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              0 Purpose
              The purpose of the conference was to examine trends and future challenges (national
              and global) that are likely to affect U.S. national ocean and coastal policy in the next 25
              years. Such trends include demographic pressures on the coast; trends related to
              resource scarcity; technological and industry-driven innovations; changes in social
              values and attitudes; changes in environmental and domestic governance frameworks;
              and changes in ocean industries. The meeting agenda is included in the Appendix.
              0 Organizers
              The workshop was organized by the National Ocean Service, NOAA; the Center for
              the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware; and the Ocean Governance Study
              Group. Funding support has come from the National Ocean Service, NOAA. The
              additional support of the Center for Marine Conservation, BOAT/US, and the Gradu-
              ate College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, is acknowledged with sincere
              thanks.
              0 Editors' Note

              The views expressed in the contributions making up this volume are those of the
              authors and not necessarily those of the organizers ( National Ocean Service, NOAA;
              the Center for the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware; and the Ocean
              Governance Study Group).

                  Acknowledgments
              The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the National Ocean Service
              Special Projects Office in Silver Spring, Maryland. Charles Bookman and Tom Culliton
              reviewed the papers and made many important editorial suggestions. Davida Remer
              designed and produced the document. Pam Rubin served as technical editor and
              designed the cover. Their assistance was invaluable.
              0. National Dialogues on Coastal Stewardship
              The National Dialogues bring together the many partners who make up the coastal
              community to focus on the most important coastal and oceanic issues facing the United
              States. The Dialogues combine systematic approaches and interactive problem-solving,
              building partnerships and a sense of community among all stakeholders. Under the
              National Dialogues initiative, a number of national organizations have developed a
              comprehensive vision for the future of coastal stewardship; a national dialogue about
              the vision is being conducted over the Internet from July to October, 1999 (wwwstate-
              of-coast.noaa.gov/natdialog/). Major activities in 1998 included the Stratton Commis-
              sion Roundtable; the organization of the Coastal Trends Conference, which resulted in
              this proceedings; and the development of a newsletter, Ocean and Coastal Policy Network
              News. These publications can be downloaded in PDF format from NOAA's National
              Dialogues Web site: http://state-of-coast.noaa.gov/natdialog/index.htmI

              For a copy of the report, contact Pam Rubin, Special Projects Office,
              NOAA, National Ocean Service, 1305 East-West Hwy., 9th Fl., Silver Spring, MD 20910-
              3281; ph. 301-713-3000, ext. 121, e-mail [email protected]






                            Trends and Future Challenges
                                                            fo r
                U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy


                                            Proceedings



                              Edited by Biliana Cicin-Sain,* Robert W. Knecht,* and Nancy Foster"
                                   *Center for the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware
                                                 "National Ocean Service, NOAA






                                                           The Ocean Governance Study Group

                                               r
                                                                                                       904 Gram








                     Organized by the National Ocean Service, NOAA; the Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy,
                                  University of Delaware; and the Ocean Governance Study Group.

                         Funding support has comefrom the National Ocean Service, NOAA. The additional
                         support of the Centerfor Marine Conservation, BOATIUS, and the Graduate College
                          of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, is acknowledged with sincere thanks.


     IZJ
                   0-0 am os"" I*








                         Table of Contents



                                                                                                              .................. 4: ....................
                    Ifitroduction and Execu ive Sumiffiary                                    ...........                                         .................. 1
                                                                                                                .... .. .. ...
                    Looking Ahead: Future Challenges for U.S. Ocean and Coastal Policy                                ........................................................... 1
                         Biliana Cicin-Sain,* Robert W. Knecht,* and Nancy Foster"
                         *Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware, "National Ocean Service, NOAA


                                                                                                                                       . . . ...... .
                                N
                                   ext 25 Years: Global lssues.@                 ......... . ...................................................  ........................


                    Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context                      .................................................................................................. 17
                         Allen Hammond, World Resources Institute

                    Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture                    ......................................................................................................... 21
                         Richard Grainger, FAO Fisheries Department

                    The Coastal Population Explosion                ........................................................................................................................... 27
                         Don Hinrichsen, United Nations consultant and author

                    Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998. (Executive Summary)                           ..................................................................... 31
                         Charles A. Bookman, Thomas G. Culliton, and Maureen A. Warren, National Ocean Service, NOAA



                    @2.'@ Trends in Managing the,Environment                            .. .................................I........................................... 35
                                                                                            3NK

                    New Approaches to Environmental Management:                          Lessons from the Chesapeake Bay                  ............................... 37
                         Donald F Boesch, University of Maryland

                    Perspectives on Marine Water Quality                 .................................................................................................................... 41
                         Tim Eichenberg, Centerfor Marine Conservation and Clean Water Network

                    Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and Challenges                          ................................................................................... 45
                         Thomas F. Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

                    Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas                   .............................................................................................................. 51
                         Tundi Agardy, Conservation International


                                                         anges anc                    'Responses        ............ ................. . ............................... 57
                    '&jndustry-Dnv6n..Ch                                 I PoliF
                                                                                   y,

                    Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure Implications                            .................................................................... 59
                         Rod Vulovic, Sea-Land Service, Inc.

                    Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportunities and Future Challenges                                     ............................................ 65
                         Paul L. Kelly, Rowan Companies, Inc.

                    Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing Industry                         .................................................................................. 69
                         Pietro Parravano, Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations










                     Coastal Tourism and Recreation: The Driver of Coastal Development                                       . .................... . .............................................................................. 73
                          Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht,
                          Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware

                     Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's Coastal Regions                                    ....................................................................... 77
                          Howard Marlowe, American Coastal Coalition

                     A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United States                          . ...................................................................................................................................................... 81
                          Ryck Lydecker and Margaret Podlich, Boat Owners Association of the United Sates (BOATIUS)

                     Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current and Future Policy and Management Challenges                                                          ...... 85
                          M. Richard DeVoe, South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium

                     Offshore Marine Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Legal and Regulatory Concerns                                                ........ 95
                          Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick,**
                          *University of Maine School of Law, "University of Delaware

                     The Potential for the Marine Biotechnology Industry                             ....................................................................................... 101
                          Shirley A. Pomponi, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Florida

                     Emerging Challenges for U.S. Marine Biotechnology'                              ........................ .................................................................................................................. ........ 105
                          Biliana Cicin-Sain,* Robert W. Knecht,* and Dosoo Jang,**
                          *Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware, **NOAA


                     4. Trends and Future Issues in the Coastal States                                        ...............................................................  109


                     Building Capacity for Ocean Management: Recent Developments in U.S. West Coast States                                                     ................. 111
                          Marc 1. Hershman, University of Washington

                     Coastal States' Challenges               ....................................................................................................................................... 117
                          Sarah Cooksey, State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal States Organization

                     Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policy for Florida                                   ........................................................................... 121
                          James F Murley and Laura Cantral, Florida Governor's Ocean Committee

                     Appendices

                           1. Biographies of Authors and Moderators                        ................................................................................................... 125

                          II. Workshop Agenda                ........................................................................................................................................ 132

                          III. Workshop Participants              .................................................................................................................................. 135











                     1. Paper submitted after the workshop.








                                               Introduction and Executive Summary

                                 LOOKING AHEAD: FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR U.S. OCEAN
                                                            AND COASTAL POLICY


                                       Biliana Cicin-Sain, * Robert W. Knecht, * and Nancy Foster"
                     *Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware, "National Ocean Service

               The Changing Context of National Ocean and                      California and Texas-will lead the nation in popula-
               Coastal Policy                                                  tion, while Florida's expected population of 16
                                                                               million will rank fourth in the nation, up from tenth
               We see a changing context for U.S. ocean and coastal            in 1960 (Culliton et al, 1990). Population density in
               policy in the late 1990s. Some of these changes are             coastal areas-in 1988 it was 341 persons per square
               physical-the warming climate and the associated                 mile, more than 4 times the U.S. average-is expected
               effects at the shoreline including accelerated sea level        to increase more than 10% between 1988 and 2010
               rise and coastal erosion, the possibility of                                                          (Culliton et al,
               increased storm frequency and perhaps                                                                 1990).
               intensity; some are social and demo-                   Population growth will
               graphic-the increasing flow of people                  continue to be a driving                       Population pres-
               and activities to coastal areas and the                                                               sures will typically
               consequent changes in coastal environ-                 force in the 2 1 st century.                   lead to increased
               ments; some are related to technology-                 It is expected that popu-                      user conflicts and
               the need for deeper navigational chan-                 lotions - both globally and                    competition for
               nels and harbors to accommodate larger                 in the United States - will                    scarce ocean and
               and faster vessels and the need to                                                                    coastal resources,
               respond to the challenges of new tech-                 continue to concentrate                        result in loss of
               nologies such as marine biotechnology;                 in coastal areas,                              access to the ocean
               and some represent changes in public                                                                  commons, and raise
               policy-a recognition that many environ-                                                               a variety of public
               mental and resource problems are effectively ad-                health issues. Concomitantly, coastal ocean degrada-
               dressed only by partnerships, between levels of                 tion is likely to continue in the form of declining
               government and between the public and private                   water quality and coastal fisheries and destruction of
               sectors.                                                        important habitats. Controlling nonpoint (or land-
                                                                               based) sources of marine pollution-such as rain-
               Population growth will continue to be a driving force           caused run-off from urban surfaces containing grease
               in the 21st century. It is expected that populations-           and oil, plastics, salt, and other substances, storm
               both globally and in the United States-will continue            water run-off, and run-off from agricultural activities
               to concentrate in                                                            containing fertilizers, pesticides, and other
               coastal areas.                                                               chemicals used in farming practices-will
               World megacities                                                             pose one of the most significant chal-
               (defined as cities           In the marine realm, we                         lenges to decision-makers since land-
               larger than 8                are likely to see increased                     based sources such as these account for
               million) which               growth In coastal and                           more than 75% of the pollutants entering
               numbered 20 in               morine tourism as travel                        the oceans (YOTO 1998, C-19). Changes
               1990 will increase                                                           in the global climate, as they materialize,
               to 30 in 2010.               and tourism. the world"s_                       are expected to result in rising sea levels,
               Twenty of these 30           largest industry, continues,                    increased damage by storms and floods,
               megacities will be           to rise.                                        and changes in rainfall and freshwater
               coastal megacities                                                           flow to estuaries.
               (Nicholls 1995). In
               the United States, coastal populations are expected to          In the marine realm, we are likely to see increased
               rise from 141 million in 1996 to 166 million in 2015            growth in coastal and marine tourism as travel and
               (Bookman, Culliton and Warren, 1999, in this vol-               tourism, the world's largest industry, continues to
               ume). By 2010, for example, two coastal states-                 rise. In 1995, the industry employed 211.7 million







                Trends andFuture Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                people, produced 10.9% of world gross domestic                 From an economic and political perspective, the
                product, invested $693.9 billion in new facilities/            globalization of the economy will continue and
                equipment, and contributed more than $637 billion to           world economic and political interdependence will
                global tax revenues (WTTC, no date). Hopefully,                be even more apparent than it is today. New factors
                pressures for maintaining the health and attractive-           which have become manifest in the last several years
                ness of coastal areas                                                      such as the emergence of regional
                                                                                           economic blocs and growing intema-
                for tourism will                                               TMM
                provide the needed            @,,--Reodihihg. U.S. Jedder..@,.,            tional terrorism are likely to continue. In
                political will to push                                                     the period to 2025, we will see more,
                for such programs as
                                                                                           rather than fewer, demands for United
                                                                            us,
                                                                dh&rS th
                clean water protection                                                     States international leadership. In this
                                                                one @bf th'                regard, the United States was once the
                and beach restoration
                and mainten
                             ance.                                                         acknowledged leader in ocean affairs
                                                 r7ld for. challenges In
                Global trade, most of                                                      internationally. Now the United States
                it by ship, wil                  notlonolpce' an pOWCY                     finds itself outside the ambit of some of
                              I con
                                                                           cc
                tinue to grow in                 in thdh        t d6ill de,                the most important international agree-
                importance and the                                                         ments ever concluded on oceans, particu-
                marine transportation                                                      larly the Law of the Sea Convention and
                industry will demand refurbished and modernized                the 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity and will
                port facilities, including deeper channels, to accom-          increasingly find it difficult to influence the course of
                modate the deeper-draft, larger, and faster ships now          actions decided by international bodies set up under
                coming on line. Given the decline of fisheries                 these Conventions. Regaining U.S. leadership in
                worldwide (60 percent of commercial stocks are                 international ocean matters thus looms as one of the
                either overfished or fully harvested (FA0 1996)), the          major challenges in national ocean policy in the next
                focus in this area will likely be on conservation and          decade (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1999).
                on rebuilding stocks rather than on fisheries develop-
                ment.                                                          Meeting these challenges is not going to be easy and
                                                                               will require the kind of advance planning and
                Aquaculture currently accounts for about 25% of                concerted, integrated, and sustained action that we
                world food fish supplies, with China, India, Taiwan,           have not recently demonstrated. Solving the fisher-
                and Thailand among the leaders in this field (YOTO             ies problem, for example, will require more than
                1998, C-28). Aquaculture is likely to grow as a                simply closing fisheries and allowing sufficient time
                substitute to wild fisheries but ways will need to be          for the stocks to recover. To achieve improved
                found to avoid the environmental problems that have            abundance on a sustainable basis, we will also have
                plagued aquaculture operations in some Asian and               to address such problems as continuing loss of
                Latin American countries. Marine areas, too, will              essential fish habitat, problems of bycatch, and
                increasingly be used for the "bioprospecting" of               problems associated with land-based sources of
                novel marine organisms and marine organisms with               marine pollution. Restoring and managing the
                unique properties (such as the heat-tolerant hyper-            nation's recreational beaches will require much closer
                thermophiles found in deep-ocean hydrothermal                  cooperation and collaboration among organizations
                vents). Policy frameworks that establish standards             such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the
                for allowing access to and exploitation of such                Federal Emergency Management Agency and its
                resources will need to be developed, given the lack of         National Flood Insurance Program, the coastal
                any policy guidance at present. In offshore oil                management programs in place in each of the coastal
                development, new challenges will be faced in at least          states, and local governments and their coastal
                two areas: the dismantling of offshore oil platforms,          communities which are clearly on the front line with
                in an environmentally sound manner, in oil fields              regard to this problem. Modernizing the nation's
                that have been depleted (approximately 4,000                   port system to meet the needs of the 21st century, for
                platforms will need decommissioning around the                 another example, will require a significant effort at
                world, and 1,000 in the Gulf of Mexico in the coming           all levels from the local port community itself, to the
                decade), and, as industry develops oil resources in            host coastal state, and to the national level where a
                deeper and deeper areas of the Gulf of Mexico (Coy             more coherent national port policy is needed. All in
                et al. 1997), new policy issues related to marine              all, a more integrated system of ocean governance
                safety, environmental impact, and relations with               will be needed, one that looks at the ocean and its
                neighboring Mexico are likely to arise.                        resources as a whole and not only at its discrete
                                                                               parts.

                2







                                                                                           Introduction and Executive Summary


               Discussions at the 1999 Workshop on Trends and              coupled with widening disparities in wealth may
               Future Challenges                                           lead to the demise of Market World. Fortress World
                                                                           envisions islands of luxury and privilege surrounded
               This volume contains the papers presented at the            by oceans of poverty, despair, and environmental
               Trends and Future Challenges for U. S. National             degradation.
               Ocean and Coastal Policy workshop held in Wash-
               ington, D. C. on January 22,1999. The workshop,             The final scenario is Transformed World, which
               part of the series of Dialogues on National Ocean and       recognizes that fundamental social and political
               Coastal Policy, sought to raise awareness of trends         reform is necessary to solve some of the problems
               and emerging challenges in national ocean and               that exist in Market World and Fortress World. In
               coastal policy and to set the stage for continuing          order to achieve Transformed World, changes in
               national dialogues on these important issues. The           attitude and a new sociopolitical consensus are
               workshop was organized by the National Ocean                needed. While Hammond concludes that this
               Service, NOAA; the Center for the Study of Marine           scenario may require a bit of a leap of faith, he argues
               Policy, University of Delaware; and the Ocean               that many transforming trends are already under-
               Governance Study Group. Funding support came                way. Such transforming trends include changes in
               from the National Ocean Service, NOAA, the Center           political consensus and social attitudes, the rise of
               for Marine Conservation, BOAT/US, and the Gradu-            civil society, and the greening of corporations.
               ate College of Marine Studies of the University of
               Delaware. The support of these organizations is             In Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture,
               gratefully acknowledged.                                    Richard Grainger of the FAO Fisheries Department
                                                                           describes past trends in capture fishery and aquacul-
               The main points presented in each of the papers             ture production and compares the current production
               contained in this volume are outlined below.                with fisheries potential. Grainger focuses particu-
                                                                           larly on the contribution of fisheries to food supply
               In Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context,           and the economy; capture fisheries development and
               Allen Hammond of the World Resources Institute              the need for management; improving fisheries
               asks two questions: (1) What forces are shaping the         management; aquaculture development; and infor-
               world, and where would we like to go; and (2) Can           mation needs.
               we envision some development trajectories that will
               get us to the type of world that we would like to           With regard to the contribution of fisheries to food
               leave for the future? In seeking to answer these            supply and the economy, both global fish production
               questions, Hammond focuses on environmental                 and consumption have increased markedly since the
               trends but also presents an overview of a number of         1950s. Growing numbers of people have found
               other interacting factors, including population             employment in world fisheries and aquaculture, and
               trends, economic trends, sociopolitical trends and          trade in fishery commodities has also significantly
               security trends. The discussion of key trends is            increased since 1970.
               organized. via an exploration of three scenarios-
               Market World, Fortress World, and Transformed World.        The section on capture fisheries development and the
                                                                           need for management discusses fishing fleets, fishery
               Market World is a scenario where markets and the            landings, and tracking fishery development. A
               private sector play a major role in the future. It also     preliminary FAO assessment on industrial fishing
               envisions the continuing technological revolution,          vessels of over 100 GT indicates a significant decrease
               the spread of democracy around the world, wide-             in fleet size, with very little change in tonnage per
               spread improvements in literacy, and even environ-          vessel between 1991 and 1997. Capture fishery
               mental improvements in many industrialized coun-            production has leveled off in the last decade, and the
               tries. The problem with a Market World future is that       increase in food fish production in recent years has
               markets do not automatically solve environmental            been due entirely to aquaculture. With regard to
               problems, and they often exacerbate, rather than            fishery development, a transition from largely
               ameliorate problems of equity and other social              undeveloped fisheries to mainly senescent and
               problems.                                                   mature fisheries is clear.

               Fortress World is a vision of what might result if          In the realm of fisheries management, Grainger
               unattended environmental and social problems                concludes that management has generally failed to
               undermine Market World. Trends such as increasing           protect resources from overexploitation. However,
               population growth, urbanization, and consumption            recent developments such as the UN Straddling Fish

                                                                                                                                    3







                 Trends and Future Challengesfor US. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 Stocks Agreement and the FAO Code of Conduct for            176 million-30 million more people than the coastal
                 Responsible Fishing should allow an unprecedented           population in 1990. In the United States, 55 to 60
                 opportunity for improving fisheries management. If          percent of Americans now live in the 772 counties
                 this opportunity is lost and management does not            adjacent to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf
                 improve, there could be a shortfall of 10 to 40 million     of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. In 1990, the most
                 tons between demand and supply for human con-               crowded coastline in the United States, stretching
                 sumption by 2010, despite increased aquaculture             from Boston to Washington, D.C., had over 2,500.
                 production.                                                 people per square kilometer. Another 101 coastal
                                                                             counties had population densities exceeding 1,250
                 Aquaculture has been the world's fastest growing            per square kilometer.
                 food production system for over a decade. Grainger
                 concludes that the rapid growth in aquaculture              Hinrichsen concludes that now is the time to develop
                 seems set to continue in the near future. With regard       and introduce management plans that protect vital
                 to information needs, Grainger notes that fishery           coastal ecosystems, while permitting economic
                 managers and policy makers will need to draw more           growth and ensuing a better quality of life for all
                 on fisheries research programs that encompass               coastal dwellers. Continued denial of the problems
                 economics, sociology, and anthropology as well as           will only make solutions harder to achieve in the
                 biology. There will be a major need for development         coming decades.
                 and use of sustainability indicators to synthesize the
                 very broad range of information.                            In Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998,
                                                                             Charles Bookman, Thomas Culliton and Maureen
                 In The Coastal Population Explosion, United                 Warren of the National Ocean Service, NOAA
                 Nations consultant and author Don Hinrichsen                examine emerging trends and underlying issues that
                 emphasizes the increasingly skewed nature of                are shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and
                 population distribution. Recent studies have shown          coastal management and policy. Present and pro-
                 that the overwhelming majority of people are con-           jected trends are discussed in terms of populations
                 centrated along or near coasts on just 10 percent of        and settlement; social values; economic activity;
                 the earth's land surface. In 1998, more than half of        resources; environmental quality; hazards; and
                 the world's population (3.2 billion people) lived and       governance and management.
                 worked in a coastal strip 200 kilometers (120 miles)
                 wide. Two-thirds of the global population live              The authors' examination of coastal population and
                 within 400 kilometers of a coast.                           settlement trends finds that the coastal population of
                                                                             the United States is projected to increase from 141
                 Hinrichsen reviews population density through               million to 166 million between 1996 and 2015. In
                 comparative regional analyses. The bulk of Asia's           order to counter the deleterious impacts of increasing
                 population, with the exception of India, is coastal or      population pressure, states and localities have begun
                 near-coastal. Of the region's collective population of      to channel public investment for infrastructure into
                 3.5 billion, 60 percent (2.1 billion) live within 300       areas that are best equipped to accommodate growth.
                 kilometers of a coast. Latin American and Caribbean         An analysis of social trends finds that over the last
                 coastal states have a collective population of approxi-     thirty years, public attitudes toward the environment
                 mately 610 million. Three-quarters of this population       have changed markedly. In addition to the evolution
                 lives within 200 kilometers of a coast. The majority        of public attitudes that favor ocean protection,
                 of the Caribbean Basin's 200 million permanent              nongovernmental organizations have emerged to
                 residents live on or near the seashore. Of all the          work towards conservation and management of the
                 continents except the Antarctic, only Africa has more       environment. The authors found the marine-related
                 people living in the interior than along or near            economic activities in the coastal zone and coastal
                 coastlines and major river valleys. Even in Africa,         ocean account for up to two percent of the U.S. GNP.
                 demographic patterns are shifting. Over the past two        Recreation and tourism, waterborne commerce,
                 decades, Africa's coastal cities have been growing by       energy and mineral production, and fisheries account
                 4 percent a year or more. In the Mediterranean              for most economic activities along the coast. In their
                 Basin, the resident population might become as large        discussion of environmental quality, the authors note
                 as 555 million people by 2025. According to Blue            that coastal oceans and estuaries are extremely
                 Plan projections, the urban population of coastal           valuable and productive natural systems. However,
                 Mediterranean administrative regions could reach            these systems are threatened by a number of environ-
                                                                             mental stresses including nutrient over-enrichment,
                                                                             bacterial contamination, chemical pollution, oxygen

                 4







                                                                                           Introduction and Executive Surnmary

              depletion, oil spills and unplanned habitat alter-          world. This is another strength of the program
              ations. Concerning coastal hazards, the authors             because environmental monitoring is essential for the
              found that while a greater potential for loss exists        practice of adaptive environmental management.
              now than in the past, relatively fewer actual losses
              occur. This paradox has been attributed to improve-         With regard to the second question, Boesch notes that
              ments in forecasting and storm predictions and              the first generation of Chesapeake restoration goals
              stricter building codes.                                    was based on nutrient inputs. The next generation of
                                                                          restoration goals will be based on living resources.
              The authors conclude by noting that three important         Rates of land development are too fast to meet and
              trends are occurring to address the fragmented              hold Bay restoration goals, and they are also unsus-
              nature of ocean governance and management. These            tainable in terms of infrastructure demands and
              trends are: (1) the move towards greater enclosure of       quality of life considerations. As a result, the Chesa-
              the oceans, as codified in the 1982 LOS Convention;         peake Bay watershed has become a focal point of the
              (2) the establishment of special management areas           Smart Growth movement. Finally, Boesch notes that
              and expansion of national capacities to plan for and        the Program needs to begin to take heed of the
              manage the coastal zone; and (3) the increased              possible changes and implications associated with
              adoption and utilization of integrated management           climate change.
              approaches.
                                                                          In Perspectives on Marine Water Quality, Tim
              In New Approaches to Environmental Management:              Eichenberg of the Center for Marine Conservation
              Lessons From the Chesapeake Bay, Donald Boesch              and the Clean Water Network reviews the historical
              of the University of Maryland begins by noting that         state of water quality in the United States, conditions
              the Chesapeake Bay Program represents perhaps the           that led to the adoption of the Clean Water Act in
              most ambitious and costly effort to restore a major         1972, progress that has been made since the enact-
              coastal ecosystem. The Chesapeake Bay Program               ment of the CWA, and areas that remain unad-
              aims not only to restore the Bay, but also to manage        dressed.
              activities in the coastal zone and a catchment area of      Eichenberg begins by noting that until 1972, the
              64,000 square miles. Boesch seeks to answer two             United States had no national program for regulating
              fundamental questions about the 20-year old Pro-            the discharge of sewage and industrial pollutants.
              gram: (1) What can we learn from this experience;           By 1972, more than 60 percent of assessed rivers,
              and (2) Where does this experiment in ecosystem             lakes, and estuaries were not fishable or swimmable,
              management need to go in the 21st century? Boesch           and over 50 percent of the wetlands in the continen-
              examines the Program's commitments and goals, as            tal United States had been destroyed. Thus, condi-
              well as its science, model monitoring, sustainable          tions were ripe for the adoption of national clean
              resource use; growth management; and climate                water legislation. In 1972, the Clean Water Act was
              change activities in order to answer these questions.       overwhelmingly passed over President Nixon's veto.
                                                                          The Act had three primary goals: (1) to eliminate the
              In answering the first question, Boesch finds that the      discharge of pollutants by 1985; (2) wherever attain-
              Chesapeake Bay Program owes its longevity and               able, to provide for the protection and propagation of
              successes to the high and sustained level of social         fish, shellfish and wildlife, and recreation in and on
              commitment it has enjoyed. The Program has been             the water by 1983; and (3) to prohibit the discharge of
              goal-oriented, even though setting appropriate goals        toxic pollutants in toxic amounts.
              has often been clouded by uncertainty@ The goal-
              oriented nature of the Program has lent it strength by      Eichenberg maintains that while significant progress
              focusing bureaucratic attention and providing a             has been made in addressing water quality problems
              framework and currency for debates. The Program             since 1972, a great deal of work remains to be done in
              prides itself in being science-based, and Boesch            order to meet the goals of the CWA. The Clean Water
              explores its emphasis on the development and                Act has not been reauthorized since 1987, and
              application of sophisticated computer models of the         Eichenberg contends that new approaches are
              Bay and its watershed. These models have tremen-            needed to address remaining clean water challenges.
              dous power in tracking progress, identifying signifi-       Many such challenges have been identified. For
              cant problems, and determining the effects of man-          example, the EPA estimates that 60 percent of water
              agement alternatives. Finally, the Chesapeake Bay           quality impairment now comes from nonpoint
              Program operates the largest and most extensive             sources of pollution. Less than three percent of the
              monitoring programs of any coastal ecosystem in the         State Revolving Fund (SRF) has been devoted to


                                                                                                                                   5







              Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

              nonpoint source pollution. Section 319 of the CWA           professional organizations. The goal of the ARC
              provides no mandatory controls on the major sources         partnership is to ensure the conservation of the
              of nonpoint source pollution. N0AA`s Coastal                nation's freshwater, estuarine, and marine living
              Nonpoint Pollution Control Program is currently             resources by creating a common information base
              moribund. There are no enforceable national stan-           and options for preserving the ecological and eco-
              dards for monitoring and posting swimming                   nomic integrity of these resources.
              beaches. There are no enforceable national standards
              for fish consumption advisories. These problems             Hourigan concludes that it is important to make full
              represent only some of the challenges that need to be       use of new approaches to management on scales that
              addressed in the future. Eichenberg suggests a              are meaningful to ocean living resources. Such
              number of potential approaches for managing                 approaches can then be placed in watershed and
              continuing water quality problems.                          integrated marine and coastal area management
                                                                          regimes that involve all stakeholders. Hourigan
              In Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and                maintains that, together, these offer the promise of
              Challenges, Thomas Hourigan of the National                 better conserving marine biodiversity.
              Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA discusses trends in
              the health of marine biodiversity, specifically men-        In Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas, Tundi
              tioning fisheries, protected marine species, and key        Agardy of Conservation International notes that
              ecosystems. Hourigan also identifies five critical          marine protected areas are increasingly being used to
              elements of action for addressing the threats to living     protect biologically rich habitats, resolve user con-
              marine resources. The new Aquatic Restoration and           flicts, and help restore overexploited stocks and
              Conservation Partnership for Marine, Estuarine and          degraded areas. Agardy maintains that the increase
              Freshwater Living Resources is also described.              in the designation and management of marine
                                                                          protected areas is occurring on two tracks: (1) the
              Hourigan begins by noting that the primary threats          establishment of reserves to safeguard representative
              to marine biodiversity are fisheries operations,            habitats or particularly rich and diverse areas, and (2)
              chemical pollution and eutrophication, physical             the use of protected areas to complement both
              alteration of coastal and marine habitats, invasions of     fisheries and coastal management.
              exotic species, and ultraviolet-B radiation damage to
              phytoplankton and zooplankton resulting from                Agardy notes that protected area placement, design,
              stratospheric ozone depletion. With regard to trends        and operation all relate to the scope and nature of the
              in the health of marine biodiversity, trends for            goals being targeted-i.e. the specific objectives the
              oceanic resources have revealed that anthropocentric        protected area is meant to achieve. She contends that
              activities are meeting and often exceeding the              what is most necessary, and what is most often
              productive and recuperative limits of the ocean.            overlooked when the process of establishing a
                                                                          marine protected area is initiated, is information on
              Hourigan describes how the U.S. government, in              what the protected area is being established to
              partnership with public and private stakeholders            achieve. Goal-setting or objective elaboration is
              domestically and internationally, is working to             critical in order to determine expectations, effectively
              address the threats to living marine resources and to       design the reserve, and have in place targets and
              ensure the promise of these resources for future            benchmarks against which progress towards the
              generations. The core of this new strategic vision is       objectives can be measured. Thus, Agardy concludes
              comprised of five critical elements: (1) investing in       that the identification of these objectives is ultimately
              science in the interest of stewardship; (2) applying        societal, not scientific, and that the human element in
              the precautionary approach; (3) applying new                marine protected areas cannot be overlooked. The
              technologies to ensure the environmental                    success of any protected area is closely related to how
              sustainability of marine aquaculture; (4) building          well user groups and stakeholders are identified and
              partnerships; and (5) exploiting the full potential of      brought into the planning and management pro-
              an ecosystem-based approach to resource manage-             cesses for the protected area.
              ment.
                                                                          Agardy also presents a summary of published
              Hourigan also discusses the Aquatic Restoration and         literature and anecdotal evidence that demonstrates
              Conservation (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estua-           that marine protected areas have produced certain
              rine and Freshwater Living Resources. Members of            quantifiable benefits: (1) increases in abundance of
              the partnership include NOAA, the U.S. Geological           reef fish and invertebrates; (2) increases in individual
              Survey and other federal agencies, states, NGOs, and

              6







                                                                                             Introduction and Executive Summary

               size/age; (3) increases in reproductive output; (4)          facilitate the provision of solutions to the many
               increases in species diversity; (5) increases in             problems and challenges that currently exist for
               spillover; (6) increases in replenishment; (7) increases     shipowners and port operators. Vulovic maintains
               in preservation of genetic and demographic diver-            that while the goal of seamless intermodalism is a
               sity; and (8) increases in habitat quality and diversity.    difficult one to reach, it will eventually be achieved.

               Agardy concludes that despite incomplete knowl-              In Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportuni-
               edge and imprecise science, steps must be taken to           ties and Future Challenges, Paul Kelly of Rowan
               establish protected areas now, and to use the addi-          Companies, Inc. begins by noting that the extraction
               tional information gained as time goes on to alter           of petroleum resources from beneath the seabed is a
               these reserves, remove superfluous ones, and add             key maritime activity in the Gulf of Mexico, offshore
               new reserves. She maintains that by clearly defining         southern California, and in some regions of Alaska.
               objectives and using science to design the best              Kelly points out that petroleum production from
               possible plans for meeting those objectives, the             offshore federal lands presently comprises 20 percent
               management of marine activities can be improved.             of domestic oil production and 27 percent of domes-
                                                                            tic natural gas production. Currently, the offshore oil
               In Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure          and gas industry and its attendant support services
               Implications, Rod Vulovic of Sea-Land Service, Inc.          sector provide 85,000 jobs. Kelly notes that it is
               addresses a number of topics including the changing          probable that the number of jobs provided by the
               face of world trade and its effects upon ship size,          industry will more than double over the next 20
               environmental impacts of mega-carriers,                      years, and that oil production in the Gulf of Mexico is
               intermodalism, safe navigation, the ideal container          expected to double by 2002. He also indicates that
               port, and ballast-water exchange. Vulovic begins by          revenues from OCS oil and gas development gener-
               noting that fully 90 percent of international trade is       ate between $3 and $4 billion a year in federal
               carried by sea. He notes that while container ships          receipts and contribute to the Land and Water
               are the linchpin of cargo transportation, the total          Conservation Fund and the National Historic Preser-
               system includes sophisticated shoreside terminals,           vation Fund.
               intermodal extensions to inland points by rail and
               highway, and automated information systems that              Kelly discusses the successful development of
               track a shipment throughout its journey.                     technology in offshore petroleum production and
                                                                            relates how new exploration, drilling, and produc-
               With regard to future trends in ship size, Vulovic           tion-related technologies have resulted in unprec-
               contends that the practicable upper limit of container       edented production in 3,000 to 5,000 feet of water in
               ship size has not been reached by the 7,000-TEU plus         the Gulf of Mexico. Not only have technological
               vessels now in existence. He proposes that an                advances led to increased offshore production, but
               eventual ceiling might be found around levels of             such advances have also improved the OCS safety
               10,000 to 12,000 TEU, and that market forces will            and environmental record. For example, less than
               continue to influence the evolution of the system as         0.001 percent of the oil produced from the OCS has
               long as it moves in a way that continues to provide          been spilled from production facilities during the last
               improvements in cost, reliability, speed, and cus-           two decades.
               tomer satisfaction.
                                                                            Kelly also addresses the efforts of the Minerals
               Concerning environmental impacts of mega-carriers,           Management Service to resolve conflicts and build
               Vulovic states that these ships display an increasingly      consensus among stakeholders with regard to OCS
               important characteristic that may directly affect air        oil and gas development. Kelly notes that such an
               quality. In an operational environment in which the          approach is being used in the current five year OCS
               contribution to atmospheric pollution by marine              leasing program, and that coastal state administra-
               sources is being increasingly scrutinized, the opera-        tions appear to be more satisfied with the increase in
               tion of a mega-carrier will result in a measurably           communication and consideration between the
               lower release of pollutant gases than from an equiva-        federal government and the states regarding CICS oil
               lent transportation capacity in smaller ships.               and gas policy. For these reasons, among other
                                                                            things, Kelly maintains that President Clinton's
               Vulovic concludes that an ongoing dialogue between           extension of the OCS moratorium beyond the year
               port users, operating authorities, support and               2000 was premature.
               regulatory organizations, and government will


                                                                                                                                     7







                Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                Kelly also touches upon the benefits of offshore oil          conservation ratios; and (7) making fishing men and
                technology for ocean research and other activities            women with first-hand knowledge of the marine
                and the future challenges for deep water oil explora-         environment an integral component of fishery
                tion and production. He closes his paper by empha-            research, management, and decision making.
                sizing that, as petroleum exploration advances into
                ever-deeper waters, it is critical that the United States     In Coastal Tourism and Recreation: The Driver of
                ratify the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention in order to         Coastal Development, Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert
                assure 200 nautical miles of U. S. OCS jurisdiction.          W. Knecht, University of Delaware, note that while
                                                                              there is general recognition that coastal tourism and
                In Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing              recreation are important in the coastal zone, that their
                Industry, Pietro Parravano of the Pacific Coast               impact is systematically undervalued both economi-
                Federation of Fishermen's Associations maintains              cally and as the most important driver of coastal de-
                that the Fishery Conservation and Management Act              velopment in many U.S. coastal areas. Travel and tour-
                of 1976 was the most significant piece of fisheries           ism are estimated to have provided $746 billion to the
                legislation passed in this century. The FCMA estab-           U.S. domestic product, about 10% of U.S. output, mak-
                lished: (1) U.S. control of fisheries in waters offshore      ing travel and tourism the second largest contributor
                out to 200 miles in a Fishery Conservation Zone               to GDP, just behind combined wholesale and retail
                (FCZ); (2) U.S. policy to "Americanize" U.S. fisheries        trade (Houston 1995). Although there are no precise
                by phasing out foreign fishing offshore and develop-          estimates of the magnitude of coastal travel and tour-
                ing a domestic fleet fully capable of harvesting the          ism in the U.S., studies have shown that beaches are
                fishery resources in the FCZ; and (3) federal manage-         America's leading tourist destination, ahead of national
                ment of U.S. fisheries in the FCZ through eight               parks and historic sites. Approximately 180 million
                regional fishery management councils and the                  people visit the coast for recreational purposes, with
                Department of Commerce.                                       85% of tourist-related revenues generated by coastal
                                                                              states (Houston 1996, 3).
                Parravano contends that the "Americanization"
                policy, with its emphasis on fleet construction rather        Given these figures, it is significant to note that there is
                than research, has led to a vast overcapitalization of        no federal agency with a mandate to manage coastal
                the U.S. fleet with far more harvesting capacity than         travel and tourism, and that there is no overall national
                there are resources to support that capacity. The             policy in place to plan for, and achieve, sustainable tour-
                author also maintains that the policy has led to              ism in the U.S. A major reason for the lack of a formal
                overfishing of many species and the collapse of the           program at the national level is that travel and tourism
                New England groundfish fisheries. Additionally,               is viewed as a sector that requires relatively little for-
                Parravano argues that the "Americanization" policy            mal management and is primarily a private sector en-
                had caused the Department of Commerce to ignore               deavor. The benefits of tourism on coastal areas are
                the plight of smaller and more traditional fisheries,         great, yet its adverse effects are often not immediately
                and to fail to act in a timely manner to prevent the          visible, which leads to a sort of "management apathy."
                near extinction of some Pacific salmon species.               Also, most aspects of coastal travel and tourism that
                                                                              need managing are already dealt with at one govern-
                After reviewing the effects of several pieces of              mental level or another, but in separate programs and
                fisheries-related legislation over the past 25 years,         run by different agencies, rather than as a coordinated,
                Parravano proposes seven focal points for fishery             interconnected whole.
                planning for the next 25 years: (1) full implementa-
                tion of the Sustainable Fisheries Act; (2) greater            Cicin-Sain and Knecht discuss the major federal pro-
                fostering and support of small-boat and fishing               grams most relevant to coastal travel and tourism-
                family (owner-operator) operations; (3) encouraging           including coastal management and planning, manage-
                fishery management decisions to be made at re-                ment of clean water and healthy ecosystems, manage-
                gional, state, and local levels, provided that they are       ment of the impacts of coastal hazards, waterways
                consistent with overall federal objectives; (4) in-           safety- and set forth a number of policy challenges
                creased funding for research purposes, gear develop-          that need to be addressed to promote sustainable and
                ment, and provision of autonomy for regional fishery          environmentally friendly tourism development in
                councils; (5) greater emphasis on value-added                 American coastal areas.
                fisheries and low-impact/high-value fisheries; (6)
                fostering of aquaculture operations only where they           In Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's
                are nonpolluting, nondamaging and have high                   Coastal Regions, Howard Marlowe of the American


                8







                                                                                              Introduction and Executive Summary


                Coastal Coalition raises a number of issues related to       In A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United
                increasing growth in and development of coastal              States, Ryck Lydecker and Margaret Podlich of the
                areas. Environmental challenges posed by coastal             Boat Owners Association of the United States
                development include increasing pressure upon                 (BOATIU.S.) discuss the relative importance of
                drinking water supplies and sewage systems, greater          recreational boating. They note that 75 million
                disruption of natural sand systems and subsequent            Americans were directly involved in on-the-water
                erosion, more pollution, and increasing tensions and         activities last year. Recreational vessels comprise
                conflicts among various resource users. Marlowe              America's largest fleet with 16.8 million boats in use
                notes that each of these issues is important, but the        nationwide.
                political process at every level frequently adopts a
                piecemeal approach to these problems, focusing on            Lydecker and Podlich also address the "yachting
                one issue at a time rather than working in an inte-          misnomer," which has led some to believe that
                grated manner.                                               recreational boating is largely the domain of wealthy
                                                                             "fat cats." The authors note that recreational boating
                To illustrate his points, Marlowe discusses two              is a social activity and family sport, and that boaters
                issues: (1) whether the Federal government should            contribute to the Aquatic Resources Trust Fund
                support beach nourishment; and (2) whether the               through motorboat fuel taxes and fishing gear excise
                Federal government should subsidize coastal flood            taxes. Lydecker and Podlich point out that the Fund
                insurance policies. Marlowe uses these issues to             puts approximately $350 million a year into boating
                demonstrate the somewhat myopic nature of public             safety education, law enforcement, environmental
                policy making. He points out, for example, that              protection, public access, and fishery restoration.
                while the Army Corps of Engineers conducts a
                benefit-cost analysis of every potential shore protec-       Lydecker and Podlich identify three major issues that
                tion project, the analysis places its greatest emphasis      currently are and will continue to be of great impor-
                on the value of private property immediately adja-           tance to recreational boaters in the future: (1) access,
                cent to the shoreline. Marlowe contends that such an         (2) natural resources, and (3) opportunity. With
                approach to analysis misses the benefits that accrue         regard to access, the authors note that in order to
                to homes and businesses in the area located else-            allow the general public the ability to get to the
                where than adjacent to the shoreline as well as other        water, ramps, access points, marinas and transient
                environmental benefits.                                      dockage, moorings, anchorage, and dry and winter
                                                                             storage must be available. Lydecker and Podlich also
                Marlowe emphasizes the economic benefits of a                maintain that in order to make exploration of water-
                number of beaches throughout the United States,              ways a legacy of recreational boaters, they must work
                including those in California, Florida, Delaware, and        towards making citizens coastal stewards interested
                Texas. Marlowe concludes his partial review of the           in preserving the areas they explore. Regarding
                economic impact of coastal regions in the United             natural resources, the authors note that the enjoy-
                States with data from the EPA. He notes that                 ment of recreational boating is heavily dependent
                America's coastal waters support 28.3 million jobs           upon clean water. The authors contend that new
                and generate $54 billion in goods and services               methods of reducing both point and nonpoint source
                annually. The coastal recreation and tourism indus-          pollution are necessary. Lydecker and Podlich also
                try is the second largest employer in the nation,            discuss the necessity of commercial and recreational
                serving the 180 million Americans who visit domes-           interests working together to achieve flexible, timely
                tic coasts each year.                                        management of fish and wildlife. Considering the
                                                                             issue of opportunity, the authors point to costs, fees,
                Marlowe concludes by maintaining that the develop-           government regulations, and maintenance as the
                ment of a comprehensive set of data on all of the            most often cited reasons preventing the average
                benefits derived from America's coastal regions is           citizen from engaging in recreational boating. They
                critical. He notes that major steps need to be taken to      mention a number of possible solutions to these
                improve coastal management practices and policies.           impediments, including improved infrastructure and
                Such steps include restoring and maintaining erod-           timeshare boat owning arrangements. Lydecker and
                ing beaches, improving water quality, protecting and         Podlich conclude by reiterating that much of the
                enhancing coastal wildlife, promoting policies that          nation is heading for the coast, and recreational
                mitigate coastal hazards, and generally improving            boaters should be considered a major component in
                the quality of the coastal environment.                      the quest to create coastal stewards.



