty, Aalw"M =03, a Lz Figure 1. Virtually every population and industrial center is also a major port. (Port of New York Authority photo) 111-61 Framers of the Constitution sought to encour- Studies were assigned to the Army on an age interstate commerce by extending the concept intermittent basis by Acts of Congress, either mi of free use of navigable waters to include coastal the form of individual survey resolutions, or harbors and entrance channels. The Commerce embodied in the River and Harbor Acts passed on clauSe2 of the Constitution delegated to Congress a regular basis since 1826. the power "to regulate commerce with foreign The principal Federal concern has been with nations and among the several states" and stipu- the adequacy of harbor and channel facilities for lates "no preference shall be given by any regula- commercial trade purposes. Investment in harbor tion of commerce or revenue to the ports of one and channel facilities has been aligned generally state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound with and responsive to commodity movement to, or, from, one state be obliged to enter, clear or trends and changing vessel technology. This means pay duties to another." that while the Federal Government has assisted in During the earliest years of the Nation's Ms- the development of over 50.0 commercial harbors tory, Federal interest in navigation improvements to date, very many have experienced a number of tended to concentrate on inland requirements. separate authorizations and incremental improve- This initial focus was appropriate, for, given the ments. In all cases, authorization of improvements vessel technology of the time, coastal harbors in has depended upon a finding that the benefits- their natural conditions generally were adequate. normally measured in terms of prospective reduc- Even so, Federal investment in harbor and tions in shipping costs, which translate into wide- supporting facilities dates from 1789. In that year, spread public benefits-are found to be greater Congress authorized the Treasury to assume the than the cost of improvements. costs of lighthouses, beacons, buoys, and Public If the benefit-cost analysis is favorable, the piers which had been erected by the colonial Government then bears the construction cost of governments .3 In 1790, Congress authorized Fed- commercial navigation facilities and also assumes eral maintenance of a then major shipping pier on responsibility for operation and maintenance the Kennebunk River, Maine. In 1802, Congress (usually involving periodic dredging). The Govern- authorized expenditures of $30,000 for repair and ment also provides necessary navigation aids, such reconstruction of public piers on the Delaware as charting, channel markers, and buoys. 4 River. In 1809, Congress requested an investiga Since the Army's Civil Works program was tion of the Carondelet Canal between Lake Pon- initiated in 1824, the Corps of Engineers has chartrain and the Mississippi River and, subject to conducted the improvement of harbors and con- a determination that work would be economically necting channels in all U.S. coastal regionsand on justified, authorized $25,000 for construction.5 the Great Lakes. Table I summarizes, by class of Formal deterniination of economic feasibility has harbor and region, investments made between been a major characteristic of the Federal harbor 1824 and 1966. The table shows that approxi- and channel improvement program since. mately $2.2 billion has been expended. Approxi- The Federal program for harbor and channel mately 75 per cent, or $1.7 billion, has been for work largely followed a "natural" course. No deep draft harbors and channels .6 Nearly one-half attempt was made to initiate a formal, long-range of the deep draft investment has been for Atlantic program or schedule for harbor improvemen ts. Coast facilities. The remainder has been fairly Rather, harbor and channel facilities were investi- evenly distributed between the Gulf, Pacific Coast, gated and projects carried out in response to and Great Lakes areas. evolving economic and trade conditions, and to As a result, depths of 35 feet now generally meet dispersed and relatively independent area prevail at major harbors on the Atlantic and Gulf needs. Coast, ranging up to 45 feet in portions of New York Harbor. Depths of 30 to 40 feet are generally available in principal Pacific Coast harbors. The 2U.S. Constitution, Art. 1, Sec. 8, Cl. 3 3Act of August 7, 17 89, Stat. 5 3. 4Act of April 6, 1802, 2 Stat. 152. 6Deep-draft is defiried as authorized depth of 30 feet 5 or greater for Coastal harbors, 15 feet or greater for Great Act of February 10, 1809, 2 Stat. 517. Lakes harbors. 111-62 Table 1 SUMMARY OF FEDERAL INVESTMENTS IN COASTAL AND GREAT LAKES HARBORS, 1824-1966 (in thousands of dollars) Expenditures through FY 1966 Construction Maintenance Total Non-Federal Class of Harbor Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures Cost" Depth: Under 15 feet Atlantic coast . . . 31,108 17,539 48,647 13,081 Gulf coast . . . . 6,596 2,526 9,122 143 Great Lakes 13,649 6,182 19,831 7430 Pacific coast 10,528 12,985 23,513 3:056 Subtotal . . . . 61;881 39,232 101,113 23,710 Depth: 15 to 20 feet Atlantic coast . . . 72,379 68,446 140,825 7,326 Gulf coast . . . . 11,687 24,550 36,237 3,299 Great Lakes . . . 178,794 93,062 271,856 22,177 Pacific coast . . . 41,730 45,018 86,748 27,967 Subtotal . . . . 304,590 231,076 535,666 60,769 Depth: 30 feet and over Atlantic coast . . . 420,810 406,275 827,085 29,624 Gulf coast . . . . 181,593 122,596 304,189 29,844 Great Lakes . . . 1,432 80 1,512 0 Pac if ic coast . . . 127,684 128,363 256,047 38,227 Subtotal . . . . 731,519 657,314 1,388,8j3 97,695 Related lnvestrnents@ Atlantic coast . . . 23,147 5,665 28,812 .2,579 Gulf coast . . . . 12,065 6,387 18,452 3,609 Great Lakes . . . 11,707 14,183 25,890 146 Pacific coast . . . 32,483 23,723 56,206 14,215 Subtotal . . . . 79,402 49,958 129,360 20,579 GRAND TOTAL. 1,177,392 1 977,580 2,154,972 202,753 Monetary value of local contribution identified in project authorization documents. Table 2 shows non-Federal invest- ments in harbor and port facilities beyond that required for the authorized project. 2 Additional Federal construction items required to sustain functional utility of projects, but not incorporated in basic project. 27-foot depth of the St. Lawrence Seaway con- other storage areas; and service roadways and trols the Great Lakes navigation system. railroad tracks) does a harbor become a part of a Beyond the Federal investment, other major functioning port. expenditures have been required to achieve im- Provision of these latter facilities has always proved shipping technology and larger, more effi- been a non-Federal responsibility. Additionally, cient cargo vessels. A harbor, basically, is only a non-Federal interests have been required to pro- sheltered water area affording a natural or artificial vide the necessary lands, easements, and rights-of- haven for ships. Only when adequate marine way; spoil disposal areas; necessary alterations to terminal facilities have been provided (including or relocations of utilities; a share of the cost of piers and wharfs; cranes and other mechanical bridge modifications; and the necessary dredging handling equipment; transit sheds, warehouses and for vessel berthing areas. Table 1 also shows the 111-63 highly dependent on adequate planning for and tion of basic support facilities. The plan- installa ning effort promises to be no mean task, especially in light of complicating factors described in the following section. 11. PHYSICAL OBSTACLES TO HARBOR DEEPENING '@4 Continued improvement of the Nation's har- bors and channels and related terminal facilities is an obvious prerequisite to sustained economic Figure 2. Major existing port facilities are ob- growth. At this point in time, however, only one solete or abandoned (Port of New York Au- general observation appears valid: physical-cost thority photo) factors associated with further harbor deepening, monetary value of non-Federal contributions to coupled with anticipated changes in cargo handling Federally-sponsored harbor and channel projects. and marketing operations, is going to require that While full historical information on non-Federal public (including Federal) and private managers investment in other terminal and cargo handling choose between possible investment locales and facilities beyond that required as part of the technological alternatives. The choices probably project is not complete, figures compiled by the will lead to a pattern of specialization in facilities, Maritime Administration for the 20-year period permitting more efficient accommodation of trade 1946 to 1965 show additional facility investment demands. within ports totaling at least $2.025 billion (see Table 2). Clearly, port development has required III. COMMODITY MOVEMENTS Table 2 PORT DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURE The investment in harbor and port facilities has IN THE UNITED STATES stimulated and supported a constantly increasing Jan. 1, 1946, to Dec. 31, 1965 volume of traffic. The distribution of traffic, by (in thousands of dollars) commodity types and regions, and the vessels used General in this distribution, will be primary determinants Region Cargo Specialized Total of future investment requirements. TI-tis section Facilities Facilities illustrates basic commodity movement patterns, identifies those most important to various regions, Atlantic and forecasts vessel technology likely to influence Coast .... $ 627,852 $324,422 $ 952,274 future movements and harbor-port needs. Gulf Coast .... 198,156 186,671 384,827 Total foreign and domestic waterborne com- Great merce7 at all coastal and Great Lakes harbors Lakes ... 82,116 168,612 250,728 increased from 522 million tons in 19508 to about Pacific 800 million tons in 1965. This represents an Coast .... 276,045 161,482 437,527 - - average annual growth rate of 2.9 per cent. Most Total .... $1,184,169 $841,187 $2,025,3516 of the increase is related to foreign commerce, Source: Maritime Administration. which grew at an annual rate of 6.7 per cent substantial financial- commitment, from both the between 1950 and 1965, while domestic ship- Federal and non-Federal sectors. In summary, while the larger and more essential 7 Department of Army, Corps of Engineers, Water- vessels and streamlined shipping operations fore- borne Commerce of the United States, volumes for 1950 cast for the future hold much promise for reducing through 1965. the cost or improving the quality of transportation 8The year 1950 was selected as the base year for two reasons: statistics before that time did not reflect the services, their realization cannot be automatically detailed commodity breakdowns presently used, and anticipated. Responsible exploitation of the super- therefore are not comparable; and the post-World War 11 period marked the beginning of construction of the very carriers and container movement potential. is large oceangoing vessels. 111-64 ments remained relatively stable during that period per cent; and tanker trade will increase 184 per (See Figure 3). Foreign commerce accounted for cent. Projections of foreign commerce on the .56 per cent of the total volume in 1965. Great Lakes, or domestic deep draft shipments, are During 1950 to 1965, the bulk commodities of not available at this time. crude petroleum and petroleum products, ores, coal, and grain dominated the commercial deep IV. TRENDS IN VESSEL SIZE AND IMPLICA- draft tonnage. As shown in Figure 4, these TIONS commodities accounted for approximately 74 per cent of the total volume of commerce handled in While analyses of future commodity volumes coastal and Great Lakes harbors in 1965. require much more intensive treatment, continuing Preliminary forecasts indicate that total foreign technologies point assuredly to changing means oceanbome. commerce passing through U.S. ports being employed for handling present as well as will increase from about 350 million tons in 1965 future volumes of commerce. Changing vessel to over 1,250 million tons in the year 2000 (See technology alone will necessitate considerable in- Table 3). The forecasts show an increase of 73 per vestment in harbor and port development or cent in demand for waterborne transportation in redevelopment. the liner trade;9 irregular trade' 0 will increase 371 A. Petroleum Vessels 9Liner trade refers to liner (berth) service which is Growth in the cargo-carrying capacity of deep defined as a scheduled operation by a common carrier draft vessels has been steadily on the rise since whose ships operate on a predetermined and fixed World War II, and has shown an exceptionally itinerary over a given route, at relatively regular intervals, and are advertised considerably before sailing in order to significant increase during the past decade. In solicit cargo from the public. 1945, the standard size petroleum vessel wasthe 1 OIrregular trade (service) is comprised of "tramp" and 16,460 dead weight ton (dwt)l 1 "T-2" tanker. In other types of service which do not conform to the criteria described for a common carrier in "liner" service. 11 A "tramp" ship in traditional terms is one that operates Dead weight ion identifies a ship's total carrying on an irregular or unscheduled basis from one port of capacity including internal provisions, at salt water, lading to one port of discharge. Irregular trade would summer load line immersion. Actual cargo capacity is generally include dry bulk shipments of ore, grain, coal, slightly less. For example, a 50,000 dwt tanker can carry etc. about 47,000 tons of crude petroleum. IN MILLIONS OF SHORT TONS 800 600 FOREIGN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS 500 400 DOMESTIC 200. 0 1950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 1960 61 62 63 64 65 CALENDAR YEAR Figure 3. Total oceanborne and Great Lakes foreign and domestic commerce. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) IR-65 333-093 0 - 69 - 15 1945, the first supertanker," 28,000 dwt, was in 1965. During this same period, the typical U.S. constructed. In 1950, the first U.S. tanker in flag tanker increased from about 15,000 to 25,000 excess of 30,000 dwt was built; and by 1956, 11 dwt. The trend toward larger-volume tankers U.S. tankers between 30,000 and 35,000 dwt were accelerated during the past decade. In 1966, over in service. one-third of the world tanker fleet was composed The average-size tanker in the world fleet of vessels 30,000 dwt or larger; further, these ships increased from 12,800 dwt in 1949 to 27,100 dwt comprised about 64 per cent of the world fleet 12 The term "supertanker" changes meaning with each dwt capacity. While ships of 30,000 dwt have new generation of vessels. become common, they are dwarfed by the largest vessel now operating-a 312,000 dwt Japanese built tanker-and will look smaller still compared to the 760,000 dwt supercarriers under considera- tion. ALL OTHER 26% CRUDE PETROLEUM B. Dry Bulk Carriers AND PETR. PROD. 37% Dry bulk vessels, which transport commodities ORES 18% ranging from iron ore to general cargo, have not grown at the same rate as their tanker counter- COAL 12% parts. 13 Nevertheless, the number of vessels GRAIN 30,000 dwt and larger now in service comprise 7% about 16 per cent of the world's dry bulk carrier I 96S Commodity Distribution of Total U.S. Oceanborne and Great Lakes Commerce fleet compared to less than 2 per cent in 1953. Such vessels represent, at present, about 40 per cent of the world's fleet dry bulk tonnage capa- city. C. Vessel Size Projections IMPORTS34% DOMESTIC 44% Table 4 is based on a recent study 14 which projected growth in the dead weight tonnage of freighters, dry bulk carriers, and tankers. The table EXPORTS 22% summarizes anticipated vessel sizes and shows expected physical characteristics. 1965 Distrribution of Total U.S. Oceamborne and Great Lakes Commerce By Imports, Exports, and Domestic V. TRANSPORT COST IMPLICATIONS A. Tankers Although the shape of a 200,000-ton super- GREAT LAKES 25% tanker and a 17,000-ton T-2 tanker differs little, there is a major difference in the cost of shipping. ATLANTIC 41% The capital and operating cost per ton of vessel dead weight reduces substantially as vessel size GULF COAST 22% PACIFIC 13 In some instances, petroleum tankers are used to haul 12% other goods, such as grain. Where this is done, the tankers must be thoroughly cleansed of all petroleum residue to avoid contamination of the grain. Cleansing is an expen- 1965 Regional Distribution of Total U.S. Oceanborne and Great Lakes Commerce sive operation and is practiced only where several consec- (All figures represent tonnage distribution) utive grain cargoes can be secured. Figure 4. Distributions of U.S. marine com- 14 U.S. Maritime Administration, Merchant Ships of merce. (Source: US. Army Corps of Engineers) 100,000 Tons Deadweight and Over, April 1967. rG.EA1-K.S 25- 111-66 Table 3 UNITED STATES WATERBORNE FOREIGN TRADE 1956-1965 WITH PROJECTIONS TO 2000 (millions of long tons) 1956 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 TOTAL TRADE .... 260.0 277.9 348.5 391 471 564 685 837 1024 1252 Liner ........ 46.4 50.7 50.2 55 59 64 69 75 80 87 Irregular ...... 116.0 109.0 169.9 184 237 300 381 492 629 800 Tanker ....... 97.7 118.2 128.4 152 175 200 235 270 315 365 EXPORTS ....... 111.1 96.1 134.7 137 164 193 231 282 342 417 Liner ........ 28.6 32.2 29.1 33 36 38 41 45 48 52 1 rregu lar ...... 68.4 49.0 86.8 89 113 140 175 222 279 350 Tanker ....... 14.1 14.9 18.8 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 IMPORTS ....... 148.9 181.8 213.7 254 307 371 454 555 682 835 Liner ........ 17.8 18.5 21.1 22 23 26 28 30 32 35 Irregular ...... 47.6 60.0 83. 1 95 124 160 206 270 350 450 Tanker ....... 83.6 103.3 109.5 137 160 185 220 255 300 350 Source: 1956-1965, Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census; 1970-2000, Projections by the Office of Eco- nomics, Assistant Secretary for Policy Development, Department of Transportation. Table 4 PROJECTED VESSEL CHARACTERISTICS 1970 to 2000 1970 1980 1990 2000 Freighters Maximum DWT in world fleet 25,500 33,500 43,500 .50,000 Length (feet) 850 930 1,010 1,050 Beam (feet). 108 117 127 132 Depth (feet) 74 80 85 88 Draft (feet) 36 39 40 40 Average DWT in world fleet 8,168 8,583 9,043 9,350 Bulk Carriers Maximum DWT in world fleet 105,000 185,000 317,000 400,0001 Length (feet) 870 1,040 1,230 1,325 Beam (feet) 125 152 183 198 Depth (feet) 71 84 99 106 Draft (feet) 48 57 66 71 Average DWT in world fleet 14,750 18,750 23,575 27,350 Tankers Maximum DWT in world fleet 300,000 760,000 1,000,0001 1,000,0001 Length (feet) 1,135 1,460 1,570 1,570 Beam (feet) 186 252 276 276 Depth (feet) 94 129 142 142 Draft (feet) 72 98 104 104 Average DWT in world fleet 39,825 76,225 94,325 Uppermost practical limit, based upon projected technology and experience. 111-67 Figure 5. The modern supertanker dwarfs the conventional tanker of World War II (Courtesy of the Reader's Digest Association (D 1968) increases, resulting in marked savings in delivered VI. IMPLICATIONS FOR HARBORS AND Unit costs. TERMINALS B. Containers The trends in ship size and cargo handling technology impose new requirements; one set Paralleling the growing size of vessels, in terms relates to required depths for harbors and chan- of transport cost reductions, is on-going, radical nels, another to requisite on-shore supporting or change in handling non-bulk cargoes-the move to service facilities. containerization. The use of standard sized van containers (8 feet wide, 8 feet high, and 10, 20, A. Harbor and Channel Dimensions 30, or 40 feet long), which are enclosed, perma- During the 19 .40's, the T-2 tanker (16,460 dwt) nent, reusable, and weather tight, promises to was used as a yardstick in determining that a depth virtually revolutionize ocean transportation opera- of 35 feet was required at major U.S. ports. But tions. tankers of 35,000 dwt required 40 foot depths and The containers can be loaded with goods at a necessitated further enlargement of harbors and factory far inland and then transferred to truck, channels. The largest tanker in service today needs train or ship without being unsealed until they at least 70 feet. Figure 6 shows dwt-draft relation- reach the customer. The sealed boxes travel ships. routinely from inland producers on one side of the Atlantic, for example, to inland consumers on the other. The shipping industry is investing substantial sums in constructing new ships specially designed - - - - - to handle containers and refitting older ships for the same purpose. Major benefits of the containeri- zation process have been identified as: reduced handling and pilferage; reduced damage to cargoes; faster delivery, with ships in port only hours T;..KERSI@'-.THOISAN'D.SOFDEICZIG@TON-S instead of days; and significantly reduced in- Figure 6. Relationship between tanker tonnage surance rates. Presently, about 4 per cent of and. draft. (Source: U.S. Maritime Administration) general cargo tonnage is moving in containers. It At present, only 10 per 'dent of the world's has been estimated that at least 70 per cent of the major ports have controlled channel depths in. tonnage could be containerized." excess of 47 feet ;16 only three U.S. harbors 15R. P. Holubowicz, Transmodalism, United States 16 U.S. Maritime Administration, Merchant Ships of f@ T1 @ Naval Institute Proceedings, February 1968. 100,000 TonsDeadweight and Over, April 1967. 111-68 qualify in this regard. This depth is barely ade- widening d the navigation facility, would require quate to permit transit of 100,000 dwt vessels. removal and relocation of industrial, commercial, Harbor and channel depths are not the only and residential structures. obstacles to the movement of supercarriers. Rela- For example, at Oakland, California, substantial tively shallow bodies of ocean water, such as the deepening of the harbor would result in very high North Sea or Malacca Straits, may not be readily costs for modification of Army and Navy water- navigable to giant ships of 200,000 dwt or greater, front facilities, as well as the densely developed except through specially surveyed and marked city waterfront area. The present Chelsea River channels. The Suez Canal, with its 38 foot depth, Channel in Boston Harbor is dredged nearly is too shallow for such vessels. berth-to-berth in several locations, and dislocations would become a serious problem if the channel B. Landside-Terminal Requirements were greatly deepened. Other formidable obstacles can be illustrated. The tremendous volume of commodity defiv- At New Orleans, oil wells located on top of and eries associated with supercarriers likewise requires adjacent to the banks of the Calcasieu River and an expansion in supporting facilities, such as oil Pass Channel would have to be relocated if the tank farms or grain storage areas. The inland navigation facility were much enlarged. Relocation distribution or "feeder" transportation network of major land transportation facilities-most nota- also may require modification to insure properly bly highway tunnels-could represent insuperable timed receipt or prompt dispatch of the huge barriers at many ports. Instances of highway commodity loads. facilities passing beneath principal navigation chan- Even dry bulk vessels, with lesser dwt than the nels include the port areas of Oakland, Baltimore, petroleum carriers, may necessitate significant Mobile, Norfolk, New York, and Houston. While changes in landside requirements and operations, the restrictive impact of such obstacles will vary, it especially to handle container units. The benefits would take huge shipping-cost savings to justify of containerized shipping cannot be fully realized any such massive relocations. without the rebuilding of port-terminal-service areas requiring major capital investment. To cite D. Changing Construction Conditions one example, the Port of New York Authority already has invested $70 million to modernize its A very large proportion of major U.S. harbor container terminal at Elizabeth, New Jersey.' 7 An facilities have been man-made through removal of additional $115 million investment is contem- silt deposits. However, in a growing number of plated by 1975 to fully develop a 919-acre, 25 cases, further harbor deepening would entail more vessel berth container facility. than removal of soft (overburden) materials. At The following is a listing and brief discussion of present or authorized depths, the bottom of the those factors most likely to influence major overburden is being approached in many harbors investment choices. and channels and further deepening would have to be through rock. When rock is encountered, C. Dislocations and Major Relocations construction costs increase enormously. Another significant, changing condition is the Perhaps the most significant obstacle to major problem posed by the contour of the Continental nationwide enlargement of harbor and channel Shelf, particularly along the Gulf Coast. Here, the facilities is the cost involved with relocations or shelf gets progressively wider, reaches farther out dislocations. At the majority of U.S. harbors, to sea, moving eastward from the Mexican Border. extensive developments have grown at the water's Hence, the further east the port, the longer its edge. In many instances, this growth has pro- entrance channel must be extended into the Gulf. gressed to the point where harbor or channel For example, at Port Isabel near the Mexican deepening, which must be accompanied by related border, the natural 50 foot depth is only 2 miles offshore; at Galveston it is I I miles; and at Sabine 17Annual Report of the Port of New York Authority, Pass in East Texas it is 28 miles offshore. As a 1967. result, if the offshore 36 foot channel at Sabine 111-69 _4" mill r, IRK" 'Ar" Figure 7. Containership terminal at New York Harbor. (Port of New York Authority photo) Pass were to be deepened by only 4 feet, the tion conditions may make their construction approach channel would have to be extended for a infeasible or costs prohibitive. distance of more than 15 miles. The alternative to controlled land area spoiling is disposal in deep water. Yet, this option also E. Spoil Disposal might encounter difficulties. The cost of moving a million cubic yards of spoil just one mile is Problems of spoil disposal were introduced in approximately $50,000-and in maintaining the Chapter 3. Disposition of material excavated from present channels of a port such as Philadelphia, harbors and channels, both in original construction disposal work involves over eight million cubic and maintenance, presents an increasingly serious yards a year. impediment to further widening and deepening. Beyond the increase in financial costs, spoiling Port area residential and industrial development in deep water also may entail an ecological price. already has created an acute-and rapidly Deep water disposal increases water turbidity and growing-shortage of suitable shore. disposal areas care must be'taken' to avoid damaging shellfish or within the range of economic feasibility and other wildlife. Finally, disposal of material taken aesthetic acceptance. The aesthetic criterion is from polluted harbors or channels entails a pres- becoming more and more a matter of public ently undefined but potentially significant prob- concern. lern;both aesthetically and ecologically. Within 8 to 10 years, existing spoil disposal areas at many major ports will have been filled. F. Additional Factors in Port Improvements Channel maintenance or further development thereafter' will depend on finding new acceptable Current and future investigations of harbor and disposal areas-a formidable challenge. Construc- channel improvements must take cognizance of tion of new disposal areas through the building of impacts on ecological processes and wildlife re- retention dikes may offer relief. But dike construc- sources. These considerations add substantially to tion is itself expensive and, in some cases, founda- the complex job of evaluating navigation improve- .111-70 ments. Such impacts could add greatly to the cost tion conditions also would be modified, adversely of improvements, either in financial outlays to affecting the fishery. Because of the potential mitigate them or in the loss of wildlife resources. damage to the shad resource, studies of navigation In some cases, loss of wildlife resources may improvement have been suspended indefinitely. prove greater than the benefits of navigation Under certain circumstances, further extensive improvements. For example, the James River, deepening of harbors and channels entails danger which flows into the Atlantic Ocean in southern to another major resource-fresh water supplies. Virginia, serves as the navigation outlet for the These underground supply sources, called aquifers,. City of Richmond. However, conditions in the may extend under harbors or channels. It is James River are ideal for production of seed possible that harbor or channel deepening opera- oysters, and one of the Nation's foremost oyster tions could damage the impervious layer of protec- beds is located in the James River estuary. tive rock, permitting salt water to seep into the Enlarging the channel, as has been proposed, could aquifers and thereby degrade or pollute municipal sQ alter bottom conditions and salt and fresh water water supplies. relationships that the oyster resource might be A specific instance of this problem has been seriously damaged, perhaps eliminated. encountered in the study' 8 of further navigation Another example of the influence of resource- improvements on the Delaware River, which serv- environmental considerations relates to a reach of ices the port of Philadelphia. Prehrriinary investiga- the St. John's River in Florida. Proposals have been tions indicate that deepening of the channel from made to canalize the section of the river between its present 40 feet to a depth of 50 feet would Lake Monroe and Lake Harney. However, this necessitate blasting and removal of rock- section is a principal spawning area for a signifi- impervious rock which now protects a major cant anadromous fishery, the American shad. The aquifer. A deepening project could, therefore, shad run in the St. John's river- has been increasing cause damage to the aquifer. The exact dimensions generally over the past decade and has come to of the problem are exceedingly difficult to deter- represent an important commercial and recreation mine and evaluate, but the potential adverse fishing resource. effects cannot be ignored in project evaluation. Detailed investigations indicate that with a Channel deepening in estuary areas also can risk navigation project including locks, in operation, intrusion of tidal, salt water above those points the water velocity in the river channel would be where fresh water is drawn from channels for insufficient for shad. spawning and hatching. Silta- municipal or irrigation supplies. Again, referring to the Philadelphia study, deepening of the existing channel could lead to intrusion of salt water upon a major intake supplying fresh water to Philadelphia, Control barriers, including navigation locks, can be constructed to help control salt water intrusion. Yet such facilities add to project expense and could significantly complicate ship- pmg operations. @tt@ _-0,02 Appendix C summarizes problems described in the preceding sections which would be experi- enced in deepening major harbors. Shown in the table are the present authorized depths for 102 U.S. harbors and depths at which problems due to dislocations, rock, Continental Shelf, water re- rces or ecology might occur. The data comes from various U.S. Army surveys and in many instances is very preliminary in nature. Figure 8. Channel dredging at Providence, Rhode Island Deeper channels may require removal of bedrock at great expense. (U.S. U.S. Corps of Engineers, Preliminary Study of Army Corps of Engineers photo) Navigation Improvements on the Delaware River, 1968. 111-71 Vil. ECONOMIC ISSUES AND IMPACTS facilities are made available the traffic is sure to Harbor and channel facilities are only one follow. 19 element in a constantly changing and improving As stated earlier, volumes of ocean trade are transportation network. The emerging trends in forecast to increase substantially. Consequently, commodity movements and vessel technology indi- the problem is one of determining which ports cate important changes ahead for the whole should be prepared to handle what type of traffic transportation system. Vessels of 50,0,00,dwt are and in what volumes; what degree of port speciali- forecast to handle container-ship cargo and dry zation will be required to insure an efficient and bulk vessels of 100,000 dwt are foreseen. Petro- economically viable deep-water shipping network; leum movements are forecast in vessels of up to what combination of investments, Federal and 400,000 dwt size. If existing land distribution and non-Federal, public and private, are needed to terminal facilities are not capable of servicing these bring about an efficient system? vessels, the transportation savings will not materi- alize to the fullest extent. Vill. AN OUTLINE FOR PROGRESS Information in the preceding sections indicates .For a very sizeable number of U.S. cities, the that development or redevelopment of harbor and waterfront and harbor area was originally the port facilities will be an expensive undertaking for both public and private investors. In the absence economic key to the development of the commu- of careful planning and implementation there is nity and the related interior lands. When the cities serious risk-to Federal as well as non-Federal were young, the waterfronts were living, dynamic resources-of large and uneconomical investments. areas which provided employment and recreation, market places and parks, warehouses and con- It also follows that with modernized harbor, sumer outlets, and contact with nature at the channel, and terminal facilities capable of servicing water's edge. Today, many of these waterfronts larger geographic areas, that the number of receiv- are neither living nor dynamic, and nature has ing or shipping points for ultra-large bulk volumes been crowded out or poisoned.. can and should be restricted. As pointed out, existing port areas are, be- coming obsolete because of rapid changes occur- Careful planning also will be required to safe- . _ rmg and foreseen in transportation technology. guard investments in container-service facilitie5, Abandone%d .piers, warehouses and hulks clutter even though harbor-channel problems will be less severe than for supertankers. A recent report by many of our waterfronts, contributing. to harbor the Maritime Administration stated clearly that areas being a focus for decay and unsightliness. mere modernization of any port will not insure the These undesirable 'remnants, as well as' the economic feasibility of improvements: existing but technically inadequate terminal facili- ties, require replacement to permit more efficient More than ever before, other factors will deter- servicing of larger, more productive ships. . mine the new traffic distribution patterns. Factors The problem is highly complex. It transcends such as inland transportation facilities and high- the ports themselves and includes the inland way systems, which are. both beyond.the, immedi- transportation networks, plus the recognition that ate co ,ntrol of. port officials, will influence the the pattern of needs for seaports may be quite different in the future. It includes consideration of routing of containerized freight. On,the seaward portIand harbor operations on highly complicated size of the marine terminal and whqrffacilities, the ' economics of interoceanic container movements ecological networks. It includes determinati -on of dictate that the new full containerships will call at pollution control in harbor areas and waterways. an ever-decreasing number of ports. The very And it must consider the need for urban renewal nature of containerization and intermodal trans- and recognize growing requirements for recreation portation make it possible to handle cargo as a facilities in congested urban areas. thru service from an inland point of origin to an 19 Maritime Administration, "Information and Prelimi- inland point of destination. nis characteristic nary Criteria on Planning Container Terminals," nullifies the principle that when modem terminal December 1967. 111-72 New, more productive transportation technol- fined to harbor or port development only. They ogies will permit more efficient use of waterfront must involve detailed analyses of trends in indus- space. A greater flow of trade and transportation trial growth and location, commodity movements can take place using less area, thus releasing and fleet composition; identification of implica- valuable waterfront property for housing, open tions, by regions, of projected economic activity, space, or recreation purposes. New technology can traffic movement and vessel size; analysis of port be applied to reduce the polluting of harbors and cargo handling and associated facilities, including estuaries. all foreseeable technology required to accommo- Any concentrated effort at port and urban date prospective traffic; plus evaluation and re- waterfront development and redevelopment must commendations for financial participation by involve several groups and will require a high states, local political entities, and commercial and degree of cooperation between local governments, industrial interests. regional planning groups, private interests, and the The studies should explore all technological Federal agencies. An effective program can be alternatives of traditional harbor deepening, in- visualized as having three major and closely related cluding installation of offshore transfer facilities or components: use of lightering vessels. Such alternatives may greatly reduce both the financial and ecological -comprehensive surveys of regional port- costs of accommodating supercarriers. transportation requirements As short and long-range transportation require- ments become identified for harbor and port areas, -development of action plans for port, harbor and companion plans can be developed for . rehabilita- waterfront area renovation tion of land areas adjacent to harbors, including -integration of transportation and waterfront consolidation and relocation of cargo handling and renewal planning with programs for conservation industrial facilities. The potential for offshore of estuarine resources handling of petroleum commodities, coupled with the sharply rising use of containers, should provide many opportunities for land clearance and rehabil- rzi 111, itation. This is not to argue that waterfront operations must be sheltered from public view. To the contrary, where the waterfront use is for port facilities, the drama of docking and loading and A' unloading ships has a special fascination for both the local audience and tourists. Such operations could be made readily accessi- ble to the public from observation galleries which could include dock-side restaurants and educa- tional exhibits. Whatever use is made of water- fronts is enhanced if access is easy and attractive. Where waterfronts are devoted to transportation, Figure 9. An innovation in cargo handling the street or rail arteries could avoid the waters' which may have an impact on port requirements edge or be designed with tunnels, decks, depressed is Lighter-A board-Ship (LASH). Such a vessel is now under construction. (courtesy of Pacific Far grades, or other techniques that can contribute to East Lines, Inc.) . ease of public access to the area. Comprehensive surveys are needed to determine Based on the material developed in this chapter, the optimum number and spacing of ports and a National port requirements study has been the harbor and specialized terminal facilities re- identified by the panel as a primary need. This quired to accommodate changing vessel and cargo recommended study is further described in handling technology. The surveys cannot be con- Chapter 9. 111-73 Chapter 6 The Role of Basic Research 1. THE NEEDS The near-shore environment is modified by nature' in a continuous and rapid way. Of all natural aquatic habitats the coatal zone is the most variable. It is this susceptibility to change, coupled with intensive, multiple, and often conflicting uses which has made its utilization so difficult to regulate. Good management of the inshore envi- ronment, however, is essential to assuring its maximum rational employment. Effective manage- Figure 1. Estuarine research into the life cycle ment, in turn, will largely depend on the ability to of salmon. (US. Fish and Wildlife Service photo) predict the results of man-made changes. It is not that we are completely ignorant of the answer such questions as how much of a given processes that occur in the coastal zone. If marsh area can be filled before a fishery is research grants by the National Science Founda- destroyed: 10 per cent? 50 per cent? 90 per cent? tion can be used as a yardstick, basic science in the How can an estuary be managed to increase its coastal zone has more than doubled in the past 10 productivity? years.' However, although much has been learned It is well known that the shoreline is continu- in recent years, much remains to be learned. As ally changing. Recent charts of Cape Cod show a the development of the coastal zone continues, different land distribution than those of the past. and as the pressures increase, the problems become Some coasts erode while others build. When the more difficult. Yesterday's level of understanding shoreline was sparsely settled beach erosion was is inadequate for the kinds of decisions that need largely an academic problem, but as beach pro- to be made today. perty increases in value the problems of surf zone To gain the maximum benefit for each user of dynamics and sediment transport are of increasing the near-shore areas, it will be necessary to provide importance. a quantitative answer to the question: By how Not all the problems are in engineering and the much can man alter a given estuary (or shoreline) natural sciences. Community planning and resource without destroying one or more of its uses?' We economics are among the additional skills that need the answers to such questions as: What is the need to be applied to the coastal zone. capacity of a given estuary to accept particular In the future the possibilities as well as the wastes, and can this capacity be increased? Can we problems of coastal zone- management will in- develop artificial habitats and techniques for.grow- crease. Intentional modification of factors deter- ing organisms either commercially or for other mining organic production is possible. Some reasons? How will a wider or deeper channel affect coastal areas will be set aside for intensive aquacul- circulation or sedimentation pattern? ture. In some circumstances, it is desirable to store Ecologists understand the importance of estu- and release river water; to divert large volumes; to aries and marshlands as the nursery grounds of alter channels, currents, and tides;,or in other ways many: varieties of sport and commercial fish, but to introduce major alterations into the coastal the level of understanding is usually insufficient to zone. Proponents of such bold concepts must be able to evaluate the total results of the changes lReport of the National Science Foundation at panel they seek. On the other hand, those who oppose hearings, Oct. 10, 1967. See also Oceanography, The 10 such suggestions are often expressing fear of the Years Ahead, Interagency Committee on Oceanography Pamphlet No. 10, June 196 3, and Table 1, Chapter 7. unpredictable consequences, and their position 2This question and the ones immediately following might be altered if there were sufficient knowledge were those most frequently raised at the panel hearings with the scientific community. Details of the hearings are to permit accurate prediction and evaluation of all given in an appendix to the Panel Reports. the results. 111-74 In a sense the problem of the coastal zone will never be solved. All one can hope for is continu- ally to increase our level of understanding of a very complex system. The research effort required is not a single crash program but a continuing effort on many different fronts. To keep up with the problems of the coastal 'INV" J* zone will require more trained people than are presently available, but education and training needs are not limited to scientists who will study these problems. The general public must be kept . .... .... .. ......... informed as well as their elected officials who will make decisions on the uses of the coastal zone. Here the academic community has a special _7t:a@_ k@ 4 responsibility. The experts must do more to make the public aware of the nature of the problems, probable consequences of a decision, and possible alternatives. At present a lack of basic understanding is impeding our progress in several different areas, (1) waste the most important of which are treatment, (2) the effect of pollutants on living organisms, (3) estuarine dynamics, and (4) beach 7T -v processes. ,40 11. WASTE TREATMENT Figure 2. Pollutants on Providence River, Research in pollution cuts across many areas R.L Research is needed into the identification from design of new waste treatment techniques to and effects of pollutants. (Providence Bulletin development of less toxic pollutants, to attempts photo) to restore eutrophic lakes, to an understanding of cals and better techniques of application must be the effects of specific pollutants on specific developed and their use enforced. species. Ill. THE EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON Technological advances are being made in puri- LIVING ORGANISMS fying the effluent waters of industrial plants.and municipal waste treatment plants. It is important 71here are many areas in which ignorance contains that this work continue, and new secondary and our ability to deal effectively with pollution tertiary treatment methods must be developed problems. Examples lie in the de Icienc our .f ies of with an eye to cost-savings as well as to abatement. knowledge of the behavior of important carriers of Industrial and municipal waste effluents origi- pollution, Such as atmospheric gases, Surface and nate at a point -source making treatment of the ground waters, oceanic currents, and soil particles. wastes relatively simple. A larger problem is that Basic research on these topics is necessary in order such pollutants as agricultural chemicals (herbi- to clafify our understanding of the movement of cides, pesticides, and fertilizers) or lead, from pollutants. Some pollutants are carried extensively gasoline engine exhaust do not originate at point in living things, moving from one plant or animal sources. Agricultural wastes present both a re- to another as food, moving from place to place search and a regulatory problem. Research is with the plant or animal ... Basic ecological re- needed in the development of rapidly degradable search is necessary if we are to cope effectively and more specific herbicides and pesticides and in with these serious problems. 3 the development of fertilizing techniques that will 3"Restoring the Quality of Our Environment," Report prevent excess runoff. Better agricultural chemi- of the President's Science Advisory Committee. HI-75 Critical gaps exist in our knowledge of the life studies in the pathology and histology of marine history of even the most well known inshore forms. These are little known at the present time. species. In particular, details of the early life are Invertebrate pathology in particular has been lacking, and it is during this period that animals neglected. Nevertheless, pathological knowledge appear most susceptible to environmental insults. and medical research techniques can contribute to During this early period natural mortality is at its understanding the cause and effect relationships of highest rate and techniques for environmental pollution and fish diseases. improvement could have their most positive effect. Answers to important questions of waste disposal IV. ESTUARINE DYNAMICS -the timing, rate of disposal, and nature of Advances of the past decade in instrumenta- materials which may be added into the sea-all tion, signal processing theory, and computer data depend on detailed life history studies. For ex- analysis have substantially increased our capability ample, temperate zone species are mostly seasonal spawners with egg and larvae production occurring r studying estuarine circulation. Because the primarily in late winter and early spring. Rational effects of turbulent motion in an estuary are methods of pollution control to insure maximum usually more important than the mean values, it is benefits to each user of the coastal zone almost necessary to carry out detailed, long-term pro- certainly must include a seasonal factoi. However, grams to measure the turbulent fluxes of the our knowledge is inadequate to develop this factor various dissolved or suspended quantities. Because and the most conservative stand must be taken to of their complexity, most estuarine studies have assure appropriate protection of our living re- been highly empirical. With instru. mentation now sources. available, currents in an estuary could be exarriined The rapid development of large power plants well enough to allow a better understanding of the using large quantities of water for cooling are adding another dimension to the pollution prob- lem in the coastal zone. The outflow from these plants is of the order of 15-250 Fahrenheit above the incoming water. Again, larval forms of animals are usually least tolerant of such thermal shocks. However, in most cases we do not know the tolerance level. @Another unknown is the effect of specific pollutants on individual species at all stages of their life cycles. Understanding must be gained o these effects and on the long-term effects of chronic low level pollution on the total ecosystem. Of the eight classifications of water pollutants, 4 we do not understand the long-term effects of some. nor the thresholds of allowable concentra- 0" tion for others. Although any single source of pollution may be innocuous, the sum total of all sources rnay be very harmful and the combination of various pollutants may have a synergistic effect. The long-term effects of low concentrations of pollutants on estuarine organisms will require Figure 3. Hydraulic model studies of Umpqua River estuary, Oregon, at the U.S. Army Engi- 4 neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicks- Ile classifications of water pollutants are discussed burg, MississippL Such models contribute to in Chapter 4. They are BOD wastes, infectious agents, the understanding of estuarine dynamics and plant nutrients, organic chemicals, mineral chemicals, the effects of engineering modifications. (U.S. sediments, radioactivity, and thermal addition. Corps of Engineers photo) 111-76 turbulent processes at work. Previously unanswer- change throughout the tidal cycle. In deep oceanic able questions, such as those concerning dilution waters, salinity differences as small as 0.002 parts of pollutants, migration of larvae, or transfer of per thousand may be significant; in estuarine sediment, could be approached rationally. situations a salinity measurement having one-tenth It is not unusual for the net circulation in an this accuracy would be sufficient. estuary to be hundreds of times stronger than the Detecting long-term changes of small magnitude input from its fresh water source. Detailed, three- is important. For example, when the annual dimensional current surveys should be carried out natural variation of temperature is 300 Fahrenheit, in many estuaries to gather data on current an average annual increase of 0.50 Fahrenheit patterns and variability throughout the tidal cycle, resulting from thermal wastes may be undetected; including seasonal variability. We need to ascertain yet this small difference may be important to the what changes in a particular estuary will lead to estuarine biota. greater useful circulation. We need to be able to avoid changes that might lead to an undesirable VI. THE NEED FOR BASE LINE STUDIES change in circulation, such as occurred in the oft-cited example of the diversion of the Santee Because of the rapid development occurring in River through Charleston Harbor.5 In addition to the coastal zone, many .scientists have a strong field surveys, theoretical studies and careful anal- feeling that certain areas must be set aside for ysis of the data must be given equal priority if detailed scientific study. In a letter to the Commis- results are to be of any lasting value. sion the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography6 stated the requirement to: V. THE MONITORING PROBLEM Set aside unspoiled study areas for permanent In a system as complex as the coastal zone scientific use. Such areas will be desperately there is a need for continued monitoring and inventorying changing environmental conditions. The data are the necessary input to any study. They are also required to keep track of trends, to note changes, and to alert those responsible to any problems arising. Those who study the coastal zone require systematic data on such disparate parameters as beach slope, coliform bacteria, and land use patterns. In some cases our understanding is not suffi- cient to design an efficient monitoring system. In many cases we are uncertain about the variables in an ecosystem-which are important and which, if any, can be safely ignored, which are primary and which are derivative. Even when we understand the system, the measurement problem may not be easy. Changes take place in short distances and short time intervals in the estuarine environment and the range of values is great@ For example, open ocean Figure 4. Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, F7orida, is an excellent example of small salinities vary in a narrow range of several parts per coastal zone laboratories which are needed thousand. Estuarine salinities, however, varying in all coastal waters to cany out a vital re- from 0 to over 30 parts per thousand or more, search effort. 6Letter from Dr. John C. Calhoun, Jr., Chairman, The unanticipated effects of the diversion of the Committee on Oceanography, National iAcademy of Santee River are described in the last section of Chapter Sciences, May 31, 1968. This largely reaffirms NASCO's 3. views contained in its report Oceanography 1966. 111-77 needed 20 to 50 years from now. 77zey can The characteristics usually used to describe a provide a "base-line "for detecting and document- beach - are: I the average size of sand particles ing changes in the environment caused by large- making up the beach, the range of sizes of those scale, introduction of materials and energy. particles, the slope or steepness of the foreshore, and the general slope of the underwater portion of Such conservation of selected sites is of great the Ibeach from the foreshore toward deeper water scientific interest. It cannot be foreseen what basic (see Figure 5). Generally, the larger its sand questions man may wish to ask a century from particles, the steeper the beach.' now, or what measurements with yet-to-be- The short, steep waves of winter storms erode developed methods he may have to make to the beaches, taking the material from above sea answer these questions. Eventually we will want to level and carrying it, into deeper water. Most of it rehabilitate our polluted environments. To do so is returned by the low, long swells of a typical will be very difficult if an undisturbed eco-system surnmer season. Waves breaking at an angle to the of a comparable kind cannot be studied as a beach set up currents which move parallel to the standard. Probably, there is today no estuary left shore in shallow water. These long shore currents, on the US. east and Gulf coasts which'is not carry the beach sand-which has been stirred into' measurably altered by man. In the future these changes are likely to accelerate because the rate of suspension by the turbulence of the breaking discharge. of pollutant per capita increases with waves-along the shore parallel to the beach. progressing industrialization of a country, apart Fresh water from rivers and upland streams from the continuing population growth. If there flows to the sea, in some cases directly into the ocean and in other cases through bays or sounds. are 'no relatively unaffected areas set aside now, In this way sediments brought down by rivers and the only'scientific standard or base-line in a 100 streams feed the ocean beaches. Beaches thus years will be the then-least-altered environment, continually change. Sediment brought by rivers is which may be heavily polluted by today's stand- winnowed and sorted by the along-shore move:- ards. ment of the beach sand the onshore-offshore sand An unspoiled area in the Pacific Northwest cannot movement caused by low swells and steep waves. serve as a Mly representative site for east,coast A particularly severe winter storm or hurricane purposes because of the different plants and may erode a beach to the extent that it will take animals living in the two regions. 71herefore, we several years to recover. Breakwaters may cause should set aside preserves in the cool and warm permanent changes in local beach conditions. On a regions of both the U.S. east and west coasts, and National average our beaches are eroding. They are on the Gulf coast. Furthermore, in addition to eroding largely because rivers -no longer carry a preserves in estuaries, we should protect subtidal replenishing sediment load to the oceans as in the areas on open coasts. past. Water diversion, which reduces river flow, and dams, which trap sediment-both reduce the V11. COASTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH availability of beach sand. An exan-dnation of Characteristics of a beach are determined by records shows that eroding beaches are the general the forces to which the beach is exposed and the rule around our coasts and that accreting beaches type of material available at the shore. Most are rare. beaches are composed of sand. The sand is @ The relations between wind, waves, tides, sea supplied by the streams flowing, into the ocean and level, and beach stability (or instability) are very by the erosion of the shores by waves and complicated. The relations are fairly well under- currents. Stone and mud beaches are relatively stood on a qualitative basis but are insufficiently rare. Grasses usually grow in the mud; thus these identified on a quantitative basis. The design of shores are marshes. Mud and marsh beaches are found only where wave action is very mild.' 8This description and much of the following material 7 is taken from Land Against the Sea, U.S. Army Coastal A detailed discussion of coastlines can be found in Engineering Research Center Misc. Paper 4-64, May 1964, William C. Putnam et al., Natural Coastal Environments of and Joseph M. Caldwell, "Coastal Processes and Beach the World, ONR Contract Nonr-233(06), NR 388-0113. Erosion," Journal of the Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. (University of California, 1960). 53, No. 2, April 1966. 