Trends in U.S. coastal regions, 1970-1998 addendum to the proceedings, Trends and future challenges for U.S. national ocean and coastal policy

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Trends in US* Coastal Regions,
19 Aw 1998
Addendum to the Proceedings,
Trends and Future Challenges for
U.S, National Ocean and Coastal Policyf

August 1999

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About This Report
This report examines underlying and em erging trends that are
shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and coastal manage-
ment and policy. Past and projected trends are presented ih popu-
lation and settlement; economic activity; social values; resources;
environmental quality; hazards; and governance and manage-
ment. An effort is made to use enough contextual information so
that the data convey a story about the present and future of the
nation's coasts.

Report Team Charles A. Bookman
Thomas J. Culliton
Maureen A. Warren

Acknowledgments
Many staff members of the National Ocean Service Special Projects
Office contributed to this paper in important ways by identifying
information sources, contributing data and analysis, or providing
critical technical support. The following individuals obtained and
provided information: Suzanne Bricker and Chris Cleme:_-It
(eutrophication), Timothy Goodspeed (marine pollution), Miranda
Harris (coastal hazards, marine recreation), Vernon Leew orthy
(marine recreation), John Hayes (social trends), Percy Pacheco
(water quality), Davida Remer (governance and management),
Craig Russell (energy and minerals), John Paul Tolson (various)
and Peter Wiley (marine aquaculture, marine recreation), Blair
Bower and Timothy Goodspeed reviewed the manuscriF t and
made numerous helpful suggestions. Davida Remer and Craig
Russell designed and incorporated the figures and tables. Pam
Rubin edited the report and designed the cover. The authors also
wish to acknowledge the contribution of Daniel J. Basta, Director
of the Special Projects Office, who supported the effort and made
the resources available.

For More Information
This report can be downloaded in PDF format from NOAXs
National Dialogues Web site:
http: / /state-of-coast.noaa.gov/natdialog/index.htmI
For a printed version of the report, contact Pam Rubin, Special
Projects Office, National Ocean Service, NOAA, 1305 East-West
Hwy., 9th Fl., Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281.

301-713-3000, ext. 121
[email protected]

Contents

Page

Executive Summary ........................................................................................ iii

Introduction ............................................................................................................1

Coastal Population and Settlement ...................................................................3
Hot Spots of Growth .......................................................................................3
Settlement Patterns ..........................................................................................3
Housing Construction Trends ........................................................................4

Social Trends ..........................................................................................................6

Economic and Resource Trends ..........................................................................7
Recreation and Tourism ..................................................................................7
Waterbome Commerce ...................................................................................8
Energy and Minerals .......................................................................................9
Food Supply .................................................................................................... 11
Living Marine Resources .............................................................................. 12

Environmental Quality ...................................................................................... 13
Point Sources of Pollution ............................................................................. 15
Nonpoint Sources of Pollution ..................................................................... 16
Habitats ........................................................................................................... 18

Coastal Hazards ................................................................................................... 19

Governance and Management .......................................................................... 22

Concluding Observations .................................................................................. 24

End Notes .............................................................................................................. 26

References ............................................................................................................. 26

conserve and manage the environment, and they
Executive Summary have considerable technical and managerial capabili-
ties and resources.
Coastal areas are invaluable for their economic
vitality and biological diversity. At the same time, the Economic and resource trends. Marine-related
coasts are under considerable pressure. This paper economic activities in the coastal zone and coastal
examines underlying and emerging trends that are ocean account for up to two percent of the U.S. Gross
shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and National Product and are comparable in scope to
coastal management and policy. Present and pro- other important sectors of the economy, such as
jected trends are discussed in population and settle- agriculture. Recreation and tourism, waterbome
ment; social values; economic activity; resources; commerce, energy and mineral production, and
environmental quality; hazards; and governance and fisheries account for most economic activities along
management. the coast.
Coastal population and settlement. Population Recreation and tourism. Outdoor recreation and
growth and its associated impacts may be the most tourism are the most significant economic
critical issue confronting coastal managers and activities in the coastal zone, accounting for half
decision-makers. Coastal areas are crowded and or more of total ocean-related economic activity
becoming more so. About half the nation's popula- Despite the diversity and scope of recreational
tion presently resides in the narrow fringe of coastal activities-from birdwatching, to boating-based
counties. From 1996-2015, the coastal population is sports, to second-home developments-little
projected to increase from 141 million to 166 million. information is available on coastal and marine
Population growth and consequent increases in recreation and tourism, its scope, importance,
settlement densities bring jobs, create economic and impacts. Interestingly, the government plays
prosperity, add new industry, improve regional an important role in providing the underlying
infrastructures, enhance educational opportunities, conditions for marine recreation and tourism.
and increase tax revenues-but they also burden These include (1) ensuring a clean environment,
local environments. As coastal populations swell, the (2) assuring coastal access, and (3) promoting a
natural features that may have attracted people to the safe operating environment. Given the economic
coast are lost or diminished. Population pressures importance of marine recreation and tourism, and
lead to increased solid-waste production, higher the importance of the government role in provid-
volumes of urban runoff, losses of green space and ing the basic underlying conditions for these
wildlife habitat, declines in ambient water quality, activities, much more could be done to under-
and increased demands on wastewater treatment, stand, document, manage, and promote marine
potable water, and energy supplies. To control these recreation.
kinds of impacts, states and localities have begun to
channel public investment for infrastructure into Waterbome commerce. U.S. waterborne foreign
areas that are best able to accommodate growth trade is projected to continue to grow at an
without deleterious environmental impacts. average annual rate of 3.7 percent. Domestic
waterbome trade is also growing, and becoming
Social trends. Thirty years ago, most Americans more diverse-the shifting of freight cargoes
believed that resources were essentially infinite and from ships to barges, and the growth in passen-
could be exploited forever. Today, in contrast, marine ger traffic, especially ferries and day boats, are
and coastal resources are known to be finite, and prominent domestic trends. The focus of all this
capable of being harmed or lost by human activities. activity is the major ports (about 145 of them),
As shown by national polling data, the transition of each of which handles more than 9 million metric
the environment from an issue of limited concern to tons of cargo annually. These ports need to keep
one of universal concern occurred years ago. More- pace with the growth in trade, and other changes
over, the public understands the ocean's importance in ships and shipping. U.S ports are affected by
to human health, and demonstrates a sense of important changes in two areas: (1) the rapidly
responsibility to protect the ocean for present and changing intermodal freight transportation
future generations. Coincident with the evolution of market, which moves increasing amounts of
public attitudes that favor ocean protection, nongov- cargo on ever more demanding schedules, and
emmental organizations have risen to work with (2) the increasing number and complexity of
both landowners and government agencies to environmental regulations that pertain to ports.
The U.S. Department of transportation and other

iii

agencies have initiated a coordinated national needs at a time when population growth and
effort to highlight trends, promote coordination rising affluence are increasing the demand for
at the national level, and encourage local solu- food. Aquaculture holds some promise as an
tions. This will help ensure adequate port alternative to wild harvest, but has environmen-
infrastructure, including appropriate channel tal problems of its own.
and berth depths, real-time navigation informa-
tion, modem port facilities, and efficient Environmental quality. Coastal oceans and
intermodal connections. estuaries are among the most productive and valu-
able natural systems. They are also among the most
Energy and minerals resources and production. threatened. Environmental stressors include nutrient
About 19 percent of the nation's produced oil overenrichment, bacterial contamination, chemical
comes from federal offshore lands. Moreover, pollution, oxygen depletion, oil and grease spills and
revenues and royalties earned on this production contamination, and planned and unplanned habitat
are a significant source of revenue for the federal alterations. The importance and severity of these
government. Heightening the importance of the stressors varies from region to region and often is a
oceans to the U.S. energy supply is the fact that consequence of human activity.
about 50 percent of oil consumed is imported by
ship, and the reliance on imported petroleum is Point sources. Point sources of pollution include
slated to grow to 60 percent by 2010. An increas- discharges of municipal and industrial wastewa-
ing fraction of domestic offshore oil and gas is ter and dumping of materials into ocean waters.
being discovered and produced from wells In general, the nation has made a massive and
drilled in deep water, especially in the Gulf of partially successful investment over the last
Mexico. Rapid and dramatic technology ad- generation to control point sources, and the
vances, coupled recently with relief from paying environment has benefited as a result. Two of the
royalties on deepwater production, have com- outstanding successes include (1) more wide-
bined to encourage the trend toward deep water spread wastewater treatment, and higher levels
production. Current models suggest that federal of treatment, across the nation, and (2) the
offshore lands contain 50 percent of the nation's elimination of most ocean dumping and greater
remaining undiscovered oil and gas resources; control over the one major dumping activity that
offshore oil production rates are projected to remains-the disposition of materials dredged
increase by at least 10 percent between 1995 and from navigable waterways. The developments in
2000. wastewater treatment are mirrored and con-
firmed in environmental measurements that
Fishery resources and food supply. U.S. fishery show long-term reduction of heavy metal and
landings have increased over the past 50 years, organic chemical pollution in the marine envi-
but have now reached the maximum capacity of ronment near urban areas, as well as improve-
our oceans and coastal waters to produce fish. ments in other indicators of environmental
While landings in Alaska have increased dra- quality. Ocean dumping of dredged material
matically, they have declined in other regions for now is confined to clean materials placed in
many species. In addition, for some marine designated dump sites that are carefully moni-
species, recreational landings represent a signifi- tored.
cant and growing proportion of the catch. The
challenge in fisheries management is to achieve Nonpoint sources. The remaining one- to two-
sustainable fisheries over the long-term. To thirds of pollutants contributing to the degrada-
accomplish this, it is necessary to end overfishing tion of coastal and marine waters are from
and allow depleted stocks to rebuild. nonpoint sources, which include runoff and
seepage from agricultural and urban areas, and
The acreage of designated shellfishing waters is air deposition onto land and into water. Seasonal
at an all-time high. At the same time, health eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of water
restrictions on these waters are at their lowest bodies is an important manifestation of nonpoint
levels since 1980. Overall, the condition of pollution. The problem varies by region. The
shellfish harvest waters is improving. aggregate picture indicates an increase in the
severity and extent of eutrophication in the
The degradation and loss of coastal habitats, with future, with greater than 60 percent of the
other factors such as overfishing, are constrain- monitored estuaries expected to show worsening
ing the contribution of fisheries to world dietary eutrophication symptoms. This is largely a

consequence of the anticipated population areas, and (2) building codes that incorporate hazard-
growth in estuarine watersheds. Because of resistant construction standards, as well as guidelines
projected population increases, the need to limit for appropriate siting of structures in areas where
nutrient inputs to estuaries must be emphasized they are less likely to suffer wind or water damage.
further as we move into the next century.
Governance and management. The great number
Habitats. Human activities have changed, of activities that occur in the coastal zone and in, on,
degraded or destroyed coastal habitats, threaten- and under the coastal ocean are governed by a
ing many important species. Until recently, many complex and often fragmented framework of laws,
coastal habitat resources were undervalued or regulations, and practices. Three fundamental trends
not fully appreciated in terms of our dependence are occurring to address this situation. First, on an
on them. Efforts have recently begun on every international scale since 1973, the idea of the oceans
coast to identify the habitats essential for every as a "commons" has been supplanted by principles,
life stage of every managed fish species. Once codified in the Law of the Sea Convention, which
these essential habitats have been identified, (1) recognize the rights of nation-states to establish
measures can then be taken to protect them from 200-mile exclusive economic zones over ocean
direct damage, and from degradations such as resources and uses, and (2) authorize regional
nonpoi.nt source pollution, eutrophication, and management arrangements for ocean uses. This trend
physical habitat loss resulting from coastal has led to increases in resource utilization, such as
development. fisheries development and offshore energy produc-
tion. Second, federal environmental mandates have
Coastal hazards. Coastal storms damage property, established special ocean and coastal management
take lives, and disrupt ecosystems as a result of high areas, and expanded the national capacity to plan for
winds, storm surge, flooding, and shoreline erosion. and manage the coastal zone. Third, integrated
The theory that global warming will make storms management approaches are coming into use that
stronger and more frequent is under intense sWdy; bring together diverse stakeholders to address the
the data are incomplete about whether global warm- economic, environmental, and social demands placed
ing will lead to more destructive coastal storms. It is on finite ocean and coastal resources.
known, however, that sea level is rising in many
regions, and that global warming may speed this
process. Global sea level is projected to rise on
average about 5 mm/yr. A rise in sea level and
increased storm frequencies could accelerate erosion
and associated habitat loss, increase salinity, alter
tidal ranges, change sediment and nutrient transport
patterns, and increase coastal flooding.