                                                                                                                                       9







               Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               In Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current         Law and Susan Bunsick of the University of Dela-
               and Future Policy and Management Challenges, M.             ware begin by noting that the future development of
               Richard DeVoe of the South Carolina Sea Grant               marine aquaculture in the U.S. EEZ is constrained by
               Consortium provides an overview of domestic                 legal and regulatory concerns that need to be ad-
               marine aquaculture, addressing such issues as the           dressed in order for the industry to become both
               current status of the industry, the nature of the           financially viable and internationally competitive.
               industry, coastal and ocean use conflicts, aquaculture      The authors describe the current federal regulatory
               and the environment, legal and regulatory structures,       framework, identify important elements that need to
               marine aquaculture and federal policy, and the future       be included in an improved government framework,
               of marine aquaculture in the United States. DeVoe           review the major obstacles to offshore aquaculture,
               begins by noting that while domestic aquaculture            and present an overview of recent U.S. government
               production has not grown rapidly enough to balance          planning initiatives.
               the consumer demand for seafood, the development
               of the industry is considered to be critical to the         Among the legal obstacles to consider in any revision
               future of the United States because it has the poten-       of the current regulatory framework, the authors
               tial to produce: (1) high quality seafood to replace        identify five issues: (1) limited availability of prop-
               declining wild harvests; (2) products for export to aid     erty rights or other interests that can secure a
               in the reduction of the nation's foreign trade deficit;     producer's investment; (2) poorly defined standards
               (3) stock enhancement of important commercial and           that fail to reduce conflicts among competing users of
               recreational fisheries species; (4) economic develop-       public resources; (3) poorly defined agency jurisdic-
               ment opportunities; and (5) new employment                  tions leading to delays in defining applicable stan-
               opportunities.                                              dards or regulations; (4) redundant regulations due
                                                                           to overlapping agency responsibilities; and (5)
               Regarding problems confronting marine aquaculture,          inappropriate restrictions designed to protect wild
               DeVoe notes that a number of issues have con-               stocks.
               strained the development of marine aquaculture in
               the United States These issues include the complex          After reviewing the current status of U.S. govern-
               and diverse nature of the industry, conflicts with          ment planning efforts, the authors note that a win-
               other, more traditional uses of the nation's coastal        dow of opportunity for addressing the issues associ-
               and ocean waters, environmental concerns, and the           ated with the development of marine aquaculture
               existing legal and regulatory climate, all of which         was missed in the most recent reauthorization of the
               DeVoe discusses in some detail.                             National Aquaculture Act, which left the current
                                                                           federal approach unaltered. However, funding for
               In conclusion, DeVoe maintains that the United              marine aquaculture has been included in the Clinton
               States must return to the fundamental issues in order       Administration's National Oceans Initiative, which
               to address the lack of development in the marine            was announced in June 1998. The authors conclude
               aquaculture industry. He specifically suggests: (1)         that adoption of the draft National Aquaculture
               reevaluation and reaffirmation of the nation's aquac-       Development Plan could facilitate the changes in the
               ulture policy; (2) increased support of sustainable         legal and regulatory framework that are necessary to
               marine aquaculture; and (3) strengthened policy             promote the development of marine aquaculture in
               development through improved coordination.                  the EEZ.
               DeVoe summarizes that the key to the future of
               marine aquaculture in the United States is the              In The Potentialfor the Marine Biotechnology
               creation of technological and political systems that        Industry, Shirley Pomponi of the Harbor Branch
               provide for sustainable marine aquaculture. He              Oceanographic Institution begins by noting that the
               contends that sustainable aquaculture necessitates          marine environment is a rich source of both biologi-
               that all aspects of the industry, including production      cal and chemical diversity, and the oceans represent a
               and technology, economics and marketing, business           virtually untapped resource for discovery of novel
               and financing, natural resource needs and protec-           and useful compounds. Pomponi focuses on the
               tions, and administrative and legal institutions are        current status and future potential 'of marine biotech-
               addressed comprehensively and simultaneously.               nology related to the discovery, development, and
                                                                           sustainable'use of marine-derived compounds with
               In Offshore Marine Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive        biomedical applications. She also identifies four of
               Economic Zone: Legal and Regulatory Concerns,               the challenges facing the marine biotechnology
               Alison Rieser of the University of Maine School of          industry in the next millennium: (1) identifying new


               10







                                                                                              Introduction and Executive Summary

               sources of marine bioproducts; (2) developing novel          resources found in deep-sea areas; this will require
               screening technologies; (3) providing a sustainable          harmonization between the Law of the Sea Conven-
               source of supply; and (4) optimizing production and          tion and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The
               recovery of bioproducts.                                     second major policy challenge is the issue of safety in
                                                                            biotechnology, or "biosafety," as this issue has
               With regard to the first challenge, the identification of    become known. While there are not yet any binding
               new sources of marine bioproducts, Pomponi notes             agreements to address the transboundary movement
               that federal agency support for deep ocean explora-          of living modified organisms, there has been a major
               tion for biotechnology is limited, and that manned           effort underway to develop an international agree-
               and unmanned submersibles are underfunded and                ment on safety in biotechnology, under the aegis of
               restricted. Pomponi contends that there is a need for        the Convention on Biological Diversity. Such a
               the development of versatile bioreactors that can be         legally-binding agreement will greatly affect an
               deployed and operated in extreme environments.               individual nation's behavior and its domestic policies
               She also notes that another approach to the identifi-        on biotechnology in the next century. Finally, the
               cation of new products is the incorporation of               issue of intellectual property rights represents a
               miniaturized biosensors into both collecting tools           major policy challenge for the U.S. marine biotech-
               and bioreactors for rapid, in situ analysis of both          nology industry at the international level--countries
               wild and cultivated marine organisms for target              in the "North" (developed nations, the U.S. included)
               molecules. Concerning the second challenge,                  want stricter intellectual property controls on new
               Pomponi states that none of the assays used in major         biotech discoveries (to guarantee the biotech industry
               pharmaceutical drug discovery programs considers             the recovery of their investments and costs); while, in
               the role of marine-derived compounds in nature, and          contrast, the "South" (the developing nations) are
               that the development of in situ biosensors would             concerned about inequitable sharing of benefits
               facilitate the ability to explore the expression of          arising from the utilization of their genetic resources.
               secondary metabolites, lead to a greater understand-
               ing of the role of secondary metabolites in nature,          In Building Capacityfor Ocean Management: Recent
               and provide insight into the potential biomedical            Developments in U.S. West Coast States, Marc
               utility of such compounds.                                   Hershman of the School of Marine Affairs at the
                                                                            University of Washington begins by noting that in a
               With regard to the third challenge, the author notes         previous paper, he had concluded that there was a
               that some options for sustainable use of marine              trend toward increased state-level participation in
               resources are chemical synthesis, controlled harvest-        ocean management within the United States, and that
               ing, aquaculture of the source organism, in vitro            this trend was likely to continue because the states'
               production through cell culture of the microorganism         role in these issues had become institutionalized. In
               or its source, and transgenic production. Consider-          this paper, Hershman reports on recent develop-
               ing the fourth challenge, Pomponi points out that the        ments in the West Coast states of California, Oregon,
               area in which marine bioprocess engineering has the          and Hawaii to determine how their role in ocean
               greatest potential is in the design and optimization of      affairs has progressed since 1996.
               bioreactors for marine metabolite production. To
               summarize, Pomponi states that the marine biotech-           After reviewing developments in California, Oregon,
               nology industry faces a unique challenge: inventing a        and Hawaii, Hershman concludes that all three states
               new generation of tools and processes to discover            have continued to advance an ocean program. He
               new bioproducts and designing methods for their              notes that political and leadership changes can
               sustainable development.                                     influence progress in a new subject area like ocean
                                                                            management. Organizational change and revision of
               In Emerging Challengesfor U.S. Marine Biotechnology,         policy documents have hindered progress in the past,
               Robert Knecht, Biliana Cicin-Sain, and Dosoo Jang            and Hershman states that with the exception of
               discuss the policy challenges that the U.S. marine           Oregon, this pattern may continue to dominate.
               biotechnology industry will face in the near future-         Hershman finds that there appear to have been
               challenges related to the evolving international             substantive shifts in at least three areas. The first
               framework affecting marine                                   issue is fisheries policy. While fisheries-related issues
               biotechnology operations. The first policy challenge         were previously unaddressed in the three states'
               is defining an appropriate regime for governing              ocean management programs because of existing
               access to marine resources/ organisms under the              fisheries management agencies, in the past two years
               jurisdiction of coastal nations as well as to genetic        all three states have adopted new laws or policies







              Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

              dealing with fisheries management. The second               responsibilities, particularly in the nation's largest
              policy shift has been in the area of increased local        states where base grants have been capped for the
              government involvement in ocean affairs. The third          past seven years despite substantial increases in state
              policy shift is in the area of maritime policy, particu-    and local needs.
              larly in establishing state maritime policy and
              designating responsible agencies.                           In Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policy
                                                                          for Florida, James Murley and Laura Cantral of the
              Hershman concludes that the experiences of Califor-         Florida Governor's Ocean Committee discuss
              nia, Oregon, and Hawaii suggest that the scope of           Florida's efforts to develop an ocean management
              ocean issues of concern to coastal states is broaden-       approach that is coordinated and comprehensive,
              ing. He notes that these states' capacity for ocean         and that can account for a wide variety of uses and
              management has improved since new laws and                  activities. The authors include a brief history of the
              governmental responsibilities have been identified          current ocean planning initiative, describe the
              and added to the states' suite of management tools.         preliminary projects that laid the groundwork for the
              However, Hershman cautions that there is still              creation of the Florida Governor's Ocean Committee,
              considerable flux in defining responsibility for ocean      and summarize the Committee's work to date.
              issues in the states.
                                                                          Murley and Cantral. note that the impetus for devel-
              In Coastal States' Challenges, Sarah Cooksey of the         oping an ocean management strategy for Florida
              Delaware Department of Natural Resources and                began with the Florida Coastal Management Pro-
              Environmental Conservation and the Coastal States           gram (FCMP), located in the state's Department of
              Organization describes the importance of the Coastal        Community Affairs. The FCMP serves as the coordi-
              Zone Management Act (CZMA). Cooksey notes that              nating agency for nine state agencies that regulate
              the CZMA is the only federal statute that puts forth a      coastal activities, and over time it became clear that
              comprehensive, voluntary, federal-state partnership         an integrated framework was needed to manage
              based on the goal of maximizing sustainable eco-            offshore ocean resources and to eliminate inconsis-
              nomic and environmental objectives. Cooksey                 tencies between different agency responsibilities.
              maintains that it is time for a major commitment
              through the CZMA to provide for new and improved            In order to provide shape and direction to the ocean
              planning and management tools for local communi-            management effort, the FCMP funded a series of
              ties so that they might better understand and address       preliminary projects that, among other things, were
              complex economic and ecological dynamics of                 designed to generate support for ocean planning and
              coastal systems and communities.                            ultimately to justify the creation of a high-level group
                                                                          that would be charged with developing coordinated
              After providing background on the CZMA, Cooksey             ocean governance strategies for the state. The
              presents a summary of the Coastal States                    projects included a comprehensive analysis of the
              Organization's proposals for reauthorization of the         status of marine law and policy in Florida; a State-
              CZMA in 1999: (1) provide increased support for the         wide Ocean Resource Inventory (SORI); and the
              development of new tools which wilt build capacity          Florida Ocean Policy Roundtable. Once these
              at the state and local level through technical assis-       projects were complete, the next step toward the
              tance and targeted support to states and communi-           development of a comprehensive ocean management
              ties to implement place-based management in critical        strategy was the formation of a formal policy com-
              coastal areas; (2) provide for increased support for        mittee, known as the Florida Governor's Ocean
              state coastal programs to address the cumulative and        Committee (FGOC).
              secondary impacts of development and land-based
              sources of polluted runoff; (3) provide funding under       Murley and Cantral note that the FGOC developed a
              the Coastal Zone Management Fund for regionally             number of ocean management strategies, contained
              significant projects, international projects, emergency     in the Committee's draft final report. The strategies
              response to coastal hazards, and innovative demon-          are organized into five broad categories: (1) improv-
              stration projects addressed at local communities; (4)       ing information on and understanding of ocean
              clarify the role of and provide increased support for       resources; (2) creating an improved ocean manage-
              the National Estuarine Research Reserves and seek to        ment framework that is more coordinated and
              build closer links to coastal programs; and (5)             comprehensive; (3) achieving and sustaining diverse
              enhance federal support for base programs under the         marine ecosystems that are capable of supporting
              CZMA consistent with increased challenges and               multiple uses; (4) raising awareness, promoting


              12







                                                                                         Introduction and Executive Summary

              education, and fostering stewardship of the ocean;         General Assembly, The Earth Summit plus Five, New
              and (5) facilitating greater financial support for ocean   York City).
              research, education, and management.
                                                                         Year of the Ocean (YOTO) Discussion Papers. March
              Taken together, the suite of papers presented in this      1998. Prepared by the U. S. Federal Agencies with
              volume provide, we think, a wide-ranging picture of        ocean-related programs. Washington, D. C.
              current trends, issues, and emerging challenges in a
              variety of areas of national ocean and coastal policy.
              We expect that future National Dialogues will further
              define and expand on these themes.

              Acknowledgments

              Parts of this introduction are excerpted from Cicin-
              Sain and Knecht 1999. The assistance of Rosemarie
              Hinkel in summarizing the papers contained in this
              volume is gratefully acknowledged.

              References

              Bookman, Charles, Thomas Culliton and Maureen
              Warren. 1999. Trends in U. S. Coastal Regions, 1970-
              1998 (Executive Summary), in this volume.

              Cicin-Sain, Biliana and Robert W. Knecht. 1999. The
              Future of U. S. Ocean Policy: Choicesfor the Next
              Century, Washington, D. C.: Island Press.

              Coy, Peter, Gary McWilliams and John Rossant. 1997.
              The new economics of oil, Business Week. November
              3:140-144.


              Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1995.
              Code of Conductfor Responsible Fisheries. Adopted by
              the 28 1h Session of FAO Conference on 31 October
              1995.


              Houston, James R. 1995. The Economic Value of Beaches.
              CERCula?, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Vol.
              CERC-954, December.


              Houston, James R. 1996. International Tourism and US
              Beaches. Shore and Beach.


              Nicholls, Robert J. 1995. "Coastal Megacities and
              Climate Change." Geojournal. 37(3): 369-379.

              World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), World
              Tourism Organization, and Earth Council. No date.
              Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry:
              Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development.
              World Travel and Tourism Council, London, United
              Kingdom; World Tourism Organization, Madrid,
              Spain; and Earth Council, San Jose, Costa Rica. 78
              pp. (presented at the June 1997 United Nations


                                                                                                                                13









                                     1. The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


           The development of human society is coupled to the health of the planet. Speakers in thefirst session
           of the conference addressed fundamental transformations and trends, which require societal re-
           sponses. These include changes in the distribution of wealth and the organization Of society; the
           implications of unchecked population growth for coastal regions; and global trends in fisheries and
           aquaculture. For the United States, this session included a comprehensive examination of underly-
           ing and emerging trends that are shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and coastal manage-
           ment and policy.


                                 Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context
                                      Allen Hammond, World Resources Institute

                                   Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture
                                       Richard Grainger, Fisheries Department,
                                        UN Food and Agriculture Organization

                                        The Coastal Population Explosion
                                      Don Hinrichsen, UN consultant and author

                                    Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998
                               Charles Bookman, Thomas Culliton, and Maureen Warren,
                                           National Ocean Service, NOAA




























                                                                                                         15








                                                                                                  The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


                                OCEAN AND COASTAL FUTURES: THE GLOBAL CONTEXT


                                                                Allen Hammond
                                                          World Resources Institute



               The interaction of human society and the planet is a         Market World is the vision of the future that points to
               coupled nonlinear complex system. If you take                the extended U.S. boom and the free market policies
               complex systems apart and just study the parts, you          that have engendered it as a model for the world. It
               miss some of the important phenomena; you have to            also points to the continuing technological revolu-
               look at the whole. So it is important to                                                       tion, to the spread of
               try to take an overview of how many                                                            democracy around
               factors interact-population trends,                As a society, we're not                     the world, to wide-
               economic trends, social and political                                                          spread and rapid
               trends, environmental trends, security             very good about look-                       improvements in
               trends. I will emphasize environmental             ing ahead Much of                           literacy, even to
               trends in these remarks, but will touch            our economic decision-                      environmental
               on others too, to answer two questions:                                                        improvements in
               What are the forces that are shaping               making is governed by                       many industrialized
               our world in coming decades, and                   the quarterly profit                        countries. It is a
               where would we like to end up? Can                 statement, and our                          scenario that calls for
               we envision some trajectories that will                                                        downsizing govern-
               get us to the kind of world that we                political horizons rarely                   ment by privatizing
               would like to pass on to our grandchil-            go much beyond the                          and deregulating and
               dren?                                              next election.                              asserts that free
                                                                                                              markets and the
               As a society, we're not very good about                                                        genius of the private
               looking ahead. Much of our economic                                                            sector will solve our
               decision-making is governed by the quarterly profit          problems and bring widespread prosperity. This
               statement, and our political horizons rarely go much         world view is broadly held in corporate boardrooms
               beyond the next election. Yet we're making choices,          and among high-tech entrepreneurs, and it is sup-
               consciously or unconsciously, that are going to have         ported by many politicians. And markets do have
               generational implications: our use of energy and its         the upper hand at the moment-they often dictate to
               implications for future climates, for example, or our        governments, as Southeast Asia has recently found.
               loss of species and the implications for a more              Furthermore, economic reform and governmental
               biologically impoverished planet.                            downsizing have enormous momentum in many
                                                                            parts of the world. Market World is a powerful
               Analysis of persistent trends can tell us a lot about        vision, because we suspect that at least parts of it are
               the future-about constraints or plausible ranges of          right-markets and the private sector will play a
               important variables. But trends are not destiny, and         major role in the future. On the other hand, we also
               many important factors that govern the future cannot         know that markets don't automatically solve envi-
               readily be quantified. So I also use scenarios to            ronmental problems, and they don't solve equity or
               explore different trajectories into the future, scenarios    other social problems. In fact, they often make them
               that reflect radically different assumptions or world        worse.
               views about the future. Scenarios are not predictions,
               but they are powerful tools for thinking about the           Could unattended environmental and social prob-
               future precisely because we respond to them emo-             lems undermine Market World? Populations are still
               tionally as well as cognitively. And that helps              growing rapidly, especially in the poorest parts of the
               generate a process of making choices-it highlights           world. Urbanization is occurring even more rapidly,
               and changes the way you think about the present in           with a million new urban residents a week world-
               ways that might influence your actions.                      wide. In China, for example, experts expect 300
                                                                            million people to move from rural to urban areas
               I will discuss three scenarios-Market World, Fortress        between 1995 and 2010-the equivalent of all of
               World, and Transformed World. They also turn out to          North America moving to the city in 15 years. Can
               be a good way to organize a discussion of key trends.        developing societies build the necessary housing and

                                                                                                                                      17







                Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                other infrastructure rapidly enough? Will there be            severe degradation. And as populations rise, a finite
                enough jobs in urban areas? And what about the                amount of such renewable resources as fertile soil or
                environmental impact of hundreds of new                       water must serve more and more people. So the risk
                megacities, many of them located in coastal areas and         is for growing biological impoverishment, and for
                most of them with inadequate pollution control?               human impoverishment as well, not to mention the
                                                                              potential for growing resource conflicts.
                If we look at environmental trends more systemati-
                cally, it is useful to focus first on those associated        In addition, if Market World fails to spread the
                with industrial activity. Consumption of natural              wealth and improved welfare it generates to all of
                resources to produce the goods and services that our          Earth's people, might we also have quite a large
                economies provide also produces pollution and                 number of people who know more and more about
                waste. It turns out that it now requires annually             how the rich live but who know that they don't have
                about 80 metric tons of natural resources per person          any chance to participate in such wealth or even to
                to support the U.S. lifestyle and the U.S. GDP, and a         meet their basic needs? And might such people, in
                comparable amount in other industrial countries. As           their frustration and even anger, become a vast
                industrialization spreads around the world, how will          recruiting ground for terrorism and fuel growing
                natural resource                                                             illegal migration? If there aren't
                consumption rise?
                                                                                             enough jobs in the swelling cities of the
                The conventional                                                             developing world, might the result be
                                             the trends sUggest,that soil
                wisdom is that                                                               growing crime and instability and the
                world energy                loss is accelerdfing', thqf                      potential for violence? Might emergent
                consumption is              ,-f
                                            orestsever'yw, here ore c':Yt                    diseases-some 30 in the past 20 years,
                likely to grow by a                                                            ost arising from the degraded
                                       !    hi         b legrodation,'                       m
                factor of 2.5, and          7, 9,
                                                        I , , ,                           !  ecosystems in developing countries
                manufacturing               that     on-              most bld-              become an even greater global health
                activity by a factor        /6    dllyAch coral reefs are                    threat? In short, might there be new
                of 3, over the next    i I @",                                               security threats to cope with as well?
                                       1-nven nbwat high rlSk, and a
                half century. But
                                                            4-1
                with much of that            djority of th6world@s ma-                       If you put all of these adverse trends
                growth concen-              ripe fisW rips are overfish led                  together, the result is a different vision
                trated in develop-                                                           of the future, which I call Fortress
                                            and in ddrid6i of SeVere
                ing regions, the                                                             World. The fortress imagery comes
                                            d6      do
                potential for                                                                from thinking of islands of luxury and
                increased pollution          ......
                                                                                             privilege surrounded by oceans of
                in those regions-                                                            poverty and despair and environmen-
                especially air pollution and toxic pollu-tion-is much         tal degradation. Whether on a small scale-like the
                higher. And globally, if fossil fuels continue to be the      high-rises on the beach at Rio surrounded by the
                primary source of energy, the impact of this con-             shanty towns on the hills, or the gated communities
                sumption pattern will be rapidly rising atmospheric           that you see spreading in this country-or on a larger
                concentrations of greenhouse gases, suggesting that           scale-the whole United States as an island of
                we may well find out what global warming and a                prosperity in an ocean of countries that are suffering,
                changing climate are all about.                               like Central America-the image is a powerful one.

                A second set of environmental trends are those                Fortress World is a dark vision. It's certainly not a
                associated with the degradation of Earth's biological         world that anybody wants to live in. But neither is it
                systems. And these may have an even greater and               possible to dismiss it. Private security forces now
                more direct impact on human welfare, because as               outnumber the police by four to one globally, and by
                much as a third of the earth's population still de-           ten to one in places like South Africa and Russia.
                pends directly on local environmental resources-              Think of how many places now where businessmen
                what can be grown or gathered or caught-for most              have to have bodyguards and send their kids to
                of their sustenance and livelihoods. Yet the trends           school in armored limousines-in Moscow, Mexico
                suggest that soil loss is accelerating, that forests          City, Hong Kong. Even the middle class in Colombia
                everywhere are at high risk of degradation, that              worry about kidnaping.
                many of the most biologically rich coral reefs are
                even now at high risk, and a majority of the world's
                marine fisheries are overfished and in danger of

                18








                                                                                                       The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


               Fortress World is a symbol of what's plausible but               the private sector. A good example is the treaty to
               which we hope will not come to pass. What other                  ban land mines that was passed last year, largely
               options are there?                                               driven by a group of more than 700 NGOs around
                                                                                the world.
               That leads me to what I call Transformed World.                  The Internet is empowering civil society in a unique
               That's a vision that says we know we're going to                 way because it lets groups link together in coalitions.
               need fundamental social and political reform to solve            And civil society groups far outnumber both govern-
               some of these problems. We need some new forms of                ments and major corporations, and their numbers are
               governance, because we can't run a global economy                growing rapidly. In effect, civil society is forging a
               without some form of regulation-the last year                    new form of governance, a new mode of social
               showed that all too clearly. And quite apart from                decision-making and consensus-building that may
               such things as regulation, we need new ways of                   prove crucial in the decades ahead.
               making decisions. We need to reform some of our
               institutions. We need some changes in values and                 Finally, I want to point to the greening of corpora-
               behaviors. Transformed World is a scenario in which              tions as a still preliminary but potentially very
               these things actually occur.                                     important transforming trend. Look at what hap-
                                                                                pened on the climate front just in the last few
               To some degree, such a scenario requires a leap of               months. Some 15 or 20 major global companies came
               faith. But to a surprising degree, many of these                 out actively endorsing the need for a climate treaty:
               transforming trends are already underway, at least in            GM, BP, Monsanto, Dupont, and a host of others. In
               a preliminary form. And that offers both cause for               almost every case they had worked with a group of
               optimism and an agenda for action.                               environmental NGOs, including my organization.
                                                                                The result is that these companies decided: (a) they
               Think about the remarkable change in attitudes                   could live with a climate treaty, (b) it was socially
               towards smoking in the United States in the last ten             responsible to start acting as though that was going
               years. Such changes in attitudes and behaviors are a             to happen, and (c) there was a tremendous business
               source of great hope for the future. For instance, if            opportunity if they got out in front.
               the world decided that climate was important, we
               could find ways to solve the climate problem. Partly             We're beginning to see corporations going beyond
               what is required is policy reform, but more funda-               narrow compliance to take a leadership role, but that
               mentally what is needed are changes of attitude, a               may accelerate. The larger the corporation, the more
               new social and political consensus about where we                vulnerable it is to social expectations, and as compa-
               want to go. Then the policies will follow.                       nies understand that, they're increasingly going to
                                                                                realize that they can't afford not to be perceived as
               Places like Poland and the Czech Republic have been              part of the solution, not part of the problem. And
               essentially reborn with much more optimism and                   global corporations do have very unique capabilities,
               hope and progress, even though their physical                    if they could be harnessed to help solve environmen-
               problems haven't at all gone away. And such                      tal and developmental problems.
               changes illustrate that political consensus and social
               attitudes can change very quickly and are absolutely             So there are a number of reasons to have some faith
               important in determining what's going to happen.                 in a Transformed World vision. And thinking about
                                                                                Market World, Fortress World, and Transformed
               Technology is also creating new options, new tools               World poses the question of what choices we need to
               that can help, if we have the wit to use them cre-               make. What would shift us from one trajectory, one
               atively.                                                         scenario, to another?

               Still another hopeful trend is the rise of civil society:        If we think about how these trends and these sce-
               church groups, environmental groups, citizens                    narios might play out focused on our coastal and
               organizations, nonprofit aid agencies, university                ocean areas, I think you'll see that while there are
               students and faculty, and many others. Such non-                 some issues unique to the coastal zone, it is not
               governmental organizations (NGOs) already play an                possible to isolate oceans and coasts from the trajec-
               important role locally and nationally, and they are              tory of the larger society. So if we want to under-
               beginning to emerge as a force at an international               stand the forces shaping these regions, we have to
               level-delivering services, setting political and social          look very broadly, as I have tried to do here.
               agendas, brokering new forms of collaboration with


                                                                                                                                              19








                                                                                                  The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


                                   GLOBAL TRENDS IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

                                                                  Richard Grainger
                                                            FAO Fisheries Department


               Introduction                                                  1960 to 4.0 grams today, now representing 16% of all
                                                                             animal protein consumed by the world's 6 billion
               This paper aims to describe past trends in capture            inhabitants. Of the 30 countries most dependent on
               fishery and aquaculture production, particularly              fish as a protein source, all but 4 are in the develop-
               concerning the                                                             ing world. In addition to human food,
               development of                                                             fisheries have provided a major source of
               marine capture                                                             high quality feeds for livestock and,
               fisheries, and to             The number of fishers                        increasingly, for aquaculture.
               compare the current           and fish formers more
               production with                                                            World fisheries and aquaculture have
               fisheries potential.          than doubled in the lost                     been a source of employment for a
               Food fish supply              25 years. increasing from                    rapidly growing number of people. The
               prospects will                13 million in 1970 to 30                     number of fishers and fish farmers more
               depend to a large                                                          than doubled in the last 25 years, increas-
               extent on the                 million In 1995..                            mg from 13 million in 1970 to 30 million
               effectiveness of                                                           in 1995, over 90% of them in Asia (Figure
               fisheries manage-
               ment and the responsible development of aquacul-
               ture, both of which will be tested in facing the
               sustainability challenge. An essential requirement for                 World fishers and fish farmers by continent
               ensuring sustainable fisheries and aquaculture                     25 -
               through good policies and management will be the
                                                                                  20 -                                FE3 1970]
               provision of objective information on the state of
                                                                               0
               fisheries and aquaculture.
                                                                               0c 15                                  la222J

               Contribution of Fisheries to Food Supply and the Econom            10 -
                                                                         y

               Global fish production has grown impressively,                     5
               almost doubling average per capita food fish supply                0           F71IJ-1 I
               from 8 kilograms in 1950 to almost 16 kilograms in                       Asia   Africa.  N.       S.     Europe   Other
               1997 @Figure 1). The average consumption of fish                                        America Amedca
               protein has risen from 2.7 grams per capita per day in        Figure 2. Number of people employed in the fisheries
                                                                             primary sector as fishers or fish farmers in 1970, 1980
                              World Fish Utilization and Food Supply         and 1990 by continent.
                       @ Feed

                       @ Food                                         S
                    90                                            16  &
                                                                             2). The number of people dependent on fisheries for
                :&  80     Popdabon
                    70 @Per capita rupply                                    a livelihood has been estimated at 200 million
                    60                                                       worldwide.
                                                                  to  I
                    50                                                A
                    40                                                1      First sale value of capture fishery production was
                    30                                            6   1&
                                                                  4          worth an estimated $83 billion in 1995. Aquaculture
                    2D
                    10                                            2          production was worth a further $42 billion. Exports
                    0                                             0          of fishery products worldwide were worth $52
                                                                         J   billion in 1995. Since 1970, trade in fishery commodi-
               Figure 1. Trends in global utilization of fish for            ties .has increased by a factor of 16, compared to 6 for
               human food and animal feeds and average per capita            agricultural commodities and 13 for all merchandise.
               food fish supply.


                                                                                                                                       21







                           Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                                     Tonnage of Decked Fishing Vessels                                                 A recent, and still preliminary, FA0 assessment of
                                                       by Continent                                                    industrial fishing vessels of over 100 GT (which
                              30-                                                                                      account for a large proportion of total landings), has
                                                                                            E Oceania                  been undertaken based on data in the Lloyd's
                           0  25 -                                                          C] Africa                  Register database. Lloyd's data show a significant
                           0  20-                                                                                      decrease in fleet size from about 26,000 fishing
                           C                                                                0 America, South
                           0                                                                                           vessels in 1991 to less than 23,000 in 1997, and with
                           C  15                                                            [3 America, North
                                                                                                                       very little change in the tonnage per vessel. As with
                           M  10                                                            [3 Europe                  the FAO statistics, this contrasts with the growth in
                                     5                                                      0 Former USSR              the fleet observed up to 1990.
                                     0                                                      [3 Asia                    Fishery La
                                     0     1975      1980      1985       1990      1995                                                ndings
                           Figure 3. Trend in the total tonnage of the world's                                         Capture fishery production for both food and non-
                           decked fishing vessels broken down by continent                                             food utilization has leveled off in the last decade. The
                           according to FAO statistics.                                                                increase in food fish production in recent years has
                                                                                                                       been entirely due to aquaculture (Figure 4). Per
                           The Development of Capture Fisheries and the Need                                           capita food fish supply from capture fisheries has
                           for Management                                                                              actually declined during the last decade.

                           Fishing Fleets
                                                                                                                                World landings of the top dernersal marine fish species and tota
                           According to FAO statistics, growth in the number of
                                                                                                                                      I            I            I---- T
                           decked fishing vessels has been much slower since
                                                                                                                            20 .                                                   i
                                                                                                                                                                                                      ka pollmk
                                                                                                                                                                                               ,A S
                           1990, following two decades of rapid growth, par-
                                                                                                                                                                                               @Atlanfic eDd
                                                                                                                            15
                                                                                                                                                                                               oHadd.k
                           ticularly in Asia (Figure 3). Average tonnage of
                                                                                                                                                                                               os:nceets
                           decked vessels has also increased slightly over this                                             10 --------                                                        ES Khe
                                                                                                                                                                                               clAtiantic mdfishes
                           period.                                                                                           5                                                                 m410 Other SpeCABS

                                                                                                                             0
                           Most of the increase in Asian fishing vessels since
                           1980 is attributable to the Chinese fleet, which
                           increased rapidly up to 1990. Since 1990, the increase                                      Figure 5. World landings of demersal fish species.
                           has been slower in terms of number but not much
                           slower in terms of tonnage, probably because vessel                                         Total harvests of over 400 demersal fish species
                           size has been increasing in line with the policy of                                         leveled off in the early 1970s (Figure 5). In contrast,
                           developing offshore fisheries. China's fishing fleet                                        pelagic fish catches, despite large fluctuations, have
                           totaling about 5.5 million GT is now by far the largest                                     shown an underlying trend of increasing catches.
                           in the world, followed by the fleet of the Russian                                          There are signs that the increasing trend may now be
                           Federation with a tonnage of about 3 million.                                               coming to an end.
                                     Production from capture fisheries and aquaculture                                 Tracking Fishery Development
                              90-                   according to utilisation                                           Fisheries development started in the Northeast
                              80--                                                                                     Atlantic, spread throughout the Atlantic, then to the
                           cm 7()..
                           0                                                                                           Pacific and finally to the Indian Ocean. The marine
                              60--                                               -              Food fish from
                              50..                                                              aquaculture            fishery harvest potential of 100 million tonnes
                                                                                              w Food fish from
                           E  40.-                                                                                     estimated by Gulland' in 1970 is now being ap-
                                                                                                capture
                           =0 30
                                                                                              a Non-food use           proached.
                           2  20                                                                from capture
                              10
                              01      . . . . . . . . . . . .                                                          A study undertaken by FAOI used a simple fisheries
                                     1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996                                                development model to track the state of fishery
                                                 Ott
                                         7        ,@M @,u




















































                                                                                                                       development of the world's top 200 marine fish
                           Figure 4. Fish production from capture fisheries and                                        resources based on trends in catches (Figure 6). A
                           aquaculture destined for food and capture fishery                                           transition from mainly "undeveloped" fisheries to
                           production for non-food use (e.g. feeds).                                                   mainly "senescent" and "mature" is clear. About


                           22








                                                                                                       The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


               60% of the resources are now categorized as "senes-                   Larger fish can often be fished more selectively,
               cent" or "mature." These require urgent management                    reducing discards and wastage.
               action to halt the increase in fishing effort or rehabili-
               tate overfished resources.                                       Discards from marine fisheries have been estimated
                                                                                at 27 million tonnes per year. More recent estimates
               FAO analyses indicate that the Atlantic and Pacific              are about 22 million tonnes, still very significant.
               Oceans are "fully fished," but that further fisheries            More selective gears and fishing practices can reduce
               expansion may be possible in the Indian Ocean.                   the capture of unwanted bycatch. Utilization of
               There are very few underexploited resources left, and            unwanted bycatch can be increased. This is already
               some (e.g. krill and meso-pelagic fish) may not be               happening in tropical shrimp trawl fisheries where
               commercially viable.


                      100%


                      90%


                      80%


                      70%
                                                                                       Phaselill -
                0     60%
                                                                                          Mature
                Z     50%
                0                                                                           1, _/  e

                C     40%
                                                                    Phase 11 -
                IL    30%                                           Developing

                      20%


                      10%


                        0%  .... ........
                                              q@, "pb. p rp p                AD AA A`b R@ R,b           1.b  -0 9;' 95
                               NC6 NCb NC6 NC6        Nq Nq NCS Nc@         NC6 Nc@ NO,   Noi Nq NCN NCN    Nq NC6 NCS


               Figure 6. Percentage of major marine fish stocks in various phases of fishery development.

               FAO analyseS3 provide estimates of marine fishery                fish previously discarded are increasingly used for
               potential. The most reliable of these is 93 million              food and aquaculture feed.
               tonnes, a gain of about 10 million tonnes from the
               present comprising 4 million tonnes from improved                Fisheries Management: Turning Failure into Success
               management in each of the Atlantic and Pacific
               Oceans and 2 million tonnes from further develop-                Fisheries management up to now has generally failed
               ment in the Indian Ocean. Less reliable estimates                to protect resources from being overexploited. There
               imply higher gains derived almost entirely from new              are many reasons for this, including the following:
               fisheries.
                                                                                0    Lack of political resolution to make difficult
               The benefits of effective management could be high, of the            adjustments
               order of 10-20% of the present landed value of over US$80
               billion. Apartfrom increased yield in quantity and               0    Persistence of direct and indirect subsidies
               revenue, there are other benefits to be derivedftom              0    Lack of control on fleets by flag states
               improvedfisheries management, such as thefollowing:
                                                                                *    Ineffectiveness of fishery commissions to which
               ï¿½    Less fluctuation in yields from year to year as                  member countries are reluctant to delegate
                    fish live longer, providing more stability to the                necessary powers
                    industry.
                                                                                0    Lack of consideration of rights and potential
               ï¿½    Fish grow larger and larger fish are often more                  contribution of traditional communities
                    valuable, increasing earnings per tonne.