111-78 Coastal area Nearshore zone (defines area of nearshore currents) Beach or shore Coast Offshore Inshore zone Foreshore Backshore (extends through breaker zone) Berms Breakers High water level Be ao J, t Figure 5. Nomenclature of the surf zone effective and economical engineering works to Tides and surges. This includes hurricane and restore, stabilize, and protect our shores and tsunami surge generation, travel, and dissipation; beaches requires a quantitative understanding of effects of shore configuration on tide and surge shore processes. Research needed to establish this ranges; and the mechanics of tidal flow in inlets better quantitative understanding of physical proc- and estuaries. esses in the shore zone can be classified into the -Coastal inlet studies. This deals with the effects following main categories: of wave action, tidal flow, freshwater flow, and -Wave action in the coastal zone. This concerns littoral drift on inlet hydrography; migration of the generation of waves in coastal waters; transfor- mation of waves onshore by bottom effects and coastal currents; development, installation, and X operation of improved ocean wave recording equipment for statistical purposes; compilation and statistical analysis of ocean wave records; and - - - - - - - - - the determination of design waves and their frequency of occurrence. Sand movement in the inshore area. This involves the quantitative relationships of wave character- istics and alongshore and onshore-offshore sand transport, effects of storm-wave action on inshore @00 hydrography, interrelation of factors shaping a natural beach, sand transport and dune formation Figure 6. Shore processes being studied at the test basin of the Corps of Engineers Coastal by wind action, and methods of stabilizing sand Engineering Research Center, Washington, D. C dunes. (U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers photo) 111-79 inlets -and bar channels; evaluation of factors flxed coastal structures such as jetties and jetty affecting rate of shoaling of bar channels and channels, breakwaters for protecting harbor en- salinity intrusion; study of tidal currents in inlets trances*, groins for protecting beaches, navigation and their relation to tidal heights and inlet channels and channel training works in tidal hydrography; and. the development of an econOm- estuaries, and sand bypassing plants. The research ical method of stabilizing and maintaining author- includes determination of wave forces and runup ized navigation channels through coastal inlets. on shore structures and the structural design -Design of coastal structures. Research is needed required to withstand the forces and the soil to develop improved criteria for the design of mechanics and geology involved in their design. 111-80 Chapter 7 Activities of the Federal Agencies and the States In reviewing the activities -and programs of of the importance of estuarine habitat to most of Federal agencies, the panel has found that few this Nation's commercial fishery resources. Government organizations do not participate in Approximately 65 per cent of the U.S. annual some measure in coastal and estuarine activities. commercial fish and shellfish harvest, either by Participation, may include direct operations such as volume or value, consists of species that occupy those of the Corps of Engineers and Coast Guard, estuarine areas at least during some phase of their resource management and research such as carried life cycle. on by the Fish and Wildlife Service and Public The harvest comes to over three billion pounds Health Service, and indirect participation through annually, with a value of nearly $400 million to planning and funding such as by the Department the fishermen.' Included are 7 of the 10 most of Housing and Urban Development. valuable species or group of species in our com- State and local activities are described in some mercial fisheries, such as shrimp, which supports detail in a separate contract report' and only a our most valuable commercial fishery; menhaden, brief summary is included here and in Appendix most important in volume; salmon, second most D. This review is Iftnited . mostly to Federal valuable; mollusks, third most valuable; plus at agencies and more specifically to those with a least 70 other commercially important species. direct and significant role in the coastal zone. By Estuarine and Great Lakes research is con- "significant" is meant those agencies with a ducted in 14 of the Bureau's 20 biological labora- statutory mission in the coastal environment or tories. These are shown on Figure 1. Broadly activities unique to that regime. speaking, activities may be grouped into: The following Federal agencies have been se- lected, based on the foregoing, for attention. -Research on commercially important species (life Hearings were held with these agencieS2 and their history, environmental requirements,. causes of activities were examined in greater detail during fluctuations, and development of management the panel's field travels. In addition, presentations recommendations) by these agencies . to the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development -Fundamental ecological studies of estuarine areas were made available to the panel. Levels of -Applied ecology, including: (a) pollution studies funding by Federal agencies for Fiscal Years 1968 (especially thermal, radiation, Iand pesticides), (b) and 1969 for activities relating to the coastal zone review of proposed physical alterations in estua- are shown in Table 1. rine areas for potential damage to fishery re- sources, and (c) review of proposed water develop- 1. BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES ment projects and their anticipated effect upon @(BCF) fish and shellfish resources, with subsequent The Bureau's background in coastal research development of a report including recommenda- goes back to the organization of the Old Fish tions for compensatory or protective features. Corwilligsion in 1871, stemming from recognition Although most of the Bureau's work is directed toward species of commercial importance, it is considered necessary to study the estuarine en- 1A Perspective of Regional and State Marine Environ- vironment to develop more accurate fish forecasts, mental Activities: A Questionnaire Survey, Statistics and Observations, John 1. Thompson Co., Contract Report to to gain a better understanding of why fluctuations Institute of Public Administration for Commission on occur, and to develop sound management recom- Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, Feb. 29, dations. 1968, PB177765 of the Clearinghouse for Federal Scien- men tific and Technical Information. 2Panel hearings with Federal agencies were held Oct. 3 9-12, 1967. See Appendix A for schedule and partici- Information furnished by Bureau of Commercial pants. Fisheries in report to panel Feb. 13, 1968. 111-81 333-093 0 - 69 - 16 BUREAU of COMMERCIAL FISHERIES Major Facilities Seattle Boothbay Harbor Gloucester cods Hole w Arbor Millard College Re Stanford ington, D.C. Oxford Beaufort Terminal Island LaJ Ila Brunswick Gulib ._a Pascagoula Galveston St. Petersburg Miami 0 BIOLOGICAL Honolulu _J_ LABORATORIES TECHNOLOGICAL Auxe Bay LABORATORIES Juneau Ketchikan EXPLORATORY FISHING BASES Figure 1. 'Major facilities of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. The following table lists current funding for BCF proposes added emphasis in three areas: programs in the coastal zone: FY 68 FY 69 A. Mapping Resources of the U.S. Continental Shelf Research on estuaries and (thousands of dollars) relate .d problems 1,223 1,223 This is envisioned as repetitive surveys to Coordination 25 25 determine the seasonal availability and distribution Specie s.research 1,202 1,216 of commercially important species. Though con- Construction 0 0 siderable work has been carried out in the past on Federal aid (P.L. 88-309) 686 686 resource mapping, it has been fragmentary and a Propagation research 4,570 4,777 mere fraction of that needed for a properly designed study of all Continental Shelves. The Total 7,706 7,927 proposed program is three to four items that now being conducted and will be undertaken by Bureau Under the Commercial Fisheries Research and vessels using conventional sampling gear. Development Act (P.L. 88-309) the Secretary of The Bureau estimates the cost of this proposed the Interior can cooperate with the States on a program at about $4.0 million. cost-sharing basis to carry out estuarine research projects. Seventeen projects have been approved B. Aquaculture and funded in Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Mary- land, Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, The Bureau proposes a $5.3 million annual Alabama, and Texas. Total cost is $929,563, with aquaculture program in the future. BCF claims the Federal share 75 per cent. more rapid development of aquaculture is neces- 111-82 Table 1 CURRENT FUNDING BY FEDERAL AGENCIES FOR ACTIVITIES RELATING TO THE COASTAL ZONE (millions of dollars) Source Federal Agency FY 1968 FY 1969 Note Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . (61.2) (62.3) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries .. . . . . . . 7.7 7.9 1 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 3.5 4.6 1 Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 4.9 1 National Park Service . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 7.8 1 Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife . . . . 7.8 9.8 1 Bureau of Land Management . . . . . . . . - - 2 Bureau of Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 1.5 1 Office of Saline Water . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 0.3 1 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation . . . . . . . 27.1 25.1 1 Office of Water Resources Research . . . . . 0.4 0.4 Department of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . (48.1) (49.4), Environmental Science Services Administration . 10.8 10.6 1 Maritime Administration . . . . . . . . . 0.5 1.7 3 Economic Development Authority . . . . . . 36.8 37.1 5 Department of Transportation . . . . . . . . (292.9) (283.0) Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287.8 272.5 1 St. Lawrence Seaway Corporation . . . . 5.1 10.5 4 Department of Health, Education and Welfare 4.4 4.8 1 Department of State . ... . . . . . .. . . 1.0 1.0 4 Department of Defense . . . . . . ... . . . (211.1) (198.2) Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . 196.0 183.0 1 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 15.2 3 Smithsonian Institution . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 0.2 1 National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . 6.4 6.4 3 .Water Resources Council . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 - 5 Atomic Energy Commission . . . . . . . . . 2.3 2.3 3 Federal Power Commission . . . . . . . . . - - 2 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627.9 607.6 Source: 1. National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development Panel Hearings, Sept. 23-25, 1968. 2. Figures not available or significant 3. Commission panel hearing, Oct. 9-12, 1967 4. U.S. Budget (Appendix) FY 1969 5. Separate communication to the panel. sary because of increased foreign pressures on the -Freshwater pond culture-channel catfish declining potentials in waters fished by U.S. -Shellfish culture in coastal areas-oysters, clams, fishermen and because of continued loss of fishery shrimp, northern'lobster, and blue crab habitat through increasing encroachments on the estuaries by urban and industrial developments. -Artificial propagation of marine finfish-salmon, pompano, and other selected species. Recommended emphasis includes three major Freshwater pond culture of channel catfish is areas: not dependent on favorable habitat in the coastal 111-83 zone and estuaries. Success in the shellfish culture through comprehensive planning, provision of and artificial propagation of marine finfish pro- technical services, enforcement actions, and re- grams will depend in part on the degree to which search and development programs. favorable estuarine and coastal zone habitat is These resources support comprehensive studies preserved. covering the Great Lakes and most of the coastal areas; pollution abatement enforcement actions in C. Estuarine Research and Management 16 estuaries and Great Lakes; the NAtional Estua- This -relates directly to coastal dependent rine Pollution Study authorized ;6 by the Clean fishery resources and includes studies of produc- Water Restoration Act of 1966 a substantial tivity and nutrient cycling, determining the effects number. of relative small technical studies; and of changing environmental factors and heated research and development projects, both intra- and effluents, classifying estuarine habitats, developing extramural, designed to extend understanding of methods for rehabilitating damaged habitats, pollution problems and to develop more effective determining requirements for inflow of fresh control measures. It can be expected that results water, and developing criteria for assessing effects of past efforts will become increasingly apparent of construction rojects that would alter estuaries. and that pollution damage will be contained or p reduced in many areas. The Comprehensive Plan- 11. FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ning Program and the National Estuarine Study ADMINISTRATION (FWPCA) also should help to point the way toward more effective use of the marine resource. This agency was created by the Water Quality During the past 12 months Water Quality Act of 1965 4 to administer the Federal Water Standards have been prepared by States and Pollution Control Act,s formerly administered by submitted to the FWPCA. Once approved by the the Public Health Service. FWPCA was transferred Secretary of Interior, Water Quality Standards also to the Department of the Interior by Reorganiza- become Federal law and are enforceable as such. tion Plan No. 2 of 1966, effective May 10, 1966. Laboratory facilities operated or under con- Provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Con- struction by FWPCA are shown on Figure 2. trol Act apply equally to the navigable and Proposals for the future by the FWPCA include interstate waters of the estuaries, rivers, and lakes. extending the Oil Pollution Act to include the Broadly, the Act's objectives call for the enhance- contiguous zone and increased control measures ment of quality and value of the Nation's water for oil spills and wastes from watercraft.7 resources and for prevention, control and abate- ment of pollution. The agency is organized to III. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY accomplish these objectives and budgets are struc- The Geological Survey is responsible for investi- tured in terms of functions (such as research and gations to provide information for exploration and development) and directed towards priority prob- extraction of minerals. It is charged with support- lems rather than in terms of estuaries, lakes, rivers, ing the management of resources of the Outer etc. Current funding for coastal programs is: Continental She ,If. FY 68 FY 69 Principal objectives of the Geological Survey's (millions of dollars) marine geology program are: 8 Comprehensive planning 1.0 1.4 _In five years complete geologic field work Services and surveillance 1.4 1.6 required to prepare geologic analyses and maps of Research and training 1.1 1.6 Total 3.5 4.6 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration 6P.L. 89-753, Nov. 3, 1966, 80 Stat. 1246. This study is described in Chapter 9. efforts are focused on marine pollution problems 7 A major revision of the oil and water pollution acts 4 was proposed in the 90th Congress (S. 3206 et al.) but P.L. 89-234, Oct. 2, 1965, 79 Stat. 903. failed to be enacted. See Chapters 4 and 9. 5P.L. 84-660, May 9,1956, 33 U.S.C. 466. 8Information fumished- at hearings, Oct. 12, 1967. 111-84 FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION TECHNOLOGICAL LABORATORIES Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory Fresh Water Laboratory CORVALLIS DULUTH Boston Northeast Water Laboratory Marine water Quality Laboratory Great Lakes M"", NARRAGANSETT Water Laboratory Atlantic Wate ANN ARBOR Laboratory Baltimore (Not shown: Alaska Water Laboratory) College (Fairbanks) Alaska Figure 2. 12 critical areas (4-degree areas) at scale 1:250,000 The Geological Survey is involved in planning (4 miles to one inch). Publication of reports and International Field Year on the Great Lakes and maps in seven years. has prepared plans for work on the water budgets of the Lakes, and on the optical properties of lake -In five years complete collection of basic infor- water, lake currents, sediment transport and sedi- mation to prepare geologic analyses of all our ment characteristics, additional mapping of lake continental margin, including reconnaissance basin geology, surface chemistry as related to maps, at a scale, of 1: 1,000,000. Publication of circulation patterns, the synoptic collection of reportsand maps in seven years. data, and use of mass-transfer 'techniques to -In 10 years complete field work for the geologic estimate evaporation. analysis of one-half of the continental margins it a Current funding by the Geological Survey for scale of 1:250,000. coastal and estuarine programs is given in the following table: -In 20 years complete geologic mapping of the FY 68 FY 69 entire continental margin at a scale of 1:250,000. Types of Work (millions of dollars) Research and investigations 3.8 3.6 The Geological. Survey's programs on the Great B .asic data collection9 .9 .8 Lakes consist mainly of hydrologic studies and Coastal hydrology program 0 0 geologic mapping in the drainage basins periph- Resource evaluation and eral to the Lakes and research into the basic management .9 1.2 hydrodynaniics of the Lakes. About half the Total 4.7 4.9 support for the data-collection program and. the special investigations is furnished by the State or For the future the Geological Survey proposes other local governments in the eight States sur- an investigational and data-collection program in rounding the Great Lakes. Research on the Lakes 9Coastal Zone streamnow and water-quality measure- includes projects to describe the circulation pat- ments are included in a nationwide "land" program and terns collected by overflights. are not shown here. 111-85 estuaries and other coastal water bodies to be Appropriators for planning, development, con- entitled "Physical Facts of the Estuarine Environ- servation, and acquisition for the marine-related ment." The program in part involves the extension units under the management of the National Park of on-going activities, but also includes a sizeable Service are as follows: effort new in concept and scope in that it FY 68 FY 69 envisages a coordinated geologic, hydrologic, and topographic study. In general, it involves a sub- (millions of dollars) stantial increase in basic data collection, investiga- Planning . 1 .1 tions of related water bodies considered to be Development 6.9 5.8 typical, and a sharp step-up in hydraulic research. Conservation 1.2 1.9 The Coastal Hydrology Program, proposed to Total 8.2 7.8 begin in Fiscal Year 1970, includes enlargement of basic data collection especially in the coastal Acquisition waters themselves, comprehensive scientific studies (Bureau of Recreation) 11.1 13.2 in selected estuaries, and step-up of hydraulic and Management programs at National seashores hydraulic-related research. The funding of this and lakeshores emphasize opportunities for such program as proposed is probably, substantially outdoor recreation as swimming, picnicking, hik- greater than can be approved for immediate ing, bicycling, and camping. Natural and historical implementation. values are protected. IV. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Marine life on coral reefs in the Buck Island The National Park Service is responsible for National Monument and the Virgin 'Islands Na- administration of the National Park System, which tional Park can be viewed by underwater nature includes 20 areas with significant marine resources. trails. Since many park visitors are unable to use Eleven are National parks and monuments where the trails, the National Park Service currently is investigating other means of underwater observa- resource protection is the major management tion. objective, and nine are National seashores an lakeshores where recreation is the primary manage- V. BUREAU OF SPORT FISHERIES AND ment consideration. Nine marine areas have been WILDLIFE proposed for addition to the National Park System and five are under study. Bureau responsibility in fishery research related The National seashores and lakeshores have to estuaries is centered in its marine gamefish only recently been added to the National Park research, almost all related to coastal and estuarine System in order to reflect the need to protect zones. The central theme is to determine how and outstanding stretches of shoreline, particularly why the abundance, survival, distribution, migra- near heavily populated urban areas. Cape Hatteras tion, and well-being of game fish are affected by National Seashore was authorized in 1937, but not natural and man-made variations in the environ- established until 1953. Cape Cod National Sea- ment. In 1960, the first laboratory was established .shore was authorized in 1961, and authorization in what eventually will be a system of coastal of Padre Island, Point Reyes, Fire Island, research centers to carry out a coordinated nation- Assateague Island, and Cape Lookout National wide program. Laboratories are at Sandy Hook, Seashores followed closely. New Jersey; Tiburon, California; Narragansett, Last year, the Pictured Rocks in Michigan and Rhode Island; and two Gulf of Mexico labora- Indiana Dunes National Lakeshores were author- tories: Panama City, Florida and Port Aransas, ized for establishment as National lakeshores. Texas. Lands for' the National parks and monuments The National Wildlife Refuge system consists of were carved from the public domain or were Federal lands and waters dedicated to wildlife donated to the Federal Government. Lands re- conservation. Activities include planning and quired for the National seashores and lakeshores, executing a balanced management program for however, were largely privately owned and re- migratory waterfowl, upland -wildlife, and other quired special appropriations for purchase. forms of wildlife in these areas; preservation of 111-86 rare. and endangered species; soil and water con- The appropriations for carrying out the servation; and compatible outdoor recreation. Of Bureau's programs in the coastal zone are as the 312 units in the refuge system, 78 are coastal follows: mstallations and 42 of these contain significant FY 68 FY 69 estuarine areas. These are shown along with (millions of dollars) -Bureau Laboratories on Figure 2. Many of the refuges are superimposed on Corps Research and development 1.8 1.9 of Engineers and Bureau of Reclamation projects Investment 3.0 3.1 and a few are administered jointly with Bureau of Operations 4.6 4.8 Land Management projects. Close coordination is Total 7.8 9.8 required with these agencies to ensure that lands In accordance with the Fish and Wildlife are managed to the best interest of wildlife Coordination Act' 0 the Bureau investigates, plans, consistent with the primary purpose of the proj- and coordinates activities to preserve and develop ect. Channel and dredging operations conducted fish and wildlife resources associated with a by the Corps of Engineers may or may not be multitude of water development programs beneficial to wildlife refuge purposes. For this throughout the United States. The individual reason, considerable coordination is being effected projects of these programs frequently involve by the Corps of Engineers and the Department of the Interior for both present and proposed re- search. I 0Act of March 10, 1934,48 Stat. 401, 16 U.S.C. 661. MARINE & ESTUARINE FACILITIES Sport Fish Fishery Research Laboratories & Coastal Wildlife Refuges Dungeness Willaps um postal Maine Green Be ;.oh. Parker River Oregon Is. G ravel slan Narragansett Wyandotte Is. ndy Hock West Sister Is. Barnegat CedarPt. Suscluehannamy'llprig-antin Ealst:cl N.,,Ck B*rlb:,HH**l W r Tiburon ,4@ P f. ook n, C, Martin Chincoteague Farallo :%.ack a, Mackay Islan Swanquarterill Pea Island Cedar Island Cape Romain Savannah Harris ck Penoma Blackboard Island City likWolf Island Petit B"' St' M rk.\ .abl.. Lac-n' Ch..ah.witzk SkMerritt Island Anahuse Delta Pelican Island San Bernard razoria Anclote Aransas Corpus Christi Pinell Laguna Atascosa NunW.k Hazen Bay Kenai 0 Clarence Rhodo,,, 0 National Wildlife Refuges Kodiak F@shary Research Laboratories I.ernbek@v/-' 8 meonof Figure 3. 111-87 estuaries and estuarine zones, directly and indi- -Develop data, tools, and techniques necessary to iectly. characterize marine mineral deposits and their Most water-use programs and projects affecting environments estuarine habitat are planned and implemented by the Corps of Engineers, and to a lesser extent by -Define mining systems requirements the Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of -Advance the technology for industrial develop- the Interior and The Soil Conservation Service of ment of complete mining systems the Department of Agriculture. Included also are non-Federal activities subject., to Federal Power -Contribute the technologic basis for resolution Commission license and non-Federal activities sub- of environmental, including pollution, and legal ject to Corps of Engineers permit. aspects of marine mining -Study the feasibility of recovery of additional VI. BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT minerals from seawater and of energy from the sea. The Bureau of Land Management administers the resources of the seabed and subsoil of the Emphasis is being placed initially on delinea- Outer Continental Shelf' 1 by authority of the tion, but will gradually shift to research and Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.' 2 development applicable to mining systems. The Exploration, leasing, and development of the sequence required to bring a marine mineral submerged lands of the outer continental shelves deposit into production is the same as on land, but were authorized Aug. 7, 1953. Since the first lease mining technology involved is vastly different. sale in 1954, over 1,300 mineral leases have been The Bureau operates a Marine Minerals Tech- granted, with a bonus bid income of over $2.5 nology Center at Tiberon, California, and its billion. 13 Royalty income from oil, gas, sulfur, research vessel Virginia City has conducted ex- and salt leases has totaled over $700 million from ploration in Norton Sound, Alaska, and off mineral production of $4 billion. Current royalty Oregon and California. income exceeds $14 million per month. Current funding of the Bureau for coastal projects is: VII. BUREAU OF MINES PY 68 $1,400,000 The objective of the Bureau of Mines is to FY 69 $1,500,000 foster the growth of a U.S. industry-owned marine mining industry, and, in support of that goal, work Vill. OFFICE OF SALINE WATER (OSW) with industry to: Since 1952, the Department of the Interior through the Office of Saline Water, has conducted a research and development program to obtain low-cost means for saline water conversion. 14 line definition and description of the Continental Primary objective of the program is to provide Shelf is found in the Convention on the Continental Shelf (1964), 15 U.S.T. 47 1, approved by 57 nations, including development of practicable low-cost means for the United States, on April 26, 1958. The Convention large-scale pr oduction of water of a quality suit- entered into force June 10, 1964. The legal definition of the shelf is an area of major interest and the discussion of able for municipal, industrial, agricultural, and this definition and its important legal and international other uses from saline water, and for studies and implications are presented in Chapter 1, Section 111. research related thereto. The term "saline water" 12 P.L. 83-212, Aug. 7, 1953, 67 Stat. 462, 43 U.S.C. includes seawater, brackish water, and other 1331-1343. This Act is discussed further in Chapters 8 mineralized or chemically charged water. and 9. For a more extended treatment, see Christopher, Key to a New Frontier, 6 Stanford Law Review 23, 28-31 (1953). 13 Includes over $600 million realized in the lease sale 14 The Office of Saline Water was established pursuant of the Santa Barbara Channel lands, February 1968. to Act of Congress July 3, 1952, 66 Stat. 328. 111-88 With desalting emerging as a new water supply participation. All 50 States, plus the District of source and large-scale plants being considered for Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the three Territories, coastal locations, the physical and financial prob- have now submitted plans which include provi- lems of disposing of the brine effluent from the sions for meeting marine-related recreation needs conversion process become increasingly more and the preservation of significant coastal areas. formidable. Included therefore as part of the The estimated expenditures by the States and research undertaken by OSW are studies directed Federal agencies from fund sources for coastal towards assuring that the discharge of effluent projects are: from sea coast plants will not be harmful to the FY 68 @FY69 adjoining marine environment. In this connection, OSW operates two major (millions of dollars) facilities in the coastal zone area: the Wrightsville State Beach Test Facility in North Carolina and the San Acquisition 8.0 4.4 Diego Test Facility in California. Development 5.0 2.2 Current funding by OSW is: Federal 16 FY 68 FY 69 Acquisition 14.1 18.5 Brine disposal studies $155,000 $200,000 Total 27.1 25.1 Recovery of minerals from seawater 219,000 105,000 The Bureau is conducting a su&ey of the Total $374,000 $305 '000 recreation potential of islands off the coastline and on inland waterways and is developing a program IXBUREAU OF OUTDOOR RECREATION to conserve these resources. This study is sched-. (BOR) uled for completion by early 1969. The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation was estab- X. OFFICE OF WATER RESOURCES RE- fished in April 1962 to serve as a focal point in the SEARCH (OWRR) Federal Government for the many related activi- The Office of Water Resources Research of the ties. The BOR is charged to: Department of the Interior administers the pro- gram of water resources research and training -Formulate and maintain a comprehensive nation- authorized by the Act of July 17, 1964. 17 The wide outdoor recreation plan program promotes and supports research'in watei -Coordinate the program of land acquisition by and water related resources and activities through the National Park Service, Forest Service, and water resources research institutes in each of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 50 States and Puerto Rico. @ The @ institutes are connected either with land grant colleges or an The Bureau, under the Land and Water Conser- equivalent institutuion, and in general have a vation Fund Act of 1965," administers a program mission in water resources similar to that of the of assistance to the States to plan, acquire, and agricultural experiment stations in agriculture. Title II of the Act, which was modified and develop outdoor recreation areas and facilities. The program is financed through revenues derived expanded by the Act of April 19, 1966,"' from the sale of entry and use permits at Federal Provides for grants and contracts for water re- recreation areas, sales of Federal surplus property, sources research at other institutions. and the Federal motorboat fuel tax. Under the The OWRR supports research entirely by out- Act, each State is required to prepare and submit of-house allotments, grants, and contracts. Most of to the Bureau a Comprehensive Statewide Outdoor 16 Recreation Plan.to establish eligibility for program 'nis figure also includes the acquisition funds for programs of the National Park Service, Forest Service, and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 15P.L. .88-578, Sept. 3, 1967, 78 Stat. 897, 16 U.S.C. 17 78 Stat. 329, 42 U.S.C. 1961. 7601 et seq. 18 80 Stat. 129. 111-89 its activity is in non-coast-oriented water resource the Institutes for Environmental Research, the problems, but it does support a number of projects Environmental Data Service, and the National that are in the coastal zone. These currently are in Environmental Satellite Center were created. Also three categories: general hydrology, water pollu- the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory was tion, and resources planning. transferred to ESSA from the National bui-eau. -of Standards and became the Institute for Tele- No. of Thousands communication Sciences and Aeronomy, joining Category projects of dollars ESSA's Institutes for Atmospheric Sciences, Earth Sciences, and Oceanography. FY 68 ESSA's mission and functions include the fol- Water cycle 8 180 lowing: Water quality management -Observe and collect comprehensive data about and protection 9 205 the state of the oceans and inland waters, of the Water resources planning 4 48 upper and lower atmosphere, of the space environ- Total 21 434 ment, and of the earth -Communicate, correlate, process, and analyze all FY 69 such data Water cycle 6 158 -Provide and disseminate such information with a Water quality management prediction of future environmental states and protection 10 107 -Prepare and disseminate warnings of all severe Water resources planning 7 184 hazards of nature to all who may be affected Total 23 449 -Provide nautical, aeronautical, and telecom- XI. E NVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE SERVICES munications charts and related publications and ADMINISTRATION (ESSA) services The Environmental, Science Services Adminis- -Operate and maintain a system for storage, tration of the Department of Commerce was retrieval, and dissemination of the acquired data established on July 13, 1965, by Reorganization -Explore the feasibility of modification and con- Plan No. 2 of 1965. The formation of ESSA trol of environmental phenomena brought together the functions of the @ Weather Bureau and the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the -Coordinate Federal meteorological services and' new agency's major elements. At the same time, supporting research. _7 ESSA's hydrographic and ocean survey program i is conducted jointly by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and its oceanographic laboratories. Its objectives are the charting of depths and topog- raphy of the coastal zone; delineation of major ocean currents; and completion of geophysical studies of the continental shelves and estuaries and other coastal features of the nation's shoreline. ESSA publishes approximately 800 different nautical charts covering 21h million square miles of the nation's navigable waters. Figure 4. Artist's rendition of Environmental Standard nautical charts are supplemented with Science Services Administration new data ac- a series of U.S. Coast Pilots, providing information quisition system (ODESSA) in operation (En- on navigation, regulations, landmarks, and other vironmental Science Services Administration photo) pertinent information. 111-90 ESSA's shoreline mapping programs employ Guard, marine radio-telegraph and radiotelephone Coast and Geodetic Survey aircraft and metric shore stations, and more than 2,000 commercial cameras for aerial photogrammetry and infrared radio and television stations. Dissemination also is photographs permitting accurate delineation of the provided by nine new ESSA VHF-FM continuous shoreline and legal boundaries. broadcast marine weather stations on the East, ESSA's tide program includes a network of tide West, and Gulf Coasts. Visual display's at more gauges to calculate and publish the times and than 550 stations also warn of approaching storms. heights of high and low waters for 83 primary stations. The National Hurricane Warning Service, operating through several Centers, is responsible Observations from temporary tidal current sta- for alerting the public to hurricanes and other tions predict average tidal currents and perform tropical.storms. The Centers furnish basic hurri- circulation studies of tidal estuaries. Predictions cane advisories and bulletins coordinated for are made of the times of slack waters and the prognosticated hurricane positions, tropical times, speeds, and directions of maximum tidal weather outlook, and post-storm reports. The currents for 25 primary U.S. coastal and harbor Centers also conduct .research and development to stations. Similar predictions can be made for about improve de Itecting and predicting hurricanes and 2,000 additional locations. the tropical weather processes leading to their During 1968 flushing prediction service was ormation. implemented in several Maine estuaries to predict and control the dispersal of industrial wastes. Plans ESSA's coastal radar system locates and tracks call for expansion of this program in both scope ocean storms, and is a critical part of the protec- and size. In addition, other services related to tive network for hurricane warnings. Special environmental pollution and its abatement include observations from the Cooperative Hurricane Net- air pollution potential advisories, now prepared for works along the Atlantic and Gulf, Coasts as well as several urban areas on a routine basis; river flow tide gauge networks play important roles in the forecasts by the Weather Bureau; and a number of National Hurricane Warning Service. special services, such as prediction of trajectories Major ESSA facilities in coastal programs are: for radioactive fallout. Research in environmental pollution covers estuarine studies, atmospheric -Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratories radioactivity, trajectories, pollution chemistry, and Physical Oceanographic Laboratory, Miami certain aspects of air turbulence. Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory, Norfolk The Coast and Geodetic - Survey of, ESSA Sea Air Interaction Laboratory, Miami operates the National Tsunarrii Warning Center for Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory, the Pacific Ocean area. This service was inaugu- Miami rated after the destructive tsunami of April 1, 1946. The Center at Honolulu evaluates the -Pacific Oceanographic Laboratories tsunami potential of earthquakes reported in the Pacific Oceanographic Research Lab., Seattle area and issues alerts and warnings where indicated Joint Oceanographic Research Group, Seattle to the various countries bordering on the Pacific Joint Tsunami Research Center, Honolulu that participate in the service. Tsunami research is directed primarily toward improved prediction -National Hurricane Research Lab., Miami methods consisting of mathematical prediction models continually modified by tide gauge data -Environmental. Data Services, Washington, D.C. inputs. -National Environmental Satellite Center, Wash- The Weather Bureau's Marine Weather Service ington, D.C. supplies weather and sea state forecasts, warnings, and data for the conduct of coastal and marine -Atlantic Marine Center, Coast and Geodetic operations. Survey, Norfolk Weather forecast and warning bulletins are issued at six-hour intervals for coastal waters up to -Pacific Marine Center, Coast and, Geodetic Sur- 50 miles offshore. They are broadcast by the Coast vey, Seattle. Appropriations shown below have been ex- Financial aid is available to the marine industry tracted from other program categories to reflect in the form of construction differential subsidy for the level of ESSA activities in the coastal zone. . new ship construction; operating differential sub- FY 68 FY 69 sidy for operating ships, Title XI mortgage insur- ance, and in the provisions of ship exchange (millions of dollars) legislation. Surveys and observations, MARAD has initiated provision for sewage processing analysis treatment facilities in its new construction pro- compilation, and printing 9.6 9.6 gram and has sponsored research concerned with Research and development 0.5 0.5 the prevention of oil pollution. As reported,'9 its Facilities, equipment, and current program consist of: construction 0.7 0.5 Total 10.8 10.6 -Nineteen aerobic-type treatment units currently being installed in vessels under construction Future plans envisioned by ESSA include: -Provision for common soil line connections and -An accelerated and comprehensive program to space for sewage treatment plants on 22 vessels determine the circulatory characteristics of near- under recent construction and for all new con- shore waters necessary to the proper development struction of coastal zone resources. This program, estimated _A research contract to develop a marine oil-water at about $4 million, will include detailed surveys separator system employing the principal of static of the circulation patterns of the various gulfs, coalescence bights, sounds, bays, estuaries, and inner shelf. -A research contract to develop a rapid and -Seaward boundary determination including a automatic means of monitoring oil concentration comprehensive low water line mapping program. in water This is estimated at about $5.5 million and would serve to resolve jurisdictional and other legal gaps -A research contract for a compact, low-cost resulting from an incomplete knowledge of our Oil-water separation system, using standard pro- exact shoreline boundaries. prietary equipment, to meet current international oil discharge requirements of 100 parts per million XII. MARITIME ADMINISTRATION (MARAD) -Requiring, where feasible, installation of clean water ballast tanks in its new ship construction The Maritime Administration of the Depart- program, ment of Commerce has certain well defined Maritime Adniinistration funding which may be legislative and promotional responsibilities for attributed to the coastal zone is chiefly the Ports administration of Merchant Marine, Sales and and Systems Program. Funding is as follows: Shipping Acts, 1936, 1946, 1920, 1916 and 1928,. as amended, together with certain related Acts. FY 68 $ 475,000 The provisions of these Acts enable, the agency to FY 69 $1,700,000 further develop and maintain an adequate and well-balanced American Merchant Marine, to pro- Future plans of the Maritime Adniinistration mote U.S. coninierce, and to aid in the National envision the following concepts: defense. It is consulted in matters concerning the enhancement in quality and value of the Nation's -Development of a port "control tower' would waterways, and for prevention and abating pollu- (1) reduce the retardant effects of multiple, tion attributable to ships. The agency's budgets are uncoordinated Federal agency activities, (2) facill- structured in terms of office functions such as Ship Construction, Research and Development, 19 Infonnation furnished at Panel hearings, Oct. 11, Maritime Promotion and Operations. 1967. 111-92 tate entrance and clearance of ships, cargo, and EDA stimulates the economy of an area passengers, and (3) implement recommendations through projects for technical assistance and re- of the existing international waterborne trans- search, business loans, and public works. portation facilitation conventions dealing with Funding of such endeavors in the coastal zones ports. is estimated below: -Investigation and development of those types of FY 68 FY 69 bulk cargo transfer facilities would (1) reduce ship (millions of dollars) traffic in congested port areas and channels, thereby reducing safety hazards and pollution of Technical assistance and ports and adjacent areas, (2) provide water depths research 3.1 3.0 adequate to accommodate the larger bulk carrying Business loans 4.5' 4.0 ships in existence and planned, and (3) reduce the lic works 29.2 30.1 susceptibility of U.S. tanker terminal facilities to Total 36.8 37.1 enemy attack. EDA has contributed considerably to coastal XIII. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ADMINIS- zone development. About 200 projects repre- TRATION (EDA) senting $178 million have been approved. Of these 64 are technical studies. There have been 20 EDA is responsible for administrating the Pub- business loans granted. The remaining 116 projects lic Works and Economic Development Act of 1965 are for such public works as docks, piers, marinas, as amended. The Act provides for technical and cargo handling installations, warehousing, in- financial assistance to economically distressed dustrial parks, roads, water and sewer systems, etc. areas, designated by severe unemployment or underemployment as compared with the national economic posture. Included in this are some areas XIV. COAST GUARD bordering on the coastal zone. This agency struc- tures its budget in terms of functions (such as The Coast Guard today is made up of the technical assistance, business loans, public works) former Revenue Cutter Service, U.S. Lifesaving rather than in terms of geographic areas. Service, U.S. Lighthouse Service, and the Bureau X -4 o + J@ GUAM Al PAL OENE GREENE Figure 5. Coast Guard unit assisting at the scene ofa ship collision. The Coast Guard engages in a wide vatiety of marine activities. (New Bedford Times photo by Ronald Rolo) 111-93 of Marine Inspection .2 0 Formerly under the De- involved in 2,473 other incidents; 2,296 lives were partment of Treasury, it was placed under the saved. Property assisted had a total evaluation of Department of Transportation when that Depart- $1,361,422,900. In addition to responses by reg- ment was established in 1967 .2 1 A military service ular forces, the Coast Guard Auxiliary answered and a branch of the U.S. Armed Forces at all 6,877 calls for assistance within this zone. times, the Coast Guard operates under the Navy in time of war or when the President directs. B. Aids to Navigation . The Coast Guard in the coastal zone provides Navigable U.S. waters are. marked to meet search and rescue services, administers merchant maritime commerce needs. They include interior marine safety laws, maintains a state of readiness and coastal waters, and approaches to rivers and for military operations in time of war or national harbors. Channels, obstructions, and shoals are ides a comprehensive system of emergency, provi marked for the deepest draft U.S. registered vessels aids to navigation for the Armed Forces and expected to use a waterway. marine commerce, undertakes an effective port . Objectives are met by establishing and operat- security program, and enforces or assists in enforc- ing long- and short-range systems in the United ing Federal laws on the high seas or waters subject States and its possessions to meet the needs of to U.S. jurisdiction. It also conducts ocean- maritime commerce, and world-wide to meet ographic research" and provides ice-breaking Armed Forces needs. Private aids supplement the services. Federal system where maritime needs are insuffi- A. Search and Rescue cient to warrant Federal aids or when obstructions are placed in navigable waters by private concerns. The search and rescue function is the largest Authorization and inspection of private aids is Coast Guard program in terms of personnel, funds, required by Federal regulations. requirements, and facilities operated. Its objective The short-range system is a passive, visual, is to provide effective assistance to persons and electronic, and audio network of some 44,000 property in immediate or potential distress in and buoy, liglitships, light stations and radio beacon over the high seas and waters subject to U.S. stations located in the United States and posses- jurisdiction. sions. The aids to navigation system as defined by To carry out its objective the Coast Guard Federal regulations specifies a lateral system of employs cutters of several sizes varying from the buoyage with prescribed characteristics having 82 foot patrol boats to the high endurance cutters, specified meanings. The short-range system is small boats of all types, long and medium range designed with the assumption that mariners under- fixed wing aircraft, helicopters, a widely scattered stand the lateral system and have access to network of shore stations, and an extensive rapid up-to-date charts of areas of operation. communications system. These facilities are inte- The present long-range system LORAN (Long grated into the National Search and Rescue Plan Range Aids to Navigation) is an electronic system and are used to fulfill the bulk of U.S. search and incorporating 45 LORAN-A, 22 LORAN-C trans- rescue obligations required by international mitting stations, and 9 LORAN-C monitor sta- treaties. tions. Regulation and administration of bridges over In 1967, the Coast Guard rendered assistance within the coastal and harbor zone 23 to 31,551 navigable waters is a new program for the Coast vessels, 543 aircraft, and 3,422 individuals and was Guard. It includes regulation and administration of bridge operation and design and provides for expenditure of Federal funds to alter obstructive 20 Functions of the Coast Guard date back to Act of bridges. These functions formerly were performed August 4, 1790. Present functions were authorized by Act by the Corps of Engineers. of August 4, 1949, 63 Stat. 495, 14 U.S.C. 21 P.L. 89-670, Oct. 15, 1966, 80 Stat. 1. C. Law Enforcement 22 P,L. 87-396, Oct. 5, 1961, 75 Stat. 827, 14 U.S.C. 94. The Coast Guard enforces all U.S. laws in U.S. 23 Boating Statistics, U.S.C.G. Publication 357. navigable waters, including navigation, customs, 111-94 criminal, conservation, pollution, and boating winter. Coast Guard harbor craft and coastal laws. Major Coast Guard law enforcement efforts vessels are especially constructed for such capa- aside from port security and recreational boating bilities. One major icebreaker is stationed perman- are oil pollution and conservation. In the former ently on the Great Lakes and another in Alaska, the Coast Guard assists the Federal Water Pollu- and polar icebreakers are assigned to the Great tion Control Adn-dnistration in enforcing the Oil Lakes and Alaska seasonally as conditions require. Pollution Act of 1924 24 and administering the Oil Current funding in Coast Guard coastal pro- 25 Pollution Act of 196 1. grams is: FY 68 FY 69 D. Port Security (millions of dollars) In the Marine Port Safety Program, the Coast Merchant marine safety 7.6 8.7 Guard prescribes minimal safety standards for Recreational boating safety 4.5 5.5 piers and waterfront facilities handling hazardous Aids to navigation 77.2 76.3 materials. Further, the Coast Guard prescribes Port safety . 12.4 13.3 handling, stowage, storage, and transportation of National search and rescue 119.0 112.9 such materials on vessels utilizing U.S. marine Marine law enforcement 6.1 6.1 channels and harbors. Water pollution control 0.8 2.3 Coast Guard Captains of the Port, located in 55 Coastal oceanography 1.2 0.6 U.S. ports, control the movement of vessels within Total 287.8 272.5 navigable waters by requiring 24 hours advance notice of arrival at a seaport; control traffic on Future programs envisioned by the Coast Guard certain waterways; and escort vessels possessing include: high hazard to ports and waters. Plans of vessels, foreign and domestic, specially -Oil pollution abatement projects for contain- constructed to carry bulk chemicals which pose a ment, source control and recovery of massive oil "potential unusual risk" to U.S. ports are ex- spills amined by the Coast Guard, and operation in U.S. -Port advisory .services to improve control of waters is fully controlled. shipping and navigation in high-density ports E. Recreational Boating -Hazardous cargo information center for technical The Coast Guard administers the Federal Boat- information on cargoes moving in water trans- ing Acts of 1940 and 1958, including regulation, portation safety patrols, cooperation with States, and educa- -All weather high precision coastal and harbor tional programs. The Coast Guard Auxiliary is a navigation system. volunteer non-n-dlitary organization sponsored by the Coast Guard to participate in Boating Safety XV. ST. LAWRENCE SEAWAY DEVELOP- Programs. MENT CORPORATION F. Icebreaking The Seaway Corporation is a Government- owned enterprise under supervision of the Depart- The Coast Guard is charged with icebreaking rnent of Transportation. It is authorized to con- services to support marine commerce and National struct, maintain, and operate in U.S. territory deep' defense. All major Atlantic waterways and harbors water navigation works in the International Rapids north of the Chesapeake Bay, the Great Lakes, and section as well as dredging in the Thousand Islands Alaska usually require icebreaking services each section of the St. Lawrence River. It was established by the Act of May 13, 24 33 U.S.C. 431 et seq. See Chapter 9. 1954 26 and works in close coordination with the 2S P.L. 87-167 (as amended), 33 U.S.C. 1001-1015. This Act implements the International Convention for the 26 Prevention of the Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954. 68 Stat. 92, 33 U.S.C. 981. 111-95 St. Lawrence Seaway Authority of Canada in are to provide a multi-disciplinary approach to maintaining and operating the St. Lawrence many of the public health problems associated Seaway. Its activities are coordinated with the with exploitation of the estuary; in part, the Hydroelectric Power Commission of Ontario, and Continental Shelf, for the production of shellfish the Power Authority of the State of New York, and other marine foods; and a better under- which have constructed and operate power facili- standing of biological and oceanographic factors ties in connection with development of the St. influencing the marine environment public health Lawrence. quality. Department funding for coastal zone The Corporation is self supporting through activities includes: tolls. For 1969 the Corporation's total revenue is FY 68 FY 69 estimated at $7.4 million. Actual Estimate Current funding by the Corporation is: (millions of dollars) Use of marine life in FY 68 FY 69 biomedical research 2.40 2.65 (millions of dollars) Health problems related Operation and maintenance 2.2 2.4 to marine pollution .90 .90 New construction 2.9 8.1 Nutritional and health aspects of marine Total 5.1 10.5 foods 1.10 1.25 @ Total 4.40 4.80 XVI. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCA- TION AND WELFARE (HEW) Future programs recommended by the Depart- ment are: A primary mission of HEW is to protect the health of the Nation's people. -An innovative initiative on shellfish sanitation Principal activities of HEW and the Public Health Service related to the coastal zone are: -Health hazards arising from toxic chemicals pollution of coastal zone waters -Conducting and supporting research, develop- -Establishment of an intra-Departmental organiza- ment, field investigations, demonstrations, and tional for the marine health sciences pilot operations -An innovative initiative in education for the -Conducting studies on the role of water, aquatic marine sciences plants, and animals in health, including nutritional resources -Use of the coastal zone as a source of marine forms for biomedical research -Assisting State and local governments and pro- viding financial assistance to their programs -Biomedical research on man in the sea. -Endor sing shellfish sanitation programs XVII. DEPARTMENT OF STATE -Assisting in manpower training The Department of State becomes involved in -Developing health standards for seafood growing the coastal zone because of U.S. boundary waters. areas As a result of the treaty of 1909 with Great Britain, and various treaties with Mexico dating -Cooperating with other Federal agencies on sea back to 1889, the International Joint Conunission resource programs and assisting other nations in and the International Boundary and Water Com- their efforts. mission, respectively, have been created to deal with water problems on our northern and southern Major marine facilities recently established by boundaries. HEW are the Marine Health Sciences Laboratories The U.S. section of the International Boundary in Rhode Island, Alabama, and Washington. These and Water Comniission is the Federal agency 111-96 responsible under the treaties of March 1, 1889, Commission approval is required to construct and subsequent treaties of 1905, 1933, and 1944. and maintain any works that change the natural This section also operates under certain Congres- level of boundary waters. The International Joint sional Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1950. Principal Commission is not an action agency, but issues water related activities of the Commission deal reports and recommendations to the two govern- with construction, operation, and maintenance of ments dealing with such international water re- diversion dams, storage reservoirs, hydroelectric source problems as the Niagara Falls beautifica- plants, and flood control projects along the U.S.- tion, Passamaquoddy tidal power project, pollu- Mexico Rio Grande boundary. tion of the Great Lakes, and control of Great The International Joint Commission was Lakes' water levels. organized in 1911, pursuant to the treaty of Jan. Annual State Department funding in these 11, 1909, between the United States and Great programs is about $1 million. Britain. The Commission's purpose is to prevent disputes over the use of boundary waters and 27 settle questions arising between the United States XVIII. CORPS OF ENGINEERS and Canada involving rights, obligations, or in- terests in boundary waters. The Commission has The Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, has per- jurisdiction over all cases involving use, obstruc- haps the greatest impact on the coastal zone of tion, or diversion of boundary waters between the any Federal agency. CANADA Hammonasset B Wash. Was, ---, Minn.' Pa. me.. Hampton B. , MI .ch. herwood Island) Lynn 0 Vt. Revere B. I - Winthrop B. WISC. Long Island Racine County Mich. PfesQue On Coney Island Kenosha Cl,"elan J- Seabright Penn, Ocean City San Francisco Ind. 0%110 '1-_Md Avalon I Baltimore Del. Cape May Calif. Benedict Va Ft. Story Tilghman Island, - Cambrldgn::@@_ VI Inla B. I @ - rg Santa Barbara Hampton . - Port Hueneme Willoughby Spit N.C Santa Monica Wrightsville B. ElSegundo -CarolinaB. Seal a. 'Ariz. S.C. Surfsl - '% Newpo B. N.M. Savannah B. Dolieny B. Miss. Ala. Ga. Jekyll Island Oceanside ------ -Fernandina B. Imperial B. MEXICO Texas La. -Jacksonville B. Harrison Coun Fla. Jupiter Island Galveston Clearwater B. Palm B. Bradenton B.- -Delray S. Captivo Island- _Miarril B. Figure 6. Corps of Engineers demonstration projects in beach erosion controL (Source: In- formation on Federal Shore Activities, Army Corps of Engineers, Nov. 28, 196Z) United States and Canada. Also concerned are 27 Information for this section was furnished by waters flowing from boundary waters and waters Brigadier General H. G. Woodbury, Jr., Director of Civil at a lower level than the boundary in rivers flowing Works, Office of the Chief of Engineers to the Com- acrossit. mission on Marine Sciences, Engineering and Resources, Oct. 9, 1967. 