The societal cost of coastal hazards is determined not
only by the annual variability in their occurrence, but
also by the increasing population at risk, the growing
numbers and value of structures and businesses, and
other manifestations of economic activity. Both
population and wealth have increased greatly, and
these changes have increased the exposure of the U.S.
population to damages from coastal hazards.

When the losses from coastal storms are normalized
to account for these changes, the extent of damages
actually has decreased (on average) over the years.
The explanation for this conundrum of greater
potential for loss, but relatively fewer actual losses,
lies in the success of major and long-term efforts to
prepare and plan for coastal hazards, and to mitigate
their effects. These efforts include (1) better predic-
tions, forecasts and warnings that enable timely and
targeted preparations and evacuations of high hazard

ties that stress the natural environment (e.g., popula-
Introduction tion growth); or (2) natural changes that stress
human activities (e.g., sea level rise). These pressures,
Coastal areas are invaluable for their economic together with societal actions (responses) to address
vitality and biological diversity. At the same time, the pressure or mitigate their impacts on society,
the coasts are under considerable pressure. More determine the environment's state or condition. As an
than half of the U.S. population lives and works in example, consider population growth, settlement,
coastal regions. As coastal populations grow and and economic development in the coastal zone.
associated economic development increases, many of These activities bring demands for water, waste
the qualities and features of the coast are diminished. disposal and raw materials; they increase pollutant
Coastal habitats are degraded or lost, harmful algae discharges to water and air, and change land uses,
blooms proliferate, fisheries are overexploited, and often degrading or fragmenting natural habitats.
seafood advisories increase. The natural processes of Without mitigation, these pressures can seriously
coastal ecosystems are being disrupted, and this, in compromise natural biophysical systems. The
turn, threatens the ecological and economic values of pressures that are examined in this paper include
coastal areas. Figure 1 shows the gradual increase in trends in population and settlement; economic
U.S. coastal and noncoastal populations in recent activity; social values; and natural hazards in the
decades. coastal zone.

A plethora of federal, state, and local management State is the quality or condition of the environment.
efforts address these issues. Nevertheless, there is a It is the result of the combined effects of the pressures
growing recognition that, because of the direct and and societal attempts to reduce the effects of the
indirect impacts of human activities, crisis conditions pressures, Le-, responses. State relates to ecological
are emerging in many coastal areas. Regrettably, the processes or to a part or parts of ecological systems.
environmental quality of coastal and marine areas In this report, the state of the coastal environment is
and resources, and the economic value of vital ocean summarized by examining trends in living and
and coastal industries such as trade, tourism, and nonliving coastal resources, coastal environmental
fishing, will be in jeopardy unless effective measures quality, and certain human settlement patterns that
are taken soon to safeguard, protect, and restore our increase the potential for damages from coastal
oceans and coastal areas. hazards.

This paper examines underlying and emerging
trends that are affecting coastal and marine resources Figure 1. Past and projected population trends in U.S.
and uses, and coastal management and policy. and coastal counties, 1960-2010
Trends (past and projected) are presented in popula-
tion and settlement; economic activity; social values; 350'
fesources; environmental quality; hazards; and N United States
governance and management. An effort is made to 300' PON Coastal Counties
use enough contextual information so that the data
convey a story about the present and possible future 250-
of the nation's coasts.
0
200-
The report focuses on the coastal and ocean areas of 4@
the United States. Ocean areas represent waters 9
=0 150-
extending from the shoreline to the limits of the
Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles). The 100
term coastal area, coastal region, or coastal zone
generally refers to the land and waters included in
the nation's coastal counties. Coastal counties are 50
defined as those including at least 15 percent of their
land area within a coastal watershed. 0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Pressure, State, Response Focus. A pressure, state, Year
and response analytical framework is used in this
paper. Pressures may result from: (1) human activi- Sources: Bureau of the Census, 1998, National Planning
Association, 1995

Responses are societal actions that improve environ-
mental conditions or alleviate or eliminate environ-
mental pressures. Societal actions include legislation,
regulation, capital expenditures on infrastructure
(e.g., waste treatment), research, financial incentives
and disincentives, education, information gathering,
and changes in personal habits or behaviors. Re-
sponses take place in many arenas, including na-
tional and state legislatures, government agencies at
federal, state, and local levels, nonprofit organiza-
tions, private industry, international organizations,
and even individual households. The governance
and management section addresses trends in re-
sponse efforts along the coast. Responses to pressures
(e.g., societal responses to deteriorated water and air
quality; resource depletion, coastal hazards) are also
discussed.

The quantity and quality of the data used to develop
this report vary according to each topic. Information
documenting trends in economic activities, resource
status and use, pollution impacts, and management
is of varied quality and uneven in subject matter. It
also is difficult to summarize trends on these topics
in a limited space. However, actual trend information
for coastal areas at the national scale is not readily
available for many topics. As a result, some of the
trend information included in this report applies to
noncoastal areas as well. In addition, it is difficult to
obtain projected data for topics other than population
or activities that are directly impacted by population
growth (e.g., projected municipal sewage treatment
effluent).

ment than noncoastal areas, accounting for 16 of the
Coastal Population and 20 counties with the largest number of new housing
Settlement units under construction. Finally, coastal counties are
among the nation's wealthiest; 18 of the 20 leading
counties in per capita income are located along the
Coastal areas are crowded and becoming more so coast (Bureau of the Census, 1994a).
every day. More than 141 million people-about 53
percent of the national total-reside along the narrow This kind of growth brings jobs, creates economic
coastal fringes. Population growth in the 1990s has prosperity, adds new industries, improves regional
averaged about 1.1 million people per year. The infrastructure, enhances educational opportunities,
population is projected to increase by about 24.7 and increases tax revenues-but it also burdens the
million, reaching 166 million people by the year 2015. environment. As coastal populations swell, the
Most of this population growth will occur in the natural features that may have attracted people to the
states of California, Florida, Texas, Washington, and coast are lost or diminished. Population pressures
Virginia. Together, California and Florida are ex- include increased solid waste production, higher
pected to increase by 13 million people, more than volumes of urban nonpoint runoff, loss of green
half of the total increase in coastal population. space and wildlife habitat, declines in ambient water
quality, and increased demands on wastewater
treatment, potable water, and energy supplies.
------------
Hot' "S "s, "'b", f'Grow,,th'_.:-
Between 1997 and 2015, 10 counties in the aforemen- SettlelpentPattems`.@,"
tioned states are projected to account for about one-
third of all anticipated coastal population growth. The coast is becoming more crowded every year.
The largest population increases are expected in Los Coastal areas are more densely populated than the
Angeles (1.6 million) and San Diego (1.2 million) rest of the Nation. In 1997, an average of 277 people
counties in California, and Harris County (1.2 inhabited every square mile of coastal land (exclud-
million) surrounding Houston, Texas. ing Alaska). This is three times the national average
(91 persons per square mile). Since 1970, the coastal
Growth along the Southern California coast, from population density increased by about 62 persons for
Santa Barbara to San Diego, has been rapid, averag- every square mile of coastal land (Figure 2).
ing about 3,400 newcomers every week. The region's
population increased from 11.6 million in 1970 to 18.7
million in 1997, and is projected to increase by 5.2
million people-reaching almost 24 million-by Figure 2. Past and projected population density in coastal
2015. This region alone accounts for more than 13 and noncoastal counties, 1970-2015
percent of the nation's coastal population. 350 - Coastal
During the past several years, Florida's population Counties
has increased by about 4,400 people per week. 300- Noncoastal
Florida includes many of the nation's fastest-growing 250-- Counties
counties. Large numbers of people have settled in the
Miami-Ft. Lauderdale metropolitan area, and also 200
along Florida's southwest coast. Rapid population
growth also has occurred since 1970 in vacation and 150--_
retirement communities, especially along the state's
western coast. Q), 100-

Coastal counties lead in many demographic indica- 50--
tors. During the last decade, 17 of the nation's 20 1 F, I I
AIR_
fastest-growing counties were located along the 0*,ri
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2015
coast. Nineteen of the 20 most densely populated Year
counties in the country are located along the coast. Sources: Bureau of the Census, 1998; National Planning
Coastal counties are also undergoing more develop- Association, 1995

Fourteen of the 20 largest U.S. cities are located in the and maintenance for localities (Thompson, 1993).
coastal zone. The population for seven of these cities Sprawl also overtakes farm and forestland and open
exceeds one million people. In 1990, almost 113 space. It brings pollutants such as oil leaked from
million people-about 45 percent of the U.S. popula- automobile 's and chemicals leached. from suburban
tion-lived in urban areas along the coast. In many lawn S@. Watersheds where the maintenance of healthy
large cities, the most rapid growth is occurring in the conditions formerly depended on agricultural land
outermost suburban areas. Rapid rates of growth stewardship are often affected now by the actions of
have occurred in "exurban" counties such as hundreds of small landowners, making the task of
Spotsylvania, VA; Manassas, VA; and Calvert, MD, developing effective, cooperative efforts all the more
located along the outer metropolitan fringe of difficult and necessary (USDA, 1996).
Washington, DC. Dare, NC; Dorchester and Berke-
ley, SC; and Virginia Beach, VA, typify southeastern
U.S. counties where rapid population growth is
fueled by economic development and relocating
retirees.

About 9,000 new, single-family homes are con-
structed along the coast every week (NOAA, 1992). An average of 2,000 new homes were built along the
Another 6,700 housing units in multi-unit buildings U.S. coast every day during the past 25 years. The
are also built every week. Single-family housing most dramatic growth since 1970 has occurred in
developments frequently include large homes on Florida and California, where an estimated 7.6
large lots. For example, almost one-third of all new million housing units were authorized for construc-
home construction is for houses with more than 2,400 tion between 1970 and 1994. This represents 40
square feet of floor area (Bureau of the Census, percent of all new housing construction along the
1994b). In addition, the median lot size in the U.S. is coast. Single-family homes account for about 60
about 17,000 square feet (Culliton et. al., 1992). percent of all new housing along the coast. About
Every day, about 1,300 acres of coastal lands are 453,000 new single-family homes are constructed in
bulldozed under or paved over and converted to coastal areas every year. Multi-unit dwellings (e.g.,
urban land. Currently, about 8 percent of all coastal duplexes, condominiums, apartments) are built at the
lands are classified as urban. This is up from 3.5 rate of 303,000 units per year.
percent in 1960. Urban lands account for about The construction of single-family housing is more
41,175 square miles of coastal areas, up from 17,862 common along the Atlantic Coast and in the Great
in 1960. Lakes region than elsewhere. More than 62 percent
As urban areas have grown along the coast, agricul- of all new construction in these regions is for single-
tural land has diminished. Farmland has declined family dwellings. Multi-unit buildings are more
from 160,649 square miles in 1982 to 140,570 in predominant in the Pacific Region.
1992-a decrease of 20,079 square miles. This Seasonal Housing. Coastal areas are popular vaca-
equates to an average loss of 0.7 acres of coastal tion and retirement destinations (Table 1). The
farmland per minute. This valuable land that pro- growth in seasonal homes along the coast increased
duces food and provides open space, wildlife habitat, by more than 45 percent between 1960 and 1990.
and clean water is increasingly at risk. The competi- Seasonal housing is most heavily concentrated along
tion for farmland-especially productive agricultural the Northeast coast. In 1990, about 484,000 seasonal
land-will intensify as the coastal population grows homes (e.g., single family, cottages, condominiums)
and technological innovations make it easier for were located along the northeastern seaboard.
people to live and work in more widely dispersed Barrier island developments are home to a large
communities. portion of this housing. More than one-fifth of these
The increasingly complex mix of urban and rural seasonal dwellings are concentrated along the New
land use also has natural resource impacts. Urban- Jersey shore. Massachusetts (18 percent), New York
ization brings streets and rooftops that gather (17 percent) and Maine (16 percent) also account for a
stormwater into drains and drainageways instead of large share of second homes situated along the
filtering it naturally through the soil. Sprawl results Northeast Coast.
in higher costs for paving and road maintenance,
sewer and storm drain construction, water supply,