                                                                                                                                            23







                 Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 ï¿½ Success of industry lobbies in resisting change             Aquaculture Development

                 ï¿½ Lack of capacity for implementation of manage-              Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic plants and
                     ment in developing countries.                             animals, has been the world's fastest growing food
                                                                               production system for over a decade, with global per
                 However, some recent developments have provided               capita "food fish" supply from aquaculture (i.e. the
                 conditions which should allow an                                                                   production of
                 unprecedented opportunity for improv-                                          . ..........        farmed aquatic
                 ing fisheries management, the most                                                                 finfish and shellfish
                 important of which are as follows:                         obt 60%,of the re-, i                   on a whole live
                                                                                                                    weight basis, and
                                                                                           ow ca ego,
                                                                      sourcesaren                    t
                     Widespread recognition of the                                                                  excluding farmed
                                                                                                 n @W,
                                                                                   @sonesce
                     problems of fishery management,                                                                aquatic plants)
                     with readiness to change expressed                  fnatore.         ese require,,,      .     increasing at an
                     at highest levels of governance               "'4".m@,iUrgen,tMonogeme"nt L,'.                 average rate of
                                                                                                                    10.9% per year from
                                                                                     hdlfthe in-"'                  1.5 kilograms in
                     New concerns for the environment,
                     people's participation, and empow-                              fishing bffort,,or,            1984 to 4.6 kilo-
                                                                       reN
                     erment                                                 Jbifitate'ovotfished                    grams in 1996.1 By
                                                                                                                    contrast, per capita
                                                                      ,reso
                 ï¿½   Consensus on the institutional origin
                                                                 t                                                  food fish supply
                                                                                                           a,@>     from capture
                     of the failure, with all other factors,
                     including scientific uncertainty,                                                              fisheries has re-
                     being secondary                                           mained relatively static, increasing from 10.8 kilo-
                                                                               grams in 1984 to 11.0 kilograms in 1996 at an average
                 ï¿½   Availability of international instruments and             rate of 1.8% per year or equivalent to the growth of
                     initiatives (e.g. UNCLOS, UN Fish Stocks Agree-           the human population (1.75%) over the same period.
                     ment, FAO Code of Conduct), often embracing               On the basis of the above data, one quarter of fish
                     the precautionary approach.                               consumed by humans in 1996, from a total average
                                                                               per capita food fish supply of 15.6 kilograms, is
                 If this opportunity is lost and management does not           currently being supplied by aquaculture.
                 improve, there could be a shortfall of 10-40 million
                 tonnes between demand and supply for human                    Of particular importance was the fact that 28 million
                 consumption by 2010, despite increased aquaculture            tonnes or 82% of total world aquaculture production
                 production. If domestic supplies of major importing           in 1996 was produced within Low-Income Food
                 developed countries are not improved, already                 Deficit Countries.' Moreover, aquaculture production
                 expanding trade for human consumption will be                 within LIFDC's has been growing over 6 times faster
                 further promoted, possibly leading to increased               (15% per year since 1984) than within developed
                 depletion of resources exploited by the major export-         countries (2.4% per year since 1984).
                 ing developing countries.
                                                                               China alone produced two-thirds of total world
                 There are other risks associated with not improving           aquaculture production, corresponding to 23 million
                 management. Abrupt resource declines with rapid               tonnes, in 1997. Aquaculture provided about 55% of
                 corrective measures causing major socio-economic              total Chinese fisheries production of 35 million
                 damage (e.g. Canadian cod fishery) will continue to           tonnes in 1997. Moreover, in terms of meat produc-
                 occur. If the situation deteriorates, there may be slow       tion, total Chinese fisheries landings produced the
                 changes in species dominance and trophic relation-            equivalent of 22 million tonnes of aquatic meat
                 ships and environmental degradation. There may be             products for human consumption in 1997, as com-
                 a loss of traditional fishing rights to other sectors         pared with 55 million tonnes for total terrestrial meat
                 such as conservation, tourism, oil industry, and              products.
                 coastal activities.
                                                                               The rapid growth in aquaculture seems set to con-
                                                                               tinue in the near term. Indicators pointing to good
                                                                               growth potential include increasing demand for fish,
                                                                               emergence of aquaculture as a sector for investment,


                 24








                                                                                              The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


             and recognition of its potential for expansion, and         7 Shehadeh, Z.H. and M. Pedini 1997. Issues and
             growing awareness of sustainability needs.' Sustain-        Challenges. FA0 Fisheries Circular No. 886.
             able development is the overriding strategic issue
             and challenge and, although most aquaculture is
             conducted with significant nutritional and social
             benefits and little environmental cost, actual and
             perceived negative impacts of some types of aquacul-
             ture have already constrained development, mainly
             in coastal zones .7


             Information Needs

             Fishery managers and policy makers will need to
             draw more on fisheries research programs which
             encompass economics, sociology, and anthropology,
             as well as biology. There will be a major need for
             development and use sustainability indicators to
             synthesize the very broad range of information.
             Above all, there will be a major need for comprehen-
             sive, reliable, and objective information on fisheries
             and aquaculture, including reviews, expert interpre-
             tation and analysis, the provision of scenarios and
             prognoses with associated benefits, losses and risks.
             FAO for its part plans to contribute to this.




             Notes


             1 Gulland, J.A. (ed.) 1971. The fish resources of the
             ocean. Fishing News (Books) Ltd. 255pp.

             2 Grainger, R.J.R. and S.M. Garcia 1996. Chronicles of
             marine fishery landings (1950-1994): Trend analysis
             and fisheries potential. FA0 Fisheries Technical
             Paper No. 359. Rome. FAO. 51pp.

             3 Garcia, S.M. and R. Grainger 1997. Fisheries man-
             agement and sustainability: A new perspective of an
             old problem? In Developing and sustaining world
             fishery resources: The state of science and manage-
             ment. Proceedings of the 2nd World Fisheries Con-
             gress. Editors D.A. Hancock, D.C. Smith, A. Grant
             and J.P, Beumer. CSIRO, Australia. Pp 631-654.

             4 Tacon, A. and R. Grainger. Contribution of aquacul-
             ture to food security In prep.

             5 LIFDCs have an average per capita income <US$
             1505/annum in 1996 and are net importers of food in
             terms of calories.


             6 Pedini, M. and Z.H. Shehadeh 1997. Global Out-
             look in Review of the State of World Aquaculture.
             FAO Fisheries Circular No. 886.



                                                                                                                               25








                                                                                               The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


                                          THE COASTAL POPULATION EXPLOSION


                                                              Don Hinrichsen
                                               United Nations consultant and author



             Humankind is in the process of annihilating coastal          coastal country within two decades. In 1950, Japan's
             and ocean ecosystems. At the root of the problem are 83 million inhabitants were dispersed throughout the
             burgeoning human numbers and their ever-growing              country, with nearly half living in farming house-
             needs. Population distribution is increasingly               holds. By 1970, most Japanese were living in urban
             skewed. Recent studies have shown that                                                          areas, the majority
             the overwhelming bulk of humanity is                                                            of them in the
             concentrated along or near coasts on just                                                       Pacific Coastal Belt,
             10% of the earth's land surface. As of                Recent studies have                       which extends from
             1998, over half the population of the                 shown that the ok@er-                     Tokyo southwest
             planet - about 3.2 billion people -                   whelming bu       Ilk,o,t,hu-             through the Seto
             lives and works in a coastal strip just 200                                                     Inland Sea to the
             kilometers wide (120 miles), while a full             manity Is concbnfrat6d                 @i northern part of the
             two-thirds, 4 billion, are found within               along or nearcoasts bh'                   island of K ushu. As
                                                                                                                         y
             400 kilometers of a coast.                            just 10% Of the earth 's                  early as 1970, the
                                                                                                         _4  national census
                                                                   land surface.
             Take the example of China, the world's                                                          revealed that over
             most populous nation. Of China's 1.2                                                            53% of the popula-
             billion people, close to 60% live in 12                                                         tion lived in densely
             coastal provinces, along the Yangtze River valley, and       inhabited districts that occupy 1.7% of the country's
             in two coastal municipalities - Shanghai and                 land area. Population densities in this crowded
             Tianjin. Along China's 18,000 kilometers of continen-        region average over 11,500 per square kilometer.
             tal coastline, population densities average between
             110 and 1,600 per square kilometer. In some coastal          In 1997, Japan's total population amounted to 126
             cities such as Shanghai, China's largest with 17             million. Of this, nearly 80% or 100 million, are
             million inhabitants, population densities average            considered coastal. But no one in Japan lives more
             over 2,000 per square kilometer.                             than 120 kilometers from the sea. Furthermore, 77%
                                                                          of all Japanese live in urban areas along or near the
             In general, with the exception of India the bulk of          coast. The dramatic shift has left much of the interior
             Asia's population is coastal or near coastal. Of the         drained of workers. Nearly 47% of Japan's land area,
             regior@s collective population of 3.5 billion, 60% -         mostly in the interior, is now designated as "depopu-
             2.1 billion - live within 400 kilometers of a coast.         lated" and eligible for special funding.

             Indonesia and Vietnam are two typical examples of            The population of Latin America and the Caribbean
             Asia's population shift from the hinterlands to              is even more littoral. The region's coastal states have
             coastal areas. Of Indonesia's population of 200              a collective population of around 610 million, a full
             million, 130 million live on the main island of Java,        three-quarters of whom live within 200 kilometers of
             on just 7% of the country's land area, most of them in       a coast.
             rapidly growing towns and cities. Similarly,
             Vietnam's population is almost all coastal. And              The majority of the Caribbean Basin's 200 million
             coastal populations are growing two-tenths of a              permanent residents (including over 20 million
             percentage point faster than the rest of the country.        people living in 99 coastal counties along the U.S.
             Population densities along the country's coastline           Gulf Coast) live on or near the seashore. The resident
             average between 500 and 2,000 people per square              population is swelled every year by the influx of
             kilometer. In parts of Hanoi, population densities           some 100 million tourists, nearly all of whom end up
             average 35,000 per square kilometer.                         on the region's beaches.

             Japan's population is also overwhelmingly coastal.
             Japan transformed itself from a largely rural and
             noncoastal nation into an overwhelmingly urban and


                                                                                                                                   27







                  Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                  Consider the following trends:                              socioeconomic part of the Mediterranean Action Plan
                                                                              that links the protection of the environment with
                  ï¿½  On South America's crowded west coast, some              various levels of development, the Mediterranean
                     40 million people crowd along thin coastal strips.       Basin's resident population could go as high as 555
                     In Chile, three-quarters of the population live          million by 2025. Also, according to Blue Plan projec-
                     and work along a 500-kilometer stretch of                tions, the urban population of coastal Mediterranean
                     coastline between Valparaiso and Concepcion, on          administrative regions could reach 176 million - 30
                     15% of the country's land area.                          million more people than the entire coastal popula-
                                                                              tion in 1990. Furthermore, depending on how
                  ï¿½  The east coast is even more crowded. Some 15             tourism is developed in the future, the Mediterra-
                     million people live in the Buenos Aires-La Plata-        nean could be hosting up to 350 million seasonal
                     Montevideo region.                                       tourists every year by 2025. At the same time, the
                                                                              number of the automobiles in the region's is ex-
                  ï¿½  The largest and most crowded coastal area by far         pected to triple, causing serious air pollution prob-
                     is the highly urbanized region stretching from           lems in many urban areas.
                     Sao Paulo to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This area
                     already bulges with 30 million people. If trends         Michel Batisse, president and chief architect of the
                     continue, it is expected to hold 40 million or           Blue Plan and former assistant director-general for
                     more inhabitants by 2010.                                science at UNESCO, is convinced that the future of
                                                                              the region is in jeopardy. "While northern popula-
                  Of all the continents except the Antarctic, only Africa     tions with declining fertility rates will become
                  has more people living in the interior than along or        progressively older, the southern and eastern regions
                  near coastlines and major river valleys. But even           will be dominated by young people," points out
                  here, demographic patterns are shifting. Over the           Batisse. "The numbers arriving on the labor market
                  past two decades, Africa's coastal cities - centers of      will largely exceed those leaving it, with a maximum
                  trade and commerce -have been growing by 4% a               gap around 2020, creating considerable unem-
                  year or more, drawing people inexorably out of the          ployment and probably spawning waves of migrants
                  countryside. Cities such as Lagos, Mombasa, Dar es          heading to Europe in search of work."
                  Salaam, Accra, Abidjan and Dakar have seen their
                  populations explode from in-migration.                      Batisse argues that these trends are likely to generate
                                                                              serious conflicts over dwindling resources in an
                  Europe and North America                                    increasingly polluted environment. This will be
                                                                              especially true for water availability, as well as
                  The forces at work in the developing world also             mounting land use conflicts, traffic congestion,
                  account, in large measure, for the explosion of coastal     destruction of wetlands, soil erosion, and continued
                  towns and cities in the industrialized countries of         pollution of coastal waters.
                  Europe and North America. Historic patterns of
                  economic development that fueled the first industrial       "In all the scenarios we developed for the southern
                  revolution and transformed coastal cities into inter-       and eastern rim countries, their development prob-
                  national centers of trade and commerce have been            lems are aggravated by rapid, pell-mell urbaniza-
                  augmented since the end of the Second World War by          tion," notes Batisse, "The greatest concentration of
                  a massive population shift from the hinterlands to          people will continue to be in the narrow, mountain-
                  coastal areas. Millions of middle class families now        lined coastal strips characteristic of the region."
                  have significantly more disposable income and more
                  leisure time to enjoy the fruits of their labors. Sea-      In the United States, 55-60% of Americans now live
                  coasts, with their boundless economic opportunities         in 772 counties adjacent to the Atlantic and Pacific
                  and better quality of life, increasingly are viewed as      Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. The
                  preferred places to live, work, play, and retire.           Washington D.C.-based Population Reference Bureau
                                                                              reports that between 1960 and 1990 coastal popula-
                  One of the most celebrated and threatened coastlines        tion density in the United States increased from an
                  in the world is the Mediterranean. Here, north and          average of 275 to nearly 400 people per square
                  south meet, with all the tensions such a confluence         kilometer. In 1990, the most crowded coastline in the
                  cultivates. According to demographic projections            United States, stretching from Boston south through
                  worked out by the Mediterranean Blue Plan, the              New York and Philadelphia to Baltimore and Wash-
                                                                              ington D.C., had over 2,500 people per square


                  28







                                                                                            The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


              kilometer. Another 101 coastal counties had popula-
              tion densities exceeding 1,250 per square kilometer.

              Florida, which is almost entirely coastal, is projected
              to have more than 16 million residents by 2010, an
              increase of over 200% from its 1960 level of 5 million.
              South Florida, which had a 1990 population of 6.3
              million, is expected to have 15 to 30 million people
              by 2050. Similar dramatic increases are projected for
              California and Texas.


              The five states with the greatest rise in population are
              all coastal: California, Texas, Florida, Georgia, and
              Virginia. By the year 2025, nearly 75% of Americans
              are expected to live in coastal counties. These coun-
              ties already contain 14 of the country's 20 largest
              conurbations.


              Implicationsfor Planning

              What these demographic trends portend for the
              urban landscape and resource management are
              disturbing, to say the least. Most of the developing
              world lacks the capacity to manage current coastal
              population growth in any equitable fashion. Nor do
              most developing countries have the political motiva-
              tion, expertise, or money to introduce comprehensive
              coastal management plans. At the same time, the
              developed world has not come to grips with the
              implications of these demographic and resource
              trends.


              Now is the time to develop and introduce manage-
              ment plans that protect vital coastal ecosystems,
              while permitting economic growth and ensuring a
              better quality of life for all coastal dwellers. Contin-
              ued denial of the problems will only make solutions
              harder to achieve.


              References

              Hinrichsen, Don. Coastal Waters of the World: Trends,
              Threats, and Strategies. Washington D.C. Island Press,
              1998.



















                                                                                                                             29







                                                                                                          The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


                                          TRENDS IN U.S. COASTAL REGIONS, 1970-19881

                                Charles A. Bookman, Thomas I.. Culliton, and Maureen A. Warren
                                                         National Ocean Service, NOAA


              Coastal areas are invaluable for their economic                     exploited forever. Today, in contrast, marine and
              vitality and biological diversity. At the same time, the            coastal resources are known to be finite, and capable
              coasts are under considerable pressure. This paper                  of being harmed or lost by human activities. As
              examines underlying and emerging trends that are                    shown by national polling data, the transition of the
              shaping the coast, coastal resources and uses, and                  environment from an issue of limited concern to one
              coastal management                                                               of universal concern occurred years ago.
              and policy. Present and                                                          Moreover, the public understands the
              projected trends are                                                             ocean's importance to human health, and
              discussed in population               Population groWth                          demonstrates a sense of responsibility to
              and settlement; social                and its assocloted                         protect the ocean for present and future
              values; economic                      Impacts may be the                         generations. Coincident with the evolu-
              activity; resources;                                                             tion of public attitudes that favor ocean
              environmental quality;                most critical Issue                        protection, nongovernmental organiza-
              hazards; and gover-                   confronting coastal                        tions have risen to work with both land-
              nance and management.                 managers and deci-                         owners and government agencies to
                                                                                               conserve and manage the environment,
                                                    slon-makers. ,
              Coastal population                                                               and they have considerable technical and
              and settlement                                                                   managerial capabilities and resources.

              Population growth and its associated impacts may be                 Economic and resource trends
              the most critical issue confronting coastal managers
              and decision-makers. Coastal areas are crowded and                  Marine-related economic activities in the coastal zone
              becoming more so. About half the nation's popula-                   and coastal ocean account for up to two percent of
              tion presently resides in the narrow fringe of coastal              the U.S. Gross National Product and are comparable
              counties. From 1996-2015, the coastal population is                 in scope to other important sectors of the economy,
              projected to increase from 141 million to 166 million.              such  'as agriculture. Recreation and tourism, water-
              Population growth and consequent increases in                       borne commerce, energy and mineral production,
              settlement densities bring jobs, create economic                    and fisheries account for most economic activities
              prosperity, add new industry, improve regional                      along the coast.
              infrastructures, enhance educational opportunities,
              and increase tax revenues-but they also burden
              local environments. As coastal populations swell, the               Table 1. The environment as a voting issue: Exit
              natural features that may have attracted people to the              polls, 1982-1992
              coast are lost or diminished. Population pressures                    Year Exit Pollster      Most Important Issues      Percentage
              lead to increased solid-waste production, higher                      1982 CBS/NY Times        Unemployment                         38
              volumes of urban runoff, losses of green space and                                             Environment                          3
              wildlife habitat, declines in ambient water quality,                  1984 LA Times            Govenunent Spending                  22
              and increased demands on wastewater treatment,                                                 Environment                          4
              potable water, and energy supplies. To control these                  1988 CBS/NY Times        Helping Middle Class                 25
              kinds of impacts, states and localities have begun to                                          Environment                          10
              channel public investment for infrastructure into                     1990 Voter Research      Education                            26
              areas that are best able to accommodate growth                             and Surveys         Environment                          21
              without deleterious environmental impacts.                            1992 Voter News          Economy/jobs                         12
                                                                                         Service             Environment                          5
              Social trends                                                       Source: Adapted from Ladd and Bowman, 1996
              Thirty years ago, most Americans believed that
              resources were essentially infinite and could be


                                                                                                                                                  31






                 Trends and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy


                     Recreation and tourism. Outdoor recreation and               are a significant source of revenue for the federal
                     tourism are the most significant economic                    government. Heightening the importance of the
                     activities in the coastal zone, accounting for half          oceans to the U.S. energy supply is the fact that
                     or more of total ocean-related economic activity.            about 50 percent of oil consumed is imported by
                     Despite the diversity and scope of recreational              ship, and the reliance on imported petroleum is
                     activities-from birdwatching, to boating-based               slated to grow to 60 percent by 2010. An increas-
                     sports, to second-home developments-little                   ing fraction of domestic offshore oil and gas is
                     information is available on coastal and marine               being discovered and produced from wells
                     recreation and tourism, its scope, importance,               drilled in deep water, especially in the Gulf of
                     and impacts. Interestingly, the government plays             Mexico. Rapid and dramatic technology ad-
                     an important role in providing the underlying                vances, coupled recently with relief from paying
                     conditions for marine recreation and tourism.                royalties on deepwater production, have com-
                     These include (1) ensuring a clean environment,              bined to encourage the trend toward deep water
                     (2) assuring coastal access, and (3) promoting a             production. Current models suggest that federal
                     safe operating environment. Given the economic               offshore lands contain 50 percent of the nation's
                     importance of marine recreation and tourism,                 remaining undiscovered oil and gas resources;
                     and the importance of the government role in                 offshore oil production rates are projected to
                     providing the basic underlying conditions for                increase by at least 10 percent between 1995 and
                     these activities, much more could be done to                 2000.
                     understand, document, manage, and promote
                     marine recreation.                                           Fishery resources and food supply. U.S. fishery
                                                                                  landings have increased over the past 50 years,
                     Waterbome commerce. U.S. waterbome foreign                   but have now reached the maximum capacity of
                     trade is projected to continue to grow at an                 our oceans and coastal waters to produce fish.
                     average annual rate of 3.7 percent. Domestic                 While landings in Alaska have increased dra-
                     waterbome trade is also growing, and becoming                matically, they have declined in other regions for
                     more diverse-the shifting of freight cargoes                 many species. In addition, for some marine
                     from ships to barges, and the growth in passen-              species, recreational landings represent a signifi-
                     ger traffic, especially ferries and day boats, are           cant and growing proportion of the catch. The
                     prominent domestic trends. The focus of all this             challenge in fisheries management is to achieve
                     activity is the major ports (about 145 of them),             sustainable fisheries over the long-term. To
                     each of which handles more than 9 million metric             accomplish this, it is necessary to end overfishing
                     tons of cargo annually. These ports need to keep             and allow depleted stocks to rebuild.
                     pace with the growth in trade, and other changes
                     in ships and shipping. U.S ports are affected by             The acreage of designated shellfishing waters is
                     important changes in two areas: (1) the rapidly              at an all-time high. At the same time, health
                     changing intermodal freight transportation                   restrictions on these waters are at their lowest
                     market, which moves increasing amounts of                    levels since 1980. Overall, the condition of
                     cargo on ever more demanding schedules, and                  shellfish harvest waters is improving.
                     (2) the increasing number and complexity of
                     environmental regulations that pertain to ports.             The degradation and loss of coastal habitats, with
                     The U.S. Department of transportation and other              other factors such as overfishing, are constrain-
                     agencies have initiated a coordinated national               ing the contribution of fisheries to world dietary
                     effort to highlight trends, promote coordination             needs at a time when population growth and
                     at the national level, and encourage local solu-             rising affluence are increasing the demand for
                     tions. This will help ensure adequate port                   food. Aquaculture holds some promise as an
                     infrastructure, including appropriate channel                alternative to wild harvest, but has environmen-
                     and berth depths, real-time navigation informa-              tal problems of its own.
                     tion, modem port facilities, and efficient
                     intermodal connections.                                 Environmental quality

                     Energy and minerals resources and production.           Coastal oceans and estuaries are among the most
                     About 19 percent of the nation's produced oil           productive and valuable natural systems. They are
                     comes from federal offshore lands. Moreover,            also among the most threatened. Environmental
                     revenues and royalties earned on this production        stressors include nutrient overenrichment, bacterial


                32








                                                                                               The Next 25 Years: Global Issues


              contamination, chemical pollution, oxygen depletion,             consequence of the anticipated population
              oil and grease spills and contamination, and planned             growth in estuarine watersheds. Because of
              and unplanned habitat alterations. The importance                projected population increases, the need to limit
              and severity of these stressors varies from region to            nutrient inputs to estuaries must be emphasized
              region and often is a consequence of human activity.             further as we move into the next century.

                  Point sources. Point sources of pollution include            Habitats. Human activities have changed,
                  discharges of municipal and industrial wastewa-              degraded or destroyed coastal habitats, threaten-
                  ter and dumping                                                        ing many important species. Until
                  of materials into                                                      recently, many coastal habitat resources
                  ocean waters. In            In generall the notion                     were undervalued or not fully appreci-
                  general, the                          n                            :   ated in terms of our dependence on
                  nation has made             has madea massive                          them. Efforts have recently begun on
                  a massive and               and partially successful                   every coast to identify the habitats
                  partially success-          investment over the lost                   essential for every life stage of every
                  ful investment              generation to coniTol                      managed fish species. Once these
                  over the last                                                          essential habitats have been identified,
                  generation to               point sources, and the                     measures can then be taken to protect
                  control point               environment has ben-                       them from direct damage, and from
                  sources, and the            efited as a result.,                       degradations such as nonpoint source
                  environment has                                                        pollution, eutrophication, and physical
                  benefited as a                                                         habitat loss resulting from coastal
                  result. Two of the                                                     development.
                  outstanding successes include (1) more wide-
                  spread wastewater treatment, and higher levels             Coastal hazards
                  of treatment, across the nation, and (2) the
                  elimination of most ocean dumping and greater              Coastal storms damage property, take lives, and
                  control over the one major dumping activity that           disrupt ecosystems as a result of high winds, storm
                  remains-the disposition of materials dredged               surge, flooding, and shoreline erosion. The theory
                  from navigable waterways. The development, in              that global warming will make storms stronger and
                  wastewater treatment are mirrored and con-                 more frequent is under intense study; the data are
                  firmed in environmental measurements that
                  show long-term reduction of heavy metal and
                  organic chemical pollution in the marine envi-             Figure 2. Dry land loss by 2100 without shore
                  ronment near urban areas, as well as improve-              protection
                  ments in other indicators of environmental
                  quality. Ocean dumping of dredged material                 3,000
                  now is confined to clean materials placed in
                  designated dump sites that are carefully moni-             'Si
                  tored.                                                     E
                                                                             2,000-

                  Nonpoint sources. The remaining one- to two-               a,
                  thirds of pollutants contributing to the degrada-
                  tion of coastal and marine waters are from
                  nonpoint sources, which include runoff and                 1,000-
                                                                             0
                  seepage from agricultural and urban areas, and             'A
                                                                             W
                                                                             0
                  air deposition onto land and into water. Seasonal          I
                  eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of water                    0   NE     MA SA SW F LA Other WC
                  bodies is an important manifestation of nonpoint                                                    GOM
                  pollution. The problem varies by region. The                                Sea Level Rise Scenario
                  aggregate picture indicates an increase in the                 0 Baseline   0 50cm       N 100 cm      12 200 cm
                  severity and extent of eutrophication in the               Note: NE-Northeast; MA-Middle Atlantic, SA-South Atlantic;
                  future, with greater than 60 percent of the                  SWF-Southwest Florida; LA-Louisiana; Other GOM-Other
                  monitored estuaries expected to show worsening               Gu@of Mexico, WC-West Coast.
                  eutrophication symptoms. This is largely a                 Source: Titus et al., 1991

                                                                                                                                 33







                 Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 incomplete about whether global warming will lead            and manage the coastal zone. Third, integrated
                 to more destructive coastal storms. It is known,             management approaches are coming into use that
                 however, that sea level is rising in many regions, and       bring together diverse stakeholders to address the
                 that global warming may speed this process. Global           economic, environmental, and social demands placed
                 sea level is projected to rise on average about 5 mm/        on finite ocean and coastal resources.
                 yr. A rise in sea level and increased storm frequencies
                 could accelerate erosion and associated habitat loss,
                 increase salinity, alter tidal ranges, change sediment
                 and nutrient transport patterns, and increase coastal        Notes
                 flooding.
                                                                              1. This is an Executive Summary of the NOAA report
                 The societal cost of coastal hazards is determined not       entitled, "Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998:
                 only by the annual variability in their occurrence, but      Addendum to the Proceedings of the Workshop on Trends
                 also by the increasing population at risk, the growing       and Future Challengesfor U.S. National Ocean and
                 numbers and value of structures and businesses, and          Coastal Policy."
                 other manifestations of economic activity. Both
                 population and wealth have increased greatly, and
                 these changes have increased the exposure of the U.S.
                 population to damages from coastal hazards.

                 When the losses from coastal storms are normalized
                 to account for these changes, the extent of damages
                 actually has decreased (on average) over the years.
                 The explanation for this conundrum of greater
                 potential for loss, but relatively fewer actual losses,
                 lies in the success of major and long-term efforts to
                 prepare and plan for coastal hazards, and to mitigate
                 their effects. These efforts include (1) better predic-
                 tions, forecasts and warnings that enable timely and
                 targeted preparations and evacuations of high hazard
                 areas, and (2) building codes that incorporate hazard-
                 resistant construction standards, as well as guidelines
                 for appropriate siting of structures in areas where
                 they are less likely to suffer wind or water damage.

                 Governance and management

                 The great number of activities that occur in the
                 coastal zone and in, on, and under the coastal ocean
                 are governed by a complex and often fragmented
                 framework of laws, regulations, and practices. Three
                 fundamental trends are occurring to address this
                 situation. First, on an international scale since 1973,
                 the idea of the oceans as a "commons" has been
                 supplanted by principles, codified in the Law of the
                 Sea Convention, which
                 (1) recognize the rights of nation-states to establish
                 200-mile exclusive economic zones over ocean
                 resources and uses, and (2) authorize regional
                 management arrangements for ocean uses. This trend
                 has led to increases in resource utilization, such as
                 fisheries development and offshore energy produc-
                 tion. Second, federal environmental mandates have
                 established special ocean and coastal management
                 areas, and expanded the national capacity to plan for


                 34








                                 2. Trends in Managing the Environment

           Integrated management approaches are increasingly being employed to address environmental
           problems. The second session of the meeting reviewed trends in non-point source pollution, habitat
           and biodiversity, Lessonsfrom the Chesapeake Bay are examinedfor their management implications.
           National progress in attaining the goals of the 1972 Clean Water Act are reviewed, and remaining
           challenges are highlighted, especially those concerning non-point sources of pollution and integrated
           management of watersheds and the coastal ocean. Trends and challenges in biodiversity are ad-
           dressed, as are trends in the identification, designation and management of marine protected areas.



             New Approaches to Environmental Management: Lessons from the Chesapeake Bay
                     Donald F Boesch, Centerfor Environmental Studies, University of Maryland

                                     Perspectives on Marine Water Quality
                                   Tim Eichenberg, Centerfor Marine Conservation

                            Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and Challenges
                             Thomas Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

                                    Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas
                                      Tundi Agardy, Conservation International


























                                                                                                      35







                                                                                       Rends in Managing the Environment


                                NEW APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT-
                                              LESSONS FROM THE CHESAPEAKE BAY


                                                                Donald F Boesch
                                                            University of Maryland


                Ecosystem Management                                         together has been a sustained federal appropriation
                                                                             for administration, assessment, public outreach, and
                Coastal management is evolving from a limited,               implementation. But this federal investment is
                compartmentalized endeavor that seeks to manage              multiplied multi-fold by investments of states and
                land uses and human activities in the narrow coastal         local communities. The commitments are high level,
                zone to an expansive, integrated activity that reaches       sustained, significant, and popularly based.
                far inland, addresses water and air quality, incorpo-
                rates fisheries and other living resource management,        Goals
                and engages society's future life style choices. This
                requires an ecosystem approach that broadly em-              The Chesapeake Bay Program has set goals, even
                braces the physical environment and the biota,               when it was not crystal clear what those goals should
                including the humans that dominate these ecosys-             be. The major focusing goal has been to reduce
                tems. Furthermore, an ecosystem approach must be             controllable sources of nutrients by 40% by the year
                place-based, thus restricting the efficacy of uniformly      2000, but there have been other numerical goals as
                applied solutions. Everyone seems to embrace this            well. These goals serve to focus bureaucratic atten-
                concept, but how do we actually employ ecosystem             tion and provide a framework and currency for
                management, particularly on the large, regional              debates. Goals have a dimension that assists public
                scales necessary for major estuaries and bay.                understanding and stimulates political commitments.
                                                                             For example, the recalcitrant former Governor of
                The Chesapeake Bay Program represents perhaps the            Virginia finally surrendered to the pressure of the
                most ambitious and costly effort to restore a major          other members of the Executive Council for a ripar-
                coastal ecosystem and manage activities not only in          ian restoration goal of 2000 miles by 2010, but
                the coastal zone but also in a vast catchment area-          because of his political genius suggested that the goal
                64,000 square miles in this case. It has been going on,      of 2010 miles by 2010 sounds better!
                in one way or another, for about 20 years and is the
                conceptual parent of the National Estuary Program            Science
                in which some 28 estuaries are enrolled. What can
                we learn from this experience? Where does this               The Chesapeake Bay Program prides itself in being
                experiment in ecosystem management need to go in             science-based. The initial directions and goals were
                the 21st Century?                                            established following a 5 year study phase. There is
                                                                             a remarkable level of "science literacy" among the
                Commitments                                                  operatives, assisted by the remarkable and widely
                                                                             distributed Bay Journal. There is a heavy reliance on
                The Chesapeake Bay Program owes its longevity and            computer modeling and environmental modeling.
                successes to the high and sustained level of societal        There is perhaps the largest aggregation of coastal
                commitment it has enjoyed. It is directed by an              science in the nation in the region. However, as we
                Executive Council that includes the Governors of             move past the year 2000 milestone, it is clear that
                Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, the Mayor of           scientific activities need to be more strategic and
                the District of Columbia, the Administrator of the           forward-looking. Furthermore, because so many key
                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the           uncertainties now reside on the land, in the water-
                Chair of the Chesapeake Bay Commission, an                   shed, there is a need to boost and link the science of
                organization of the state legislatures of the region.        landscape changes, hydrological dynamics, and
                They are actually involved, they show up at the              social choices into the Program.
                annual meetings, and they know that their constitu-
                ents support this effort. They bring the weight and
                force of the agencies in their jurisdictions to partici-
                pate. Furthermore, the glue which has held this


                                                                                                                                       37







               7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               Models                                                     The first generation of Chesapeake Restoration goals
                                                                          was based on something we could measure and
               Great emphasis has been placed on the development          count-nutrient inputs. The next generation of
               and application of sophisticated computer models of        restoration goals will be living resource-based. But
               the Bay and its watershed. These                                                           what kind of meaning-
               models are linked so that one can
                                                                                    @M                    ful goals can we set and
               examine the effects of changes in future      Z,                                           measure? And how do
                                                                            eSCYpedke B
               land uses or agricultural practices or                                                     we develop strategies
               even the effects of the Clean Air Act on                                                   for multi-species
                                                                          cim nln conjunC7,
                                                                                                          management in an
               delivery of nutrients to the Bay and
                                                                       n %Wth the State
                                                                                                          ecosystem context?
               their effects on dissolved oxygen, food
                                                                  'jencies;-.7,6perates
               chains, and seagrasses. Although these                                                     This is one of the major
                                                                 th,5@` largest. and
               models may sometimes seduce manag-                                        MoSf @'A@J       challenges for the
               ers in believing that they represent the                                                   future of Chesapeake
                                                                          si
               real world rather than a virtual world,                 . . . . . .";A                     Bay restoration and
                                                                                                     P_@
                                                                               of any
               they have tremendous power in track-                                                       management.
               ing progress, identifying more signifi-                      I  C     ystpl;h,ln
               cant problems, and determining the
                                                                                                          Managing Growth
               effects of management alternatives.
                                                                                                          The commitments and
               Monitoring                                                                                 goals for Chesapeake
                                                                          Bay restoration include a "cap," by which once the
               The Chesapeake Bay Program, in conjunction with            nutrient input goals are met they will not be ex-
               the State agencies, operates the largest and most          ceeded in the future. This means that the effects of
               extensive monitoring program of any coastal ecosys-        all future population growth and land development
               tem in the world. It has been going on for over 13         must be offset by gains in efficiency. With conversion
               years now. The monitoring program is the                   of forested and agricultural land taking place at rates
               plowhorse in contrast to the flashy show horse that is     three times greater that the rate of population growth
               the modeling program. To managers, models                  in some areas, for example in the greater Washington,
               provide firm results and can make predictions, while       D.C. area, this is a daunting proposition. The rates of
               monitoring results are subject to natural and stochas-     land development are clearly unsustainable, not only
               tic variability and are inherently retrospective. The      to meet and hold Bay restoration goals but also in
               monitoring program costs lots of money, money that         terms of infrastructure demands and quality of life
               can be spent to implement programs, hire more office       considerations. As a result, the Chesapeake Bay
               staff, or hold meetings. They are hard to sustain. Yet,    watershed, and the Washington-Baltimore region in
               environmental monitoring is absolutely essential if        particular, has become the hotbed of the Smart
               we are to practice adaptive environmental manage-          Growth movement. The recently announced Clinton-
               ment, i.e. management that recognizes that it's hard       Gore initiative in this area provides opportunities for
               to predict anything about a complex ecosystem,             other coastal regions to begin to address the prob-
               particularly about the future, and approaches its task     lems of their future landscapes.
               with humility and an interest in observing and
               leaming.                                                   Climate Change

               Sustainable Resource Use                                   We live in a changing world. Not only is the Chesa-
                                                                          peake Bay of today not John Smith's Bay of the l7th
               Why are we trying to reduce nutrient inputs and            Century, the Bay of 100 years from now will be
               improve water quality if not for the fish, shellfish,      different from either of these. Not only will the
               and birds we enjoy and use? Furthermore, does it           outcome be related to how well we have met restora-
               make much sense for us to restore this ecosystem and       tion goals and held gains in the face of population
               overfish or otherwise abuse these resources? More-         growth and social change, but it is becoming increas-
               over, it has become increasingly clear that steps taken    ingly clear that our climate will change in non-trivial
                                                            001h

                                                               >w
































               to manage one species, striped bass, for example,          ways, both on global and regional scales. The
               may have consequences to other resources, menha-           Chesapeake Bay Program needs now to begin to take
               den and blue crabs, for example.                           heed of these possible changes, both in terms of its
                                                                          scientific investigations and management alterna-


               38







                                                                                   T@ends in Managing the Environment


             tives. Much has been written about accelerated sea
             level rise in the warmer world we face. This will
             have consequences for the Chesapeake Bay as well as
             other coastal areas. An additional, and perhaps more
             significant, challenge that we face in the Chesapeake
             is the prospect for increased freshwater runoff that
             climate models indicate are likely. These would not
             only affect the salinity distribution in the estuary, but
             would deliver more nutrients and result in greater
             density stratification, thus worsening the effects of
             eutrophication. The hill we are climbing to restore
             this great ecosystem may become even steeper.













































                                                                                                                               39







                                                                                       nends in Managing the Environment

                                         PERSPECTIVES ON MARINE WATER QUALITY

                                                                 Tim Eichenberg
                                    Centerfor Marine Conservation and Clean Water Network


                Editors'Note: This is an outline of Mr. Eichenberg's talk.            Wherever attainable, provide for the protec-
                                                                                      tion and propagation of fish, shellfish and
                Until 1972, the United States had no national pro-                    wildlife, and recreation in and on the water
                gram for regulating the discharge of sewage and                       by 1983.
                industrial pollutants
                                                                                      Prohibit the discharge of toxic pollutants in
                ï¿½  For 200 years, the only remedies for pollution                     toxic amounts.
                   were legal actions under common law nuisance
                   and riparian rights.                                           Basic provisions of the CWA:

                ï¿½  The 1899 Refuse Act (ï¿½13 of the Rivers and                     0   ï¿½301 makes illegal the discharge of pollutants
                   Harbors Act) provided criminal liability for the                   without a permit.
                   discharge of refuse, but it was minimally en-
                   forced and rarely used to control water pollution.             0   ï¿½402 requires National Pollutant Discharge
                                                                                      Elimination System (NPDES) permits for
                ï¿½  Federal clean water laws enacted in 1948, 1956,                    sewage and industrial point source dis-
                   1965, and 1966 provided funding to states for the                  charges; administered by the Environmental
                   construction of sewage treatment plants, and                       protection Agency (EPA) and assumable by
                   developed requirements for state water quality                     the states.
                   standards.
                                                                                  0   ï¿½304 requires technology-based, national
                ï¿½  However, ambient water quality standards, or                       effluent limits for toxic and conventional
                   WQS (i.e., instrearn uses and water quality                        pollutants.
                   criteria to protect those uses) were largely
                   ineffective due to inadequate implementation                       *   BPT for existing sources of pollution.
                   and enforcement, inadequate means to identify
                   polluters, and no national permitting program or                   9   BCT (economically achievable) for
                   effluent standards.                                                    conventional pollutants (pH, ss, BOD,
                                                                                          secondary treatment).
                ï¿½  By 1972, more than 60% of assessed rivers, lakes,
                   and estuaries were not fishable/ swimmable, and                    0   BAT economically achievable for toxics.
                   over 50% of the wetlands in the continental
                   United States had been destroyed.                                  0   BADT for new sources.

                In 1972, conditions were ripe for the adoption of                 ï¿½404 establishes a national permitting program
                national clean water legislation.                                 for the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                                                                                  navigable waters administered by the Corps and
                *  The Clean Water Act (CWA) was overwhelm-                       EPA, and assumable by the states.
                   ingly passed over President Nixon's veto (52-12/
                   Senate, 247-23/House).                                         ï¿½303 requires states to establish water quality
                                                                                  standards to:
                0  Objective of the CWA: "To restore and maintain
                   the chemical, physical and biological integrity of             0   Provide additional controls where technol-
                   the Nation's waters" [ï¿½101(a)]                                     ogy-based controls are inadequate to protect
                                                                                      water quality.
                0  Goals of the CWA [ï¿½101(a)(1-3)1:
                                                                                  0   Keep clean waters clean (antidegradation).
                   *Eliminate the discharge of pollutants by 1985.
                                                                                  0   Restore impaired waters [ï¿½303(d)].

                                                                                                                                      41







                 T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 We have made significant progress in addressing                 0    The General Accounting Office (GAO) reports
                 water quality problems since 1972.                                   that 20-25% of major facilities are in significant
                                                                                      noncompliance with the CWA.
                 ï¿½  Federal, state and local governments and indus-
                    try have spent more than $200 billion on reduc-              0    We still have major infrastructure
                    ing the discharge of sewage and industrial                        needs: $137 billion is needed for
                    pollutants.                                                       secondary and advanced treatment
                                                                                            combined and sanitary sewer
                 ï¿½  The number of
                                                                                            overflows.
                    people served by
                                                                                      X
                                                    EPW&@
                    secondary and                                              Y
                                                                                            The CWA has not been reauthorized since
                    advanced wastewa-
                                                                                            1987; new approaches are needed to
                                                  ''I       Ir
                    ter treatment has
                                                                                            address remaining clean water challenges
                    doubled (to about
                                                                                W
                                                  ,COM, 0S,'-#dM`-,_
                    180 million), and                                                            EPA estimates that 60% of water
                                                                 t
                                                   @n
                                                     onpoin, spUrC,
                    pollutant loads             4/
                                                                                                 quality impairment now comes from
                                                         'S
                    from POTWs have                      , )                                     nonpoint sources (NPS) of pollution.
                    decreased by 40%.
                                                                                                   The leading source of NPS pollution
                    Over 100,000 tons of toxic metals and organic                         is agriculture which causes 60% of the river,
                    material are removed from discharges annually.                        50% of the lake, and 54% of the estuary
                                                                                          impairment.
                 But we still have a long way to go to meet the goals
                 of the CWA                                                                   About 130 times more animal waste than
                                                                                              human waste is produced, but there are
                 0  40% of rivers, lakes, and estuaries "assessed" still                      no federal regulations for the handling,
                    are not fishable /swimmable, and only 16% of                              storage, use or disposal of animal waste.
                    major watersheds have good water quality.
                                                                                              Most large CAFOs are unregulated
                 0  We know very little about the condition of our                            despite CWA ï¿½502(14) permitting
                    waters; few are adequately surveyed (less than                            requirements (about 2,000 of the 450,000
                    20% of rivers, 101/6 of ocean waters, 40% of lakes,                       feedlots are permitted).
                    and 72% of estuaries).
                                                                                      0   Less than 3% of the SRF has been devoted to
                 0  We still lose about 120,000 acres of wetlands per                     NPS pollution.
                    year which protect water quality, prevent flood-
                    ing, and provide habitat and recreational oppor-                  0   ï¿½319 of the CWA provides no mandatory
                    tunities.                                                             controls on the major sources of NPS pollu-
                                                                                          tion.
                 0  More than 4,000 beaches were closed or posted
                    due to contamination in 1997.                                     0   NOAA`s Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control
                                                                                          Program is moribund:
                 0  More than 2,100 fish consumption advisories
                    were posted in 1996.                                                  0   Established under ï¿½6217 of the 1990
                                                                                              amendments to CZAMA, it still has not
                 0  More than 30% of our shellfish beds are harvest-                          produced an approved state plan
                    restricted.
                                                                                          0   It has received only $lM in federal
                 *  More than 50% of all estuaries have low or no                             funding since 1995 (although $8M was
                    oxygen levels at some point during the year; the                          appropriated in FY 1999, and $12 million
                    Gulf of Mexico has a 7,000 square mile dead zone                          is requested in FY2000 budget).
                    that appears each summer.
                                                                                      Tberefore, an enforceable national program to
                 0 Between 1972 and 1998, the number of HABs                          prevent polluted runoff should be established to
                    doubled (pfiesteria, red and brown tides).