111-97 333-093 0 - 69 - 17 Since 1824 the Corps has been responsible for and operates and maitains them. Aids to naviga- navigation improvements, channels and waterways tion are fully Federal. Non-Federal interests are for commerce and navigation. In 1900 following generally required to provide terminal facilities, the disasterous Galveston hurricane, the Corps berthing area dredging, and the necessary lands, commenced shoreline protection. And in 1930 the easements, rights-of-way, and spoil disposal areas Corps was assigned beach erosion control. with retaining dikes and alterations or relocations of utilities where necessary. A. Navigation Projects B. Beach Erosion The authorities, policies, and procedures per- taining to the Corps' channel and harbor program Corps of Engineers activity in coastal erosion have developed over many years on the basis of stems from the Act of July 3, 1930, which many general and specific Congressional Acts. For establishes the Beach Erosion Board 211 to furnish navigation projects, Federal responsibility is technical advice to the States on methods of limited to provision of channels, basins, and Providing coastal protection. By subsequent Acts, protective works; local interests are responsible for most recently the River and Harbor Act of 1962, lands, terniinals, and other landside appurtenances. the legislation was extended to permit the Corps Except for certain small improvements, each Of Engineers to conduct studies at Federal expense project is specifically authorized in accordance of the shores of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with a long-established procedure that involves an the Gulf of Mexico, the Great iLakes, and lakes, engineering and economic determination following estuaries, and bays directly connected therewith. extensive coordination and consideration of the Only those erosion problems caused principally by needs and desires of the Federal, State, and local waves and tidal currents are eligible for study interests concerned. under existing law. Federal participation is limited About 500 commercial harbors with. depths up to 50 per cent for protection of publicly owned to 45 feet have been provided in addition to 250 non-Federal shores which are not park or conserva- harbors for small craft. About 23,000 miles of tion areas, and 70 per cent for park and conserva- intracoastal and inland waterways have been de- tion areas. Protection of Federal property may be veloped. The annual waterborne commerce of the. accomplished entirely at Federal expense. country amounts to about 11/4 billion tons having a Since 1946, when Federal par ticipation in value of about $11.5 billion. construction was first authorized, Federal aid has Methods, to improve navigation vary. Harbor been given to over 100 projects with a total cost of entrances are protected by jetties or enlarged by about $237 million, with the Federal contribution dredging. Harbors are created by inclosing an area approximating $94 million. of open water within breakwaters, or by dredging estuaries and excavating inland areas. Rivers are C. Hurricane Protection improved by clearing and snagging, dredging, and After a series of disastrous hurricanes in the the construction of locks and dams. early 1950's, in 1955 Congress expanded the In addition, the Corps of Engineers administers Corps Civil Works niission by authorizing a study certain Federal laws protecting and preserving U.S. of hurricane protection problems on the Atlantic navigable waters. This responsibility includes and Gulf seaboards. The Flood Control Act of granting permits for structures over and in such 1958 authorized the first three recommended navigable waters., establishing regulations for use of hurricane protection projects with the requirement navigable waters, including dumping grounds, fish- that non-Federal interests assume 30 per cent of ing areas, restricted areas, and danger zones; the cost. Hurricane protection reports have been establishing harbor lines, and administering the the basis for Congressional authorizations totaling Refuse Act prohibiting the disposal of refuse in an estimated $361 million. Additional projects are coastal and other navigable waters. In funding commericial navigation projects the 28 Federal Government usually bears the entire con- In November 1963 the Beach Erosion Board was disestablished and replaced by the Coastal Engineering struction cost of commercial navigation projects Research Center. 111-98 7' 4 @X 14 -,@ - 1@ '@.* . @T_ Figure 7. U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi (U. S. Army Corps ofEngineers photo) under study, including protection of large con- prepares, revises, and distributes navigation charts tiguous areas of the Gulf coastline. of the Great Lakes and their outflow rivers, including bound volumes of large-scale charts D. Lake Survey primarily for recreational use. The Great Lakes Pilot and seven monthly supplements, publications which complement chart information, are issued. Within the Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Lake Continuing investigations on applied hydraulics Survey conducts the program of field surveys and and hydrology of the Great Lakes as well as a program on Great Lakes water resources are being conducted. The Lake Survey includes river discharge meas- urements, water level data collection, and the provision of consulting engineer services to various international boards and committees. Appropriate da ta are prepared for publication of the Lake Survey's Monthly Bulletin of Lake Levels and related material. Major Corps facilities for coastal research are the Coastal Engineering and Research Center, Washington, D.C., and the Waterways Experiment Station at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Figure 8. Hydraulic model research at the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Funding by the Corps of Engineers is dis- Vicksburg, MississippL (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photo) tributed as follows: 111-99 FY 68 FY 69 Actual Estimate (millions of dollars) Total civil works program 1,304 1,218 Coastal zone component 196 183 Planning, design, construction (including real estate), operation, and maintenance,, excluding portion allocated below 187.1 173.8 Research and other Scientific activities 8.9 9.2 Suballocation of research and other scientific activities to major purpose Transportation Channel and harbor development and protection 2.919 2.7 Development and conservation of the coastal zone Shore stabilization and protection Beach erosion control and hurricane storm surge protection 1.496 1.5 Marine pollution management Pollution and flushing of bays, estuaries, and the Great Lakes 1.659 2.2 Recreation and conservation Recreation beaches and small-craft harbors 1.480 1.5 Environmental observation and prediction services 0.3 Ocean exploration, mapping, charting, and geodesy .838 0.8 National data centers National Oceanographic Data Center .024 0.03 Great Lakes Data Center .164 0.2 Total 8.893 9.2 Future programs in the coastal zone proposed XIX. NAVY by the Corps include: The effect on the coastal zone of the many -Effects of construction activities on the ecology activities of the Navy is difficult to ascribe. In Of the coastal zone, a multi-agency, multi- general, the following can be noted: discipline research program to suggest practical -Use of the shoreline and nearshore waters for measures, related to construction, to improve the bases, test ranges, and operating areas management of our estuarine and coastal waters and adjacent lands -Research, technology, development, and opera7 tions by Naval activities supporting the Navy's -Development of offshore facilities, a research mission for National security program to develop engineering design criteria and techniques for construction of future offshore -Funding and other Navy support for basic barriers, islands, causeways, airfields, power and science and research conducted at universities and desalinization plants, harbors, floating break- private laboratories. waters, terminal platforms, and access tunnels Few coastal regions do not in some measure feel the impact of Naval installations and bases. -New techniques and equipment for restoration Approximately I per cent of the total U.S. of coastal shores and beaches, a proposal to shoreline 29 is utilized by the Department of develop techniques and equipment to excavate material from offshore deposits and deliver it in a 29 Shoreline Recreation Resources of the United States practicable and economical manner to beaches ORRRC Report No. 4, 1962. See Table 2 of Chapter 3. requiring restoration or nourishment. Alaska and Hawaii are-not included in this figure. III-100 Defense for bases or restricted firing or test ranges, Within the Navy the functions of marine and about .06 per cent of the Continental Shelf is science and development are directed by the restricted to naval firing, explosives dumpling, Oceanographer of the Navy, under whom the submarine transit lanes, or other military use. 30 principal agency is the Naval Oceanographic* Of- fice. In this activity, the basic coastal undertaking As a policy matter, the Secretary of the Navy is the Nearshore Environmental Prediction System has required that maximum effort be made to Project to predict unknown nearshore ocean- incorporate environmental pollution preventive ographic conditions such as bottom materials by measures in ships and bases. To this end, he has . instructed the Navy to cooperate fully with the inference from known environmental conditions. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Naval engineering and technological activities are more thoroughly described in the Marine and the Department of Health, Education and Engineering and Technology Report. 31 Welfare to comply with published standards and The Office of Naval Research supports pro- criteria relating to pollution abatement by Federal activities and the directives of Executive Order grams at universities and independent and some 11288 for the prevention, control, and abatement industrial laboratories. Approximately 40 per cent of water pollution by Federal activities. of all basic marine science is supported by the Navy. Projects in the coastal zone include sedi- Naval activities have provided extensive infor- mentation, seismology sound propagation, waves, mation concerning nearshore waters, particularly coastal currents, topography, submarine canyons the Continental Shelf, via mapping, charting, and other coastal features, and other studies. magnetic and gravity surveys, and "man-in-the- . Laboratories and universities where Navy sup- sea," "sea lab," and deep submergence rescue ported work is being conducted is shown on programs. Figure 9.32 ),U. of Alaska 0 Arctic Research Lab. Insit. of Marine Sci. U. of Washington U. of Rhode Island Nav Und ter Sound Lab. 0 Oregon State U. 71 Mass. Inst. of Technol. Lamont Geol. Observ., Woods Hole oceanog. Inst. Naval Underwater Weapons Res-.&-En-g. Sta. c Ordnance Research Lab.-O Hudson Labs. Chesapeake Bay Inst.-_ App-lied-Sci. Lab. Naval Radiological Defense Lab. Naval Ordnance Lab.- New York U. Naval Oceanog. Office - Naval Air Dev. Center Naval Research Lab. Naval Ship Research 0 Naval Ordnance Test Sta. & Dev. Center 0 U. of Hawaii Navy Electronics Lab. Scripps Inst. of Oceanog. oSouthwest Center for Adv. Studies o Texas A. & M. 11 Navy Laboratories Universities and Private Institutions Navy Mine Defense Lab. Nova U. with Funding greater than $100,000 -U. of Miami Inst. of Marine Sci. Figure9. Locations of major Navy laboratories and Navy-supported universities and private institutions. 30 This figure is obtained by measuring on 1,100 and 31 Report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and a Island dLab 'v. Lab H' Ins' @Ar Lab N@ ff,c L. eJN b va' Ordnance Test Sta. Nav a'R 00 leg Nava R, -a @e_a .(.a s @vy Electronics Lab @te _'ipp. Inst of Oceng. -stCan v. 8 die S.-t w Ad 8,M 0 Texas A 'a'.,ies . . i ,a d P, vate I .titti... Navy MIn. Defense Lab No ,g greater than $,00 , 000 1,200 series -USC&GS charts "prohibited" and "re- Technology of the Commission on Marine Science, stricted" areas and submarine transit lanes inside the Engineering and Resources. 100-fathom depth contour. Alaska and the Great Lakes 32 From Ocean Science Program, Office of the Ocean- are not included. ographer of the Navy, June 1967. 111-101 Funding by the Navy in programs and projects -The Oceanographic Sorting Center, Washington, directly related to the Coastal Zone is difficult to established December 1962 to act as a service separate from other funding. The best estimates organization to the scientific community in re- which are available are: ceiving, sorting, recording, and distributing marine FY 68 FY 69 biological and geological specimens. (millions of dollars) Current funding by the Smithsonian Institution Great Lakes 0.1 0-1 for programs directly related to the coastal zone: Estuaries 2.2 2.8 Continental Shelf 12.8 12.3 FY 68 $175,000 Total 15.1 15.2 FY 69 $190,000 XX.. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Projects the Smithsonian plans to participate in: -Interoceanic canal studies The Smithsonian Institution was established in 1846 to increase and disseminate knowledge. It -Marine preserves (principally coral atolls) soon became involved in research and now has research facilities in many phases of the sciences. -Submersibles Projects sponsored and conducted by the Smith- -Great Lakes ecology sonian contribute significantly to coastal zone science, particularly in the fields of biology and -Aquaculture station (Canal Zone) geology. Unique among Government activities, the -Underwater archeology. Smithsonian is a private organization operating on both public and private funds. First Federal XXI. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATICiN appropriatio .n for Smithsonian operation took (NSF) place in 1877. Created by the National Science Foundation The U.S. National Museum, of which the Act of 1950,3 3 NSF's fundamental purpose is to Museum of Natural Ifistory is a part, is the official strengthen basic U.S. scientific research and edu- repository of natural history materials for the U.S. cation. NSF also administers the Sea Grant College 34 Government. Over many years sections of the and Program Act of 1966. Naiio fial Museum have acquired- critical collections NSF is authorized and directed to develop and of catalogued marine organisms and fossils. Suc- ourag' National 'policies promoting basic re- enc e ce'ssions,of scholar-cufators have made the Institu- search and education in the sciences and to tion'.the study and ref6ree center for marine., rt basic research and programs to strengthen suppo biologists of the world. Exchanges with scholars scientific research potential: The Foundation is and institutions throughout the world have in- authorized to support allied research in the field of creased, and demands for information have grown National defense when so requested by the Secre- beyond anticipation. In particular, requirements of tary of Defense, in sea grant programs, and in the applied and engineering sciences have grown. weather modification. The Foundation also is Facilities significant to the coastal zone operate empowered to award scholarships and fellowships by the Smithsonian in addition to the National for scientific studies, maintain a roster of the Museum are: Nation's scientists, and promote the interchange -TheTropical Research Institute, Barro Colorado and dissemination of scientific and technical in- island in the Panama Canal Zone, contains two formation, by a widevariet.y of means. marine'biology laboratories on the Caribbean and Within the coastal regime the Foundation sup- Pacific sides of the Isthmus ports, principally, research in marine biology, -The Chesapeake Bay Center for Field Biology, a 33 64 Stat. 149; 42 U.S.C. 1861-1879. new facility to conduct estuarine research, pri- 34 P.L. 89-688, Oct. 15, 1966, 80 Stat. 998, 33 U.S.C. marily in ecology 1121-1124. 111-102 Table 2 INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT BY NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION COASTAL ZONE PROJECTS Institution Type of Oceanographic Research Facility University of California (Scripps) Hydrodynamic Lab Construction Johns Hopkins University Research Lab Construction New York University Pier Construction Oregon State University Research Lab Construction University of Washington Research Lab Construction University of Rhode Island Research Lab Construction Columbia University (Lamont) Sediment Lab Construction University of Miami Biology Lab Construction University of California (Scripps) Pier Facility and Biology Lab Construction University of Miami Physical Lab Construction University of Hawaii Biology Lab Construction Naples Zoological Station Biology Lab Construction University of California (Berkeley) Biology Lab Construction University of California (Santa Barbara) Biology Lab Construction Communications Research Institute Biology Lab Construction New York Aquarium Biology Lab Construction California Institute of Technology Biology Lab Construction University of Connecticut Biology Lab Construction Marine Biological Laboratory Biology Lab & Pier Construction University of Puerto Rico Biology Lab Renovation University of Miami Biology Lab Renovation Duke University Biology Lab Expansion University of Texas Mooring Facilities& Lab Modification Bermuda Biological Station Biology Lab Modification & Expansion Columbia University (Lamont) Machine& Instrument Shop Construction University of Washington Biology Lab Expansion Cape Haze Marine Laboratory Biology Lab Modification Stanford University Biology Lab Modification & Construction Massachusetts Institute of Technology Physical Lab Expansion University of Miami Biology Lab Modification Columbia University (Lamont) Biology Lab Construction Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Biology & Chemical Lab Construction University of Hawaii Institute of Geophysics Construction Texas A&M University (Galveston Lab) Research Lab Modification Florida State University Arctic Sediment Core Laboratory Columbia University (Lamont) Electron Microscope Laboratory geology, and pollution. It also gives grants for The NSF is an important source of support to laboratory facility and ship construction. Approxi- institutions for the acquisition and construction of mately 40 per cent of all support to institutions facilities. for research in marine sciences comes from the Table 2 lists institutions and the general types Foundation. Current funding in coastal zone of facilities the Foundation has supported the past projects is about $3.4 million out of total marine few years, and at which coastal research is con- 35 sciences funding of about $30 ii-dilion. ducted: 35 Figures provided at Panel hearings, with National The Sea Grant Program administered by the Science Foundation, Oct. 10, 1968. Foundation is intended as a means of involving 111-103 scholars. and academic institutions in the practical shorelines and islands are integral parts of the problems of marine resource development. The planning activities of the Council, river basin Sea Grant Program began in 1968 with funding of commissions, and other field organizations and $4 niillion, most for research within the coastal State programs under the Water Resources Plan- zone. The program can be expected to become a ning Act. most important source of funding for coastal River basin commissions established under the environment research. Act having coastal zones are the Pacific Northwest, A summary of estimated funding for research the Great Lakes, and New England. In each directly related to the coastal zone is: commission a chairmanhas been appointed by the FY 68 FY 69 President and 'a small staff is being organized. The established commissions include 16 of the 28 (millions of dollars) States with coastal zones. Basic research 36 3.4 3.4 The Council recommends that River Basin Sea Grant 3.0 3.0 Commissions be considered for the remaining Total 6.4 6.4 States having coastal zones. The Council makes grants to States for compre- hensive planning regarding State waters and related XXII. WATER RESOURCES COUNCIL land resources. In 1968 the Council granted $300,000 to South Carolina to plan development the' Water Resources Council is an independent and manag .ement of tidelands and coastal waters. agency established by the Water Resources Plan- ning Act of 1965 37 and is composed of the Secretaries of Agriculture; Army; Health, Educa- XXIII. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC) tion and Welfare; Interior; and Transportation; and The AEC was established by the Atornic Energy the Chairman of the Federal Power Commission' Act of 1946, as amended by the Atomic Energy The Council has primary responsibilities for con- Act of 195 14. tinuing studies and periodic assessments of the The AEC's principal purpose is to provide adequacy of U.S. water supplies; for maintaining a National policy for development, use, and control continuing study of the relation of regional or of atomic energy. Its primary responsibilities river basin plans to the requirements of larger involving the marine environment relate to (1) regions of the Nation; for appraising aaequacy of control of radioactive emissions to prevent danger Federal programs; and for recommendations to the to public health, (2) investigations, (3) research, President regarding Federal policies and programs. and (4) regulations preparatory to construction of The Council is to establish principles, standards, combined desalting and power generation plants. and procedures for Federal participation in pre- The Commission makes grants and contracts paring comprehensive regional or river basin plans and for formulating and evaluating Federal water supporting environmental health and sciences, and related land resource projects. most for research concerning occurrence, effects, and dispersal of radioactive fallout, wastes and On Nov. 29, 1967, the Council adopted a pollutants. statement clarifying that coastal, lake, and river Current funding in the coastal zone is: FY 68 FY 69 36 NSF grants for institutional support and other research and training operations are not separately avail- (millions of dollars) able for the coastal zone.. Therefore this figure may not Estuaries 0.3 0.3 accurately reflect all NSF supported activity within the coastal regions. If such were included, the figure might Continental Shelf 2.0 2.0 better be approximated at $ 10 million. This would result in a total of $13 million versus $6.4 million current Total 2.3 2.3 funding in the coastal zone. 37 Public Law 89-80, July 22, 1965. Title 11 of this law The growing number of nuclear power plants authorized the establishment of river basin commissions to conduct regional planning of water and related land concerns the AEC from the standpoint of con- resources. struction and operation licensing. Operable or 111-104 planned facilities are shown on Figure 9 of A common denominator of regulation in most Chapter 4. States is participation in Corps of Engineers The AEC now licenses nuclear plants from the navigation permit proceedings, general water pollu- standpoint of radioactive safety only. Many activi- tion control laws, fish and game regulations, and ties concerned with the effects of water diversion some controls exercised in conjunction with dis- and thermal addition believe that these aspects posal or lease of State-owned underwater lands. should also be included. Legislative controls beyond these routine Nuclear power and desalinization plants are features include: envisioned on the Continental Shelf underwater. -Permit requirements for dredging, filling, and XXIV. FEDERAL POWER COMMISSION (FPC) other alterations in coastal wetlands (Massachu- setts, Maine, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and The FPC is an independent agency created by Rhode Island). These laws usually go beyond the the Federal Water Power Act of June 10, 1920 (41 Corps of Engineers permits and State lands con- Stat. 1063, 16 U.S.C. 791-823), to investigate trols, in that the wetlands permits apply to water and power development of U.S. rivers and to privately owned uplands, not merely to State- issue licenses for non-Federal development there- owned lands and lands under navigable waters. In of. Additional responsibilities have been assigned Massachusetts, the wetlands controls are accom- under other legislation and by Executive Order. panied by power to condemn lands if a "taking" is The FPC issues licenses for constructing and involved. In addition to its permit law, Massa- o p erating non-Federal hydroelectric power chusetts has enacted a related statute that permits projects on U.S. public lands or navigable waters. a "rule-making" approach, authorizing adoption of The, Commission reviews proposed dams to be regulations to control wetlands alteration on a .constructed by the Department of the Army, the regional basis. Department of the Interior, or other Fede .ral -Establishment of bulkhead lines to control leas- agencies and makes recommendations concerning ing (Texas) or dredging and filling (Florida). the installation of facilities for hydroelectric power development. It assesses headwater benefit -As previously noted, interim permit controls charges against owners of non-Federal water power over dredging and filling of coastal marshlands projects directly benefited by upstream improve- have been adopted by a regional agency in ments constructed by the United States, its California, to forestall development during the licensees or permittees. planning period of the agency's program. Under provisions of the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, the FPC must consult with -the -Some effort has been made to use local zoning Fish and Wildlife Service on effects on wildlife of machinery for coastal marshland preservation. As any proposed water diversion. indicated elsewhere in this report though, these efforts have encountered serious legal obstacles in more than one State. Delaware has reflected on its XXV. STATE ACTIVITY Comprehensive Plan Map some coastal wetlands Extensive planning programs for coastal con- for conservation purposes, but the plan has not servation and management are under way in many 'been implemented by zoning. States, notably California, Oregon, Maryland, North Carolina, Connecticut, and New York North Carolina, and Florida. The California pro- have the legislative authority to condemn estuarine gram involves San Francisco Bay and includes lands. Most State programs, however, must rely on interim permit controls over dredging and filling voluntary acquisition. during the planning period; its 23 research and While acquisition for estuarine conservation has planning studies are budgeted at nearly one- quarter million dollars a year for several years. 38 been conducted only on a limited scale in most coastal States, extensive programs involving thousands of acres are under way or being planned 38 See Appendix D. in several States. 111-105 States planning substantial acquisitions include rine acquisitions represents a significant funding New Jersey, California, Maine, Connecticut, source potential. Rhode Island, and Delaware. State acquisition is A diversity of administering agencies exists. In often supplemented by acquisition by private Massachusetts, New York, and Rhode Island there conservation groups and Federal agencies. is coordinated administration by several operating New York has pioneered under the Long Island divisions of a single natural resources department, Wetlands Act a program of State4ocal coopera- though with some local participation in control tion. This provides for State cost sharing in decisions. In most other States administration is maintenance, operation, and development of divided amorig several agencies. Combined boards, locally-owned wetlands dedicated to conservation such as the Maine Wetlands Control Board, in purposes. several New England States make decisions on Low funding levels for land acquisition or perinits for wetland alteration or state land leasing. regulation programs have often hampered State Little formal provision apparently exists for estuarine conservation activities, but there are eIxceptions. For example, Maine has spent $5 coordinated development and conservation, except million for park lands plus $20,000 annually for by boards with diverse representation (such as the waterfowl wetlands. Connecticut is spending wetlands control boards) or in the exceptional case about $500,000 for acquisition in the current where all affected program interests are concen- biennium. California's planning budget has been trated within a single State department. The substantial-almost one-quarter million dollars general pattern is one of informal coordination annually for several years. Passage of a mu ti- among affected agencies. million-dollar Green Acres bond issue by New A detailed survey of State activities was con- Jersey voters in 1964 has resulted in large State ducted by the Institute of Public Administration salt-marsh acquisitions. In other States substantial under contract to the Commission and the report operating and acquisition budgets may evolve for is available separately. 39 some programs now in the planning stage. Use of A brief summary -of State activities is shown in U.S. land and water conservation funds or estua- Appendix D. 39 See footnote 1. 111-106 Chapter 8 Developing Law in the Coastal Zone The juncture of land and sea has, from antiq- has not proven to be an effective restraint upon uity, been an area of uncertain boundaries, subject the indiscriminate sale or disposal of tidelands. And to imprecise rules, reflective of the natural forces as we become aware of the value of marshland. of the tides, and geared to the needs of commerce, tidelands for biological, recreational, and aesthetic navigation, fisheries, and land usage tolerant of purposes, in addition to reclamation as upland, the imprecision and relatively free of diverse uses. public trust under the common law often proves The principles on which we base ownership inadequate in conserving such areas where desir- date back at least to Magna Carta, and have been able. Legislation has had to be enacted and subject to a variety of interpretations in U.S. State administrative action taken to meet the new and Federal courts. These interpretations stem diverse uses of areas formerly considered waste from the common law principle that both the title lands. and dominion of rivers and arms of the sea, where Technological capabilities, coupled with the the tide ebbs and flows, and all the lands below discovery of rich mineral resources in some tide- the high water mark, are in the sovereign. lands and submerged areas of the coastal United Boundaries determined by tidal ebb and flow States, have heightened the conflicts between the are not unambiguous, time-invariant lines, but a States and the Federal Government, and have led condition at the water's edge during a particular to extensive major litigation and enactment of the instant of the tidal cycle. Ownership of the Submerged Lands Act by which title to the bed sovereign of the navigable waters bordering our and natural resources of the territorial sea within coasts generally is subject for the benefit of its their boundaries was granted by Congress to the citizens to a public trust for navigation, commerce, States. and fishing. While the Submerged Lands Act clarified some The public trust also provides a rationale for -matters, it left to the courts major boundary and public regulation regardless of ownership, but it ownership questions still to be resolved. In the --@-777- 77 _7 SURFSIDE CiMd LOTS i. 147" PRESCOTT CONNIN S-OOL 28 2 NO TAM 71, ': __r'y INTERES1 Figure 1. Widespread and often unregulated land development has resulted in a general de- mand for more public control of the shoreline. (National Park Service photo) 111-107 context of increasingly diverse and conflicting uses moon revolves around the earth once every 29Y2 of the coastal zone, questions of boundaries and days, and its orbit is inclined on the average of ownership are discussed in Section I of this 23Y20 to the earth's equator; that every body of chapter. . water has its own period of oscillation, and Conservation and development are inseparable responds differently to the tide-producing forces; parts of the same planning and regulatory chal- and that all of these factors, together with the lenge facing the National, State and local govern- configuration of the land bordering the water ments in the coastal zone. Consideration must be areas, enter into the formation of the tide, there is given to both land uses and water uses in consider- present almost limitless possible combinations into ing coastal zone planning and regulatory tech7 which these factors can unite to produce both niques. differences at the same time at different places and Land uses produce many coastal zone environ- differences at the same place at different times.' mental problems: domestic and commercial sew- age, waste disposal, filling of marshlands or water In addition to the tides, the sea level varies with areas for housing, commercial businesses, and atmospheric pressure and ocean current changes. airports, to name a few. Boundaries determined by the tides are not Land use regulation has developed to a sophisti- unambiguous, time-invariant fines, but are a condi- cated art, generally administered by local govern- tion at the water's edge during a particular instant ment. In a few States, such as Hawaii, of the tidal cycle: Connecticut, and Wisconsin, State-wide zoning statutes exist for limited purposes relating to land Boundaries determined by the course of the tides use and the water environment. With increased involve two engineering aspects: a vertical one, awareness and consideration of 'the marine envi- predicated on the height reached by the tide during ronment for health, recreational, ecological, aes- its vertical rise and fall, and constituting a tidal thetic, and psychological purposes, the limitations plane or datum, such as mean high water, mean of local government in providing adequate plan- low water, etc.; and a horizontal one, related to ning and regulatory practices become increasingly the line where the tidal plane intersects the shore pronounced,@ and concepts of regional or State- to form the tidal boundary desired, for example, wide government become desirable or necessary. mean high-water mark, mean low-water mark. The Section 11 of this chapter is devoted to regula- first is derived ftorn tidal observations alone, and tory authority of States and local governments. once derived (on the basis of longterm observa- It discusses the limitations on regulation, regula- tion), is for all practical purposes a permanent one. tory efforts used in the past, and regulatory ne second is dependent on the first, but is also proposals to meet a variety of new needs. affected by the natural processes of erosion and 1. BOUNDARIES AND OWNERSHIP A. Coastal Boundaries The uncertainty in our law of shore boundaries derives partly from reliance on the natural phe- nomenon of the tides. As stated by Aaron Shalowitz: The phenomenon of the tide is far from being a simple one. The tidal effect of sun and moon upon Figure 2. The natural shoreline along the Gulf Coast as shown here at Grand Isle, Louisiana, the waters of the earth depends upon the relative is difficult to delineate when valuable oil leases positions of the three bodies at a particular time are at stake- (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and a particular place. Considering then that the photo) earth revolves on its axis once every 24 hours, and 1 its journey around the sun takes one year, that the Shalowitz, I Shore and Sea Boundaries 84-85 (1962). 111-108 accretion, and the artificial changes made by Although some States do not make the distinction, Pwn .... 2 the line-of-vegetation rule is properly applicable State ownership of tidelands derives from only to nontidal waters, where no absolute high- English common law. 3 However, English cases water level can be established." Other variations were not precise as to exact location of the upper on determination of the high water mark are boundary of tideland, and not until 1854, in the found in Louisiana, where the boundary is the line case of Attorney-General v. ChamberS4 did the reached by the highest winter tide,' 1 and those parts of Texas covered by Spanish land grants, English courts define "ordinary" high water as where the line is that of mean higher high tide. 12 "the line of the medium high tide between the The adoption of different rules for determining springs and the neaps," which is a close approxi- the "ordinary" high tide means that in those mation of the rule later laid down by the United States that follow the common law rule that States Supreme Court when it definitively estab- private property extends only to the "ordinary lished the Federal rule for interpretation of the high water mark" there may be a substantial term "ordinary high water mark," in Borax Con- difference between the boundary that would be solidated, Ltd. v. Los Angeless In the Borax found under the Federal rule and that found under Consolidated case, the Court said that "it is a different State rule. However, where the prior necessary to take the mean high tide line, sovereign has not created private titles, and the which ... is neither the spring tide nor the neap State was created from Federal territory, the ,,6 tide, but a mean of all the high tides. In so coastal boundary will be determined by the defining the ordinary high water mark, the Court Federal rule unless the State chooses to adopt a chose a test recommended by the U.S. Coast and rule more generous to the upland owner than the Geodetic Survey, and rejected the tests used in a Federal rule. numb 'er of StateS.7 Certain recent State cases, Assuming continued -reliance upon the tides in however, have adopted the Federal rule.8 order to determine shore boundaries, the Federal A third interpretation of "mean high tide line" rule in the Borax Consolidated case appears to be is the vegetation line, such as found in the State of the most precise and accurate method available. Washington: While the Federal test is applied in determining the The line of ordinary high tide is that line which boundaries of Federal grants, we believe there is the water impresses on the soil by covering it for much value to be gained by the States in adopting sufficient periods to deprive'the soil of vegetation *the test in controversies between the States and and destroy its value for agricultural purposes. 9 private interests. 2Shalowitz, op. cit., p. 89. 3See Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U.S. 1, 5 7-5 8 (1893). B. Tidelands Ownership 44 DeG., M & G 206, 217-218, 43 Eng. Reps. 486, 490(1854). 5296 U.S. 10 (1935). At common law, the sovereign owned tidelands 6296 U.S. at 26. and lands under navigable waters and his (its) title [email protected] v.-Thom@son, 18 Cal. 11, 21 stopped at the line of ordinary high water, as (186 1); Otey v. Carmel Sanitary District, 219 Cal. 310, 26 modified from time to time by gradual accretion, P. 2d 308, 310 (1933),People v. William Kent Estate Co. osion, or reliction. When the Union was created, 51 Cal. Rep. 215, 219, 242 C.A. 2d-,156 (Ct. App., Isi er Dist., 1966);Millerv. Bay-to-Gulf, Inc., 141 Fla. 452,193 sovereignty was divided between the States and So. 425, 428 (1940); Narrows Real4i Co. Inc. v. State Of the Nation. The States retained ownership of the Washington, 52 Wash. 2d 843, 329 P. 2d 836, 837 (1958). 8 Cf. ONeill v. State Highway Department of New Jersey, 50 N.J. 307, 235 A.- 2d 1, 9 (1967). The Supreme Court recently followed the Borax Consolidated case in 1 OSee Borough of Ford City v. United States, 345 F. 2d Hughes v. Washington, 389 U.S. 290 (1967). See also 645 (C.A. 3), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 902. United States v. Washington, 294 F. 2d 830 (1961), cert, I I denied, 369 U.S. 290. Morgan v. Negodick, 40 La. Ann. 246, 3 So. 636 9Harkins v. Del Pozzi, 50 Wash. 237, 310 P. 2d 532, (1887); La. Rev. Civ. Code, art. 45 1. 534 (1957). See also Shelton Logging Co. v. Gosser, 26 .12 Luttes v. State, 159 Tex. 500, 324 S.W. 2d 167, 187 Wash. 126, 66 Pac. 151 (1901). (1958). 111-109 VI @A -77" Y-3 k 7, A, LT Vol Figure 3. A shoreline can change drastically under the effects of a storm. Here the coast of Assateague Island, Maryland, before (upper) and after (lower) the severe storm of March 6-9, 1962 Precise boundaries dependent,on the shoreline become confused (Environmental Sci- ence Services Administration. Coast and Geodetic Survey photos) tidelands and lands under navigable waters within title is held by each State in trust for its people.' 5 their boundaries. as an attribute of their sover- 15 eignty' New States created thereafter entered on Martin V. Waddell, 16 Pet. 36 7, 410 (1842); Pollard's 41 1 1 Lessee v. Hagan, 3 How. 212 (1845); Manchester v. equal footing" with the original 13 States, which Massachusetts, 139 U.S. 240 (1891); Shively v. Bowlby, meant that they were constitutionally entitled to 152 U.S. 1 (1893); Louisiana v. Mississippi, 212 U.S. I (1906); The Abby Dodge, 223 U.S. 166 (1912); Borax not less than title to the tidelands and submerged Consolidated, Ltd. v. Los Angeles, 296 U.S. 10 (1935); lands within their boundaries'l 3 nor more. 14 Such United States v. California, 332 U.S. 19, 30 (1946); United States v. California, 381' U.S. 139 (1965). See listing in Radigan, "Jurisdiction over Submerged Lands of the Open Sea," Legislative Reference Service, Library of 1 3Pollard's Lessee v, Hagan, 3 How. 212 (1845). Congress, 82nd.Cong., 1st Sess. (195 1). The recent case of Lane v. McEachern-162 S.E. 2d 174 (1968) is an example 14 United States v. Texas, 339 U.S. 707, 715-18 (19@0). of private rights acquired through historic grant. Wit, The public trust relates not only to ownership of ment was the initial proprietor, any claim by a tidelands and submerged lands, but also provides a State or by others must derive from the Federal rationale for public regulation of their use, regard- title;' 9 the rights conveyed by a Federal patent less of ownership, which we discuss in Section 11 are determined by Federal law.20 In some cases, of this chapter. however, private parties may claim title by succes- Cautioning that care is necessary in applying sion to concessions or grants antedating creation precedents in one State to cases arising in another of the Union, and in one such case the applicable because there is no universal and uniform law local law governing the extent of title was that of upon the subject and that each State has dealt the antecedent Spanish sovereign.21 with the lands under the tide waters within its borders according to its own views of Justice and The States may relinquish to riparian and littoral proprietors rights which properly belong to policy, the United States Supreme Court stated in 22 Shively v. Bowlby: the States in their sovereign capacity. Among the 13 original States, Rhode Island, Connecticut, By the common law, both the title and the New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, and South dominion of the sea, and of rivers and arms of the Carolina followed the common law rule that the sea, where the tide ebbs and flows, and of all the owner of land adjacent to waters in which the tides ebbed and flowed owned to the high water lands below high water mark, within the jurisdic- 3 24 tion of the 0own of England are in the Ki mark; while Massachusetts,' Maine, New ng. 21 21 Such waters, and the lands which they cover, Hampshire," Delaware, Pennsylvania, 28 29 either at all times, or at least when the tide is in, Virginia, and Georgia modified the common are incapable of ordinary and private occupation, law practice to permit the upland owner to hold cultivation and improvement; and their natural title to the low water mark, subject to the public and primary uses are public in their nature, for rights of navigation and fishing, and certain other highways of navigation and commerce, domestic modifications peculiar to each State. and foreign, and for the purpose of fishing of all the King's subjects. Therefore the title, jus pri- vatum, in such lands, as of waste and unoccupied 19- lands, belongs to the King as the sovereign; and the United States v. Grand River Dam Authority, 363 U.S. 229, 235; Shively v. Bowlby, supra, note 18, at dominion thereof jus publicum, is vested in him 5o-5i. as the representative of the nation and for the 20BoraX Consolidated, Ltd. v. Los Angeles, 296 U.S. 16 10, 22, and cases cited therein. Cf. Hughes v. Washington, public benefit... 389 U.S. 290 (1967). The Court further stated that: 21 Joy v. St. Louis, 201 U.S. 322 (1906). 22 Barney v. Keokuk, 94 U.S. 324, 338 (1876). 23 See Michaelson v. Silver Beach Imp. Assn, 342 Mass. the common law of England upon the subject ... 251, 173 N.E. 2d 273, 275 (1961). The ordinance itself is the law of this country, except so far as it has has ceased to be in force, but the rule remains as part of the common law of Massachusetts. See 1 Farnham 193 been modified by the charters, constitutions, (1904). statutes or usages of the several colonies and 24 See Sinford v. Watts, 123 Me. 230, 122 Atl. 573 states, or by the constitution and laws of the (1923). United States.' 7 25 See Shively v. Bowlby, supra note 18, at 20; also Nudd v. Hobbs, 17 N.H. 5 24, S 26-27 (1845). 26 See State ex reL Buckson v. Pennsylvania R. Co., 223 "The title and rights of riparian or littoral A. 2d 537, 597-98 (1967). This is a lower court case proprietors in the soil below high water mark of presently on appeal. navigable waters are governed by the local laws of 27 Wall v. Pittsburgh Harbor Co., 152 Pa. 427, 25 Atl. the several States.""' Where the Federal Govern- 647(1893). 28 Taylor v. Commonwealth, 102 Va. 759, 47 S.E. 875 16 (1904). See also Code of Virginia, 1950, �62-2. 152 U.S. 1, 11 (1893). 29 17 Georgia, Constitution of 1945, art. 1, �6: "The Act 18 152 U.S. at 14. of the General Assembly (approved Dec. 16,1902), which Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U.S. 1, 40 (1894); Hardin v. extends the title of ownership of lands abutting on tidal Jordan, 140 U.S. 371, 382; Port of Seattle v. Oregon & water to low water mark is hereby ratified and con- Washington R.R., 255 U.S. 56, 63. firmed." The States follow different rules in determining navigation is the sole or principal criterion for 35 ownership. Some rest title on the fact of navigabil- allowing dredging or filling in tidelands. ity, asserting state ownership of land under navi- Other States have extended the trust to include gable waters regardless of whether the tide ebbs public rights other than navigation, commerce, and and floWS,3 ' but in some jurisdictions the test of fishing. For instance, Connecticut protects fowling ownership in tidelands hinges on the fact of the and hunting, the taking of seaweed and sedge, ebb and flow of the tide.31 bathing, and swimming, but these rights can be Along flat, low-lying coasts the determination extinguished either by the exclusive occupation of of the boundary line with precision and accuracy the soil below high-water mark by the riparian is of considerable importance, inasmuch as in some owner, or by the paramount public right of free flat areas, a difference of one inch in elevation can and unobstructed use of navigable waters for 36 make a difference of several hundred feet of navigation. submerged land lost or gained at high tide, on The trust concept also has been expanded by which may hinge the revenues of substantial oil, increasing recognition of park and recreational gas, or other mineral claims. 32 The choice of test uses, and the conservation of natural resources, by for determining the boundary also will have a the courts and particularly by certain State 3,7 substantial impact. If the definition of "mean high legislatures. California permits municipalities to tide" is stated in terms of level or elevation, the lease tidelands for park, recreational, residential, or title to certain interior lands not naturally reached educational purposes when they deem industrial by the mean high tide but lying below the mean uses to be inimical to the best interests of the high tide level might be deemed to belong to the City. 38 The State of Washington places statutory State, as was contended by New Jersey in OWeill limitations on the sale of certain parts of the v. State Highway Department. 13 The New Jersey foreshore of the Pacific Ocean, emphasizing recrea- Supreme Court rejected the State's contentions, tional ValUeS.3 9 Florida's recent amendments to its and chose the test adopted by the United States Code are important for their precedent in recog- Supreme Court in the Borax Consolidated case. nizing conservation of natural resources as a public trust: C. Limits of the Public Trust in Tidelands As noted in the preceding section, tideland Any bulkhead line when so fixed or ascertained and established shall represent the line beyond traditionally is held by the State in trust for its which a further extension. creating or filling of people for commerce, navigation, and fishing. 34 land or islands outward into the waters of the Among the States, however, there is no unanimity country shall be deemed an interference with the regarding the limits of the trust. In some States, servitude in favor of commerce, navigation, and conservation of natural resources, with which the 30 Brickell v. Trammell, 77 Fla. 544, 82 So. 221; Home Real Est Loan and Ins. Co. v. Parmele, 235 N.C. 689, 71 35 S.E. 2d 474 (1952);* North Carolina General Sta@utes Cf., Ala. Stats., tit. 38, �122; Del. Code Ann., tit. 146-64 (1954). Alabama, California, Mississippi, 23, �1507; Va. Code, �62-2.1 (1966 Supp.). Aregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, and Washington 36 Orange v. Resnick, 94 Conn. 573, 580-81, 109 AtI. are among the coastal States that have followed this rule. 864, 866 (1920). See also Butler v. A ttorney- General, 195 31 Bailey v. Driscoll, 19 N.J. 363 (1955); ONeill v. Mass. 79, 80 N.E. 688, 689 (1907); Collins v. Gerhardt, State Highway Department of New Jersey, 50 N.J. 307, 237 Mich. 38, 211 N.W. 115 (1926); Allen v. Allen, 19 235 A. 2d 1 (1967). Georgia, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, R-1- 114, 32 Atl. 166, 167 (1895); Treuting v. Bridge and Michigan, New York, and South Carolina also have Park Commission of the City of Biloxi, 199 So. 2d 6 27, followed this rule. 632 (Miss. 1967). 32 F. J. Hortig, Executive Officer, California State 3 7Muench v. Public Service Commission, 261 Wis. 492, Lands Commission, "Administrative and Technical Prob- 511-12, 53 N.W. 2d 514, 522 (1952); California, 33 Ops. lems Related to Establishment of California Coastal and Atty- Gen. 152 (City of Long Beach permitted to use Offshore Boundaries," Third Annual Law of the Sea tidelands oil income to maintain and operate public Institute, June 1968. beaches on granted tidelands). 33 50 N.J. 307, 235 A. 2d 1, 9 (1967). 38 California Government Code, �37387. 34 Illinois Central R.R. v. Illinois, 146 U.S. 387, 452 39 See Washington, R.C.W.A. 79.16.170-.171; Wash. (1892). Laws 1963, ch. 212; Wash. Laws. 1967, ch. 120. 111-112 navigable waters of this state are inalienably and to what extent and they shall consider any impressed 40 otherfactors affecting the public intereStS.44 D. Limitations on Tideland Disposal The statute contemplates use of biological, eco- The principal limitations on tideland destruc- logical, and, if necessary, hydrographic studies to tion have been (1) State constitutional or statu- aid the Trustees in their determination and, tory limitations on their disposal and (2) protec- furthermore, requires public hearings before sale tion of navigation under the Federal navigational of tidelands. servitude (see next section). State constitutional A grant of tidelands by the States does not and statutory prohibitions on the sale of tidelands generally extinguish public rights in them until the generally have many exceptions and limitations, tidelands are so the effect of which is shown in high percentage of . physically changed, according to the grant terms, that those rights can no longer be loss of marsh and tidelands in recent years. For exercised, at which time the riparian owner 's rights instance, California's Public Resources Code with- 45 holds tidelands from sale 4 1 and its constitution become absolute. prohibits sale of tidelands within two miles of any . However, some cases suggest that public rights incorporated city, county, or town on the water- in tidelands may be extinguished before the * 42 tidelands are changed physically, if lost "in pro- front of any harbor or bay used for navigation, ,46 yet California has lost a larger percentage of fish moting the interests of the public, such as adapting the land to the best use for navigation. and wildlife estuarine habitat than any other State in the last 20 yearS.4 3 If in so adapting the tidelands for this use it is Florida recently has clarified its previous law found necessary or advisable in any of the use to authorizing sale of tidelands by the Trustees of the cut off portions of it ftom access to navigable Internal Improvement Fund if not "contrary . to water so that it becomes unavailable for naviga- the public. interest," and now requires determina- tion, the state has power to exclude such portions tion of the extent to which such sale: from the public use and to that extent revoke the would interfere with the conservation of fish, original dedication. When this has been done in the marine and wildlife or other natural resources, regular administration of the trust, the land thus including beaches and shores, and would result in excluded from use for navigation may become destruction of oyster beds, clam beds or marine proprietory land not subject to the public use and productivity, including, but not, limited to, de- it may then be alienated irrevocably by the state struction or marine habitats, grass flats suitable as for private use to private individuals.... But nurser or feeding grounds for marine life, and statutes purporting to authorize an abandonment @ y of such public use' will be carefully scanned to established marine soils suitable for producing ascert-ain whether or not such was the legislative plantgrowth of a type useful as nursery or feeding intention and that intent must be clearly expressed grounds for marine life, and if so, in what respect or necessarily implied ... 47 40 Fla. Stats. �253.122 (1967). In still other cases, where the State has granted 41 California Public Resources Code �799 1. title to tide and submerged lands subject to a 42 California Constitution, art. 15, �3. public trust for certain purposes, the State may 43 See Estuarine Areas: Hearings Before the Sub- committee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of 44 Fla. Code, �253.12(2) (Supp. 1968). Representatives, 90th Cong. 1st Sess., 1967, p. 30. Similar 45 results have occurred in the State of Washington, where See Atwood v. Hammond, 4 Cal. 2d 31, 48 P. 2d 20, its constitution forbids sale of tidelands within one mile 24 (1955); Allen v. Allen, 19 R.I. 114, 132 AtI. 166 of incorporated cities (art. XV, 1) and asserts State '(1895); City ofBoston v.Richardson, 105 Mass. 351, 362 ownership of tidelands (art. XV11, �1) which, absent (1870);State v. Black River Phosphate Co., 32 Fla. 82, 13 overall policy regarding use and disposal of tidelands, So. 2d 640, 649 (1893); Holland v. F. L Pearce Fin. & resulted in disposal of much State-owned land. See Const. Co., 157 Fla. 649, 27 So. 2d 76, 81-82 (1946). Hughes v. State, 67 Wash. 2d 799, 410 P. 2d 20, 23 46 See Illinois Central R.R. v. Illinois, 146 U.S. 387, (1966). We note, however, the recent reversal of that 453(1892). trend by the State legislature by its establishment of a 4 7People v. California Fish Co., 16 Cal. 576, 138 Pac. State seashore conservation area and controls over the sale of publicly owned lands. 79, 87 (1913). 111-113 333-093 0 - 69 - 18 subsequently find that the trust no longer serves plenary nature," or a "superior power" to which the purposes for which it was created, or that States and private rights have always been "subor- circumstances have so changed that its con- dinate."' 0 Included in the power over navigation tinuance would be unwise. Thus, California de- is a unique power known as the "navigational clared "free from the public trust" under the grant servitude," which is an expression for the rule that to tide and submerged lands in Long Beach, taking certain private property rights in navigable waters one half, of the oil revenues and all "dry gas" are subject to a preexisting, continuing right to use revenue derived by Long Beach from lands so such waters and the beds of such waters in aid of granted. California did so, stating in the Act of navigation,5 ' including rights in non-navigable June 6, 1951 that expenditure of more than the streams which affect navigability of navigable sums left remaining subject to the trust "would be streams, extending to the ordinary high water 12 economically. impracticable, unwise and unneces- mark. The right to use navigable waters in aid of Sary.,,48 navigation is not a right to take title, but a right to The common law rights with respect to owner- use; exercise of the servitude interferes with the ship of tidelands and submerged lands were de- enjoyment of riparian rights without impairing signed for and amenable to the needs of their legal status. However, in the exercise of the commerce, navigation, and the fisheries, and have right, improvements placed in navigable waters by in the past proved to be adaptable to economic Private parties may be removed in exercise of the development uses. But new interests have devel- servitude, without compensation to the owner of oped in the tidelands and submerged lands. Valu- the improvement. Such power is unique among the able mineral resources have increased the need for constitutional powers granted to the Federal Gov- precise boundaries and sound regulatory practices. ernment. One explanation is that all private New awareness of the biological, recreational, property extending below the ordinary high water and aesthetic value of marshes, swamps, and mark of navigable streams and coastal waters is tidelands, previou.1y considered waste lands placed there with "notice" of the servitude .53 "incapable of ordinary and private occupation, A prime example of the exercise of the naviga- cultivation and- improvement," have particularly tion power is found in the Rivers and Harbors Act tested the effectiveness of the common law public of 1899 '14 administered by the Corps of Engi- trust in which the States have held title to neers, which, among other things, governs the tidelands and submerged lands. building of structures in U.S. navigable waters, and The imaginative interpretation of the common provides for the authorization by permit of dredg- law public trust by State courts, extending the ing and filling in navigable waters .55 trust to the conservation of natural resources, has Federal power over navigation is a great poten- been helpful, but only comprehensive planning, tial asset to the management of certain coastal legislation, and flexible adniinistrative action have zone water uses, but one pressing current issue is proven effective in managing the increasingly control of activities, such as dredging and filling, diverse, often conflicting uses in the coastal zone. with no adverse effect on navigation, where other values are sought to be preserved. E. The Federal Navigation Power Early in U.S. history the control of navigation U.S 0United States v. Grand River Dam Authority, 363 S. 233 (1960). United States v. Twin City Power Co., was determined to be. one enumerated power of 350 U.S. 222 (1956). the Federal Government under the Commerce SlUnited States v. Commodore Park, Inc., 324 U.S.' 49 386 (1945); Greenleaf-Johnson Lumber Co. v. Garrison, Clause of the U.S. Constitution. 237 U.S. 251 (1915); Lewis Blue Point Oyster Culture The power over navigation is frequently de- Co. v. Briggs, 229 U.S. 82 (1913); United States v. Chandler-Dunbar Water Power Co., 229 U.S. 53 (1913). scribed as a "dominant right," or a "right of a 52 Oklahoma ex rel. Phillips v. Guy F. Atkinson Co., 313 U.S. 508, 525-26 (1941); United States v. Grand 48 River Dam Authority, supra note 50. See Mallon v. City of Long Beach, 44 Cal. 2d 199 53 282 P.2d 481 (1955); Twombley v. City of Long Beach ' Clark (ed), 2 Waters and Water Rights 16 (1967). 333 F. 2d 685 (C.A. 9, 1964), cert. denied, 379 U.S. 904, 54Act of March 3, 1899, 30 Stat. 1151, as amended, 33 reh. denied, 379 U.S. 984. U.S.C. 401-416 (1964). 49 Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824). 3 3 U.S.C. 403. 