Table 1. Leading states in coastal county seasonal homes,
1990 The Smart Growth Movement:
A Response to Population and
State Seasonal Homes Settlement Pressures
Florida 408,328 The population of coastal counties in Maryland grew
Michigan 213,214 from about 3.6 million in 1970 to almost 4.7 million in
New York 142,194 1997-an increase of about 3,250 people per month.
Califorr-da 125,593 This growth has yet to abate; on the contrary, an
increase of 750,000 people is projected for Maryland's
New Jersey 100,529 coastal counties between now and 2015.
Massachusetts 88,642
Maine 78,062 Such growth has had an enormous impact on the
Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuarine system in the
Texas 53,662 United Sta 'tes. The Bay's watershed, radically changed
Wisconsin 48,388 since the onset of European settlement three centuries
ago, continues to undergo changes that reflect land use
Source: Bureau of the Census, 1998 across this 64,000-square-mile expanse. Polluted runoff
enters the bay from urban, suburban and agricultural
lands. About 40 percent of the land is no longer in its
More than 63 percent of seasonal housing in the natural state, and wetlands are still being lost at a rate
Southeast is located along the Florida coast. The area of about eight acres per day (Chesapeake Bay Program,
from West Palm Beach to Miami is one of the nation's 1997 on-line).
leading tourist destinations, accounting for 41
percent of all seasonal homes between Virginia and Around the Chesapeake Bay, sprawl is quickly
gobbling up open space and forested land. According
the Florida Keys. North Carolina and South Carolina to the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, more than 90,000
account for much of the remaining seasonal housing acres are consumed by sprawl each year in states
in the region. bordering the Bay. Today, four to five times more land
is used per person than was the case 40 years ago.
In the Gulf of Mexico, western Florida accounts for
almost 70 percent of all seasonal dwellings. Rapid An ever expanding population has resulted in higher
development has occurred along the state's south- wastewater flows to the Bay. Through increased
west coast in recent decades. Almost 14,000 new wastewater treatment and a ban of phosphorus-
containing detergents, point sources of phosphorus
seasonal homes were constructed near Ft. Myers in have been reduced by 70 percent since a peak in the
the 1980s. Another 10,000 seasonal dwellings were 1970s. Recently implemented controls of nitrogen are
constructed in the 1980s in Collier County, where already reducing the levels of this pollutant entering
beach resorts such as Marco Island and Naples are the Bay from point sources, such as industrial facilities
located. and municipal sewage treatment plants (Chesapeake
Bdy Program, 1997 on-line).
Seasonal housing in Pacific coastal counties is most
heavily concentrated in California. About 60 percent In 1997, the.Maryland Legislature approved the "Smart
of all seasonal dwellings in the Pacific region are Growth and Neighborhood Conservation Initiatives."
,The legistatio n earmarks state funding of infrastructure
located in the state. San Diego and Los Angeles log., roadssewers, schools) for new development to
counties@ are home to most of the state's seaside
growth areas along the Washington-Baltimore
second homes. In contrast, Washington accounts for metropolitan corridor and to established cities and
about 19 percent of second homes in this region. ,towns. Any development outside these growth areas
Hawaii, a tourist mecca, surprisingly represents only 'would not receive state support (Sustainable Commu-
six percent (12,876 units) of the regional total. nities Network, 1997 on-line). A major objective of the
"legislation is to preserve Maryland's agricultural lands
green space. Without the legislation, it is feared
Michigan's extensive shoreline, rimming the Great
@ ,that some half-mil[lion acres of open space and farm-
Lakes, makes it the leader among Great Lakes states. land would be, lost over the next 20 years (Sustainable
It accounts for 56 percent of all coastal seasonal Communities Network, 1997 on-line). This effort-
dwellings in the region, followed by New York (16 focusing state funds for infrastructure on areas that can
percent) and Wisconsin (13 percent). accorrunodate growth without deleterious environ-
mental impacts-is, a major accomplishment.

Table 2. The environment as a voting issue: Exit polls,
Social Trends 1982-1992

At the cusp of the millennium, change in every Year Exit Pollster Must Important Issues Percentage
aspect of our lives is both the trend and the norm. 1982 CBS/NY Times Unemployment 38
Our society is becoming more diverse. Some people Env ironment 3.
1984 LA Times Government Spending 22
grow more isolated from the environment; others En@ Iironment 4
embrace the natural world. Complex technological 1988 CBS/NY Times Helping Middle Class 25
systems (e.g., power grids, tankers, pipelines) are En@ironment 10
increasingly vital, but their reliability depends on the 1990 Voter Research Education 26
performance of people'. and Surveys Env Iironment 21
1992 Voter News Economy/jobs 12
Thirty years ago, most Americans believed that Service Environment 5
resources were essentially infinite and could be
exploited forever. Most also believed that a Nation Source: Adapted from Ladd and Bowman, 1996
that could send a man to the moon could, in a few
short years, master any technological problem,
including cleaning up river pollution and finding a
cure for cancer. The government in that expansive era ward events or if people feel their political leaders
was viewed as the principal means for addressing are not mindful of their concerns. The "spike" of
social ills and promoting progress. Today, marine interest in the environment in 1990, as shown in the
resources and coastal areas are recognized as finite table, may be attributed to this phenomenon.
resources, capable of being harmed or lost by human
activities (The Heinz Center, 1998). A balance be- Interestingly, as the environment has declined in
tween use and conservation is sought. The principle intensity as a national issue, it has become more
of "sustainability"2 is invoked and decision-makers potent politically at the state and local levels, where
are encouraged to apply the precautionary principle3. tangible choices must be made between competing
Managers seek to achieve their objectives through interests. On the whole, however, pollsters find
partnerships that build on public and private roles Americans' commitment to the environment to be
and capabilities, because solutions and innovations broad-based, stable, and strong.
often require the participation of all stakeholders.
Perhaps the most far-reaching change is that most A 1996 poll gauged Americans' attitudes toward
Americans today, and most companies and units of marine environmental issues (Spruill, 1997). It
government, characterize themselves as envirortmen- documented widespread recognition of the ocean's
talists. importance, concern about its health, and a sense of
responsibility to protect the ocean for present and
Awareness about the Importance of Environmental future generations. This strong concern for the ocean
Quality. A generation ago, the idea that the United makes the coastal and marine environment "an issue
States should make a substantial commitment to the waiting to be made."
environment was just beginning to come into focus
as a result of myriad events and issues. Today, in Nongovernmental Organizations-Powerful New
contrast, Americans of all classes and social groups Stakeholders in Environmental Management.
are deeply committed to a safe and healthy environ- Environmental organizations have become a potent
ment. All of the modem environmental legislation, political force, perhaps the strongest single political
and the sweeping federal role in protecting the force influencing coastal policy. As a point of refer-
environment, stem from this evolution in public ence, the number of U.S. nongovernmental organiza-
awareness about the importance of environmental tions (NGOs) concerned with coastal natural re-
quality'. sources and environmental issues rose from 192 in
1970 to 560 in 1997 (National Wildlife Federation,
The transition of the environment from an issue of 1997,1970). The rise in numbers and influence of the
limited concern to one of widespread concern environmental advocacy community is one of the
occurred years ago. Today, surveys show that most fascinating institutional developments in recent
Americans have turned their attention elsewhere decades.
(Table 2). However, a "settled" issue like the environ-
ment can return to national prominence after unto-

These predominantly private-sector interests are 16.5 million. Interestingly, the number of inboard
willing to work with both landowners and govern- boats, which are more likely to be found in saltwater,
ment agencies to conserve and manage the environ- has tripled to 2.4 million.
ment, and they have considerable technical and
managerial capabilities and resources to offer. They Both the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
focus public discourse and attention on issues of and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) both
interest to them. Land trusts protect ecologically compile information on saltwater fishing. The
important lands by purchasing them; these activities USFWS reports that the number of saltwater anglers
are often undertaken in concert with public agencies increased significantly between 1970 and 1985, while
as part of a regional strategy to protect the environ- expenditures on saltwater fishing more than doubled
ment. Many NGOs provide additional 'research and during the same time period (USFWS, 1997). NMFS
monitoring resources, and help track conditions and reports that the estimated number of people partici-
issues. Occasionally, through adroit political and pating in marine recreational fishing has leveled off
legal pressure, NGOs are instrumental in compelling in the past five years (increasing by only one percent
industry or government agencies to favor environ- since 1993) and now stands at over 12 million
mental protection over other possible outcomes. (NMFS, 1998). These sources notwithstanding, one
cannot draw conclusions about outdoor marine
recreation as a whole based on trends in one activity@
Economic and Resource Estimates of recreational use in coastal areas indicate
Trends the following (NOAA, 1`98 on-line):
Economic activities in the coastal zone and coastal * Saltwater fishing generates expenditures of
ocean account for up to two percent of the U.S. Gross over $5 billion annually; a total economic
National Product and are comparable in scope to output of $15 billion; total earnings of over
other important sectors of the economy, such as $4 billion; and over 200,000 jobs.
agriculture (Pontecorvo, 1989; Wilson and Wheeler, * More than 77 million Americans participate
1997). Recreation and tourism, waterborne com- each year in recreational boating activities.
merce, energy and mineral production, and fisheries
account for most of the economic activity in coastal - The average American spends 10 recreational
areas. days on the coast each year.

Perhaps a more useful indicator of the overall trend
Recreation and Tourism in coastal and marine recreation is tourist visitation
......... patterns. Foreign tourism is a critical component of
Outdoor recreation and tourism are the most signifi- the overall U.S. tourism picture. Total foreign visita-
cant economic activities in the coastal zone. A study tion to the United States micreased by 76 percent
in California documented that tourism alone ($9.9 between 1985 and 1995 (from 25.8 million to 45.5
billion) accounted for more than half of the state's million) and in 1986, the United States was the
$17.3 billion ocean-related economic activity (Wilson world's most popular tourist destination (Miller and
and Wheeler, 1997). The proportion of the U.S. Auyong, 1991; Miller, 1993). More than 90 percent of
population that participates in at least one outdoor visitation by foreign tourists takes place in states
recreation activity has increased from 89 to 94.5 "where beaches are the leading tourist destination"
percent between 1982-1983 and 1994-1995 (Cordell et (Houston, 1996).
al., 1997). Miami Beach alone receives more visitors Non-use va
than any National Park. Coastal states in aggregate lues. The non-use value of coastal re-
earn 85 percent of total tourist revenues (NOAA, sources can be significant. A non-use value is a
1998 on-line). measure of the intrinsic value of a resource (i.e., the
value of the resource without any direct contact or
The number of recreational boats and participation interaction by humans). It is a measure of the value
rates in saltwater fishing are potential measures of people place on a resource simply due to its existence
recreational activity in the coastal zone. Since passage in a certain condition (e.g., a protected beach or coral
of the Coastal Zone Management Act in 1972, the reef). It may also be a measure of the possible future
number of recreational boats has nearly doubled to use of the resource (beach or reef), or the assurance

that the resource will be available in the future in a Figure 4. Waterborne crude oil imports and domestic
certain protected condition. Assuming a certain level crude oil production, 1973-1994
of water quality, the Chesapeake Bay has a non-use
value of $89 million (Bockstael et al., 1989). Thus, 10'
when non-use values are taken into account, the
ro 8-
economic importance of oceans and coasts can be Im -
very great.
6-
.4
Importance of the Government's Role. The govern- E
@M` 4-
ment plays an important role in providing the cc
underlying conditions for coastal and marine recre- 2
ation and tourism. These include (1) ensuring a clean
environment, (2) assuring coastal access, and (3) 0
promoting a safe operating environment. Given the 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993
economic importance of marine recreation and Year
tourism, and the importance of the government role Domestic Production Waterbome Imports
in providing the basic underlying conditions for
these activities, much more could be done to under- Source: National Research Council, 1997a. Import data from U.S.
stand, document, manage, and promote coastal and Army Corps of Engineers, 1973-1994, Production data from
marine recreation. Energy Information Administration, 1995