                 42







                                                                                        Rends in Managing the Environment

                   reduce the major cause of water quality impair-                    Therefore, national standards should be
                   ment that:                                                         established for beach water quality, monitor-
                                                                                      ing beaches and for posting waters that pose
                   ï¿½   Identifies and targets significant sources of                  a public health threat.
                       NPS.
                                                                             0    There are no enforceable national standards for
                   ï¿½   Applies enforceable measures with mile-                    fish consumption advisories.
                       stones and deadlines to meet WQS in 10
                       years .                                               a    Fish consumption advisories rose by 26% in 1996
                                                                                  to 2193, including advisories in 100% of the Great
                   0   Requires immediate mandatory controls for                  Lakes and their connecting waters and a large
                       significant new sources of NPS.                            portion of the nation's coastal waters.

                   ï¿½   Provides adequate EPA backup authority                0    Most of the advisories were for mercury (76%);
                       and WQ monitoring.                                         PCBs, chlordane, dioxins and DDT were also
                                                                                  frequently cited.
                   ï¿½   Requires NPS controls/ monitoring on
                       federal lands.                                        0    differences among state programs are vast.

                   ï¿½   Provides adequate federal funding (up to              0    Therefore, federal standards are needed to
                       $500 million/year) as provided in the                      provide consistency, additional training and
                       President's 1998 Clean Water Action Plan.                  enforceable mandates for testing and posting
                                                                                  fishing areas to ensure that the public health is
                   ï¿½   Requires permits for large factory farms with              protected adequately.
                       minimum standards for manure storage
                       structures, setbacks from water bodies,                    State water quality standards are not protecting
                       manure application requirements, advanced                  adequately existing and designated uses, nor do
                       treatment for large operations (7,000 = city of            they address adequately excess nutrients,
                       45,000), and provides bonding and public                   sediment contamination, and the loss of habitat.
                       notice for permits.                                        Therefore, EPA should strengthen its rules
                                                                                  governing water quality standards by:
                   ï¿½ Regulates stormwater discharges from small
                       municipalities, industries, and construction               Adopting water quality criteria for nutrients
                       sites.                                                     (nitrogen and phosphorous), sediments, physical
                                                                                  and biological resources, and requiring the
                   There are no enforceable national standards for                adoption and implementation of such criteria by
                   monitoring and posting swimming beaches                        states.

                   ï¿½   There have been more than 20,000 beach                     Strengthening the implementation of state
                       closures and advisories since 1988 from                    antidegradation policies to protect waters that
                       polluted runoff, stormwater, sewage spills,                meet or exceed minimum fishable/ swimmable
                       and overflows                                              standards.


                   ï¿½   Only 8 states comprehensively monitor their                Prohibiting the use of mixing zones, especially
                       beaches and notify the public (NJ, NH, NC,                 for toxic pollutants and pollutants that persist or
                       DE, IL, CT, IN, OH).                                       bioaccumulate in the environment.

                   ï¿½   Five states lack any regular monitoring of                 Bringing impaired waters into compliance with
                       beach water quality (AL, GA, LA, OR, WA).                  CWA standards within 8-10 years by ensuring
                                                                                  that states identify and list waters that do not
                   ï¿½   Most states have not adopted EPA!s sug-                    meet WQS, and develop TMDLs and WLAs to
                       gested criteria, and still use fecal and total             reduce pollutants from point and nonpoint
                       coliform indicators.                                       sources.






                                                                                                                                       43







                                                                                     Rends in Managing the Environment


                       CONSERVING OCEAN BIODIVERSITY- TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

                                                            Thomas F Hourigan
                                             National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA



             Introduction                                                  world's commercial marine catch at $80 billion per
                                                                           year. The comparable value of fishes landed in the
             The ocean's biological diversity-its genetic re-              United States is $3.5 billion, and commercial fisheries
             sources, species, and ecosystems-provides immense             contribute $21 billion to the U.S. economy. Besides
             benefits to the United States and to all of human             food, marine living resources provide myriad
             society. Knowledge about these resources is still             products including fertilizers, animal feed, medi-
             rudimentary; however, trends in the best                                                         cines, and aquarium
             studied species and ecosystems-                                                                  fishes.
             commercially exploited fishes, protected             The oceans biological
             marine mammals and turtles, and certain                                                          The value of marine
             coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs-             diversity-the living re-                    biodiversity extends
             indicate that these resources and their              sources that compose It                     far beyond fisheries
             benefits are threatened by human                     and the ecological pro-                     and other products.
             activities both in the United States and                                                         Marine ecosystems
                                                                  cesses that sustain It-
             globally. The U.S. government is already                                                         also provide natural
             taking steps to address the threats, and             forms a foundation for                      goods and services
             actions are paying dividends in healthier            the quality of human life                   such as carbon
             resources. Recent initiatives, such as the           as well as the raw         Moteri_          storage, atmospheric
             President's Executive Order on Coral                                                             gas regulation,
             Reef Protection, signal a commitment to              als to enrich it.                           nutrient cycling, and
             continue to improve the state of the                                                             waste treatment.
             marine environment. The key to further                                                           Coral reefs, man-
             progress will depend on strengthening scientific              groves, and kelp forests protect coastal areas from
             research; applying a precautionary approach to                storm damage. Marine algae contribute nearly 40
             resource use; strengthening partnerships with all             percent of global photosynthesis. The values of these
             stakeholders; and managing marine resources on an             marine ecosystem services greatly exceed direct use
             ecosystem basis. This paper highlights the ecosystem          values, yet they generally are not incorporated into
             approach and the new Aquatic Restoration and                  economic or policy calculations. Globally, the value
             Conservation (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estua-             of marine ecosystem services has been estimated at
             rine and Freshwater Living Resources as parts of a            $8.4 trillion per annum for open ocean ecosystems,
             conceptual framework for organizing future actions            and $12.6 trillion for coastal ecosystems (Costanza et
             to protect marine biodiversity.1                              al. 1997). These services depend on marine
                                                                           biodiversity, even though the processes that underlie
             The Living Ocean Treasure                                     this dependence are still unclear.

             The ocean's biological diversity-the living resources         As human populations increase, demands have
             that compose it and the ecological processes that             accelerated for food, products, and services from the
             sustain it-forms a foundation for the quality of              ocean, as well as for living and recreational space on
             human life as well as the raw materials to enrich it.         its shores. The primary threats to marine
             Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to the          biodiversity are fisheries operations (both direct
             variety and variability among living organisms, and           overfishing and indirect fishing impacts --- e.g.,
             among the ecological complexes of which they are a            bycatch of non-target and protected species, habitat
             part. Marine living resources provide essential               destruction by trawls and other gear or techniques,
             economic, environmental, aesthetic, and cultural              and other ecosystem effects that may accompany
             benefits to humanity. Sixteen percent of all animal           fishing activities), chemical pollution and eutrophica-
             protein consumed worldwide comes from the ocean.              tion, physical alteration of coastal and marine
             The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza-             habitats, invasions of exotic species, and ultraviolet-B
             tion (FAO) estimates the total value to fishers of the        radiation damage to phytoplankton and zooplankton
                                                                           resulting from stratospheric ozone depletion (NRC

                                                                                                                                     45






                  Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                  1995). Looming on the horizon is the threat of                    have shown that human activities are reaching and
                  human-caused climate change with potentially major                often exceeding the productive limits and recupera-
                  negative effects on tourism, freshwater supplies,                 tive potential of the ocean.
                  fisheries, and biodiversity. These factors also have
                  been identified by the Parties to the Convention on               A. Fisheries
                  Biological Diversity2 as key threats (UNEP/CBD
                  1995).                                                            Many commercial fish stocks reveal a pattern of
                                                                                    declining populations. Recent trends indicate that
                  Trends in the Health of Marine Biodiversity                       about one-third of the resources on which fishers
                                                                                    depend are overfished in the United States and
                  Knowledge about marine species and ecosystems                     worldwide (Fig. 1). Without major changes in fishery
                  lags far behind that of terrestrial systems. We cannot            management, FA0 estimates that global landings
                  even characterize the health of many common                       will not be able to exceed current levels despite
                  marine species and ecosystems. What relatively little             increased demand from growing populations, and
                  is known about the state and trends of living marine              could be reduced by as much as 25 percent (FA0
                  resources is based on species exploited commercially              1996a). Despite the collapse of certain fisheries, U.S.
                  for fisheries; protected marine mammals, turtles, and             management actions have contributed to several
                  fishes; and certain commercially significant and                  successes, including Alaska groundfish, king and
                  accessible coastal ecosystems such as wetlands and                Spanish mackerel, striped bass, and surf and ocean
                  coral reefs. Until recently, the oceans were thought to           quahogs.
                  be a limitless source of food and natural resources,
                  and a limitless sink for human pollution. Trends for              Beyond the impacts of overfishing, fishery operations
                  these resources during the last few decades, however,             also have tremendous impacts on marine ecosys-




                        a) Status of 200 Major World Commercial                     b) Status of 844 Federally Managed Fishery
                           Fishery Stocks                                             Species in U.S. Waters

                                                                                                                 E  Overfished
                           40%             35%                                                11%     1%            Approaching
                                                          Overfished                                   24%          Overfished
                                                          Fully Fished                                           El Not
                           IAW                                                      (Z@                             Overfished
                                    25%              El Developing                       64%                        Insufficient
                                                          Fishery                                                   Data





                        c) Status of 163 Marine Mammal Stocks                       d) Status of Ten Sea Turtle Stocks in
                           in U.S. Waters                                             U.S. Waters


                                   5%     15%             Declining                   40%          20%              Declining

                                                          Stable                                                    Stable
                                17@14%                D Increasing                                         %    El Increasing
                           66%                        EJ Insufficient                         20%                   Insufficient
                                                          Data                                                      Data
                                                                                      CN20


                  Figure 1. Status of selected marine living resources. a) World fisheries (FA0 1996a); b) U.S. Federally managed
                  fisheries (NMFS 1998); c) & d) Marine mammals and sea turtles sea turtles (NMFS 1996).


                  46






                                                                                    D-ends in Managing the Environment

              tems. Globally, about 60 billion pounds of sea life are     they are close to large concentrations of people;
              destroyed as discarded bycatch each year (FAO               however, data are available to evaluate the status and
              1996b). Additionally, it has recently been estimated        trends of U.S. coral reefs in only a few sites (NOAA
              that bottom trawls and similar fishing gear scrape          1998b). The International Year of the Reef, 1997, and
              14.8 million square                                                    President Clinton's 1998 Executive Order
              kilometers of sea                                                      on Coral Reef Protection are providing
              bottom annually, an           Recent tren         ,ds indicate         impetus to new reef monitoring programs
              area equivalent to                                                     that should greatly increase our under-
              over half the world's         that about, on'64hird of                 standing of the status and outlook for coral
              continental shelves           the resources on which                   reefs worldwide.
              (Watling and Elliot,          fishers depend are
              1998). Although the           overfished in the                        A Challengefor the Future: The Ecosystem
              impact of this destruc-                                                Approach to Conserving Marine
              tion on biodiversity          United States -dnd                       Biodiversity
              and productivity is
                                            worldwide.,
              unknown, its magni-                                                    The U.S. government, in partnership with
              tude must give us                                                      public and private stakeholders at home
              pause.                                                                 and internationally, is taking action to
                                                                          address the threats to living marme resources and to
              B. Protected Marine Species                                 ensure the promise of these resources for future
                                                                          generations. Hourigan et al. (1998) outlined five
              Protected marine species in the United States include       critical elements at the heart of this new strategic
              marine mammals and species listed under the                 vision:
              Endangered Species Act (ESA). In the past, the
              exploitation or incidental capture of marine species,       1. Investing in science in the interest of stewardship.
              along with a lack of adequate natural resource              Basic assessment and monitoring of the status and
              management policies, led to the decline and even            trends of resources, as well as economic and social
              extinction of many species. Protection under the            information, are the fundamental tools of natural
              ESA, Marine Mammal Protection Act, and the                  resource managers.
              International Whaling Commission has led to
              increasing populations of certain marine mammals            2. Applying the precautionary approach. Even the
              (e.g., gray whales) and at least two sea turtle species     best science cannot ensure adequate management,
              in U.S. waters. Still, habitat destruction and human        since marine systems are characterized by a great
              activities continue to place other species in jeopardy.     deal of natural variability. The precautionary ap-
              For example, 23 salmonid populations have been              proach states that in the face of uncertainty, managers
              listed or proposed for listing as endangered or             and decision makers must err on the side of conser-
              threatened since 1991, while populations of the             vation of living marine resources and protection of
              northern right whale and Hawaiian monk seal                 the environment. The precautionary approach has
              continue to decline. Meanwhile, less well-studied           been conceptually best developed in the fishery
              marine organisms are being lost before ever being           sector (e.g., the FAO Code of Conduct for Respon-
              identified, much less protected.                            sible Fisheries and the United Nations Straddling
                                                                          Stocks Agreement) and is being integrated into U.S.
              C. Key Ecosystems - the Coral Reef Example                  fishery policy and practice. The challenge will be to
                                                                          implement the precautionary approach in fisheries
              As the world's most biologically diverse marine             and to broaden its application to other arenas of
              ecosystems, coral reefs are home to one-third of all        ocean resource management.
              marine fish species and tens of thousands of other
              species. Coral reef areas under U.S. jurisdiction           3. Applying new technologies to ensure the environ-
              cover approximately 16,879 square kilometers                mental sustainability of marine aquaculture. World
              (NOAA 1998b). Despite their importance, shallow             population is expected to increase by one billion
              water coral health and cover have declined world-           people during the next decade, yet future seafood
              wide over the last two decades. It is estimated that 58     harvests from the wild are not expected to increase.
              percent of the earth's coral reefs are at high or           As humans once moved from hunting to agriculture
              moderate risk from overexploitation, coastal devel-         on land, they must soon move from reliance on wild
              opment, and pollution (Bryant et al. 1998). In the          fish stocks to marine aquaculture in the oceans. The
              United States, coral reefs appear threatened wherever       success of this move depends upon employing new

                                                                                                                                   47







                T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                technologies to address the environmental problems         that address non-point source pollution are impor-
                that have plagued aquaculture in the past.                 tant pieces of the puzzle. So also are the new
                                                                           "Essential Fish Habitat" provisions of the 1996
                4. Building Partnerships. Successful management of         Sustainable Fisheries Act and increasing use of
                ocean living resources is often less a question of         habitat conservation agreements with states, tribes,
                science and technology than one of human behavior          and private land owners to address endangered
                and balancing legitimate short- and long-term social       species management. To date, however, these have
                needs and aspirations. U.S. federal programs and           not been placed in a context that recognizes the scale
                policies are reaching out to involve stakeholders in       and interconnectedness of ocean living systems.
                decision-making and implementation.
                                                                           Marine and coastal protected areas in the National
                5. Exploiting the full potential of an ecosystem-based     Marine Sanctuary Program, the National Estuarine
                approach to resource management. Each individual           Research Reserve System, the National Estuary
                organism has a habitat, which it needs to live and         Program, and other national and state parks can
                reproduce, and depends on a commu-                                                         provide important
                nity@ of other species for food and
                                                                                                   J@
                                                                                                           refuges for marine
                survival. This interconnected commu-                                          t            biodiversit However,
                                                                       ASA             mos
                                                                       b'd                                            Y_
                nity of living things, including hu-                                                       these areas currently
                                                                                      ive,rse   7,
                                                                                                           provide only limited
                mans-their dynamic interactions with        P   4`1
                each other and the physical environ                                                        protection. from fishing
                ment, and their overlapping mosaic of
                                                                             e fs       home to            impacts. Twenty-two
                habitats-together constitute an                                   f oll marin. e,@-,       percent of U.S. federal
                ecosystem.                                                                                 lands are "no-take"
                                                               . . . . .....
                                                                       specles On                          wilderness areas. In
                Increasingly, the United States is                     th6`U'ï¿½bh&bfbther                   contrast, the federal
                adopting an ecosystem approach to                                                          government has
                                                                       ecles..
                management designed to sustain or                                                          jurisdiction over
                restore natural systems and their                                                          marine areas eight
                functions and values (Interagency                                                          times larger than the
                Ecosystem Management Task Force 1995). The                 federal land areas, but only 0.002% of these are
                ecosystem approach has also become a major touch-          currently "no-take" marine wilderness areas
                stone advocated by the Convention on Biological            (Brailovskaya, 1998).
                Diversity for the conservation and sustainable use of
                marine biodiversity (UNEP/CBD 1995). An ecosys-            Management of terrestrial systems has been revolu-
                tem approach to management is applied within a             tionized by the application of watershed manage-
                geographic framework defined primarily by ecologi-         ment and coastal zone management approaches. The
                cal boundaries. The ecological boundaries of ocean         challenge over the next century will be to expand
                ecosystems and the services they provide reach             these zoning approaches to the nearshore waters and
                across traditional state and international boundaries,     beyond. We must:
                and they are linked to water and soil systems in
                watersheds and to each other through ocean cur-            1. Identify areas of important biological diversity and
                rents. Thus, effective management will require             productivity, habitats for endangered species and
                expanding both interstate and international coopera-       commercial and recreational fisheries species, and
                tion.                                                      coastal and marine areas that provide key ecosystem
                                                                           functions;
                Applying this ecosystem approach represents the
                greatest challenge of the coming decades. Current          2. Map sources of pollution and other human impacts
                management still generally deals with fish or endan-       on these areas; and
                gered species as isolated stocks, and with threats as
                individual rather than cumulative insults to ocean         3. Conserve representative productive and pristine
                systems. The ecosystem approach requires integrat-         areas and restore priority habitats that are degraded.
                ing the current patchwork of management tools that
                address endangered species, fisheries, pollution,          The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
                watersheds, and coastal zones into a coherent whole.       tion has recently formed a partnership with the U.S.
                Federal and state integrated coastal zone manage-          Geological Survey and other federal agencies, states,
                ment programs and watershed management plans               NGOs, and professional organizations to take the

                48







                                                                                      T@ends in Managing the Environment

              first analytical steps in this direction on a nationwide      Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (United
              basis. We have begun the Aquatic Restoration and              Nations). 1996a. State of the World Fishery and Aquacul-
              Conservation (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estua-             ture. FA0 Fisheries Circular. FAO.
              rine and Freshwater Living Resources. The goal of
              the ARC Partnership is to ensure the conservation of          FAO 1996b. Report of the technical consultations on
              our nation's freshwater, estuarine and marine living          reduction of wastage in fisheries. FAO Fisheries Report
              resources by creating a common information base               547. Tokyo, Japan.
              and options for preserving the ecological and eco-
              nomic integrity of these resources into the 21st              Hourigan, T.F., Milazzo, M., Kiraly, S.J. and Osborn,
              Century.                                                      K.W. 1998. Ensuring the Sustainability of Ocean Living
                                                                            Resources. Proceedings of the Ocean Community
              ARC builds on the successful Terrestrial Gap Analy-           Conference '98. pp. 651-655.
              sis Program. Gap analysis is a science-based pro-
              gram for identifying the degree to which native               Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force.
              animal species and natural communities are repre-             1995. The Ecosystem Approach: Healthy Ecosystems and
              sented in our present--day mix of conservation                Sustainable Economies, Volume L National Technical
              areas. Those species and communities not ad-                  Information Service. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 55pp.
              equately represented in the existing network of
              conservation areas constitute conservation "gaps."            National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 1996. Our
              The Gap Analysis Program provides broad geo-                  Living Oceans: Report on the Status of U.S. Living
              graphic information on the status of species and their        Marine Resources, 1995. U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
              terrestrial habitats in order to provide managers,            NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/SPO-19,160 pp.
              planners, and policy makers with the information
              they need to make better-informed decisions.                  NMFS. September 1997. Report to Congress on the
                                                                            Status of Fisheries in the United States.
              Making full use of new approaches-analytic tools
              such as ARC and management tools such as fishery              National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
              "no-take" zones that protect fishes, their habitat, and       (NOAA). 1998a. Year of the Ocean Discussion Papers.
              biodiversity-will allow management on scales that             NOAA.
              are meaningful to ocean living resources. They can
              then be placed in watershed and integrated marine             NOAA. 1998b (on-line). The extent and condition of
              and coastal area management regimes that involve              U.S. coral reefs by S.L. Miller and M.P. Crosby.
              all stakeholders. Together, these offer the promise of        NOAA's State of the Coast Report. Silver Spring, MD:
              better conserving marine biodiversity, our ocean's            NOAA. http://state-of-coast.noaa.gov
              living treasure.
                                                                            National Research Council. 1995. Understanding
              Literature Cited                                              Marine Biodiversity: A Research Agendafor the Nation.
                                                                            National Academy Press; Washington D.C. 114 pp.
              Brailovskaya, T. 1998. Obstacles to protecting marine
              biodiversity through marine wilderness preservation:          United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/
              Examples from the New England region. Conservation            CBD. 1995. The Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal
              Biology 12:1236-1240.                                         Biological Diversity: Decisions of the Second Meeting of
                                                                            the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
              Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J., and Spaulding,            Biological Diversity. Jakarta, Indonesia, November 6-
              M. 1998. Reefs at Risk: A map-based indicator of threats to   17, 1995..UNER
              the world's coral reefs. World Resources Institute
              Report. 56 pp.                                                Watling, L. and E.A. Norse. 1998. Disturbance of the
                                                                            seabed by mobile fishing gear: A comparison to forest
              Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S.,           clearcutting. Conservation Biology 12:1180-1197.
              Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S.,
              O'Niell, R., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R., Sutton, P., and van
              den Belt, M. 1997. The value of the worldfs ecosystem
              services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-260.




                                                                                                                                     49







              nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy


              Notes


              1 The trends in marine living resources described in
              this paper draw on the recent review developed for
              the Year of the Ocean Discussion Papers (NOAA 1998a;
              and Hourigan et al. 1998). The conclusions derived
              from these trends, and suggested options for future
              action, are the author's and do not necessarily reflect
              the policies of the U.S. Government.

              2 The United States has signed, but not yet ratified,
              the Convention on Biological Diversity.













































              50







                                                                                           Rends in Managing the Environment


                                       GLOBAL TRENDS IN MARINE PROTECTED AREAS


                                                                     Tundi A@Zardil
                                                               Conservation international


               Introduction                                                     Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas


               Marine protected areas are increasingly being used to            The designation "marine protected area" encom-
               protect biologically rich habitats, resolve user con-            passes everything from small marine parks estab-
               flicts, and help restore over-exploited stocks and               lished to protect an endangered or threatened
               degraded areas. The upsurge in the use of                                                                   species, a
               the tool is in part due to the fact that                                                                    unique habitat,
               fisheries managers are now looking to                                                                       or a site of
               reserves to complement conventional                      We ore thus witnessing an                          historical or
               fisheries management techniques. In the                  increase in the designation                        cultural inter-
               United States, the legislative requirement                                                                  est, to vast
               to identify and protect essential fish                   and management of mo-                              reserves that
               habitat for managed fisheries species has                r1ne protected areas that is                       target a range
               contributed to the debate over and use of                occurring on Nlo tracks:                           of conservation,
               marine protected areas in all their various                                                                 economic, and
               forms. Similarly, fisheries managers and                 (1) th  'e establishment of                        social objectives
               government agencies abroad are now                       reserves to safeguard rep-                         and encompass
               realizing that marine protected areas ca
                                                             n          resentofive habitats or                            different types
               serve to enhance sustainable resource                                                                       of protection.
               utilization in addition to promoting                     particularly rich and di-                          The use of
               conservation. We are thus witnessing an                  verse areas, and (2) the                           marine pro-
               increase in the designation and manage-                                                                     tected areas has
                                                                        use of protected areas to
               ment of marine protected areas that is                                                                      enjoyed a
               occurring on two tracks: 1) the establish-               complement both fisheries                          sudden up-
               ment of reserves to safeguard representa-                and coastal management.                            surge in
               tive habitats or particularly rich and                                                                      popularity as
               diverse areas, and 2) the use of protected                                                                  marine reserves
               areas to complement both fisheries and coastal                   are being invoked to complement and strengthen
               management. Many will claim the new wave of                      traditional fisheries management. In the United
               marine protected areas is characterized by a strong              States this has been driven by the revision of the
               reliance on marine sciences-scientific knowledge                 Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and
               that has at long last matured to the point that it has           Management Act, now mandating fisheries managers
               become useful to marine resource managers. It                    to identify and protect essential fish habitat. Parallel-
               should be noted, however, that protected area                    ing this new push for the use of protected areas in
               placement, design, and operation all relate to the               fisheries management regimes has been an upsurge
               scope and nature of the goals being targeted-Le. the             in multiple objective protected areas. Indeed, many
               specific objectives the protected area is meant to               of the newest marine protected areas are more
               achieve. The identification of these objectives is               ambitious than conventional marine protected areas,
               ultimately societal, not scientific. Subsequent to the           resulting in multiple use reserves that try to accom-
               elaboration of specific objectives, conservation                 modate many different users groups, each with their
               biology and other sciences can be harnessed to help              own needs and objectives. Administrators are
               identify what needs to be protected and in what                  finding different uses can indeed be fostered without
               manner, leading to optimally effective marine                    adverse impacts on ecosystem function, as long as
               protected areas. A few good examples of such well-               planning is based on ecological realities, relies on
               planned protected areas have now emerged around                  specific objectives from the outset, and balances
               the world, but unfortunately this number is small                established objectives (Agardy, 1993). These pro-
               compared to the vast number of ill-designed "paper               tected areas can provide a footing for integrated
               parks" around the world.                                         coastal management and better ocean governance



                                                                                                                                             51







                7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                overall. Whatever the scope of the protected area,             habitats in a coastal area requires comprehensive
                the science of conservation biology has contributed            management of all its parts (Caddy and Sharp, 1986).
                important theories, perspectives, and tools, many of
                which await critical testing (Allison et al., 1998).           The open nature of coastal and ocean areas exists as a
                                                                               spectrum ranging from relatively fixed and "land-
                The terms marine protected area, marine reserve,               like" systems to highly dynamic and complex
                closed area, harvest refugium, marine park, and                systems. Coral reef ecosystems, for instance, harbor
                sanctuary may cause semantic difficulty since they             organisms that are largely confined in their move-
                are often used interchangeably and without defini-             ments to the specific habitats of reef, surrounding
                tion. The spectrum in size, design, and management             soft or hard benthos, and coastal wetlands. The
                objectives that comprise marine protected areas is             structural framework for reef systems is fixed in
                vast-ranging from the small and focused harvest                place and can be mapped, much like a tropical forest
                refugiurn (a place where harvest of one or more                provides a relatively fixed framework for the interac-
                species, usually of fish or shellfish, is restricted) to       tions of the forest community. The functional links
                the large and ambitious sanctuary. Closed area and             between the water column in reef areas and the
                harvest refugiurn are sometimes synonymous, but                benthos are strong, so one can treat the ocean space
                closed areas can also be closed to entry in general, or        together with reef structures themselves. In contrast,
                can be used to restrict non-living resource extraction         temperate open ocean systems such as estuarine/
                such as oil and gas. Reserve is the term that most             gulf /banks complexes are highly dynamic and in no
                closely approximates a synonym of marine protected             way "fixed." Here, living marine resources move in
                area in some countries though "reserve" can refer to           space and time according to physically dominated,
                a particular type of protected area such as a bio-             largely non-deterministic patterns. The ecology of
                sphere reserve, or, as in Britain, to an area closed to        the benthos is not strongly linked to that of the water
                all fishing (in other words, a harvest refugium)               column, and physical reference points for the system
                (Gubbay, 1995). Lastly, there is that problematic term         cannot easily be mapped. This wide array of system
                ,'marine park," which outlived its usefulness when             types thus presents a challenge to conservationists
                protected areas shifted away from being places of              and resource managers, requiring that protected area
                recreation. The term "marine protected area, " and             measures be appropriate to the system in question.
                only that term, encompasses all of the other terms,            The random application of terrestrial models to the
                and is thus the term used herein.                              marine environment will not result in a viable means
                                                                               of protecting resources and the underlying ecology
                Arguments abound about the nature of marine                    that gives rise to them. New paradigms are
                protected areas and how they relate to conventional            needed-and the newest generation of marine
                land parks; the fact remains that marine protected             protected areas reflects this new way of thinking.
                areas do significantly differ from protected areas on
                land. The greatest single factor underlying this               Modem marine protected areas serve a wide variety
                difference is the nebulous nature of boundaries in the         of functions. However, there is no single "model"
                fluid environment of the sea (Steele, 1974). It is             marine protected area. The size, shape, and means of
                notoriously difficult to attach boundary conditions to         implementation in any single marine protected area
                marine ecological processes, just as it is difficult to        will be a function of the primary objectives that
                bound the impacts that affect those processes. While           protected area sets out to achieve. If the goal of a
                this is also true for inland freshwater systems, these         protected area is, for instance, the protection of a
                ecosystems usually have distinct horizontal layers             single vulnerable habitat type from a specific type of
                and outer bounds. In essence, it is impossible to              use (e.g. protection of a fringing reef system from
                "fence in" living marine resources or the critical             prospective shipping accidents), the resulting pro-
                ecological processes that support them, just as it is          tected area can be simple in both design and manage-
                impossible to "fence out" the degradation of ocean             ment. If, however, the conservation goal targets a
                environments caused by land-based sources of                   wide range of habitats/ resources, the protected area
                pollution, changes in hydrology, or ecological                 will have to be necessarily more complex. Where a
                disruptions occurring in areas adjacent or linked to a         functional approach is adopted, in other words
                protected area. This holds true not only for open              where the object of conservation is not a single stock
                ocean pelagic environments but for the coastal zones           of resources or a single species but the ecosystem and
                as well, where functional linkages between habitats            its processes, marine protected areas will tend to be
                are so geographically widespread. The vastness of              large and encompass many types of linked habitats
                linkages between species and between critical                  (Lauck et al., 1998). These large, multiple-use


                52







                                                                                    Rends in Managing the Environment

             protected areas can be thought of as demonstrating           a wide variety of user groups in relative harmony,
             the concept of ecosystem-based management, where             and can be a tool for dispute resolution where
             the limits of protection in a geographical sense are         conflicting uses clash (Reynard, 1994; Valdez-Pizzini
             based on the extent to which movements of organ-             1995).
             isms and physically-linked processes (Hatcher et al.,
             1989; Dayton et al., 1995). The underlying ecology           The human element in marine protected areas cannot
             thus defines the outer boundaries for the area of            be understated. The success of any protected area is
             protection, or management unit. In recognizing these         closely related to how well user groups and stake-
             linkages, marine protected area planners can work            holders are identified and brought into the planning
             towards conserving ecosystem integrity, not just             and management processes for the protected area.
             individual resources or ecosystem structures.                Marine protected areas cannot afford to be elitist, nor
                                                                          can they be exclusionary-again underscoring the
             Globally, marine protected areas are being desig-            difference between terrestrial and marine protected
             nated according to at least two major approaches: 1)         areas. Wilderness is not a concept easily applied to
             preservation of ocean or coastal "wilderness" areas          ocean areas-nor does it provide a particularly useful
             (the term wilderness is in quotation marks because           perspective for marine conservation. Humans and
             no part of the world's oceans, inland seas, or coast-        their needs are the driving force for marine protected
             lines is pristine) and 2) resolution of conflicts among      area work, and humans stand most to benefit from
             users (current or in the future). Most existing na-          their effective implementation. The designation of a
             tional marine protected area networks follow the first       marine protected area can provide local communi-
             strategy. For instance, Parks Canada is currently            ties, decision-makers, and other stakeholders with a
             designing a network of Marine National Conserva-             defined arena in which to promote effective manage-
             tion Areas to represent each of the 29 distinct              ment-a sense of place, as it were.
             ecoregions (based on large-scale biophysical units) of
             Canada's Atlantic, Great Lakes, Pacific, and Arctic          Table 1. Relationship between marine protected area
             coasts. The long-term goal of this program is to             objectives, size, and design complexity.
             establish a protected area in each region. Similarly,
             the federal government of Australia is developing a          Specific MPA Objective   Relative Size       Complexity
             strategy for establishing a National Representative          Protecting an Endangered Small to Medium      Simple
             System within Australian Coastal and Marine                  Species
             Environments. In designing such a system, site               Protecting a Migratory  Large (or Network) Simple to Complex
                                                                           pecies
             selection will be guided by representativeness,              Protecting Habitat from    Medium             Simple
             opportunity, and redundancy (meaning that the                - ingle Threat
             government's policy is to designate more than one            Protecting Habitat from Medium to Large      Complex
             protected area per representative habitat type).             Multiple Threats
             Other national efforts are currently underway. In            Preventing Overfishing      Small             Simple
             fact, the 1995 publication of the Great Barrier Reef         Enhancing Stocks        Small to Medium       Simple
             Marine Park Authority, the World Bank, and IUCN,             Protecting an Area of Historic Small          Simple
             which is the most comprehensive overview of                  or Cultural Interest
             existing marine protected areas and gaps in coverage,        Providing a CZM Modelor Small to Medium   Somewhat Complex
             strongly urges all countries to establish such repre-        Empowering Local Peope
                                                                          Promoting Marine            Small             Simple
             sentative networks (Kelleher et al., 1995).                  Ecotourism
                                                                          Providing Site(s) for       Small             Simple
             Conflict resolution is the other major driving force         Scientific Research
             behind the establishment of networks or systems of           Conserving Biodiversity Large (or Network) Simple to Complex
             reserves or protected areas. Virtually all the world's
             coasts and nearshore areas are characterized by              Scientific information on biomass, dispersal patterns,
             conflict between and among user groups or jurisdic-          recruitment dynamics, trophic interactions, and
             tional agencies, or at a minimum a serious lack of           critical habitat are all needed for designing the size,
             communication between these factions. Shipping               shape, and management of marine protected areas.
             and mineral extraction, for instance, often conflict         But what is needed first and foremost, and what is
             with recreational use of coastal areas. Fishing, both        most often overlooked when the process of establish-
             commercial and subsistence, conflicts with skin and          ing a marine protected area is initiated, is informa-
             scuba diving and nature-based tourism. In such               tion on what the protected area is being established
             cases of conflict, zoning can be used to accommodate         to achieve. This goal-setting or objective elaboration

                                                                                                                                   53






                  Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                  is critical in order to determine expectations, effec-         more generally (e.g. Agardy, 1997). An ideal situa-
                  tively design the reserve, and have in place targets           tion seems to be the establishment of harvest refugia
                  and benchmarks against which progress towards the              within the context of a larger multiple-use protected
                  objectives can be measured. Thus, the most crucial             area such as a coastal biosphere reserve, marine
                  information for protected areas is inherently societal,        sanctuary, or other large-scale marine protected area.
                  and not scientific. Table 1 suggests how reserve
                  design and management can be a function of the                 Fishers, nations, and indeed the entire biosphere can
                  specific objectives that the protected area is trying to       benefit from the establishment of marine protected
                  target.                                                        areas at all scales and in all coastal environments. As
                                                                                 noted above, the rationale for marine protected area
                  We now know that marine protected areas can be                 establishment is no longer lacking -but the courage
                  designed to help make fisheries and coastal manage-            to go forward is often hard to summon. Despite
                  ment more effective. In the last 5 years, new, rigor-          incomplete knowledge and imprecise science, steps
                  ous, and defensible evidence has emerged to show               must be taken to establish protected areas now-and
                  that marine protected areas do indeed improve fish             use the additional information we gain as time goes
                  yields while conserving biological diversity more              on to alter these reserves, remove superfluous ones,
                  generally. These benefits have included increased              and add new reserves. By clearly defining objectives
                  fish stock size inside the reserve as well as spillover        and using science to design the best possible plans
                  effects in which fish populations have also increased          for meeting those objectives, we can improve our
                  outside the reserve (Roberts, 1995). One of the most           management of marine activities before the health of
                  cited examples of this spillover effect has been the           the seas is compromised and with it the ability of
                  work of Russ and Alcala (1996; 1997) in the Philip-            marine systems to provide us with the resources and
                  pines, where a small protected area in Apo Island              services upon which we increasingly depend.
                  was shown to increase fish yields well outside the
                  boundaries of the reserve less than a decade after its         Literature Cited
                  establishment. Other marine protected areas that
                  appear successful in helping manage fisheries                  Agardy, T. 1993. The Science of Conservation in the
                  include Kenyan refuges (McClanahan and Kaunda-                 Coastal Zone: New Insights on How to Design, Implement
                  Arara, 1996; McClanahan and Shafir, 1990); New                 and Monitor Marine Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland.
                  Zealand fishery reserves (Ballantine, 1991,1995;
                  McCormick and Choat, 1987); several Mediterranean              Agardy, T. 1994. Advances in marine conservation:
                  reserves (Dugan and Davis, 1993); invertebrate                 the role of marine protected areas. Trends in Ecology
                  reserves in Chile (Castilla and Duran, 1985); coral            and Evolution 9(7):267-270.
                  reef reserves throughout the Caribbean (Rakitin and
                  Kramer, 1996; Reynard, 1994; Roberts and Polunin,              Agardy, T. 1997. Marine Protected Areas and Ocean
                  1991); Red Sea reserves (Roberts and Polunin, 1992);           Conservation. R.E. Landes Press, Austin, TX
                  and fisheries zones in Florida (Bohnsack, 1996a,
                  1996b), inter alia.                                            Allison, G., J. Lubchenco, and M. Carr. 1998. Marine
                                                                                 reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine
                  A summary of published literature and anecdotal                conservation. Ecological Appications 8(1) supplement:
                  information shows that marine protected areas have             S79-S92.
                  yielded the following quantifiable benefits
                  (Ruckelhaus, in Florida Forum Report #1, 1997): 1)             Ballantine, W. 1991. Marine reserves for New
                  increase in abundance of reef fish and invertebrates;          Zealand. Leigh Laboratory Bulletin 25.
                  2)increase in individual size/age; 3) increase in
                  reproductive output; 4) increase in species diversity;         Ballantine, W. 1995. The practicality and benefits of a
                  5) increase in spillover; 6) increase in replenishment;        marine reserve network. In: Gimbel, K. (ed.), Limited
                  7) increase in preservation of genetic and demo-               Access to Marine Fisheries: Keeping the Focus on Conser-
                  graphic diversity; and 8) increase in habitat quality          vation. World Wildlife Federation, Washington, DC.
                  and diversity. All of these factors increase the               pp. 205-223.
                  potential for fisheries production and yields (Roberts
                  and Polunin, 1993). There are even more examples of            Bohnsack, J. 1996a. Marine reserves, zoning, and the
                  successful marine protected areas that have enhanced           future of fishery management. Fisheries 21(9):14-16.
                  fish stocks through broader conservation measures
                  aimed at protecting habitat and biological diversity


                  54







                                                                                    Rends, in Managing the Environment

             Bohnsack, J. 1996b. Maintenance and recovery of reef         Reynard, Y. 1994. Resolving conflicts for integrated
             fishery productivity. In: Polunin, N. and Roberts, C.        coastal management: the case of Soufriere, St. Lucia.
             (eds.), Reef Fisheries. Chapman & Hall, London. Ch.          Caribbean Parks and Protected Areas Bulletin 5(2):5-7.
             11.
                                                                          Roberts, C. 1995. Rapid build-up of fish biomass in a
             Caddy, J. and G. Sharp. 1986. An Ecological Framework        Caribbean marine reserve. Conservation Biology 9(4):
             for Marine Fishery Investigations. FAO Fisheries             815-826.
             Technical Paper 382.
                                                                          Roberts, C. 1997. Connectivity and the design of marine
             Castilla, J. and L. Duran. 1985. Human exclusion             reserve networks. Presented at the symposium "Ma-
             from the rocky intertidal zone of Central Chile: the         rine Conservation Biology: Application to Protected
             effects of Concholepas concholepa (Gastropoda).              Areas," Society of Conservation Biology Annual
             Oikos 45:391-399.                                            Meeting, June 1997, Victoria.

             Dayton, P., S. Thrush, T. Agardy and R. Hofman.              Roberts, C. and N. Polunin. 1991. Are marine re-
             1995. Environmental effects of marine fishing. Aquatic       serves effective in management of reef fisheries?
             Conservation of Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 5:1-        Review of Fisheries Biology, Fisheries 1:65-91.
             28.
                                                                          Roberts, C. and N. Polunin. 1992. Effects of marine
             Dugan, J. and G. Davis. 1993. Applications of marine         reserve protection on Northern Red Seafish populations.
             refugia to coastal fisheries management. Canadian            Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef
             Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 50:2029-2042.       Symposium, Vol. 2:969-977.