111-114 For instance, since 1958, the Fish and Wildlife affairs, and shapes and controls the scale and form Coordination Act has required that the Corps of of human association and action. By necessary Engineers consult with the Fish and Wildlife implication a new environment creates conflicts Service and with the State administrator of and competing uses, and, of course, the need for wildlife resources "with a view to the conservation new order that previously did not exist. The of wildlife resources by preventing loss of and technological capability to exploit oil and gas damage to such resources."" By administrative offshore is an example of a new environment agreement between the Secretary of the Interior created by technology, which, in turn, has had and the Secretary of the Army, dated July 13, substantial impact upon the development not only 1967, procedures have been established to review of domestic law but also of international law. permit applications for dredging or filling. Under The new environment required definition of the agreement, if the Secretary of the Interior ownership and boundaries of the submerged lands advises that proposed operations will unreasonably surrounding the United States, particularly impair natural resources or related environment, or between the Federal Government and the coastal reduce water quality below applicable standards, States, and from the new technological capability the Secretary of the Army will either deny the has grown major litigation and legislation in the permit or impose such conditions as he determines United States, and led to the Geneva Conferences to be in the public interest. on the Law of the Sea in 1958 and 1960. At issue is whether Federal power over naviga- The starting point is the principle Ahat both tion includes delegation to the Secretary of the title and dominion, where the tide ebbs and flows, Army of discretionary authority to deny dredging of all the lands below high water mark, are in the permits where no adverse effect on sovereign." For a long time it was believed in the and fi navigation will result, but health, natural re- United States that each coastal State of the United sources, recreation, and other non-navigational States was a sovereign, to which title to lands values will be impaired. under navigable waters had passed, either by Additional discussion of this issue is continued succession to the sovereignty of the Crown as to in Section II-F, Dredging and Filling. The first the original 13 StateS,5 8 or upon their later entry tests of the Secretary of the Army's discretionary into the Union, as to the Territories.5 9 Exploita- authority under the River and Harbor Act, with tion of petroleum resources off the coast of respect to non-navigation values, are pending in California began in 1897, and continued without the courts. State or Federal control until 1921, when the In addition to the review of Corps of Engineers California legislature adopted an exploration and 60 applications under the Fish & Wildlife Coordina- leasing act. tion Act, a mechanism is needed to circulate From 1921 through 1945, apparently on the permit applications to all interested Federal agen- assumption that the rules stated above-applied cies for comment, such as in those cases involving equally to all lands beneath navigable waters, construction whi6h might affect the submerged including those beyond the outer limits of inland lands limits of the States. Such mechanism might waters, California controlled the exploitation of be worked out administratively in the beginning, petroleum through leases and permits. 61 but we foresee a need for legislative direction from Congress. 57 See Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U.S. 1, 11 (1893). See also cases cited supra note 15. F. Submerged Lands 58 Martin v. Waddell, 16 Pet. 367 (1842). 59 Pollard's Lessee v. Hagan, 3 How. 212 (1845). Marshall McLuhan postulates in "Under- 60 Recent discussions of the submerged lands contro- standing Media" that the introduction of new versies are found in Swarth, "Offshore Submerged Lands," 6 Land and Natural Resources Division Journal technology creates a new environment which 109-57 (April.1968), a publication of the Department of changes the scale or pace or pattern of human Justice; and Browning, "Some Aspects of State and Federal Jurisdiction in the Marine Environment," a paper presented at the Third Annual Law of the Sea Institute, June 1968. 56Act of March 10, 1934, 48 Stat. 401, as amended, 16 61 See Krueger, "State Tidelands Leasing in California," U.S.C. 661-666c. 5 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 427 (1958). 111-115 66 The long history of States assuming they owned the Republic of Texas. Applying the negative such lands, 'and Federal acquiescence in such implication of the "equal footing" clause in the claims, ended in 1947 when the United States Texas case, the Court said: Supreme Court decreed that: Ae "equal footing" clause prevents extension of :77ze United States of America is now, and has been the sovereignty of a State into a domain of at all time pertinent hereto, possessed of para- political and sovereign power of the United States mount rights in, and full dominion and power from which the other States have been excluded, over, the lands, minerals and other things, under- just as it prevents a contraction of sovereignty lying the Pacific Ocean lying seaward of the (Pollard's Lessee v. Hagan, supra) which would ordinary low-water mark on the coast of California produce inequality among the States. 6 and outside of the inland waters [in the marginal sea].. The State of California has no title Following the California case, a Special Master thereto or property interest therein .62 was appointed by the Supreme Court, directing him to answer questions as to principles to be Rationale for the distinction between the title followed in determining two basic issues: (1) claimed in coastal territorial waters and that identification of the line of ordinary low water, claimed in inland waters was explained to be that which marks the seaward limit of the State's the contiguity of the territorial seas to the tidelands, over which the State held title, and (2) international realm of the high seas makes the identification of the outer limit of inland-waters, subjection and control of such areas significant to marking the seaward hirdt of California's wholly matters of defense and foreign relations, which are submerged lands, defiri-in-g- seven particularly National, not State, concerns .63 "The United important or difficult coastal segments. States here asserts rights in two capacities tran- Although the Special Master submitted his scending those of a mere property owner," those report in 1952, several years passed before the of guardian of National safety and of membership Supreme Court took action on the exceptions to in the international community. his report, during which the Congress passed the United States v. California was first in a Submerged lands ACt6 8 and the Outer Conti- 69 succession of major cases concerning ownership nental Shelf Lands Act, which profoundly and boundaries of submerged lands surrounding affected the course of the California and other the United States, and was directly related to the States' litigation. subsequent Submerged Lands Act6 4 by which the Congress gave the States title to the bed and I. The Submerged Lands Act natural resources of the territorial sea within their boundaries, with certain limitations and excep- Basically, the Submerged Lands Act recognizes tions. State ownership of tidelands and lands beneath In summary, these cases held: that Louisiana's inland navigable waters, and gives the States title claims to ownership of the land and resources in to the Ian& and natural resources within their the marginal sea within its boundaries were con- boundaries, subject to certain limitations and trolled by the California decision ;6 ' and that exceptions. In the operative part releasing and when Texas transferred its national sovereignty to relinquishing all right, title, and interest in such the United States, that transfer included owner- lands and natural resources, the Act deals with (1) ship of the submerged land of the territorial sea title to and ownership of the lands and natural which had been an incident of the sovereignty of resources, and (2) the right and power to manage and use them, to provide separability of the 62 United States v. California, 332 U.S. 804 (1947). The 66 opinion in this case is found at 332 U.S. 19 (1947). United States v. Texas, 3 3 9 U. S. 6 9 9 (195 0). 63 332 U.S. at 35-36. 67 339 U.S. at 719-720 [emphasis added]. 64 Act of May 22, 1953, 67 Stat. 29, 43 U.S.C. 68 Note 64, supra. 1301-1315 (1964). 69 Act of August 7, 1953, 67 Stat. 462, 43 U.S.C. 65 United States v. Louisiana, 339 U.S. 699 (1950). 1331-1343. 111-116 management rights in case the title to the sub- to artificial islands and structures erected on the .merged lands was found to be constitutionally shelf to exploit or remove resources. inalienable. State laws as of the date of enactment of the The Act distinguishes among three areas or Act are adopted as Federal law for the shelf classes of lands: (1) tidelands; (2) lands beneath opposite each State, but are to be administered by inland navigable waters; and (3) lands beneath Federal officials and courts, and are not the basis navigable waters within their boundaries. "Lands for a State claiming any interest or jurisdiction beneath navigable waters" are defined as (a) beds over the Outer Continental Shelf. of nontidal navigable waters, up to the ordinary The adoption of State laws as they existed high water line; (b) beds of tidal waters from the when the Act was passed gives a static quality to mean high water fine seaward three geographical the Act that may prove nettlesome as State laws miles from the coast fine (one geographical mile develop in the future, and require amendment to equalled 6080.19781 feet at that time), and the basic Act. beyond that limit to the State boundary if that Fearing that a claim of territorial sovereignty was farther seaward as approved by Congress or as over the Outer Continental Shelf would be mis- it existed when the State came into the Union; and understood and lead other nations to claim sover- (c) all fided-in, made, or reclaimed lands formerly eignty not only over the shelf but over the meeting the definitions above. However, the terms superjacent waters, the United States has not "boundaries" and "lands beneath navigable asserted "sovereignty" over the shelf, but only waters" were limited to three miles from the claims that the shelf "appertains to" it and is Atlantic or Pacific Coasts or three leagues (nine subject to its jurisdiction, control, and power of geographical'miles) in the Gulf of Mexico. disposition. The Act did not resolve the base line from which a State claiming a three-mile seaward 3. The Second Louisiana Case boundary was to measure that boundary. It While the Submerged Lands Act clarified some provides that the term "coastline" means the line issues in previous litigation, wide disagreement of ordinary low water along the coast indirect remained between the United States and certain contact with the open sea and the line marking the States as to what had been granted to those States seaward limit of the inland waters, but left to by the Submerged Lands Act. Shortly after enact- judicial interpretation how that line would be ment, the Submerged Lands Act was declared determined. constitutional, under the absolute power of The United States retains its navigational Congress to dispose of Federal property under servitude and the rights in and powers of regula- Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2, of the Constitu- 70 tion and control of the lands beneath the navigable tion. waters for purposes of commerce, navigation, In the second Louisiana case the Supreme National defense, and international affairs. Court sustained the U.S. argument that the Sub- merged Lands Act did not make an outright grant 2. The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of three leagues to any State, but rather granted Two-and-a-@half months after the Submerged nothing beyond three miles except where a Gulf Lands Act was passed, the Congress enacted the State could establish that its boundary was more Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, which retains than three miles from the coast when it joined the full Federal authority over areas seaward of the Union, or as approved by Congress before May 22, "lands beneath navigable waters" disposed of by 1953. The court held that boundaries in the sea, the Submerged Lands Act. The Act specifically unlike land boundaries, may be in different places preserves the character of the waters over the for different purposes, and concluded that for domestic purposes a State could have a boundary seabed and sub-soil of this area as high seas, asserts farther seaward than its boundary for internation .al the jurisdiction of the United States over the Outer Continental Shelf and extends the Constitu- tion, laws, and civil and political jurisdiction of the 7OAlabama v. Texas, Rhode Island v. Louisiana, 347 United States to the Outer Continental Shelf and U.S. 272 (1954). 111-117 purposes, and that a State's rights under the Florida's ratification of the 14th Amendment. The Submerged Lands Act were determined by its Supreme Court held that this constituted congres- domestic rather. than by its international bound- sional approval of the three league boundary, ary- entitling Florida to the extended grant under the It then considered the historic claims of the Submerged Lands Act as to its Gulf Coast .73 Gulf States to individual domestic boundaries beyond the international boundary of the United 4. Convention on the Territorial Sea and the States. Contiguous Zone With respect to the historic claim of Texas, the court held that Texas entered the Union with a Chronologically the next most important event boundary for domestic purposes three leagues affecting United States seaward boundaries was from the coast, which was entitled to recognition the Geneva Conference on the Law of the Sea, under the Submerged Lands Act.7 1 The court held in 1958, which led to four Conventions that rejected the contentions of Louisiana, Mississippi, have now been ratified by the United States. Of and Alabama that they were entitled to a maritime them, the Convention on the Territorial Sea and belt of three leagues beyond the outermost islands, the Contiguous Zone 74 codified the rules for and held that their boundaries were three miles determining the baseline of the teff itorial sea. The from the coast, with the islands to be treated baseline is essentially the low-water line as shown 72 separately. on official charts, and closing lines across the Florida had claimed that upon readmission into mouths of rivers and bays. the Union after the Civil War, Congress had The Convention defines bays as well marked approved a provision of its new constitution indentations in the coast line whose area, as a describing a boundary three leagues from land in minimum, must equal the area of a semicircle the Gulf of Mexico, accepted by the Congress on having a diameter equal to the closing line across 71 United States v. Texas, 36 3 U.S. I (1960). 73 United States v. Rorida, 363 U.S. 121 (1960). 72 United States v. Louisiana, 363 U.S. 1 (1960). 74 15 U.S.T. (Part 2) 1606. SABINE CALCASIEU GRAND AMW, 'ASS W.Im- WHITE LAKE BAV6' ATCHAFALAYA -4- TM IN 290 .7 . .. . .......... 900 890 AWARDED TO THE UNITED STATES, U.S. V. LOUISIANA WVU1417,AREA AWARDED TO LOUISIANA. U.S. v. LOUISIANA AREA PROPOSED BY THE UNITED STATES TO BE AWARDED TO LOUISIANA SEAWARD LIMIT OF LOUISIANA'S ALTERNATIVE CLAIM SEAWARD LIMIT OF LOUISIANA'S PRIMARY CLAIM Figure 4. Louisiana offshore areas awarded or claimed under the Submerged Lands Act (Source: U.S. Department of Justice) the mouth of the bay, or the sum of such lines if against such changes by its power to control such there is morethan one mouth. If the mouth of the activities. bay is over 24 miles wide, the closing line is drawn California had claimed that the "straight base- within the bay so as to enclose the greatest fines" method should be applied in determining possible amount of water with a line not over 24 the baseline in inland waters for its offshore miles long. Historic bays are not subject to these islands. However, the court rejected this claim on criteria. the ground that straight baselines can be estab- The Convention also prescribes a method of lished only by the National Government. The determining baseline for the coasts of countries court also followed the Convention in treating the fringed with islands, or deeply idented, called the outermost harbor works forming an integral part "straight baselines" method. The Convention of the harbor system as part of the coast from defines islands, low tide elevations' criteria for which to measure, and the waters enclosed by determining boundaries from the outermost per- them as inland waters. manent harbor works of a coastal country, and Thereafter, in December 1965, the court en- provides that the outer limit of the territorial se a is tered a supplemental decree in the Louisiana case the line every point of which is at a distance from which, among other things, ordered an accounting the nearest point of the baseline equal to the by both the United States and Louisiana of the breadth of the territorial sea. This is known as the approximately $218,500,000 that had been "arcs of circles" method of delimiting the terri- impounded under an interim agreement in 1956 torial sea so that the territorial sea is over all the and derived from areas no longer in dispute. Under area within the specified distance of any part of the order, about $184,000,000 was released to the the baseline. United States and about $34,500,000 paid to Louisiana; another $1,100,000,000 has been im- pounded, awaiting final disposition by the U.S. 5. The Second California Case Supreme Court, and the fund continues to grow. In February 1967, Texas advertised for mineral The most comprehensive, definitive statement leasing certain submerged lands within three lea- to date of the principles to be followed in applying gues of the jetties at Galveston and Sabine Pass, the Submerged Lands Act was handed down by but more than three leagues from the natural the Supreme Court in May 1965 in the second shoreline. The United States objected and moved California case. 17 5 the Supreme Court to enjoin Texas from leasing In this case the Supreme Court applied the such lands and to define Texas' rights in the case. principles of the Convention on the Territorial Sea In December 1967, the Court concluded that and the Contiguous Zone in construing the Sub- when the Submerged Lands Act speaks of a merged Lands Act, rejecting the U.S. contention boundary "as it existed when the state became a that the meaning of the Submerged Lands Act was member of the Union" it refers to a completely fixed on the date of its enactment. However, the fixed and immovable line, fixed as of entry of the court specifically declared that no future changes State into the Union, and excluding consideration in legal principles would affect its meaning. Thus, of any subsequent changes, either natural or 16 the court applied the 24-mile closing line rule of artificial. In so deciding, the court stated that in the Convention with respect to bays; and defined the 1965 California case the court was defining the the "low-water line" as the line of mean lower low coastline under the unconditional congressional water, as modified from time to time by any grant of the three-mile seaward boundary. means, natural or artificial. In the Texas case, the court determined the While the United States had feared that a State coastline under the conditional congressional grant might extend its seaward boundaries by creation based historically on the line existing when Texas of artificial changes in its coast, the court pointed entered the Union, and it is apparent that the out that the United States could protect itself court will not extend the historical claim. 75 United States v. California, 381 U.S. 139 (1965). 76 United States v. Louisiana, 389 U.S. 155 (1967). 111-119 G. Pending and Prospective Problems United States v. Ray, (Civ. No. 65-271, S.D. Fla.). A second party has intervened in that suit, A partial list of pending and prospective prob- claiming rights adverse both to Ray and to the lems contained in "Offshore Submerged Lands"" United States. Atlantis Development Corp. v. is indicative of the activity and economic stake United States, 379 F. 2d 818 (C.A. 5, 1967). that the United States has in its submerged lands Off California's southern coast a similar project and on the outer Continental Shelf: has been attempted on the Cortes Bank, and may be complicated legally because the Continental -Location of the offshore boundary between Shelf between the Cortes Bank and the mainland is Texas and Louisiana-important to the United broken by depths greater than 200 meters. States because of its effect on the boundary between Texas' three league marginal belt and the -Sunken treasure, archaeological artifacts, and Federal submerged lands oppo 'site Louisiana's other wrecked and abandoned property on the three-mile marginal belt. United States v. Outer Continental Shelf and use of the shelf for Louisiana .78 purposes other than exploitation of natural re- sources, raise problems with respect to the author- -Determination of how the rights and duties of ity of the Secretary of the Army to issue permits, lessees are affected where leases are split by the and may require legislation or international resolu- line finally drawn between Louisiana's submerged tion. lands and those of the United States. United States v. Louisiana. To the list of pending and prospective problems must be added the need for greater boundary -Determination of lands withheld from the States stability and new procedures for making binding by section 5 of the Submerged Lands Act. United base line determinations. States v. Louisiana. At present there are no general procedures by which the Federal Government can enter into -Determination of which of a variety of coastal agreements with the States on the location of structures are such "permanent harbor works" as offshore boundaries, except by concurrent legisla- -to. affect the baseline of California's marginal belt. tion or consent decree. United States v. California; United States v. The United States cannot properly initiate a Louisiana. suit unless there is a real controversy, nor should -Specific identification of the entire coast line: the Supreme Court be asked or expected to United States v. Louisiana; United States v. exercise its original jurisdiction unless the contro- California. versy is of broad general importance. Congress has never consented to being sued by the States in -Determination whether the Convention on the offshore boundary cases, and all such cases must Continental Shelf has diminished the rights as- now be initiated by the Federal Government. serted by the United States under the Outer When the parties agree on a boundary at the Continental Shelf Lands Act to enjoin a private outset, neither can properly use court proceedings project to create artificial islands and an inde- because there is no true controversy. pendent country on Triumph and Long Reefs, As noted earlier, at common law waterline about four miles east of Biscayne Bay, Florida. boundaries are ambulatory-as the waterline moves by gradual, natural processes, the boundary moves. Under present principles, when a judgment de- 77 Op. cit. supra note 60. scribes an offshore boundary by metes and 78 One commentator reports that of the 18 lateral bounds, the boundary is stable as long as the boundaries between the States, only the line between coastline remains stable. If erosion moves the line Florida and Alabama is completely and unambiguously delimited, and the lines of New Hampshire-Massachusetts, inward, an oil well at the outer edge of a State Cali fornia-Oregon, and Oregon-Washington are substan- lease may pass into Federal ownership, extinguish- tially delimited. In other cases delimiting language is almost completely lacking. See Griffin, "Delimitation of ing the rights of the State and its lessee. In the Ocean Space Boundaries Between Adjacent Coastal States converse situation, the law of the particular State of the United States," Third Annual Law of the Sea Institute, June 1968. will control ownership of the well. 111-120 Many alternatives are available to solve prob- -Authority. should be given to file stipulations lems that result from ambulatory boundaries. with the commission, and the commission should These include joint Federal-State offshore leasing; be authorized to issue decrees recognizing offshore or Federal-State recognition of each other's leases, boundaries, based on stipulations consented to by by which each sovereign recognizes leases validly the State and the Congress. issued by the other, with payments apportioned between the two sovereigns according to the -When fixed by the commission, coastal bound- shifting boundary; establishment of fixed bound- aries should be defined in terms of geographic or ary lines as of a certain date, using common law plane coordinates or both. principles now in force; or use of straight-line _Lines determined by the commission or by the segments. Supreme Court of the United States after an New procedures are needed for making binding appeal would be fixed permanently. Such stabiliza- coastal base line determinations. The present tion should apply only to ownership of submerged procedure for making such determinations by lands or resources, not to general political jurisdic- judicial decisions has definite limitations and may tion and authority. Authority to regulate mineral be an improvident burden to place upon the lease operations should be stabilized at the prop- Federal courts, especially the Supreme Court. erty line so determined and fixed. The panel recommends that a National seashore boundary commission, judicial in nature, be estab- 11. REGULATORY AUTHORITY lished by the Congress with authority to hear and Coastal zone regulatory authority must be determine seashore boundary questions and con- considered in terms of the two distinct but related troversies involving proprietary interests of the regimes of land and water. The law of land-use States under Federal grants to them, using present regulation is highly developed, both as to eco- principles of coastal boundary determination. nomic development and preservation of open Such a commission should have the following space and other conservation and recreation inter- characteristics and authority: ests. Regulation of underwater lands and their super- -The commission should be appointed by the jacent waters is a much-less-developed area of law, President, with the advice and consent of the but significant innovations have been made in Senate. recent years, including Florida's criteria for loca- ting bulkhead lines and dredging and filling opera- -The commission should have a lirnited life, tions; the wetlands protection laws of Maine, New renewable at the option of the Congress. Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island; - and the State-wide proposals for "Blue Belt" zoning of -The Congress should give its consent to State suit Hawaii- against the United States, permitting States to These innovations reflect growing concern by initiate boundary cases before the commission. various States to develop coastal areas to their highest economic, recreational, and aesthetic po- -Jurisdiction of the Commission should be limited tential. As awareness of the value of U.S. coastal to boundary questions between the States and the and estuarine areas grows, we can expect new United States, involving proprietary interests of approaches to the problems found. the States under Federal grants to them. The Just as land-use regulation has developed to an commission should have authority to determine all imaginative sophisticated art, so also must regula- aspects of such offshore boundary questions, tion of water use. Conservation and development including those regarding artificial structures and are inseparable parts of the same planning and the determination of lateral boundaries between regulatory challenge facing our States and local- the States,, amending 28 U.S.C. 1251(a) which ities. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to gives the Supreme Court exclusive jurisdiction to regulatory authority for land and water uses as one hear and determine cases and controversies be- approach to flexible management of the coastal tween the States. zone. 111-121 A. Land Acquisition and Open Space'Preservation Massachusetts,8 8 New York 89 and North Land acquisition for parks and recreation is Carolina." well known, and many States and communities are In some cases variations on the powers of acquiring lands, marshes, streams, and wildlife eminent domain exist, such as advance acquisition, areas for conservation, watershed protection, flood or "land banking," a technique used for schools, prevention, and for shaping urban development. parks, and airports, to a firnited extent where it is Most public acquisition is of the fee title, the established that there is a reasonable necessity for surest method of preserving land and other areas the facility within a reasonable time." for conservation and other public purposes. I Condemnation of land in excess of that needed Broad powers of land acquisition exist in most for actual development of a major facility may be States, but the power to acquire property interests constitutionally available in some States to control less than the fee title is used less frequently than filling, or environmental protection next to high- fee acquisition. The majority of States with large ways or transit lines, or to conserve and preserve acquisition programs still rely on voluntary acqui- open space surrounding parks. sition, purchase by private conservation groups Acquisition of the fee title to land and other and municipalities, gifts, and sometimes designa- areas is time-consuniing and expensive, and the tion of Federal wildlife refuges' variations on eminent domain suggested above, or However, condemnation powers to purchase techniques for gradual acquisition of fee owner- open space are available in Connecticut,7 9 New 8 2 .York,80 New Jersey,81 North Carolina, Minne 83 84 86 sota, Virginia, Wisconsin '8 s and Maryland , 88 M.G.L.A., ch. 130, �27a (1967 Supp.). and legislation permitting condemnation to pur- 89 87 Conservation Law, �880. chase wetlands has been enacted in Connecticut , 90 N.C.G.S. 113-226. 91 See Board of Education v. Baczewski, 340 Mich. 265, 79 Pub. Act No. 490, �6 (1963). 65 N.W. 2d 8 10; Hawthorne v. Pebbles, 166 Cal. App. 2d 80 758, 333 P. 2d 442 (1959); Carlor Co. v. Miami, F7a., 62 81 Conservation Law, �880. So. 2d 897 (1953), cert. denied, 346 U.S. 821 (1953). An N.J.S.A. 13:8A-1-18. excellent discussion of these and other methods of 82 N.C.S.B. No. 494. acquisition is contained in the San Francisco Bay Conser- vation and Development Commission report on Powers, 83 M.S.A. 398.32. Vol. 5, "Public Acquisition & Taxation," by Paul H. 84 Code of Va. Ann., �10-21. Sedway and Mrs. Roselyn B. Rosenfeld. For a study of 85 successful open space programs throughout the United W.S.A. 32.02;W.S.A. 990.02 (35). States, see "Open Space for Urban America," Department 86 66C Ann. Code of Md. 357a. of Housing and Urban Development (1965), prepared by 87 Ann Louise Strong for the Urban Renewal Administra- Pub. Act No. 536, �3 (1967). tion. z Figure 5. Storm damage of Virginia Beach indicates there may be inadequate controls in the protection and development of coast land& 111-122 ship 92 or for acquisition of less than fee interests, Some incidents of sovereignty included in the are made in response both to a desire to plan and State police power are the power to tax, 96 to implement programs to develop or conserve land condemn land,9 7 and to regulate land use-9 8 or coastal areas and to minimize the initial or long-term public costs. Public safety, public health, morality, peace and The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Devel- quiet, law and order-these are some of the more opment Commission suggests possible goals that conspicuous examples of the traditional applica- could be implemented by acquisition: (1) control tion of the police power to municipal affairs. Yet of size, location, and extent of filling, (2) location they merely illustrate the scope of the power and and design of facilities and land uses, and (3) do not delimit it. 9 9 designation of permanent open space areas and reservations for future water related USCS.1 3 The basic question facing all forms of land-use The methods allow varying degrees of public regulation is to what extent private property can control of the use of property, and, in some cases, be subject to governmental control. All regula- permit public recovery of some of the increase in tions are subject to the test of "reasonableness," property value resulting from public actions or which one leading legal authority has defined in expenditures. They also offer varying degrees of terms of four elements: 10 0 minimization of public costs, and a choice may have to be made whether to minimize initial costs As the regulation reasonably related to pro- or total costs, because measures to minimize initial tectible legislative goals? Public health, safety, and cost may raise the 'total final cost. of land welfare., recreation, open space, conservation, and, purchases. on rare occasion to date, aesthetic goals have been held to be valid protectible legislative goals to ne best way for the public to minimize the cost which private property can be subject to regula- of buying land is to buy it as soon as possible; no tion. matter how much the price of,a parcel has risen -Does the regulation provide equal treatment . for during past years, it seems certain that it will rise similarly situated landowners? Particularly relevant more in the years to come. nis is a problem. in is whether comprehensive planning goals exist every community in the country, but is more acute in a state' with a rapidly growi .ng related.as.to geography (location of residences, 94 commerce, industry, recreation, open space, agri- population... culture, and other uses of the area to'be regulated) and functions (such as beingfelated to communi@. B. Land-Use Regulations cation and transportation). The presence of com-. prehensive planning may be a major factor in 'Under our Federal system of government, the judicial determination of discrimination between States possess certain sovereign powers inherent in similarly situated landowners. Included in the the nature of the State and not derived from the Problems of differential treatment of landowners, U.S. Constitution, although,restricted by it.9 5 are questions related to denying owners of unde- veloped property rights to activities performed by others before the regulation was imposed, and 92 Examples of gradual acquisition of fee ownership are (1) options to buy, (2) purchase at request of landowners, 96 (3) installment purchases, (4) purchase and a sale-back or 97 McCulloch v. Mwyland, 4 Wheat. 316 (1816). lease-back, and (5) covenants -running with the land. Cincinnati v. Louisville, etc. R.R., supra note 95-1 9.3San Francis coIBay Conservation and Development Berman v. Parker, 348 U.S. 26 (1954). Commission, Powers, Vols. 1 and 2 (April 1968). 98 Munn, v. Illinois, 94 U.S. 113 (1876); Village of 94Id., vol. 5, p. 39. Euclid v. Ambler Realty Company, 272 U.S. 365 (1926). 95 House v. Mayes, 219 U.S. 270 (1911); Cincinnati v. 99 Berman v. Parker,, 34 8 U.S. 26 (1954). Louisville, etc. R.R., 223 U.S. 390 (1912); International 100San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Harvester Company v. Wisconsin Department of Taxation,--- Commission, Powers, vol. 1 (April. 1968), by 1. Michael 322 U.S. 435 (1944). Heyman. 111-123 differential treatment of owners of presently by a private owner of any worthwhile rights or undeveloped properties. benefits in the land. So public acquisition rather than regulation is required. -To what extent does regulation reduce use And value of the owner's property? The Constitution The Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors held to does not protect property owners against State similar effect, stating that the plaintiffs had been regulations merely because the regulations result in "deprived by the change of zone of any worth- substantial reductions in the value of their prop- while rights or benefits in their land." erty. 10 1 The States, however, follow many dif- The effect of the constitutional provisions ferent interpretations, and most are imprecise as to requiring "just compensation" for "taking" prop- what bases are relevant to measure loss of value or , erty is to allocate or spread the cost of a public loss of use. Most courts rely on tests that solely benefit over the tax base or community rather measure the difference in 'market value with and than have the individual land owner absorb the without regulation. However, in the recent Massa- cost. Many attempts are being made within the chusetts case of Commissioner of Natural Re- United States to seek tests that provide for sources v. S. Volpe & Co.,102 which involved rational and ethical distribution of social costs, issuance of a permit to dredge and fill wetlands for i.e., seeking criteria and methods for measuring the a marina, the, Massachusetts Supreme Judicial harm or benefit or both resulting from regulation Court suggested that many factors, including the of use. owner's inve 'stment, fair market value with and However, there is no unanimity of approach, without regulation, and "whether a 'taking' would occur if with the restrictions the.property would and it is impossible to state how each State will balance the equities. Because of the diversity of not yield a fair return on the amount of the factual situations, it is doubtful that any State will owner's investment in the property or the fair adopt or limit itself to one test of reasonableness, market value of the property without the restric- whether harm-benefit, reasonable reduction in tiow," were relevant to the determination of value value, or value reduction based on the owner's and use loss. investment, or some other combination. -Does the regulation produce a "benefit" for the It is a truism of the growth of our society that public which ordinarily would be acquired by economic values have been eftiphasized to the condemnation? 'Illustrative of this concern are detriment of recreational, conservation, aesthetic,. recent cases in New Jersey' 03 and Con- and psychological values. In the sphere of land-use neciicut' 04 in which land had been zoned for regulation, when economic and noneconomic open space and for a flood water detention basm* values have come into conflict, the economic value and had created a flood plain district (Morris has most often been paramount; cost-benefit County Land Improvement Co. case), reducing the analysis is not a very good quantitative technique market value prior to governmental purchase as for handling recreational, ecological, or other much -as 75 per cent (Dooley case). The New qualitative values. Bending to economic pressures Jersey Supreme Court held that the regulation has a profound impact on effectiveness of land-use constituted a taking: regulatory techniques. Both public uses are necessarily so all- Land-use regulations can provide both incen- encompassing as practically to prevent the exercise tives or disincentives, depending upon goals sought. Such regulations can be used effectively to encourage economic -development. A more diffi- cult problem is in the qualitative :sphere, such as 10iSee, e.g., Goldblatt v. Town of Hempstead, 369 the preservation of open space, particularly in light U.S. 590 (1962). of the pr@sently overwhelming use in the United 102 349 Mass. 104, 206 N.E. 2d 666 (1965). States of regulation without compensation. In 103 Morfis County Land Improvement Co. v. Township recommending that the role of zoning for open of Parsippany-Troy Hills, 40 N.J. 539, 193 A. 2d 233 (1963). space preservation be restudied and revised, Ann 104 Dooley v. Town Plan and Zoning Comm. of the Louise Strong stated in "Open Space for Urban Town of Fairfield, 154 Conn. 470,197 A. 2d 770 (1964). America". 111-124 Traditional zoning has proved ineffective in main- One criterion, then, for judging the effective- taining open space when pressures of development ness of land-use regulation in the U.S. coastal and rise; in addition, it is frequently subfect to attack estuarine zone will be whether the regulation is on constitutional grounds when it causes a sub- effective over the full geographic range in which stantial drop in the market value of land Zoning problems of pollution, waste management and should be restricted to cases where (1) no severe disposal, erection of wharves, piers, or other loss of land value will occur as a result of the structures in the water, dredging and filling opera- zoning, or (2) where use of the land will pose a tions, open space, wilderness preserves for scien- serious threat to health and safety of users. 10 5 tific research, or other areas of interest are found. Further experimentation should be undertaken Of techniques available, uncompensated regula- with new techniques of land-use regulation that tion of land use might be considered at one end Of take advantage of new information that may help the spectrum, and direct acquisition of the fee in the decisions to be made. For instance, ecolog- simple title at the other. As has been pointed out ical information is required before the issuance of by many, and most recently by the San Francisco permits under some of the new well Iands protec- Bay Conservation and Development Commission, tion laws. As the results of economic, psycho- land-use controls that combine elements of regula- logical, and health research become available as to tion and purchase, such as the compensable the quality, quantity, and proper use of open regulation technique suggested by Mrs. Strong and space in urban and other areas, experimentation elaborated upon by Professors Krasnowiecki and with its use in management of the coastal and Paul, or the purchase of easements, or the levying estuarine zone should be attempted. of development charges, should be experimented Other agencies and reports have made surveys with and used more extensively, for these tech- and discussed the advantages and disadvantages of niques -are intermediate controls between the ends various land-use regulation techniques in greater of the spectrum, and offer much promise for the detail than is possible here. Such a listing of future in the totality of management techniques. land-use regulation techniques includes: If traditional 'zoning and other forms of land- use regulation have proven ineffective, it is for -Open space zoning reasons other than unavailability of techniques; 1. Natural resource zoning there is no lack of regulatory techniques or a. Flood plain zoning imagination to create new alternatives. Still other b. Conservation zoning land-use regulation techniques should be con- c. Agricultural zoning side-red. d. Forest zoning To illustrate the need, concepts of water-use 2. Development zoning regulation, particularly water pollution control, a. Large lot zoning have shown awareness of the concept of "range," b. Density or cluster zoning which results from currents, the mobility of c. Large-scale development zoning marine organisms, and other natural factors; the d. Zoning for timed development marine environment is not a static environment. Expressed in legal and management terms, -Subdivision control "range" implies regionalization in many coast areas, for the range usually is greater than the Official mapping geographic limits of any one community, and the -Administrative permits actions of one community may have a profound effect upon neighboring communities. This would -Legislative permits require change of much land-use regulation juris- _Conditions imposed on granting of development diction in the United States, since such regulation permission is normally administered at the level of local government. -Techniques combining regulation and purchase I 050p. cit. supra note 91, at ix. -State-wide zoning. 111-125 Some techniques appear to be amenable to the criteria we have mentioned, and are briefly de- scribed below. 1. Flood Plain Zoning Flood plain zoning restricts use of land subject to flooding, which arbitrarily may be determined as a given distance on each side of the center line of a stream, or by mapping actual areas that have been flooded, or by mapping alluvial soils from a soil survey. Some restrictions place limitations on buildings that would constrict stream flow in time Figure 6. Oil well construction off Long Beach is now closely regulated (Long Beach Port Au- of flood, or limit structures to those that would thority photo) not be damaged by flooding. -A "floating zone" is an unmapped district with 2. Administrative Permits stated regulations. The ordinance states that appli- cations to remap a zone will be granted if Under this t6chnique, approval or denial of a standards contained in the regulations are -met. mandatory permit could be made by members of The ordinance also outlines in general when a whatever regulatory agency is empowered to make rezoning application will be granted or not, and regulatory decisions, or by staff administrators, the requirements imposed. subject to appeal to the members or other higher -"Contract zoning" is the creation and mapping authority of the regulatory agency, and also by amendment of a zone with highly detailed subject to judicial review. regulations different from those of other zones. Administration of this technique can be rigid or The amendment is fashioned after negotiations flexible depending on powers granted by the with a prospective developer and reflects the legislature. Where the technique has been used on agreement reached between him and the govern- a case-by-case basis for large-scale developments, ment. Action of the legislature is necessary Professor Heyman reports that its benefits are (1) because the agreement then becomes part of the maximum flexibility, (2) it minimizes differential zoning regulation. value impacts which are caused by regulations such as zoning, (3) it can be administered by a 4. Techniques Combining Regulation and Purchase professional staff, and (4) it permits finer, more Compensable regulation is relatively new and detailed regulation than can be achieved with untried, combining acquisition and regulation traditional zoning. 106 Some current examples of techniques under which land to be retained in administrative permit devices are variances, condi- undeveloped condition would be mapped and uses tional use perniits, special exceptions, and sub- established. Under this technique, property owners division authorizations. would be guaranteed that, whenever they choose to sell their land in the open market, they would 3. Legislative Permits receive a price at least equal to the value of the land before regulation. If the sale price were less This form is similar to the administrative than the guaranteed compensation, the regional permit, except that the approach reserves power to agency would pay the difference. The amount of rule on applications for development permission in the owners' guarantee for each property reduced the first instance, in the legislative or regulatory by each payment of compensation would remain body, rather than on appeal of rulings from. a attached to the property as a guarantee for later regulatory agency administrative or professional purchasers.' 17 staff. Two methods presently used for this purpose are "floating zoning" and "contract zoning." 107For discussion and proposed legislation, see Kras- 106 nowiecki and Paul, "The Preservation of Open Space in Heyman, op. cit. supra note 100. Metropolitan Areas," 110 U. Pa. L. Rev. 179. 111-126 Development charges are fees or taxes imposed C. Establishment of Bulkhead Lines on an owner by Government as a condition for Although the Corps of Engineers is empowered permitting the owner to develop his land, or as a to regulate dredging and filling for any improve- tax on the privilege. Measurement of the charge ment to navigable waters, the States and local might take one of two forms with respect to governments may require permits for such work coastal land: a value increase charge measured by in addition to those issued by the Corps under the some portion of the difference of value in the land Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899."' before and after the permit issuance; or a fill fee One regulatory technique upheld by some State measured by some amount per acre filled or per cubic yard of fill placed in a water area. As courts has been the establishment of bulkhead suggested by the San Francisco Bay Conservation lines, by which the States - regulate filling and and Development Commission, the 11rioney re- reclamation of privately owned tidelands,"' par- ceived from such charges niight be used to ticularly where the filling might interfere with purchase areas that should never be filled because navigation. Florida has made a series of amend- ments to its criteria for dredging and filling of special importance, such as wildlife habitats, to permits,' 13 and now requires that, before a buy areas behind existing dikes, or to open up bulkhead line is located, local authorities must areas to the coastal waters and to improve ecolog- ical conditions in some areas, such as by creating irst obtain a biological survey, ecological study, new marshlands.' 08 and, if deemed necessary, a hydrographic survey from the State Board of Conservation. The Board 5. State-Wide Land-Use Zoning or Regulations has issued a circular containing guides for evalu- Traditionally, local governments exercise au- ating marine productivity and adopting standards thority to regulate land uses in the United States. for waterfront development. Until such studies are There has been little use of the States' power to completed, the Trustees of the Internal Trust regulate land uses such as to preserve open space, Fund, who administer the statute, have placed a but as pointed out by the Department of Housing State-wide moratorium on di@edging and filling. and Urban Development,' 09 indications exist of Recommended removal of the moratorium in nine growing interest in the use of State regulatory counties has been the subject of recent contro- powers. versy within the State. Generally, this use for open space has been Florida once actively encouraged reclamation limited to land use adjacent to highways. Connec- of tidelands by private interests, but now has ticut has adopted State-wide zoning regulations of elaborate conservation criteria written into its flood plains. The Wisconsin "shoreland zoning statutes. Among the considerations: potential regulation" sets standards for county zoning of interference with riparian rights; impediment to unincorporated areas to prevent and control water navigation, interference with conservation of nat- pollution, protect aquatic life, and preserve natural ural resources, with findings as to potential harm beauty. The State must adopt its own ordinance in to specific types of marine life or marine habitat. any counties that fail to meet the minimum State Dredging beyond bulkhead lines is only to be standards! ' 0 Only Hawaii has legislation requir- permitted for navigation channels, installation of ing the State to adopt State-wide zoning. utilities, shore protection work, or after conclusive determination that the dredging or filling will not harm marine life, marine habitat, or natural 108 The Institute of Government, University of North shoreline processes. This last re'quirement has yet Carolina, reports one instance of a private owner ex- pressing willingness to create a spoil bank, grading it to to be defined by the courts. proper elevation, and planting local marsh grass, to provide more marsh than would be destroyed in -dredging a small navigation channel along the shore in front ofhis property. See Heath, "State Programs for Estuarine Area Conservation," Report to the North Carolina Estuarine See Cummings v. Illinois, 188 U.S. 410, 431 (1902). Study Committee, April 1968. 112 See, e.g., Gies v. Fischer, 146 So. 2d 361, 362 109 Department of Housing and Urban Development, (1962). "Open Space for Urban America," 1965. 113 Florida Laws 1963, ch. 63-512; Laws 1967, ch. 110 Wisc. Stats., ��59.971, 144.26 (Supp., Vol. 3, 67-393, ��2-9 (Fla. Stats. Ann., ��253.122-135, Supp. 1965). 1968). 111-127 Such other States as Texas,' 14 Virginia,' 15 residential or recreati onal areas; interference with and Alabama' 16 regulate such limited uses as the aesthetic or scenic value; creation of air, water or leasing of submerged lands or protection of shell- other pollution; danger to marine life or other fisheries, through the establishment of "bulkhead wildlife; as well as interference with commerce or lines" or "harbor lines." navigation.' 12 D. Wetlands Protection Laws E. Regulation of Wharves, Piers, and Other Struc- 23 tures' Closely akin to the Florida approach regarding bulkhead lines are the statutes enacted in several While in English common law the upland States which are designed to protect and conserve owner had no right to wharf out into the ecological values. These States include Maifie,' New H ampshire, 1 1 8 Massachusetts, 119 and Rhode 122 O.R.S. 274.760. Island. 120 123 We wish to acknowledge the work of the Marine The Massachusetts statute prohibits the re- Environment Legal Research Project of the New York University Law Center and Fordham University School of moval, filling, or dredging of any bank, flat, marsh, Law. Their paper, "The Land-Sea Interface of the Coastal meadow, or swamp bordering on coastal waters Zone of the United States: Legal Problems Arising Out of the Multiple Use and Conflicts of Private and Public without a permit from the State Commissioner of Rights and Interests," under a contract let by the Natural Resources, and specified local governing National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, and their advice have been of considerable bodies. In addition, a related statute authorizes the assistance in the preparation of sections E and F, as well Commissioner, with approval of the Board of as certain other parts of this chapter. Natural Resources, to adopt regulations concern- Figure 7. Progressive dredging and filling in Boca Ciega Bay, St. Petersburg, Florida, 1920- ing alteration or pollution of coastal wetlands- If 1965. Present jurisdiction to control excessive the State courts find the regulations constitute a development is being contended. (Source: Bu- "taking" of property in violation of the 5th reau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Labo- ratory, St. Petersburg, Florida) Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, the Depart- ment of Natural Resources may condemn the land in fee or lesser interest by eminent domain. Other States, while having no express wetlands protection laws per se, require considerations o other than navigation in granting permits ana leases. New York requires its Commission of Conservation to ascertain the probable effect on ST. PETERSBURG the use of navigable waters for navigation, the % health, safety, and welfare of the people, and the effect on the natural resources of the State, likely to result from channel excavation or fill. 12 1 Oregon's criteria for granting a lease to remove ma- terial for commercial use include considerations of health, safety, and welfare; interference with X 0 114 Texas Stat., art. 5415e(7). 115 Va. Code, �62-2.1 (1966 Supp.). 116 Ala. Stats., tit. 38, �122. 117 12 Maine Rev. Stat. Ann., �4701 (Supp. 1967). 1920 1@ 118 N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann., ch. 483-A (Supp. 1967). 119 Mass. Gen. Laws. Ann., ch. 130, �27A (1967 Supp.). 120 Rhode Island Gen. Laws, tit. 46, ch. 11, �1-1 (1967 Supp.). 121 New York, Conservation Law, �429(b)(3). 111-128 tidelands without - a permit, early decisions in legislation,"' or by delegation to a State the United States encouraged the erection of agency, 126 or by delegation to a local agency. 127 wharves for the benefit of navigation and com- Municipalities are normally granted powers by merce. At present a majority of the coastal States the State to regulate the construction of wharves allow the adjacent owner to wharf out in most cases without a permit, either as a part of the 125 124 New Jersey, N.J.S.A. 12-3-3. Statute contains de- State's common law or by statute . tailed prescription of intervals between piers and the However, probably no State now does not exert manner in which works are to be constructed. some form of control over the construction of 126 New York: Conservation Law' �429c-requires wharves, piers, and other structures, even in those permit for wharves, docks, and piers used as landing places, exempting a limited class of structures from the States that still adhere to the rights of the riparian permit requirements. Permits are handled by State Com- mission of Conservation. Permit review includes values owner to wharf out over tidelands. In some. States, other than navigation, i.e., erosion from banks, injury to control over construction of wharves, piers, and fish and aquatic resources, increase of turbidity, deposi- tion of silt or debris. Public hearings may be held. Rhode other structures is exerted by the State, in detailed Island: R.I. Gen. Laws, tit. 46, ch. 6, �2. Approval of plans to construct wharves or piers must be obtained from the Department of Natural Resources. Morida: Fla. 124 Admin. Code., �200-2.16. Administrative function of Washington: R.C.W.A., �88.24.010. See Eisenbach executive branch of government to grant permit for piers, v. Hatfield, 2 Wash. 236, 256 Pac. 539, 542-43 (1891). wharves, etc. in public navigable waters. See Sarasota Oregon: O.R.S., ch. 780.040. Mississippi: Miss. Code County Anglers Club, Inc. v. Burns, 193 So. 2d 691, 693 Ann., 6047-10. See Harrison County v. Guice, 244 Miss. (1967). Administrative Code requires open trestles or 95, 149So. 2d. 838, 842 (1962).Alabama: Ala. Stats. 38 ' pilings which do not materially deflect water currents, or �119. Virginia: See U.S. v. Smoot Sand and Gravel Corp., induce erosion or accretion. 248 F. 2d 822, 826 (4th Cir., 1957). Maryland: Md. Ann. 127 Code, art. 541, �46. Pennsylvania: 55 Penna. Stat. Ann., California: Harbor and Navigation Code, ��4000- �8. Connecticut: See Miances Realty Co. v. Greenway, 4009-Boards of supervisors of counties may grant au- 151 Conn. Rep. 128, 193 A. 2d 713, 715 (1963). thority to wharf out within county boundaries, and grant Massachusetts: See Commissioner v. Alger, 61 Mass. 53, authority to wharf out on lands other than those 104(1853). mentioned above. PROPOSED FILL AREA AREAS ALTERED BY DREDGING AREAS FILLED ST. PETERSBURG JOHNS PASS ST. PETERSBURG GULFPORT BLIND PASS C T, 0 0 0 TIERRA VERDE 1940 1965 111-129 333-093 0 - 69 - 19 and other structures in the waters within their them must be added the powers that several States 128 boundaries, and to regulate their use, including have granted, extending authority well beyond regulation by zoning under the police power those stated, and, indeed, ahead of existing Fed- 129 delegated to the municipalities. eral legislation. In some States, navigation is still the principal F. Dredging and Filling criterion for allowing dredging or filling of tide- Earlier chapters of this Report have discussed lands. 