_7
-more than half of the oil it consumes, and imports are
u6m,, -5
ts growing steadily (Figure 4) (American Petroleum
_71-77 40 t'2 Institute, 1996).
International Trade. International trade continues to
be a major factor in worldwide economic growth. Foreign-flag vessels have largely carried the more
The United States now leads the world in the value than fourfold increase in U.S. waterbome interna-
of imports and exports. Moreover, U.S. waterborne tional trade since World War 11. In 1994, foreign flag
foreign trade is projected to grow at an average vessels carried about 98 percent of U.S. foreign trade
annual rate of 3.7 percent (Figure 3). The value of by tanker and 85 percent by cargo liner. To accommo-
exports and U.S. commodity imports was almost $1.2 date expanding trade, oceangoing ships have grown
trillion in 1994. Commodity exports rose from 5 considerably in size, complexity, and speed. The
percent of the gross domestic product in 1984 to 7.5 increase in international waterborne trade and its
percent in 1994 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995). growing importance to U.S. prosperity, as well as the
Shipments of oil and petroleum products constitute a demands posed by changes in world fleets, require
major component of U.S. trade. The U.S. imports that maritime transportation be highly efficient. As a
result, waterways management is an increasingly
important determinant of system efficiency.
Figure 3. Trend in U.S. waterborne commerce Domestic Trade. The face of domestic marine
1.4- transportation has changed as well (Marine Cabotage
Task Force, 1997). Since 1965, large containerized
Forecast
Z cargo vessels have replaced breakbulk cargo vessels.
0 1L.U TotalITrad In domestic shipping, barges have replaced tradi-
tional self-propelled ships as the vessel of choice. In
the ore-carrying Great Lakes fleet, large, self-unload-
con 0.6 ing vessels have replaced older, less-efficient vessels.
Moreover, in many regions, passenger ferries and
Nor. excursion boat services are growing.
0.2
0 Changes in Ports. The focus of all this activity is the
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 port. The U.S. waterways transportation system
Year includes about 145 ports that each handle more than
1 million metric tons of cargo annually. The top 10
Source: National Research Council, 1996 ports handle a total of more than 900 million metric

Figure 5. Volume and costs of dredging by the U.S. cially concerning the growing need to deepen and
Army Corps of Engineers and industry, 1963-1994 widen channels to accommodate the latest ships.
I A /600 Interestingly, as documented in Figure 5, the volume
600 V_ of dredging fluctuates little from year to year. Simi-
r. A Yards larly, there is abundant anecdotal evidence that
0 -4i \ /7@ -
X.J 400 obtaining approvals for dredging continues to be a
complex and time-consuming process.
400

A
oward a Safe and Efficient Maritime Transporta-
V V VV
200-6 tion System. The requirement for a safe and efficient
200 C) marine transportation system has recently garnered
U rs national attention. A coordinated national effort to
highlight the trends and address the related issues is
0 i 0 being led by the interagency Committee on Water-
1963 1973 1983 1993 ways Management (U.S. Coast Guard, in press).
Policy coordination at the national level, combined
Note: Estimates do not include disposal costs and are current, not with action at the local port level, can help ensure an
constant dollars. adequate infrastructure, including appropriate
Source: National Research Council, 1997b channel and berth depths, real-time navigation
information, modem port facilities, and efficient
intermodal connections.
tons annually. These ports need to keep pace with the
growth in trade as well as other changes in ships and
shipping. They also must continue to accommodate
other users of the waterfront, and provide other M i
Enerair and nerals
benefits (e.g., recreational opportunities, marine
habitat protection). About 50 percent of oil consumed by the United
States in 1994 was imported. Current consumption
Despite their importance, many U.S. ports show suggests that by 2010, the U.S. will import over 60
signs of stress. A study by international tanker percent of its oil and gas. This dependence on foreign
operators concluded, "It is an anomaly that tankers oil is troublesome because, as experienced in the
which approach U.S. terminals do so without the 1970s, the international oil market is subject to
support of a modem vessel traffic system, often base unpredictable price changes and disruptions. This
their approach on 50-year-old charts, are instructed makes the United States vulnerable to economic
to approach the berth on less than adequate water impacts by geopolitical developments and instability
draft, and finally moor at a berth which was de- in world oil markets.
signed to accommodate ships much smaller than a
modem tanker" (Intertanko, 1996). Oil and Gas Production. Almost one-fifth of the
nation's produced oil comes from federal offshore
Ports are being affected by important changes in two lands (Minerals Management Service, 1997a) (Figure
areas (Bookman, 1996). The first is the rapidly 6). Revenues and royalties earned from this produc-
changing intermodal freight transportation market, tion contribute significant funding to the federal
which moves increasing amounts of cargo on ever- government. In 1997, the government received $1.4
more-demanding schedules. The survival of a billion in bonuses, $68 million in rent, and $3.5 billion
general cargo port now depends on its capability to in royalties from offshore petroleum activities
receive and transfer goods as quickly as possible. A (Energy Information Administration, 1998). In
1991 survey found that half of public ports and two- addition, the offshore oil and gas industry employs
thirds of container ports face growing problems tens of thousands. In the Gulf of Mexico and other
providing seamless transportation links among regions, some 38,000 people are employed offshore
waterways, highways, and railroads (National on drilling rigs and platforms, and another 46,000 are
I
EfD@olia

Research Council, 1993). employed in the industry onshore.

The second factor is the increasing number and Energy production occurs offshore of Alaska, Califor-
complexity of environmental regulations that pertain nia, and in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1996, the Gulf of
to ports (National Research Council, 1997b), espe- Mexico outer continental shelf (CICS) alone produced

Figure 6. Federal OCS oil and gas production, 632 ft. deep. In 1996, the deepest well was in water
1954-1995 7,620 ft. deep. It is anticipated that production will
30 extend to even greater depths in the next century.
However, development of these resources will
25 require advances in production technologies to
"0 address adverse oceanographic conditions, handle
0
c@ 20 G@V geohazards, and accommodate irregular ocean
t@ Natural bottom relief that complicates pipelines and founda-
E2 15 tions (NOAA, 1998).

10.-
As a result of increasing technology and the need to
0 "bir reduce reliance on imports of oil and gas, U.S.
5 g is showing a general increase in both explor-
drillin
0 1 atory and development wells. Although no explor-
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 atory wells were drilled on the Pacific OCS in 1997,
Year other regions recorded a high level of exploration,
combining for a national total of 353 exploratory
Source: Minerals Management Service, 1997a wells, up from 327 wells in 1996. A 10-year record of
601 development oil wells was set in 1997; this was
up from 562 wells in 1996 (Minerals Management
over 98 percent of the nation's OCS gas and over 85 Service, 1997c).
percent of OCS oil (Minerals Management Service,
1997b). Similarly, the Gulf of Mexico OCS accounted Three-dimensional seismic acquisition, modeling,
for 79 percent of new oil field discoveries and 70 and interpretation have greatly increased the effi-
percent of new gas discoveries, reinforcing the Gulf's ciency of oil and gas exploration. This has resulted in
future as the nation's primary domestic oil and gas the drilling of fewer exploratory wells and increased
producer (Energy Information Administration, 1998). rates of discovery. In addition, renewed interest in
deep water is being credited to technological ad-
Between 1995 and 1997, OCS oil production rose vances and horizontal drilling. Improvements in
from 19 percent to 20 percent of U.S. total oil produc- technology allow companies to identify reservoirs in
tion. OCS gas production rose from 26 percent to 27 progressively deeper water. Extended reach or
percent of U.S. total gas production between 1997 horizontal drilling allows for enhanced production,
and 1998, an increase for the third consecutive year increased production in borderline fields, and
(Minerals Management Service, 1998 on-line). These additional protection in environmentally sensitive
recent offshore development trends may begin to areas. It is estimated that one- to two-thirds of all
reverse a long trend of decline in U.S. domestic new wells will be horizontally drilled over the next
petroleum production. five years (NOAA, 1998).

About 45.6 billion barrels of oil and 268 trillion cubic Alternative Energy Resources. Recent research has
feet of natural gas are estimated to be on U.S. off- shown that most continental margins contain vast
shore federal lands. These are estimates of undiscov- reservoirs of gas concentrated in frozen, icelike gas
ered resources that could be developed using con- hydrates within the top several hundred meters of
ventional technology (Minerals Management Service, sediment. These vast deposits of methane hydrates
1997a). By comparison, more than 416 million barrels found in deeper oceanic areas are a promising, but
of oil and 4.7 trillion cubic feet of natural gas were challenging, new resource. A conservative estimate of
produced on the federal outer continental shelf methane gas in gas hydrate deposits is massive; it is
(OCS) in 1995 (Minerals Management Service, believed to contain about twice the carbon held in all
1997d). conventional fossil fuels on earth (NOAA, 1998).

Trends in Technology. U.S. offshore energy produc- In addition, technology exists for harnessing renew-
tion is occurring in water depths exceeding one mile, able and non-hydrocarbon energy resources from the
far offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. Rapid and dra- oceans. These include the heat content (thermal
matic technological advances, recently coupled with gradient) in the world's oceans and the mechanical
relief from paying royalties on deepwater produc- energy manifested by various ocean-water motions
tion, have combined to encourage the trend toward (e.g., surface waves, tides, and currents). While
deep water. In 1965, the deepest well was in water technologies to use these resources have been

proven, the sources themselves have not yet proven duction of meat animals-poultry, swine and beef-
to be economically viable, except in isolated, small over free-range harvesting. This intensification of
applications (NOAA, 1998). farming practices has affected coastal environments
in three ways. First, ploughed lands tend to lose their
Sand and Gravel. Coastal and ocean areas contain topsoil unless careful conservation practices, such as
vast deposits of sand and gravel. Portions of the forested riparian buffers, are employed. Over the
nation's OCS, especially in the Northeast, contain years, huge amounts of sediment from farmlands
abundant supplies of this resource. Sand and gravel have run off into America's rivers, estuaries, and
used in construction and in most public works coastal ocean. Second, fertilizers and pesticides
projects account for the largest tonnage of minerals applied in increasing amounts to both farmlands and
produced from the ocean (NOAA, 1998). Nearshore suburban lands over many years end up in runoff,
and offshore sand and gravel supplies are also ultimately finding their way into rivers, estuaries,
important sources used for beach nourishment and coastal oceans, where their negative effects on
projects along barrier island communities (National marine habitats are being documented. Third, animal
Research Council, 1995). feedlots and plants produce concentrations of
organic wastes, which, until recently, were not
Other Minerals. Mineral deposits in U.S. waters required to be strictly controlled. These wastes have
(other than sand and gravel) include massive phos- contributed to widespread pollution and marine
phate beds beneath the continental shelf from North habitat degradation in several major estuaries. Many
Carolina to northern Florida; titanium-rich, heavy of the coastal environmental trends discussed in
mineral sands off the East Coast from New Jersey to subsequent sections of this report have their origin,
Florida, and off the West Coast from Oregon to at least in part, in the intensification of farming
northern California; gold-bearing sand and gravel practices.
deposits off Alaska; barite deposits off southern
California; manganese nodules on the Blake Plateau Fisheries Trends and Food Production. Even as the
off South Carolina and Georgia and off Hawaii in the global demand for food grows at a record pace,
Clipperton Fracture Zone; and cobalt and platinum- growth in the supply of food is slowing. Growth in
rich crusts off of Hawaii. Gold was recovered by the supply of food from fisheries is no exception.
dredging in state waters off Nome, Alaska, from 1986 Worldwide, the 1990s have witnessed a leveling off
to 1990 (NOAA, 1998). of fisheries production for direct human consump-
tion. This is due in no small part to overfishing and
habitat degradation. The majority of economically
valuable marine fisheries are now at or beyond their
Food Supply
limits of sustainability (Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation, 1997). Because yields have leveled off, the
The world population increases by about 80 million annual addition of 2 million tons to the world's
each year; this rate of growth is projected to continue animal protein supply, which historically came from
for the next few decades. As population and afflu- growth in the fish catch, must now come from fish
ence increase, so does the demand for food. A farming, poultry production, or some other source.
growing imbalance between population growth and
food production may be one of the most important The United States is fortunate in that it can afford the
global issues in the next century. Coastal and ocean higher costs that are the consequence of resource
regions play important roles in food supply. Fisheries scarcity. Moreover, faced with fisheries declines of its
and marine aquaculture make obvious contributions, own, the U.S. depends increasingly on imports to
but there are more subtle relationships as well, such meet domestic consumption. Much of the imported
as the effects of farming practices on coastal habitats. seafood, especially high-value edible products such
as shrimp and salmon, come from marine aquacul-
Trends in Farming Practices and Coastal Habitats. ture (National Marine Fisheries Service, 1996 on-
Traditionally, a growing demand for food was met by line).
converting natural lands to arable lands. More
recently, in this century, higher-yielding varieties of Trends in Marine Aquaculture. Marine aquaculture,
grains and other crops have been employed, along the farming of marine finfish, shellfish, crustaceans
with increasing amounts of fertilizer, to steadily and seaweed, as well as the ocean ranching of
increase unit crop production and land productivity anadromous fish, is rapidly growing around the
(Food and Agriculture Organization, 1998). Trends in globe. In the United States, freshwater aquaculture is
animal production have favored factory-style pro- an expanding industry; however, marine aquaculture