             Florida Forum Report #1. 1997. Marine reserves and           Roberts, C. and N. Polunin. 1993. Marine reserves:
             special management areas. Florida Institute of Oceanog-      simple solutions to managing complex fisheries?
             raphy, Jacksonville, FL.                                     Ambio 222(6):363-368.

             Gubbay, S. (ed.). 1995. Marine Protected Areas: Prin-        Russ, G. and A. Alcala. 1996. Marine reserves: Rates
             ciples and Techniquesfor Management. Chapman and             and patterns of recovery and decline of large preda-
             Hall, London, UK.                                            tory fish. Ecolical Applications 6(3): 947-961.

             Hatcher, B., R. Johannes, and A. Robinson. 1989.             Russ, G. and A. Alcala. 1997. Do marine reserves export
             Review of the research relevant to the conservation of       adultfish biomass? Evidencefrom Apo Island, Central
             shallow tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanography             Philippines. MEP,
             and Marine Biology 27:337-414.
                                                                          Steele, J. 1974. The Structure of Marine Ecosystems.
             Kelleher, G., C. Bleakley and S. Wells. 1995. A Global       Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA.
             Representative System of Marine Protected Areas.
             Publication of The World Bank.                               Valdes-Pizzini, M. 1995. La Parguera marine fishery
                                                                          reserve: involving the fishing community in planning
             Lauck, T., C. Clark, M. Mangel and G. Munro. 1998.           a marine protected area. Caribbean Parks and Protected
             Implementing the precautionary principle in fisheries        Areas Bulletin 5 (2):2-3.
             management through marine reserves. Ecological
             Applications 8(1) supplement: S72-S78.

             McClanahan, T. and B. Kaunda-Arara. 1996. Fishery
             recovery in a coral-reef marine park and its effect on
             the adjacent fishery. Conservation Biology 10:1187-1199.

             McClanahan, T. and S. Shafir. 1990. Causes and
             consequences of sea urchin abundance and diversity
             in Kenyan coral reef lagoons. Oecologia 83:362-370.

             Ratkitin, A. and D. Kramer. 1996. Effect of a marine
             reserve on the distribution of coral reef fishes in
             Barbados. Marine Ecology Progress Series 131:97-113.

                                                                                                                                  55








                              3. Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


             Panel Threefocused on recent trends in coastal and ocean industries and the responses to these
             trends. One key trend has been an increase in the size of ships involved in the rapidly growing
             maritime industry. Another trend has been the exploration and development of oil and natural gas
             from deeper waters in coastal and ocean areas. Overfishing is yet another important development in
             coastal areas during the past 25 years. As coastal industries grow and expand, an assessment of the
             economic importance of coastal areas is also required, including the importance of beach and boating
             activities. Recent trends in marine aquaculture show that it has the potential to become a major
             growth industry in the United States. However, the industry is still very young, and is constrained
             by legal and regulatory concerns. The marine environment is also a rich source of unique chemical
             compounds with the potentialfor industrial development as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional
             supplements, molecular probes, enzymes,fine chemicals, and agrichemicals.

                           Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure Implications
                                             Rod Vulovic, Sea-Land Service, Inc.

                    Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportunities and Future Challenges
                                            Paul L. Kelly, Rowan Companies, Inc.

                               Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing Industry
                            Pietro Parravano, Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations

                            Assessing the Economic Benefits of       America's Coastal Regions
                                        Howard Marlowe, American Coastal Coalition

                                 A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United States
               Rick Lydecker and Margaret Podlich, Boat Owners Association of the United States (BOATIUS)

               Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current and Future Policy and Management
                                                         Challenges
                                  M. Richard DeVoe, South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium

                      Offshore Marine Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
                                              Legal and Regulatory Concerns
                                             Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick**
                                 *University of Maine School of Law, "University of Delaware

                                  The Potential for the Marine Biotechnology Industry
                            Shirley A. Pomponi, Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Florida







                                                                                                                 57







                                                                           Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                                         CHANGING SHIP TECHNOLOGY AND PORT
                                                INFRASTRUCTURE IMPLICATIONS


                                                                 Rod Vulovic
                                                           Sea-Land Service, Inc.


              The Changing Face of World Trade                             The importance of this to the people of the world is
                                                                           that fully 90 percent of international trade is carried
              An anonymous seer once stated that world trade is            by sea. To and from the United States alone, the
              the engine that drives civilization. How right he            yearly waterborne foreign trade amounts to over 1
              was! The closing 100 years of the second millennium          billion tons, having a value of more than $ 625
              have seen world trade grow astonishingly.                                                     billion. Tankers, bulk
              With this growth, not only have trade                                                         carriers, container
              patterns and the types of cargoes changed                                                     ships, and other
              radically, but the ships that carry the goods          ... fully 90 percent of                vessels all share the
              have changed almost beyond recognition.                                                       enormous tonnage,
                                                                     international trade is
              Today's cargo-handling methods bear not                                                       using the same
              the slightest resemblance to what had been             carried by sea.                        waterways, the same
              there before. The key to the change?                                                          navigational aids, the
              Containerization, intermodalism and                                                           same ports.
              globalization-interlocked concepts that are much
              more than fashionable epithets.                              Of the port users, the container vessel is the most
                                                                           time-sensitive. High value cargoes demand expe-
              Before the advent of the container, world trade was a        dited handling, which requires coordinated actions
              piecemeal undertaking, with the land and sea                 by ship operators, port authorities, landside trans-
              segments accomplished in isolation, with little              port organizations, and regulatory and support
              coordination between the various independent                 agencies. Nearly 15 million TEU of container cargo is
              operations. The shipowner accepted the cargo when            handled through American ports per year, over half
              it arrived at the pier. Shipper and recipient alike did      of which moves through the five largest ports. The
              not expect, nor could they even envision'    so-called       mandate of the American people to keep this cargo
              "just-in-time" service. That luxury was simply not           flowing is clear.
              available, and the en-route delays, which were a part
              of the transport system, were an unavoidable part of         Trade and its Effect upon Ship Size
              doing business internationally.
                                                                           In addition to the radical change in the way cargo is
              All of this has changed. Sea-Land's initial voyages          handled, there is another evolutionary force that has
              over 40 years ago proved the feasibility of container        significantly affected international trade over the past
              transport, revolutionizing the movement of goods by          five decades since the end of World War 11. World
              allowing the land and sea portions to function as a          trade has escalated as the population of the world
              system. Within these four decades, this technological        has risen.
              and commercial breakthrough has resulted in the
              near demise throughout the world of the break-bulk           The net effect of the market forces has been to
              ship, in which cargo was stowed virtually by hand, a         challenge technology in the development of increas-
              practice which had existed almost without change for         ingly economic methods of moving cargo. In respect
              hundreds of years.                                           to this, engineers have responded by devising
                                                                           entirely new vessel types and expanding the frontiers
              Today's container ship is the linch-pin of cargo             of deadweight tonnage and speed. The result has
              transportation, but it is only a part of the total system    been an ocean transportation system, that is able to
              which includes sophisticated shoreside terminals,            carry the vastly increased amount of cargo swiftly
              intermodal extensions to inland points by rail and           and safely.
              highway, and automated information systems that
              track a shipment throughout its journey.                     The pioneering container ships could carry only 59
                                                                           containers having a length of 35 feet and stacked
                                                                           two-high on deck. Once this seemingly radical idea

                                                                                                                                   59







                Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                of carrying boxes by ship had been proven suffi-              ity. For such a ship to become a viable reality may
                ciently in the coastwise trade, the first true container      require a complete rethinking of the way containers
                ships, having cellular holds into which containers            are handled to- and from the ship as well as to and
                were loaded by cranes came into being.                                                              from-and within
                Their capacity was around 200 TEU -the
                                                                                                                    the shoreside
                                                                                                                    terminals.
                designation "TEU" (for twenty-foot                                   '700TEU&6'
                                                                                dZ
                equivalent units) being the standard
                measure of capacity adopted by the                                                                  Although the
                                                                                                                    ship may be
                industry.                                                                r, wh
                                                                                                                    technologically
                                                                                   @@l   feet (347,
                Through the 1960s and 1970s vessel                                                                  feasible, there
                                                                                         n,
                capacity grew, individually and collec-                                    gth-alh)ost              must be a level of
                tively, as European and Far Eastern ship                                                            trade sufficient to
                                                                                     ,M#e; or,'         e
                                                                   ,F@
                operators, following the lead of their              ""Pol pull                "nearl.               support such a
                                                                                                       Y
                American counterparts, realized that the                                                            vessel. Of equal
                                                                                0         fib        '6nd
                container revolution had indeed taken                  fo                                           or greater impor-
                                                                            &
                place. During the latter part of this            '*,Vhd@sd b6om of             46 re
                                                                                                       Vt           tance, there must
                period, container ships of around 2000 to                     Meters).                              be shoreside
                2500 TEU were becoming more prevalent
                                                                                                                    facilities to match
                on the major trade routes. Size gradually                                               "a,         its capacity. The
                crept upwards over the next 10or 15 years                                                           major problem is
                as did the quantity of trade in container cargo.   In the     the need to minimize port time (There is a truism that
                late 1980s the 4000 TEU barrier in ship size had been         a transportation asset, whether ship, aircraft, rail car,
                crossed. The next phase, the age of the mega-                 or truck must be in motion to assure its economic
                container ship, came rapidly once that point had              survival) In addition, and of great importance, the
                been reached.                                                 harbor waters, berths, and approach channels must
                                                                              be of sufficient depth and the berths themselves must
                The Mega-Container Ship is Unveiled                           be large enough and properly equipped to handle the
                                                                              larger (longer, wider, and deeper) vessel.
                The definition of the mega-container ship has
                changed in lock step with the construction of larger          In the case of this mega-container ship, the terminal
                and larger vessels. in the mid-1980s, when United             must have sufficient area to accommodate the larger
                States Lines built its "Jumbo Econ" container ships           number of boxes that will accumulate before the ship
                (now owned by Sea-Land as its Atlantic Class), their          arrives and as she is being discharged and loaded;
                4354-TEU capacity was classified in the 'mega"                crane capacity (in terms of both the number of cranes
                region. Today, "mega-container ship" describes only           and their cycle time) must be sufficient to minimize
                those vessels having a capacity in excess of 6000 TEV         port stays; and, needless to say, the requirements for
                and the definition changes as each new generation of          sufficient water depth and appropriate vessel berths
                vessels is delivered.                                         must be considered.


                Around 7700 TEU are carried on today's mega-                  We believe that we have not seen the practicable
                carrier, which is about 1138 feet (347 meters) in             upper limit of container ship size in the 7000-TEU
                length-almost a quarter mile, or, in the popular              plus vessels now in existence. An eventual ceiling
                idiom, nearly "four football fields"- and has a beam          might be found around the 10,000 to 12,000 TEU
                of 140 feet (42.8 meters). The container stack is 17          level. Market forces will continue to influence the
                wide.                                                         evolution of the system as long as it moves in a way
                                                                              that continues to provide improvements in cost,
                Future Trends in Ship Size                                    reliability@ and speed and customer satisfaction.

                For several years, designs have been available for            The Question of Water Depth
                vessels with capacities of up to about 8700 TEU. The
                                                                                             Ids
                                                                                              I
































                design and construction of such vessels is well within        One aspect of the mega-container ship, that must be
                the state of the art. In fact, a consensus among              faced by ship operators and port authorities alike is
                shipbuilders and ship operators is that a container           the water depth required to permit these vessels to
                ship able to load 15,000 TEU may well be a possibil-          operate efficiently. In the Far East and Europe, the


                60







                                                                                Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                 problem of water depth is not a serious one at most            What Is Intermodalism?
                 major ports, and where controlling depths are
                 marginally satisfactory, steps are taken to ensure that        The term intermodalism is heard with increasing
                 a safe environment is available for the ships serving          frequency in the 1990s, but the concept has been a
                 the ports concerned. Under-keel clearance of not less          driving force in container transportation since the
                 than one meter (slightly more than Y-Y) is available,          beginning. Intermodalism may be defined as the
                 at any state of the tide.                                      ability of a transportation system to move freight
                                                                                from source to destination over a number of modes
                 A 50-foot deep channel would accommodate nearly                without intercession by shipper or consignee. In
                 all container ships now in existence. As ship capacity         other words, a container may originate in an inland
                 increases to 8000 and 10,000 TEU, the required water           point in the United States, travel over road and rail to
                 depth will not increase proportionally. This is due to         a port, then by ship to a port, perhaps on another
                 other changes in the configuration of the vessels. For         continent, and thence by rail and road to the final
                 example, they will be wider-up to 22 containers from           destination, all without touching the cargo within the
                 the current maximum of 17 and they will be longer.             container.

                 The question of how to achieve sufficient water                The concept is simple, its execution, difficult. The
                 depth is a vexing one for many U. S. ports, particu-           container must move swiftly and connect at each
                 larly on the East Coast. There must be found a way             modal change point speedily, but of even greater
                 around the fiscal, environmental, and other road-              importance is for the transportation company to
                 blocks that are thrown in the way of port progress.            assure that the sometimes complex and burdensome
                 To do otherwise is to steer the nation irrevocably             paperwork which follows the box is processed with
                 towards second-class statehood.                                dispatch. This is of importance with any domestic
                                                                                shipment involving road and rail modes only, but the
                 Environmental Impact of the Mega-Carrier                       value of true intermodalism is tested in international
                                                                                shipments, where customs documentation adds
                 Much has been said of the economic superiority of              another layer to the complexity of the process.
                 the mega-container carrier in terms of cost of trans-
                 portation per TEU-mile. The mega-carrier also                  For intermodalism to have existed in the former
                 displays an increasingly important characteristic              regulatory climate in the United States was nearly
                 which may directly affect air quality. In an opera-            impossible. Dating back to the mindset of the
                 tional environment in which the contribution to                "robber baron" days of the late 19th Century, it was
                 atmospheric pollution by marine sources is coming              not possible under law for a transportation company
                 under closer scrutiny (even though the total release           to operate in more that one mode. For this reason,
                 of exhaust gases from all marine sources accounts for          when the Founder of Sea-Land Service, Malcolm
                 a small percentage of the worldwide total release),            McLean, started his marine container business, he
                 the operation of a mega-carrier will result in, a              was forced to divest himself of his extensive trucking
                 measurably lower release of pollutant gases than               interests, which, of course, could have formed an
                 from an equivalent transportation capacity in smaller          important part of an early intermodal system.
                 ships.
                                                                                This and similar cases are typical examples of
                 Given the much improved fuel efficiency of modern              existing regulatory processes being unable to recog-
                 ships, the relatively small contribution to air pollu-         nize and adjust to innovative change and, more
                 tion from marine sources, and the continuing re-               importantly, not being able to ameliorate the legisla-
                 search to improve engine performance, we believe               tive morass that is encountered when innovative
                 that the shipowner is doing his part to keep the               change is encountered.
                 spectre of fouled air under reasonable control.
                                                                                Seamless Transport Ashore and Afloat: The
                 In the other significant marine environmental                  Intermodal Pipeline
                 concern-the discharge of oil into navigable waters-a
                 continuing effort by all players is resulting in mea-          An intermodal cargo transportation system between
                 surable improvement.                                           continents may be likened to a pipeline. To run at
                                                                                peak efficiency with maximum throughput, the
                                                                                pipeline must offer minimum resistance to flow. This
                                                                                is accomplished by utilizing proven design and


                                                                                                                                          61







               7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               construction practices. It must also be free of operat-     The Ideal Container Port
               ing constrictions such as partially closed valves.
                                                                           Commercial waterside land is increasingly under
               In the intermodal case, the features designed into the      pressure as the beautifters of the world lay claim to
               system include ships of a size, seakeeping ability, and     more and more of this valuable commodity through
               speed properly considered for reliable operation,           gentrification, preservation, zoning changes, designa-
               logically located ports; efficient rail and highway         tion as wildlife areas, and other artifices. Elsewhere
               transport; and efficient and unobtrusive regulatory         in the world, land reclamation has been used with
               formalities. In the ideal operation of such a system,       great success to provide port acreage. In this country,
               the cargo will flow into the source location and be         such an approach would likely be greeted with
               carried to the final destination through several            dismay, anger, and no small measure of "not in my
               changes of mode (e.g., truck to rail to ship to rail to     backyard" attitude.
               truck) as if, in a manner of speaking, all valves were
               fully open.                                                 Where, then, can and should a port be located?
                                                                           Ideally, the time-sensitive nature of container-based
               But in actual operation, the intermodal pipeline is         liner services, where departures are regulated by the
               susceptible to the partial closing of too many valves,      clock, calls for the landside terminal to be as close to
               at least one of which may be present-and poised all         the open sea as possible, but with easy connections to
               too ready to close-at each change of mode. What             the rail and highway portions of the system. The
               valves are likely to close?                                 container port need not be in the middle of a metro-
                                                                           politan area as was the case in the 19th Century, but
               ï¿½  The first valve is accessibility of the port from the    it should not be too far distant from significant local
                  open sea. Can the port terminals be reached              markets.
                  without the need for a long inland passage by the
                  ship?                                                    Finally, the container port should have its own
                                                                           support infrastructure, should be distant from
               ï¿½  Next, is the port appropriately located for              residential areas (but not so far away as to create
                  transfer of cargo to the rail or highway mode?           manning difficulties), and should not result in
                  Do these connections have easy access to remote          unduly great competition with other vessel types for
                  destinations? Is there a significant local market?       access channels, anchorage, and support facilities.
                  Is there a ready source of personnel to man the
                  terminals?                                               The Protection of Local Waters Through Ballast
                                                                           Water Exchange
               ï¿½  Of significant concern is the question of terminal
                  expandability. Can this be accomplished, consid-         An increasingly important problem in ship operation
                  ering the probable expansion of world trade in           is the possibility of introducing foreign animal
                  the future?                                              species into an area in ballast water, that has been
                                                                           carried from another part of the world and dis-
               ï¿½  Has the port sufficient water depth, in channels         charged. This was first noted on the Great Lakes
                  and alongside the berths, to permit the safe and         with the zebra mussel, but other species have ap-
                  efficient movement of the largest ships which are        peared in various locations around the world.
                  likely to enter the port? What are the prospects
                  for future increases in water depth? Of much             A number of solutions have been proposed, all of
                  greater importance, can the ship operator be             which have positive and negative features. One of
                  assured that the water depths can and will be            the most promising is ballast water exchange, in
                  maintained over the long term?                           which water taken aboard in one port is discharged
                                                                           into the open sea and replaced with deep-ocean
               ï¿½  Is there sufficient length of berthing area fitted       water as the ship proceeds to her destination. The
                  with container cranes to accommodate the                 key to the success of this practice is to ensure that the
                  perceived normal maximum throughput without              safety of the vessel in terms of stability is not com-
                  causing an inordinately long queue of vessels            promised at any time during the transfer.
                  waiting to berth?
                                                                           Other ideas include chemical treatment aboard the
                  Is all necessary documentation and information           vessel and the discharge of ballast into holding tanks
                  existing, accurate, and available when needed?           ashore, both of which appear to have significantly


               62







                                                                                Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                greater operational challenges. The former would                Regular maintenance dredging must be carried out
                require additional equipment and an additional task             as necessary. We hear too frequently of areas, that
                aboard the ship and the latter a complex shoreside              have become shoaled in the wake of competition for
                installation.                                                   the appropriation of funds. This problem must be
                                                                                removed from the political arena.
                The problem of rogue species is solveable, but the
                implementation of a workable way to avoid the                   The charting of waters throughout the port and its
                problem will take dedication on the part of all parties         approaches must be undertaken with unfailing
                concerned.                                                      accuracy. Again, we hear the shipmaster's horror
                                                                                stories about uncharted obstacles, obsolete charts,
                Competition within the Port                                     and similar impediments to safe navigation. The
                                                                                advent of electronic chart displays makes the prob-
                Competition within a port between various types of              lem of keeping up-to-date charts a simpler one,
                vessels must be given consideration, particularly               provided that the argumentative discussion of
                when the mega-ship is a regular visitor. We have                electronic chart standards is solved.
                dwelled above on the mega-container ship, but there
                are other vessels, in the "mega" category, and some             The litany of concerns about in-port menaces to
                of these do compete within American ports.                      navigation includes a variety of hazards, typical of
                                                                                which are the following:
                The original mega-ships-tankers and bulk carriers
                above 250,000 dead weight tons (ships which have a              * Competition with other vessel traffic on a
                length of more than a 1,000 feet and a beam of 140                  crowded waterway.
                feet or more-are not a factor in the United States, but
                a proliferation of mega-cruise ships is being seen in           0   Narrow and/or tortuous waterways.
                American waters, primarily in the Southeastern ports
                which serve the Caribbean region. Some of these                 0   Channels with insufficient water depth.
                vessels approach the largest of the tankers and bulk
                carriers in physical size.                                      0   Extreme tidal variations or local current prob-
                                                                                    lems.
                Not to be forgotten are the smaller ships which
                traverse the waters of many ports, including recre-             0   En route physical hazards on the surface, such as
                ational and fishing vessels, towboats, and flotillas of             the presence of bridges.
                barges, ferries and other vessels which must also use
                these waterway. The question of competition is not              0   En route submerged man-made hazards, such as
                so much one of priority as of having a common right                 the presence of pipelines or underwater cables.
                of way, much as exists on the landside highway
                system.                                                         0   Limited overhead clearance (air draft).

                A Plea for Safe Navigation                                      0   Local regulations prohibiting night arrivals and
                                                                                    departures.
                From the shipowner's viewpoint, the safe operation
                of a container port is built around three issues: an            0   Frequent weather-related delays caused by fog or
                efficient vessel traffic control system, regular mainte-            ice.
                nance dredging of berths and channels as the need
                arises, and unfailing accuracy in the charting of all           Some of these hazards are to be found in every port.
                waters from the open sea to the berth.                          Some ports have more than their fair share. The
                                                                                Houston Ship Channel and the lower Mississippi
                Vessel traffic control schemes are expensive and                River, for example, offer challenges to any ship
                require continuing dedication on the part of the                visiting the ports at those waterways' ends.
                system operators. Not only should the marine
                community take a cue from the air traffic control               Although not directly a part of the port challenges,
                system, but the marine system itself should be a free-          another concern relating to navigation is the question
                standing operation in which the persons who man a               of protection of marine marnmals. The maritime
                local system should be marine professionals inti-               community is keenly aware of the importance of this
                mately familiar with the area's needs and not subject           issue and will, I am sure, continue to monitor these
                to periodic replacement.                                        environmental concerns.

                                                                                                                                          63







               Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy


               The Port: Commonweal or Private Preserve?


               A port serves much more than the ships that call
               there or population that inhabits the local area. Even
               those persons who will never smell saltwater-from
               the hard rock miner in Vanadium, New Mexico, to
               the general store owner in Ida Grove, Iowa, to the
               black dirt farmer in Issaquena County, Mississippi-
               are direct beneficiaries of the international trade
               which passes through any port. In actual fact are
               they and nearly 275 million others not the real
               owners of the American port system?

               The provision and maintenance of facilities for the
               common carriage of freight has long been a responsi-
               bility of government. Although it is realized that the
               user has his own responsibility in respect to this-his
               own terminal and facilities, whether owned or
               leased, for example-the fact remains that, because the
               port itself is there for the commonweal, an equitable
               method of public funding on behalf of the real
               owners must be considered.


               Those persons in New Mexico and Iowa and Missis-
               sippi are the owners of the national parks, the
               monuments and activities in our nation's capital, and
               untold other aspects of life, and they benefit in an
               intangible way from all of these. They, too, benefit
               from the ports in a much more discernable manner.

               Concluding Remarks: The Challenge

               The challenges facing the shipowner and the port
               operator are certainly real. For the nation to ignore
               the needs of the ports in this increasingly competi-
               tive, globally oriented world of commerce equates, as
               I mentioned earlier, to the acceptance of second-class
               statehood.


               We sincerely believe that with a continuing dialogue
               among the port users, the operating authorities, the
               support and regulatory organizations (be they local,
               state or federal-such as customs authorities, pilots,
               police and public safety groups), and government,
               solutions will be found to the problems and the
               challenges that confront us. The road ahead may
               present a difficult journey, but the goal of building a
               cargo pipline, with fully open valves, will be reached.

               My closing thoughts turn to a parable totally unre-
               lated to maritime commerce: the metric system. The
               United States is one of three nations, which, after
               nearly a century of domestic debate, does not use
               metric measurements. The others are Liberia and
               Myanmar. Question: Is this where we belong?


               64







                                                                              Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


                            DEEPWATER OFFSHORE OIL DEVELOPMENT: OPPORTUNITIES
                                                       AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

                                                                   Paul L. Kelly
                                                            Rowan Companies, Inc.


               introduction                                                   feet of water, which would have been unimaginable a
                                                                              generation ago. Exploration wells have been drilled
               As we move into the next millennium, a larger                  in almost 8,000 feet of water and 10,000 feet seems
               percentage of oil and natural gas will come from the           within reach. There are at least 8 known fields at
               oceans. The United States has a significant opportu-           depths exceeding 1,500 feet of water with I billion
               nity to influence the future course of events from             barrels or more of oil in place. These are located
               both a private sector and government perspective               offshore 5 countries- the United States, Brazil,
               and guarantee that                                                         Nigeria, Cabinda, and Angola. In all,
               there will be secure                                                       there have been 52 deepwater discoveries
               access to this                  Petroleum production                       in the U.S. Gulf, 20 offshore Brazil, and 17
               important source of                                                        offshore West Africa, for a combined total
               energy in the years             from offshore federal                      of almost 23 billion barrels of oil equiva-
               ahead.                          lands currently ac-                        lent. Much of this technology can be used
                                               counts for 20 percent                      in other ocean exploration endeavors and
               Extraction of                   of our oil production                      in scientific research, as well as in non-
               petroleum resources                                                        ocean fields such as communications and
               from beneath the                and 27 percent of                          medicine.
               seabed is a major               domestic natural gas
               maritime activity in            production.                                Subsalt Plays
               the Gulf of Mexico,
               offshore southern                                            ------        The same 3D seismic technology that has
               California, and in                                                         enabled oil and gas explorers to look into
               some regions of Alaska. Petroleum production from              ever-deeper water at deeper geological targets has
               offshore federal lands currently accounts for 20               also enabled improvement in subsalt imaging in the
               percent of our oil production and 27 percent of                Gulf of Mexico. Approximately 60 percent of the
               domestic natural gas production. The offshore oil              ocean floor in the Gulf contains salt structures
               and gas industry, including the support services               beneath it which, until the advent of this new tech-
               sector, provides Americans with approximately                  nology, kept us from seeing potential hydrocarbon-
               85,000 well-paying jobs, a number which                                                           bearing structures
               is likely to more than double in the next                                                         below them. The
               two decades. Oil production in the Gulf                                                           subsalt play in the
               of Mexico, where there is a high level of              Oil production ln@ the,                 i  Gulf holds excellent
               industry interest and activity in waters               Gulf of 'Mexico, where                     potential for signifi-
               as deep as 8,000 to 10,000 feet, is ex-                                                           cant new finds and
                                                                      there Is a high le' I of
               pected to double by the year 2002.                                                                perhaps a number of
               Revenues from OCS oil and gas develop-                 industry interest, and                     giant fields. Only 44
               ment generate an average of $3-4 billion               activity In waters as'                     wildcat wells have
               a year in federal receipts and help fund               deep as 8, 000 to 10, WO                   been drilled in the
               the Land and Water Conservation Fund                                                              subsalt compared to
                                                                      fedt- 1@ e@xpect6d,6 1,           ,-
               and the National Historic Preservation                                                            more than 600
               Fund.                                                  double by the                              wildcats in the Gulf's
                                                                                            Year
                                                                I-    2002.@'                                    deepwater.
               Deepwater Successes                                                                               Anadarko
                                                                                                                 Petroleum's discov-
               Offshore petroleum production is a major technologi- eries last year at Tanzanite and Hickory represent
               cal triumph. New exploration, drilling, and produc-            important new oil and gas discoveries in the shal-
               tion-related technologies have brought about world-            lower waters of the Gulf, and similar potential
               record complex industrial projects in 3,000 to 5,000           discoveries lie in deeper water.

                                                                                                                                          65







               7@-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               Safety and the Environment                                 some flexibility to deal with changing international
                                                                          conditions or evolving domestic conditions and
               Advances in technology and pacesetting safety              attitudes.
               management systems have also contributed to an
               improved Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) safety and          Global Leadership
               environmental record. Over the past 20 years, less
               than 0.001 percent of the oil produced from the OCS        As exploration of the ocean for hydrocarbons
               has been spilled from production facilities. There has     globalizes, the U.S. private sector and goverm-nent
               not been a spill larger than 1,000 barrels from oil and    have an unparalleled opportunity to lead the world
               gas platforms on the Outer Continental Shelf since         in terms of management, technology, and our ability
               1980; in fact, natural seeps introduce approximately       to demonstrate how to extract these resources in an
               100 times more oil into U.S. marine waters than do         environmentally sound manner for the benefit of all
               spills from offshore development and production            mankind.
               activities. Today industry, the Department of the
               Interior's Minerals Management Service, and the U.S.       Benefits of Offshore Oil Technologyfor Other Ocean
               Coast Guard are working in partnership to raise the        Research and Activities
               bar for environmental and safety performance even
               higher.                                                    In 1998, we experienced a mini-boom in state-of-the-
                                                                          art mobile offshore drilling rig construction. Rigs
               Moving beyond Conflict to Consensus; Extension of          delivered last year cost around $1.2 billion; rigs on
               Moratoria Premature                                        order or planned will cost their owners at least an
                                                                          additional $12 billion, an average cost of $205
               Under the past two administrations, the Minerals           million per unit. New construction will peak in 1999
               Management Service (MMS) in the Department of              at 34 deliveries, then taper off to almost nothing as
               the Interior has committed itself to resolve conflicts     rig demand reacts to continuing low oil prices.
               raised in connection with OCS oil and gas develop-         Research done for such facilities on subjects such as
               ment and build a consensus among stakeholders as           composite materials, synthetic mooring lines, and
               to where, when, and how activities should proceed.         other topics targeted at reducing the weight of
               A parallel theme has been science-based decision-          materials in deep water should benefit many sectors
               making. This approach is being used in the current         in the marine environment. An industry /government
               1997-2002 five-year OCS leasing program, and our           coalition known as "Deep Star" has spent more than
               coastal state administrations seem to be much more         $6 million in research on deepwater technology
               satisfied with the degree of communication and             challenges in the last few years.
               consideration that now exists between the federal
               government and the states regarding OCS oil and gas        Parallel developments have occurred in the offshore
               policy. For this reason, I believe it was premature for    service vessel fleet, where new deep-draft, very large,
               President Clinton last June, at the National Ocean         high-horsepower anchor handling/tug /supply
               Conference held in Monterey California, to extend          vessels have evolved to move these large new
               OCS moratoria beyond 2000. We should have let              sophisticated drilling rigs, handle their anchors,
               these consensus-building policies work and evalu-          chain and mooring lines, and meet all kinds of
               ated their success before extending moratoria further.     service demands of the new generation of deepwater
                                                                        . rigs and production platforms.
               Another consideration is the incredible advances in
               drilling technology made over the past decade,             As stated recently in a report of the National Re-
               which make the extraction of oil and natural gas           search CounciV "ocean observations have always
               from the ocean much safer from an environmental            been the driver of new knowledge and predictive
               standpoint and much less intrusive physically. A           capabilities in the ocean and its basins. Ocean drilling
               number of the areas in moratoria contain important         has produced sediment cores that provide our best
               reserves of natural gas, which cannot be spilled and       long-term records of natural climate fluctuations.
               is more and more the fuel of choice. Moreover,             Submersible observations (both piloted and robotic)
               despite current appearances, the world will have a         opened our eyes to hydrothermal vents and the
               difficult enough time as it is supplying the energy        unique life forms that surround them." Many of the
               needs of the 7 billion citizens who will inhabit our       technological improvements enabling us to make
               planet by 2010-at least a billion more than there are      these observations are driven by the needs of oil and
               today, another China. We need to leave ourselves           gas explorers in the ocean. Certainly this is the case


               66







                                                                          Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

              with drilling, submersible vessels, and robotics.           from two or more producing zones at a single
              Much of our knowledge of seabed geology and                 facilities measurement point. This provides technical
              geomorphology is directly owing to the offshore oil         and regulatory challenges for the industry and the
              and gas industry. Just last month, a Louisiana-based        MMS as they meet their respective responsibilities to
              company announced the development of a new                  produce and measure production.
              process that gives a clearer picture of the ocean floor
              for better planning of drilling and construction. A         Deeper and colder waters create real and expensive
              new scanning sonar system collects seafloor features        problems with hydrates, paraffin, and solids build-
              data in conjunction with proprietary image enhance-         up, so much research is being done to enhance flow
              ment and analyzes software. The combination gives           assurance with solutions such as new types of
              greater definition and resolution of seafloor features      insulation materials and coiled tubing. At the same
              and hazards. Today in Houston we have a large-              time, the depths of some of the wells themselves
              screen, interactive visualization center which allows       have brought us to new pressure and temperature
              engineers and earth scientists to course through 3D         (excess of 200'C) frontiers that have to be dealt with.
              volumes of subsurface data worldwide. Also, compa-
              nies are discussing the possibility of making avail-        Multilateral completions are driving the need for
              able to the scientific community video film taken by        more sophisticated downhole production systems.
              various petroleum companies around wellheads in
              ultra-deep water for purposes of examining the              For the geophysical industry, ever deeper water,
              marine ecosystem at these depths and identifying            deeper geophysical targets, the need to get the
              organisms not previously seen. As all these examples        appropriate velocity field below salt and other
              indicate, there is much potential for acquiring             complex frontier stratigraphy present far greater
              knowledge about the ocean environment through               challenges to accurate acquisition of 3D seismic data
              more joint efforts among industry, government,              than do normal depths and geology. The technologi-
              universities, and the scientific community at large.        cal cutting edge that is reducing these obstacles to
              Today, scientists are using offshore rigs and plat-         accurate surveys is proving to be the towing of
              forms to study everything from marine organisms,            longer cables on multi-streamer programs.
              physical oceanography, and meteorological data to
              bird migration. The day is approaching when aban-           Deeper geological targets may require streamer
              doned offshore oil and gas platforms will be used for       lengths between 4,000 and 6,000 meters or more,
              aquaculture projects. A converted offshore drilling         rather than the standard lengths up to 3,600 meters.
              rig is preparing to leave Russia for Long Beach,            When four to eight streamers of the longer lengths
              California, where it will be stationed to begin its new     are towed over large areas it can be a challenge to
              life as a privately owned commercial offshore rocket        deploy them and maintain their positions.
              launch platform. Seventeen satellite launches are
              already contracted. Opportunities for the use of this       These examples should give you some idea of the
              technology are diverse and just abound!                     challenges deepwater operators are dealing with
                                                                          every day.
              Challenges Ahead
                                                                          Law of the Sea Treaty
              Before the potential of the deep water can be fully
              unlocked, there are a variety of economic, technologi-      In closing, I want to make one more point that, as
              cal, environmental, and regulatory challenges to be         petroleum exploration moves into deeper and deeper
              overcome.                                                   waters, it is important that the United States become
                                                                          a party to the Law of the Sea Treaty this would assure
              Costs reduction is a very important factor, particu-        the United States of a minimum of 200 nautical miles
              larly in the low oil price environment we are experi-       of OCS jurisdiction and establish rules and proce-
              encing currently. One of the biggest challenges is the      dures for delineating the outer limits of the geologi-
              addition of a drilling function to a floafing produc-       cal continental shelf, which in some areas extends
              tion, storage, and offloading system (FPSO) so as to        considerably farther. That component of the Treaty
              have minimum reliance on shore-based facilities.            which protects the right of both commercial and
              MMS is currently studying FPSOs for application in          military ships and aircraft to move freely through
              the deepwater Gulf of Mexico along with industry.           and over straits used for international navigation, to
              Another means of reducing costs is to operate               engage in "innocent passage" through States' territo-
              through a "hub system" which handles production             rial seas, and to enjoy high seas freedom of passage


                                                                                                                                  67






              Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

              through exclusive economic zones, also is important
              to U.S. energy security as our sources of petroleum
              globalize and diversify in the years ahead and we
              become even more dependent on secure ocean
              transportation.

              There presently exist about 200 undemarcated claims
              in the world with 30 to 40 actively in dispute. There
              are 24 island disputes. The end of the Cold War and
              global expansion of free market economies have
              created new incentives to resolve these disputes,
              particularly with regard to offshore oil and gas
              exploration. During the first 6 months of 1997, alone
              172 licenses, leases or other contracts for exploration
              rights were granted in a variety of nations outside
              the United States. These countries are eager to
              determine whether or not hydrocarbons are present
              in their continental shelves, and disputes over
              maritime boundaries are obstacles to states and
              business organizations. We have two such cases here
              in North America, where bilateral efforts are under-
              way to resolve the maritime boundaries between the
              United States. and Mexico in the Gulf of Mexico and
              between the United States. and Canada in the
              Beaufort Sea. Both of these initiatives have been
              driven by promising new petroleum discoveries in
              the regions. As I understand it, the Canadians do not
              seem to be in a hurry to resolve that boundary line.
              On the other hand, negotiations with Mexico are
              expected to resume in the spring of this year, after the
              Mexicans complete some geological analyses and
              technical research now underway.

              The Law of the Sea Convention provides stability
              and recognized international authority, standards,
              and procedures for use in areas of potential bound-
              ary dispute as well as an additional forum for
              dealing.with such disputes and other issues.




              Notes


              1 Opportunities in Ocean Sciences: Challenges on the
              Horizon, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on
              Geosciences, Environment and Resources, National
              Research Council.














              68







                                                                            Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                        CHALLENGES FACING THE U.S. COMMERCIAL FISHING INDUSTRY


                                                               Pietro Parravano
                                       Paci c Coast Federation on Fishermen's Associations


                    The Fishery Conservation & Management Act of                  which to make management decisions. Too little
                    1976 (HR 200). now referred to as the Magnuson-               emphasis was given research to determine what
                    Stevens Act, was the most significant piece of                level of exploitation (elect size and capability) the
                    fisheries legislation passed in this century. It              various fish stocks within the EEZ could sustain.
                    established,- a) U.S. control of fisheries in waters          Indeed, there was even reliance on some of the
                    offshore the nation out to 200 miles in a Fishery             self-serving research done by the foreign fleets
                    Conservation Zone (FCZ) (later incorporated by                that had operated in the EEZ.
                    President Reagan into the U.S. Exclusive Eco-
                    nomic Zone (EEZ)) - b) U.S. policy to "American-              The "Americanization" policy was one of "bigger
                    ize" the U.S. fishery with a phase-out of foreign             is better" that promoted the construction (or
                    fishing offshore the U.S. and the development of              reconstruction) of large trawlers, factory trawler/
                    a domestic fleet fully capable of harvesting the              processors, and large longlining vessels (mostly
                    fishery resources of the EEZ; and c) federal                  all of 25 meters in length or greater) through
                    management of U.S. fisheries in the EEZ through               programs of tax deferrals (Capital Construction
                    eight regional fishery management councils and                Fund) and loan guarantees- Commerce also
                    the Department of Commerce-                                   promoted management measures allocating huge
                                                                                  chunks of the catch to the large trawl and factory
                    The Fishery Conservation & Management Act                     trawl operators (in some instances Commerce
                    did contain language to "prevent overfishing," to             overruled its regional council recommendations
                    manage fisheries for "optimum yield" -imply-                  in order to allocate more quota to the large
                    ing sustainable fisheries, and "managing fisher-              operators).
                    ies throughout their range" -implying, at least
                    in the case of anadromous fish that some consid-              The "Americanization" policy as carried out by
                    eration would be given of the habitat factors                 Commerce gave short shrift to the smaller fishing
                    affecting those stocks. This language was not                 vessel operators the more traditional fisheries,
                    explicit enough, and various regional councils                and the "family fishing" vessel owner-operators.
                    and Commerce subsequently allowed overfish-                   Little, if any, financial assistance was provided
                    ing, did not manage for sustainability, and                   these fleets (as opposed to the large trawl and
                    turned a deaf ear on pleas to speak out against               longline operators) even to improve safety or
                    the dam operations, water diversions and long                 product quality. At the management level, the
                    that were decimating west coast salmon stocks.                small boat fleets lost part (sometimes all) of its
                                                                                  fishery to a reallocation to the trawlers for
                    The Maguson-Stevens Act has succeeded in                      "bycatch." In other instances the smaller, more
                    gaining U.S. control of the fisheries of the EEZ;             traditional flees were denied limited entry
                    phasing out foreign fishing and "Americanizing"               permits or had there catch levels significantly
                    (with the exception of some foreign ownership of              reduced in order to accommodate the large fleets.
                    U.S. -registered factory trawlers) the fishing fleet
                    operating in the EEZ; and developing the system               The "Americanization" policy, with its emphasis
                    of federal management of fisheries based on                   on fleet construction rather than research, has led
                    recommendations made to Commerce by the                       to a vast overcapitalization of the U.S. fleet with
                    eight management councils.                                    far more catching capacity than resource to
                                                                                  support that harvest capability. It has led to
                    The "Americanization" policy carried out                      overfishing of many species and the near total
                    following the 1976 passage of HR 200 put its                  collapse of the groundfish fishery in New
                    emphasis on building a fleet capable of harvest-              England. The policy also caused Commerce, for
                    ing the fish that were being taken by the foreign             at least 15 years following the passage of HR 200,
                    fleets as well as develop harvesting, processing              to ignore the plight of the smaller and more
                    and marketing for "underutilized fish species,                traditional fisheries and most, specifically, fail to
                    rather than developing a sound data base on                   act in a timely manner to prevent the near


                                                                                                                                        69







                Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                    extinction of some Pacific salmon species (and                 demand for fish coupled with newer and larger
                    their fisheries) from federally or state permitted             fishing vessels, many government subsidized
                    dam operations, water diversions and logging,                  and corporately owned.