13 1 However, the role of the Corps of the impact of dredging and filling for navigation Engineers, acting@either pursuant to the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, or on, the basis of State purposes on the ecology and hydrology of coastal or local objections to proposed dredging or filling areas. Dredging and filling takes many forms, operations, can have a significant impact upon including mining of sand, gravel, and oyster shells, preservation of non-navigation values. disposal of spoil, pumping of sand to make It is the policy of the Corps of Engineers that in beaches, of fill and solid wastes for housing. and cases where a proposed structure or dredging other real dstate developments, draining of marsh- operation is unobjectionable for the purposes of land for mosquito control, and reclamation of navigation, but State or local authorities decline marshland for agriculture. their consent to the work, the Corps normally will The range of State attitudes toward protection 132 of coastal and estuarine areas varies considerably. not issue a permit. Appendix D to this report presents in summary The ultimate authority for use of tidelands and form some means by which States regulate coastal submerged lands, with respect to navigation, lies and estuarine areas. It reports that: with the Federal Government and its control of navigation under Article 1, section 8 of the U.S. a common denominator of regulation in all or Constitution, the Commerce Clause. Federal con- most of the states in participation in Corps of trol over dredging and filling to improve navigation is implemented by the Rivers and Harbors Act, Engineers navigation permit proceedings, general 133 water pollution control laws, fish and game regula- based on Congress' power over navigation. tions, and some controls exercised in conjunction While this Act and the cases interpreting give with disposal or lease of state owned underwater unquestionable authority to the United States to lands. 130 control improvements for navigation, one unset- tled question is the degree, if at all, Congress' The enumerated controls also appear to be the power over navigation under the Commerce Clause minimal powers available to our coastal States. To can be extended to preserve other values in the coastal zone. Under the Fish and Wildlife Coordi- 128 Cf., New York: Conservation Law, �429c; Cal_ nation Act, 134 the Corps of Engineers is required ifornia: Harbor and Navigation Cases, @3821; Co- to consult with the Fish and Wildlife Service of the nnecticut: Statutes, �15-7; Mississippi Code Ann., Department of the Interior before granting a ,&3374-142; New Jersey: S.A., &40:68-12; South Caro- lina: Code, �47-61.1-61.2; Louisiana: S.C.C.C., art. 452; dredging or filling permit, a process administra- Morida: Stat. 167.21. 1 tively agreed upon by the Secretaries of the 129 See Brady v. Board of Appeals of Westport, 3.48 Interior and Army, by their agreement of July 13, Mass. 515, 524, 204 N.E. 2d 513 (1965). See also, zoning regulations, Town of Guilford, Conn., @4.5.8.1; city of 1967. Richmond, California, Ordinance No. 125 N.S. Examples Both the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of special zoning districts for tide and shorelands in California are the City of Chula Vista's Tidelands zone, and the administrative agreement seek to combat established by Ordinance No. 79S (1962); the City of pollution and to conserve natural and. recreational Coronado's Beach Zone, established by Ordinance No. 1147 (1967); or the City of Richmond's Special Features Additive District, established by Ordinance No. 122 N.S. 131 (1965); and in Florida the City of Sarasbta's Marine Park See, e.g. Alabama: Ala. Stats Title 38, �122; District, established by Ordinance No. 1494 (1967). in all Delaware: Del. Code Ann., Title 23, 4150; Virginia: Va. of these districts, uses and activities incompatible with the Code, �62-2.1 (1966 Supp.). development concept of the whole are either eliminated 132 Estuarine Hearings, supra note 43, at p. 137. or severely restricted. 133Act of March 3, 1899, 30 Stat. 1151, 33 U.S.C. 403 13 OA Selected Summary of State Activities in Coastal (1964). Regulation, Milton S. Heath, Jr., Institute of Government 134 University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Act of August 12, 1958, 72 Stat. 563, 16 U.S.C. July 1968. 662(1964). 111-130 resources in dredging and filling U.S. navigable G. Summary waters. The techniques for regulating land uses are The first test of Corps of Engineers authority to numerous, ranging from public acquisition. of fee deny a permit for reasons other than adverse effect simple title through a variety of forrns of compen- upon navigation is pending in the Federal courts. sable regulation, to noncompensated regulation The case of Zabel v. Tabb.1 31 places at issue the such as classical zoning. The techniques for water- discretion of the Corps of Engineers to deny a per- use regulation range from efforts to promote mit for dredging. and filling under the Rivers and navigation for conu-nercial purposes, through wet- Harbors Act on grounds other than navigation. The lands protection laws which provide for ecological question of Congress's power to give such discre- considerations in regulation, to State-wide water- tion is not challenged in the case. The Corps found use zoning, such as that proposed in Hawaii. that the work would not have an adverse effect In making plans and decisions to manage the upon navigation, but denied the permit because coastal zone, both land and water uses must be issuance of the permit (1) would result in a harmful taken into consideration in determining the effect on the fish and wildlife resources in Boca powers to be granted and the functions to be Ciega Bay; (2) would be inconsistent with pur- served by any government agency having the poses of the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of responsibility and jurisdiction to manage the 1958; (3) was opposed by the Florida Board of coastal zone. Conservation, the County Health Board of Pinellas Economic interests have been well-served by County, and the Board of County Commissioners regulatory techniques in the past, and must con- of Pinellas County, and (4) would be contrary to tinue to be strongly represented in future regula- the public interest. tion. Historically more difficult in our society is At this writing the court has denied the motion the use of regulatory techniques to serve qualita- of the United States to dismiss the case on tive values-aesthetics, conservation of natural re- jurisdictional grounds, and the case has not yet sources and wildlife, and preservation of open been heard on the merits. space. However, in denying the motion to dismiss, the However difficult it is to serve qualitative court stated that the Fish and Wildlife Coordina- values, balanced management of our coastal envi- tion Act does not give discretion to the Corps to ronment requires effective planning, regulation, deny permits on grounds other than navigation. acquisition, and enforcement, consistently applied, While it is too early to speculate on the outcome, to preserve and enhance both the qualitative values it is clearly an important case testing the very and the economic interests found in the coastal essence of Federal law attempting to protect zone. natural resources through exercise of the naviga- We have briefly touched upon the legal prob- tion power. lems confronting any State or local authority given In another pending case, the United States the responsibility to plan for management of a seeks to enjoin a dredging operation in Newfound coastal area. All of these should be considered in Harbor, Florida, on objection from the Federal granting powers to any governmental agency such Water Pollution Control Administration and the as recommended in Chapter 10, i.e., establishment Florida State Board of Health that the flow of of State authorities or State-established local or sewage effluent from a nearby sewage treatment regional authorities to manage coastal areas. There plant is being blocked, creating a health hazard. we suggest a range of State management authority, The injunction is sought under the Rivers and including planning, regulatory, and acquisition Harbors Act of 1899, for failure to obtain a permit authority with respect to coastal and lakeshore for the dredging and filling operations. waters and lands. Management might be provided by a single State agency, given all the powers suggested as to 135 Alfred G. Zabel and Dapid H. Russell v. R. H. Tabb, land and water uses. A second alternative might be Col., USA, Stanley R esor, Secretary of the Army, and the a State agency with authority over water uses and United States of America, Civ. No. 67-200-T, United shared jurisdiction with local governments as to States District Court for the Middle District of Florida, Tampa Division. land uses. 111-131 Unless given strong, consistent backing by all measure on the answers to some legal problems local governments involved, regional cooperative presented in this chapter. The legal problems and efforts under a single advisory agency will not be the techniques for effective management of the adequate to meet the needs of effective coastal coastal zone are well known. They must be management, and we do not recommend such integrated with adequate planning, flexible author- efforts. Management powers granted a State, re- ity, and sound research, to provide for balanced, gional, or local authority will depend in large diverse coastal zone uses. 111-132 Chapter 9 What Needs To Be Done The preceding chapters have presented the versible. It is in the National interest, however, to activities and pressures on the coastal zone. The preserve as much as possible the options which are conflicts have been identified and the conse- open to us. It is therefore advisable to err on the quences discussed. We have seen that man's past side of conservation. actions affecting estuaries and shorelines have been poorly and incompletely planned, often unimagi- native, and frequently destructive. In view of the many important uses served by these waters, and the growing pressures on them, intelligent manage- ment of this vital National resource is imperative. It will require application of many kinds of tools and techniques, ranging from original, funda- mental research to regulatory changes and public education. A National policy for the management of our coastal environment is urgently needed. This pro- gram is presented in Chapter 10. Figure 1. Storm damage at Rehoboth, Beach, Delaware. Federal surveys are needed to assess Based upon the many public contacts, inter- the use of coastal areas and their protection views, correspondence, reports, and information (US. Army Corps of Engineers photo) available to the panel, we have established what we believe are the "National Needs." They are pre- All available existing legislation, Executive sented in this chapter under five general headings: Orders, and regulations should be utilized by the Federal Government and by State and local -The Need for Immediate Action governments to achieve this aim as rapidly as -The Need for Federal Surveys and Projects possible; additional legislation should be adopted where necessary. For example, State governments -The Need for Research and Training should strictly enforce their water quality stand- ards for their coastal zone waters; pollution -The Need for Planning and Management abatement action should be initiated whenever -The Need for a Systematic Approach to Waste cause exists. States should be encouraged to adopt Management appropriate tidelands legislation (following model legislation, such as in Massachusetts and New Hampshire'). Estuary construction projects re- The first two "needs" emerge from the Com- a iring permits from the Corps of Engineers mission's role to review existing programs. They lu are not new or long range, but simply need to e should be scrutinized more severely by both State and Federal agencies. Permit requirements should done and done soon. The second two "needs" are be rigidly enforced. States should be encouraged clearly within the role of the Commission in to consider the feasibility of a total or partial planning for the future. They contribute to a moratorium until an overall plan is developed (as proposed National program. The last-while of done under California law by the San Francisco vital importance to the coastal zone-encompasses Bay Commission 2). All Federal agencies involved far more than the marine environment. in granting licenses (e.g., AEC, FPQ or in granting 1. THE NEED FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION planning or construction funds to municipalities or States (FWPCA, HUD, USDA, EDA, and others) Pressures are mounting on coastal and estuarine area use to make physical modifications and See Chapter 8 and Appendix D. economic commitments which are virtually irre- 2See Appendix D. 111-133 should - relate awards on the basis of overall -The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (43 consideration; disposal of Federal surplus coastal U.S.C. 1331-1343) authorizes the'Secretary of the lands by the General Services Administration Interior to require the prevention of pollution in should be suspended until public interests are offshore oil or mining operations. In the imple- adequately defined. mentation of this Act, a requirement for com- pliance with antipollution regulations could be Fulfillment of many of these urgent needs can made a condition of any lease, revocable upon be accomplished. by two general means: failure to comply. Further, this act specifically authorizes the President to withdraw from disposi- -Use of authority which already exists tion any of the unleased lands. Under the terms of -Action on pending legislation. this authorization a system of fi shery preserves, mineral reservations, sanctuaries, and recreation A. Use of Existing Authority areas could be established. Safety provisions of this same act, administered by the U.S. Coast Many coastal zone problems have been identi- Guard, are indirectly a pollution prevention tool. fied with pollution, eutrophication, and general Navigational safety regulations to prevent colli- public loss of shoreline resources. In many cases, sions also prevent pollution. control of these abuses can be exercised-or at -Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 U.S.C. 407), least further deterioration retarded-by prompt and vigorous enforcement of existing authority administered by the Corps of Engineers, requires and laws. In ;nany cases, the lack of enforcement tha.t plans for all wharves, piers, dolphins, booms, is principally due to funds' not keeping pace with weirs, break-waters, bulkheads, jetties, or other burgeoning enforcement responsibilities. In other structures, and excavations or fills in navigable cases, however, it is due to complacency, tangled waters must be approved under a permit system. jurisdictions, and-as several State and Federal Although all tidelands and marshes may not come officials have remarked-a plain lack of guts. under the provisions of this Act, it allows strong Though many laws may be obsolete, ambijuris- regulatory action over modifications to coastal dictional, or in need of clarity, they can-for waters, especially dredging and filling. Constant contingent purposes-suffice, based on coopera- enforcement is required. tion between both State and Federal Agencies. -The Refuse Act of 1899 (33 U.S.C. 407), These include: administered by the Corps of Engineers, applies to -The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, (33 both vessels and shore-based facilities with respect to almost every discharge to a navigable water U.S.C. 466 et seq.) as amended, is an important except that flowing from streets and sewers. A Federal tool in the prevention of water pollution. 1965 judicial ruling construed the act to include The Act requires the States to establish enforce- the discharge of oil products as. well as solid able water quality standards applicable to inter- wastes. state waters. These standards must be approved by the Secretary of the Interior, must protect public -The Oil Pollution Act, 1924, (33 U.S.C. 431 et health and welfare, and enhance water quality. If a seq.) makes unlawful, with some exceptions, the State fails to establish acceptable standards, the grossly negligent or willful discharge of oil from a Secretary of the Interior is empowered to issue vessel into the navigable waters and adjoining such standards. Enforcement of water quality shorelines of the United States. The prohibition standards is a most effective method of preventing applies to foreign and domestic vessels within our pollution of a continuing nature. However, the territorial sea and navigable inland waters. The act time period between notice of a violation and the establishes both civil and criminal sanctions for abatement thereof is unreasonably long in the case violations. The exceptions are emergencies im- of sudden, non-recurring pollution incidents. This periling life and property; unavoidable accidents, situation should be remedied by amending existing collisions, or strandings; and those cases where legislation and is discussed in greater detail in discharges are permitted by regulation. Enforce- ,Chapter 4. ment of this act is vested in the Federal Water 111-134 Pollution Control Administration, Coast Guard, damaging pollution; and whether, pursuant to the and the Corps of Engineers. Regulations by the terms of the International Treaty, oil receiving Secretary of Interior incident to this law should be facilities can accommodate current levels of ship issued and vigorous enforcement conducted by traffic. responsible agencies. Account should be taken of Act (16 U.S.C. certain weaknesses in this legislation. To focus -Fish and Wildlife Coordination effort on prevention of spills, as distinct from 661) requires that whenever the waters of any cleanup, there is need for explicit Federal author- stream or other body of water are proposed to be ity to issue Federal regulations concerning the diverted, channel deepened or otherwise con- ways in which oil is handled and stored. In trolled or modified for any purpose whatever by addition, the Oil Pollution Act does not apply to any Federal agency or private or public agency oil discharges from shore-based facilities. This under Federal permit such agency shall consult ornission is critically significant. The Corps of with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and with Engineers estimates that 40 per cent3 of all oil the State agency having administration over wild- pollution enforcement cases in the past grew out life resources which may be affected. of non-waterborne oil discharges. -Executive Order 11288 of July 2, 1966, requires that all Federal agencies comply with the provi- sions and standards of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and cooperate with the Department of the Interior and appropriate State agencies in preventing or controlling water pollution. This can be an important tool of the Federal Government in preventing pollution. It is discussed in detail in Chapter 4. -Executive Order 9634 of Sept. 28, 1945, pro- vides for establishment of fishery conservation zones in areas of the high seas contiguous to the coasts of the United States. This order allows for the establishment of marine wildlife sanctuaries as Figure 2. Research Vessel Mysis of the Univer- sity of Michigan. Coastal research affiliated with a fishery conservation measure. academic institutions is needed. (National Science Foundation photo by Herb Reynolds, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin) B. Action on Existing Recommendations -Oil Pollution Act of 1961 (33 U.S.C. 1001) There are many existing recommendations by enacts the International Convention of 1954 and competent bodies and studies which treat the provides for enforcement of oil pollution control coastal environment. These recommendations stem from the need, often urgent, to correct deficien- outside territorial waters. This act, enforced by the cies laid bare by such disasters as the Torrey Coast Guard, prohibits discharge of oil in offshore Canyon and Ocean Eagle. The panel has reviewed zones (50 or 100 miles), requires reporting of spills the following reports and calls to the attention of or losses, and requires participating nations to the Congress and executive agencies the need for promote adequate oil receiving facilities in ports. prompt consideration of certain recommendations Certain provisions might usefully be reviewed: which are reiterated here: whether exemptions should continue for certain classes of smaller and older vessels; whether the Effective Use of the Sea, Report of the Panel allowable discharge in a sea-water mixture prevents on Oceanography of the President's Science Advi- sory Committee June 1966. This report is an 3 Oil Pollutio n: A Special Study by the Secretary of important reference for the Commission. Two the Interior and the Secretary of Transportation, ip This is an excellent report on the subject. It discusses the' princi al recommendations emerge with respect to weaknesses and inadequacies of the oil pollution laws. the coastal zone. out the major recommendation of this report in- Pertinent Government agencies should be en- cluding the assignment of liability to pollution. couraged to use these platforms. Both the contingency plan and the proposed legislation appear essentially to fulfill the intended A National marine environmental reporting and goals. Implementation is urgently required. We forecasting service should be established. Exist- Concur with the need for and funding of research ing organizations, such as the U.S. Navy Fleet in this field@ Numerical Weather Facility, Coast Guard, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Oceano- Industry and the Ocean Continental Shelf, A. graphic Office, and ESSA, should support this Report by the Ocean Science and Technology service. Computer facilities and radio stations Advisory Committee (OSTAC) of the National and frequencies should be pooled for use in Security Industrial Association (NSIA), 1967. The such a National network." second Continental Shelf Conference was con- vened April 12-14, 1967, under the co-sponsorship -Multiple use conflicts and traf c con ol. The fl tr of NSIA-OSTAC and the Federal Government. growth of industry, population, and recreational Five basic non-defense industries were represented activity in estuarine and inshore waters can be by petroleum, mining, chemical, fishing, and expected to accelerate and bring increasing prob- recreation industry leaders; Government agencies lems of conflict. were represented by their counterparts. The goal of the conference was to enumerate Development of maritime traffic control and recormnend solutions for those problems methods for congested waters should be accel- whose solution would encourage a more rapid erated. The present extremely hazardous prac- growth of each industry's oceanic activities: specif- tice of allowing vessels to pick their own way ically, problems that could be solved by a closer results in undue risk of life and property. 16 working relationship between industry and the Federal Government and problems which are "manageable" and "attainable" within five years. The Department of the Interior should study Recommendations resulting from that confer- the feasibility of making available additional ence include the following to which this panel also seacoast and Great Lake areas for recreational subscribes: use, possibly including private lands with owner concurrence. -Arediction and control of the environment. It is suggested that a multiple uses of an area Storms and storm waves affect all users of the sea, determine a method for establishing a realistic including recreation, and occasionally inflict heavy dollar value, in addition to other pertinent damages to property and cause loss in harbors, not factors, to their various interests. Without this only from their direct effects but also from dollar value logical and rational decisions erosion and the shifting of sediments which alter regarding the optimal use of waterfront areas shorelines and fill channels. In view of this, the cannot be made. following recommendations are made: Formaximum. recreational use of coastal waters Efforts to predict and control hurricanes should pertinent Government agencies should be en- be intensified. couraged to expand search and rescue coverage, to establish additional harbors of refuge, and to A shallow water forecasting capability should study navigation aids with specific regard to their recreational assistance. be developed, especially for the Gulf of Mexico, where it is of paramount importance. Industry has offered its offshore .platforms and 15 For a detailed discussion on these recommendations the reader's attention is directed to the Panel Report on ships as real time measurement stations, rent- Environmental Monitoring and Prediction. free. 16 See Section X1 of Chapter 2. 111-138 -LegallRegulatory Considerations. The Federal Government should: Z Enact legislation capable of serving as a model to encourage uniformity in Federal-State laws and regulations. Uniformly interpret existing Federal laws and regulations. Under the recently enacted legislation estab- lishing a 12-rnile fishing zone, neither Federal nor State governments have clear resp onsibility to conserve fishing resources. Accordingly, it is recommended that the Secretary of Interior take steps to cooperate with the States and with existing regional fishing comirtissions in Figure 4. Sharks being tagged by Fish and Wild- any regulations required to develop fisheries life Service biologists at Sandy Hook Marine between the 3-and 12-inile limit. Laboratory, New Jersey. Research is needed on the 'fife cycle of coastal flsh populations. (Trenton Times photo) -Surveys. Well planned hydrographic and geolog- ical surveys of the U.S. ContinrTital Shelves are the Although NASCO did not specify whether the backbone of Federal, State, and industrial plan- work would best be accomplished by either ning. As such they do much to encourage the expanding facilities and activities at existing lab- rational and orderly development of the Continen- oratories or by constructing new laboratories, the tal Shelf. However, surveys which do not take into panel believes that the more effective approach account the various user data requirements and would be to enlarge existing centers and/ where which are conducted without the use of modern necessary to establish small coastal laboratories data collection and processing techniques are dedicated to regional estuarine systems and having affiliations with both State coastal authorities and wasteful. Specifically, the Federal Government State academic institutions. 17 should: We recommend that two marine preserves be Generate maps of bottom topography of the established on each coast reserved for ecological U.S. Co ntinental Shelf overprinted with gravi- baseline studies. These areas should be identified metric, magnetic, bottom type, and other geo- by the National inventory and studies now being logical information. conducted by the Department of the Interior. They should be managed by the Federal Govern- Accuracy in surveys is. essential to establish ment. property rights. Therefore, there is a need for navigational systems to permit position accu- 11. THE NEED FOR FEDERAL SURVEYS AND racy in the order of 50 feet up to 200 miles PROJECTS from shore. Management and development of the coastal Oceanography 1966, Report of the Committee region will require data which broad Federal on Oceanography, National Academy of Sciences surveys are able to provide. However, they should (NASCO). This group recommended that a system- not replace more detailed and continuing studies atic effort be made to understand the ecology of at the State or regional level that focus on. larval and uvenile -*- ts of important fish and individual problems. The Federal Government often must take the shellfish species througi. adulthood. NASCO sug- 'initiative to demonstrate feasibility or develop new gested one laboratory initially, expanding to at technology in projects for which only it may have least four. within five years: One in Atlan 'tic cold the resources or funding capability. water, one in Atlantic warm water regimes, and one each in Pacific cold water and warm water 17 See Section III of this chapter and Chapter 6. See regimes. also the Report of the Panel on Basic Science. 111-139 A comprehensive discussion of all Federal rine zones; and identify the problems and areas surveys of importance to the coastal zone is not wherefurther research and study are required. possible here. Singled out for recommendation are (3) The report shall include, but not be limited to a few of special significance. - The Commission Panel on Marine Engineering ... (A) an analysis of the importance of estuaries and Technology has recommended a series of to the economic and social well-being of the National Projects, of which many bear on the people of the United States and of the effects of coastal zone. Only one of those-lake restora- pollution upon the use and enjoyment of such tion-is discussed here. estuaries; (B) a discussion of the major economic, Recommended for close attention are the exist- social, and ecological trends occurring in the ing or proposed National surveys and projects in estuarine zones of the Nation; (C) recommenda- the following areas: tions for a comprehensive national program for the preservation, study, use, and development of -A comprehensive National Coastal Inventory and estuaries of the Nation, and the respective respons- Survey ibilities which should be assumed by Federal, State, and local governments and by public and -A National Shoreline Erosion Survey private interests. -National Port Requirement Survey The act authorizes $1 million for each of three -Great Lakes Restoration Project years for the study.. The report is due Jan. 30, 1970. In its definition of estuaries the act does not A. A Comprehensive National Inventory and include the Great Lakes. Survey Public Law 90-454'9 enacted Aug. 3, 1968, Under the provisions of the Clean Water Resto- directed that: ration Act of 1966' " the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration of the Department of the (a) The Secretary of the Interior, in consultation Interior presently is conducting a National Estua- and in cooperation with the States, the Secretary rine Pollution Study.The act directs that: of the Army, and other Federal agencies, shall conduct directly or by contract a study and (1) The Secretary shall ... conduct ... compre- inventory of the Nation's estuaries, including hensive study of the effects of pollution, including without limitation coastal marshlands, bays, sedimentation, in the estuaries and estuarine zones sounds, seaward areas, lagoons, and land and. of the United States on fish and wildlife, on sport -waters of the Great Lakes. For the Purpose of this and commercial fishing, on recreation, on water study, the Secretapy shall consider, among other supply and water power, and on other beneficial matters, (1) their wildlife and recreational poten- purposes. Such study shall also consider the effect tial, their ecology, their value to the marine, of demographic trends, the exploitation of mineral anadromous, and shellfisheries and their esthetic resources and fossil fuels, land and industrial value, (2) Their importance to navigation, their development, navigation, flood and erosion con- value for flood, hurricane, and erosion control, trol, and other uses of estuaries and estuarine their mineral value, and the value of submerged zones upon the pollution of the waters therein. lands underlying the waters of the estuaries, and (3) the value of such areas for more intensive (2) In conducting the above study, the Secretary development for economic use as part of urban shall assemble, coordinate, and organize all exist- developments and for commercial and industrial ing pertinent information on the Nation's estuaries developments. This study and inventory shall be and estuarine zones; carry out a program of investigations and surveys to supplement existing information in representative estuaries and estua- 19 82 Stat. 625-628. This is the final version of the proposed H.R. 2S of the 90th Congress. The law provides is for a National estuarine inventory and study and for Section 5(h) of P.L. 89-753 amending the Federal Federal management of estuarine areas with State ap- Water Pollution Control Act 3 3 us.C. 466 et seq. proval. 111-140 carried out in conjunction with the comprehensive tion should thus be given to potential for commer- estuarine pollution study authorized by section cial, industrial, recreational, and urban develop- 5(g) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as ment, and to other factors affecting the amended, and other applicable studies. (b) The contribution of these areas to the National wel- study shall focus attention on whether any land or fare. The Secretary of the Interior obviously has water area within an estuary and the Great Lakes the authority to accomplish these broad objec- should be acquired or administered by the Secre- tives. tary or by a State or local subdivision thereof, or whether such land or water area may be protected B. A National Shoreline Erosion Survey adequately through local, State, or Federal laws or other methods without Federal land acquisition or New legislation of th Ie 90th Congress2 0 directed: administration. ... That the Chief of Engineers, Department of This act authorized $250,000 for each of two the Army, under the direction of the Secretary of years and the report is .due Jan. 30, 1970. the Army, shall make an appraisal investigation f and study, including a review of any previous The goals envisioned in each of these items o legislation appear broad enough to meet ade- relevant studies and reports, of the Atlantic, Gulf quately the need we foresee. The panel has and Pacific coasts of the United States, the Coasts monitored closely the progress of the National of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, and the Estuarine Pollution Study. We recommend that shorelines of the Great Lakes, including estuaries the new survey-especially now with its authority and bays thereof, for the purpose of (1) determin- to include the Great Lakes-supplement and not ing areas along such coasts and shorelines where attempt to duplicate what already is being done. In order to achieve the broad purposes of the legislation, it is important that the depth of the 20 Section 201 of the River and Harbor Act of 1968, P*L* 90-483, 82 Stat. 731, Aug. 13, 1968, (forinerly S. study cover all aspects of the conservation and 1262). This is authorization only; no funds have been utilization of the coastal zone. Balanced considera- appropriated. _71 Figure 5. A modern container terminal is being constructed at an abandoned airport in Baltimore harbor. Modem port development may free large areas of obsolete port facilities for other public uses. (Port of Baltimore photo) significant erosion occurs; (2) identifying those conflicting influence. The size and hazards of oil areas where erosion presents-a serious problem and exotic cargoes may well dictate new concepts because the rate of erosion, considered in conjunc- of loading facilitieS.2 2 tion with economic, industrial, recreational, agri- Because of funding procedures, it has been cultural, navigational, demographic and other relatively easy to obtain harbor development relevant factors, indicates that action to halt such projects which often exceed the real need of the erosion may be justified; (3) describing generally community. In the resulting dredging, leveeing and the most suitable type of remedial action for those diking, many important estuarine resources are areas that have a serious erosion problem; (4) destroyed and valuable recreational areas dis- providing preliminary cost estimates for such placed. problem areas for action to stop erosion;. (5) A need exists for a National Port Survey to be recommending priorities among the serious prob- conducted with the cooperation of the Depart- lem areas for action to stop erosion; and (6) ments of Transportation, Anny, Commerce, and providing State and local authorities with informa- Housing and Urban Development to define the tion and recommendations to assist the creation Nation's requirements in terms of major ports, and implementation of state and local coast and offshore terminals, and other facilities for mari- shoreline erosion programs. time commerce. On the basis of this survey, a rational scheme for port and harbor development The study should contribute significantly to the can be established against which the real need for Federal and State solution of the erosion problem. other harbors can be measured. The Corps of Engineers estimates that about $1 Such a study should examine closely the million is required for this study. Funding should Federal-local cost sharing relationships . with an be made available as soon as possible. intent to require a proposed port area to be a The Federal Government appears to be assum- stronger participant in developing of its facilities. ing the greater share of costs in projects involving The Corps of Engineers has proposed that as a shoreline protection when benefits may be dispro- lead agency it conduct a regional harbors study 21 portionately local. We recommend that the with goals similar to those outlined herein. The proposed study include re-examination of the Corps is conducting, in cooperation with the formulas for Federal-local sharing as well as for the Committee on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone of "benefit-cost" ratio system for justifying projects. the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, an initial fact finding study on port modernization. Other Federal agen- C. National Port Requirements Survey cies as well as port authorities and appropriate State-local interests are cooperating in the pilot Future trends in shipping and integrated c. on- study. cepts for general transportation (i.e., larger ships, The lead agency to conduct a major study deeper drafts, containerization, higher speeds, should be selected with care. An agency whose rapid turn-around etc.) may pose requirements mission relies on or is enhanced by port facilities competing even further for estuary use. New may not be a logical choice. The expertise involved concepts in port development may, in many should view transportation as a total system and instances, indicate that improved port design and not just ships and docks. The Corps of Engineers, location would relieve an estuary of this vital but Maritime Adniinistration, Economic Development Adn-dnistration, and Coast Guard all have apparent advantages and disadvantages. 21 '17he earliest Federal legislation in beach erosion-i- n Considering all factors, we recommend that the 1930. provided for 5 0 per cent Federal funding for. Plan- most appropriate. would be a multiTagency study ning and no Federal funding in works. In 1946 this was amended for Federal participation to one-third the cost of headed by the Secretary of Transportation. construction. Since 1946 it has been steadily liberalized to Federal funding up to 70 per cent (An act authorizing Federal participation in the cost of protecting shores of publicly owned property, Aug. 13, 1946, 60 Stat. 1056 22 (33 U.S.C. 426-426h) as amended by P.L. 84-826, See Chapter 5 for a detailed discussion of the prob- 87-874, and 89-298.) lems faced by ports and marine transportation. 111-142 D. Great Lakes Restoration Project Based on the information which has been made available to the CommiSSion,2 4 we recommend The five Great Lakes demonstrate misuse and abuse of the environment by man. Total popula- experimental programs in lake restoration leading to an attempt to restore Lake Erie. tion in the drainage basins around each of the lakes corresponds closely to the degree of pollu- Ill. THE NEED FOR R IESEARCH AND TRAIN- tion. Lake Erie exhibits the greatest impairment, ING followed by Lake Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and -Superior, Further, the rate of population growth Effective management and development of our refliects -ifie-rate of accelerated aging- or eutrophi- coastal waters, lands, and resources require that 23 cation processes in the lakes. If corrective action man understand and predict the consequences of is not taken, further deterioration will parallel his actions. With regard to the nearshore marine future population growth. and lake-coast environment, too often he is unable Various restorative techniques which have been to do so. considered include removing the organic material, To implement the acquisition of necessary slowing the growth rate or increasing the oxygen knowledge, there is a need for the establishment of supply. Specific suggestions include: coastal zone research institutions in association with appropriate academic institutions. They -Sealing bottom samples would provide basic understanding of and training -Flushing with lo w nutrient water in coastal and estuarine processes on which Fed- eral, State, and local governments could rationally -Nutrient removal base their management procedures. The research institutions need not be large in size but should -Thermal destratification have adequate facilities and staff to maintain a -Dredging stable program. There is sufficient difference between estuarine -Biological and chemical controls and coastal problems from area to area, and these problems are of such fundamental importance, -Prevention of light penetration that a university affiliated laboratory devoted to -Rough fish removal. basic and applied marine science should be located on every major estuarine system. The relationships Of the various alternatives, the one which might of oil 'wells to shrimp and oyster fisheries in be most seriously considered is thertnal destratift- Louisiana differ from those of pulp mills and salmon fisheries in Washington, and the cold water cation. organisms of the Maine coast have ecological It must be emphasized that the restoration of a tolerances that differ from those of the warm lake as large as Lake Erie represents a major waters south of Cape Hatteras. Such problems are environmental modification and, hence, must e better attacked in university centers in their approached with caution. Analysis and evaluation respective States than through a central Federal or required before such an undertaking are beyond university- National laboratory. the scope of this discussion. Although much of the . Although problems differ sufficiently from area information necessary to evaluate the feasibility, to area to require different groups studying indi- engineering requirements, and effects of an artifi- vidual areas, many problems are common to all, cial recirculation project already exists, a great and a degree of specialization within laboratories is deal of additional work is r@quired. A project of this type is discussed in detail in the Report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and 24 In its concern over the eutropbication of thc Great Technology. The cost of such a demonstration Lakes the Commission contracted with the Paciti-@ North- west Laboratories of Battelle Memorial Institute for a project is estimated at $30 million. brief review of the potential of Great Lakes restoration. The report of the contract is contained in Great Lakes Restoration-Review of Potentials and Recommendations 23 Eutrophication, especially the effects in the Great for Implementation, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Lakes, is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Battelle Memorial Institute, June 17, 1968. 111-143 - W @-77 AFT7 7k A '7 y T i'a, 7]". Figure 6. Artist's conception of an offshore loading terminal. Such bold new actions may relieve existing ports of conflicting pressures and expefisive port redevelopment. not only inevitable but desirable. A complex The coastal zone laboratories should be oper- computer simulation model may be developed for ated under the Sea-Grant College Program, which one estuary, but once developed may have more would provide the necessary resources and exper- general applicability. Laws governing turbulent tise that the States do not now have. Although the diffusion processes are similar, although their relationship of State government to local universi- application may vary considerably from case to ties differs from State to State, it is usually closer case. than that between the State government and The National Sea-Grant College and Program Federal laboratories. The relationship between a Act of 1966 21 provides a mechanism for support- university laboratory and State government will ing the complex of coastal zone laboratories not and should not be identical with that between envisioned. First, the problems are not in the a Federal agency and its research laboratories. The natural sciences alone but in the social sciences as States will have to maintain their own manage- well. Second, many of the problems are "applied" ment and enforcement system and in some cases and are in urgent need of a solution. Third, the their own estuarine environmental monitoring State has an important interest in the solution of system. these problems and the training of its people and The resources of the university-coastal zone should be expected to share in the program. These laboratories will be available for research, special coastal zone laboratories should provide the studies, and assistance just as are those of the studies and research on which the State may base agricultural experiment stations and the extension its management decisions. services operated by. land-grant colleges. Accord- ingly we recommend that Sea Grant funding for 25 P.L. 89-688, Oct. 1S, 1966, 80 Stat. 998 33 U.S.C. coastal zone research be increased over the next 10 1121-1124. years to provide, in addition to other Sea Grant 111-144 programs, institutional support for 30 coastal to this is the size of Chapter 7 and its description 26 laboratories at an annual rate of about one-half of Federal agencies. The picture is typically one million dollars each. In addition to institutional of uncoordinated efforts to achieve various objec- support for coastal zone laboratories, we recom- tives in the coastal zone. mend Sea Grant funding be increased further to With responsibility fragmented, with little in- support research problems and manpower training centive for affected interests to submit to anything related to the coastal zone at an annual level of like a single manager, with a multitude of objec- about $12 million. tives that may be pursued, it is particularly difficult for plans to be designed, made authorita- IV. THE NEED FOR PLANNING AND MAN- tive, and enforced. AGEMENT To a substantial extent, simultaneous use of the As a Nation, we are faced with a crisis in the zone for many purposes is possible, provided that it is planned for. Effective planning necessitates effective use of the coastal zone. The rapidly developing an understanding of the coastal ecology growing population along our coasts and Great and the dynamics of coastal processes far deeper Lakes is accompanied by accelerated development, than available today. It calls for an analysis of which often thoughtlessly intensifies pollution and economic activities and their inter-relations. It degrades the environment. Conflicts among some requires such criteria as State water quality stand- uses are increasing-or are becoming increasingly ards to protect the utility of the resource. It apparent-and random choices render the environ- includes protection of the shoreline and of adja- ment inhospitable to other concurrent or future cent waters. Effective planning includes the exer- uses. Indeed, severe damage to the environment cise of sound land use principles. can preclude its return to the previous natural Purposes that find easy'expression in immediate state. Other new uses may require efforts of economic returns should not predorninate in guid- restoration at great time and expense.. ing choices. Instead, special efforts are necessary In many-perhaps most-cases, - uses have to plan for the future and to consider intangible evolved with little advance planning, little exam- benefits difficult to evaluate in the usual economic ination of conflicts or consequences, and hence terms. without adequate consideration of long-term ef- fects on the environment. These have been identi- fied and discussed in previous chapters. 26 See also the Commission contract report, A Perspec- Many uses are subject to a variety of public and tive of Regional and State Marine Environmental Activi- private actions and fall into several often over- ties: A Questionnaire Survey, Statistics and Observations, John 1. Thompson & Co., Washington, D.C.,'Feb. 29, lapping government jurisdictions. Mute testimony 1968. 2 A Figure 7. Artist's conception of the proposed Bolsa Island dual-purpose nuclear power and seawater desalting plant off Southern California Bold new projects as this are symbolic of future use of the coastal zone. (Office of Saline Water photo) 111-145 333 -093 0 - 69 - 20 The concept of multiple use of public resources defense, and finally (5) the coastal zone as a implies that Government will serve as resource National resource. These reserve the right of the manager in the coastal zone. As such, Government Federal Government to review the efficacy of any considers alternative ends for ocean development, management system. considers alternative means to accomplish these In Chapter 10, we outline in some detail our ends, and further, defines criteria: for deciding recommendations for State Coastal Management among them. Authorities. Managing the resources will be a complex task. For one thing, no one government agency either V. THE NEED FOR A SYSTEMATIC AP- Federal or State has, or is likely to have, unified PROACH TO WASTE MANAGEMENT management responsibility for all aspects of ocean development. For another, the several industrial One of the traditional uses of our rivers, Great and nonindustrial interests have different goals and Lakes, estuaries, and open coast has been waste approaches to coastal development. disposal. Every body of water can assip'late Finally, various regions of the sea and the wastes to some extent with little effect on the resources within each region have their own special ecology or the condition of the lake, river, or characteristics. Effective management further re- estuary. But every body of water, ilftcluding th .e quires a proper legal framework. ocean, has a limit. We believe the central criterion in any planning The panel has had difficulty in coming to grips should be to balance potential uses and users. The with the pollution problem in the marine environ- best assurance of including this criterion in the ment. In many of the coastal zone areas it is the planning and decision-making process for the single most important problem. It is the one coastal zone is participation of varied interests in problem in which there is the most action at all allocating uses and in judging among specific levels of government. It is evident that the people competing uses. of this Nation are disturbed about pollution and Although the level of government involvement they aim to do something about it. should be determined by specific circumstances, in Throughout this report we have noted problems general, State leadership is to be favored. Large, related to water quality, oil pollution, the need for interstate estuaries may require interstate com- more sewage treatment plants, and the almost pacts. Metropolitan areas may well require special insuperable task of controlling -_ insectic-ides and kinds of governmental units such as regional or other non-point source pollutants. We have made a council type governments currently under discus- series of specific recommendations concerning 27 sion. pollution and have noted with satisfaction the It also is important to recognize the role of increased public awareness of pollution problems National interests vis-a-vis local interests. Planning and the progress in pollution abatement made in and implementation of coastal management may recent years. The President now has advisory need to include National, as opposed to regional, boards on both air and water pollution. Water interests. The most important sources of this pollution problems are the concern of several interest are: (1) preservation of unique natural Federal agencies as well as the interagency Water areas, (2) the vital role of many estuaries in Resources Council. supporting populations of migratory waterfowl In spite of all of this activity, however, the and fish, (3) interstate navigation (4) National panel is not sanguine about the future. Problems of waste management are not simply a combina- tion of air, water, and land pollution problems. Much which is basic to our economy is involved in 27 Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Rela- waste management. It is certainly more efficient tions, Alternative Approaches to Governmental Reorgani- and, in an absolute sense, more economical, to zation in Metropolitan Areas (1962), p. 85. The latest remove dirt before it leaves the smokestack than commentary and draft law on councils of government are to be found in Advisory Commission on Inter- to shovel if off the streets or scrape it off the sides governmental Relations, 1967 State Legislative Program of the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Rela- of buildings. The man who sprays his fields is not tions (1966). responsible for the pesticides that drain off into 111-146 t Figure 8. Artist's conception of a continental shelf nuclear power plant. The location of such plants may relieve the pressure of land use conflicts on the coast and better provide for cooling and dispersal of waste heat (Westinghouse photo) the streams, and there is little economic incentive management policy are similar to those that to find alternative solutions. Burning wastes rather created this Commission on Marine Sciences. than dumping them in a river does not solve the There is tremendous public interest; there is a pollution problem; it merely changes the nature of feeling of urgency; there is fragmented authority; the problem. and there is a feeling that if this Nation wishes to Recommendations concerning problems such as make the commitment, significant results can be these lie beyond the authority of this Commission. obtained. If technology is responsible for many of Even if we had so interpreted our mandate to our pollution problems today, technology can help consider this class of problem, to study them with in solving those problems tomorrow if given the the diligence they deserve would mean that we opportunity and incentive to do so. The panel would have done little else. We do, however, believes that a total integrated approach to the concur with the National Academy of Sciences problems of waste management is necessary. Al- and PSAC reports in the belief that any lasting though detailed ' recommendations on these solution must consider waste management as a matters are beyond the scope of our activity, we total system. recommend that there be established a National In many respects the conditions confronting commission to study and deal with the total waste those who wish to establish a National waste management problem. 111-147 Chapter 10 A National Program for the Management and Development of Coastal Waters and Lands In Chapter 9 and in earlier chapters we have -To resolve conflicting actions through regulation, presented the need for effective management of zoning, and/or acquisition our coastal and lakeshore zones. In this chapter we _To maintain a continuing inventory and studies recommend a program involving a Federal-State partnership to manage and develop the coastal and to sponsor and conduct research as a contri- zone. The goal of this program is: buting link in decision making processes To achieve in our coastal waters a quality of The Federal role following enactment of legisla- environment which will ensure economic develop- tion would be to provide assistance in the form of ment, and sensible utilization of our resources a broad National inventory, funding grants, and through Federal-State cooperation in sound plan- review of State and local effectiveness to establish ning and management. the basis for continued Federal funding. Under this program the Federal Government has available The program developed here envisions manage- two mechanisms to induce positive and progressive ment vested in a State Authority or in a State State and local action: withholding Federal grants al and acquiring and managing areas determined by established local or regional authority. The gener, the Federal Government to be endangered and role of this authority would be to undertake, 'in participation with other State and local authon- critical to the National interests but not protected ties, the planning, regulation, and acquisition of adequately. coastal and lakeshore waters and lands. Areas under Federal jurisdiction should be Implementation of this program requires Fed- under Federal management and development ex- eral legislation to define National objectives, set cept where the Federal Goverm-nent has expressly forth policy guidelines, and authorize funds f . or ceded jurisdiction to a State or government unit under State authority. Federal assistance. It is not feasible that legislation be binding on any State. However, the legislation should encourage States to participate. A State which benefits from Federal funding incident to Y this program would be a participating memberof the program. 7' A "participating" State means that the State has established a State Coastal Zone Authority L @4 subject to the review and approval of the Federal Figure 1. The coastal zone is a National re- Government. The form and detailed functions of source and its use should be administered in the public interest (National Park Service the State organization -are at the discretion of the photo) State concerned. The agency could vary from a powerful Statewide central authority to a local 1. NATIONAL INTERESTS bi-county regional authority dedicated to a single coastal or estuarine region. Although more National interests are the aggregate objectives, modest, the latter would allow an area-by-area policies, and activities through which we seek to implementation and at the same time preserve the accomplish the. goal. Objectives of a coastal man- balance of local powers. agement program can be expressed in the follow- The role of the Coastal Zone Authority would ing terms: be: -To understand the natural processes occurring in -To plan for multiple uses of the coastal and the nearshore environment and thus to predict lakeshore waters and lands man's effects on this envirom-nent 111-148 -To use the environment to the benefit of man -Undertaking basic and applied research in the coastal environment and in disciplines relevant to -To accommodate with minimum conflict mul- marine activities (physical and chemical processes, tiple uses of the environment ecological research, socio-economic trends, etc.) -To maintain, and restore if necessary, the envi- _Facilitating development of technologies perti- ronment at a level of public choice for both the nent to coastal activities (shoreline stabilization, present and future transportation, safety, aquaculture, recreation, Policy guidelines for the Coastal Zone Authori- etc.) ties would incorporate the following principles: -Operation and maintenance activities (providing -Coastal zones should support the widest possible safety services such as search-and-rescue opera- variety of beneficial uses and be managed to tions, certification and standards, navigation, car- maximize net social return. This means that unless tographic services, etc.) necessary in the broad public interest, no single -Regulating and administering activities (resolu- use-such as waste disposal-or class ofuses-such tion of conflicts, coordination of public and as commercial uses-should be allowed to exclu& private roles, distribution of net benefits, estab- other beneficial uses lishment of a legal framework, etc.) -The Coastal Zone Authority should represent a -Educating and training personnel to ensure a balanced approach. For example, it should not be continuity of effort and progressive achievements. dominated by either conservation or economic development groups. 