has yet to achieve economic success beyond a limited overfished, and 448 (61 percent) are of unknown
basis. Constraints to the industry have included status (NMFS, 1997 on-line). In order to achieve
conflicts concerning the use of coastal and ocean long-term potential yield, it is necessary to end
space, public concerns about the effects of aquacul- overfishing and allow depleted stocks to rebuild.
ture on water quality, and ecological concerns
stemming from the potential for cultured animals to Marine Mammals. Although marine mammals,
escape into wild populations. Poor water quality and including dozens of species of whales, dolphins,
high labor and land costs have also inhibited marine porpoises, seals, walruses, and manatees, are not
aquaculture in the United States (National Research harvested in U.S. waters, they are important compo-
Council, 1992; Goldburg and Triplett, 1997). How- nents of coastal marine ecosystems. Of the 163
ever, because seafood consumption is increasing marine mammal stocks in U.S. waters, there is
while yields from capture fishing are reaching the sufficient long-term population information to
limits of sustainable returns, the opportunity exists describe trends for only 55 (33 percent) of the stocks;
for U.S. aquaculture to supply the growing demand, the status of the remaining 108 (66 percent) stocks is
and for U.S. marine aquaculture to make a significant unknown (NMFS, 1996). Of those for which informa-
contribution. tion is available, eight (5 percent) are declining, 24 (15
percent) are known to be stable, and 23 (14 percent)
Aquaculture production (freshwater as well as are believed to be increasing. Fifty-four stocks of
marine) now represents 20 percent of U.S. consump- marine mammals are classified as "strategic" under
tion, with production increasing at an average annual the Marine Mammal Protection Act. These are of
rate of 6.4 percent over the last decade (World major concern because they are depleted, have
Resources Institute et al., 1998; USDA, 1998; NMFS, excessive mortality, or are listed as endangered or
1997). About 10 percent of this production is marine threatened under the Endangered Species Act. A few
aquaculture. The largest U.S. marine aquaculture species of major concern include the blue, fin, and
production is in salmon, with 13,906 metric tons in sperm whales in both the Atlantic and Pacific
1996. This represents a doubling of production Oceans, the northern right whale in the Atlantic,
within a decade. The production of oysters, which Steller sea lions in Alaskan waters, Hawaiian monk
were the mainstay of U.S. marine aquaculture in the seals in Hawaii, and manatees in Florida.
1980s, remained stable; the recent decline in harvest
was probably due to environmental factors. Shellfish. The harvest of oysters, clams, and mussels
along the coast of the United States is a tradition that
can be traced back many centuries to the native
merl
''Resp
yin Ig Marine A cans who first inhabited these shores. Hun-
dreds of huge and long-forgotten middens, the waste
heaps of oyster and clam shells that dot the coast, are
Fisheries. U.S. fishery landings have increased over testimony to the original abundance of these animals,
the past 50 years, but have now reached the maxi- and their importance as a source of food. Today, most
mum capacity of our oceans and coastal waters to Americans consider shellfish more a delicacy than a
produce fish. Landings in Alaska have increased staple. Nevertheless, the harvest, processing, distribu-
dramatically, while they have declined in other tion, and consumption of shellfish, particularly oysters,
regions for many species. In any given region, make up an important industry, supporting thousands
commercial fisheries for "new" stocks have devel- of jobs and generating hundreds of millions of dollars
oped (Alaska walleye pollock), while others have for the nation's economy.
declined (New England groundfish), and others have
remained fairly stable (Gulf of Mexico menhaden). In 1995, over 24.8 million acres of marine and estua-
In addition, recreational fishing represents a signifi- rine waters in the contiguous United States were
cant portion of the landings for some marine species, classified as shellfish growing waters under a pro-
such as striped bass in the Northeast, spotted gram to protect human health that is jointly adminis-
seatrout in the Southeast, red drum in the Gulf of tered by coastal states and the National Shellfish
Mexico, and Pacific salmon on the West Coast. In a Sanitation Program (Figure 7). Of the 4,230 growing
1997 report to Congress on the status of U.S. Fisher- areas involved, 59 percent were approved for har-
ies, using a methodology that recognized 737 marine vest; 17 percent were conditionally approved,
species and stock groups, the National Marine restricted or conditionally restricted; and only 11
Fisheries Service estimated that 86 species (12 percent were prohibited-the lowest percentage on
percent) are overfished, 10 (1 percent) are approach- record for this category (NOAA, 1997). The 1995
ing an overfished condition, 193 (26 percent) are not commercial harvest from these waters totaled 77

Figure 7. Class@fled growing waters of the contiguous in turn, clog navigable waters, interfere with swim-
United States, 1966-1995 ming and boating, outcompete native submerged
25- aquatic vegetation (SAV), and with excessive decom-
position, lead to oxygen depletion. The resulting
harmful algal blooms can cause fish kills or manatee
20 - ----------------------------------------------------------- ---
deaths, and in some instances, may threaten human
cn classified acres health.
:3
0 15 - ------------------------ ------------ ---------------------------
"a
@It
In the summer of 1997, newspaper headlines focused
10 . ... ............. ................ ----------- on an area of nutrient overenrichment and oxygen
harvest limited acres depletion, known as the "Dead Zone," that season-
5. ..............*----------------------- ........ 1--- ...... ally covers approximately 7,000 square miles of the
Gulf of Mexico near the mouth of the Mississippi
1 .4 -4 -4 4 River. Runoff from agriculture, including farmland
1966 1971 1974 1980 1985 1990 1995 areas in the upper Midwest, is believed to be the
Publication Years of National Shellfish Register primary culprit. In the Chesapeake Bay region that
Source: NOAA, 1998 p same summer, the Governor of Maryland closed
fisheries and warned citizens about seafood safety
because of a bloom of the toxic species Pfiesteria
piscicida. In this instance, the likely cause was the
million pounds of oysters, clams and mussels worth inadequate handling of agricultural wastes, primarily
approximately $200 million at dockside (NOAA, from poultry.
1997).
Since the end of the 1940s, population growth,
increased fertilizer use, animal husbandry, and
Environmental Quality changes in land use have contributed to increased
nutrient inputs to coastal waters. It has been esti-
Coastal and ocean waters are among the most mated that 40 percent of estuarine and coastal waters
productive and valuable natural systems on Earth. are not "fishable or swimmable," primarily because
They are also among the most threatened. Many of of nutrients and bacteria from urban and agricultural
the nation's coastal areas are under increasing runoff and municipal wastewater discharges (U.S.
pressures from population growth and related EPA, 1996 on-line). Recent studies have shown that
development. The pressures from growth include air deposition of nitrogen is also a significant con-
increased solid waste production, higher volumes of tributor to nutrient overenrichment of some coastal
urban nonpoint runoff, loss of green space and and marine waters.
wildlife habitat, declines in ambient water quality, Pathogens. Viruses, bacteria, and protozoa can cause
and increased demands on wastewater treatment, diseases in plants, people, and other animals. In
potable water, and energy supplies. These pressures humans, illnesses range from typhoid and dysentery
adversely affect the quality of coastal and marine to minor respiratory and skin diseases (U.S. EPA,
waters and associated habitat. 1996 on-line). These organisms may enter waters
Water Quality.Several key issues are associated with through a number of routes, including inadequately
coastal water quality. These include the status of treated sewage, stormwater drains, septic systems,
nutrient levels and the extent of contamination by runoff from livestock operations, and overboard
pathogens, chemicals, oil, debris, and litter. These sewage discharge from recreational boats. In excess,
have been priority issues for coastal managers in they contribute to closures of shellfish beds and
recent decades, and are likely to be the focus of swimming areas, fish kills, and seafood consumption
coastal water quality management efforts in the warnings. The good news is that approved shellfish
foreseeable future. harvest waters are at an all-time high, and overall,
the condition of shellfish harvesting waters in the
United States is improving (NOAA, 1997).
1@ssified_aF!@ .. . . ....
----------- S

e ............ ................ ...... -----------

Nutrients. Nutrients are essential for healthy aquatic
communities. In excess levels (especially nitrogen During 1996, there were at least 2,596 individual
and phosphorus compounds), however, they can closings and advisories for ocean, bay, and Great
overstimulate the growth of aquatic weeds and algae Lakes swimming beaches due to bacterial contamina-
(Figure 8). Excessive growth of these organisms can, tion. Over 80 percent of the beach closings and
13

Figure 8. Major marine ecological disturbances, 1970-1996

320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
Harmful Algal Blooms

Coral Events V' --cat
Public Health Events @ - L", @ I I- 80
Fish Events \ . -@@ - I
Invertebrate Events 60
Mollusc Event
40
s
Sea Turtle Events
Sea Grass Events 20
B
d
ir Events
Mammal Events 0
IN Id"l, A -011@
rource: Epstein, 1998 N05,@' 1@ _10@ @ -105 4) N05 NCO 1@0

advisories that year were based on monitoring that trations of chemicals which have been banned from
detected bacteria levels exceeding beach water- use in the U.S. (NOAA, 1997a). Meanwhile, reported
quality standards. The number of beach closings due releases of toxic chemicals to surface waters de-
to pathogen contamination continues to decrease as a creased by 4.1 million pounds (a reduction of more
number of metropolitan areas upgrade their sewer than 10 percent) from 1994 to 1995 (U.S. EPA, 1997b).
systems and separate their storm drains and sewer This reduction is a reflection of changes in industrial
systems (NOAA, 1998). practices (e.g., source reduction, installation of
pollution control equipment, increased recycling and
Toxic Chemicals. Toxic organic chemicals are synthetic reuse of waste as raw materials, production changes,
compounds that contain carbon, such as polychlori- and fewer one-time release events) (NOAA, 1998).
nated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and the pesticide
DDT. These synthesized compounds often persist Over the last decade, the chemical contamination of
and accumulate in the environment because they do aquatic sediments has been recognized as a serious
not readily break down in natural ecosystems. Many problem in U.S. coastal waters. "Hot spots" of toxic
of these compounds cause cancer in people and birth chemicals have been shown to alter and reduce
defects in birds and fish. bottom-dwelling organisms, to interfere with cellular
and physiological processes, and to cause disease in
Since 1940, more than 70,000 synthetic chemicals fish. Most "hot spots" are found in areas of high
have been introduced into the marine environment. vessel traffic, industrial activities, or poor flushing,
There impacts are widespread and varied, such as and are often located near urban centers (USEPA,
the Mobile Delta, where excessive levels of mercury 1994). Other adverse economic impacts of contami-
in finfish resulted in the closing of some fishing areas nated sediments include delays and rising costs to
in the early 1970s and again in the early 1990s (U.S. maintain dredging in navigational waterways. This is
EPA, 1997). Efforts to reduce chemical loadings to due to the potential danger of resuspending toxic
marine waters have had some success. Away from chemicals in the water column, and the need to find
the influence of urban sources, offshore monitoring acceptable disposal sites for dredged sediments
of toxic chemicals has shown a decline in the concen- (NOAA, 1998).