                The regional council process has been fraught with                 Many of the successful efforts over the past two
                conflict. The intent of providing regional input into              decades in the U.S. aimed at sustainable fisheries
                federal fisheries management has been subverted in                 have come at the state level or from fishery and
                a number of ways.                                                           conservation non-governmental organi-
                State fishery                                                               zations (NGOs). In California, for
                managers, jealous                            5 vv@,'
                                                                                 y@         example, the effort to save that state's
                of their turf, often                                                        salmon resource has come from fishing
                act to prevent                                                                     s, not the regional councils or
                                                                                            group
                councils from              oroundthe.*'prld. ind                   " j-
                                                                                            Commerce. This is not surprising,
                                                                          ''Ing,            responsible fishing groups, such as
                taking actions to         ,rinuch -of Itis, cdhn
                help a fishery            ilgovernmen'@@ubsi(             z6d-,             PCFFA, want sustainable fisheries that
                where such an              'fis                  tions'                     prevent waste and provide the consumer
                                              hlng,,@Oerd                 "'ffibSt
                action might                                                                the very best product at an affordable
                                                                               d            price.
                conflict with a            n   td    I        elrowron
                state                     16&6, -@-troWl)operdffi@n
                administration's                                                                In response to the failures of the
                                                      2@-
                policy. The public                                                              FCMA and the "Americanization"
                members are often                                                               policy, Congress, at the urging of
                financially conflicted and too often are association               conservation and some fishing groups, amended
                heads, lawyers or executive directors, instead of                  the Magnuson FCNU during the 1996 reauthori-
                commercial or sport fishing men and women with                     zation, with the Sustainable Fisheries Act,
                "on-the-grounds" experience as envisioned in HR                    explicitly prohibiting overfishing and calling for
                200. The councils do not have independent legal                    a reduction of bycatch in fisheries and an active
                counsel; they depend on NCAA General Counsel for                   consultative role on the part of Commerce aimed
                their legal advise. They are also subservient to                   at preventing the destruction of essential fish
                Commerce with it comes to their funding,                           habitat (EFH). That act also calls for the protec-
                                                                                   tion of fishing communities.
                The problems facing U.S. fisheries are not unique to
                this nation. Overfishing is a problem around the                   To date, the regional councils and Commerce
                world and much of it is coming from government-                    have not met their statutory timelines to develop
                subsidized fishing operations, most notably large                  plans to prevent overfishing or documents
                trawl and factory trawl operations. Most of the large              identifying essential fish habitat as called for in
                trawl and factory trawl operations are owned or                    the Sustainable Fisheries Act. And, at least in the
                controlled by corporations where the driving force is              case of New England, the council and Commerce
                short term profits - satisfying shareholder demands                are certainly not following the spirit of the 1996
                for maximum quarterly dividends - rather than                      act in protecting fishing communities and fishing
                long term sustainability.                                          families. On the west coast, management mea-
                                                                                   sures are resulting in the waste of vast amounts
                ï¿½  Loss of habitat and pollution are also a major                  of groundfish and the loss of the small boat fleet;
                   factor in the depiction of many of the world's                  and, in New England it appears the small boat
                   fisheries. Coastal aquaculture operations,                      operator is being sacrificed.
                   intended to increase fish production, are, ironi-
                   cally, one of the major sources of habitat loss and             Fishery planning for the next 25 years, based on
                   pollution (as well as a source of introduced exotic             the experience of the past quarter century needs
                   species, disease and parasites) in much of the                  to focus on:
                   world. Farmed shrimp and salmon operations
                   are particularly troublesome.                                   1. Full implementation of the Sustainable Fisher-
                                                                                   ies Act. Overfishing has to be stopped, needless
                ï¿½ Throughout the world, most small boat and                        waste must be prevented by reducing fisheries
                   traditional fishing family operations have been                 bycatch and essential fish habitat must be
                   conducted on a sustainable basis. But increased                 protected. Fishing communities and fishing
                                                                                   families have to be protected.

                70







                                                                         Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


                  2. Small-boat and fishing family (owner-opera-
                  tor) operations should be fostered and sup-
                  ported, These types of operations tend to have a
                  much stronger commitment to resource
                  sustainability and culturally derived desires to
                  pass along "their" fishery to future generations.
                  An emphasis on small-boat and family fishing
                  operations is also consistent with the language
                  calling for protection of fishing communities in
                  the Sustainable Fisheries Act.


                  3. With firm federal objectives for fishery conser-
                  vation and management in hand (i.e., prevent
                  overfishing reduce bycatch, protect habitat,
                  protect fishing communities), fishery manage-
                  ment decisions should be left at the regional state
                  and local levels, provided they are consistent
                  with the overall federal objectives.

                  4. More funds will be needed for research
                  purposes, to develop better and more selective
                  types of fishing gear, and to provide the regional
                  fishery councils greater autonomy. With greater
                  autonomy, the selection of public members to the
                  regional councils should be limited to persons
                  from the commercial, sport and conservation
                  sectors with "on-the-ground" knowledge of
                  fishing operations.

                  5. Greater emphasis must be made on "value-
                  added" fisheries and fisheries that have low-
                  impact and high value, consistent with providing
                  consumers high quality, healthful and affordable
                  sources of fish.


                  6. Aquaculture operations to supplement existing
                  fisheries should be fostered only where they are
                  non-polluting, do not damage habitat, or result
                  in the introduction of exotic species, disease or
                  parasites into the wild. Only aquaculture
                  operations with good conversion ratios (e.g,
                  amount of feed to amount of edible meat) should
                  be supported.

                  7. Fishing men and women who have a first band
                  knowledge of the marine environment, have to
                  be an integral part of fishery research, manage-
                  ment, and decision making concerning the uses
                  of the marine environment (e.g., the designation
                  of marine protected areas).







                                                                                                                                71







                                                                             Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


                               COASTAL TOURISM AND RECREATION: THE DRIVER OF
                                                        COASTAL DEVELOPMENT

                                             By Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht
                                 Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware


             While there is general recognition that coastal                 ism in the United States. Although it is recognized as a
             tourism and recreation are important in the coastal             highly valuable revenue earner, promotion and mar-
             zone, we believe that their impact is systematically            keting of travel and tourism in the United States lags
             undervalued both economically and as the most                   well behind other countries; the United States ranks
             important driver of coastal development in many                 31st in international tourist market advertising, with
             U.S. coastal areas. In California alone, it                                                        Spain, for example,
             is estimated that coastal tourism is the                                                           spending ten times
             largest "ocean industry," contributing                                                             more in advertising
             $9.9 billion to the California economy                  ... studies have shown                     than the United States
             compared to $6 billion for ports, $860                  that beaches are                           (Houston 1996,3).
             million for offshore oil and gas, and $550              ArnerIca's leading
             million for fisheries and mariculture                                                              A major reason for the
             combined (Wilson and Wheeler 1997).                     tourlst desfination,                       lack of a formal pro-
             Travel and tourism are estimated to have                ahead of national                          gram at the national
             provided $746 billion to the U.S. domes-                parks and historic sites.                  level is that travel and
             tic product, about 10% of U.S. output,                                                             tourism is viewed as a
             making travel and tourism the second                                                               sector that requires
             largest contributor to GDP, just behind                                                            relatively little formal
             combined wholesale and retail trade (Houston 1995).             management and is primarily a private sector endeavor.
             Although there are no precise estimates of the                  The benefits of tourism to coastal areas are great, yet
             magnitude of coastal travel and tourism in the                  its adverse effects are often not immediately visible,
             United States, studies have shown that beaches are              which leads to a sort of "management apathy." Also,
             America's leading tourist destination, ahead of                 most aspects of coastal travel and tourism that need
             national parks and historic sites. Approximately 180            managing are already dealt with at one governmental
             million people visit the coast for recreational pur-            level or another, but in separate programs and run by
             poses, with 85% of tourist-related revenues generated           different agencies, rather than as a coordinated, inter-
             by coastal states (Houston 1996, 3).                            connected whole.

             The following examples highlight the very high value            The YOTO paper on coastal tourism and recreation
             of coastal travel and tourism in the United States (YOTO        (YOTO 1998) (prepared largely by the authors) notes
             1998, F5). A 1996 EPA study on the benefits of water            that sustainable development of coastal tourism de-
             quality improvement, in terms of the numbers of people          pends on a number of factors, including:
             involved and the economic value of the activities in
             which they partake, found that saltwater fishing gen-           e   Good coastal management practices, especially re-
             erates expenditures of over $5 billion annually, and over           lated to location of infrastructure and provision of
             200,000 jobs. Over 77 million Americans participate                 public access;
             annually in recreational boating, with the total num-
             ber of recreational boats by the year 2000 estimated to         *   Clean air and water, and healthy ecosystems;
             be 20 million. Over 80 million Americans participate
             in outdoor (non-pool) swimming, and in seven states,            e   Maintenance of a safe and secure recreational en-
             beachgoers spent $74 billion. Finally, birdwatching                 vironment, specifically relating to management of
             generates around $18 billion annually, a great deal of              hazards, and provision of adequate levels of safety
             which occurs in coastal regions.                                    for boaters, swimmers and other recreational us-
                                                                                 ers;
             Given these figures, it is significant to note that there is
             no federal agency with a mandate to manage coastal *                Beach restoration, including beach nourishment
             travel and tourism, and that there is no overall national           and other efforts that maintain and enhance the
             policy in place to plan for, and achieve, sustainable tour-         recreational and amenity values of beaches; and

                                                                                                                                       73







                 Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                     Sound policies for coastal wildlife and habitat pro-            Management of clean water and healthy ecosystems is
                     tection.                                                        a second, and especially important, category in this
                                                                                     context. There are a number of federal agencies
                 Healthy and sustainable coastal tourism requires at-                and programs involved with water quality, includ-
                 tractive, safe, and functional recreational beaches, clean          ing the Clean Water Act (e.g. the National Estuary
                 coastal waters, and healthy coastal ecosystems produc-              Program) administered by the EPA; protection of
                 ing abundant fish and                                                        the marine environment from oil spills,
                 wildlife. In most parts                                                      covered by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990
                 of the burgeoning U   * S        Health        'on .S       S,  1,           and administered by the U.S. Coast
                 coastal zone, these fac                                                      Guard; and NOANs work with states un-
                                                  able"' (@00@t        11,
                 tors do not exist by                                                         der the CZMA to deal with nonpoint
                                                  teq@uj
                                                                        r
                 chance. Most recre-                                                          source water pollution.
                 ational beaches have             S Cal f e,
                 to be maintained with            re&teo                     (@hesv               Management of the impacts of coastal haz
                 occasional replenish-
                                                                                                  ards, includingflood and erosion protec
                 ment of sand lost to             Clean      c6"                tors,
                                                                                                  tion and the use of siting methods such
                                                                                s                 as setback lines, is dealt with under
                 storms and erosion.              and"heolthk",
                 Clean and healthy                                                                both the FEMA National Flood Insur
                                                  ecosyvstems@ pr-,          ucln
                 coastal waters are the                       a       '!,,fish                    ance Program and the Coastal Zone
                                                  obUnd ''nt,,;,              ond-@
                 result of effective pro-                                                         Management Program. Also impor
                 grams of pollution               Wildlife.
                                                                                                  tant here is safety and accident preven
                                                                                 @'S
                 control--of municipal                                                            tion for visitors involved in coastal rec
                 sewage treatments, of                                                            reation-the U.S. Coast Guard is the
                 septic tanks, of agricultural run-off, and a large num-             principal federal agency responsible for user safety
                 ber of other point and nonpoint sources. Coastal fish               and accident prevention. Beach restoration and
                 and wildlife depend on the existence of healthy eco-                nourishment programs are managed at the federal
                 systems; wetlands have to be protected and, where al-               level through the Army Corps of Engineers. In-
                 ready degraded, restored. Failure in any of these areas             creasingly, however, it is local communities, some-
                 can seriously affect tourism. A failed sewage treatment             times with state assistance, that are being forced to
                 plant can close a beach to swimming-in 1996, there                  undertake such restoration programs.
                 were nearly 3000 such closings or advisories (Heinz
                 1998) at U.S. beaches. The state of New Jersey report-         Given the very large contribution to the economy as-
                 edly lost $800 million in tourism revenues following           sociated with coastal tourism and recreation, it would
                 reports that medical wastes had washed up on some              seem that special policy and pragmatic coordination
                 of its beaches (Bookman, pers. com. 1997).                     efforts are needed among the federal, state, and local
                                                                                agencies responsible for the activities mentioned above.
                 While there are already programs in place dealing with         We note four policy challenges in this regard.
                 each of these areas, there is no agency or mechanism in
                 existence to coordinate them toward the overall goal           Policy Challenges
                 of sustainable tourism development. Federal programs
                 most relevant to coastal travel and tourism include the        1) Federal policies and programs essentialfor sustain-
                 following:                                                     able tourism development are interrelated and should
                                                                                be treated as such. Consideration should be given to
                     Coastal management andplanning is administered by          the creation of a standing interagency group devoted
                     NOAA!s Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource                to coastal tourism among the various federal agencies
                     Management (OCRM) and includes programs in                 with programs in this area. State and local government
                     34 states and territories. Three management prac-          representatives should also be included.
                     tices under the Coastal Zone Management program
                     are particularly important in the context of sustain-      2) Little guidance is currently available to states and
                     able tourism development: provision for the man-           communities for sustainable tourism development in
                     agement of coastal development; provisions to              coastal areas. The federal government could play a
                     improve public access to the shoreline; and provi-         role in providing guidelines to communities and states
                     sions to protect and, where necessary@ to restore          (standards, codes of conduct, manuals, etc.) to assist in
                     coastal environments.                                      their efforts to manage coastal tourism and recreation
                                                                                sustainably.


                 74







                                                                              Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

               3) At present, there is little systematic collection of        Heinz Center. 1998. Our Ocean Future: Themes and
               data and information on the magnitude, nature, and             Issues Concerning the Nation's Stake in the Oceans
               economic and social impacts of tourism in the coastal          Developedfor Discussion During 1998, The Year of the
               zone. This needs to be changed to provide greater in-          Ocean. Washington, D.C.: The H. John Heinz III
               formation on issues, trends, and the value of tourism          Center for Science, Economics and the Environment.
               at all levels in the United States. The availability of
               this kind of information will help attract the appropri-       Houston, James R. 1995. The Economic Value of
               ate level of attention to this issue.                          Beaches. CERCular, Coastal Engineering Research
                                                                              Center, Vol. CERC-95-4, December.
               4) Recreational beaches are in great demand in the
               U.S. both by its own citizens andforeign tourists.             Houston, James R. 1996. International Tourism and
               Yet there is no comprehensive national program of              U.S. Beaches. Shore and Beach.
               beach standards yet in effect. EPA is launching a
               beach action plan dealing primarily with water                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Brief-
               quality (EPA 1998) and the House of Representatives            ing Papers on CWA.
               passed, in 1999, the Beaches Environmental Assess-
               ment, Cleanup and Health bill which sets minimum               Wilson, Pete and Wheeler, Douglas P. April 1997.
               standards for beach water quality, requires the EPA to         California's Ocean Resources: An Agendafor the Future.
               establish performance criteria for beach monitoring            The Resources Agency of California.
               and closure notification, and to establish a national
               beach water pollution database. While these are                Year of the Ocean (YOTO) Discussion Papers. March
               significant steps, we think that a national program on         1998. Prepared by the U.S. Federal Agencies with
               beach standards should be broader in scope. The                ocean-related programs. Washington, D.C.
               European Blue Flag program, now in place at about
               1,000 beaches in different nations of the European
               community, provides a good model. The flag can
               only be flown at beaches that meet pre-set standards
               in water quality, safety (lifeguards, first aid, storm
               planning), beach management (erosion control,
               replenishment, clean-up), and environmental infor-
               mation and education (information on fish and
               wildlife, beach dynamics, tides, currents, etc.). While
               the program has been encouraged by the European
               Union and individual governments, the actual
               operation (judging beaches against the standards) is
               performed by nongovernmental committees set up in
               each nation. The U.S. could benefit from a program
               similar to this one.


               Acknowledgments

               This paper is a summary of the paper on tourism and
               recreation prepared for the Year of the Ocean (YOTO
               1998) by the authors in collaboration with other
               contributors. It is excerpted from Cicin-Sain and
               Knecht (1999).

               References

               Bookman, Charles A. 1997. Personal communica-
               tion.


               Cicin-Sain, Biliana and Robert W. Knecht. The Future
               of U.S. Ocean Policy: Choicesfor the New Century
               (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1999).


                                                                                                                                        75







                                                                              Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


                                  ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF AMERICA'S
                                                            COASTAL REGIONS


                                                               Howard Marlowe
                                                        American Coastal Coalition


              Although coastal areas comprise one-fifth of the land           increasing the cost of living for these homeowners,
              area of the contiguous 48 states, they account for              what is gained and what is lost? The public would
              more than half of the nation's population and                   likely believe that a significant increase in insurance
              housing supply. In 1990, over 133 million Americans             premiums will encourage these homeowners to
              lived in the 673 counties along the Atlantic and                retreat from the coast. But suppose that we instead
              Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great               invest in repairing and nourishing the protection
              Lakes. Since 1960, these areas increased by 41                  these homeowners get from sandy beaches. By
              percent. That rate was above the national average-a             incurring this cost (which is shared by Federal, State,
              trend that is expected to continue. About 820,000               and local taxpayers), what is gained and lost?
              new homes are constructed in coastal areas each year.
              These areas also account for about half of all new              Too often we are able to measure costs quite easily.
              industrial, office, retail and recreational building.'          The Federal Shore Protection program, for example,
                                                                              costs about $100 million a year in Federal dollars    .2
              The public discussion of this growth is too often               What are the benefits of that rather modest expense?
              focused solely on the so-called problems caused by              While the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers does a
              this growth. Coastal growth poses challenges-and                benefit-cost analysis in connection with every shore
              sometimes damages-to the environment. The                       protection project, that analysis suffers from its own
              increase of housing units taxes drinking water                  myopia. It places its greatest emphasis on the value
              supplies and sewage systems. Human intervention,                of the private property that is immediately adjacent
              mostly through the construction of channels and                 to the coastline. It is not reasonable to assume that a
              dams, disrupts the natural sand system, causing                 healthy beach with natural dunes and vegetation will
              sandy beaches to erode. This development not only               benefit only that first row of homes and businesses.
              harms recreational opportunities and decreases local            The homeowners spend money in the region; the
              and regional tax revenues, it also undermines the               hotels attract tourists, who also spend money; local
              protection that coastal property owners need from               residents who live inland come to the beach for
              storm surges. That in turn raises the issue of flood            recreation. They, too, spend money. There are a
              insurance and disaster relief policies. There are               variety of service businesses, from T-shirt vendors to
              tensions between commercial and recreational                    banks, whose existence depends on these expendi-
              fishermen, and an increasing shortage of fish for both          tures. In addition, there is an environmental benefit
              interests. The pollution of estuaries and beach                 derived from renourishing our beaches. Property
              waters, as well as the relatively unexplained increase          owners do not retreat from an eroding shorefront.
              in harmful algal blooms and hypoxia, each take their            They build seawalls and other hard structures to
              toll on coastal interests.                                      protect their property. These hard structures, which
                                                                              often exacerbate beach erosion, provide an un-
              Each of these issues, of course, is quite important,            friendly home to the birds and turtles that nest in the
              and the political process at all levels often deals with        sand.
              them on a one-by-one basis. Should the Federal
              government support beach nourishment? Should it                 If we know the costs of the Federal Shore Protection
              "subsidize" coastal flood insurance policies? By                Program, what then, are its benefits? If we can also
              taking just these two issues alone, we can see symp-            state with a fair certainty what it costs to "subsidize"
              toms of myopic public policy-making. Let us assume              the flood insurance policies of coastal residents, what
              for the sake of discussion that the Flood Insurance             is our measurement of the benefits derived from that
              Program provides lower-than-market-cost insurance               "subsidy"? It is regrettable that we cannot answer
              policies for at least certain coastal homeowners. Let           the benefits side of the equation with the same
              us also assume that current proposals to deny                   certitude as the cost side. As long as we cannot
              Federal flood insurance to certain coastal                      quantify the benefits, those who make policies
              homeowners with repetitive losses will affect more              affecting coastal regions must make their decisions in
              than a handful of coastal property owners. By                   a factual vacuum. In addition, the public is subjected

                                                                                                                                         77







                D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                to the repeated carping of those who mistakenly             Foreign tourism to the United States in 1995 was
                believe that some form of forced retreat from the           expected to generate a trade surplus of $26 billion,
                coast will return our coastal regions to their "natural"    compared to a surplus of $17 billion in 1992 and a
                condition. There is every reason for each of us to          deficit of $7 billion in 1986. During the 1995 to 2000
                support policies that result in sustainable coastal         period, the number of tourism-related jobs is ex-
                growth and which encourage -if not require- that            pected to double  . 6
                responsible economic and environmental decisions
                be made along each of our coasts and in each of our         When it comes to beach spending, we have a large
                coastal communities. However, even if the 54 percent        amount of additional benefit-related information. On
                of our population that fives along the coast retreated      the one hand, for example, we know that 55 percent
                inland, it would not bring the coast back to the            of the visitors to Broward County, Florida (the Ft.
                conditions that existed prior to European settlement        Lauderdale area) would not come if there were no
                200-plus years ago, or the Industrial Revolution over       beaches. Another 27 percent would come less often.
                a century ago.                                              Out-of-state visitors generate $350 million in eco-
                                                                            nomic benefits to that county annually. In addition,
                We are, of course, not lacking in hard information          Broward's beaches generate county property tax
                about the benefits derived from our coastal regions.        collections in excess of $28 million a year and create
                The immense natural resources of these regions are          nearly 18,000 jobs . 7
                responsible for a significant amount of commercial
                activity. In 1993, the U.S. commercial fishing indus-       From discussing the State and county levels, let us
                try produced and marketed products valued at $10.8          spend a moment looking at the impact of beach
                billion. Saltwater recreational anglers generated $15       nourishment at the local level. In 1993, the Federal
                billion from 64 million fishing trips. In 1990, 2.15        government spent $5.5 million, while the State and
                billion tons of cargo valued at over $500 billion           local governments spent another $4.3 million,
                moved through the nation's 190 seaports.                    nourishing 5 miles of beach on Anna Maria Island
                                                                                                              (which lies on the
                We also know a good deal about the                                             . .... . ....... West Coast of Florida
                attraction that coastal regions have for
                                                                                                              between Tampa and
                tourists. In 1997, total tourism expendi-           The immense naturol                       Sarasota). That
                tures in U.S. coastal congressional                                                           beach restoration
                                                                                  of these
                districts was over $185 billion, while                                                        added $67.5 million
                                                                    rl9gld-nI@-i@@ res,66hslblO
                tourism payroll was almost $50 million                                                        to local property
                                                                            sign                              values, and boosted
                and tourism obs in these districts were             forld, `-`.iflca.nt.'
                over 2.7 million. I Beaches and coastal                                         rCid[,@-_J    the island's economy
                                                                    -amou nt of comme
                regions are not only the Number One
                                                                                                              by $25.9 million and
                                                                                                              711 jobs. Property
                destination for domestic tourists, they             9c
                also are the top destination for foreign
                                                                                                              values for areas of
                tourists. Each year, the Federal govern-                                                      the county that are
                ment receives about $4 billion in taxes from foreign        away from the beach restoration area increased by
                tourists, while state and local governments receive         $32.1 million, mostly due to increased beach recre-
                another $3.5 billion. Foreign tourists spent over $11       ational opportunities . 8
                billion in Florida in 1992, $2 billion of that amount in
                the Miami Beach area alone. This Florida spending           Moving to the West Coast, California's beaches
                generates over $750 million in Federal tax revenues,        experienced more visitor attendance days in 1996
                more than the total received by the State and local         than all of the State's other tourist attractions -
                governments combined. Focusing on Miami Beach               including Disneyland- combined. Beach tourism
                alone, annual Federal tax revenues from foreign             spending contributes over $10 billion in direct
                tourists ($2 billion) are about 17 times more than the      benefits to the State and another $17 million in
                Federal government spent on the entire Federal              indirect benefits-almost 3 percent of the total eco-
                Shore Protection program from 1950 to 1993 ($34             nomic activity in the State. Beach tourism creates a
                million in 1993 dollars). If the Federal share of beach     half million California jobs and $1 billion in state
                nourishment averages about $10 million a year, the          sales, income, and gasoline tax revenues.
                Federal government collects about 75 times more in
                taxes from foreign tourists in Florida than it spends       Now, going from the Nation's largest State to one of
                restoring that State's beaches.                             its smallest, Delaware receives 5.1 million "person


                78







                                                                            Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

              trips" each year in a State where just over 21,000            edge. 1998 was the Year of the Ocean. The year may
              people actually live in beach communities and                 be finished, but our work has just begun. A critical
              another 373,000 people live within day-use travel             and somewhat overlooked component of the activi-
              distance. Beach tourism generates $173.2 million in           ties related to the Year of the Ocean is our coastline.
              expenditures each year. Just as significant, beach            What we do in that one-fifth of our land that com-
              erosion results in an estimated loss of over 471,000          prises coastal America has a significant impact on
              visitor days a year, a figure which is estimated to           our oceans, and vice versa. The fact is that taken
              increase to over 516,000 after five years. During that        from a comprehensive point of view, we in the
              5-year period, beach erosion will cost an estimated           United States need to take major steps to improve
              $30.2 million in                                                           our coastal management practices and
              consumer expendi-                                                          policies. We must restore and maintain
              tures, the loss of 625         It is critical that we                      our eroding beaches, improve the quality
              beach area jobs, and                                                       of beach water and coastal community
              the reduction of                 t:;fve/op a compre-                       drinking water, protect and enhance
              wages and salaries             hensive set of data on                      coastal wildlife, promote policies that
              by $11.5 million.              all of the benefts de-                      mitigate coastal hazards, and in general
              Business profits               rived from America"s                        improve the quality of our coastal living
              will drop by $1.6                                                          environment.
              million and State              coastal regions.
              and local tax                                                              Since our inception in 1996, the American
              revenues will                                                              Coastal Coalition has supported the full
              decrease by $2.3 million. Finally, beach erosion will         assessment of the economic and ecological benefits of
              reduce beach area property values by nearly $43               beach nourishment. Today, I announce our support
              million over the five-year period.                            for a major study by the National Academy of
                                                                            Sciences of the economic and ecological benefits of
              Our nation's estuaries are also major tourist and             our nation's coastal regions.
              recreational attractions. For example, nature tourism
              in Corpus Christi, Texas is the fastest growing
              component of a tourism sector that generates $23
              billion annually. Recreational fishing provides               Notes
              aggregate net benefits to the area of $83 million,
              including $37 million per year in state and local             1 Data cited are from NOAA. The H. John Heinz
              taxes. The economic impact of water quality-depen-            Center for Science, the Economy, and the Environ-
              dent uses in Long Island Sound is estimated at more           ment found in November 1997 that 112 million
              than $5 billion annually. Commercial and recre-               people live in counties entirely or substantially
              ational fishing contributed more than $1.2 billion of         within 50 miles of the coast.
              the total, while beach going has a direct benefit of
              more than $800 million annually.                              2 Over the past 45 years, the average annual Federal
                                                                            shore protection outlay is actually less than $50
              Let us conclude this partial review of the economic           million. It is only in the last three to four fiscal years
              impact of our coastal regions with data from the U.S.         that it has reached $80 million to $110 million.
              Environmental Protection Agency. America's coastal
              waters support 28.3 million jobs and generate $54             3 Data from Heinz Center report, op. cit. In addi-
              billion in goods and services every year. The coastal         tion, in 1996, saltwater recreational fishermen spent
              recreation and tourism industry is the second largest         $8.7 billion on a variety of items to participate in their
              employer in the nation, serving the 180 million               fishing. These dollars had a ripple effect of $25.1
              Americans who visit our coasts every year. The                billion, supported the equivalent of 288,000 full-time
              commercial fish and shellfish industry contributes            jobs, and generated $1.24 billion in State and Federal
              $45 billion to the economy every year, and recre-             taxes, according to a 1998 study by the American
              ational fishing contributes $30 billion.  12                  Sportfishing Association.

              It is critical that we develop a comprehensive set of         4 Data from American Coastal Coalition analysis of
              data on all of the benefits derived from America's            a June 1998 study by the Travel Industry Association
              coastal regions. As stated above, policy makers               of America.
              cannot make sound decisions without this knowl-



                                                                                                                                       79






               7@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               5 Data derived from an article by Dr. James R.
               Houston, published in the American Shore and Beach
               Preservation journal.

               6 See "Coastal Tourism and Recreation" by Biliana
               Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht, published in Year of
               the Ocean Discussion Papers, March 1998.

               7 Data from 1997 study by Broward County Depart-
               ment of Natural Resource Protection.


               8 Data based on a February 1997 study by Regional
               Research Associates, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.

               9 Data from a May 1997 study by the University of
               San Francisco's Public Research Institute.


               10 March 1998 study by Jack Faucett Associates
               (Bethesda, MD) in cooperation with independent
               consultants Linda Kent (Bethesda, MD) and Christo-
               pher Jones (Charlottesville, VA) for the Delaware
               Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
               Control.


               11 Cicin-Sain and Knecht, "Coastal Tourism and
               Recreation" in Year of the Ocean Discussion Papers.

               12 July 9,1998 testimony of Robert H. Wayland, 11,
               Director of EPA!s Office of Water, before the Senate
               Environment and Public Works Committee.




































               80







                                                                                         industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


                             A PROFILE OF RECREATIONAL BOATING IN THE UNITED STATES

                                                         Ryck Lydecker and Margaret Podlich
                                        Boat Owners Association of the United States (BOATIU.S.)


                 "There is nothing, absolutely nothing, half so much worth               century. When asked how much one of his legendary
                 doing as simply messing about in boats."                                steam yachts cost, Morgan is said to have replied, "If
                                                                                                                                 you have to ask how
                 With apologies to Water Rat in Kenneth                                                                          much it costs, you
                 Grahame's Wind in the Willows, there is                           recreational boating                          can't afford it."
                 nothing half so much worth the coastal
                 planner's attention than the future of                         comprises America's                              Certainly when the
                 recreational boating in this country.                          largest fleet, dwarfing                          20th Century
                                                                                                                                 dawned, spending
                 To get a sense of boating's future as we                       the total vessels In                             time in a boat for
                 sail into the next millennium, it is impor-                    merchant shipping,                               any other purpose
                 tant to understand the roots of a recre-                       commercial fishing,                              than wresting a
                 ational activity that directly involved, as                    passenger traffic, the                           living from the
                 on-the-water participants, 75 million                          Navy, and the U.S.                               water was unheard
                 Americans last year.' Recreational                                                                              of. Boating for the
                 fishing alone contributed more than $108                       Coast Guard,                                     middle class only
                 billion to the economy in 1996, and                                                                             arrived, like so
                 supports 1.2 million jobs, creating wages                                                                       many other leisure
                 of about $28 billion. It is a huge industry, with U.S.                  pursuits, after World War Il. Participation roughly
                 anglers outnumbering golfers nearly 2 to 1.1                            doubled in each decade until the number of boats in
                                                                                         use hit 13 million in 1985.
                 Another way to look at the significance of this
                 pleasurable activity is that recreational boating                       But Morgan's legacy stuck and boaters were seen as
                 comprises America's largest fleet, dwarfing the total                   "fat cats" in the 1980s, wealthy yachtsmen to be
                 vessels in merchant shipping, commercial fishing,                       1998 Boaters and Boats in the United States:
                 passenger traffic, the Navy, and the U.S. Coast                         Population Estimates
                 Guard.
                                                                                         Boaters and Boats                                      Number
                 There are over 16,800,000 boats in use nationwide.                      People participating in recreational boating           74,847,000
                 With 75 million people cruising, sailing, fishing,                      Water skiers                                           10,314,000
                 water skiing, racing, camping, wildlife-watching or                     All Boats in use                                       16,824,000
                 just exploring, it's easy to see that boating is very
                 much a social activity, and a real family sport. I In                   Outboard boats owned                                   8,300,000
                 fact, in a recent nationwide survey of marina custom-                   Inboard boats owned                                    1,609,000
                 ers, nearly 50% were reported to be families with                       Stemdrive boats owned                                  1,673,000
                 children. The second largest group was retired                          Personal watercraft                                    1,100,000
                 couples or singles at 20%.'
                                                                                         Sailboats owned                                        1,669,000
                 The Yachting Misnomer                                                   Miscellaneous craft owned (canoes, rowboats,              949,000
                                                                                         dinghies, and other craft registered by the states)
                 Despite the fact that 50% of all registered boats are                   Other (estimated canoes, rowboats, etc. not            1,524,000
                 less than 16 feet long, and 93% of all registered boats                 registered by the states)
                 are less than 26 feet long,' boating has always                         Marinas, Boatyards, Yacht Clubs,                           10,320
                 suffered from the "yachting" stigma. In the public's                    Dockominiums, Parks and other
                 eye, boating has been the exclusive domain of the                       Source: "Boating 1998" prepared by the National Marine
                 rich. The person who probably had more to do with                       Manufacturers Association, Chicago, IL
                 etching that erroneous view in the public psyche                        The "in-use"figures are based on actual state and Coast Guard
                 than anyone was J.P. Morgan, the great and certainly                    registrations and estimates of non-registered boats.
                 very wealthy yachtsman of the early part of this


                                                                                                                                                         81







                  D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                  saddled with taxes disguised as "user fees" to help             Access
                  balance the federal budget. After a protracted
                  struggle, cooler heads in Congress prevailed when               Boaters rely on being able to get to the water, and use
                  they realized that boaters already had been paying              the water for a variety of activities ranging from
                  their way for years                                                           fishing and sailing to cruising and
                  through motorboat                                                             overnight boat camping. In order for
                  fuel taxes and fishing                                                        boaters to peacefully co-exist with other
                                                   @Bodtbrs              t,       eing          user groups on our coastal waters,
                  gear excise taxes.
                                                   able togehtq1h,,',,,W`@-                     waterways must be seen as a common
                                                                                  w0ler
                  Today these taxes go                                                          resource that is available to all. They
                                             'Y"                  'b@ 'ino able to
                                             r Ott (dcc6@4,@         e 1@ - I
                  into the Aquatic                                                              must be protected as a public open
                                                   enjby- the water and,
                  Resources Trust Fund                                                          space, able to accommodate a variety of
                  (Wallop-Breaux),                 :.reJdted,w/1d11fe (natural                  users.
                                              Wlm,
                  which pumps about                resoptO          iPnd,,hqving_.,_,
                  $350 million annually            the, time, and desire to                     Access to these waters must be main-
                  into boating safety                                                           tained through both public and private
                  education, law                   pursue boafihg for. rec-                     lands. Those lucky enough to own
                  enforcement, envi-               reation (opportuh1ty).,                      waterfront property should be able to
                  ronmental protection,                                                         launch their boat from their own yard,
                  public access, and                                                            and those not so fortunate should have
                  fishery restoration. As                                                       ready access to public launch sites and
                  a result, there is hardly a stretch of water anywhere that      marinas open to the public. To insure that average
                  hasn't benefited in material waysfrom America's boaters.        citizens can get to the water, ramps, access points,
                                                                                  boat parking facilities in the form of marina and
                  Boating Benefits                                                transient dockage, moorings, and anchorages, as well
                                                                                  as on-land dry storage and winter storage, must be
                  Alongside these economic benefits, recreational                 available to the general public.
                  boating offers our nation's citizens lifelong opportu-          Once on the water, boaters rely on clearly marked,
                  nities for healthy, outdoor, family activity. It pro-           maintained, and dredged channels, along with
                  vides an important cultural link to our nation's                accurate, updated, and available charts. In recent
                  maritime heritage, and a critical gateway for youth             years, federal budget cuts have reduced the channel
                  through such nationwide programs as Sea Exploring               maintenance and charting abilities of the govern-
                  (Sea Scouts), Red Cross and YMCA water sports, and              ment, and recreational areas are often the first to
                  4-H camps as well as countless local sailing schools,           suffer. Innovative ways of maintaining charts for the
                  canoe clubs, and community boatbuilding programs.               recreational boater may be necessary, including the
                                                                                  use of trained volunteer labor for sounding harbors.
                  It seems fair to speculate, then, that recreational             Volunteer data collection may be the key to safety,
                  boating may be the largest clearly defined constituent          when you realize that millions of recreational boats
                  group for NOAA and its National Ocean Service,                  can lose their way, run aground, or hit bridges and
                  National Marine Fisheries Service, even its marine              buoys without updated charts.
                  weather services, as well as for the U.S. Coast Guard,
                  whether these agencies realize it or not.                       Boaters use a variety of destination choices, ranging
                                                                                  from developed city docks (Baltimore Inner Harbor)
                  Issuesfor the Future                                            and historic maritime areas (Mystic Seaport), to
                                                                                  islands (Catalina Island) and remote areas with
                  As we think about the coast and coastal issues                  diverse wildlife (Apostle Islands National Lake
                  heading toward the year 2025, there are several core            Shore). Freedom to explore the waterways is our
                  issues important to this large user group. Boaters              birthright. To make it our legacy, we must make
                  count on being able to get to the water (access), being         coastal stewards out of all citizens, educating all how
                  able to enjoy the water and related wildlife (natural           to preserve those areas we explore.
                  resources), and having the time and desire to pursue
                  boating for recreation (opportunity). These three               Natural Resources
                  elements constitute the base of possibilities for
                  recreational boating into the next millennium.                  Like other recreational users of the coast, boaters rely
                                                                                  on clean, unpolluted water. "Going boating" con-


                  82







                                                                                 Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                jures up images of relaxing in an aesthetically                  embraced in this management as key ingredients for
                pleasing, natural area, with crisp, clear water, fresh           the long-term viability of our oceans. Both commer-
                air, and interacting with fish, birds, and other wild-           cial and recreational interests must be brought in to
                life. No one wants to spend precious leisure time on             the solutions to current overharvesting of fisheries,
                a river with oil slicks, floating garbage, and dead              and bycatch must be better addressed. The introduc-
                fish. As a result, individual boaters and the marine             tion, spread, and control of alien species should also
                industry as a whole have been increasingly involved              receive special attention, since they continue to
                in initiatives to clean up our waterways, restore                threaten entire native populations and ecosystems,
                aquatic habitat, and protect natural resources. They             and pose grave consequences for recreational boating
                all rely on clean coastal waters that sustain an                 and fishing.
                abundance of fish and wildlife, whether they are
                pulling fish out of the water for dinner, or swimming            Opportunity
                in the water, or just getting splashed with a rogue
                wave.                                                            The water is clean, there are fish to catch, birds to
                                                                                 watch, and the access ramp is right down the street.
                In order to improve coastal water quality@ new                   What's stopping the average citizen from taking to
                methods of reducing both point and nonpoint source               the water - from "simply messing about in boats?"
                pollution will be required. This will be increasingly
                difficult as coastal populations soar by 2025 and put            Access to a boat is probably the first thing. While
                more stress on the coastal areas. With more potential            there is approximately one boat in this country for
                polluters in the same coastal area, we'll have to do             every 17 people     6many people may not have the
                even more to keep pace with existing water quality               resources to own their own boat. Those people that
                issues, much less improve them.                                  do buy a boat are often precariously on the edge of
                                                                                 selling it, depending on variables in their own lives,
                Flexible, timely management of fish and wildlife is              costs, available free time, and hassles associated with
                required. Diversity and sustainability must be                   owning the boat. Individual boaters must find a


                                                           1997 Registered Boats
                                                             Distribution by state



                                                                                    M1
                                                                                    8%               CA
                                                                                                     7%
                                                                                                               FL
                                                                                 P1                               MN
                                                                                                                  6%
                          Other States
                              51%                                                                               TX
                                                                                                                5%
                                                                                                           W1
                                                                                                     NY 4%
                                                                                IL    SC     OH      4%
                                                                               3%     3%     3%





                Source: Boating 1998 prepared by the National Marine Manufacturers Association, Chicago, IL.
                                       12,309,724 boa
                This chart reflects the                 ts registered in the states in 1997. The 10 states shown above host nearly hatrof
                all registered boats in the country. Note that 3 of the 5 states (CA, TX, FL, GA, VA) with the greatest rise in predicted
                population are already among the states with the largest number of registered boats.




                                                                                                                                              83







               T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy


               balance between limited free time and the time it           We must remember these hard facts while consider-
               takes to do maintenance work before leaving the             ing the future of the limited natural resources on our
               dock. In order for boaters to continue boating,             coasts. We must remember that the average citizen's
               boaters will have to feel that the "recreation" element     ability to interact with the water may win or lose that
               surmounts the perceived obstacles to this use of their      person's active commitment to coastal water issues.
               limited free time. These obstacles are often cited as       Recreational boating plays a key role in this ongoing quest
               costs, fees, government regulations, and mainte-            to create stewards of the coast.
               nance.


               No matter who owns the boats, it can be assumed
               that recreational boating will be only one activity         Notes
               among many at the water's edge. Resolving user
               conflicts over the use of these waters will be a rising     1. Boating 1998, National Marine Manufacturers
               challenge in the next century.                              Association, Chicago, IL.

               Another challenge for the industry and for coastal          2. "Fishing's $40 Billion Allure," USA Today, Febru-
               managers may be how to address carrying capacity            ary 16, 1999.
               issues through better use of existing boats. Since
               most boats are used less than 10% of the time, getting      3. Boating 1998, National Marine Manufacturers
               more use out of one boat may be an option that              Association, Chicago, IL.
               works better for the boater and for the coastal
               environment. Encouraging timeshare boat owning              4. "1998 Annual Industry Review," Boating Industry
               arrangements and community boating and boat                 Magazine, February 1999.
               rental programs may help more people enjoy life on
               the water, without a correlated increase in infrastruc-     5. 1997 State Registered Boat Data, U.S. Coast Guard,
               ture needs.                                                 1997.