11. PROPOSED LEGISLATION -There must be an opportunity for public hear- Federal legislation is required in order to ings to' allow local governments, private interests, achieve the stated objectives. Such legislation and individuals to express their views before should: actions are taken or decisions made to change or modify uses of the coastal zone. Decisions of the -Define the National policy and objectives Coastal Zone Authority should become a matter of public record. -Call for the States to establish statewide or local coastal authorities or equivalents -There must be a mechanism for the input of Federal, State, and local governments in the -Set forth broad policy and guidelines for opera- determination of shoreline use within the coastal tions and powers of State authority(ies) zone. -Establish the Federal interface -All actions within the coastal zones and in the -Provide Federal assistance in the form of grant s, contiguous zone must respect Federal rights as research, and technical assistance well as - international agreements. Any proposed action must not violate water quality standards -Impose a Federal review of program activity and established by the States in accordance with provide for curtailing Federal assistance in the case Federal law. Planned uses of coastal waters must of non-comphance with standards be the basis for establishment or revision of such standards. -Authorize funds. -In the case of interstate estuaries, the programs Such management systems are now in effect, of other States must be considered to provide for example, the Federal Water Pollution Control coordinated action. Act,' under which States have primary responsi- bility for "zoning" rivers and waters through the Activities through which we attempt to achieve the objectives also define the National interests. These include: 133 U.S.C. 466 et seq., P.L. 84-660, as arnended. 111-149 medium of water quality standards. In this act the intent. For the sake of illustration a highly Federal Government sets National objectives and simplified version of sample legislation is presented provides technical expertise and various kinds of in Appendix F. financial assistance, and provides for enforcement when the States do not act. Ill. THE FEDERAL ROLE The Water Resources Planning ACt2 is another example. Here River Basin Commissions are au- Although this management scheme places most thorized to be established by States or interstate of the responsibility within the States, many compacts and Federal funding assistance is pro- well-established Federal interests in these areas vided. The Federal interface is the Water Re- remain: navigation, waterways, and National re- sources Council. sources such as parks, wildlife, etc. Federal agen- In order that new legislation may most @ffec- cies administering such programs can be expected tively take its place in the family of related to interact separately with the Coastal Zone Federal legislation, it may be desirable to amend Authority. However, the tasks of Federal funding, several laws bearing on coastal resources and assistance, and review should be vested in one development. Amendments might range from in- @gency. Under present Federal organizational creased funding totransfer of power or priorities. structure, the most appropriate Federal interface Some of these laws are: would be either the Secretary of the Interior or the Water Resources Council. -Rivers and Harbors Act3 IV. POSSIBLE STATE MANAGEMENT SYS- -Federal Water Pollution Control Act4 TEMS -Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act5 The intent of the National program is that the -Federal Aid in Fish Restoration Act6 Staterespond to Federal legislation by establishing or otherwise redirecting government bodies or -National Sea Grant College and Program Act' authorities that would accomplish the jobs to be done. Legislation spells out only the objectives, -Water Resources Planning Act' not the specific means to accomplish them. Thus it -Land and Water Conservation Fund Act.9 rests with a State to determine the makeup of its organization. A State's options range from creating The sections following treat in greater detail a statewide agency to creating a local authority for various aspects of the proposed legislation and its a particular region. The latter appears to have certain advantages: 2P.L. 89-80, approved July 22, 1965. -It may more readily fit in with existing local 3Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, 33 U.S.C. 403-407. authorities This act provides for Federal controls over dredging and filling navigable waters, dumping refuse, and obstructions. -It would be more responsive to the particular See Chapter 3, Section A. 4P.L. 84-660, as amended, 33 U.S.C. 466 et seq. See problems of a region Section I of chapter 9. SAct of March 10, 1934, 48 Stat. 401, 16 U.S.C. -It would permit a State to establish regional 661-666c. See Section I of chapter 9. authorities on a step-by-step basis according to 6Act of August 9, 1950, 64 Stat. 430, 16 U.S.C. 777. needs- See Chapter 2, section X. 7P.L. 89-454, 33 U.S.C. 1121-1124. See Chapter 9, Another option in setting up a State coastal Section 1. management authority is the creation of a special 8Water Resources Planning Act, P.L. 89-80, 79 Stat. district along the lines of a metropolitan sanitation 244. This act provides Federal grants to States for water rFsources planning. It also authorizes River Basin Commis- district or port authority. Such a district could be sions as planning bodies. established easily by State legislatures. The district 9Act of September 3, 1964, 78 Stat. 897, 16 U.S.C. would cause minimum disturbance to existing 4601. This act provides for funding State and Federal planning and for acquisition and development of waters units of government. Its concern would not be and lands used for recreation and conservation purposes. diluted by that for other regional problems. 111-150 But such a district would have problems V. COASTAL ZONE AUTHORITY common to all special-purpose government agen- cies.. It would be difficult to create a governing Development of the coastal management sys- body truly responsible to the regional public. tem proposed by this report envisions that the Funding would be difficult. It would continue the action role be vested in the State through a State proliferation of government agencies, bringing agency which we call a Coastal Zone Authority. further fragmentation of public authority and The functions of the Coastal Zone Authority increasing unnecessary competition among govern- are: ments for funds and power. Alternatively, a multi-purpose government _Planning the utilization of coastal and lakeshore agency could be created with responsibility not waters and lands only to carry out coastal plans but to solve other regional problems: solid waste disposal, acquisition -Encouraging the development of these areas in and operation of regional parks and open space, the public interest control of air and water pollution, and area-wide transportation needs. A comprehensive agency -Resolving conflicts through public processes: could weigh a region's various needs, allocating regulation, zoning, and acquisition priorities to programs of greatest importance and _Studies and continuing research to maintain striving for a balance among them. A multi- plans and decisions with requirements and trends. purpose agency could do a better job of coordi- nating and accommodating competing uses. Such an agency would be more difficult to The magnitude of coastal problems varies with create than a single-purpose district because it the area, and States will evolve different ways of would incur resistance from agencies or units of handling them. As noted in the previous section, government that might be modified or absorbed not all Coastal Zone Authorities need or should into the comprehensive agency, have the same form. However, regardless of the Examples of existing agencies are the San form of authority, guidelines must be responsive Francisco Bay Conservation and Development to public interest and National policies set forth Commission" and the Oceanographic Committee earlier. of the Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board An agency or authority thus established would (New York)." Established primarily for planning serve to convert the National interests into action purposes, each was given sufficient powers to programs. It should possess the following powers: affect its respective area profoundly. Both have recommended establishment of a regional author- -Planning-authority to continue research and ity. planning necessary for informed decision-making In the final analysis, the form and make-up _Regulation-power to grant or withhold permits should be left to the State, but Federal and local for coastal land and water use and, in addition, government interests must be safeguarded. some authority to require that lands adjoining the 10 coastline be used for purposes compatible with its The San Francisco Bay Comniission was established (BCDC) by the State legislature in 1965 to prepare a overall plan comprehensive and enforceable plan for conservation of the waters of the Bay and development of the shores. -Acquisition and eminent domain-authority to During its administration it was granted management powers. The Commission has produced a series of 22 buy lands when public ownership is necessary and authoritative reports. The tentative recommendations of to acquire such lands through condemnation if the BCDC include a regional agency with powers to plan and regulate the Bay as a unit. See Appendix D. necessary. 11 -- The Oceanographic Committee of the Nassau Suffolk Regional Planning Board was established in 1965 by the Development-authority to provide, either di- two Long Island, New York counties. Having no absolute rectly or by arrangement with another government powers, its authority is derived from an export advisory capacity in planning, zoning, and regulatory matters of agency, such public facilities as beaches, marinas, the bi-county coastal zone. Its first report is entitled 77ze and other waterfront developments and to lease Status and Potential of the Marine" Environment, De- cember 1966. offshore areas. 111-151 The three functions: planning, regulation, and C. Zoning acquisition were discussed in detail in Chapter 8. in the past the owner of land could do with it They are briefly discussed here as applicable to the w .hatever he wanted. He was constrained if his -powers of a Coastal Zone Authority. activities produced damage to his neighbors or created a nuisance for which he could be brought A. Planning to court. Out of this developed a system of zoning A State's first step is to develop a comprehen- which, by planning, tried to iiiinimize interference sive or "master" plan to coordinate use of land between adjacent (or close) users of land in a and water resources. This can be accomplished by community. the State authority or authorities whose functions But zoning for land uses is different from are spelled out by State action or by a temporary zoning for water uses. The difference arises from planning commission whose duties are to develop the concept of "range." The range of interference the plan and recommend the nature of an au- for land uses is very short, while that of water uses thority or agency necessary to fulfill the State can be quite large; for example, pollution at one role. At this level it should strive to coordinate point in a body of water can be carried to another local planning, both public and private, with easily. (This reasoning also applies to air pollu- planning at the area-wide level. The plannmig tion.) agency should establish close relationships wi The larger "range" of zoning is recognized by other institutions concerned with area-wide devel- the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and by the Water Quality Standards set for rivers, estu- opment: water supply and development authori- . . anes, and coastal waters, which spell out water use ties, mass transportation agencies, special districts, and imply, also, constra .iInts on land use. As a highway departments, park and recreation . agen- further complication, the "range" can even extend cies, and air pollution control bodies. from one estuary to another through the inter- The panel found that a great amount of mediary of migratory fish and migratory water- planning for general land and public use presently fowl . exists, much conducted under the Urban Planning Zoning traditionally is the responsibility of Assistance Program authorized by Section 701 of local governments. Historically they have failed to the Housing Act of 1954. Full benefit should be taken of such planning wherever possible. I protect the nonmarketable interests-scenic Federal funding for functional and action pro- beauty, recreational values, and preservation of grams should be contingent on Federal review and wildlife-against economic interests producing jobs approval of a comprehensive area-wide plan. and increasing the tax base. For this reason, responsibility for zoning the coastal zone should be at the State level or, if dealing with a portion of B. Public Regulation a State, under State authority. Effective management of a coastal region re- Zoning regulations would be designed to irnple- quires government action. Regulation offers one ment the comprehensive plan adopted by the State means of implementing a plan to conserve and through its Coastal Zone Authority. develop shorelines; acquisition offers another. Im- D. Regulation by Permit plementation depending solely on acquisition might prove too costly. Moreover, widespread Alternatively to zoning, a planning body could acquisition would result in a government agency decide regulation through permits issued according owning, and thus having to administer, large areas to prestated criteria. of shoreline. Yet regulation should not be the sole Under this method, activity could proceed only implementing tool. on approval by the Coastal Zone Authority. Regulation assumes that private owners will Regulations could set forth types of development retain title to their lands, but that uses and permitted. For instance, such regulations might development will be restricted by legislation. The permit boat yards, marinas, and like uses at most typical contemporary land regulation sys- designated shoreline locations only if such use tems are zoning and regulation by permit. were desirable for the public convenience and in 111-152 harmony with the comprehensive plan. A compre- -State appropriations hensive plan could be the basic regulatory docu- Bond issues (which the Coastal Zone Authority ment, with permits issued on the basis of its - objectives, standards, and other provisions, rather might be empowered to issue) than criteria set forth in regulations implementing -License and tax revenues the plan. Such an approach-case-by-case consideration -Existing Federal assistance programs like Federal of proposals, applying general statutory criteria Aid in Fish Restoration Act (Dingell-Johnson), fairly-affords several major advantages. First, it Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (Pittman- provides the agency with maximum flexibility in Robertson), Land and Water Conservation Fund detern-dning response to concrete development Act, etc. proposals. Second, such an approach minimizes differen- -Authorization by new legislation. tial value impacts caused by such precise regula- tions as zoning. A zoning ordinance indicates All the above funding schemes are sound and which uses are. permitted at specified locations. could be utilized. In view of Ahe National interest The types of permissible activities affect value. involved, Federal funding is an important source, Absence of precise regulation would leave develop- and funding authorization should be in the 14sla- ment potential uncertain and thus minimize an tion enabling this program. artificial inflationary (or deflationary) force. In addition to State acquisition of coastal lands Third,.a permit procedure allows more detailed in the public interest, there is the added considera- regulation. The legislation, and the plan's objec- tion of Federal acquisition. From the outset tives and standards. would invest discretion in the Federal acquisition is in the public interest as a Coastal Zone Authority, which in turn could part of an established National program. When negotiate with developers the many aspects of delegated Federal authority considers a State proposed development otherwise beyond regula- failing to manage and administer critical coastal tion. and estuarine areas, or when a State is unable to acquire needed lands not already in public owner- ship, the Federal Government may acquire given E. Acquisition areas. Acquisition is one of the two mechanisms the Federal Government has to ensure positive and Current and projected pressures for public and progressive State action; withholding Federal private recreational development make zoning and grants is the second. permits unrealistic as the only recourse in planning and regulations. The economic pressures of the F. R esearch local tax base and political realities necessitate the availability of other options. Effective management and understanding of the . Foremost among these options are easements coastal zone requires a continuing program of and acquisition. Least costly, the former is pre- monitoring, inventory, and in-depth studies. Just ferred when it can serve such an explicit purpose as Federal agencies have research laboratories to as protecting aesthetic and cultural values. The provide continuing studies required to fulfill their latter is the more sure when important conserva- missions, the Coastal Zone Authorities require a tion, recreation, 'or public development areas are research arm. Many problems are interdisciplinary, to be preserved. requiring talents which range from physics and The first goal of coastal acquisition would be biology to civil engineering, resource economics, marshlands and potential public recreation areas. and sociology. The inventorying and monitoring The Federal Government can assist a State when requirements can best be done by units, dedicated determination of "tidal lines" or "navigability" is to a local region and responsible to the State the question. authority. We believe every State should have a research There are several alternative sources for funds: group devoted to the problems of the coastal zone. 111-153 This laboratory should be a part of a university or -Development-for protection and restoration of closely affiliated with one." public shorelines and coastal areas The relationship of the university to State administrative groups with respect to basic and -Research and Training (including a continuing applied research varies from State to State. How- inventory and detailed studies)-Federal funding ever, regardless of the form of the relationship, the assistance can be applied to the above categories existence of a strong, research-oriented group by formulas spelled out in the enabling legislation. affiliated with a university should provide some of the necessary trained personnel, should provide a A. Planning state-wide education program, and should bolster Federal assistance should be provided through the State's administrative ability to formulate. matching grants on a 50 per cent basis 13 to States plans and to execute a rational policy of admini- stration. or their delegated agencies in accordance with Research support can come from the National Federal regulations. Section 701 of the Housing Sea Grant Program (P.L. 89-688) or it can be Act of 1954 and Title III of the Water Resources included in the new legislation. Both appear Planning Act provide planning funding which also desirable. The goals of the National Sea Grant can be utilized. New Federal funding for planning Program clearly include the same objectives impor- is included with operations funding discussed tant to understanding our coastal environment. below. VI. FEDERAL FUNDING B. Operations Federal funding assistance is a vital part of the In general the operation of Coastal Zone recommended program for two basic reasons: It Authorities should be supported from State or serves as a positive inducement for a State to local appropriations only. The reason for this is participate in the National program, and it pro- twofold: (1) because the form of the agency vides a means otherwise unavailable for a State to should be left to the State, it may be difficult to manage and acquire its coastal lands and waters in identify for Federal funding and (2) if Federal the public interest. Although other related Federal operating funds are withdrawn 'for failure to funding programs may serve indirectly or peripher- comply with National standards, the agency would ally, none accomplishes the full intent of the collapse and be unable to regain its credibility. program proposed. Enabling Federal legislation However, assistance in implementing the agency should provide Federal funding assistance in the should be provided and in doing this Federal following areas: grants to support the first two years' operations should be authorized from planning grants. For an -Planning-the development by States or their initial 1 0-year period, Federal funding for planning designated regional authorities of detailed invento- and operations by State Coastal Zone Authorities ries of shoreline and estuarine resources and should be at an annual level of $2.5 million 14 comprehensive plans of land and water uses C. Enforcement -Operations-expenses for regulatory and enforce- The panel has found that the means for ment actions including public hearings and office overhead enforcement is the single greatest problem facing existing such State authorities as water pollution -Acquisition-to bring under public ownership important coastal lands and waters which may not be provided for under other Federal and State 13 The rationale for the formulae shown here and in. as -a om exist- programs subsequent suggested examples w develope fr- ing legislation which according to the Panel was found through its hearings to be particularly effective and favorable. These include Sea Grant, Federal Aid to Fish 12 and to Wildlife Restoration, and Water Resources Plan- See Chapter 9, Section III. Under the need for ning Acts. research and training we have recommended the establish- 14 ment and support of coastal zone laboratories. See Appendix E for development of this total. 111-154 agencies. Therefore, Federal grants to State An extrapolation of these figures suggests that Coastal Zone Authorities for enforcement action about one million acres of coastal lands may need appear necessary. Estimates of required funding to be acquired. Further, assuming acquisition and are difficult to ascertain. A recommended figure is matching development costs of $500 per acre, the approximately equivalent to that for planning and cost is about $500 million. Further acquisition operations or an annual level of $2 million. needed by States may be potential recreation areas outside the qualifications of urban redevelopment D. Research and Training of parkland. Such areas would be obsolete port terminals and industrial sites. Here estimates are In Chapter 9 we recommended the establish- virtually impossible and can only arbitrarily be set ment and support of coastal laboratories and at about 50 per cent additional, or $250 million. research and training . in the coastal zone. This The total acquisition costs faced by State Coastal should be accomplished through the medium of Zone Authorities then becomes $750 million. the Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966. Considering a Federal share of 66 .2/3 per cent of The level of support should attain a total annual the total, the Federal level of funding becomes level of about $ 27 million.' 5 $500 million. Extending this over a 20-year period E. Acquisition and Development indicates a desired annual level of Federal funding for acquisition and development at about $25 Federal funding should be as matching grants million per year. on a two-thirds Federal-one -third State basis ac- cording to Federal regulations for such pr9jects or combinations thereof if they are -in accordance VII. FEDERAL REVIEW with the State or regional authority comprehensive Once the Coastal Zone Authorities are estab- plan. Or the Federal Government may guarantee lished, review is a continuing need. It is imperative non-tax-exempt bond issues by the State or State that the National interests be protected and if for delegated regional authorities provided that the any reason a Coastal Zone Authority cannot act in bond issues are in accordance with the State or the public interest, the Federal Government regional plan and are approved by the Federal hould participate in the actions of the Coastal Government. Funding in this area is difficult to s estimate:, The coastal and lakeshore States contain Zone Authority. Regardless, the Federal Govern- ent should have power of review. a total of about eight million acres of important in estuarine habitat.' 6 Maryland and North Carolina The Federal review role is critical. In our each have estimated that about 10 per cent of discussions with those active in this area, we found their coastal areas and marshlands should be in general agreement that the States should manage public ownership.' 7 the coastal zones; they have the responsibility and they have, or at least should have, the detailed local knowledge necessary for sound management. However, there may be times when the local pressures will tend to force the Coastal Zone 15 As shown in Chapter 9, Section 111, this is broken Authority to act in a manner not in the National down as half a million dollars institutional support for . each of 30 coastal laboratories and overall research interest. The mere threat of Federal review will support of $12 million. See Appendix E for a more often suffice. If not, the Federal Government detailed analysis. . 16 Report of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to the should be empowered to act in the public interest. Senate Merchant Marine and Fisheries Subcommittee, Federal review would be accomplished in pro- Oct. 7, 1966. gressive stages, commencing with State notifica- 17 Proceedings of the Inter-Agency Council on Natural tion that it intends to become a "participant." Resources, State of North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1967, and --Here review would simply be examination of the Estuarine Lands of North Carolina: Legal Aspects of Ownership Use and Control, David A. Rice, Institute of management authority or authorities which the Government, University of North Carolina, April 1968. State proposes or has already established. This Also report of Roy E. Walsh, Chairman, Maryland State review and subsequent reviews would be based on Board of Natural Resources, to House Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation, March 9, 1967. objectives and guidelines prescribed in earlier III-Iss sections and the National inventory"' which A river basin commission does not have any identifies problem areas and Federal-State-local management or enforcement authority; it only responsibilities. Planning grant and other imple- plans and advises. If set up under a compact, menting funds would become available upon ap- however, like the Delaware Basin Commission, it proval of a State Authority's program. could be granted the necessary authority by the The next Federal review stage would consider States. An argument for keeping a Coastal Zone the comprehensive regional plan or plans. If Authority distinct from a river basin commission is approved, further grants for acquisition and devel- to use the Coastal Zone Authority as a control on opment would be closely reviewed for compliance water quality coming into estuarine areas. with the plan. The rational solution of interstate problems in Similarly, proposals for bond and loan guaran- the coastal zone is for each State to have a strong tees would be subject to Federal review. Coastal Zone Authority. Interstate problems can Upon Federal review determining that admini- be treated by commissions or compacts agreed to stration of a program is not in compliance with by the Coastal Zone Authority. The Federal National objectives and standards, no further Government should not be a member of interstate Federal payments will be made to the authority agreements, except to participate as an observer. until the Federal review is satisfied. However, the Federal Government continues to have the power of review, and it can exercise authority if one Coastal Zone Authority requests Vill. MANAGEMENT IN INTERSTATE ESTU- it in connection with actions of another. ARIES In addition, the Federal Government could serve as arbitrator - in interstate cases in which the Estuaries or adjacent coastal waters directly Coastal Zone Authorities cannot agree. affected by more than one State-the Delaware Bay or Potomac River estuary, for example-may In any case, recommendations of river basin pose institutional problems which otherwise would commissions and similar regional planning bodies not occur if the same region were entirely within a should be considered in interstate planning. single State. This is subject to two views: -sound planning and management undertaken by IX. MANAGEMENT OF THE OUTER CONTI- one State probably would not differ greatly from NENTAL SHELF an adjacent State. Therefore, interstate waters The proposal for a National coastal manage- actually are not a significant problem. When ment program has been limited to the territorial differences do arise, each may be settled on its sea -and inshore lands and waters because responsi- own merits or through an existing interstate bility for the program is vested essentially in the commission or compact. States. With the exception of certain State bound- -Responsibility for management could be vested aries in the Gulf of Mexico, State authority in a river basin commission or other interstate extends no farther than three miles offshore. compact. It has been shown, however, in Chapters 2 and 7, that competing and conflicting uses can be The panel has carefully consider ed the roles or expected to increase on and within Continental river basin cominissions and has concluded that as Shelf waters and on the sea bottom outside State planning agencies principally devoted to water jurisdictions to which management authorities resources, such agencies are not 'to be recom- established pursuant to the proposed program do mended, but that in the few cases where an not apply. The areas then become a management interstate compact is required, it be established problem for the Federal Government. along the lines of the State authorities herein Important, then, are organizational issues and recommendations developed by this Commission. proposed. The increasing responsibilities for management functions implied in the foregoing sections will be 18 See Chapter 9, Section 11. vested in the organization or organizations the III-IS6 Comn-dssion sees as the best option. It is important F77- that this role be clearly recognized. Although the proposed program set forth in the foregoing is not applicable to the Outer Conti- nental Shelf the National policies and guidelines set forth in earlier sections of this chapter appear equally valid on the shelf as within the territorial sea. 7 Figure 2. Our Nation and the sea meet at the coastal zone. Sound management must be built upon a strong foundation responsible to and serving the public. (Coast Guard photo). 111-157 Appendix A Work of the Panel The work of the panel was divided roughly into three general phases: (1) factfinding, (2) consultation and review, and (3) preparation of the report: 1. FACTFINDING The gathering of facts and information was a vital part of the work of the panel. It consisted of informal hearings with leading representatives of Federal and State agencies, acaden-dc institutions and industry, and correspondence and interviews with other key individuals. Following are the schedule of hearings and the names of many who gave of their time and effort to assist the Panel in its work. A. Schedule of Panel Hearings Date Cyty Host Oct. 9-12, 1967 Washington, D.C. Nov. 6-7, 1967 Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology Nov. 8-9, 1967 New York Ford Foundation Dec. 4, 1967 Chicago Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Dec. 5-6,4967 Seattle University of Washington Dec. 7-8, 1967 La Jolla Scripps Institution of Oceanography Jan. 10-11, 1968 Houston Gulf Universities Research Corporation Jan. 12-13, 1968 Miami University of Miami B. Persons Appearing at Panel Hearings Horace R. Byers, Dean, College of Geosciences, Texas Elbert AhIstrom, Senior Scientist, Bureau of Commercial A&M University, College Station, Texas Fisheries, Ocean Research Laboratory, Stanford, Cali- Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of the Interior for fornia Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, D.C. Dick Bader, Associate Director, Institute of Marine A. J. Carsola, Manager, Oceanics Division, Lockheed, San Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida Diego, California L. Bajorunas, Director, Great Lakes Research Center, David C. Chandler, Director, Great Lakes Research 'Detroit, Michigan Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan George F. Beardsley, Jr., Assistant Professor, Physical Joe S. Creager, Associate Dean, Arts and Sciences, Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington Oregon Franklin C. Daiber, Acting Director, Marine Laboratories, Harry J. Bennett, Professor of Zoology, Louisiana State University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana David Dean, Director, Darling Center, University of Leo Beranek, President, Bolt, Beranek & Newman, Maine, Walpole, Maine Cambridge, Massachusetts Robert G. Dean, Chairman, Department of Coastal and Donald E. Bevan, Associate Dean, College of Fisheries, Oceanographic Engineering, University of Florida, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington Gainesville, Florida F. G. Blake, Senior Research Scientist, Chevron Research John De Noyer, Advanced Research Projects Agency, Co., La Habra, California Department of Defense, Washington, D.C. C. Bookhout, Director, Duke University Marine Labora- John Ernmick, Vice President, foundation for Oceano- tory, Beaufort, North Carolina graphic Research and Education, Port Canaveral, Capt. J.D.W. Borop, USN, Director, U.S. Navy Mine Florida Defense Laboratory, Panama City, Florida R. G. Fleagle, Chairman, Department of Atmospheric Ronald A. Breslow, Executive Assistant to Commissioner, Sciences, University -of Washington, Seattle, New Jersey State Department of Conservation and Washington Economic Development, Trenton, New Jersey Glenn A. Flittner, Acting Assistant Laboratory Director, Douglas L. Brooks, President, Travelers Research Center, Fishery-Oceanography Center, Bureau of Commercial Hartford, Connecticut Fisheries, La Jolla, California Herbert -Bruce, Assistant Laboratory Director, Bureau of Harry W. Freeman, Professor of Biology, College of Commercial Fisheries Auke Bay Biological Labora- Charleston, Charleston, North Carolina tory, Auke Bay, Alaska Hugo Freudenthal, Chairman, Graduate Department of John C. Bryson, Executive Director, Delaware Water & Marine Science, Long Island University, East Meadow, Air Resources Commission, Dover, Delaware New York 111-158 .Herbert F. Frolander, Acting Chairman, Department of Clifford H. Mortimer, Director, Center for Great Lakes Oceanography, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon Studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wis- Paul M.-F-ye, Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic In- consin stitution, Woods Hole, Massachusett -s Stanley R. Murphy, Assistant Director, Applied Physics J. A. Gast, Associate Professor and Coordinator, Depart- Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, ment of Oceanography, Humboldt State College, Washington Arcata, California Gerhard Neumann, Professor, New York University, New Cecil Gentry, Director, National Hurricane Research York, New York Laboratory, Coral Gables, Florida Lloyd G. Nichols, ProJect Engineer, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire Perry W. Gilbert, Executive Director, Mote Marine William A. Nierenberg, Director, Scripps Institution of Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida, and Professor, Cornell Oceanography, La Jolla, California University Carl H. Oppenheimer, Chairman, Department of Ocean- D. R. Giffenwaters, Oceanic Advisor to Governor and ography, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida Staff, Sacramento, California Col. John R. Oswalt, Director, Waterways Experiment John B. Glude, Deputy Regional Director, Bureau of Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi Commercial Fisheries, Seattle, Washington L. G. Ottoman, Director, Production Research, Shell G. G. Gould, Technical Director, Underwater Weapons Development Company, Houston, Texas Station, Newport, Rhode Island James M. Parks, Director of Marine Science Center, Herbert W. Graham, Laboratory Director, U.S. Bureau of Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Woods John H. Phillips, Director, Hopkins Marine Station, Hole, Massachusetts Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California Gordon Gunter, Director, Gulf Coast Research Labora- H. W. Poston, Regional Director, Great Lakes Region, tory, Ocean Springs, Mississippi . Federal Water Pollution Control Administration William J. Hargis, Jr., Director, Virginia Institute of Department of the Interior, Chicago, Illinois __ - Marine Science, University of Virginia, Gloucester Donald W. Pritchard, Director, Chesapeake Bay Institute, Point, Virginia Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland John M. Haydon, Chairman, Oceanographic Commission Robert A. Ragotzkie, Director, Marine S6ence_ -Center, of Washington, Seattle, Washington University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin J. R. Heirtzler, Director, Hudson Laboratories, Columbia John S. Rankin, Jr., Director, Marine Research Labora- University, Dobbs Ferry, New York tory, University of Connecticut, Noank, Connecticut Joseph E. Henderson, Director, Applied Physics Labora- Dixy Lee Ray, Director, Pacific Science Center, Seattle, Itory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington Washington T. F. Heuter, Vice President and General Manager, Sammy M. Ray, Director, Marine Laboratory, Texas A&M Honeywell, West Covina, California University, Galveston, Texas Dr. E. A. Hogye, Head, Science Support Division, U.S. Alfred C. Redfield, Director Emeritus, Woods Hole Navy Mine Defense Laboratory, Panama City, Florida Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts D. W. Hood, Director, Institute of Marine Science, Roger R. Revelle, Director, Center for Population Studies, University of Alaska, College, Alaska School of Public Health, Harvard University, Donald F. Hornig, Special Assistant to the President for Cambridge, Massachusetts Science and Technology, Washington, D.C. William S. Richardson, Professor of Oceanography, Nova Albert C. Jones, Acting Director, Tropical Atlantic University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida Biological Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Commercial Randal M. Robertson, Associate Director for Research, Fisheries, Miami, Florida . National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Dale C. Jones, Manager of Policy Guidance, Vitro Serv- H. R. Robinson, Chairman, American Shrimp Canners ices, Fort Walton Beach, Florida . Association, New Orleans, Louisiana Arnold B. Joseph, Environmental Sciences Branch, P. M. Roedel (in charge, marine research), State Fisheries Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. laboratory, Terminal Island, California Bostwick H. Ketchum. Associate Director, Woods Hole Harold Romer, Professor, Graduate Department of Marine Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Science, Long Island University, East Meadow, New Thomas F. Kruse, Director of Research, Oregon Fish York Commission, Clackamas, Oregon George A. Rounsefell, Director, Marine Sciences Institute, John La Cerda, Director, Florida Commission on Marine University of Alabama, Bayou La Batre, Alabama Science and Technology, Coral Gables, Florida Lyle S. St. Amant, Assistant Director, Louisiana Wildlife W. Mason Lawrence, Deputy Commissioner, New York & Fisheries Commission, New Orleans, Louisiana State Conservation Department, Albany, New York Godfrey H. Savage, Professor, University of New James A. Lee, Assistant for Environmental Health to the Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire Assistant Secretary for Health and Scientific Affairs, Milner Schaefer, Former Chairman, Committee on Ocean- Department of Health, Education and Welfare, ography, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, Washington, D.C., D.C. Gordon J. MacDonald, Chairman, Panel on Oceanography, 0. E. Sette, Laboratory Director, Bureau of Commercial President's Science Advisory Committee, Washington, Fisheries, Stanford, California D.C. Walter J. Shea, Chairman, Water Resources Coordinating Frederick C. Marland, Research Associate, University of Board, Senate Office Building, Providence, Rhode Georgia Marine Institute, Sapelo Island, Georgia Island C. S. Matthews, Director, Production Research, Shefl Fred W. Sieling, Chief, Natural Resources Management, Development Company, Houston, Texas Department of Chesapeake Bay Affairs, Annapolis, Arthur Maxwell, Associate Director, Woods Hole Oceano- Maryland graphic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Rear Admiral 0. R. Smeder, Assistant Chief of Staff for William J. McNeil, Head, Pacific Fisheries Laboratory, Research and Development, U.S. Coast Guard, Oregon State University, Newport, Oregon Washington, D.C. Albert J. Meserow, Chairman, Great Lakes Commission of Arthur H. Smith, Director, Southern Maine Vocational Illinois, Chicago, Illinois Technical Institute, South Portland, Maine R. L. Miller, Professor, Marine Geophysics, University of Parke D. Snavely, Chief, Office of Marine Geology, U.S. Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California 111-159 I F. N. Spiess, Director, Marine Physical Laboratory, J. Wayne, Associate Director, Lamont Geological Observa- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, tory, Palisades, New York California Edward Wenk, Jr., Executive Secretary, National Council Harris B. Stewart, Jr., Director, Atlantic Oceanographic on Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Laboratories, Environmental Science Services Admin- Washington, D.C. istration, Miami, Florida Jerome Wiesner, Provost, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- Henry Stommel, Professor, Department of Meteorology, nology, Cambridge, Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Frederick C. Wilbour, Director, Division of Marine Fish- Massachusetts eries, Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources, E. Kemper Sullivan, Acting Chief, Office of Research and Boston, Massachusetts Development, Maritime Administration, Washington, Adin- John M. Will, Vice President, American Export- D.C. Isbrandtsen Lines, New York, New York Rodney B. Teel, Chemical Group Leader, International Donald E. Woh1schlag, Director, Marine Sciences In- Nickel Company, New York, New York stitute, University of Texas, Port Aransas, Texas Morris Tepper, Deputy Dire&or, Space Applications Paul Wolff, Captain, USN, Fleet Numerical Weather Program, National Aeronautics. and Space Admin- Facility, Monterey, California istration, Washington, D.C. Brig. General H. G. Woodbury, Jr., Director of Civil B. D. Thomas, President, Battelle Memorial Institute, Works, Office of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Columbus, Ohio Washington, D.C. R. Van Cleve, Dean, College of Fisheries, University of G. P. Woollard, Director, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Washington, Seattle, Washington Hawaii W. S. Von Arx, Professor, Massachusetts Institute of W. S. Wooster, Professor, Scripps Institution of Ocean- Technology, Woods Hole, Massachusetts ography, La Jolla, California Lionel A. Walford, Director, Bureau of Sport Fisheries Williain V. Wright, Jr., Director of Science and and Wildlife, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, High- Engineering, Environmental Science Services Admin- lands, New Jersey istration, Washington, D.C. 1. Eugene Wallen, Head, Office of Oceanography and Jacques S. Zaneveld, Director, Oceanographic Institute, Limnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia W. C. Walton, Director, Water Resources Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota Rear Admiral O.D. Waters, Jr., Oceanographer of the Navy, Washington, D.C. C. Correspondents and Interviewees James L. Calver, Commissioner, Division of Mineral G. A. Albano, Acting Chief, Branch of Market News Resources, Department of Conservation and Economic Division of Economics, Fish and Wildlife Service, Development, Charlottesville, Virginia Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the Luis R. A. Capurro, College of Geosciences, Texas A & M Interior, Washington, D.C. University, College Station, Texas George Alderson, Sierra Club, San Francisco, California Melbourne R. Carriker, Director, Marine Biological Paul A. Amundsen, Executive Director, American Asso- Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts ciation of Port Authorities, Inc., Washington, D.C. Henry P. Caulfield, Jr., Executive Director, Water Re- H. A. Arnold, Senior Staff Member, National Council on sources Council, Washington, D.C. Marine Resources and Engineering Development, Wash- Larry Chambers, Potomac Basin Federation, Washington, ington, D.C. D.C. John J. Baird, Associate Dean, Academic Planning Cali- Wilbert McLeod Chapman, Director, Marine Resources, fornia State Colleges, Los Angeles, California Ralston Purina Company, San Die@o, California Norman S. Baldwin, Executive Secretary, Great Lakes Joseph Chase, Associate Scientist, Woods Hole Oceano- Fishery Commission, Ann Arbor, Michigan graphic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Theodore B. Bampton, Director, Board of Fisheiies and Eugene Chesson, Jr., Chairman, Department of Civil Game, Hartford, Connecticut Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Dela- Morton L. Barad, Liaison Scientist, Branch Office, Office ware of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, London John R. Clark, American Littoral Society, Sandy Hook, D. J. Baumgartner, Chief, National Coastal Pollution New Jersey Research Program, Department of the Interior, George L. Clarke, Professor of Biology, The Biological Corvallis, Oregon Laboratories, Haivard University, Cambridge, Massa- Frederick M. Beck, Consulting Geologist, North Edge- chusetts comb, Maine Walter E. Corey 111, Maine Federal-State Coordinator, Harry Benford, Department of Naval Architecture and Augusta, Maine Marine Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Charles S. Cox, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Arbor, Michigan University of California, LaJolla, California Gunnar B. Bergman, Division of Pike Corporation of Elbert Cox, Director, Commission of Outdoor Recreation, America, Western Offshore Drilling and Exploration Richmond, Virginia Company, Santa Fe Springs, California G. H. Curl, San Diego Division, Naval Undersea Warfare Sidney A. Berkowitz, President, Water Pollution Control Center, Department of the Navy, San Diego, California Federation, Washington, D.C. Jere A. Chase, Executive Vice President, University of Maurice Blackburn, Program Director, Scripps Tuna New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire Oceanography Research, University of California, Athern P. Daggett, Professor of Government, Bowdoin LaJolla, California College, Brunswick, Maine C. G. Bookhout, Director, Duke University Marine Philip A. Douglas, Executary Secretary, Sport Fishing Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina Institute, Washington, D.C. Hugh Bradner, Department of the Aerospace and Mechan- Paul C. Dunham, Supervisor of Government Research, ical Engineering Sciences, University of California at Bureau of Public Administration, Orono, Maine LaJolla, California Harold Edgerton, Department of Electrical Engineering, Charles S. Bresler, National Relations Officer, Executive Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Department, Washington Office, Washington, D.C. Massachusetts 111-160 David B. Ericson, Lamont Geological Observatory of C. L. Hosler, Dean, Pennsylvania State University, Uni- . Columbia University, Palisades, New York versity Park, Pennsylvania Maurice Ewing, Lamont Geological Observatory of Co- Henry C. Houghton, Department of Meteorology, Massa- lumbia University, Palisades, New York chusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massa- Milton 14. Feldman, Supervisor, Physical Sciences, North- chusetts west Region, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- David H. Howells, Director, Water Resources Research istration, Department of the Interior, College, Alaska Institute, University of North Carolina, Raleigh, North Richard M. Foose, Chairman, Department of Geology, Carolina Amherst College, Amherst, Massachusetts R. S. Howard, Jr., Executive Secretary, State Water R. F. Foster, Manager, Water and Land Resources, Quality Control Board, Atlanta, Georgia Battelle Northwest, Richland, Washington Takashi Ichiye, Senior Research Associate, Lamont Robert A. Frosh, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Geological Observatory of Columbia University, Pali- Research and Development, Washington, D.C. sades, New York John T. Gharrett, Regional Director, Fish and Wildlife Robert M. Ingle, Director of Research, Florida Board of Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries ' Department Conservation, Tallahassee, Florida of the Interior, Gloucester, Massachusetts Douglas L. Inman, Professor of Oceanography, Scripps Lamar Gibson, Director, Louisiana State Parks and Institution of Oceanography, University of California, Recreation Commission, Baton Rouge, Louisiana LaJolla, California Joseph N. Gill, Commissioner, Department of Agriculture Henry S. Johnson, Jr., State Geologist, Division of and Natural Resources, Hartford, Connecticut Geology, State Development Board, Columbia, South T. R. Gillenwaters, Oceanic Advisor to the Governor and Carolina Staff, Governor's Advisory Commission on Ocean J. W. Johnson, Professor of Hydraulic Engineering, Resources, Sacramento, California University of California, Berkeley, California E. D. Goldberg, Professor of Chemistry, Scripps Institu- B. Everett Jordon, U.S. Senator from North Carolina, tion of Oceanography, University of California, Committee on Agriculture and Forestry LaJolla, California J. L. Kask, Director of Investigations, Interamerican Bernard L. Gordon, Assistant Professor, Department of Tropical Tuna Commission, University of California, Earth Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, LaJoIla, California Massachusetts Claude D. Kelley, Director of Conservation, Department S. M. Greenfield, Head, Department of Geophysics and of Conservation and Administrative Building, Mont- Astronomy, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, gomery, Alabama California George G. Kelly, Chairman, Division of Science and Victor A. Greulack, Chairman, University of North Mathematics, Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Florida C. D. Harris, Deputy Director, Resources Management, William C. Kennard, Director, Institute of Water Re- Department of Conservation, Lansing, Michigan sources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut George Y. Harry, Jr., Laboratory Director, Fish and Thomas L. Kimball, National Wildlife Federation, Wash- Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, ington, D.C. Department of the Interior, Ann Arbor, Michigan Arnold Kramish, Physics Department, The Rand Corpora- William J. Harth, Superintendent, Division of Fisheries, tion, Washington, D.C. Department of Conservation, Springfield, Illinois Joseph H. Kutkuhn, Assistant Laboratory Director, Fish Arthur D. Hasler, Director, Marine Sciences Institute, and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Beaufort, North Carolina John T. Hayward, President, Naval War College, Newport, E. C. LaFond, Head, Marine Environment Division, Naval Rhode Island Undersea Warfare Center, Department of the Navy, Joel W. Hedgpeth, Resident Director, Marine- Science San Diego, California Laboratory, Oregon State University, Newport, Oregon Philip E. LaMoreaux, State Geologist, and Oil and Gas Bruce C. Heezen, Lamont Geological Observatory of Supervisor, Geological Survey of Alabama, University, Columbia University, Palisades, New York Alabama Donald B. Henderson, Chief, Office of Engineering, U.S. Joel W. Lawson, Acting Director, Georgia Science and Coast Guard Technology Commission, Atlanta, Georgia George R. Herbert, President, Research Triangle Institute, Dale F. Leipper, Professor, Department of Oceanography, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas Walter R. Hibbard, Director, Bureau of Mines, Depart- Fred B. Lifton, Executive Director, Outboard Boating. ment of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Club of America, Chicagd, Illinois Milton T. Hickman, Commissioner, Commission of Fish- Robert E. Loeffel, Project Leader and Administrator, eries, Newport News, Virginia Oregon Fish Commission, Astoria, Oregon W. E. Hicks, Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Department Alan R. Longhurst, Director, Fishery-Oceariography of the Navy, Pasadena, California Center, Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Robert P. Higgins, Associate Professor and Consulting Interior, LaJolla, California Zoologist, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, Lester Maddox, Governor, Executive Department, North Carolina Atlanta, Georgia Richard F. Hill, Director, Institute of Oceafi Technology, John C. Marr, Area Director, Fish and Wildlife Service, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Department of the J. J. Hoblitzell, Commander, Antisubmarine Warfare Interior, Honolulu, Hawaii Force, Pacific, San Francisco, California Alton G. Marshall, Executive Office to the Governor, Randolph Hodges, Director, Florida Board of Conserva- Executive Chamber, Albany, New York tion, Tallahassee, Florida William B. Matthews, Jr., President, National Association Gilbert A. Holland, Fisheries Research Coordinator, De- of State Boating Law Adminstrators, Washington, D.C. partment of Fisheries, University of Washington, Paul W. McKee, Director, Department of Water Re- Seattle, Washington sources, Annapolis, Maryland Freeman Holmer, Administrator, Department of Natural Robert J. Menzies, Professor of Oceanography, Florida Resources, Division of Resource Development, Madi- State University, Tallahassee, Florida son, Wisconsin Arthur R. Miller, Physical Oceanographer, Woods Hole Paul L. Horrer, President, Marine Advisers, Inc., LaJolla, Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts California 111-161 333-093 0 - 69 - 21 T. M. Miller, Marine Chemurgics, Incorporated, Morehead Frank J. Schwartz, Research Professor, Chesapeake Bio- City, North Carolina logical Laboratory, University of Maryland, Solomons, Erik Mollo-Christensen, Professor of Meteorology, Massa- Maryland chusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Tbomas G. Scott, Head, Department of Fisheries and Meteorology, Cambridge, Massachusetts Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon Hilary B. Moore, Professor of Marine Biology, University J. W. Selden, Division Vice President, New Products of Miami, Miami, Florida Commercial Development, St. Paul, Minnesota G. T. Murati, Commanding Officer, U.S. Coast Guard Allyn H. Seymour, Director, Laboratory of Radiation Training Center, Governors Island, New York, New Ecology, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash- York ington John E. Nafe, Professor of Geology and Educational David H. Shonting, Research Oceanographer, Naval Coordinator, Columbia University in the City of New Underwater Weapons Research and Engineering Sta- York, New York tion, Newport, Rhode Island Paul Foly Nace, Director, Battelle Memorial Institute, W. E. Shoupp, Vice President, Research, Westinghouse Duxbury, Massachusetts Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania I H. E. Nash, Technical Director, U.S. Navy Underwater Carl N. Shuster, Jr., Director, Public Health Service, Sound Laboratory, Fort Trumbull, New London, Northeast Marine Health Sciences Laboratory, Depart- Connecticut ment of Health, Education and Welfare, Narragansett, William A. Nierenberg, Director, Scripps Institution of Rhode Island Oceanography, LaJolla, California Bob Simpson, Fishing Editor, Yacht "Silver Spray,". Ken Norris, Vice President, Research, Oceanic Founda- Morehead City, North Carolina tion, Department of Zoology, University of California, J. R. Singleton, Executive Director, Parks and Wildlife Los Angeles, California Department, Austin, Texas N. A. Ostenso, Physical Science Coordinator, Office of G. Fred Somers, Chairman, Department of Biological Naval Research Branch Office, Chicago, Illinois Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware B. L. Oostdam, Assistant Professor of Oceanography, Jerome Spar, Professor of Meteorology, New York Uni- Department of Public Instruction, Millersville State versity, University Heights, New York College, Millersville, Pennsylvania H. Buff Steinbach, Chairman, Department of Zoology, Clyde P. Patton, Executive Director, Wildlife Resources University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois Commission, Raleigh, North Carolina Edward C. Stephan, Chairman, Oceanographic Committee R. S. Paul, Deputy Director, Pacific Northwest Labora- of the Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, tory, Battelle Memorial Insti-tute, Richland, Washington Hauppauge, New York Joseph Penfold, Conservation Director, Isaac Waltori Dan E. Stewart, Director, Department of Conservation League of America, Washington, D.C. and Development, Raleigh, North Carolina Willard J. Pierson, Jr., Professor of Oceanography, School Harris B. Stewart, Jr., Director, Institute for Ocean- of Engineering and Science, New York University, ography, Environmental Science Services Administra- University Heights, New York tion, Department of Commerce, Miami, Florida L. B. Pope, Counselor, High Point College, High Point, James E. Sykes, Director, Biological Laboratory, Fish and North Carolina Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, H. H. Porter, Assistant Director, Applied Physics Labora- Department of the Interior, St. Petersburg Beach, tory, John Hopkins University, Silver Spring, Maryland Florida Richard Pratt, Professor, College of Arts and Sciences, Gerald B. Talbot, Director, Tiburon Marine Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,-IFe-1vedere- Tom Purdy, General Manager, Chamber of Commerce, Tiburon, California Galveston, Texas lo-hn 14. Terry, Director, Office of Naval Research, Sidney S. Quarrier, Special Assistant, Geological and Department of the Navy, Boston, Massachusetts Natural History Survey, Middletown, Connecticut Russell E. Train, President, The Conservation Foundation, George A. Rhame, Assistant Director, S.C. State Board of Washington, D.C. Health Pollution Control Authority, Columbia, North W. L. Turner, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, Carolina North Carolina George J. Ridgway, Acting Laboratory Director, Fish and Albert Tyler, Chairman, Marine Station Committee, Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Professor of Biology, California Institute of Tech- Department of the Interior, West Boothbay Harbor, nology, Pasadena, California Maine David Wallace, Director, Fish and Game Division, New Nathan W. Riser, Director, Marine Science Institute, York Conservation Department, Ronkonkoma, New Northeastern University, Nahant, Massachusetts York E. A. Rodgers, Superintendent, Maine Maritime Academy, I. E. Wallen, Head, Office of Oceanography and Castine, Maine Limnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Paul G. Rogers, U.S. Congressman from Florida Dale Wallington, Deputy Commissioner, Department of Clyde F. E. Roper, Associate Curator, Division of Natural Resources, Alaska Mollusks, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. D. M. White, Alaskan Sea Frontier, Seventeenth Naval Richard J. Russel, Louisiana State University, Baton District, Alaska Rouge, Louisiana Ralph R. 