Oil Contamination. In 1996, approximately 4,200 oil Similarly, lost or neglected fishing gear also contrib-
spills occurred in coastal areas and in the open ocean utes to the depletion of commercial fisheries. While
and nearshore. Spill sources range from minor numbers for the United States are unavailable, Japan
marina activities to one-time releases from tankers estimates that in 1992, the Japanese fishing industry
(U.S. Department of Transportation, 1995), with spent $4.1 billion dollars in boat repairs resulting
major tanker spills accounting for only 5 percent of from damage caused by marine debris. Sources of
the volume of oil spills. Fixed facilities and offshore marine debris include vessels and beachgoers, but
exploration and production platforms contribute 15 recent studies show that 80 percent is likely to be
million gallons of oil pollution to the world's ocean from indirect sources such as street litter, improperly
bodies each year. In contrast, 363 million gallons of sealed waste receptacles, landfills, and from com-
oil per year reaches the ocean in runoff from land bined sewer overflow events. An international treaty
and municipal and industrial wastes. In fact, the (Annex V of MARPOL) banning the dumping of
yearly road runoff from a city of five million could plastics from ships and regulating other garbage
contain as much oil as one large tanker spill (Ocean discharges has been in place since 1988, and im-
Planet, 1995). Natural oil seeps discharge 62 million provements are being made to reduce marine debris
gallons of oil into marine waters each year. Effects on from ships.
organisms from oil spills can be acute, such as fish
kills from initial contact with the toxic fractions of
petroleum, or subtle, such as chronic effects on
Poilt*tsources' of 1@qllution
reproduction that become evident as toxic chemicals
concentrate through the food web of an ecosystem. Point sources' include discharges of municipal and
Effects on human populations are realized through industrial wastewater via pipelines, releases from
economic losses, such as those associated with the vessels, and the dumping of materials, such as
loss of tourism or a fishery. Particularly susceptible to dredged sediments, into coastal and ocean waters. In
injury from releases of oil are exposed shorelines, the United States, more than 2,000 sewage treatment
shallow reef environments, estuaries, mangrove plants, municipalities, and industrial facilities
forests, and wetlands (U.S. EPA, 1993). discharge effluents into estuarine and coastal waters.
The volume of oil spilled in the United States has Every year, approximately 2.3 trillion gallons of
declined steadily over the past two decades. Al- effluent are discharged into coastal and marine
though large, uncontained spills occur rarely, the waters from sewage treatment facilities. While most
public remains concerned about them. Nevertheless, of this sewage meets secondary treatment standards
the data show a gradual decline in the volumes prior to disposal, nutrients and pathogens from such
spilled. The U.S. Coast Guard reports that 15.2 discharges can contribute to the degradation of local
million gallons were spilled in 1973, declining to 2.1 marine ecosystems, creating "dead zones" and
million gallons in 1993 (USCG, 1998). The trend in forcing the closure of shellfish beds and swimming
the number of oil spills, however, shows 9,014 spills areas. Nutrient loading also can significantly degrade
report@d in 1973, peaking at 10,644 in 1979, reaching coral reefs and other coastal ecosystems.
a low of 4,841 in 1987, and climbing to 8,972 in 1993. Municipal wastewater treatment plants are the major
This trend, however, may be the result of increased point source of pollution in coastal areas where the
vigilance and reporting (USCG, 1998). population is significantly increasing. As a result of
Marine Debris and Litter. Some 267 species of marine major public and private investments over many
organisms are known to ingest or become entangled years, there is a long-term trend toward higher levels
in marine debris that cause injury and sometimes of wastewater treatment. The number of facilities in
death (Marine Mammal Commission, 1995). Coastal coastal counties providing less than secondary
communities can lose millions of dollars in annual treatment declined by 80 percent between 1986 (409
tourism revenue, experience declines in commercial facilities) and 1996 (85 facilities), while the number of
and recreational fish stocks, incur damages to facilities prckviding secondary treatment or better
vessels, and see declines in property values as a increased by 4 percent (3,233 facilities to 3,346
result of marine debris. Coastal communities in New facilities). The number of facilities providing less
than secondary treatment is projected to decline by
Jersey spend $1.5 million each year to remove debris 56 percent between 1996 and 2016 (85 facilities to 37
from beaches and coastal waters to prevent a repeti- facilities), while the number of facilities providing
tion of the 1987 and 1988 beach seasons, when $2 secondary or more advanced treatment is projected
billion in tourist revenue was lost as a result of debris to increase by 16 percent (3,346 facilities to 3,967
washing ashore. facilities).
15

The trends towards more widespread wastewater approximately 300 million cubic yards of dredged
treatment and higher levels of treatment are reflected material each year from inland and coastal waters,
in environmental measurements of biochemical only 60 million cubic yards (20 percent) of which are
oxygen demand (BOD.), an indicator of pollution. dumped in open ocean waters. Materials disposed of
Coastal monitoring across the Nation demonstrated at ocean dump sites have to meet established water
that there was an average 19 percent decline in BOD5 quality and sediment quality criteria.
from 1990 to 1997 (U.S. EPA, 1998). Similarly, a 20
percent decline in BOD from 1986 to 1996 was
5
found in coastal counties (Pacheco, 1999 pers. comm). X
urces o
-,.onpoiht S&
More than 2.8 billion gallons of industrial w
astewater
41__@V
per day are discharged directly into U.S. ocean
waters (U.S. EPA, 1994). Many of the chemicals One- to two-thirds of pollutants contributing to the
discharged into marine waters can be toxic even in degradation of coastal and marine waters are from
minute concentrations, and can compromise the nonpoint sources, and include sediments, organic
water column, contaminate sediments, and concen- materials, nutrients, pathogens, and toxic chemical
trate in marine organisms. Exposure to these chemi- compounds. The problem is difficult to address
cals and metals can pose risks of acute or chronic because it includes runoff and seepage from agricul-
toxicity to marine organisms. In addition, the risks to tural and urban areas, air deposition onto land and
predators and humans rise when toxins become water, and multiple methods of transport. Nation-
concentrated through the food chain. In some wide, it has been estimated that nonpoint sources
locations, thermal pollution from electric generating account for more than half of the suspended solids,
plants has been shown to stress marine organisms by nutrients, fecal coliform, and metals entering coastal
raising the ambient temperature of the water. waters each year. Runoff from nonurban areas,
Operating vessels sometimes directly discharge oil, sewage spills and overflows, urban stormwater
sewage, garbage, and nonindigenous species into runoff, and combined sewer overflows are often
marine waters. Some pollutants enter coastal and responsible for seafood advisories and shellfish-bed
marine waters from direct discharges (e.g., sewage and beach closings.
from vessel toilets, ballast water exchange), while Estuarine Eutrophication. Estuarine eutrophication
others may be a result of leaching (e.g., anti-fouling is an issue of critical concern to coastal managers.
agents, paints). Once discharged, pathogens in
sewage can impact drinking water intakes (e.g., m Although it is a natural process, human activities can
the Great Lakes), and result in closings of shellfishing accelerate eutrophication by increasing the levels of
and swimming areas. At the same time, discharged nutrients and organic substances entering estuaries.
nutrients can increase eutrophication levels. Agricultural runoff, urban runoff, leaking septic
systems, and sewage discharges are the primary
Oil and other chemical contaminants washed or sources of nutrients that enter coastal waters. These
discharged into the ocean may become suspended in substances can overstimulate the growth of algae and
the water column, ultimately settling in sediments aquatic plants, creating conditions that interfere with
and accumulating in marine organisms. Discharged recreational uses, and the health and diversity of
garbage adversely affects marine life (by entangle- native fish, plant, and animal populations (CEQ,
ment or ingestion), and can also cause vessel damage 1998).
by getting tangled in propellers or sucked into engine Algal blooms result from increased nutrient concen-
intake valves. The potential negative consequences of trations and often lead to indirect effects such as
nonindigenous species carried in ships'ballast water increases in turbidity and decreases in dissolved
are an increasing concern across the Nation. oxygen concentrations. Algal blooms sometimes have
In U.S. coastal and ocean waters, dredged material is additional impacts, such as the loss of recreational
d. opportunities, reduced aesthetics, declines in com-
the primary waste transported and directly dispose mercial fisheries, and loss of habitat. Perhaps the
Disposal of dredged material can increase suspended greatest concern at present is the apparent increasing
solids in the water column and smother benthic occurrence of red tide algal species, such as Pfiesteria
organisms. If the sediments are contaminated, the piscicida, that can kill fish and that also have major
potential exists for acute or chronic toxicity to implications on human health, both by direct contact
develop in marine organisms and become a risk to in estuarine waters and through bioaccumulation in
human health (U.S. EPA, 1991). The U.S. disposes of fish tissues.

Figure 9. Estuaries exhibiting anthropogenic eutrophication effects

Each symbol represents an estuary exhibiting pronounced
WA eutrophication symptoms. The anthropogenic influence on ME
these symptoms is noted as:

Ok Nitrogen Yield and Susceptibility NH North
High W MA Atlantic
Intermediate

Low PA W Al

MD Mid-
Pacific CA VA DE Atlantic

M5 AL South
TX LA Atlantic

0
Gulf of
Mexi

FL
Source: NOAA, 1998

Eutrophication-related problems occur in many of distribution of reported improvements, while the
our nation's estuaries, mostly during the summer greatest number of estuaries for which conditions
months. The problem varies by region. For example, have worsened are in the Gulf of Mexico. Figure 9
extreme levels of chlorophyll a, a measure of algal shows the locations of estuaries with high levels of
biomass, have been observed in Mid-Atlantic, Gulf of eutrophic symptoms that can be linked to human
Mexico, and South Atlantic estuaries. Hypoxia and activities.
anoxia, conditions of low dissolved oxygen, are most
widespread in the Gulf region, where over 80 percent Future Trends. The aggregate picture indicates an
of estuaries are depleted of dissolved oxygen. Toxic increase in the severity and extent of eutrophication
algal blooms occur in nearly half of the Nation's in the future, with greater than 60 percent of cur-
estuaries, with the greatest number of occurrences rently monitored estuaries expected to show worsen-
observed in the Gulf of Mexico, North Atlantic, and ing symptoms of eutrophication. Future trends are
Pacific Coast estuaries. dependent on the levels of municipal waste treat-
ment, the effectiveness of stormwater management in
Reports of worsening trends in concentration, spatial newly developed areas, the extent and practice of
coverage, or frequency of occurrence of toxic blooms, agricultural activities, and trends in transportation
hypoxia events and nitrogen are about equal to (e.g., vehicle emissions). It is important to note that
improving trends on a national basis. For trends in nutrient reduction strategies have helped to reverse
SAV coverage, however, the number of estuaries or halt eutrophication events in Maryland's Patuxent
reporting worsening conditions is three times as River and Florida's Tampa and Sarasota bays.
great as those reporting improvements. The overall Because of projected population increases, however,
trend in eutrophic conditions, which integrates the need to limit nutrient inputs to estuaries must be
trends in several indicator parameters, shows that more emphasized as the Nation moves into the next
conditions in 14 percent of U.S. estuaries have century.
North
. i t
@@A Ia.
Mid
Atia,
4VA

South
@Atl
If of
Mexico

improved since 1970 while 31 percent of the estuaries
studied reported that conditions have worsened. For
55 percent of the estuaries studied, conditions have
not changed or there was insufficient information for
trend evaluation. Regionally, there is a fairly even