               Alongside the needs of the individual, there are            6. U.S. Census Bureau, on-line information estimat-
               needs for some infrastructure to maintain safe              ing the current U.S. population at 272,085,093
               boating standards. Most of these recreational needs         (wwwcensus.g2v).
               piggyback well with existing commercial require-
               ments. For example, maintaining adequate law
               enforcement, search and rescue services, weather
               forecasting and satellite navigation, and educational
               programs will be required to serve a growing,
               diverse boating population.

               Challenges

               The speakers at this workshop told us an indisput-
               able fact:
               The bulk of our nation's population is headingfor the
               coast.


               They are going there for a reason. They want to be
               able to walk on the sand, to show their kids a sea
               bird, to watch the dolphins off the beach. They want
               to be able to swim, to fish, to boat, and to appreciate
               the waters of that coast.


               They don't want to walk a beach polluted by sewage
               outfalls or industrial waste. They don't want to see a
               fish floating upside down in the surf. They don't
               want to be afraid to touch the water.




               84







                                                                            Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                 MARINE AQUACULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES: CURRENT AND FUTURE
                                        POLICY AND MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES


                                                             M. Richard DeVoe
                                                South Carolina Sea Grant Consortium


             Introduction                                                   nation because it promises to produce: (1) high
                                                                            quality seafood to replace that supplied through the
             Aquaculture in the United States has the potential to          harvests of wild stock in decline or at maximum
             become a major growth industry in the 21st Century.            sustainable yields; (2) products for export to help
             Global seafood demand is projected to                                                             reduce the nation's
             increase by 70 percent by the year 2025                           .. ......... .                  foreign trade deficit;
             Uoint Subcommittee on Aquaculture, JSA                                                            (3) stock enhance-
             1993). With harvests from capture                    TheVnited Stot6scur-                         ment of important
             fisheries stable or in decline, aquaculture                                                       commercial and
                                                                  rently Importi "more than
             would have to increase production by                                                              recreational fisheries
             700 percent to a total of 77 million metric          60 percent of its fish and                   species; (4) eco-
             tonnes annually to meet the projected                ShelffiSh.'
                                                                                                               nomic development
             demand (JSA 1993). The potential of
                                                                                                               opportunities for
             aquaculture worldwide to meet the                                                                 rural and suburban
             challenges of food security and to gener-                      communities; and (5) new employment opportunities
             ate employment has been demonstrated by its rapid              for skilled workers (National Research Council, NRC
             growth at an annual rate of 10 percent since 1984 (as          1992).
             compared with 3 percent for livestock meat and 1.6
             percent for capture fisheries production) (FAO 1997).          Marine Aquaculture in the United States

             The United States currently imports more than 60               The U.S. marine aquaculture industry is extremely
             percent of its fish and shellfish. In 1996, $6.8 billion       young. While the culture of freshwater species such
             of seafood products were imported, while $3.0                  as catfish and trout has existed for many decades, the
             billion were ex-                                                            cultivation of marine species has
             ported. In 1997                                                             emerged only over the last 30 years.
             seafood imports                                                             Total production from all domestic
             increased to $7.8             The U.S. marine oquacul-                      aquaculture operations grew from 572.5
             billion, while exports     i  ture indus          is 0xfriE@Mely            million pounds in 1990 to 693.7 million
                                                          try, @,
             decreased to $2.7                 Ung. WhIle,the Culture                    pounds in 1996, a 21 percent increase,
                                           yo
             billion, representing
                                                                                         while marine aquaculture production
             a $5.1 billion trade          of freshwaterspecles
                                                                                         alone went from 49.3 to 66.8 million
             deficit (NOAA                 such as caffish and trout                     pounds, a 35.5 percent increase over the
             NMFS, 1998).                                                                same time. In 1996, about 86 percent of
                                           has existod for many
             Seafood products are                                                        U.S. marine aquaculture yield was
                                           decades, the cuffivation
             the nation's largest                                                        represented by oyster and salmon
             agricultural import,          of marine "Cie$ has'',                        production, with oyster production
             second only to                emerged on ,oo@4r the                         declining and salmon production greatly
             petroleum USA                                                               increasing from 1990 to 1996. More than
                                           lost 30 ye
             1993). Each year,                                                           50 species made up the remaining 12
             Americans consume                                               -------     percent. While the U.S. marine aquacul-
             more than $800                                                              ture industry is relatively small, it
             million of foreign-grown aquaculture products.                 remains vital since most of the huge seafood deficit
             Obviously, domestic aquaculture pro-duction has not            in fishery products comes from the import of marine,
             grown at a rate necessary to offset the consumer               not freshwater, seafood (Sandifer 1994).
             demand for seafood.
                                                                            Aquaculture is now practiced in more than 80
             Nevertheless, the development of the U.S. aquacul-             precent of the states and territories of the United
             ture industry is felt to be vital to the future of the         States. Nevertheless, cultivation of all marine species,

                                                                                                                                      85







                 Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 except oysters, is in the early stages of commercial          industry, conflicts with other, traditional, uses of the
                 development in the United States, and many opera-             nation's coastal and ocean waters, environmental
                 tions have yet to achieve economic stability (NRC             concerns, and the existing legal and regulatory
                 1992). It goes without saying that the U.S. marine            climate all contribute to this situation.
                 aquaculture industry has not kept pace with the
                 growth of the world industry during the last 25 years         Nature of the Marine Aquaculture Industry
                 (NRC 1992).
                                                                               Marine aquaculture represents a relatively new use
                 The future for marine aquaculture in the United               of the nation's coastal resources, and it must compete
                 States is much less certain than that of its freshwater       for access to those resources (Nixon 1994). Newcom-
                 counterpart. One serious problem is that most                 ers to the industry, as well as local authorities, suffer
                 marine aquaculture is conducted in shallow coastal            from a lack of experience, inappropriate advice on
                 and estuarine waters, which are affected by increas-          site selection, inadequate evaluation of market
                 ing population pressures and industrial and residen-          opportunities and product diversification, and a lack
                 tial development. By the year 2010, 70 percent of the         of understanding of marine aquaculture develop-
                 total population of the United States will live within        ment in relation to other forms of competition
                 120 kilometers of the coast (Culliton et al. 1990). In        (Chamberlain and Rosenthal 1995). Much of this
                 addition, whereas the transition from fishing to              confusion stems from its uniqueness and complexity.
                 aquaculture in freshwater systems is analogous to
                 that of hunting to farming, marine aquaculturists             A number of finfish, shellfish, and crustacean species
                 face an additional hurdle - they have no property             are cultivated in the United States, including catfish,
                 interest in the "lands" they need                                                                  trout'salmon,
                 (Nixon 1994). Because the ocean has                                                                striped and hybrid
                 traditionally been viewed as a common
                                                                                                                    bass, tilapia, hard
                 property resource, there are also                   There-are d,number Of                          clams, oysters,
                                                                                                       A
                 conflicts with other commercial and           Wl@sues that have con-                               mussels, crawfish,
                 recreational users which may slow or                                                               and penaeid
                                                                                 the development
                 prevent the development of marine                                                                  shrimps. The
                 aquaculture (Harvey 1994).                                manne aquaCUItUre'in                     industry is techno-
                                                                     the United States. The                         logically diverse,
                                                                           "'4
                 Growth of the domestic marine aquac-                complexand diverse                             with ponds, race-
                 ulture industry is dependent upon the                                                              ways, silo, circular
                                                                           ire of the industry,
                                                                     ndk
                 attainment of 4 basic requirements                                                                 pools, closed (water
                 (DeVoe and Mount 1989): high water-                 i:@ohfJ1'c'ts,wWth other, tr6di-               reuse) systems,
                                                                                                                    cages and net-pens,
                 quality locations; access to the aquacul                                 the notion's
                 ture site; assertion of exclusive fishing                                                          sea ranches, rafts,
                                                                  -coas dl'dhd,ocean, wo-
                 and culturing rights; and financial                                                                and long lines used
                 investment. These authors also argue                        hvirbhmentalcon'-
                                                                @p A,@                                              according to the
                                                                           A6
                                                                           rn,                       g,             species cultured
                 that government commitment, in the                             nd the exisfin
                                                                     4
                 case of marine aquaculture, may be the                                                             USA 1983). Aquac-
                                                                                    re   ulato CIP
                                                                                                 ry
                 most critical. Government must                                                                     ulture remains a
                 demonstrate its support by clearly                              _cbn                     Is
                                                                            '4"'_11,C6ntdbute,t0 th                 relatively young
                                                                            -d,
                 defining the term aquaculture, provid-           t "SI]b d't1dh:"7                                 scientific discipline
                 ing supporting policy statements and                                                               that is developing
                 implementation strategies, offering                                                                rapidly, with
                 incentives (which do not necessarily have to be solely        incorporation of a variety of modem technologies,
                 financial) to underscore its commitment, and defin-           most not yet fully adapted for widespread use
                 ing and streamlining its regulatory and legal require-        (Rosenthal 1985). Indeed, there has been a trend
                 ments.                                                        toward intensification in both traditional and con-
                                                                               temporary culture systems.
                 Issues Conftonting Marine Aquaculture
                                                                               Aquaculture practices range from extensive, with few
                 There are a number of issues that have constrained            inputs and modest output, to intensive, with high
                 the development of marine aquaculture in the United           inputs and output. On an annual yield per hectare of
                 States. The complex and diverse nature of the                 water basis, increased intensification requires greater


                 86







                                                                          Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

              resource use, ranging from simple pond culture to           opportunities for future commercial aquaculture
              intensive tank and closed system aquaculture (Muir          development are in recirculating (closed) systems on
              1985). These varying technologies are what make             land and in confinement systems in the open ocean.
              aquaculture the diverse industry it is, but they have       Research and development emphasis has been on
              wide-ranging resource needs, produce differing              closed system aquaculture rather than on offshore
              environmental impacts, and require a suite of techno-       facilities. Yet, after more than 20 years of R&D
              logical and management responses.                           activity, the economic viability of closed system
                                                                          aquaculture remains elusive. The United States is
              Further complicating the future of marine aquacul-          only now exploring the potential for establishing
              ture is the complexity that stems from unique factors       facilities in unprotected offshore areas.
              that distinguish it from other forms of agricultural
              activity, including: (1) the interaction of marine          Aquaculture and the Environment
              aquaculture with other marine and coastal activities
              and interests-interactions that are often characterized     Much has been published over the last 15 years on
              by conflict; (2) the fact that although marine aquacul-     the environmental impacts of marine aquaculture
              ture is ocean-based, it depends on the use of land          (e.g., Ackefors and Sodergren 1985, Weston 1986,
              and freshwater resources as well; and (3) the numer-        Rosenthal et al 1988, DeVoe 1992, Goldburg and
              ous environmental and regulatory considerations             Triplett 1997, Naylor et al.1998, also see Estuaries, Vol
              involved in the development and use of coastal zone         18: 1A, 1995). However, ecological concerns had been
              land and water resources, usually held in the public        raised by a number of authors in the 1970s (Odum
              trust (NRC 1992).                                           1974, Ackefors and Rosen 1979). One of the major
                                                                          challenges to the marine aquaculture industry in the
              Coastal and Ocean Use Conflicts                             United States will be how it responds to these
                                                                          environmental sustainability issues (Chamberlain
              While culturists, scientists, and resource managers         and Rosenthal 1995).
              face the task of resolving these issues through
              research studies, monitoring programs, and technical        Aquaculture practices can generate environmental
              assistance support, the marine aquaculture industry         impacts as a function of (1) the applied technique, (2)
              continues to deal with its "growing pains." In a            site location, (3) size of the production, and (4)
              recent survey of state aquaculture coordinators,            capacity of the receiving body of water (Ackefors and
              industry representatives, and extension specialists,        Sodergren 1985). These can include impacts on water
              Sand-ifer(1994) found that only 9 out of the country's      quality, the benthic layer, the native gene pool, and
              24 coastal states and 5 territories reported moderate       the ecosystem as a whole, and impacts from non-
              growth, and 8 no growth. Asked to identify the              native species, disease, and chemicals.
              major factors responsible for this situation, the
              respondents indicated that of 12 limiting factors, the      The state of knowledge regarding the environmental
              top three were use conflicts (92%), permitting (92%)        impacts of aquaculture is rapidly improving.
              and the regulatory environment (88%)                        Whereas two decades ago very little research data
              (Sandifer1994).                                             were available, there has been a surge in the number
                                                                          and scope of research and monitoring programs
              Use conflicts represent one of the primary issues U.S.      seeking to document these effects. Much work
              marine aquaculturists must face, and are likely to          worldwide has focused on the effects of net-pen
              become more pronounced and frequent in the future           culture on the environment, with the International
              (Chamberlain and Rosenthal 1995). DeVoe et al.              Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) leading
              (1992) found through a survey of the marine aquacul-        the way. In the United States, early research efforts
              ture industry and state regulatory agencies that the        dealt with fish hatchery effluents and catfish ponds.
              competing use of the coastal zone by recreational           As the domestic industry diversified, so did environ-
              users, commercial fishermen, and developers was             mental research, with major federal studies examin-
              frequently encountered. The escalating costs of             ing the impacts of marine shrimp pond culture and
              acquiring access to coastal lands and waters in the         salmon net-pen culture, and the issues regarding
              country exacerbate the problem.                             species introductions, the use of chemicals in aquac-
                                                                          ulture, and effluent discharges.
              In 1992, the National Research Council of the Na-
              tional Academy of Sciences predicted that, due to
              increasing pressures along the coastal zone, the best


                                                                                                                                    87







                 Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 Legal and Regulatory Structures                                 The majority of laws and regulations that specifically
                                                                                 authorize, permit, or control aquaculture are usually
                 The current regulatory environment for marine                   found at the state level. The Aspen Corp. study
                 aquaculture in the United States is a major constraint          examined 32 state regulatory programs and discov-
                 to its development (NRC 1978, NRC 1992, JSA 1993,               ered that over 1,200 state laws have some significant
                 and others). No formal federal framework exists to              bearing on aquaculture operations. Policies and
                 govern the leasing and development of private                   regulations were found to affect aquaculture in eight
                 commercial aquaculture activities in public waters              major areas: aquaculture species use; water quality;
                 (NRC 1992).                                                     water use; land use; facility and hatchery manage-
                                                                                 ment; processing; financial assis-tance; and occupa-
                 In a 1981 study commissioned by the joint Subcom-               tional safety and health.
                 mittee on Aquaculture, the Aspen Corporation
                 examined the federal and state regulatory framework             Major aquaculture problems, that arise from state
                 for aquaculture (Aspen Corp. 1981). As many as 11               laws and regulations are caused by the lack of
                 federal agencies are directly involved in regulating            uniformity of laws among the states, the sheer
                 aquaculture and another 10 are indirectly involved.             number of permits, licenses, and certifications that
                 However, only a limited number of permitting and                must be obtained, and the difficulty in obtaining
                 licensing requirements are directly imposed by                  them (NRC 1978,1992). Each state has its own
                 federal agencies. More characteristic are federal               unique legal, political, and economic climate for
                 agency programs that indirectly regulate fish farmers           aquaculture, and cultdrists must navigate the regula-
                 (e.g., restrictions on drug use, federal laws adminis-          tory environment differently in each. Only a few
                 tered by states, etc.).                                         states have developed the information management
                                                                                 capability to present the applicant with a comprehen-
                 Some 50 federal statutes (with accompanying regula-             sive list of all the legal requirements that must be
                 tions) were found to have a direct impact on the                met. State regulatory programs can be and usually
                 aquaculture industry, although the actual number of             are more restrictive than federal guidelines and
                 statutes that affect an individual operation vary               regulations dictate. The result is that state agencies
                 depending on its size, location, the species being              vary greatly as to what standards they apply to
                 cultured, and other factors. In total, over 120 statu-          aquaculture (McCoy 1989), and some still apply laws
                 tory programs of the federal government were found              designed for other applications such as those for
                 to significantly affect aquaculture development.                public fisheries management (NRC 1978,1992).
                 About one-half require direct compliance from the
                 fish farmer.                                                    Federal agencies which establish the ground rules
                                                                                 that most state agencies must follow have adopted
                 Seven federal agencies have regulatory programs                 vague, confusing, and poorly conceived regulations,
                 that directly affect the marine aquaculture industry:           or none at all (McCoy 1989). This translates into
                 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Environ-             inconsistencies in the development and application
                 mental Protection Agency, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife            of laws and regulations at the state level (deFur and
                 Service, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the             Radar 1995). Few states have a comprehensive
                 U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. National               regulatory plan which satisfactorily balances eco-
                 Marine Fisheries Service, and the U.S. Coast Guard.             nomic development and environmental protection.
                 Federal oversight of the marine aquaculture industry            As a result, regulations governing aquaculture are
                 is fragmented; there is no overall federal framework            scattered throughout state statutes and do not
                 to address aquaculture development in the coastal               necessarily fit aquaculture (Breaux 1992). Complicat-
                 zone or offshore waters. Further, while recent                  ing matters is the fact that existing permit programs
                 evaluations of marine aquaculture suggest that                  do not have provisions for determining the capacity
                 offshore locations may represent a viable alternative           of the coastal and estuarine system for aquaculture,
                 (NRC 1992), no formal policies have been developed              land-based or in situ (deFur and Radar 1995).
                 to manage aquaculture development in the U.S.
                 Exclusive Economic Zone. As a result, existing                  The complexity that results from the involvement of
                 federal policies vary from one agency to another (and           many federal, state, and local agencies responsible
                 may even differ among divisions within the same                 for all aspects (including advocacy, promotion,
                 agency) and the permitting process can be time-                 conduct, and regulation) of marine aquaculture leads
                 consuming, complex, and costly.                                 to an array of planning acts, policies, and regulations



                 88







                                                                              Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

               (NRC 1992). Federal laws are applied differently in            agencies, is generally thought of as a model coordi-
               various geographic regions of the country (NRC                 nating mechanism. The JSA exists now as a statutory
               1978), and the industry remains concerned about the            committee that operates under the aegis of the
               lack of coordination among agencies regulating                 National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of
               aquaculture (JSA 1993). Unfortunately, the federal             the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the
               government has yet to make any significant headway             Office of the Science Advisor to the President. The
               in reducing regulatory constraints (McCoy 1989).               JSA reports to the NSTC's Committee on Health,
                                                                              Safety and Food Research and Development, which
               Another limitation to the current regulatory regime            is one of nine research and development committees
               for marine aquaculture in the United States is the             established by NSTC to prepare coordinated R&D
               lack of long-range and whole systems planning                  strategies and budget recommendations for accom-
               (deFur and Radar 1995). Aquaculture policy appears             plishing national goals. Chairmanship of the JSA
               to be made by granting permits on a case-by-case               was originally planned to rotate among the Secretar-
               basis (Rubino and Wilson 1993), and the require-               ies of the three primary departments; however, the
               ments are often determined using regulations and               1985 amendments specifically established the Secre-
               technical standards not originally developed or                tary of Agriculture as permanent chair of the JSA.
               intended for aquaculture (Ewart et al, 1995). Each
               permit is considered individually by the issuing               The JSA completed the first and only version of a
               agency, usually with no provision for examining                national aquaculture development plan in 1983.
               cumulative impacts (deFur and Radar 1995).                     Volume I of the plan presented information on the
                                                                              status of aquaculture, current technologies, impedi-
               Marine Aquaculture and Federal Policy                          ments to development, existing federal programs,
                                                                              recommended programs and actions, and anticipated
               On September 26,1980, the National Aquaculture Act             impacts. Volume 11 reviewed those aquatic species
               of 1980 was passed to "promote aquaculture in the              that have or show potential for development as
               United States" through a declaration of a national             aquaculture products. Unfortunately, no assessment
               policy, development and implementation of a na-                regarding progress on the original plan's recommen-
               tional aquaculture development plan, establishment             dations was ever made. It was not until 1996 that
               of a coordinating group of federal agency representa-          revision of the 1983 plan was considered. A draft
               tives, establishment of a National Aquaculture                 updated national aquaculture development plan is
               Information Center, and encouragement of aquacul-              now being finalized for submission to the NSTC for
               ture activities and programs in both the public and            review and comment.
               private sectors. The 1980 Act was amended in 1985
               and 1990, and reauthorized most recently in 1998.              The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 and its amend-
                                                                              ments provide a federal policy framework for and
               The Act clearly states an aquaculture policy for the           endorsement of aquaculture in the United States.
               country: that it is "in the national interest, and it is       The 1983 plan constituted the first coordinated effort
               the national policy, to encourage the development of           in the United States to assess the aquaculture indus-
               aquaculture in the United States." The National                try, identify its needs, and suggest steps to improve
               Aquaculture Act of 1980 gives principal responsibil-           the climate for aquaculture development. The JSA
               ity for the development of aquaculture to the private          also provides a mechanism whereby information
               sector but jointly assigned three federal agencies             exchange and program coordination can occur.
               aquacultural-related responsibilities- the Depart-             Nevertheless, although the 1980 Act was reautho-
               ments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Interior. An               rized in 1998 as part of the Farm Bill, recent failure of
               Interagency Agreement was reached among these                  legislation explicitly extending and funding the 1980
               agencies regarding "Designation of Areas of Respon-            Act suggests that difficulties persist in seeking a
               sibility in Aquaculture."                                      consensus on a government policy for aquaculture.

               The Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture USA) was                 The Future of Marine Aquaculture in the United
               created to serve as a federal interagency coordinating         States
               group to increase the overall effectiveness and
               productivity of federal aquaculture research, technol-         The reasons that marine aquaculture has not pro-
               ogy transfer, and assistance programs. While receiv-           gressed as rapidly as freshwater aquaculture are as
               ing no direct funding, the JSA, composed of the                complex as the nature of the industry itself. These
               heads or their designees of more than 12 federal               issues manifest themselves not only at the federal


                                                                                                                                         89






               nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               level, but in each of the nation's coastal states as well.   Public Works; and Labor and Human Resources. On
               Progress is occurring throughout the country, albeit         the House side, the Agriculture Committee, Com-
               at a fairly slow pace. The potential of marine aquac-        merce Committee, and Resources Committee have
               ulture remains high as research information and              jurisdiction over components of aquaculture. Of
               technologies continue to be generated for cultivating        course, each of these committees has different
               a diversity of marine species,  *ameliorating the real       mandates and responsibilities which may overlap at
               environmental effects of the industry, and developing        times, and each has its own agenda and perspective
               cost--effective and sustainable culture techniques           on aquaculture issues and needs. These committees
               and practices. Realization of that potential is being        must also deal with a wide range of constituencies,
               severely limited by many institutional and legal             some of which may take positions counter to those of
               constraints and sustainability issues.                       the marine aquaculture industry. Here again,
                                                                            reaching agree- ment on issues related to aquaculture
               These issues are not new to the industry or to gov-          can be difficult.
               ernment. Conclusions of two National Research
               Council (National Academy of Sciences) panels that           Whither U.S. Marine Aquaculture Policy?
               met in 1978 and 1992 to review the growth and
               potential of the U.S. aquaculture industry are enlight-      There have been many studies and analyses con-
               ening. In 1978, an NRC panel concluded that con-             ducted over the last 20 years by federal agency,
               straints on the development of the U.S. aquaculture          congressional office, academic, and industry authors
               industry "tend to be political and administrative,           examining the issues facing the U.S. marine aquacul-
               rather than scientific and technological" (NRC 1978).        ture sector and offering a myriad of recommenda-
               Fourteen years later, a second NRC panel stated that         tions and strategies to address them (e.g., NRC 1978,
               "solutions to the environmental problems constrain-          DeVoe and Mount 1989, NRC 1992, Rubino and
               ing marine aquaculture will involve approaches that          Wilson 1993, Stickney 1994, DeVoe 1994, DeVoe 1997).
               combine technological 'fixes' with improved regula-          While these authors and others have provided
               tory and management structures, as well as public            reasonable and proactive suggestions for enhancing
               education" (NRC 1992). It is unfortunate that many           the marine aquaculture industry, the situation in
               of the issues identified in 1978 and again in 1992           general has changed little over that time. Why?
               remain unresolved to this day
                                                                            The United States must return to the more funda-
               Becker and Buck (1997) identify an important factor          mental issues to address the lack of growth of the
               that has not seriously been considered by aquacul-           marine aquaculture industry. More to the point, the
               ture pundits; that is, the federal government has            country must:
               actually put itself in a conflict-of-interest position vis-
               A-vis its roles in aquaculture. On one hand, it acts as      1. Reevaluate and Reaffirm the Nation's Aquacul-
               enforcer of regulatory requirements aimed at protect-        ture Policy
               ing consumers, natural resources, and the environ-
               ment and, on the other, as administrator of programs         While Japan continues to focus use of its coastal and
               that support and promote the growth of the industry.         marine resources on food production, the United
               What results is a tug-of-war where progress is               States continues to look to the coast and ocean for
               difficult to achieve. Obvious in their analysis is the       recreation, tourism, and other economic pursuits. We
               view that complete consensus on the future role of           as a country of plenty have not had to look to the
               the federal government in support of aquaculture             seas to provide sustenance for our citizens. Pressures
               will be difficult to achieve.                                to effect a major cultural change in the way we now
                                                                            use our coastal and marine resources have not risen
               In addition to the many federal departments and              to a critical level; why change when we can import
               agencies that are involved in aquaculture policy,            seafood from overseas? The impetus to unite the
               regulation, management, and/or support, Becker               industry, U.S. Congress, the federal agencies, the
               and Buck (1997) point out that jurisdiction over             states, and constituents together to create this cul-
               aquaculture-related issues is divided among several          tural shift has been lacking. As a result, marine
               congressional committees as well. In the Senate,             aquaculture's place among the many uses of the
               aquaculture and related issues are divided among             nation's coastal and ocean waters is not as yet
               the Committees on Agriculture, Nutrition and                 established.
               Forestry; Commerce, Science and Transportation;
               Energy and Natural Resources; Environment and


               90







                                                                           Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

               The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 contains a             without a budget, participation by any of the agen-
               clear and unambiguous statement in support of               cies is not mandatory, and there is no formal voting
               aquaculture development in the United States. The           structure nor dispute resolution process in place.
               United States, through Congress and the Administra-         Areas where the role of the JSA could be strength-
               tion, with the support of industry and the involve-         ened include:
               ment of all constituencies, must take a hard look at
               the current situation and decide if it wishes to            a. Status of the ISA
               aggressively pursue the policy. Many scholars,
               academics, industry leaders, and others have offered          The role of the JSA in the administration should be
               a wide range of possible solutions to address the           expanded to include policy development and imple-
               constraints limiting marine aquaculture develop-            mentation.
               ment, but without strong commitment and leader-
               ship by the federal government to work toward this            The permanence of the JSA should be established
               goal, the current situation will be hard to improve.        through the provision of a stable source of funding
                                                                           and staff assistance to improve coordination and
               2. Support Sustainable Marine Aquaculture                   consistency of policy development and implementa-
                                                                           tion.
               Marine aquaculture in coastal and offshore waters of
               the United States must be developed with an eye               The JSA should enhance the involvement of key
               toward sustainability - with a goal of producing            representatives from the marine aquaculture indus-
               products while conserving natural resources. Its            try, environmental community, and other constituen-
               development must have a solid ecological perspec-           cies in its deliberations and decision-making.
               tive that is compatible with the social, economic, and
               environmental goals of coastal communities, which           b. Federal Permitting and Regulatory Structure
               will require the active involvement of community
               leaders and other relevant parties in the process. The      * The JSA should be charged with designing a
               development and use of risk assessment tools, best          streamlined planning and permitting framework for
               management practices, and educational and training          marine aquaculture activities in the coastal zone,
               programs must be incorporated into all federal              emphasizing joint local, state, and federal coordina-
               efforts to develop and support the industry. The            tion in consultation with the marine aquaculture
               development of environmental criteria for marine            industry, the states, and pertinent constituencies.
               aquaculture operations must be base on the genera-
               tion of science-based information. These and other            The JSA should be charged with the primary
               factors must be incorporated into federal policies and      responsibility for developing a coordinated manage-
               plans if we are to see the marine aquaculture sector        ment and regulatory framework for offshore aquac-
               grow in the future.                                         ulture activities, in consultation with all relevant
                                                                           federal and state agencies and constituencies.
               3. Strengthen Policy Development through Im-
               proved Coordination                                         c. Federal Research and Development Activities

               Assuming the United States is truly committed to the        * The JSA should conduct an assessment of all
               development of the marine aquaculture industry,             ongoing federal funding programs to assess the
               mechanisms must be put into place to refine existing        nature and scope of current activities and whether
               and establish new implementation measures to guide          they are meeting the needs of the industry and the
               its growth. The fundamental framework to meet this          public.
               challenge already exists with the Joint Subcommittee
               on Aquaculture. Currently, JSA plays an important             The JSA should, based on the assessment, develop a
               role in coordinating federal agency activities and          coordinated, cross-cutting funding plan to ensure
               ensuring communication among the agencies in the            that future key needs and issues related to marine
               areas of research, transfer, and assistance programs in     aquaculture are being addressed in an efficient and
               aquaculture, and providing recommendations for              non-duplicative manner.
               federal aquaculture policy. The potential for enhanc-
               ing the role of the JSA in dealing with and resolving
               the many issues facing marine aquaculture lies with
               its membership. However, it presently operates


                                                                                                                                   91







                 Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 Conclusion                                                      Chamberlain, G. and H. Rosenthal. 1995. Aquacul-
                                                                                 ture in the next century: Opportunities for growth-
                 The key to the future of marine aquaculture in the              challenges of sustainability. World Aquaculture
                 United States is the creation of technological and              26(l):21-25.
                 political systems that provide for sustainable marine
                 aquaculture. Sustainable aquaculture will only be               Culliton, T.J., M.A. Warren, T.R. Goodspeed, D.G.
                 achieved if all facets of the industry - production             Remer, C.M. Blackwell, and J.J. McDonough 111.
                 and technology, economics and marketing, business               1990. Fifty years of population change along the nation's
                 and financing, natural resource needs and protec-               coasts. National Ocean Service, NOAA, Rockville,
                 tions, and administrative and legal institutions - are          MD. 41 pp.
                 dealt with simultaneously. This is a lofty goal, given
                 the diverse nature of the marine aquaculture indus-             deFur, P.L. and D.N. Rader. 1995. Aquaculture in
                 try, but the modus operandi of the last three decades           estuaries: feast or famine? Estuaries 18(1A): 2-9.
                 in dealing with the needs of the industry will not be
                 enough. Systems that will move the industry for-                DeVoe, M.R. (editor). 1992. Proceedings of a Conference
                 ward will require an unequivocal commitment by the              and Workshop on Introductions and Transfers of Marine
                 nation's political leadership to create them, by the            Species: Achieving a Balance Between Economic Develop-
                 federal bureaucracy to implement them, by the                   ment and Resource Protection. S.C. Sea Grant Consor-
                 academic community to generate and extend infor-                tium, Charleston. 201 pp.
                 mation to improve them, and by the industry to put
                 them into practice. Coordination, cooperation,                  DeVoe, M.R. 1994. Aquaculture and the marine
                 communication, and education will be the primary                environmental: Policy and management issues and
                 tools required to move the United States toward a               opportunities in the United States. Bulletin of Natural
                 viable and sustainable marine aquaculture industry.             Resources of the Institute of Aquaculure, supplement
                                                                                 1:111-123.
                 Literature Cited
                                                                                 DeVoe, M.R. 1997. Marine aquaculture regulation in
                 Ackefors, H. and C. G. Rosen. 1979. Farming aquatic             the United States: Environmental policy and manage-
                 animals: The emergence of a worldwide industry                  ment issues. In: Interactions Between Cultured Species
                 with profound ecological consequences. Ambio 8(4):              and Naturally Occurring Species in the Environment,
                 132-143.                                                        Proceedings of the 24th U.S.-Japan Aquaculture
                                                                                 Panel Symposium, Oct. 8-10,1995. Texas A&M
                 Ackefors, H. and A. Sodergren. 1985. Swedish                    University Sea Grant College Program. 16 pp.
                 experiences of the impact of aquaculture on the
                 environment. International Councilfor the Exploration           DeVoe, M.R. and A.S. Mount. 1989. An analysis of
                 of the Sea, C.M. 1985/E:40.7                                    10state aquaculture leasing systems: Issues and
                                                                                 strategies. Journal of Shellfish Research 8(l):233-239.
                 Aspen Corporation. 1981. Aquaculture in the United
                 States: Regulatory constraints. Final Report, Contract          DeVoe, M.R., R.S. Pomeroy, and A.W. Wypyszinski.
                 No. 14-16-009-79-095 to U.S. Fish and Wildlife                  1992. Aquaculture conflicts in the eastern United
                 Service. 51 pp.                                                 States. World Aquaculture 23(2):24-25.

                 Bardach, J. 1995. Aquaculture and sustainability,               Ewart, J.W., J. Hankins, and D. Bullock. 1995. State
                 World Aquaculture 26(l):2.                                      policies for aquaculture effluents and solid wastes in the
                                                                                 northeast region, NRAC Bull. No. 300-1995, Northeast-
                 Becker, G.S. and E.H. Buck. 1997. Aquaculture and the           ern Regional Aquaculture Center, North Dartmouth,
                 federal role. Congressional Research Service, U.S.              MA. 24 pp.
                 Library of Congress. 97-436 ENR. 29 pp.
                                                                                 Food and Agricultural Organization. 1997 (on-line).
                 Breaux, RW. 1992. Comparative study of state aquacul-           Fisheries Statistics. http://wwwfao-org
                 ture regulation and recommendationsfor Louisiana. LCL
                 93, Louisiana Sea Grant Legal Program, Baton Rouge,             Goldburg, R. and T. Triplett. 1997. Murky waters:
                 LA. 8 pp.                                                       Environmental effects of aquaculture in the United States.
                                                                                 Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, DC. 196
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               Harvey, D.J. 1994. Outlookfor U.S. aquaculture. Agri-        Rubino, M.C. and C.A. Wilson. 1993. Issues in    Aqua-
               cultural Outlook Conference, Outlook '94, Session 20.        culture Regulation. Bluewaters, Inc., Bethesda, MD. 72
               U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 6 pp.             PP.

               Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture (JSA). 1993.               Sandifer, P.A. 1994. U.S. coastal aquaculture: Flirting
               Aquaculture in the United States: Status, opportunities      with opportunity. Water Farming Journal 8(4):3-16.
               and recommendations. Report to the Federal Coordi-
               nating Council on Science, Engineering and Technol-          Stickney, R. Offshore aquaculture: Technology and policy
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                                                                            ogy Assessment. 60 pp.
               Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture. 1983. National
               Aquaculture Development Plan, Volume 1. Washington,          Weston, D.P. 1986. The environmental affects offloating
               DC. 67 pp.                                                   mariculture in Puget Sound. Report 87-16 to Washing-
                                                                            ton Dept. Fisheries and Ecology. 148 pp.
               McCoy 11, H.D. 1989. Commercial aquaculture zones:
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               Muir, J.R 1985. Aquaculture-Towards the Future.
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               National Research Council (U.S.). 1978. Aquaculture in
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               National Research Council (U.S.). 1991 Marine
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               Naylor, R.L., R.J. Goldburg, H. Mooney, M.
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               Nixon, D.W. 1994. Aquaculture: Impediments to
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               National Marine Fisheries Service. 1998 (on-line).
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               Odum, W.E. 1974. Potential effects of aquaculture on
               inshore coastal waters. Environmental Conservation
               1(3):225-230.

               Rosenthal, H. 1985. Constraints and perspectives in
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               Rosenthal, H., D. Weston, R. Gower, and E. Black.
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                                                                                                                                    93







                                                                           Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                   OFFSHORE MARINE AQUACULTURE IN THE U.S. EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC
                                   ZONE (EEZ): LEGAL AND REGULATORY CONCERNS

                                                  Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick**
                                *University of Maine School of Law, "University of Delaware


              Future development of marine aquaculture in the              This paper describes the current federal regulatory
              U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is constrained            framework, identifies important elements that need
              by legal and regulatory concerns which need to be            to be included in an improved government frame-
              addressed in                                                             work, reviews the major legal obstacles to
              order for the                                                            offshore aquaculture, and presents an
              industry to               A major study coordl-                          overview of recent U.S. government
              become finan-               ated by the National                         planning initiatives.'
              cially viable and         n
              internationally           Research Council's Marine                      Current Federal Regulatory Framework
              competitive.              Board concluded there
              These concerns            ore significant opportuni-                     Federal authority over offshore marine
              relate to prop-           ties f                                         aquaculture rests primarily with two
              erty rights for                    r future groWth of                    agencies: the Army Corps of Engineers
              aquaculture               marine aquaculture in the                      (Corps) and the Environmental Protection
              operators,                United States.                                 Agency (EPA). Under the Rivers and
              conflicts with                                                           Harbors Act,' as amended by the Outer
              competing uses                                                           Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCS),' the
              of public waters,                                                        Corps is responsible for issuing permits
              and regulatory gaps and overlap. Failure to resolve          for structures located in navigable waters. In its
              these issues creates uncertainties for the economic          "public interest review  116 of requests for aquaculture
              viability of offshore aquaculture projects, making it        facilities, the Corps considers the benefits and
              difficult for potential investors to obtain financing.       detriments to the public interest, including environ-
              While some states have addressed these concerns for          mental, economic, aesthetic, navigation, property
              projects within the portion of the EEZ under their           rights, and international interests. Under the Clean
              jurisdiction (for most states, out to 3 nautical miles),     Water Act,' EPA asserts regulatory authority over
              the federal government approach with respect to              discharges from aquaculture facilities as "concen-
              aquaculture facilities in the federal portion of the         trated aquatic animal production facilities."' Other
              EEZ (from the state boundary out to 200 nautical             federal agencies, including NOAA!s National Marine
              miles offshore) is piecemeal. Most                                                                  Fisheries Service
              importantly, there is no clear legal basis                                                          and the Fish and
              for granting property rights that are                                                               Wildlife Service,
                                                                      ... the industry will continue              have an opportu-
              needed to protect the large investments
              necessary to build and operate offshore                 to face serious obstacles                   nity to review
              aquaculture facilities in the open ocean.               until the legal and regula-                 and comment on
                                                                                                                  any permit
                                                                      tory regime Is modified to
              A major study coordinated by the Na-                                                                proposed for
              tional Research Council's Marine Board                  clarify rights andjurisdiC-                 issuance by the
              concluded there are significant opportu-                fions, eliminate overlap,                   Corps or EPA. In
              nities for future growth of marine aquac-               and fill regulatory gaps.                   addition,
              ulture in the United States.' More re-                                                              NOAA!s regional
              cently, the Environmental Defense Fund                                                              Fisheries Man-
              gave the industry a qualified blessing                                                              agement Coun-
              when it concluded that "aquaculture need not be a            cils have authority over the harvesting of species
              polluting industry."' However, the industry will             covered by fishery management plans-9 Federal
              continue to face serious obstacles until the legal and       leasing of portions of the seabed beyond state waters
              regulatory regime is modified to clarify rights and          for aquaculture is not presently possible under the
              jurisdictions, eliminate overlap, and fill regulatory        Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act."
              gaps.


                                                                                                                                     95






               Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               Elements of An Improved Government Framework                tion in decisions affecting public resources. Hearings
               forAquaculture                                              should be formal enough to exclude interventions
                                                                           not relevant to the licensing decision, but not so
               The Marine Law Institute" has developed a set of 10         formal that small-scale sea farm applicants are faced
               recommendations to improve the regulatory frame-            with prohibitive application costs.
               work for aquaculture:
                                                                           9. Insurance Pool - Public and private efforts should
               1. Marine Zones - The responsible government                work to create an insurance pool to compensate sea
               agency should identify marine zones favorable to sea        farmers for losses due to product destruction or
               farming and consistent with desired environmental           water impoundment orders to protect public health.
               conditions and potential use conflicts.
                                                                           10. Small-Scale and Experimental Farming - State and
               2. Common Application Procedure - All state and             local licensing authorities should adopt license-by-
               federal permits and leases should share a common            rule procedures for small-scale and experimental
               application procedure, siting criteria, and site evalua-    farming, with reduced application requirements and
               tion and monitoring protocols.                              expedited procedures.

               3. Property Interests - Aquaculture leases or licenses      Legal Obstacles to Consider in Revising the Regula-
               should convey an exclusive property interest in the         tory Framework
               cultured species as well as in the right to harvest it
               from the leased area, as far as it is consistent with       In 1978, the National Research Council" identified
               public rights of navigation and fishing. This is            the major legal obstacles to development of the
               necessary to secure the sea farmer's investment             aquaculture industry. These concerns remain rel-
               against negligence, theft, and vandalism, and to            evant to current discussions about the federal regula-
               allow for civil causes of action against persons who        tory framework.
               interfere with or damage aquaculture facilities.
                                                                           1. Limited availability of property rights or other
               4. Agency Coordination - State and federal agencies         interests that can secure a producer's investment
               should adopt memoranda of understanding on
               coordinating enforcement, research, and technical           2. Poorly defined standards that fail to reduce
               assistance.                                                 conflicts among competing users of public resources

               5. Cooperative Arrangements - Maximum acreage               3. Poorly defined agency jurisdictions leading to
               limitations should not apply to contracts, joint            delays in defining applicable standards or regula-
               ventures, or partnerships between small-scale sea           tions
               farmers and larger aquaculture companies so that
               cooperative arrangements can be implemented.                4. Redundant regulations due to overlapping agency
                                                                           responsibilities
               6. Economic Priorities - Government agencies should
               provide priorities in licensing or leasing to fishermen     5. Inappropriate restrictions designed to protect wild
               displaced by conservation restrictions on the capture       stocks
               fisheries as an appropriate non-discriminatory means
               of promoting local economic benefits from sea               Any changes in the federal regulatory framework
               farming.                                                    need to keep these obstacles in mind in the develop-
                                                                           ment of provisions relating to property rights,
               7. Community Relations - Sea farm applicants should         conflicts with other users, and regulatory require-
               be encouraged to enter into private agreements with         ments.
               local fishermen's organizations, cooperatives, or
               community groups for work in the sea farming                Property Rights
               operation, to prevent use conflicts and promote local
               economic benefits and acceptance of sea farms.              The key concern with respect to the legal framework
                                                                           affecting marine aquaculture is: how secure is the
               8. Public Hearings - Agency public hearing proce-           interest that the sea farmer receives from the govern-
               dures should balance the due process rights of sea          ment? For the interest to function as a property
               farm leaseholders with the public right of participa-       interest, it needs to have some or all of the following


               96







                                                                           Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

               attributes: transferability, duration and renewability,     sea farmer with the advantages of obtaining the
               and revocability only for failure to perform specified      approval of multiple agencies without imposing
               conditions.                                                 heavy costs in time and money to obtain them.