'Widner, Executive Director, Appalachian Pat Ryan, Assistant Director, South Carolina Wildlife Regional Commission, Washington, D.C. Resources Department, Columbia, South Carolina Charles E. Wilde, Jr., Director, The Mount Desert Island L. N. Saunders, Jr., Commanding Officer and Director, Biological Laboratory, Salisbury Cove, Maine U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port F. L. Woodward, Director, Division of Environmental Hueneme, California Health, Department of Health, University Campus, Irving 1. Schell, Director, Ocean-Atmo sphere Research Minneapolis, Minnesota Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts James J. B. Worth, Head, Environmental Sciences Group P. F. Scholander, Professor, Scripps Institution of Ocean- Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, ography, University of California, LaJolla, California North Carolina Charles Schwan, Jr., Council of State Governments, John M. Ziegler, Professor of Marine Geology, Depart- Washington, D.C. ment of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 111-162 11. CONSULTATION AND REVIEW The panel held monthly meetings incident to Conunission meetings and in conjunction with the Hearings. Important in this phase of the work were the many inputs and views of consultants, reviewers, and others who provided material for use by the panel. It was not possible, of course, to incorporate the specific views of all consultants into the findings and recommendations of the panel. However, without the expert advice and constructive criticism of the following persons the work of the panel could not have proceeded. Consultants and Reviewers Joseph E. Bodovitz, Executive Director, San Francisco James B. Meanor Jr., Executive Director of Civil Works, Bay Conservation and Development Commission Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army Joseph M. Caldwell, Acting Director, U.S. Army Coastal Alfred A. Porro, Jr., Attorney, Lyndhurst, New Jersey Engineering Research Center Donald W. Pritchard, Director, Chesapeake Bay Institute, Francis T. Christy Jr., Resources for the Future, Inc., Johns Hopkins University Washington, D.C. Lyle S. St. Amant, Assistant Director, Louisiana Wild Life ,Sidney R. Galler, Assistant Secretary (Science), Smith- and Fisheries Commission sonian Institution S. Fred Singer, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Interior Eugene T. Jensen, Chief, Office of Estuarine Studies, for Water Pollution Control Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Karl K. Terekian, Department of Geology, Yale Uni- Boyd Ladd, Staff Liaison, National Council on Marine versity Resources and Engineering Development Leon W. Weinberger, Assistant Commissioner for Re- James T. McBroom, Executive Secretary, Committee on search and Development, Federal Water Pollution Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone, Washington, D.C. Control Administration W. V. McGuinness Jr., Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army In addition to the above, Commissioner David A. Adams, although not a member of the panel, participated fully in the work of the panel, for which the panel is deeply grateful. Ill. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT The preparation of this report, including the opinions, findings, and recommendations are wholly the responsibility of the panel Commissioners. However, the vast amount of effort in assembling data and presenting them is the work of many persons. Much of the information on uses of and changes in the coastal zone (Chapters 2 and 3) was generously provided by John M. Clark, of the American Littoral Society; Joseph M. Caldwell, U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center; and L. Eugene Cronin, of the University of Maryland. Chapter 4 on pollution was compiled by panel staff associates, Captain Merlyn E. Natto, U.S. Environmental Science Services Administration; and William S. Beller, Department of the Interior. Chapter 5, "Port Development and Redevelopment," was adapted from a U.S. Army Corps *of Engineers Report of the same name through the courtesy of Brig. General Harry G. Woodbury, Director of Civil Works. Chapter 6, on basic science, represents the combined efforts of many, including John Lyman, of the University of North Carolina; Joseph M. Caldwell; and William 1. Aron, Sn-dthsonian Institution. Chapter 7, the activities of Federal agencies, came from material furnished by the agencies themselves and from the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development. Activities of States was generously provided by Milton S. Heath, Jr., Institute of Government, University of North Carolina. Chapter 8, on developing law, was prepared by H. Crane Miller, Smithsonian Institution. The work of Albert H. Garretson and Ludwik A. Teclaff, of New York University-Fordham University Marine Environment Legal Research Project, and of I. Michael Heyman, of the University of California at Berkeley, is particularly acknowledged. The remainder of the report was compiled by staff associate Captain R. P. Dinsmore, U.S. Coast Guard. 111-163 Appendix B Recreational Boating Data NUMBERING DATA BY STATE Total Boats Lawscom- State Numbered patible with - Approved Federal in Scope of Current Boat Numbering System 1966 1967 numbering equipment system and Total 4,067,371 4,458,893 operation Alabama 95,116 103,138 Yes No All motorboats, sailboats, and rental boats ....... Alaska 14,649 14,494 No No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower . . . . . . . . Arizona 27,331 32,941 Yes -No All watircraft .......................... Arkansas 29,390 27,858 Yes No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ California 316,525 374,975 Yes Yes All motorboats; and sailboats over 8 feet in length Colorado 19,341 21,396 Yes Yes All motorboats and sailboats ................ Connecticut 59,125 64,705 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 5 horsepower .......... Delaware 10,818 12,003 Yes Yes All motorboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . District of Columbia 2,764 3,016 No No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower . . . . . . . Florida 163,089 179,308 Yes Yes Motorboats of 10 horsepower or more .......... Georgia 65,906 84,786 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ Hawaii 6,153 6,506 Yes Yes All motorboats; and sailboats over 8 feet in length Idaho 33,950 37,819 Yes Yes All motorboats .......................... Illinois 155,195 165,228 Yes Yes All motorboats; and sailboats over 12 feet in length Indiana 133,517 133,265 Yes No All motorboats ......................... Iowa 72,188 83,870 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... Kansas 25,884 27,811 Yes No Motorboats of 10 horsepower or more .......... Kentucky 51,309 55,110 Yes Yes All motorboats .......................... Louisiana 72,618 78,975 Yes No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ......... Maine 38,602 40,703 Yes No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ Maryland 61,565 65,841 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 71/2 hp; and sailboats over 25 feet .................... Massachusetts 88,049 94,674 Yes, Yes Motorboats of 5 horsepower or more ........... Michigan 270,335 385,124 Yes Q) All motorboats ......................... Minnesota 253,014 252,795 Yes Yes All watercraft (with exceptions) ............. Mississippi 15,138 17,585 Yes No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ Missouri 59,612 65,973 Yes No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ Montana 13,912 13,389 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ Nebraska 22,405 23,434 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... Nevada 11,149 11,016 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... New Hampshire -4,639 5,295 No Yes Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ New Jersey 126,215 130,684 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... New Mexico 12,029 13,815 Yes No All motorboats and sailboats ................ New York 405,107 409,731 Yes Yes All motorboats .......................... North Carolina 73,739 81,419 Yes No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ North Dakota 7,167 9,068 Yes No Motorboats of 10 horsepower or more .......... Ohio 168,921 177,458 Yes Q) All watercraft .......................... Oklahoma 90,334 96,088 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... Oregon 68,054 72,032 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 3% hp; and sailboats 12' and over .................... Pennsylvania 114,293 108,078 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... Rhode Island 18,612 11,182 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... South Carolina 56,033 59,872 Yes Q) Motorboats of 10 horsepower or more .......... South Dakota 12,910 10,373 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 6 horsepower ......... Tennessee 1 81,8971 90,8681 Yes Yes I Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ HI-164 Recreational Boating Data (Cont'd) NUMBERING DATA BY STATE Total Boats Lawscom- State Numbered Approved patible with Federal in 1966 -- numbering equipment Scope of Current Boat Numbering System 1967 system and Total 4,067,3714,458,893, operation Texas 197,993 223,082 Yes Yes All mot 'orboats over 10 horsepower, regardless of length, and all motorboats over 14' in length, regardless of horsepower .................. Utah 19,084 20,298 Yes Yes All motorboats ....... Vermont 1 E),263 20,792 Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... Virginia 54,364 58,602 Yes Yes Motorboats of 10 horsepower or more .......... Washington 85,881 87,614 No No Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ West Virginia 10,855 11,222 Yes Yes Motorboats of more than 5 horsepower ......... Wisconsin 241,388 273,150 Yes Yes All motorboats; and sailboats 12 feet in length .... Wyoming 5,669 6,416 Yes' Yes Motorboats of more than 5 horsepower ......... Guam 211 228 Motorboats of more than 10 horsepower ........ Puerto Rico 3,208 1,879 Yes Yes All motorboats .......................... Virgin Islands 1,01,01 1,909, Yes Yes All motorboats ......................... 111-165 Appendix C Major Obstacles to Harbor Deepening Major Reloca-Rock and/or Harbors Authorized tions and Continental Spoil Ecology Depth' D.islocations@ Shelf3 Disposa 14 (Beginning depth of problem-in feet) ATLANTIC COAST NEW ENGLAND Bridgeport Harbor ................. 35 60 New Haven Harbor ................. 35 40 New London Harbor ................ 33 60 Portland Harbor ................... 45 40 60 Portsmouth Harbor and Piscataqua River ................. 35 45-50 35 Searsport Harbor .................. 35 60 Boston Harbor .................... 40 35-50 60 Cape Cod Canal ................... 32 40-45 40 Dorchester Bay and Neponset River ...... 35 60 Mystic River ..................... 35 45 40 Salem Harbor .................... 32 60 Weymouth-Fore and Town Rivers ....... 35 45-50 40 Providence River and Harbor .......... 40 55 Fall River Harbor .................. 30 45 60 New Bedford and Fairhaven Harbor ...... 30 40 35 1 NORTH ATLANTIC New York Harbor .................. 45 Newark Bay, Hackensack and Passaic Rivers ................... 35 35 30-35 New York and New Jersey Channels ..... 35 45 38 East River ....................... 40 35 Delaware River, Philadelphia to the Sea ...................... 40 41-65 41 40-51' Delaware River, Philadelphia to Trenton ..................... 40 50 41 41 40' Wilmington Harbor ................. 35 36 35-40s Baltimore Harbor .................. 42 60 50 44 50s York River Entrance Channel .......... 37 60 45 Thimble Shoal Channel .............. 45 55 Norfolk Harbor ................... 35-45 35-55 45 Channel to Newport News ............ 45 55 45 111-166 Major Obstacles to Harbor Deepening (Cont'd) Major Reloca-Rock and/or Harbors Authorized tions and Continental Spoil Ecology Depth' DislocationS2 Shelf3 Disposa (Beginning depth of problem-in feet) SOUTH ATLANTIC Morehead City Harbor ............... 35 50-60 50-100 50 35 6& 60-905 Wilmington Harbor ................. 38 50-60 38-45 50 386 & 50-60' Charleston Harbor ................. 35 40 Savannah Harbor .................. 38 44 Brunswick Harbor ................. 30 32 Fernandina Harbor ................. 28-32 34 65 Jacksonville Harbor ................ 42 42-48 44 42 Canaveral Harbor .................. 37 37-43 37 Palm Beach Harbor ................. 35 35-41 37 35 45 6 Port Everglades Harbor .............. . 40 40-46 42 40 Miami Harbor .................... 30 30-36 32 30 Key West Harbor .................. 30 30-36 32 30 GULF COAST Charlotte Harbor .................. 32 32-38 32 Tampa Harbor .................... 36 36-42 38 36 Mobile Harbor .................... 42 45 45 Panama City Harbor ................ 34 45 40 Pensacola Harbor .................. 35 35 406 Port St. Joe Harbor ................. 37 45 Pascagoula Harbor ................. 38 45-50 45 Gulfport Harbor ................... 30 50 40 Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet .......... 36 36 Mississippi River, Baton Rouge to Gulf of Mexico ................ 40 40 Calcasieu River and Pass ............. 40 40 40 Galveston Harbor .................. 40-42 52 Galveston Channel .................. 36 45 Houston Ship Channel ... 40 45-50 45 Port Aransas-Corpus Christi Waterway ....................... 40-42 50 Sabine-Neches Waterway ............. 40-42 50 47 405 Freeport Harbor ................... 36-38 38 Houston Ship Channel - Greens Bayou ................... 36 36-50 45 Texas City Channel ................. 40 52 111-167 Major Obstacles to Harbor Deepening (Cont'd) Major Reloca- Rock and/or Harbors Authorized tions and Continental Spoil Ecology Depth' DislocationS2 Shelf3 Disposa 14 (Beginning depth of problem-in feet) PAC I F I C COAST Columbia River Entrance ............. 48 48 48 485 6 Columbia and Lower Willamette R ivers ........................ 40 40-45 40 40 405,6 Coos Bay ....................... 30-40 40 30-40 35 405 6 Yaquina Bay ..................... 30-40 40 20-40 30-40 405 6 Skipanon Channel ................. 30 35 50 35 Puget Sound Harbors (Bellingham, Depths in Puget Sound range from 200-900 feet. No serious Anacortes, Everett, Seattle, obstacles to deepening appear to be forthcoming. Tacoma, Olympia and Port Angeles ..... Grays Harbor ...................... 30 45 30 45 305 6& 1 45 San Francisco Harbor ....... ........ 35-55 100 200-300 35-55 Richmond Harbor ................. 30-45 30-85 36-300 30-45 San Pablo Bay and Mare Island Straits ........................ 30-45 45-50 100-150 30-45 Oakland Harbor ................... 35 35-100 300 35 Redwood City Harbor ............... 30 35-100 150-300 30 Humboldt Harbor and Bay ............ 26-40 26-30 35' & San Francisco Bay to Stockton . . . . . . . . 35-45 40-50 40-506 Sacramento River .................. 30 35 6 Los Angeles-Long Beach ............. 35-40 40-55 San Diego Harbor .................. 20-40 35-50 GREAT LAKES Two Harbors ..................... 28 28 Silver Bay ....................... 30 30 Taconite Harbor ................... 30 30 Milwaukee Harbor ................. 27 40 27 7 & 40' Chicago Harbor ................... 28 40 28. 28 7 & 405 Calumet Harbor ................... 27 40 27 7 & 405 Indiana Harbor ................... 27 30 40 30 27 7 & 40' Burns Waterway Harbor .............. 27 40 405 Buff ington Harbor ................. 26 40 26 26 7 & 405 111-168 Major Obstacles -to Harbor Deepening (Cont'd) Major Reloca-Rock and/or Harbors Authorized tions and Continental Spoil Ecology Depth 1 Dislocationt2 '- Shelf3 Disposa 14 (Beginning depth of problem-in feet) Escanaba Harbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 297 & 405 27 7 & Gary Harbor ..................... 27 40 27 405 Sandusky Harbor .................. 24 24 27 27 7 Lorain Harbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 27 27 Cleveland Harbor .................. 27 27 27 7 Ashtabula Harbor .................. 27 27 Conneaut Harbor .................. 27 27 Erie Harbor ...................... 27 27 Buffalo Harbor ................... 28 27 23 287 Huron Harbor .................... 28 28 Detroit River ..................... 27 27 27 St. Clair River .................... 27 40 40 Straits of Mackinac ................. 30 '27" Toledo Harbor ............. J ...... 27 50 St. Mary's River ................... 27 27 27 Trenton Channel, Detroit River ......... 27 27 Saginaw River .................... 25 80 Muskegon Harbor .................. 27 80 lAuthorized depth is the channel depth in feet to which harbor deepening has been authorized by law. It is not necessarily the actual or controlling depth which presently exists. 2Relocations and dislocations are the depths which'channels would affect existing shorelines, wharves, orother installa- tions. See Section VII-C of Chapter 5. 3This is the depth at which bedrock or other heavy material underlying the softer sedimentary overburden is reached, The cost of dredging beyond this depth becomes substantially greater. 4This depth in feet shows the channel depth at which the disposition of dredge spoil becomes a significant problem. See Section VI-E of Chapter 5. 5Damage to water supplies, either by salt water intrusion or damage to aquifers. 6Includes loss of fish and wildlife habitat, destruction of unique geological areas or plant life, etc. 7Pollution problem. Source: U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Office of Civil Works. 111-169 Appendix D Summary of State Activities in Coastal'Management and Regulation' Alabarna Regulation Alabama authorizes its State Docks Authority to establish "harbor lines." When such lines are established, the Docks Authority has supervision and control over all activities landward of .the harbor fines. In the absence of harbor lines, the Department of Conservation exercises similar authority over the area below mean high tide. State. ownership of the area below mean high tide is said to be "well established." Because of its very limited estuarine areas, the State is seeking to preserve all the existing areas. Responsibility for regulation is divided between the State Department of Conservation -which includes Divisions of Administration, Forestry, Game and Fish, Seafoods, State Lands, State Parks and Water Safety-and the State Docks Authority. The Department of Conservation is authorized to acquire lands (including estuarine areas) in connection with its fish and game programs. Funding Total State program spending for protection, conservation, and research activities is approximately $300,000 annually. Court Tests State ownership of areas below mean high tide is reported to be "well established." Apparently there have been no court tests concerning validity of regulatory legislation. Coordination Internal coordination of State programs affecting estuaries is carried out between the Conservation Department and the Docks Authority. Both of these agencies coordinate with the Corps of Engineers and the Department of Interior on Federal-State matters, including Corps permits for projects affecting navigable waters. The Governor's office coordinates the efforts of the State's industrial development agencies with the State's conservation programs. California (1) California is in the midst of an extensive planning program for estuarine conservation in one area, the San Francisco Bay, begun with enactment of a legislative framework in 1965 and scheduled for completion in 1969. The planning agency, the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, was directed to: study the bay, prepare a comprehensive conservation and development plan for the bay and its shoreline, and (as an interim measure) to protect the bay during the planning period by controlling dredging and filling by permits during the planning period. Through 1966 the Commission had issued 25 interim permits, denied 5 permits. Presently about 50 per cent of the San Francisco Bay is State owned, 20 per cent city or county owned, 5 per cent Federally owned, and 25 per cent privately owned. This study commission has projected 23 separate staff or consultant reports dealing with the bay as a resource, predicted future development, planning for transportation and for land and water use, and plan implementation. The annual Commission budget has been substantial, e.g., $243,924 in fiscal year 1967. The initial studies have been completed, but the Commission is finding that the final report dealing with funding and powers to implement its estuarine plan is taking longer than anticipated. (2) A similar planning process has been proposed for the Humboldt Bay area in California. (3) The San Francisco Bay Commission, in April 1968, published a comprehensive 7-volume report on Powers and Money Needed to Carry Out the Bay Plan. (A summary pamphlet version is also available.) This report reviews in detail the alternatives available to the area for controlling bay filling activities and for planning, administering, and financing a program. The report provides an excellent source of information in depth for other States and areas. It includes a useful analysis of the pros and cons of the various revenue and organizational options and an extensive review of the legal precedents bearing upon regulation of estuarine land use. This material was obtained largely from Milton S. Heath, Jr.; Associate Director, Institute of Government, Uni- versity of North Carolina, and from George P. Spinner of the Marine Resources Committee, State of North Carolina. Additional information on State activities can be found in a contract report of the Commission, A Perspectiveof Regional and State Marine Environmental Activities, by John 1. Thompson & Co., Feb. 29, 1968, available from Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151, P.B. No. 177765. 111-170 Connecticut Regulation The removal of sand and gravel from lands under tidal and coastal Waters and the erection of structures and works in tidal, coastal, and navigable waters are regulated by the Connecticut Water Resources Commission. This affords some control over dredge and fill projects, but the State has no jurisdiction over filling tidal marsh from inland by means of dump trucks and bulldozers. Acquisition The State of Connecticut claims title to all lands below mean high water. However, no demarcation lines have been established, and over the years private interests have reportedly exercised claims including most of the tidal marshes. The Connecticut Board of Fisheries and Game is authorized to acquire tidal marsh by gift, lease, purchase, or condemnation. Reportedly, the State has lost about half of its tidal marshes since 1914. Of some 14,800 acres that remain, the Board of Fisheries and Game owns about 4,200 acres and hopes to acquire another 7,000 in the next few years. The Board is recommending acquisition of the remaining 3,600 acres by private conservation agencies or municipalities. A wetlands committee has been organized by private conservation groups, and the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife is studying the establishment of a National Wildlife Refuge. Agency As indicated above, acquisition of tidal marsh is primarily performed by the Board of Fisheries and Game, while regulatory powers are vested in the Water Resources Commission. . Funding Spending for tidal marsh acquisition by the Board of Fisheries and Game during this biennium is expected to total about $500,000. Court Tests None, other than litigation concerning common law ownership rights. Coordination At the State level, coordination of conservation and development activities in estuaries is carried out by the State Development Commission and the State Highway Department on behalf of development, and by the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, the Park and Forest Commission, the Board of Fisheries and Game, and the Water Resources Commission on behalf of conservation. A comprehensive State plan for development has been prepared by these agencies and is coordinated with local and regional plans. Delaware Regulation The Delaware State Planning Office has reflected on its Comprehensive Plan Map a substantial portion of Delaware's coastal wetlands for conservation purposes. This action has reportedly been used as a weapon in resisting minor subdivision development, but its ability to restrain major developmental encroachments has apparently not been tested. The State Planning Office has recommended that some kind of State zoning be provided to implement this open space proposal, but no zoning has yet been adopted. Acquisition State land acquisition for estuarine protection is authorized, apparently through the State Board of Game and Fish Commissioners. State, Federal, and private conservation groups reportedly own about 60,000 acres of coastal salt marsh and expect to acquire another 10,000 acres. The remaining 40,000 acres of salt marsh is said to be largely owned by oil and chemical companies. Agency The Board of Game and Fish Commissioners is responsible for conservation of estuaries and expresses its views on proposed developments in hearings before the State Water and Air Resources Commission or the State Planning Division. Funding Funding of State programs for conservation and protection of estuaries in recent years has ranged from $50,000 to $300,000 annually. Court Tests None. Coordination The Board of Game and Fish Commissioners, the Water and Air Resources Commission, and the State Planning Division coordinate with one another their respective programs affecting estuaries. Florida Regulation Florida authorizes the designation of a "bulkhead line" along or offshore from tidal lands. Beyond such a bulkhead line no filling or bulkheading is allowed; in one county (Manatee) in addition no dredging is allowed beyond the bulkhead line. 111-171 Acquisition The salt marsh in the NASA complex at Cape Kennedy, about 40,000 acres, has been set aside in a National Wildlife Refuge. Agency Bulkhead lines are fixed by the local city or county governing body, subject to the approval of the Trustees of the Internal Trust Fund (composed of the Governor and six State cabinet officers). A preliminary biological, ecological, and hydrological study is required from the State Board of Conservation. In this connection the Board of Conservation has issued a circular containing guides for evaluating marine productivity and adopting standards for waterfront development. The Trustees of the Internal Fund have reportedly placed a moratorium on dredging and filling until these studies can be completed. Georgia Regulation and Acquisition Other than the usual fish and game regulations and water pollution controls, Georgia apparently has no current active program for regulation or acquisition of estuarine areas. However, the power to acquire land is vested in the Game and Fish Commission for waterfowl areas and in the State parks agency for public parks. Agency The State Game and Fish Commission is responsible for wildlife and fishery programs, including marine as well as inland fisheries. The Water Quality Control Board is responsible for water pollution control in estuaries and elsewhere in the State. Funding No information. Court Tests None. Coordination It is reported that the State Planning Bureau and the Coastal Area Planning Commission will probably eventually serve to coordinate conservation and developmental matters. Louisiana Regulation Other than general water pollution control legislation, Louisiana's only regulatory controls protecting estuaries are based on permits issued by the Corps of Engineers or by Louisiana's Mineral Board or Department of Public Works, involving publicly owned bottoms. Agency The permits for projects affecting publicly owned bottoms are not granted without prior examination and approval of the Wild Life and Fisheries Commission. Funding Total State program spending for estuarine research, management, and development is about $1 million annually. Court Tests Only legal tests have apparently involved State ownership of bottoms, not validity of regulatory legislation. State control of bottoms has reportedly been upheld except in rare cases involving Spanish land grants. Coordination Conservation activities of Wild Life and- Fisheries Commission are coordinated with Corps of Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey, Fish and Wildlife Service, and State Mineral Board, Department cf Conservation and Board of Health. Maine Regulation Other than general water pollution control and pesticide control legislation, Maine's principal regulatory controls for estuarine protection involve: (1) a 1967 coastal wetlands alteration permit law and (2) Corps of Engineers permits for alteration of coastal wetlands. The 1967 wetland control law prohibits filling, removing, dredging, or draining of sanitary sewage into wetlands bordering, coastal waters without a permit from the municipality (or county) affected, issued with the approval of the Wetlands Control Board. Approval may be withheld if the proposal threatens public health, safety, or welfare; would adversely affect abutting owners; or would darnage conservation of water supplies or wildlife or fisheries. Acquisition Both the Inland Fisheries and Game Department and the State Park Commission have current coastal land acquisition programs. The U.S. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife is acquiring about 4,000 acres of salt marsh as National Wildlife Refuge Areas. Agency The Wetlands Control Board consists of the Corm-nissioner of Sea and Shore Fisheries, the Commissioner of Inland Fisheries and Game, the Forest Commissioner, the Chairman of the Highway Commission, and the Chairman of the Water Improvement Commission. The Department of Sea and 111-172 Shore Fisheries has general responsibility for coastal fisheries. Land acquisition is a function of the Inland Fisheries and Game Department (for waterfowl) and tl@e State Park Commission for recreational park purposes. Funding Wetland acquisition for water fowl purposes is proceeding at about $20,000 annually. Twenty-two miles of waterfront valued at $3 million are owned by the State Park Commission, and another $2 million in bond issues is pending. Court Test The wetland acquisition program has apparently been sustained in court. Coordination of Regulation and Development Some coordination may be achieved by the Interdepartmental Task Force or Water and Related Land Resources. Maryland Regulation Other than general water pollution control legislation and local zoning controls, the protection of estuaries in Maryland is apparently provided through controls over State owned lands. Acquisition Lands bordering estuaries are acquired by the Department of Game and Inland Fish and the Department of Forests and Parks (both under a Board of Natural Resources). Agency Controls over State owned lands are delegated to the Board of Public Works on recommendations of the Department of Chesapeake Bay Affairs, the Department of Water Resources, the Department of Game and Inland Fish, and the Department of Forests and Parks. Acquisition is by the Department of Game and Inland Fish or the Department of Forests and Parks. Planning An extensive planning study of all wetlands, including estuaries, is underway. Court Tests The State's control over taking of sand and gravel from the Potomac has been sustained in court. Coordination Coordination of conservation, development, and navigation is by the Board of Natural Resources, meeting, with the Director of Economic Development and Planning Department representa- tives. Massachusetts Regulation Other than water pollution control legislation, Massachusetts principal regulatory controls for estuaries consist of: (1) a statute prohibiting the removing, filling, or dredging of any bank, flat, marsh, meadow, or swamp bordering on coastal waters, without specified local and State permission or restrictions and (2) a related statute authorizing a "rule making" approach, under which the Commissioner of Natural Resources with the approval of the Board of Natural Resources may adopt regulations concerning alteration or pollution of coastal wetlands; if these regulations are found in court to constitute a "taking" of property, the Department may proceed to condemn the land in fee or lesser interest by en-dnent domain. This legislation was enacted after extensive studies' and reports. The Department of Natural Resources regards the rule-making authority as the more promising approach. It permits the Department to move on a regional basis to preserve wetlands without waiting for actual development commitments. Under this law, for example, the Department recently established a wetlands protective area covering 35,000 acres in one town. Agency The Department of Natural Resources administers the program through several of its divisions. Program Goals Program goals being carried out through a series of estuarine studies are to maintain the estuaries in as near as possible to present conditions consistent with management programs. Funding Estuarine research is currently supported at about $120,000. Court Tests The Massachusetts wetlands permit legislation has been sustained in lower court tests but the rule-making authority has apparently not yet been litigated. Coordination The conservation efforts are coordinated by the Department of Natural Resources with the State Department of Public Works, the State Division of Water Pollution Control, the U.S. Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, and Bureau of Sports Fisheries. Mississippi Regulation and Acquisition Mississippi apparently has no current program for regulation or acquisition of estuarine areas other than through participation in Corps of Engineers navigation permit proceedings. 111-173 333-09 3 0 - 69 - 22 Agency, The Gulf Coast Research Laboratory is responsible for research and the Mississippi Marine Conservation Commission for leasing of offshore bottoms and other estuarine conservation. . Funding The -annual expenditures of the above two agencies is about $500,000, over 75 percent for research. Court Tests None. Problems Only problems noted resulting from development are spoil deposits. New Hampshire Regulation New Hampshire adopted in 1967 a statute prohibiting the removal, excavation, filling, or dredging of any bank, flat, marsh, or swamp in and adjacent to tidal waters without the approval of the New Hampshire Port Authority. Conditions to protect fish and game may be prescribed by the State Fish and Game Department, and installation of bulkheads or other structures may be prescribed by the Port Authority. Two other 1967 laws prohibit dredging any marsh or swamp lying below the mean high wat 'er level of any public waters or filling below mean high water level of public waters without approval by the Governor and Council. Acquisition Tidal marshes are being acquired by the State Fish and Game Department in small installments, by gift or as funds become available. Progress has been slow, but the Department in cooperation with private groups is now seeking to raise funds to acquire one 4,500 acre marsh. It is thought that condemnation powers may be required to clear,some titles. Agency The Port Authority is vested with principal regulatory authority under the tidal lands control law. The Fish and Game Department is generally reponsible for fish and wildlife conservation, including marine fisheries, and has estuarine land acquisition authority. Funding, Estuarine land acquisition is currently hampered by lack of State funds, procedures, and personfiel, but Federal aid is available for acquisition. Court Tests None. New Jersey Acquisition A large-scale estuarine acquisition effort is underway in New Jersey. Passage of a $60 million Green Acres bond issue in 1964 has reportedly resulted in acquisition of about 20,000 acres of salt marsh by the Division of Fish and Game, and another 50,000 acres are being acquired. Previously, the Division had acquired about 30,000 acres. The U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries expects to control over 50,000 acres when its acquisition plans are completed. Upon completion of all of these programs, about 90 per cent of the high value coastal salt marsh of New Jersey is expected to be protected. Under the Green Acres program, total State and local land acquisition in the coastal counties has been about 65,000 acres. An additional 50,000 acres acquisition is projected in these counties under the program. Regulation Other than the usual fish and game regulations, water pollution 'controls, and local zoning regulation, the protection of estuaries is apparently provided mainly through control over State owned lands. Agency The State Department of Conservation and Economic Development is responsible for estuarine land acquisition and the State Department of Health for pollution control. Coordination of State estuarine programs largely involves these two agencies. Funding Operating expenses. for estuarine areas protection were $93,000 in 1967; projected 1968 .operating expenses are $ 142,000. For capital expenses, see "Acquisition," above. New York Regulation and Acquisition Other than the usual fish and game laws, water pollution controls, and restrictions upon the.grant or lease of State lands, New York exercises no regulatory controls in estuarine areas. New York, however, does have a multi-faceted program for public land acquisition and for conservation of lands in public ownership- Under the Park and Recreation Land Acquisition Bond Act of 1960, the State Conservation Department was authorized to purchase wetlands throughout the State, and did in fact acquire one tract of nearly 200 acres of tidal marsh. Under the Fish and Game Law the State may purchase land from any 111-174 source, and under the Conservation Law the Water Resources Commission may take land by eminent domain. The Long Island Wetlands Act permits the State government to enter cooperative agreements with the towns and counties on Land Island in support of conservation of tidal marshes. Where wetlands owned by towns or counties have been dedicated to conservation purposes, costs of maintenance and operations are shared by the State on a 50-50 basis with the local government. Cooperative agreements may also provide for development of dedicated wetlands by the State Conservation Department with its own personnel. Fifteen thousand five hundred acres of wetlands are now under cooperative agreements with the townships. Program goals are to extend the agreements to about 3 1,000 acres of remaining township lands, which constitute the bulk of significant Long Island wetlands. Agency The State Conservation Department is primarily responsible for estuarine conservation programs. Condemnation powers are vested in the Water Resources Commission. Funding Average annual State expenditures under the Long Island Wetlands Act are projected at about $15,000. Court Tests None. Coordination of Regulation and Development The Water Resources Commission is responsible for coordination of all activities centered on water. North Carolina Regulation The broadest authority vested in any State agency in North Carolina- is granted to the Department of Conservation and Development, acting primarily through its Division of Commercial and Sports Fisheries. General jurisdiction is granted to this Department over the conservation of marine and estuarine resources-which include coastal and ocean fish and fisheries, related plant and animal life, and the entire ecology supplying them. In addition to the Army Engineers permits, State legislation was proposed in 1967 in North Carolina which would have required permits for dredging and filling of coastal marshlands. The permit authorization was turned down by the General Assembly, however, and a compromise law was passed which merely requires registration of dredges, draglines, and other heavy equipment used in dredging and fining publicly owned tidelands and marshlands. This law is administered by the Department of Water and Air Resources. A riparian land owner may request an easement to fill submerged land fronting his property. The views of adjoining riparian land owners are solicited, and the effect of the proposed filling on navigable waters is evaluated. Any material dredged from State owned submerged lands to fill on private property is charged for at the rate of 25 0 per cubic yard for the first 1,000 cubic yards; 15 0 per cubic yard for the next 1,000; and 100 per cubic yard for any over 2,000 cubic yards. The volume of requests for easements is not large, and more are denied than are granted. An effort is made to hold approvals down to small tracts. This appears consistent with efforts to protect the natural condition of estuarine areas. Acquisition Comprehensive land acquisition powers to lease, purchase, and condemn estuarine lands in the best interests of conserving marine and estuarine resources are conferred on the Board of Conservation and Development. (The State Lands Act governs acquisition procedures, which are the responsibility of the Department of Administration with the approval of the Governor and Council of State. Other land acquisition powers that might be used in estuaries include the authority of the Board to acquire land for State forests and parks.) Court Tests One test is in progress in connection with a proposed private waterfront improvement on a creek off the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway near Wilinington. In this case the owner applied to the Army Engineers for a permit to dig a small navigation channel along the shore in front of his property. The State recommended denial of the permit on the grounds that public marsh would be destroyed; the area affected was relatively very small, but this stand was taken as a matter of principle, and the permit was denied. The owner expressed willingness to create a spoil bank on the creek side of the channel, grade it to the proper elevation, and plant local marsh grass on it, to an extent that would provide more 111-175 marsh than was destroyed. The matter is under investigation, as his proposal would appear to overcome State objections. Coordination The State Planning Task Force of the Department of Administration is serving as coordinating agency for the State and with the three-State Coastal Plains Regional Commission (North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia). This program will serve in its region (which includes 45 North Carolina counties) as a focus for coordination of State resource and development programs. Its principal source of funds will probably be Federal moneys under the Public Works and Economic Development Act. In its work with local development projects and agencies in the coastal counties, the Coastal Plains Commission will undoubtedly play a role in coordinating development with estuarine management and conservation. Oregon (1) Oregon is now engaged in an inventory and planning study of estuarine conservation under the Clean Waters Restoration Act from which answers are expected within a year. From this study, areas of conflict are expected to be defined and a single responsible agency to be designated. (2) Present controls apparently involve only the usual water pollution control regulation, fisheries management, and public land controls. Rhode Island Regulation Rhode Island in 1967 adopted an Intertidal Salt Marsh Law, which prohibits disturbing the ecology of intertidal salt marshes by dumping or excavating the marshes without a permit from the Department of Natural Resources. Current policy more or less prohibits any filling. Several applications to fill have been turned down, at least two dumps shut down, and a number of activities stopped. Acquisition The State Natural Resources Department has made limited acquisitions of salt marshes and has planned a more extensive program when more funds are available. The Department does not have condemnation powers. Agency The entire Rhode Island State program is carried on within the various divisions of the State Department of Natural Resources (Divisions of Harbors and Rivers, Conservation, Planning and Development, and Law). Funding Limited funds have been made available periodically for salt marsh acquisition. The operating programs are carried on as part of the activities of existing divisions of the Department of Natural Resources without specific budgeting. Court Tests No test of the Intertidal Salt Marsh Law-has been made beyond the lower courts. Coordination of Regulation and Development All coordination is apparently carried on internally within the relevant divisions of the Department of Natural Resources. Permits are issued by the Division of Harbors and Rivers, inspections made by the Division of Conservation, and enforcement conducted by the Division of Enforcement. When necessary, the Division of Planning and Development reviews applications. South Carolina Regulation and Acquisition Other than the usual fish and game laws, water pollution controls, and procedures for the grant or lease of State lands, South Carolina has no regulatory controls in estuarine areas. No active estuarine acquisition program is now underway, but the Wildlife Resources Department has acquired several large salt marsh areas for waterfowl hunting. About 30,000 acres of salt marsh are included in the Cape Romaine National Wildlife Refuge. An estuarine study program is being initiated at about the time this publication is being issued. Agency The South Carolina Wildlife Resources Department (including its Commercial Fisheries Division) appears to be the State agency with the principal current program interest affecting estuaries. The estuarine studies recently initiated are under the Water Resources Committee. Funding No information available - Court Tests As this publication goes to press, a test case is in progress before the State Supreme Court to determine if the State owns (as it claims) to the mean high water line or only to the mean low water line-whether the State owns its "tidelands." 111-176 Coordination of Regulation and Development The principal agencies that would be listed at this writing as likely to be involved in arrangements for coordinating estuarine regulation and development are the Division of Commercial Fisheries of the Department of Wildlife Resources, the Division of General Services of the Budget and Control Board, and the State Attorney General. Texas Regulation Other than the usual water pollution control legislation, Texas' only regulatory controls over estuaries involve: (1) establishment of bulkhead fines over submerged State lands, beyond which leases may not be made and (2) authority to regulate disturbance of bay bottoms that might affect fish or shellfish nursery areas. ftogram Goals To protect nursery areas, oyster reefs, and fish producing waters; a permit system to regulate disturbance of bay bottoms is now being designed. Agency The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department is responsible for protection of bay bottoms. The Submerged Land Committee (composed of Director of Parks and Wildlife Department, two university marine science officials, and two Governor's appointees) advises the School Land Board on leases and bulkhead lines. Court Tests Bay bottoms regulation has been confirmed by the Attorney General. Funding The Department expects to have one full-time professional employee. Virginia No detailed information was obtained from Virginia State agencies concerning estuarine programs. It is reported that the Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries, the Commission of Fisheries, the Water Control Board, and the Division of Water Resources all have adn-tinistrative responsibilities relating to estuarine resources. It is also reported that the Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries has acquired several large areas of coastal marsh and expects to acquire more, that the State Parks Commission also has acquired some salt marsh, and that a feasibility. study for further acquisitions is contemplated. Washington The Department of Natural Resources controls ownership, disposal, and leasing of tidal and subtidal lands. The Department of Fisheries is responsible for the State's $6.5 million annual program of fisheries management and research, including shellfish and food fish. 111-177 Appendix E Federal Funding Implications The panel recommendations set, forth in the Summary and in the text pose requirements for Federal funding to accomplish them. The following tables summarize (1) funding fornew programs specifically recommended by the panel and (2) funding for new programs proposed by Federal agencies coming under the general scope of panel endorsements. Duplicate funding is avoided except where cited. Existing Federal funding is shown in Table I of Chapter 7. Table E-1 @'NEW FUNDING ENVISIONED AS NECESSARY TO ACCOMPLISH RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE PANEL The following table sets forth panel assessments of funding required to accomplish the specific recommendations by the panel. Basic recommendations are in the summary immediately preceding Chapter 1. References to text material are cited. $ millions First Year Total Ten Year FY '70 FY '70-'80 1. State Coastal Zone Authorities a. Planning and Operations 2.5 12.5 (See Chapter 10, Section V I-B) This figure is developed on the basis of 30 State agencies, each having 4 professional and 12 technical personnel with average salaries of $12,000/year plus 100% overhead. This equals $10.9 million per year. Assume 50% Federal support for 2 years and uni- form implementation over a 5-year period plus 15% administrative expenses. b. Enforcement Grants 2.0 20.0 (See Chapter 10, Section VI-C) Based on specific estimates provided by California, North Carolina, and Louisiana Authorities showing an average annual need of $100,000 per authority for enforcement purposes alone. 30 such Authori- ties aided by matching Federal Grants of 66-2/3% per year. 2. Coastlands Acquisition (See Chapter 10, Section VI-E) a. Wetlands and Marshlands 16.7 167.0 (See Chapter 10, Section VI-E) I Table E-1 (Cont'd) $ millions Total Ten Year First Year FY '70-'80 FY'70 b. Public Access and Po ten tial Recreation Areas 8.3 83.0 (See Chapter 10, Section VI-E) 3. Precise Shoreline Mapping 2.94 5.56 (See Chapter 8, Section 1) 4. Coastal Zone Research .a.Institutional Support for Coastal Zone Labs 15.0 150.0 (See Chapter 9, Section I 11) This figure is developed on the basis of 30 coastal laboratories, each having 12,000 square feet and 20 person staff. The average annual operating and capital costs total about $750,000. Federalshare is 66-2/3%. b. Coastal Zone Research and Training 12.0 120.0 (See Chapter 9, Section I 11) This figure is based on existing Sea-Grant proposals and estimates 5. Coastal Inventory and Survey (See Chapter 9, Section I I-A) Funds for this are being appropriated from existing agency programs 6. National Port Survey 0.2 4.0 (See Chapter 9, Section I I -C) 7. National Shoreline Erosion Survey 0.3 1.0 (See Chapter 9, Section 11-13) This survey has been authorized for accom- plishment, but funds have not been appropriated. 8. Great Lakes Restoration Project 1.0 30.0 (See Chapter 9, Section II-D) 9. Federal Grants for Waste Treatment Plants (See Chapter 4, Section IV) These funds amounting to a current backlog of about $1.7 billion are a total National matter and not specifically coastal zone. (See Chapter 9, Section V) 111-179 Table E-1 (Cont'd) $ millions Total Ten Year First Year FY'70-'80 FY'70 10. Oil-Pollution Research 1.5 10.0 (See Chapter 9, Section I-B) This funding also has been proposed by Departments of the Interior and Transportation. (See Table E-2) 11. Improved Navigation System 1.0 10.0 (See Chapter 9, Section I-B) this figure represents estimates by the Coast Guard for the implementation of LORAN B. 12. Water Quality Monitoring 1.1 56.3. (See Chapter 6, Section V) These figures are based on FWPCA estimates to meet the needs for water quality monitoring networks in estuarine areas. TOTAL NEW FUNDING 64.54 669.36 I Table E-2 NEW FUNDING PROPOSED BY FEDERAL AGENCIES TO ACCOMPLISH PROGRAMS OR INITIATIVES RECOMMENDED OR INFERRED BY THE PANEL The following table comprises Federal agency accessments of new initiatives for programs failing within the scope of recommendations of the Panel Report. These programs are described briefly in Chapter 7. Funding is based on information furnished to the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development through the Committee on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone. This funding is not speci fically recommended or endorsed by the panel or the Commission. It does, however, repre- sent funding either in whole or part which might be accomplished if recommendations of the panel are to be accomplished. Note that these programs and funding thereto are in addition to existing agency funding within the coastal zone, shown in Table 1 of Chapter 7. $ millions First Year Total Ten Year FY-'70 FY '70-'80 Department of the Interior Bureau of Commercial Fisheries a. Estuarine Research and Management 4.1 40.0 b. Aquaculture 5.3 50.0 c. Mapping Resources of the Continental Shelf 4.0 4.0 111-180 Table E-2 (Cont'd) $ millions Total Ten Year First Year FY'70-'80 FY'70 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration a. Combating Oils Spills' 0.5 5.0 Geological Survey a. Physical Facts of the Estuarine Environment 2.75 27.5 National Park Service a. Marine Underwater Observation and Interpretation 0.5 5.0 Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife a. Artificial Reefs 0.2 2.0 Department of Commerce Environmental Science Services Administration a. Seward Boundary Determination 2 2.94 5.56 b. Circulatory Characteristics of Coastal Waters 2.47 4.0 Maritime Administration a. Seaport Control Tower 0.15 0.15 b. Offshore Ports. 0.5 1.0 Department of Transportation Coast Guard a. Oil Pollution 3 1.05 4.0 b. Port Advisory Services 0.2 2.0 c. Hazardous Cargo Information Center 0.25 2.5 Department of Health, Education and Welfare a. Finfish Sanitation 0.65 6.5 b. Toxic Chemical Pollution 015 2.5 c. Education for the Marine Sciences 0.05 0.5 Department of Defense Corps of Engineers. a. Development of Offshore Facilities 0.15 1.40 Smithsonian Institution a. Submersibles 0.2 20.0 b. Great Lakes Ecology 0.2 0.5 c. Marine Aquacultural Station 1.0 20.0 d. Underwater Archeology 0.3 10.0 e. Marine Preserves 0.1 8.0 111- 181 Table E-2 (Cont'd) $ millions Total Ten Year First Year FY'70-'80 FY'70 Water Resources Council a. Establishment of River Basin Commission in the Coastal Zone 1.0 10.0 b. National Assessment of Adequacy of Water and Related Land Resources 0.3 3.0 TOTAL NEW FU 29.11 23 5.11 NDING F Duplicates Item 10 of Table E-1 2Duplicates Item 3 of Table E-1 3Duplicates Item 10 of Table E-1 111-182 Appendix F Suggested Sample Legislation to Accomplish the Goals of Coastal Zone Management An Act To provide for the optimum management and development of the Nation's coastal and estuarine areas through the establishment of State, regional, and local Management Authorities. Short Title SECTION 1. This Act may be cited as the "Coastal and Estuarine. Management and Development Act." Statement of Policy SECTION 2. @ The Congress finds that man's past actions affecting estuaries and shorelines have been poorly and incompletely planned, unimaginative, and frequently destructive. In view of the many important uses served by these waters and the growing pressures on them, it is imperative that there be sound planning and intelligent management of this vital national resource. It is thereby declared to be the policy of Congress to encourage the conservation, development, and utilization of these areas to the best standards of public good through the medium of State and local authorities with the assistance and cooperation of the Federal Government. Effect on Existing Laws SECTION 3. Nothing in this Act shall be construed- (a) to expand or diminish either Federal or State jurisdiction, responsibility, or rights in the field of water resources planning, development, or control; nor to displace, supersede, lin-dt, or modify any interstate compact or the jurisdiction or responsibility of any legally established joint or common agency of two or more States, or of two or more States and the Federal Government; or to limit the authority of Congress to authorize and fund projects; (b) as superseding, modifying, or repealing existing laws applicable to the various Federal agencies which are authorized to develop or participate in the development of water and related land resources or to exercise licensing or regulatory functions in relation thereto, except as required to carry out the provisions of this Act. Definitions SECTION 4. For the purposes of this Act: (a) the term "estuarine areas" means an environmental system consisting of an estuary and those transitional areas which are constantly influenced or affected by water from an estuary such as, but not limited to, salt marshes, coastal and intertidal areas, sounds, embayments, harbors, lagoons, inshore waters, and channels. (b) the term "estuary" means all or part of the mouth of a navigable or interstate river or stream or other body of water, including, but not limited to, a bay, sound, and channel, having unimpaired natural connection with the open sea and within which the sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage. (c) the term "coastal area" means the lands, waters, and lands beneath the water in close proximity to the coastline (including Great Lakes) and strongly influenced by each other. 