,------- ----
4,
"'V
q . . ...
" ;V '""' ",
. ............ .. . .
, 7 o , 7, @ @ , _,_ @,J, Table 3. Trends in U.S. wetland acreage
. . ..... .@ TR
VIA
17, 77
Million Acres
Waiands@Type n-dd-19 rnid-19704mid-1980s mid-1990s
Coastal areas, including mangrove swamps, wet-
lands, estuaries, seagrass beds, and coral reefs, Estuarine 5.59 5.53 5.10 5.09
provide critical habitat, including essential spawning Fresh Water
and nursery areas, for living marine resources. Marshes 33.07 24-31 25.88 25.01
Wetlands serve as filters for land-based contami- Shrub 11.00 15.51 15.60 17.07
nants, and together with coral reefs, buffer against Forested 55.09 55.15 50.39 47.93
storm surges and help prevent coastal erosion. Other 2.70 5.35 5.14 5.79
Human activities have changed, degraded, or i@@Acreage- 107,45 105.85 102.12 100.91
destroyed coastal habitats, threatening many species *Note: Totals may not agree with sum of components due to
of economic and recreational importance. Continued independent rounds.
population growth and associated development Source: President's Council on Environmental Quality, 1998
pressures along the coasts reduce the quantity and
quality of the nation's habitat resources. Until Almost half of the estimated total acreage of U.S.
recently, many coastal habitat resources have been coastal wetlands was lost by the mid-1970s. Losses
undervalued or not fully appreciated in terms of in Louisiana exceed those in any other state, averag-
people's dependence on them. ing 24,000 acres annually for the period from 1978 to
Habitat Loss. Coastal habitats critical to healthy 1990. The average annual wetland loss is estimated
ecosystems are being lost and degraded at a rapid to be from 70,000 to 90,000 acres on nonfederal lands.
pace. While the rates and reasons differ from one Coastal wetlands continue to decrease in area,
habitat type to another, the pressures all stem from although the rate of loss has declined over time.
anthropogenic activity, and the consequences are About 89 percent of national wetland losses from the
always deleterious to the environment. mid-1970s to the mid-1980s occurred in the Southeast
(Boylan and MacLean, 1997).
Wetlands. More than one-third of the nation's threat-
ened and endangered species live only in wetlands, Seagrasses. Historically, severe losses of seagrasses
and more than half use wetlands at some point in have occurred as a result of water quality issues, a
their lives (U.S. EPA, 1998 on-line). In the Southeast, problem that cannot be rectified solely by replanting.
over 90 percent of the commercial catch and 50 Seagrass losses in estuaries and nearshore waters are
percent of the recreational catch are of fish and due primarily to excessive nutrient loadings and
shellfish dependent on wetlands. Still, years of sedimentation. Direct damage from vessels (mooring
continued degradation, or their conversion to scars, propeller scars, vessel wakes) has also harmed
cropland or developed land, have resulted in wet- seagrass beds. Fishery harvest methods can also
land losses, particularly coastal wetlands. Wetlands result in devastating losses to seagrass beds. Bottom
are among the most highly altered ecosystems trawling operations, in particular, turn over and
worldwide. Table 3 summarizes total wetland losses disrupt significant amounts of bottom habitat
by type since the mid-1950s. The period from the (Dayton, 1998). This loss of seagrass causes undesir-
mid-1970s to mid-1980s saw the greatest wetland able and often irreversible conditions. The ramifica-
losses; since then, the rate of loss has decreased. tions of these losses include increased shoreline
erosion, water column turbidity, and degraded water
Coastal wetlands (both tidal and nontidal) have been quality. The permanent loss of seagrass beds elimi-
destroyed by direct (e.g., draining, dredging, land nates most associated habitat functions that support
fill, spoil disposal) and indirect (e.g., sediment other living marine resources.
diversion, hydrologic alteration) human impacts Significant losses of seagrasses have occurred in the
associated with development, resource extraction, Chesapeake Bay and in the Gulf of Mexico. Over 50
and agricultural activities (NOAA, 1998). Coastal ercent of the historical seagrass cover has been lost
wetlands are stressed by nonpoint source pollution p
and are at risk from demands for housing, roads, and in Tampa Bay, 76 percent in Mississippi Sound, and
recreation facilities, as well as by commerce and 90 percent in Galveston Bay. Gulf of Mexico losses
industry. Natural processes, such as erosion and are related to population growth and the accompany-
subsidence also contribute to wetlands losses. ing declines in water quality. Seagrass losses have
also occurred in Puget Sound and San Francisco Bay.

Extensive damage to seagrass beds from propeller Efforts are now under way on every coast to identify
scarring has been reported in Florida coastal waters, the habitats that are essential for every all life stages
particularly in the Florida Keys National Marine of all managed fish species. Once these habitats have
Sanctuary. been identified, the regional councils can act directly
to minimize the negative effects. of fishing. The
Coral Reefs. Coral reefs are considered to be the councils can also call attention to, and influence,
world's most diverse marine ecosystems, home to other important factors such as nonpoint source
hundreds of thousands marine species. The United pollution, eutrophication, and physical habitat loss
States has approximately 16,879 square kilometers of resulting from coastal development or other activities.
coral reefs that harbor about 550 commercially
valuable species (NOAA, 1998). Threats to coral Habitat Alterations as the Result of Unintentional
reefs have increased over the last 20 years and have Introductions of Non-Indigenous Species. Marine
resulted in global declines. Although actual data are flora and fauna are entering and taking hold in new
not available, it is estimated that approximately 58 environments, often disturbing or displacing native
percent of the world's coral reefs are at risk from species, at an increasing rate as a direct result of
human activities; about 27 percent of these are at human activity, especially global shipping (National
high risk. Ten percent of the world's reefs are se- Research Council, 1996). While many introduced
verely damaged, with the expectation is that this species do not establish themselves or have a major
number will increase to 30 percent over the next two impact, some do have detrimental effects on the
decades (NOAA, 1998). ecosystem and human society, including the
economy, recreation and health (NOAA, 1994).
Overfishing and destructive fishing practices, along
with coastal development, land-based pollution from Species enter new environments by many vectors.
deforestation, agriculture and marine spills and One important pathway is transport by ship, in
pollution, pose the greatest threats to reefs. Changes ballast water, in sediment on the ship, or on the
in species composition result from overfishing and ship's hull or cargo (National Research Council,
may ultimately result in ecosystem changes. Coral 1996). The frequency of unintentional introductions
diseases have increased dramatically. Even recre- by ship of harmful species has increased, in part as a
ation, if not regulated, causes damage to coral reefs consequence of rapid growth in global transportation
(World Resources Institute et al., 1998). Although it is systems, which link continents ever more tightly and
not a problem in the United States, the growing thus increase the chances that an entrained organism
international trade in harvested corals and coral may survive a sea voyage and live to reproduce in a
species contributes to the degradation and destruc- new environment.
tion of corals worldwide.
International efforts are under way to reduce the
Habitat Regulation and Restoration. To date, most threat of unintentional introductions of species.
habitat restoration activities have focused primarily However, most control measures remain voluntary or
on wetlands. Several states have enacted laws to only partially effective. The sad fact is that many
regulate activities in wetlands, and local jurisdictions nonindigenous species have already become estab-
have adopted wetland protection ordinances or have lished, with deleterious consequences, and more will
changed the development permit process to foster become established, altering coastal and marine
protection of these habitats. Most coastal states have habitats in undesirable ways in the future.
significantly reduced losses of coastal wetlands.
Some states and local governments have also estab-
lished nonregulatory programs to help protect Coastal Hazards
wetlands. Federal programs focus on regulation
(section 404 of the Clean Water Act), economic
incentives and disincentives (tax deductions for Coastal storms damage property, take lives, and
selling or donating wetlands to a qualified organiza- disrupt ecosystems as a result of high winds, storm
tion), and acquisition (establishing national wildlife surge, flooding, and shoreline erosion. Coastal
refuges). In most instances, the restoration of locations are also exposed to long-term hazards such
seagrass beds and coral reefs have lagged behind as chronic coastal erosion, potential sea-level rise,
wetland restoration projects. and global climate change. The costs of these events
to society are climbing both nationwide and world-
In 1996, regional fishery management councils were wide as coastal settlements place more people and
directed to identify and protect essential fish habitat. property at risk. Moreover, the frequency, magnitude,

and consequences of coastal hazards may change in rising 2.5 to 3.0 mm every year (10-12 inches per
the future as changes occur in the global climate. century). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change has forecasted a rise in global sea level of
Natural hazards currently cause about $50 billion in 5mm per year. This totals either 20, 49 or 86 cm by
damages each year in the U.S. (NOAA, 1998a). Losses the year 2100, within the range of uncertainty
in 1970 were about $4.5 billion 6. Of about $500 billion (Bijlsma, 1996). A rise in sea level could increase
in disaster-related losses between 1975 and 1994, 80 storm frequencies and associated storm surges,
percent were weather-related. Given the significant which in turn, could accelerate erosion and associ-
costs of catastrophic weather events, the focus has ated habitat loss; increase salinity in estuaries and
shifted in recent years to reducing losses through freshwater aquifers; alter tidal ranges in rivers and
advances in weather prediction, regional planning, bays; change sediment and nutrient transport, and
and emergency preparedness. also the pattern of chemical and microbiological
contamination, in coastal areas; and increase coastal
Trends in the Frequency and Magnitude of Coastal flooding. Particularly at risk are saltwater marshes,
Hazards. The theory that global warming will make coastal wetlands, coral reefs, coral atolls, and river
storms stronger and more frequent is under intense deltas (Figure 10). In the worst scenarios, the number
study. The Earth's average surface temperature has of homes in the coastal floodplain vulnerable to
risen approximately 0.6'C (1'F) in the last century coastal hazards would more than double (NOAA,
and the nine warmest years have all occurred since 1998b).
1980 (Titus and Narayanan, 1995). If computer model
predictions of warming are correct, under some Increasing Potential for Loss. The societal cost of
scenarios, a 50 percent increase could occur in the coastal hazards is determined not only by annual
destructive potential of large storms. There are also variabilities in their occurrence, but also by the
arguments, however, to the idea that a warmer increasing population at risk and the growing
atmosphere will result in more destructive storms. In numbers and value of structures, businesses, and
short, the data are incomplete as to whether global other manifestations of economic activity in coastal
warming will lead to more destructive coastal areas. Coastal populations, societal expectations,
storms. economic activities and personal consumption all
have micreased greatly in the past decades. Together,
One thing is certain-relative sea level is rising in these changes have increased the exposure of the
many regions, and global warming may speed this total U.S. population to damages from coastal
process. Along much of the U.S. coast, sea level is hazards.

Prior to 1989, no single event caused insured losses in
Figure 10. Dry land loss by 2100 without shore protection excess of $1 billion. Since 1989, losses from several
coastal storms have exceeded this figure (Institute for
3,000, Business and Home Safety, 1998)7 . The largest of
these catastrophes was Hurricane Andrew, with
estimated insured losses of $15.5 billion.

2,000-
In the wake of the annual onslaught of news cover-
age of storms, other hazard-related disasters and
their costly results, many people have concluded that
9 1,000- coastal storms are becoming more frequent and
devastating. However, careful analysis of climate
0
data and loss records shows that more frequent or
0 more intense storms are not necessarily the cause, or
0 at least the sole cause, of increasing damages. Rather,
NE MA SA SW F LA Other WC there is more at risk today (Pielke and Landsea,
Sea Level Rise Scenario GOM 1998). Three factors account for the increasing
potential for loss: (1) adjustments to the value of the
@i @@
N Baseline 0 50 cm E 100 cm Z 200 cm dollar largely as the result of inflation, (2) increasing
Note: NE-Northeast; MA-Middle Atlantic; SA-South Atlantic; population and growing settlement densities in
SWF-Southwest Florida; LA-Louisiana; Other GOM-Other coastal areas, and (3) the nation's personal wealth,
Gu@qf Mexico; WC-West Coast. which has increased dramatically over the years. All
Source: ritus et al., 1991 of these factors combine to increase the exposure to,

Table 4. Estimated U.S. losses associated with hurricane portation, energy, and water resource sectors of the
activity (in 1995 dollars) economy. They also make possible advance warnings
of violent weather that can provide valuable time for
Number of Hurricanes with Losses Valued at evacuations and preparedness activities. Today,
Greater than a Billion Dollars about 90 percent of severe weather events can be
Greater Greater Greater predicted with confidence; in areas where the most
Years than $1 than $5 than $10 Per Year advanced technology and methods are not yet in use,
1925-1929 2 2 2 177 the prediction rate is 60 percent. Meteorologists can
1930s 4 1 1 2.6 now make 48-hour predictions of temperature and
1940s 8 4 2 5.6 precipitation with the same confidence they brought
1950s 4 2 2 3.7 to 12- to 24-hour forecasts 20 years ago. Similar
advances in coastal storm tracking and advance
1960s 6 5 3 5.2 warnings enable more timely preparations and
1970s 5 2 1 2.7 coordinated evacuations.

1980s 3 2 1 2.2
11990-19951 4 1 1 1 1 1 6.6 Building codes that incorporate hazard-resistant
construction standards have proven very effective in
Source: Pielke and Landsea, 1998 reducing the cost of disasters, as has the appropriate
siting of structures in areas where they are less likely
and the consequent property losses from, coastal to suffer wind and water damage or be affected by
hazards. coastal erosion. From September 21-30, 1998, Hurri-
cane Georges left a trail of destruction in the Carib-
When the loss record is normalized to correct for bean region and across the U.S. Gulf Coast. Damage
these underlying changes, the picture is very differ- reports from various locations along the hurricane's
ent (Pielke and Landsea, 1998). Instead of increases in path told an interesting story about the degree to
losses, normalized damages actually decreased in the which deaths and property losses from coastal
1970s and 1980s; nor are losses in the 1990s unprec- storms can be prevented by preparedness and
edented (Table 4). Pielke and Landsea conclude that mitigation. The Virgin Islands reported no deaths
"All else being equal, each year the U.S. has at least a and little major damage. With recent hurricanes in
1 in 6 chance of experiencing losses related to hurri- 1989 and 1995 on everyone's mind, the islanders
canes of at least $10 billion (in normalized 1995 followed evacuation and preparedness orders; many
dollars)." structures had been rebuilt or upgraded to the latest
building codes. In contrast, Puerto Rico, only a short
Thus, long-term efforts to prepare and plan for distance away, incurred at least $2 billion in dam-
coastal hazards, and to mitigate their effects, are ages. Puerto Rico had not suffered a "direct hit" in
necessary to save lives and to prevent or mitigate the recent years, and the island was less prepared than
ever-increasing potential for property losses in its nearby neighbor.
coastal areas.
Managing Coastal Erosion. The nation's shorelines,
More Effective Prediction, Preparedness, and Re- especially the sandy types that extend for 2,700 miles
sponse. Experience has shown that the property from the coast of Maine to Texas, are vulnerable to
damage and loss of life from coastal hazards, includ- coastal hazards. Sand is carried by water and wind
ing storms and erosion, can be minimized through between offshore bars and the beach, across the
planning and mitigation. Better predictions, fore- dunes, through coastal inlets, and throughout the
casts, and warnings provide timely and targeted entire littoral zone. Complicating the picture is the
evacuations of high hazard areas. Forecasters can projected rise in sea level over the long term (Bijlsma,
now predict climate changes for up to a year, and 1996).
weather for a week or more. These advances have
come about as the result of major long-term invest- The impacts of rising sea level include inundation,
ments in the science of numerical weather prediction. flooding, erosion, and saline intrusion into coastal
The improved skill and lead-time of today's forecasts aquifers. Clearly, an environment so dynamic, and
save hundreds of millions of dollars a year in the threats so dramatic, pose unique problems for those
United States. who live or build in these areas. Structures built too
close to the shoreline are often threatened by erosion.
Advances in climate prediction and weather forecast- The degree of protection, management, or human
ing are particularly useful to the agriculture, trans- intervention that may be needed to counter coastal

Figure 11. The shiftftomfixed structures to beach
restoration and nourishment to manage erosion Governance and
100- Management
V -
0 Beach Nourishmen
U 60- The great number of activities that occur in the
coastal zone and ocean are governed by a complex
< 20- Rigid StructuT____ and often fragmented framework of laws, regula-
_60 04 tions, and practices at the federal, state, and local
1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990S levels (National Research Council, 1997). The re-
Decade sources affected are diverse, as are the resource users,
and management efforts struggle with diverse goals
Source: Hillyer, 1996 that sometimes are incompatible. Single-purpose
legislation that serves specific goals well has also
produced separate management regimes that require
erosion depends on the nature of the shoreline and a great deal of coordination. Moreover, while private
the prevailing uses of the adjacent area. For devel- ownership predominates on land, large areas of
oped communities with water-dependent economic marine resources are in the public domain.
activities such as harbors and resorts, the strategy of Three fundamental trends are occurring in coastal
choice is usually to protect the existing infrastructure and ocean area governance and management. First,
and maintain the beaches. For eroding shorelines that on an international scale since 1973, the idea of the
are less developed, the decision becomes more oceans as a "commons" whose resources and space
difficult (National Research Council, 1985). The are open to all has been supplanted by new prin-
choice is either to stabilize the shoreline at some ciples codified in the Law of the Sea Convention,
environmental and economic cost, or to retreat from which (1) recognize the rights of nation-states to
the shoreline and let nature takes its course, also at establish 200-mile exclusive economic zones over
some environmental and economic cost. When the ocean resources and uses, and (2) authorizes regional
shoreline is to be protected, the choice is often between management arrangements for ocean uses, such as
hard stabilization (e.g., groins and jetties) and soft international fisheries management and environmen-
stabilization techniques (e.g., beach nourishment). tal protection. Second, federal environmental man-
The differences between types of shorelines and dates have established special ocean and coastal
erosion situations often make it necessary to consider management areas, and have increased the national
a variety of shoreline protection measures (National capacity to plan for and manage the coastal zone.
Research Council, 1995). Nevertheless, a clear shift Third, integrated management approaches are
from hard protective structures to beach nourishment
techniques has occurred in engineering practices for
shoreline stabilization (Figure 11). On the whole, Figure 12. Establishment of Exclusive Economic Zones
beach nourishment is considered less disruptive to
the environment, but projects require periodic 90
maintenance to maintain their effectiveness (National 80
Research Council, 1995). W
0 70
Despite the demonstrated success of planning, 2 60
preparedness, and mitigation, many coastal property
0
M g 50
owners do not obtain insurance coverage for dam- @ 0
0 J
ages from coastal hazards, especially flooding and 40
chronic erosion (Nfiletti, 1997), or take necessary and
30
appropriate mitigation measures. Property owners in
Z.R
high-risk areas tend to turn to federal disaster relief 20 _4
programs, shifting the burden to taxpayers. Educa- 10
tion and public awareness of coastal hazards, their 0
each Noun@hmen
ig Structu
R i @de@

costs, and the societal advantages of mitigation may 1-1) 9@1 4-0
C_@' -00 9D -Cb
help to alleviate this situation, and, ultimately, reduce @011 101, 1!@ 1110 -10 -110 -Of @@ 101, gli g:@
the cost of coastal hazards to society. Year

Source: Smith, 1986

coming into use that bring together diverse stake- address the marine transport of radioactive and
holders to address economic, environmental, and hazardous cargoes. Land-based sources of marine
social demands placed on finite ocean and coastal pollution, conservation of marine mammals, high
resources. seas fishing practices, and management of Antarctic
fisheries have all received significant international
International Developments. United Nations delib- attention. Clearly, under the framework of the
erations on the Law of the Sea led most nations in the international Law of the Sea, there is a growing
1970s and 1980s to establish zones of exclusive worldwide capacity to reach and implement impor-
economic jurisdiction over ocean areas and resources tant agreements on difficult ocean resource and
that extend offshore for 200 miles (Figure 12). This management issues.
trend has continued in the 1990s, and has led to
increases in resource utilization, such as fisheries Growth in National Mandates and Capabilityfor
development and offshore energy production. Managing Oceans and Coasts. As a matter of na-
tional policy, states have the primary responsibility
The other major international development during for setting comprehensive policies and managing
this era was the establishment of regional or use- their coastal zones8. The influence of states on their
focused entities that have planning, management, coastal zones and the adjacent coastal ocean, and
and enforcement authorities (Van Dyke, 1998). In a their capacity to manage these areas, have grown
remarkable display of the "greening" of international over the course of many years (Hershman, 1996).
diplomacy, the London Convention has been greatly This is, in part, a consequence of the growing number
strengthened to control ocean dumping. An interna- of federal mandates to manage the oceans. These
tional convention was recently negotiated to address mandates have generally been accompanied by
the management of cross-jurisdictional and migra- funding to implement them, which, in turn, has
tory fish stocks. Measures also have been taken to resulted in increased federal, state, and local capaci-
promote fishing vessels' compliance with interna- ties to manage coastal zones, ocean areas, and their
tional conservation and management efforts on the uses. Figure 13 provides a cumulative look at the
high seas. Steps have been taken to more effectively growth, over time, of some federally chartered

Figure 13. Growth infederally approved coastal and ocean planning and management programs, 1974-19891

180-
NOAA Programs
160- N Coastal Zone Management
140- National Marine Sanctuary
0 National Estuarine Reserves

120-
L,'-rj' Sea Grant
100- n Fishery Management Plans

U.S. EPA
0
80- E3 National Estuary Program
0

60-

Z
40-

20-
R.
7-,

% . . . .
R

P3
131
0
0 11@ `y 1*1
-01, @11 @011 @Zl cl
Year

coastal and coastal ocean planning and management involve (1) a regional or ecosystem focus, (2) accurate
programs. It indicates that long-term growth has information on the state of the environment (that can
occurred in national mandates for managing the only come from significant investments in science
oceans and coasts, and also, by extension, the capac- and monitoring), and (3) collaboration between
ity of states and others to implement those mandates. government agencies, varying levels of government,
and private-sector interests. Examples of successful,
Along with the growing mandates for managing innovative, integrated ocean and coastal manage-
oceans and coasts, the national awareness of the need ment efforts abound in every coastal region. A few
for management, and the technical capability to examples include inshore lobster fisheries in the Gulf
accomplish management tasks have also grown. of Maine; estuarine protection in South Carolina;
Widespread public awareness of coastal issues, their innovative environmental planning and management
complexity and responses to them has become an in the Florida Keys; and restoration and protection of
important factor in stewardship of the coastal zone. A urbanized estuaries in California.
recent review conducted by the National Sea Grant
Program and other agencies found that informal Still, formidable obstacles remain. They include
marine education has been extensive and growing in bureaucratic obstacles in the form of agencies that
the US for many years (NOAA, 1998). Major devel- seek to protect their "turf," economic issues posed by
opments have included growth in the extent and stakeholders who want to advance their own finan-
quality of media coverage of marine and coastal cial interests, and legal concerns of constituencies
issues, and proliferation of aquaria and other institu- that want to achieve their goals through legislative
tions that feature public displays and learning about action. Political obstacles occur where jurisdictional
oceans and coasts. Another bright spot is the mainte- boundaries do not coincide with natural, ecological
nance and growth, over many years of high quality boundaries. Nevertheless, a well developed marine
graduate marine and coastal education programs area governance and management system is evolving
that have produced adequate numbers of trained in response to the experience being gained across the
professionals to meet national needs Uournal of Nation. Innovative partnerships are also harnessing
Marine Education, 1998). the expertise and resources of private industry and
nonprofit organizations. These constituencies, often
Other advances in the capability to achieve manage- the target of government regulation in the past, are
ment objectives have come about as the result of introducing innovations into systems that have been
investments in and applications of technology. largely dominated by insiders accustomed to tradi-
Remote sensing, imaging technology and "smart" tional, hierarchical management approaches (Na-
instruments have brought new data and ways to tional Research Council, 1997).
present and analyze new information. Modeling and
simulation have become important aide to consensus
building and decision-making. Marine biotechnology Concluding Observations
advances, in addition to leading to tremendous new
economic opportunities are also leading to new
indicators and tools that can help protect the environ- One topic runs like an undercurrent throughout this
ment (Biotechnology Research Subcommittee, 1995; report-increasing population and its associated
Zilinskas and Colwell, 1995). Communications and developments, requirements, and burdens. Popula-
information technology advances have helped tion growth and associated increases in consumption
managers reach out to new constituencies and bring drive changes in settlement and pollution patterns.
in new ideas. They stimulate the demand for marine recreation,
world trade, and oil and gas. They are the catalyst for
Growing Reliance on Integrated Management. intensified farming practices and the
Managing the oceans and coasts is an interdiscipli- overexploitation of fisheries. Human activities and
nary endeavor requiring integrated approaches. This consumption lie behind the loss and degradation of
is because a broad spectrum of issues must be marine habitats. Even where the environment is
considered to manage resources, safeguard ecosys- cleaned or protected in coastal and nearshore areas,
tem health and biodiversity, and allow economic uses the press of people threatens to overturn progress.
that conflict minimally with one another, and that Even natural disasters and changes to shorelines are
cause minimal harm to the environment. Slowly but of concern primarily because people stand or build in
surely, integrated approaches to management are harm's way. If population control is "the issue" for
emerging to meet these demands. They generally the 21st century, then it was "the issue" in the 20th

and 19th centuries as well. Fortunately, society has
consistently risen to the challenge, initially through
the promotion of public health, then through the
control of pestilence and disease, and more recently
by revolutionizing food production. Perhaps the
ultimate challenge will be to learn how to live in
harmony with the Earth.

Trends point toward outcomes; however, missing is
any meaningful sense of direction concerning what
conditions will prevail in the future. That is because
future conditions are not completely, mechanistically
driven. To the contrary, an informed citizenry's politi-
cal choices drive management efforts to socially
desirable ends. In other words, the future is in our
hands. The debate should focus on goals for the future
and how to achieve them. Information about present
and projected trends merely informs the dialogue.

Goals can be set to favor the economy, the environ-
ment, or to find an acceptable balance somewhere in
the middle. Unfortunately, policies and choices that
favor population growth or resource exploitation
often harm the environment and, ultimately, retard
economic growth and harm public welfare. Similarly,
policies that favor the environment work to the
detriment of society because of the harsh social costs
of artificially limited opportunities. As a result there
really is only one socially acceptable outcome-to
achieve an appropriate balance between economic
development and protecting and preserving the
environment. The key is to ensure that a healthy
coastal and marine environment is available for
future generations.

End Notes Ref erences

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to 2000?

2. Sustainable development has been characterized as
P Lfti* d n,,.
meeting the needs of the present without compromis- -11 M,-@
@1, WO A
'A
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