111-183 (d) the term "coastal State" means any of the several States which include coastal or estuarine areas within their boundaries. The District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa shall be treated as States for the purposes of this title. Title I-Coastal Management Authorities Creation of Authorities SECTION 101. (a) The Secretary of ----------------- --------- is authorized and directed to cooperate with the coastal States for the purpose of encouraging and establishing State Coastal Management Authorities (hereafter referred to as the "Authority"). (b) The Governor of a coastal State, may propose, establish, create, or designate, through legislative or other processes he may deem proper, new or existing Authorities whose functions are the accomplishment of the policies and objectives of this Act. (c) Upon subn-dssion to the Secretary of the proposed Authority or Authorities together with the organization functions and powers of the Authority, the Secretary may approve the Authority as consistent with the purposes of the Act. Form of Authorities SECTION 102. (a) The form of the Authority shall be left to the discretion of the participating States. It may range in scope from a Statewide central State agency to a regional commission responsible for a single estuarine system. (b) In order to be designated a participating State, a State need not designate Authorities to have responsibility for its entire coastal and estuarine areas. A State may establish or designate additional authorities at any time. Each one so designated must meet with the approval of the Secretary in order to become eligible for Federal Funding Assistance under this Act. (c) In designating Authorities the State is encouraged to give precedence to critical areas identified by the National Study authorized by section 5(g) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, and other broad National Inventories as may be authorized. (d) The organization and structure of Authorities may vary within a participating State and among States according to the political frameworks within which the authorities have been established. (e) Two or more States which in the best interests of coastal or estuarine management may wish to establish or designate existing interstate compacts or River Basin Commissions as Authorities may do so if approved by the Secretary as having adequate powers and funding arrangements to accomplish the purpose of this Act. Functions of Authorities SECTION 103. The functions of Authorities to meet the objectives of this act are: (a) To plan for the accommodation of multiple uses of the coastal and lakeshore waters and lands. (b) To resolve conflicting actions through the means of regulation, zoning, and/or acquisition where appropriate. (c) To maintain a continuing inventory and studies and to sponsor and otherwise conduct research as a contributing link in decision making processes. 111-184 Powers SECTION 104. In order to achieve its purposes the State and loc al governments are encouraged to grant the State delegated Authority the following powers Planning- authority to conduct the research and planning necessary for informed decision-making. Regulation-power to grant or withhold permits and/or establish zoning for coastal land and water use and, in addition, some authority to require that lands adjoining the coastline be used for pur- poses compatible with the overall plan. Acquisition and eminent domain -authority to acquire lands where public ownership is necessary to carry out the plan, and to acquire easements. Development-authority to provide, either directly or by arrangement with another governmental agency, such public facilities as beaches, marinas, and other waterfront developments that may be required to carry out the plan. Policy Guidelines SECTION 105. In reviewing and approving the plans and program of an Authority pursuant to Federal assistance the Secretary shall require Authorities to observe the following standards: (a) Coastal zones should support the widest possible variety of beneficial uses and be managed to maximize net social return. This means that no single use-such as waste disposal-or class of uses-such as commercial uses'-should be allowed to exclude other uses. (b) As public resources, coastal waters and shorelines should not be permitted to be exploited for private gain if it is accomplished at public expense. (c) Management authority should represent a balanced approach and should not be dominated by either conservation or economic development authorities. (d) There must be a mechanism established between the Federal and the State and local governments in the determination of shoreline use within the coastal zone. (e) There must be an opportunity for public hearings to allow local governments, private interests, and individuals to express their views before actions are taken or decisions are made changing or modifying the coastal zone. (f) Laws and regulations enacted in the public good must be empowered with a mechanism for enforcement. (g) Past decisions of a management authority should become a matter of public record. (h) Any proposed action must not violate the water quality standards established by the States in accordance with Federal law. (i) In the case of interstate estuaries, the programs of other States must be considered. 0) The fishing rights of other States must be respected. (k) Any actions must respect all existing Federal rights within the coastal zones and in the contiguous zone, as well as international agreements. 111-185 333-093 0 - 69 - 23 Title II-Financial Assistance to Participating States SECTION 201. General Authorization (a) The Secretary is authorized to provide financial assistance to participating States for the purposes of this act for (1) planning, (2) acquisition of land, waters, or interests in land or waters, or (3) development and restoration of public lands and waters. .(b) The Secretary shall prescribe such regulations, establish such procedures, and make such arrangements and provisions relating to any performance of the functions under this title, and the use of funds available therefor, as may be necessary in order to assure (1) coordination of the program authorized by this title with related Federal assistance programs, including the Water Resources Planning Act, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act, as amended, the Federal Aid in Fish Restoration Act, as amended, the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965, the Commercial Fisheries Research and Development Act of 1964, National Sea Grant College and Program Act, and the Housing Act of 1954 and (2) appropriate utilization of other Federal agencies administering programs which may contribute to achieving the purpose of this Act. Allotments SECTION 202. (a) From the sums appropriated pursuant to section 201 for any fiscal year, the Secretary shall make allotments among participating coastal States in accordance with his regulations and the objectives of this act based on (1) the coastal or estuarine area within the proposed region, (2) the need of the State, and (3) the merit of the proposed plan or project. (b) At the discretion of the State, payments or assistance may be made directly to the delegated State Authority. (c) Payments to any State or Authority for planning purposes shall cover not more than 50 per centurn of the cost of planning. (d) Payments for operating expenses of an Authority may not be authorized except that the first two years' operations may be funded from planning grant funds. (e) Recognizing that enforcement action is a vital role, allotments may be paid to participating States as grants-in-aid for enforcement purposes. SECTION 203. (a) In addition to grants-in-aid, the Secretary is authorized to enter into agreement with participating States or their delegated Authorities to underwrite by guaranty thereof bond issues or loans for the purpose of land acquisition or land and water development and restoration projects. (b) The Secretary is further authorized to make payment for the amortization charges and loan interest for the first five years following issue of the bond or loan. (c) Bond issues under this provision shall not be tax exempt. (d) Federal allotments under Section 202 in conjunction with guaranteed bond issues shall not exceed the bond issue, or 50 per centurn of the total cost of the acquisition or development, whichever is less. Review SECTION 204. Whenever the Secretary after reasonable notice and opportunity for hearing to a State Authority finds that- 111-186 (a) the program submitted by an Authority and approved under section 202 has been so changed that it no longer complies with the requirements of the State or Authority Plan or the objectives of this Act. (b) in the administration of the program there is a failure to comply substantially with such a requirement, the Secretary shall notify such agency that no further payments will be made to the State under this title until it is satisfied. Title III-Miscellaneous Authorization of Appropriations SECTION 30 1. There are authorized to be appropriated not to. exceed $5,000,000 annually to carry out the provisions of Title 11 of this Act. 111-187 Part I V Report of the Panel on Education, Manpower, and Training - Contents Report of the Panel on Education, Manpower, and Training . . . . . . IV-1 Appendix A Commission Staff,Study:' Education, Manpower, and Training in the Marine Sciences fv-2 The Panel on Education, Manpower, and Train- space engineers transfer to marine fields, and ing carried out a year-long review of the Nation's trained machinists become marine technicians. No needs for education and training in the marine studies have been made which quantify such sciences, and of the present and anticipated transferability or even seek to determine the manpower situation in marine-related occupations. percentage of graduates in marine curricula who It was the panel's intent to describe the cuff ent actually remain in the marine areas. situation in quantitative terms and to recommend Since the Nation does not now have the means specific action necessary to implement the Com- for assessing marine education and training needs, mission's proposed National ocean program from the panel recommends that within the new ocean- the standpoint of manpower requirements. The ographic agency an office be established to de- panel was forced reluctantly to the conclusion that velop this capability and to serve a coordinating accom plishment of its objectives was impossible function for Federal manpower and education under present conditions. activities in the marine field. The panel also A basic constraint was the lack of reliable data recommends that the National Sea Grant Program on (1) the present employment situation in marine- receive increased funding to a level of $22 million related occupations, (2) current and anticipated by 1972 and that funding for other Federal marine demand for persons in these fields,. and (3) the education and training programs be increased projected scope of future education and training incrementally over the coming years. Such pro- programs in marine affairs. There is also a lack of grams should pay close attention to new di- consensus on definitions of job categories and of rections developing in the marine-related fields- levels of competence for work in these fields. A coastal oceanography, air-sea interaction, and the recent survey, for example, identified some 5,800 need for teachers at the undergraduate and second- persons employed in marine science and tech- ary school levels. Greater emphasis should also be nology programs; yet in fact the number of placed on mid-career training and on providing persons engaged in marine-related occupations post-doctoral education for scientists from other (commercial fishermen, shipyard workers, mer- fields who come into oceanography and marine chant seamen, etc.) may be close to one hundred technology. times that number. Nor is there a,close correlation A staff report on the present status of marine between the persons who have received formal education, training, and manpower is presented in training in marine-related disciplines and those a study entitled, "Education, Manpower, and who are actively working in these areas. The Training in the Marine Sciences." It is included in transferability factor is strong here: graduates of this volume as Appendix A, page IV-2 through basic science curricula become oceanographers, page IV-14. IV-1 Appendix A Commission Staff Study:' Education, Manpower, and Training in the Marine Sciences The staff of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources has conducted an extensive review of the present and projected supply and demand in marine education, manpower, and ,training. It found that reliable data were inadequate or non-existent for many aspects of its task; that programs, particularly at the Federal level, were poorly coordinated; and that the history of the marine sciences over the past decades has been characterized by an emphasis on basic and applied research at the expense of education and training. The review also found that, at the present, the manpower situation in the marine fields is not critical, although shortages do exist in certain areas, and that it is impossible to predict future supply/demand conditions with any precision. The demand for adequately trained manpower and the ability of the Nation to cope with the demand are complicated both by the expanding and diverse nature of the field and by the various categories of employment it provides. Some persons work directly in marine science and engineering; others are associated with industries conducted on or in the marine environment-commercial fishing, offshore oil operations, the merchant marine, and recreation. Still another group is composed of naval, Coast Guard, and other uniformed personnel. Although this study is primarily concerned with persons active in marine science and engineering, its interests extend to the other aspects of marine-related activities. Even within marine science and engineering, job categories and levels of competence are widely diversified, and there is considerable transferability -in and out of the marine fields. At the heart of the manpower system is a small core of professionals, with extensive backgrounds in oceanography or marine engineering, although often formally trained in other fields. These people tend to spend all or most of their working years in the marine fields. Other professionals spend only part of their careers in marine-related occupations; their basic training in science or engineering is used for various types of employment. Finally, many ocean specialists, technicians, and craftsmen are mobile; they enter and leave the marine areas according to the relative advantages of other fields of employment. These persons may or may not have received formal training in marine matters; all or most of what is needed for their marine activities may be picked up from on-the-job training or from short courses of instruction. 1. DIMENSIONS OF THE PROBLEM Before the current situation in marine education, manpower, and training can be assessed, three basic terms must be defined. In this study, "education" is used to include activities in which individuals receive formal instruction as part of a broadly based curriculum that, in most cases, leads to the award of a certificate or degree. "Manpower" represents existing labor force-the number of individuals gainfully employed in occupations directly and indirectly related to marine affairs and, where applicable, their employers. "Training" denotes special instruction designed to improve an individual's occupational skills. Such experience generally does not carry academic credit beyond the secondary school; however, some individuals with long experience can eventually attain professional status without formal education. This study will consider education and training programs in relation to their quantity, quality, and type. Of the existing data on education, training, and manpower in the marine sciences, much are iThis report was prepared by Lewis M. Alexander, with the assistance of Holmes Moore. Acknowledgements are due to Dr. Richard Fleming of the University of Washington Department of Oceanography, consultant; Robert Abel and Harold Goodwin of the National Sea Grant Program; Mrs. Norma Martof of the Committee on Marine Research, Education and Facilities of the National Council; and Arnold Joseph of the Council staff. IV-2 concerned with quantity: numbers of persons employed, students enrolled, degrees granted, and projected manpower needs. These quantitative data have tended to be both incomplete and unreliable. Little has been prepared in recent years on quality, either of the preparation being received by students in the marine disciplines or the background of persons working in the marine area in terms of the positions in which they are employed. In years to come both qualitative and quantitative assessment of manpower in the marine sciences will be needed for most efficient use of talent. Considerations relating to types of programs and personnel are basically classification matters. In the past, terms used to describe work categories in the marine fields have been ambiguous; among these are oceanographer," "marine scientist," "ocean engineer," and "marine technician." In 1967, the International Oceanographic Foundation (IOF) completed what is, to date, the most 2 comprehensive inventory on manpower in the marine fields. In its study IOF differentiated two major groups of personnel: (1) those judged qualified for professional work in one or more branches of marine science (training or experience equivalent to a Master's degree or higher) and (2) those engaged in scientific and technical work in marine science but not fully qualified to perform independent professional work-oceanographic and fishery technicians, interns, students at the graduate level, and non-oceanographic engineers or technicians. In the present study a somewhat different classification is -suggested, taking into account persons working in the marine, sciences at subprofessional levels and distinguishing between technicians and scientists holding a Bachelor's degree and those. without one.. The following categories are included: -Oceanograph er (biological, chemical, physical, geological, geophysical)-training or experience equiva- lent to a Master's degree or higher. -Ocean engineer (electrical, mechanical, chemical, sanitary, environmental, industrial, or. civil)-training or experience in applied research equivalent to a Master's degree or higher. -Ocean specialist- training or experience in science or engineering equivalent to a Bachelor's degree. -Ocean technician-training or experience equal to an Associate of Arts Degree or two years of post-high school training. -Marine craftsman- formal education through high school. Competency in a marine-oriented skill. -Unskilled marine aide-No formal education requirements. Competency to serve aboard vessels. -Common laborer-engaged in shore-based operations. -Non-science professional-training in the social science or humanities aspects of oceanography beyond the Bachelor's degree. -Student or intem The first two categories correspond with the oceanographers and oceanographic engineers of the IOF studies. The next four presumably show up in IOF statistics as well, although under different he adings, while the last three categories do not appear in the IOF figures. The classification of "student or intern" encompasses those preparing for employment rather than at work in the marine fields. 2A Study as to the Numbers and aaracteristics of How many remaining institutions were staffed with Oceanographic Personnel in the United States, 1967, oceanographic personnel is unknown. When follow-up Report submitted to the National Science Foundation, questionnaires were sent to individuals, 85 per cent December 1967, NSF Contract C469. Of 917 institutions returned them. contacted by 1017, 441 returned lists of their personnel. IV-3 If. FACTORS RELEVANT TO SATISFYING MANPOWER NEEDS There are many variables in the components -of the current and anticipated supply/demand situation for the marine field-so many that absolutes become meaningless and one can deal only with relationships and trends. The principal problems are: What is the total demand for persons to be employed in the marine fields? What is the supply of such persons? What are the factors affecting their availability for employment? A. Demand The demand factor may be considered in either of two contexts-one which assumes continuation of present growth rates and conditions or one which assumes adoption of an expanded National marine program. Currently the major demand for personnel in marine-related fields rests with the Federal Government, because of its own manpower needs and because of its funding for research and related activities. The 1967 IOF study found that of nearly 5,000 persons working in the marine sciences (excluding students), 54 per cent were employed by the Federal Government and another 21 per cent worked for universities, most of which receive substantial Federal support. The obvious corollary is that any estimate of demand in marine science and engineering, even over the next few years, depends largely on the extent of the Federal oceanographic effort. State and local agencies and industry are two other principal sources of employment. ICIF found that about 300 persons. were employed by State and local agencies in marine-related activities, mostly as fisheries managers or fisheries technicians. A total of 560 was employed in private industry, the majority engineers and technicians. In years to come, many more personnel may be required by State and local governments in various aspects of coastal zone management. Such persons would need knowledge of planning, economics, law, and political science in addition to oceanography and ocean engineering. In industry there will remain a small but growing demand for personnel trained 'in marine occupations, at least over the next decade; the rate of growth may well reflect, at least in part, action on the Commission's recommendations. The Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, in its recommendations for National action, is cognizant that one basic cost is manpower. Adoption of the Commission recommendations will increase marine-related employment in the Federal sector and among its grantees and contractors; it will further stimulate economic activity in industry, particularly in the area of marine engineering and technology. Incremental operating costs to implement the National marine program recommended by the Commission have been estimated at approximately $450 million in 1973, $675 million by 1977, and about $850 million by 1980. With a standard yardstick of $50,000 per professional worker in the marine field (a rough average for present costs based on staff study), 9,000 new personnel would be needed in marine-related fields by 1973, another 4,500 by 1977, and 3,500 more by 1980-an increment -of 17,000 persons over the next I I years in the marine fields. Demand projections keyed solely to a single budget cannot reflect the many variables which will actually be encountered in staffing to implement an expanded marine program. In the initial phases of the program-while facilities and equipment are being acquired and plans developed-somewhat larger expenditures may be expected per professional worker than during its latter phases when a full com- plement has been assembled. These early phases may also see a greater reliance on persons whose train- ing has not been specifically in marine fields. However, the application of such "rules of thumb" as the $50,000 factor provides at least an order of magnitude starting point to more detailed analysis of manpower requirements. IV-4 Manpower Implications of Commission Budget Projections Est. 1980 Categoriesof Professional PersonneI2 Budget Ocean- Ocean Ocean Nonscience Program Increment' ographer Engineer Specialist Professional Tota 13 Categories, (millions of $) Research and education $220 2,000 1,000 1,000 400 4,400 Specific technology programs 210 400 2,500 1,000 200 4,200 National projects 70 150- 800 350 100 1,400 Fundamental technology 250 1,7504 1,500 1,400- 350 5,000 Mapping, charting, and surveys 40 50 550 150 50 800 All other 60 150 200 500 350 1,200 Total $850 4,500 6,550 4,500 1,450 17,000 Excludes capital outlay. 21nternational Oceanographic Foundation categories. See page IV ,-3 for definitions. For purposes of this exhibit, the definitions should be construed broadly to include persons of various backgrounds when working on ocean-related problems regardless of the nature of their primary interests and employment. 3Total professional personnel computed on a "rule of thumb" formula of $50,000 per professional person. The assignment of this computed number to the various professional categories has been made entirely on a judgmental basis. 4Includes personnel trained in basic scientific disciplines at the M.S. level or higher working on fundamental problems relating to materials, environmental effects, biomedicine, and so forth. B. Supply The number of natural scientists in the United States, as reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is about 400,000, and the number of professional engineers, according to the National Academ y of Engineering, is about 500,000. From these pools and from the graduating classes in science and engineering must come future oceanographers, ocean engineers, and ocean specialists. Significant contributions are made by the marine education programs. In 1967-1968 over 1,400 individuals received e4ither Bachelor's or higher degrees in marine, science' in the United IStates. How many accepted employment in marine-related occupations is not known. The extent to which development of marine science. and engineering activities depends upon persons trained specifically in marine fields is very difficult to assess. No systematic data now exist on the nature of the formal training of persons employed in marine fields. The marine area is obviously responsible for educating some portion of the personnel it needs; it cannot rely entirely on transfers from other disciplines. Not all persons receiving ocean science and engineering degrees, particularly at the undergraduate level, can be expected to remain in the marine field. Training in marine curricula generally is broad enough to permit transfer to other fields. Furthermore, many students taking advanced degrees intend to teach. As appeal of the marine environment continues to grow, more teachers will be needed at both the, undergraduate and secondary school levels, for more students will be seeking one or more "general education" courses in marine matters. The expectation of a sharp expansion of marine programs has brought increased, enrollments in marine curricula, and all indications are that the number of graduates in marine fields will accelerate over the next few years, perhaps outpacing demand. Such a situation is not necessarily unhealthy. An oversupply of graduates would most likely mean that the more competent would remain in the marine. fields and that others would transfer to different occupations. IV-5 Consideration must be made for the "lead-time" necessary to produce professional personnel-an average of 8 to 10 years after high school for the Ph.D, and at least 6 years for the Master's. Even if immediate action is not taken on the Commission's recommendations for an expanded program, it appears probable that within a 10-year period the demand for personnel in marine fields will increase. Continued growth in the intake into marine education should therefore be maintained at this time to assure that trained personnel will be available to staff such activities as the nation may wish to undertake in the seas. In addition to the overall supply, attention is needed to assure the 9upply of'certain specialists. The National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography (NASCO) reports current shortages in physical and chemical oceanographers and in taxonomists. NASCO also notes a shortage of ocean technicians and marine craftsmen in scientific research and development, and indications are that this shortage will intensify over the next few years. Several small programs have been initiated for formal training of ocean technicians for subprofessional positions in scientific research, exploration, and cartography, which complement the supply of on-the-job trained technicians. Many technicians and craftsmen, however, will necessarily have to be recruited from other fields in competition with other types of employment. Through the Federally sponsored Economic Opportunity program, training is being offered to make persons available for marine activities support services. These programs are new and relatively untested. The supply of non-science professionals is extremely small, but so too is their demand. The need for such persons was recognized in the President's Science Advisory Committee Report, Effective Use of the Sea. PSAC urged establishment of Marine Study Centers, whose role would be: not only to foster studies on applications of science and technology to the sea, but also to relate them to underlying natural sciences and to social sciences-economics, sociology, psychology, politics, and law-as they are affected by and in turn affect occupation and exploitation of the. sea. The National Sea Grant Program, oriented in part toward similar ends, has been aiding institutions for education and training in these applied aspects of oceanography. During the past decade, the availability 4 facilities for education and training in the marine fields has grown, but so too has the number of students. In 1967, 45 U.S. institutions offered a Ph.D. in marine and marine-related sciences and engineering, compared to 12 in 1962; 53 institutions offered a Master's degree in 1967 against 14 in 1962; and 32 *offered a Bachelor's degree compared to 3 in 1962. The Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities of the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development recently surveyed,education and training in the marine fields. Compared with 6,101 students enrolled in marine science programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels in 1967-68, 1,597 were enrolled in 1961-62; 858 graduated in the marine sciences in 1966-67, and 407 graduated in 1961-62 .3 Undergraduate and graduate students enrolled have been increasing at about 25 per cent per year (doubling time about three years), and the number of degrees granted has been increasing at about 20 per cent per year. If the annual increase in enrollment 'continues for the next decade, the number of undergraduates will grow from 1967-68's total of about 3,500 to over 35,000 in 1977-78, and the number of graduates will increase from 2,600 to 26,000. It is unreasonable to expect the rate to increase in this fashion over the entire period, but the statistics indicate present trends. The following graph, taken from a study completed in June 1968 by the'Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities, shows enrollees and graduates in six major types of marine curricula between 1961-62 and 1967-68. Figures for graduates in 1967-68 are estimates. 3The 10 institutions on the Council of Laboratory Directors (representing the largest marine science uni- versities in the Nation) reported a 10-fold increase. in 1967 over 1960 in full-time graduate school enrollment and Master's and Ph.D. degrees granted. IV-6 Graduates and Enrollees in Marine Science Education Programs Enrollees Graduates Associate Enrollees (Data for all degree programs combined) Associate Graduates Year Ocean Science Basic Science Technology & Engineering 1967-68 2647 871 97B 474 M211 el @11@ 1966-67 276 1760 1 4=7 580 131 672 255 1373 "15 7 494 135 983 1964-66 W240 @ 1027 1 1=4 424 125 682 792 363 618 1963-64 rl 4 8M 11006 F104 1962-63 626 187 590 F64 P1=28 1961-62 417 slog 595 78" F41 jI 3 =2 1960-61 J707 262 R 11 08 rl 4 =3 6 3 2 Marine Food Sciencc Fisheries Science Ocean Technology and Engineering 1967-68 11213 "67 387 079 311 884 1966-67 14 374 177 703 17 "69 05 138 1965-66 1521 389 167 633 "13 0414 31 1964-65 22 339 53M 483 12 "57 r13 913 1963-6 20 298 7,1126 388 12 P4 50 20 252 372 1962-63 1 " 15 F3 30 07 98 11,248 1961-62 F3 11 11 "T 0 3 75 M=246 1960-61 117 F291 C. Availability Marine-related occupations compete with other endeavors in attracting skilled personnel. Although many trained workers plan to spend their work lives in the marine environment, there are also many IV-7 333-093 0 - 69 - 24 exceptions. If marine science, engineering, and technology are intellectually and financially attractive enough relative to other fields, most trained in the field will elect to-remain, and many scientists and engineers trained in other fields will be attracted. Employment opportunities will also lure specialists from abroad. Within certain specialized fields, transferability of marine sciences is limited. Such would be the case in various research activities in fisheries biology or taxonomy-systematics. In any profession availability is difficult to project. Involved are salary and promotion opportunities, location and, conditions of employment, relative,appeal of the profession within the total National culture, interest or intellectual stimulation offered, and competition from other professional areas. Appeal of the marine sciences during the. past few years may be gauged by the upward trend in applications to education and training institutions and the increasing number of professionals and skilled workers transferring to marine-oriented fields. Part of the increase may be due to the attention paid to the marine sciences in the United States and to the very small number employed in the marine areas until a few years ago. Admittedly, the sea has always attracted what has been referred to as "sea people," but new vehicles, new exploratory opportunities,.and above all, a new cultural appeal invite the young. In addition, older scholars and technicians are drawn by the marine environment's vast problems, which only recently seem timely and capable of solution. The appeal of marine occupations must be assessed in terms of other forms of employment, of numbers and occupational types, and of levels of competence of those seeking marine-related employment. It appears that marine science activities are sufficiently attractive in reference to supply aInd demand that unusual steps (economic. or otherwise) are not now needed to draw people into the marine fields. But the level of effort recommended by the Commission may require additional incentives. Ill. EDUCATION AND TRAINING CURRICULA AND FACILITIES A. Programs and Enrollments The graph illustrates an accelerating demand at all levels for instruction in the marine areas. Because of the lead time required for their development, facilities, rather than student interest, will be the limiting factor, at least over the next decade, with respecf to marine education and training growth. Of the several hundred applications received each year by the major educational centers, only a few hundred can be accepted. In part, the applicant's grades and adequacy of preparation are decisive factors, but often limitations of space and funds for assistantships. or stipends are of equal or greater importance. In the past, most funds in marine science and technology went into research; not enough have gone into teaching, with the res ult that the Nation is now short of competent teaching personnel. B. Educational Objectives and Criteria Four levels of marine education and training now exist: graduate and postdoctoral education, undergraduate studies, mid-career instruction, and marine technician training. Curricula in graduate and postdoctoral education are relatively new compared to those in other subjects. The scientific content and the technology involved are developing and changing rapidly. Educational activities should be encouraged to experiment in subject matter and in methods of presentation. One objective should, be to provide breadth-to develop generalists with a broad understanding, who can deal with the science of the environment and with the many interactions existing between man and his environment. Another objective should be to develop adaptability and ingenuity. Science and technology are advancing at-such a rapid pace that today's student must soon meet, identify, and solve problems never introduced'in'the classroom. These comments, applicable to other fields, are particularly appropriate for mahn6 sciences because of their expanding scope and interdisciplinary nature. IV_8 There are several approaches to professional training in this field. Some authorities believe that a Bachelor's or even Master's degree in oceanography may be less meaningful in an oceanographer's career than one in biology, chemistry, physics, or other basic science. A broadly trained oceanographer may move about freely in the marine sciences. In contrast, some educators note the time saved by the undergraduate student early introduced to the marine curricula. In such a rapidly expanding field as marine science and technology, there is room for both types of educational experience. At the graduate level, two types of programs should be offered-one in which a student spends an-, average of four to six years as an aide or assistant in the research activities of his major professor and one in which he concentrates on course work and his own research, thus completing his formal education in the minimum time. Here is a problem endemic to many fields but particularly germaine to the marine sciences because of the tradition that a graduate student spends years of apprenticeship before receiving his degree. Also, financial assistance to the student is usually conditioned upon his performing a research assistant's tasks. More fellowships are needed for aiding graduate students wishing to pursue a more intensive program of study in order to reduce the time needed to meet degree requirements. Opportunities for postgraduate study by persons with advanced degrees in the basic sciences or engineering are required for those who wish to work in the marine sciences. The National Academy of Sciences has noted the need for ocean scientists who can bridge the gap between the classical and the marine sciences. The trained scholar with feet in both camps is much in demand, and the postdoctoral 4 scientist entering oceanography with a Ph.D. degree in one of the basic sciences meets this need. Ample funds should be available for this type of advanced student to work at major institutions throughout the Nation. At the undergraduate level, student demand must be met for general courses in marine subjects and for establishing majors in these fields. Baccalaureate degrees in marine science were offered at five institutions in the 1967-68 academic year and three Bachelor's programs in ocean engineering were offered. In addition, two institutions offered Bachelor's degrees in fisheries. Since the need for ocean specialists is growing, particularly for ocean survey work, holders of Bachelor's degrees should be able to find suitable positions for some time. Other graduates may be expected to become teachers at the secondary level or, with further training, at the college level. At another educational level are the mid-career training programs, particularly for those in the marine science field whose jobs are so limited as to provide a narrow perspective of marine developments. Many. Federal employees are within this group, along with business and industry administrators, teachers, and researchers concentrated on one highly specialized aspect of the field. For such. persons, refresher courses n-dght be provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF); Office of Naval Research; the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, etc., possibly during the summer, including some shiptime experience. Federally funded sabbaticals also would make possible longer-term, rnid-career training programs. We are conscious of the need for different kinds and levels of training, and this study recommends that funds be made available in the annual Federal oceanographic budget specifically for mid-career programs at National and regional university centers. These programs would provide opportunity for instruction, discussion, experience, and formulation of plans and policies in marine-related matters. Participants would come from government, industry, business, and the universities for periods of a week or two to several months. The programs might provide opportunity to spend time aboard ship for instructional cruises. At a fourth level are the technical training programs of two years' duration or less. The first program of this type began in 1959; several others now exist, and the number of graduates, although small, is gradually rising. Within the next few years, the number of such technical training programs is expected to increase. Officials at existing institutions believe that marine technician training is specialized, implying that transferability is sometimes difficult and that some shorter training courses do not qualify as adequate preparation for a technician's specialty. The success of these institutions has prompted other schools to begin technician training, including a two-year course started recently for fisheries technicians. IV-9 The term "marine technician" should be defined more carefully, since specialists at this level are important to marine development. As in the case of ocean engineers, a new and expanding field has developed here-a field whose,dimensions cannot now be determined exactly. in recent years a start has been made toward training marine technicians in Government anti-poverty programs. There may be little relationship in some of these programs between the trainees' interest and competence for marine work and their acceptability for marine technician courses. But in many instances at least elementary instruction can be given (to be followed by on-the-job training) in marine- related pursuits both at sea and in such shore-based enterprises as the National Ordnance Laboratory, Naval Electronics Laboratory, Naval Research Laboratory, and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. C. Education and Training Facilities Physical facilities required for marine education and training include shore laboratories (together with classrooms, libraries, etc) and oceanographic vessels. An obvious correlation exists between the use of laboratories and ships for education and training and for research. Completely separating the two uses is not fruitful, but research activities should not always be given priority for laboratory or ship use. As more students enter the marine sciences, the programming of laboratories and ships for training use will require increased attention. Provision will need to be made in planning facility use for the lead time necessary to incorporate special laboratory or ship activities into the teaching program-an essential factor in institutional planning. Oceanographic institutions may have. the necessary capital equipment but not the funds or personnel to maintain it. A partial answer may lie in the use of ships (and to some extent laboratories) by other institutions on a cost-share basis, particularly those inland and/or those with a relatively small marine science program. The need for facilities, particularly ships, affects especially the quality of training of marine technicians and indeed to mid-career programs as well. Perhaps one distinguishing feature of good marine technician training programs will be experience in ship operations. D. New Directions in Education and Training There are several areas in which new needs for educational curricula will certainly develop. One is in coastal oceanography. During the coming years the Nation will increasingly turn to the multiple use and management of its inshore waters-estuaries, bays, deltas, and territorial waters along its more than 13,000 miles of coastline. This interest will create need for more "coastal" marine scientists-biologists, chemists, sedimentologists, shellfish ecologists-and for engineers to solve the problems of this complex ecological region at Federal, State, and local levels. Within the field of basic marine sciences, new forms of emphasis will develop, as in using our improved knowledge of the marine food web to increase sea productivity and in advancing our understanding of air-sea interaction toward more accurate and extended environmental prediction. In marine technology, efforts will increase toward utilization of the Continental Shelf for its living and non-living resources and toward extending man's capability to explore and exploit the deep oceans at greater depths. A third area will be in the social sciences, creating the need for planners, economists, political scientists, marine geographers, lawyers, and behavioral scientists. The following suggests social components: -Marine economics Resource economics, fisheries, shipping, recreation, marine mining, land use economics, economics of marine dependence. -Marine law International law of the sea, maritime laws and regulations. IV-10 -Marine geography Coastal geography, marine orientation studies, geography of the oceans. -Marine planning -Marine institutions and policies Government and marine affairs, international politics and the ocean, maritime 1-iistory. Few of these fields are well-developed conceptually. There are only a small cadre of experts and limited courses of instruction. The Sea Grant Program is seeking methods to assist in the growth of these disciplines. In addition, State and private funding should be directed toward education and research on the impact of the marine environment on the Nation's socio-econornic and political structure. E. A Suggested Hierarchy of Institutions The field of marine science and engineering will become larger and more complex in coming years; thus marine education and training programs are likely to become more costly. To conserve teachers and facilities and to raise the quality of education, particularly at the graduate level, it should be possible to establish a system of graduate schools in marine science and engineering, starting with a few educational centers for nationwide use. Such centers might be associated with the university-National laboratories, as recommended in the Panel on Basic Science Report. They could provide Ph.D. and some Master's training in all aspects of their fields. Although training would be closely associated with the centers' contract research activities, it would not be so limited. As National education centers, they would receive special funds as a part of the Federal ocean program. Needed facilities could be shared with other institutions engaged in marine education programs. At the next level would be regional centers, offering both Ph.D. and Master's programs. These centers could both concentrate on regional marine science problems and give more attention to Master's programs than the National centers. Like the National institutions, they would have their own oceanographic vessels for training and research and would receive commensurate Federal support. On a third level are institutions with smaller programs specializing in one or two aspects of oceanography or ocean engineering. These institutions might not have their own research vessels. The number of institutions would vary with demand, and location need not be limited to coastal areas. They provide an opportunity for original and significant applied research without the capital investments needed by the larger oceanographic and ocean engineering institutions. The need for applied research programs has already been recognized by the Congress in authorizing the Sea Grant Program. At a fourth level are courses in marine-related fields at technical and secondary schools. It is important that at the secondary level the better students be encouraged to specialize in marine fields. To this end, competent teachers, good textbooks, and laboratory facilities and equipment are necessary. IV. FUNDING ARRANGEMENTS AND NEEDS Means by which Federal funds are made available are: (1) direct grants or loans for education and training, (2) research and development grants and contracts to investigators employing graduate students, under which continued graduate education supported through research activities, and (3) in-house education and training within Federal agencies. A. Existing Programs Funds for education programs are supplied principally by HEW and NSF (both directly and through the Sea Grant Program). HEW maintains several avenues for funding, through loan programs, the IV-1 1 National Defense Graduate Fellowship Program, and Title III of the Education and Secondary Education Act of 1965, which permits the Federal Government to make grants to elementary and secondary schools for developing new programs in the marine science field. In FY 1968, HEW spent some $280,000 in support of 49 graduate fellows in the marine sciences and about $360,000 to train technicians for the fishery trades and industry. NSF also supports graduate and undergraduate students in the marine sciences; in addition, it supports faculty member research training and development of new courses and curricula in marine science. An even more important contributor to graduate education is the Navy, through its research contracts. The National Sea Grant Program, authorized in October 1966, has three major objectives: training and education, research programs in various fields relating to development of marine resources, and advisory services in marine resource development. Funding for training and education is directed toward producing manpower necessary to marine resource development: marine technicians, ocean engineers, and other technologists. Of a total budget in FY 1968 of $5 million, approximately $2 million were allotted to education and training. The Sea Grant Program provides matching funds to institutions to cover up to two-thirds the cost of specific projects. The two principal forms of Sea Grant funding are institutional support and project support. Within the framework of institutional support, the Program hopes by 1974 to have established 17 to 20 Sea Grant colleges-centers of competence in solving marine resources problems. During its first year of operation (FY 1968), the Sea Grant Program funded six institutional programs and gave small grants to two other institutes for planning activities prior to submission of FY 1969 institutional proposals. The Program also funded several project grants at non-Sea Grant institutes. Among the project titles were "Development of New Subjects for Ocean Engineering Graduate Program," "Planning for American Junior College Involvement in the Training of Marine Technicians," and "Improvement and Expansion of Marine Technology Curricula"-illustrations of Sea Grant's concern for education and training problems. Sea Grant has also been seeking to involve industry, as well as institutions, in its programs. Industry might provide fellowships and scholarships to institutions enjoying Sea Grant sponsorship; it might sponsor cooperative educational on-the-job training programs between Sea Grant institutions and industry. Another source of Federal support in training marine technicians is the Department of Labor. Through the Manpower Development and Training@Act, Labor is spending several million. dollars each year to train marine specialists: butchers, bakers, cooks, stewards, and shrimp and fishing boat crewmen, including factory ship crewmen. The Department is also funding union training of merchant marine officers. The Office of Education, in cooperation with the Department of Labor and the Office of Economic Opportunity, has initiated a pilot program to train hard core unemployables as marine technicians. Other Federal agencies are also involved in education and training. The Smithsonian Institution supports a few postdoctoral students in marine biology, and the Department of the Interior funds several doctoral candidates working in fisheries biology. The Atomic Energy Commission contracts for basic research grants in the marine sciences. In-house training is funded by the Navy, the Coast Guard, the Environmental Science Services Administration. The Navy has its own post-graduate marine sciences school in California. The Maritime Administration operates the Merchant Marine Academy at King's Point, New York, and several States support their own merchant marine academies. But within the total complex of marine-related education and training activities, these "internal" contributions to the total manpower pool are minor. State programs and industry are another source of funds for education and training. But their contributions are not large. In coming years, as the cost of graduate education continues to increase, a matching funds arrangement between the Federal Government and State or local agencies may need to be, developed. As noted earlier, private industry has not. yet been active in such funding in marine IV-12 sciences and engineering; presumably. a substantial increasc'must wait until industry can see the possibility of greater returns from its marine operations. B. Coordination of Federal Activities The Interagency Committee on Oceanography and more recently the Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities of the National Council have made many contributions to improved coordination of Federal activities in support of marine education and training. Nevertheless, one of this study's major conclusions is that a stronger mechanism is needed for obtaining and analyzing data on education and training programs and manpower needs and for coordinating Federal activities to support the education and training of marine personnel. An urgent need is for a better system for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information relating to training programs and needs. Data which have been assembled are subjected to inordinate delay before release to the public. In a field as small and as vital as the marine sciences, it should be possible to maintain and publish comprehensive statistics on manpower; on Federal, State, and local funding; and on education and training programs. This study therefore recommends that a Marine Statistics Center be established within one Government agency, that this office have a separate staff and budget t ,o carry out its responsibilities, and that other Federal agencies be directed to coordinate their activities with this center and to supply it continuously with statistics of their own organization's activites in the marine area. A program for marine education and training should be established within the context of the National plan recommended by the Marine Science Commission. The program need not have a central funding function; in fact existing Federal funding arrangements, or a system approximating them, appear adequate. But one Federal agency should contain a central coordinating body to study total needs, balance Federal agency funding activities, and prepare and administer a National marine education and training plan consistent with changing needs in the marine environment. Hence it is recommended that an Office of Marine Education, Training, and Manpower should be established with responsibilities to: -Organize and maintain a Marine Statistics Center to coordinate marine education and training facilities within the Government and to serve as a clearing house for applications to graduate and undergraduate programs in marine science and engineering. The Center would maintain an inventory of Federal and non-Federal funding efforts, keep funding agencies informed of other organizations activities, and maintain an inventory of shore facilities and vessels used for education and training programs. It would systematically analyze manpower trends in marine-related activities and would issue periodic projections on the nature and scope of marine education and training efforts. -Be responsible for evaluating manpower and educational statistics and programs for projecting marine manpower needs, and for planning and recommending programs to provide enough competent personnel. -Serve as a coordinating body for scheduling use of Federally funded, shore-based or ship facilities by two or more institutions. C. Future Funding Needs This study does not recommend that an emergency program be undertaken at this time in marine education and training. It recognizes the need for increased emphasis in certami aspects of the field and for provision for more ship and shore-based facilities for education and training activities. It is also cognizant that the current rate of annual growth of the marine science effort in the Nation may, before long, begin to rise sharply in response to the Commission's recommended program and/or to new sources of economic wealth in the oceans. Increased demand for trained personnel in various marine categories will strain marine institutions' education and training facilities, but there is no indication that these institutions will not be able to adjust to such long-term demands. IV-13 Assuming a steady annual increase in the Federal commitment to marine education and training approximating that of the past few years, the demand by employers for personnel should be met. However, program implementation will be difficult if a proliferation of new educational institutions with high initial costs for buildings and capital equipment continues without a corresponding increase in the total Federal budget for marine education and training. Accordingly, primary funding emphasis by the Government should be placed on expanding and improving existing marine science centers. The following more specific recommendations are offered: 1. The Sea Grant College Program should receive increased funding to a level of $22 million by 1972. Funding for other Federal marine education and training programs should be increased incrementally over the coming years. Such programs should pay close attention to new directions developing in the marine sciences-coastal oceanography, air-sea interaction, and undergraduate and secondary school level interest. Greater emphasis should also be placed on mid-career training and on providing post-doctoral education for scientists who come into oceanography and marine technology from. other fields. In "non-science'. areas addressed by the Sea Grant Program, increased funding is necessary, for as ,America undertakes a National ocean program, all aspects of society have a right to involve themselves in its affairs and toberiefit from its development. 2. Legislation should be enacted to permit the Sea Grant Program to make grants for the ships and laboratories necessary to support the program's objectives. This amendment to the present Sea Grant statute also has been recommended by the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography. Both in this and in the other Federally funded programs, education and training must be clearly identified in future budgets. Too often research overshadows education and training needs. Also needed is development of cooperative arrangements between major marine laboratories and universities that desire marine science programs but their own facilities. A percentage of future National funds for marine-related research and development facilities should be specifically allocated to education and training programs., 3. The Federal Government should adopt a funding policy designed to create a small number of National centers for marine education and training, adequately. provided with facilities and teaching staffs to serve as pace-setters in preparing personnel for work in marine-related fields. There would be a few institutions for specialized instruction in the marine sciences. In all programs to support marine, education and training, greater attention is needed to provide continuing financial support. Basic science, in particular, does not produce "results" on a budget cycle. Although the Congress may be unwilling to commit itself to underwriting long-term education and training projects, those who present oceanography's case to the Congress each year, should be prepared to stand behind carefully selected programs so that these programs will receive necessary support each year. Education and training are vital components of the Commission's recommended National ocean program because of the growing need for marine scientists, engineers, and technicians and for"program managers, policy coordinators, and others associated with the organizational aspects of marine affairs. Unless greater attention and support are received by the whole area of marine education and training-unless far greater investment than now planned is directed toward marine education and training-or unless the Nation is willing in an emergency to pay the penalties of a crash program like that- during World War-11, serious manpower deficiencies may develop which would impede the implementa- tion of the National program to make more effective use of the sea. IV-14 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1969 0 - 333-093 m! @m "'too- 7' 77'7'@ - *90 1 Jim, APO fo, af 3 6668 14108 8 7