               In addition, special legal principles designed to           The administrative process should include a speedy
               protect public uses, known as public trust rights,          mechanism for exempting aquaculture from regula-
               come into play." These public property interests            tions that are designed to conserve wild fish stocks,
               must be balanced against the sea farmer's needs for a       such as restrictions on harvesting or limited vessel-
               secure interest in the cultured species and for protec-     days at sea . These decisions should not have to be
               tion against damage from other activities.                  made on a case-by-case basis or require a special
                                                                           waiver or exemption, and conflicts of interest should
               Future federal regulatory policy must also consider         be avoided. Because fishermen are likely to oppose
               the legal differences between the lease and license         aquaculture ventures they perceive as producing
               forms of tenure. Leases have certain advantages over        competition for limited fishing grounds or seafood
               licenses in terms of security of tenure. Neither,           markets, the federal regional fishery management
               however, can convey permanent, exclusive control of         councils (which include strong fishing industry
               an area of the ocean because of the public property         representation) are not an appropriate authority for
               rights and other principles mentioned above. .              EEZ aquaculture decisions.

               Finally, the federal government needs to provide for        Current Status of U.S. Government Planning Efforts
               criminal sanctions and a civil right of action against
               individuals who violate the sea farmer's rights as          The U.S. government has begun to focus on the issue
               lessee of the seabed and water column.                      of offshore aquaculture in the Exclusive Economic
                                                                           Zone, although much more remains to be done. The
               Conflicts Among Competing Users                             major initiatives come from the interagency Joint
                                                                           Subcommittee on Aquaculture USA) and the Na-
               Even when the sea farmer's lease or license is backed       tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
               by criminal sanctions against persons damaging or           (NOAA).
               interfering with the farm, peaceful co-existence
               among all users of the marine environment cannot be         The JSXs draft National Aquaculture Development
               ensured. The process for issuing leases or licenses         Plan 14 calls for "an appropriate and harmonized
               must therefore protect the sea farmer from conflicts        Federal regulatory framework" for aquaculture. The
               with other marine uses. Other public and private            plan highlights "the complex, fragmented, and
               uses of the marine environment that are potentially         uncertain regulatory environment" and points out
               affected by aquaculture activities (navigation, fishing,    that "as a result, aquatic farmers may either be
               etc.) need to be identified in the statutory authority      required to comply with a daunting and expensive
               for the leasing of public waters or submerged lands,        array of regulations or, as exemplified by offshore
               and a mechanism for considering information about           marine aquaculture initiatives, be forced to operate in
               other uses needs to be included in the decision             a highly uncertain regulatory framework" (Section
               process. Failure to consider other uses in the licens-      4.4.8). The plan's list of needed regulatory improve-
               ing process can result in serious use conflicts, leading    ments includes "permits and regulations for com-
               to court challenges that interfere with operations and      mercial aquaculture operations in public waters,
               could ultimately produce judicial decisions adversely       including Federal marine waters" (Section 5.8).
               affecting future sea farming opportunities.                 Although the Plan was revised in 1996, the draft has
                                                                           yet to be formally adopted by the JSA.
               Agency Regulatory Requirements
                                                                           Within NOAA, marine aquaculture issues are being
               The issue of fragmentation and overlapping agency           addressed in several ways. In February 1998, NOAA
               mandates has two sides. An apparently redundant             adopted an agency-wide aquaculture policy, ele-
               regulatory requirement may actually serve a useful          ments of which have been incorporated in its strate-
               purpose. Jurisdictional overlap can improve the             gic plan. The agency has also drfated an aquaculture
               security of the interest the sea farmer obtains when it     policy for the entire Department of Commerce, which
               signals that an agency with a different constituency        is expected to be adopted in February 1999. In
               has accepted an aquaculture project both in principle       addition, the National Marine Fisheries Service
               and in reality. The objective should be to provide the      (NMFS) has drafted legislation for aquaculture


                                                                                                                                   97






             Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

             leasing in the EEZ. The proposed legislation is             (June 1998), which made no modifications to the
             undergoing internal review within the Department of         existing federal approach. However, funding for
             Commerce, and its prospects are uncertain at this           marine aquaculture is included in the Clinton
             time.                                                       Administration's National Oceans Initiative, an-
                                                                         nounced in June 1998. If enacted, the proposal will
             NOAA!s strategic plan" includes agency promotion            provide $ 3 million annually over a 3-year peirod
             of robust and environmentally sound aquaculture             beginning in fiscal year 2000. Adoption of JSA's draft
             development. The plan recognizes the need for a             National Aquaculture Development Plan could serve
             timely regulatory process, and specifically mentions        as a vehicle for promoting needed change in the legal
             the need to emphasize "a regulatory framework and           and regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture
             permitting process for aquaculture in the EEZ." The         and devising a federal policy for leasing federal
             plan includes the following performance measures            waters in the EEZ.
             for the next 5 years:

             1. Promote the commercial rearing of at least seven
             new species.                                                Notes

             2. Reduce the time and cost of                              1. Committee on Assessment of Technology and
             permittingenvironmentally sound aquaculture                 Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the United
             ventures.                                                   States, National Research Council (U.S.), Marine
                                                                         Aquaculture: Opportunities for Growth: Report of the
             3. Provide financial assistance for environmentally         Committee on Assessment of Technology and
             sound aquaculture ventures.                                 Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the United
                                                                         States, Marine Board, Commission on Engineering
             4. Identify areas in coastal waters and the EEZ             and Technical Systems, National Research Council
             suitable for environmentally sound aquaculture              (Washington: National Academy Press, 1992).
             development.
                                                                         2. Rebecca Goldburg and Tracy Triplett, Murky
             5. Develop and implement environmentally sound              Waters: Environmental Effects of Aquaculture in the U.S.
             aquaculture technologies and practices.                     (New York: Environmental Defense Fund, 1997).

             NOAA!s implementation strategy specifically                 3. Portions of this paper are based on earlier work by
             mentions the need to develop a coordinated policy           one of the authors. See Alison Rieser, "Defining the
             on the use of the EEZ for private aquaculture, to           Federal Role in Offshore Aquaculture: Should It
             address user conflicts affecting aquaculture develop-       Feature Delegation to the States?" in Ocean and
             ment, and to determine requirements for the siting of       Coastal Law journal 2 (1997): 209-234.
             aquaculture operations in the EEZ.
                                                                         4. 33 U.S.C. ï¿½ 403 (1994).
             Conclusion
                                                                         5.43 U.S.C. ï¿½ 1333(e) (1994).
             Progress with respect to federal regulation of offshore
             marine aquaculture in the U.S. EEZ is slow. The             6. 33 C.F.R. ï¿½ 320.4(a)(1) (1995).
             National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) funded a
             regional open ocean aquaculture initiative for New          7.33 U.S.C. ï¿½ï¿½ 1251-1387 (1994).
             England in Fiscal Year 1998, and regional fishery
             management councils have begun to incorporate               8.40 C.F.R. ï¿½ 122.24(a) (1995).
             aquaculture provisions in their fishery management
             plans. However, as noted above, this may not be the         9. The Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Manage-
             most desirable approach to developing a regulatory          ment Act, 16 U.S.C. ï¿½ï¿½ 1801-1882 (1994), amended by
             framework for offshore aquaculture in federal               Sustainable Fisheries Act, Pub. L. No. 104-297, 110
             waters.                                                     Stat. 3559 (1996) does not expressly authorize the
                                                                         regional fishery management councils or the Na-
             A window of opportunity for addressing the issues           tional Marine Fisheries Service to license aquaculture
             discussed in this paper was missed in the most recent       projects in the EEZ. See William J. Brennan, "To Be
             reauthorization of the National Aquaculture Act"            Or Not To Be Involved: Aquaculture Management


             98







                                                                   Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

             Options for the New England Fishery Management
             Council," 2 Ocean & Coastal L.J. 261 (1997). How-
             ever, NOAA!s Office of General Counsel has con-
             cluded that aquaculture constitutes "fishing" under
             the Magnuson Act because it involves harvesting fish
             from the EEZ by U.S. vessels. See Memorandum
             from Jay S. Johnson, NOAA Deputy General Coun-
             sel, and Margaret F. Hayes, NOAA Assistant General
             Counsel for Fisheries, to James W. Brennan, NOAA
             Acting General Counsel (Feb. 7,1993) (discussing
             the applicability of federal laws to aquaculture in the
             EEZ).

             1.0. 43 U.S.C. ï¿½ï¿½ 1331-1356 (1994).

             11. Marine Law Institute, Legal Methodsfor Promoting
             Local Salmon Farming Operations in Down East Maine,
             Report to the National Coastal Resources Research
             and Development Institute (1992).

             12. National Research Council, Aquaculture in the
             United States: Constraints and Opportunities (1978):90.

             13. According to the public trust doctrine, the states
             hold all navigable waters, and the lands under them,
             in trust for the common use of the public. Phillips
             Petroleum v. Mississippi, 484 U.S. 469 (1988). Tradi-
             tionally, courts have protected the public right to
             fishing and navigation in public trust waters and
             lands, and have even expanded the scope of the
             public trust to include other uses such as recreation
             and ecological preservation.

             14. National Science and Technology Council, Joint
             Subcommittee on Aquaculture. National Aquaculture
             Development Plan of 1996 (Draft, 5 March 1996). See
             http: / /ag.ansc.purdue.edu/aquanic/publicat/
             govagen/usda/dnadp.htm

             15. See http://wwwnmfs.gov/bortniak/straplan/
             obj-4.html

             16. National Aquaculture Act of 1980, as amended.
             16 U.S.C. 2801.



















                                                                                                                      99







                                                                                                              Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                                     THE POTENTIAL FOR THE MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY

                                                                                         Shirley A. Pomponi
                                                            Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Florida



                      Introduction                                                                            Branch Oceanographic Institution to Novartis
                                                                                                              Pharma AG, and is in advanced preclinical trials for
                      The marine environment is a rich source of both                                         treatment of cancer.
                      biological and chemical diversity. This diversity has
                      been the source of unique chemical compounds with                                       Federal agency support (e.g., NSF, NOAA, ONR,
                      the potential for industrial development as pharma-                                     NIH) for deep ocean exploration for biotechnology is
                      ceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional supplements, mo-                                      limited, at best. Manned and unmanned
                      lecular probes, enzymes, fine chemicals, and                                            submersibles are woefully underfunded and re-
                      agrichemicals. Each of these classes of marine                                          stricted to a few systems. The trend toward develop-
                      bioproducts has a potential multi-billion dollar                                        ment of remote platforms for understanding the
                      market value (BioScience, 1996). Thousands of                                           oceans and atmosphere has had little application
                      unique chemical compounds have been identified                                          relative to marine biodiversity-and the potential of
                      from a relatively small number of the ocean's biologi-                                  this diversity to yield useful products. Despite the
                      cal and chemical diversity (Ireland et al, 1993). The                                   trend toward remotely operated systems, there is still
                      oceans represent a virtually untapped reso,irce for                                     a need for manned submersible programs to study
                      discovery of even more novel compounds with                                             and sample biodiversity in the deep oceans. Al-
                      useful activity.                                                                        though some submersible systems are equipped with
                                                                                                              specialized tools and chambers that allow samples to
                      There are several marine-derived products currently                                     be maintained under ambient conditions, i.e., high
                      on the market (Table 1). Although this discussion will                                  pressure and, low temperature, there is still a need
                      focus on the current status and future potential of                                     for the development of versatile bioreactors that can
                      marine biotechnology related to the discovery,                                          be deployed and operated in extreme environments
                      development, and sustainable use of marine-derived
                      compounds with biomedical applications, the needs,                                      Table 1. Some Examples of Commercially Available
                      approaches, and opportunities apply equally to other                                    Marine Bioproducts
                      marine bioproducts. The challenge facing the marine
                      biotechnology industry in the next millenium is to:                                     Product                    Application                   Original Source
                                                                                                              Ara-A                      antiviral drug                marine sponge,
                      ï¿½     identify new sources of marine bioproducts;                                                                                                C yptotethya crypta
                                                                                                              Ara-C                      anticancer drug               marine sponge,
                      ï¿½     develop novel screening technologies;                                                                                                      Cryptotetbya crypta
                                                                                                              okadaic acid               molecular probe:              dinoflagellate
                                                                                                                                         phosphatase inhibitor
                      ï¿½     provide a sustainable source of supply; and                                       manoalide                  molecular probe:              marine sponge,
                                                                                                                                         phospholipase A2              Luffariella variabilis
                                                                                                                                         inhibitor
                      ï¿½     optimize production and recovery of the                                           Vent" DNA                  polymerase chain reaction     deep-sea hydrotherinal
                            bioproducts.                                                                      polymerase                 enzymes                       vent bacterium
                                                                                                              Formulaida (Martek         fatty acids used as           marine microalga
                                                                                                              Biosciences,               additive in infant formula
                      Identification of New Sources of Marine Bioproducts                                     Columbia, MD)              nutritional supplement
                                                                                                              Aequorin                   biolurninescent calcium       bioluminescent
                      Marine bioproducts have, to date, been derived from                                                                indicator                     jellyfish, Aequora
                      relatively shallow-water organisms using routine                                                                                                 victoria
                                                                                                              Green Fluorescent          reporter gene                 bioluminescent
                      methods, such as scuba diving. Evaluation of the                                        Protein (GFP)                                            jellyfish, Aequora
                      pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutritional, and chemical                                                                                              victoria
                      potential of products derived from deep water                                           phycoerythrin              conjugated antibodies         red algae
                      organisms has been limited, although at least one                                                                  used in ELISAs and flow
                                                                                                                                         cytometry
                      compound-discodermolide (Gunasekera et al, 1990;                                        Resiliencen (Est e         marine extract additive in    Caribbean gorgonian,
                      ter Haar et al., 1996), derived from a deep water                                       Lauder)                    skin creams                   Pseudopterogorgia
                      sponge-has been recently licensed by Harbor                                                                                                      elisabethae

                                                                                                                                                                                                101







               nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               (e.g., hypersaline, vent, anoxic, and deep-sea habi-             nisms of action Conus toxins are well-known
               tats). Such bioreactors could be used for collection,            (Hopkins, et al, 1995; Shon et al, 1997), and are
               at-sea maintenance, and evaluation of novel macro-               currently being applied to the development of new
               organisms and microorganisms so that their metabo-               classes of drugs. Development of in situ biosensors
               lites can be evaluated under physiological conditions            would enhance our ability to probe the expression of
               that are as similar as possible to ambient conditions.           secondary metabolites in response to various stimuli,
                                                                                lead to a better understanding of the role of the
               Another approach to the identification of new                    secondary metabolites in nature, and perhaps
               products is the incorporation of miniaturized                    provide clues to the potential biomedical utility of
               biosensors; into both collecting tools and bioreactors           these compunds
               for rapid, in situ analysis of both wild and cultivated
               marine organisms for target molecules. A number of               Sustainable Use of Marine Resources
               miniaturized biosensors and probes to study human
               disease processes are in development. Adaptation of              With the enormous potential for discovery, develop-
               these for in situ evaluation of marine-derived prod-             ment, and marketing of novel marine bioproducts
               ucts would be an                                                                comes the obligation to develop meth-
                                                                            ...........
               interesting bioengi-                                                            ods by which these products can be
                                                     4-
               neering challenge.        ;      I  I _,,                                             lied in a way that will not disrupt
                                                                                               supp
                                            With th&@@hotm6us
               Potential applica-                                                              the ecosystem or deplete the resource.
                                                                                               Supply of most marine-derived com-
               tions; are the               -fial for discovery
                                                                            develop
               identification of
                                                                                               pounds is a major limiting factor for
               new or previously                                                               further pharmaceutical development.
                                   I                                                ts    'J
               tmtested species, as         novel marine bipproduc'.                           Often, the metabolite occurs in trace
                                                       'the 66                  to-,        1
               well as analysis of          comes                   fidation                   amounts in the organism, and a steady
                                                                            ;,@                source of supply from wild harvest
               gene expression              develop meth. ods bk Which
               that may be specific                                                            cannot provide enough of the target
               to a particular           :,'these p'ro"'ducts..c'an..iDe@@,,,,,@l,,            compound for preclinical studies. In
               disease or thera-            Supplied ki-a woy thdt will
                                                                                               general, the natural abundance of the
               peutic area.                 not disrupt, the,,ecosystem,.@,,                   source organisms will not support
                                                                                               production based on wild harvest.
                                            or deplete, the resource.
               Development of
               Novel Screening                                                                 Some options for sustainable use of
               Technologies                                                                    marine resources are chemical synthe-
                                                                                sis, controlled harvesting, aquaculture of the source
               The biological evaluation of marine-derived extracts             organism, in vitro production through cell culture of
               and pure compounds for pharmaceutical develop-                   the macroorganism or microorganism source, and
               ment has been based on assays developed for the                  transgenic production. Each of these options has its
               high-throughput screening of large libraries of                  advantages and limitations. Not all methods will be
               syntbetic compounds. They measure a number of                    applicable to the supply of every marine bioproduct,
               end-points, such as activation or inhibition of en-              and most of the biological supply methods are still in
               zymes or receptors involved in human disease                     development. The approach to be used will be based
               processes, inhibition of growth of human pathogenic              on a number of factors:
               microorganisms, and toxicity against human cancer
               cells (Ireland et al, 1993; McConnell et al, 1994;                   Complexity of the molecule: Can it be synthe-
               Munro et al, 1994). None of the assays used in major                 sized using an industrially feasible process?
               pharmaceutical drug discovery programs takes into                    Synthetic processes have been published for
               account the role of marine-derived compounds in                      many marine bioproducts in development as
               nature, i.e., the in situ biochemical functions of both              pharmaceuticals. Unfortunately, most of these
               primary and secondary metabolites, and how those                     are multi-step processes that are not amenable to
               functions may be applied to the discovery of new                     economic, industrial-scale synthesis.
               drugs and probes to study human disease processes.
               Marine organisms as model systems- offer the poten-                  Abundance of the organism in nature: What do
               tial to understand and develop treatments for disease                we know about the impact of collections on the
               based on the normal physiological role of their                      habitat or species populations? Prior to large-
               secondary metabolites. For example, the mecha-                       scale wild harvest of an organism for recovery of


               102







                                                                          Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

                  a bioproduct, harvesting   feasibility studies                been isolated (Wright et al, 1990; Rinehart et al,
                  should be conducted. These should define                      1990). These are both common, shallow-water
                  factors such as the standing stock of the organ-              organisms for which reproduction and growth
                  ism, its growth rate and the factors that affect              have been studied, but the factors controlling
                  growth, and the harvesting and post-harvesting                production of the compounds are not yet com-
                  recovery of the target organism. These impact                 pletely known. The New Zealand deepwater
                  data could then be used not only to assess the                sponge, Lissodendoryx sp., is the source of the
                  potential of supply from wild harvest, but also to            antitumor compounds, halichondrins. The
                  develop models for aquaculture and/or in vitro                sponge occurs at 85-105 meters, but has been
                  production. Unfortunately, this is rarely done.               cultured successfully from cuttings on lantern
                                                                                arrays in shallower water, maintaining produc-
                  Source of the compound: Is it microbially pro-                tion of the bioactive halichondrins (Battershill et
                  duced? A significant number of marine                         al, 1998). Current efforts are directed toward
                  bioproducts with pharmaceutical potential have                modification of metabolite production by alter-
                  been identified from heterotrophic marine                     ing the microenvironment (Battershill, personal
                  microorganisms isolated from coastal sediments                communication). This indicates that aquaculture
                  (Fenical, 1993; Davidson, 1995; Kobayashi and                 of some deep water sponges is feasible; however,
                  Ishibashi, 1993). In addition, some marine                    species from deeper water may have more
                  bioproducts originally isolated from                          critical growth requirements, such as high
                  macroorganisms, such as sponges, have been                    pressure and low temperature.Although in-the-
                  subsequently discovered to be localized in                    sea aquaculture is a cost-effective method of
                  microbial associates (e.g., Bewley et al, 1996).      If      production, it may not afford the opportunity for
                  these symbiotic microorganisms can be isolated                over-expression of production of the compounds
                  and cultured, optimization of production in                   or for complete control of environmental param-
                  marine microbial bioreactors may lead to an                   eters. Development of closed-system bioreactors
                  industrially feasible supply option. If the source            for the culture of both shallow water and deep
                  of the compound is the macroorganism itself,                  water organisms is a particularly challenging
                  development of in vitro production methods                    opportunity for marine bioprocess engineers.
                  could provide bulk supply of the compound.
                  Research in progress in our laboratory focuses on             Biosynthetic pathway: Is genetic engineering
                  establishing cell lines of bioactive marine inverte-          realistic for the compound? If the biosynthesis of
                  brates that can be used as models to study in                 the target compound is understood, it may be
                  vitro production of bioactive metabolites and the             possible to identify, isolate, clone, and express in
                  factors which control expression of production                a heterologous host the genes responsible for
                  (Pomponi et al, 1997,1998). This could ultimately             production of the metabolite. In many cases, of
                  lead to in vitro production of marine                         course, biosynthesis of the product is not known,
                  bioproducts. More importantly, an understand-                 or it is a multi-step process involving several
                  ing of the cellular and molecular processes that              enzymatic reactions. For these cases, transgenic
                  control production of these metabolites could be              production is not a trivial process. Alternatively,
                  used to enhance upstream processing/ culture                  chernoenzymatic synthesis, by which marine
                  optimization and to stimulate production of                   bioproducts are synthesized in cell-free, enzyme-
                  "unnatural" natural products-Le., chemicals                   based systems, offers a complementary technique
                  that the organism would not produce under                     to in vitro and transgenic production methods
                  normal conditions, but which may be more                      for marine bioproducts (Kerr et al, 1996 a, b).
                  potent than the "natural" product.
                                                                           Optimization of Production
                  In situ growth conditions: Is aquaculture an
                  option for deep-water organisms? Both in-the-            Perhaps the area in which marine biotechnology in
                  sea and land-based aquaculture methods have              general, and marine bioprocess engineering in
                  been developed for production of bioproducts             particular, has the greatest potential is in the design
                  from shallow-water organisms. CalBioMarine               and optimization of bioreactors for marine metabo-
                  Technologies (Carlsbad, CA) has successfully             lite production. A variety of bioreactor designs have
                  aquacultured the bryozoan, Bugula neritina, and          been implemented, with varying degrees of success.
                  Ecteinascidia turbinata, the ascidian from which         The opportunity to produce new, bioactive structural
                  the antitumor compound, ecteinascidin 743, has           analogs of known compounds via manipulation of


                                                                                                                                      103






                 Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 culture conditions presents marine biotechnologists          Kerr, R.G., Lawry, J., and Gush, K.A. (1996a) Tet.
                 with a unique challenge for new bioproduct discov-           Letters 37, 8305-8308.
                 ery. Innovations in media development (chemical
                 engineering), bioreactor design (bioprocess engineer-        Kerr, R.G., Rodriguez, L., and Kellman, J. (1996b) Tet.
                 ing), and transgenic production (molecular engineer-         Letters 37, 8301-8304.
                 ing), coupled with efficient downstream processing
                 and product recovery, will be necessary to meet the          Kobayashi, J. and Ishibashi, M. (1993) Chemistry
                 needs of both discovery and bulk production of               Review 93, 1753-1769.
                 novel marine bioproducts.
                                                                              McConnell, O.J., Longley, R.E., and Koehn, F.E. (1994)
                 In summary, the marine biotechnology industry faces          In: Gullo, V.P., (Ed.), The Discovery of Natural Products
                 a unique challenge for the millenium: Inventing a            with Therapeutic Potential. Butterworth-Heinemann,
                 new generation of tools and processes that will              Boston, pp. 109-174.
                 enable a greater understanding of the ocean and its
                 resources and lead to the discovery of new                   Munro, M.H.G., Blunt, J.W., Lake, R.J U., Litaudon,
                 bioproducts for the future, and designing methods            M., Battershill, C.N., and Page" M.J. (1994) in Van
                 for the sustainable development of these unique              Soest, R.W.M., Van Kempen, T.M.G., and Braekman,
                 bioproducts.                                                 J-C. (Eds.), Sponges in Time and Space, Proceedings of
                                                                              the 4th International Porifera Congress, A.A.
                 Literature Cited                                             Balkerna, Rotterdam, pp. 473-484.

                 Battershill, C.N., Page, M.J., Duckworth, A.R., Miller,      Pomponi, S.A., Willoughby, R., Kaighn, M.E., and
                 K.A., Bergquist P.R., Blunt, JW., Munro M.H.G.,              Wright, A.E. (1997) in Maramorosch, K. and
                 Northcote, P.T., Newman D.J., and Pomponi S.A.               Mitsuhashi  'J. (Eds.)' Invertebrate Cell Culture: Novel
                 (1998). In Origin and Outlook: 5th International Sponge      Directions and Biotechnology Applications. Science
                 Symposium 1998, Book of Abstracts, Queensland                Publishers, Inc., pp. 231-237.
                 Museum, Brisbane, Australia, p. 16.
                                                                              Pomponi, S.A., Willoughby, R., Wright, A.E.,
                 Bewley, C.A., Holland, N.D., and Faulkner, D.J.              Pecorella, C., Sennett, S.H., Lopez, J., and Samples, G.
                 (1996) Experientia, 52, 716-722.                             (1998) in Le Gal, Y and H. 0. Halvorson, H.O. (Eds.),
                                                                              New Developments in Marine Biotechnology. Plenum
                 BioScience (1996) Marine Biotechnology Special Issue,        Press, New York, pp. 73-76.
                 46.
                                                                              Rinehart, K.L., Holt, T.G., Fregeau, N.L., Stroh, J.G.,
                 Davidson, B. S. (1995) Current Opinions in Biotechnol-       Keifer, P.A., Sun, F., Li, L.H., and Martin, D.G. (1990).
                 ogy 6:284-291.                                               Journal of Organic Chemistry 55,4512-4515.

                 Fenical, W. (1993) Chemistry Review 93:1673-1683.            Shon, K.J., Grilley, M., Jacobsen, R., Cartie, G.E.,
                                                                              Hopkins, C., Gray, W.R., Watkins, M., Hillyard, D.R.,
                 Gunasekera, S.P., Gunasekera, M., Longley, R.E., and         Rivier, J., Torres, J., Yoshikami, D., Olivera, B.M.
                 Schulte, G. (1990) Journal of Organic Chemistry 55,          (1997) A noncompetitive peptide inhibitor of the
                 4912-4915.                                                   nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from Conus
                                                                              purpurascens venom. Biochemistry 31, 9581-9587.
                 Hopkins, C., Grilley, M., Miller, C., Shon, K.J., Cruz,
                 L.J., Gray, W.R., Dykert, J., Rivier, J., Yoshikami, D.,     ter Haar, E., Kowalski, R.J., Hamel, E., Lin, C.M.,
                 Olivera, B.M. (1995) Journal of Biological Chemistry 38,     Longley, R.E., Gunasekera, S.P., Rosenkranz, H.S.,
                 22361-22367.                                                 and Day, B.W. (1996) Biochemistry 35,243-250.

                 Ireland, C.M., Copp, B.R., Foster, M.D., McDonald,           Wright, A.E., Forleo, D.A., Gunawardana, G.P.,
                 L.A., Radisky, D.C., and Swersey, J.C. (1993) in             Gunasekera, S.P., Koehn, F.E., and McConnell, O.J.
                 Attaway, D.H. and Zaborsky, O.R. (Eds.) Marine               (1990) Antitumor tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids
                 Biotechnology, Vol. 1: Pharmaceutical and Bioactive          from the colonial ascidian Ecteinascidia turbinata.
                 Natural Products. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 1-43.          Journal of Organic Chemistry 55,4508-4512.



                 104







                                                                           Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses


                          EMERGING CHALLENGES FOR U.S. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY


                                   Robert W. Knecht*, Biliana-Cicin-Sain, and Dosoo fang"
                                *Centerfor the Study of Marine Policy, University of Delaware
                                   . "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration


              Biotechnology has become a rapidly burgeoning                affect the operations of the U.S. marine biotechnol-
              industry worldwide.' It is expected to have profound         ogy industry both in the U.S. and in the jurisdictions
              impacts on health, agriculture, and aquaculture, by          of other nations.
              improving food products, enhancing environmental
              bioremediation, curing fatal diseases, and bringing          We see three important emerging issues or challenges
              potential socio-econornic changes. Although still in         which will affect the path of development of the
              the incipient stage, the field of biotechnology stands       marine biotechnology industry: 1) access to marine
              at the threshold of                                                        resources/ organisms; 2) biosafety; and
              the next 'biotech                                                          3) intellectual property rights.
              century. 12                 Marine biotechnology has
                                          recently been embraced                         Issues of Access to Marine Genetic
              it is assumed that                                                         Resources/Organisms
              most of the issues          as a field of great poten-
              applicable to the           Hal by molecular biologists                    The Convention on Biological Diversity
              biotechnology field         and by the biotechnology                       (CBD)6  and the 1982 Law of the Sea
              in general will also        industry because the                           Convention (LOS Convention) are
              be applicable to                                                           important treaties in the emerging
              marine biotechnol-          Oceans ... contain a tre-                      international marine biotechnology
              ogy, because the            mendous range of diverse                       field. The regime for governing access
              latter can simply be        biological resources and                       to marine resources/ organisms under
              defined as biotech-                                                        the jurisdiction of coastal nations for
              nology applied to           unique resources and                           marine biotechnology purposes (both
              marine living               conditions...                                  for samples and experimental research
              organisms.' Ma-                                                            and for harvesting and production
              rine biotechnology                                                         purposes) is in the process of redefini-
              has recently been embraced as a field of great poten-        tion. Traditionally, access to marine resources/
              tial by molecular biologists and by the biotechnology        organisms found within other nations' 200-mile
              industry because the oceans, covering nearly 70% of          Exclusive Economic Zones has been relatively easy
              the earth surface and comprising 90-95% of the               and was governed under the terms of the 1982 LOS
              biosphere by volume of living organisms on earth      4      Convention which entered into force in 1994. Ar-
              contain a tremendous range of diverse biological             ticles 237 through 265 provide that nations conduct-
              resources and unique resources and conditions-for            ing scientific research get advance permission from
              example, the largely unexplored deep-sea hydrother-          the coastal nations in whose ocean zones such
              mal vents, and extreme ocean environments such as            research is to take place. Provisions for sharing of
              cold polar waters and the deep ocean floor character-        benefits derived from the research under the LOS
              ized by intense pressure.'                                   Convention only call for such measures as promotion
                                                                           of the flow of scientific data and information, the
              In spite of the increasing attention on the part of          transfer of knowledge resulting from marine scien-
              molecular scientists and industry on the potential           tific research (especially to developing states), and
              development of marine biotechnology, there are no            the strengthening of autonomous marine science
              coherent guidelines, framework conventions, guiding          research capability of developing states (such as
              norms or principles to specifically govern the con-          including local scientists in research cruises).
              duct of marine biotechnology development neither in
              the United States nor in other countries. A number           In contrast'the CBD paves new ground in interna-
              of existing international agreements related to              tional norms governing access to genetic resources,
              maritime jurisdictions, protection of biodiversity, and      defined as "genetic material of actual or potential
              intellectual property, however, will significantly           value." The Convention calls for the conservation of


                                                                                                                                  105







                  Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 biological diversity, the sustainable use of its compo-           absence of ratification of these treaties, it will be
                 nents, and the fair and equitable sharing of the                  difficult for the nation to significantly affect the
                 benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic                interpretation and implementation of these conven-
                 resources. The CBD recognizes the sovereign right of              tions.
                 nations to control access to their genetic resources,
                 and requires the users of genetic resources to take               Issues of Biosafety
                 measures to promote equitable sharing of the ben-
                 efits, including technologies, with the providers of              The greatest controversies surrounding the issue of
                 those resources.                                                  safety in biotechnology (or "biosafety" as the issue
                                                                                   has become known) have focused on the develop-
                 There is thus a current need to harmonize the provi-              ment of living modified organisms (LMOs) through
                 sions of the LOS Convention and the CBD regarding                 modem biotechnology techniques. Contained use
                 marine biotechnology prospecting and any follow-on                and field release have been distinguished as the main
                 activities that may be involved. It would seem                    categories of intended use of LMOs. Biotechnology
                 desirable, from the standpoint of the development of              has been developed and applied under contained
                 the field of marine                                                               conditions since the early 1970s, and
                 biotechnology, for
                                                                                                   for direct applications and release in
                                                                               R!,"7,,77
                                                                               WE U        ,-,,t,;A
                 coastal nations to                                                                the environment since the mid-1980s.
                                                                                   sr gor
                                                     th,
                                                                                                   Under contained conditions, LMOs
                 agree on the proper-
                                                                  -@dfi hfly-bp
                                                       brf
                              fied                       " t"', "",                           4W   are developed and employed for
                                                          I un,                to `d6,@
                 ties of a uni
                                                                               2t      v
                 regime governing
                                                                               Mati nd,157"        research purposes and are regulated
                                                                                                   b well-established risk-management
                                                                                                    y
                                                                     b             ",k
                 access to marme                                               n tQj6t",,A
                                                                                                   techniques for work in a laboratory
                                                                               Al
                 organisms, and
                 perhaps, formalize it           'b6t&chnp1dgy,..,
                                                                                                   environment. The field testing of
                 as a protocol to the            calls fdr                            S*           LMOs, on the other hand, continues
                 CBD. As part of the        K    h                                                 to pose questions about the interac-
                 development of such                                           M",
                                                                               A, 1* ' "  -11 :,!  tion of LMOs with natural ecosys-
                                                  IV/     M dified, ,
                                                                                                              h as with respect to: possible
                                                                                                   tems, suc
                 a protocol, nations
                 will have to face the                 ultih    TRO)m M,O,,.,,                     unintended changes in the competi-
                                                              r                                    tiveness of natural species; virulence
                 difficult question of           bld
                                                                                                   or other characteristics of targeted
                 valuing the informa-
                 tion contained                                                                    species; possibility of adverse impact
                 within particular marine organisms relative to the R              on non-targeted species and ecosystems; stability of
                 & D investment of the prospecting firm (both before               the inserted genes.
                 and after prospecting) as it attempts to decode the
                 organisms, determine any unique properties they                   Internationally, there are as yet no binding intema-
                 possess, and where it can, develop those unique                   tional agreements to address the transboundary
                 attributes into useful products or services.                      movement of LMOs. However, given the rapid
                                                                                   development in the use of biotechnology, the lack of
                 Another important issue relates to access to marine               sufficient knowledge regarding the interaction
                 genetic resources/ organisms in the deep seabed.                  between LMOs and the environment, the problems
                 There is a controversy whether the exploitation of                which may exist with LMO transboundary move-
                 hyperthermophiles in the deep seabed would fall                   ment, and growing concern of the developing
                 under the LOS regime regarding marine scientific                  countries (the major source of genetic raw materials)
                 research, the deep seabed mining regime, the high                 that they could be used as LMO testing grounds,
                 seas fisheries regime, or whether a new regime is                 there is currently a major effort underway to develop
                 needed.                                                           an international agreement on safety in biotechnol-
                                                                                   ogy. This is taking place under the aegis of the
                 Unfortunately, the U.S. is not currently in a position            Convention on Biological Diversity, which calls for
                 to play an effective international role in harmonizing            "the safe transfer, handling, and use of any living
                 the provisions of the LOS Convention and the                      modified organisms resulting from modern biotech-
                                                             9
                                                       @t6'6, h















                 Biodiversity Convention concerning marine biotech-                nology." CBD's Article 8(g) requires contracting
                 nology since it is not yet a party to either convention.          parties to "establish or maintain means to regulate,
                 While the U.S. can participate as an observer at the              manage, or control the risks associated with the use
                 meetings of both conventions, in the continued                    and release of living modified organisms resulting


                 106







                                                                             Industry-Driven Changes and Policy Responses

               from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse           the North, in particular U.S. and OECD member
               environmental impacts that could affect the conser-           nations, argue that IPRs must be treated as a separate
               vation and sustainable use of biological diversity,           issue.
               taking also into account the risks to human health,"
               and, in the past several years, negotiations have been        In the past, six major international agreements
               underway to produce a legally-binding protocol on             provided the policy framework for international
               biosafety under the CBD.                                      patent law (from the Paris Convention in 1884, to the
                                                                             establishment of the World Intellectual Property
               After the Sixth Meeting of the Open-Ended Ad Hoc              Organization in 1970). More recently, adequate
               Working Group on Biosafety (BSWG-6) held from                 systems of intellectual property rights are being seen
               February 14 to 22, 1999, in Cartagena, Colombia, the          as an important component of free trade and, as
               first Extraordinary Meeting of the Conference of              such, are increasingly being dealt with in the World
               Parties (Ex-COP) to the CBD was held February 22-             Trade Organization and GAT17-related issues.
               23, 1999, at the same venue and attempted to finalize
               a protocol on biosafety for adoption by the ExCOP,            Traditionally, these intellectual property policies
               but failed to pass it. The main areas of controversy          were generally thought to be relevant only to indus-
               were trade issues, treatment of commodities and               trial application, and not to the store of valuable
               domestic vs. international regulatory regimes. The            knowledge held by indigenous peoples around the
               continued debate on a protocol on biosafety will be           world. Several of the international agreements and
               transmitted to the resumed ExCOP session, no later            prescriptions emanating from the Earth Summit,
               than the fifth meeting of the Conference of the               especially the CBD and parts of Agenda 21, place
               Parties .7 Although the biosafety protocol has not yet        strong emphasis on the protection of indigenous
               been adopted, this attempt has catalyzed the atten-           knowledge, on the awarding of benefits for the use of
               tion of the biotechnology industry and of countries           such knowledge, and on the transfer of technologies
               which have advanced biotechnology, in particular the          to the developing world, including those protected
               U.S., because such a legally-binding treaty will              by patents and other intellectual property rights.
               greatly affect an individual nation's behavior and its
               domestic policies on biotechnology in the next                Novel forms of agreements are being negotiated, in
               century.                                                      different countries, among biotechnology companies,
                                                                             governments, NGOs, and the public, to govern
               Issues of Intellectual Property Rights                        bioprospecting, with the aim of achieving a proper
                                                                             balance between protection of biodiversity resources,
               The issue of intellectual property rights (IPRs) is a         protection of industry's interests, and protection of
               controversial subject in the context of the Cl3D,             the public's rights to receive benefits from the
               involving the developed nations (the North)-and               exploitation of public marine resources/ organisms.
               generally those nations with advanced biotechnol-             Evaluating the pros and cons of different types of
               ogy- vis-A-vis the develo ing nations (the South)-            agreements for bioprospecting and adapting appro-
                                            p
               generally nations endowed with rich genetic re-               priate forms to the special needs and requirements of
               sources. The North wants stricter IPRs on new                 the U.S. marine biotechnology industry in its opera-
               biotechnology discoveries, which may guarantee the            tions in the U.S. and abroad is an important future
               biotech industry the recovery of their investments            challenge.
               and costs, plus profits. In contrast, the South com-
               plains of inequitable sharing of benefits and lack of         Work in progress
               guarantees for compensation for the utilization of
               their genetic resources.'                                     A detailed discussion of these issues may be found in
                                                                             Policy Issues in the Development of Marine Biotechnol-
               The issue of the protection of IPRs on biotechnology          ogy: Access, Biosafety, and Intellectual Property, which is
               is not an isolated phenomenon but is linked with              currently in preparation by the authors. The book,
               issues of equitable benefit-sharing, compensation for         based on work funded by the Sea Grant program,
               traditional indigenous knowledge, community rights            examines the relevant international and national
               on the ownership of genetic resources, and transfer of        policy frameworks, analyzes the perspectives of
               technology. Therefore, the South adheres adamantly            various parties involved in these policy debates,
               to the concept of a package deal, that IPRs must be           including scientists working in the field, representa-
               dealt with as a cluster of all related issues, whereas        tives of marine biotechnology companies, national



                                                                                                                                       107







                T@ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                governments, international organizations, and               7. hangbo Bai, Stas Burgiel, Chad Carpenter, Joanna
                international NGOs, especially from the developing          Depledge, Leila Mead, and Lavanya Rajamani.
                world. Topics covered include the development of            "Report of the BSWG-6 and ExCOP Session to CBD,"
                marine biotechnology around the world; current              Earth Negotiations Bulletin, Vol. 09, No. 117.
                status of the marine biotechnology field; and issues
                of access to marine organisms, biosafety, and intellec-     8. Raustiala, K. and Victor, D.G. "Biodiversity since
                tual property rights. A set of findings and recom-          Rio: The future of the Convention on Biological
                mendations to address policy issues in each of the          Diversity." Environment, vol. 38, no. 4:17-45 (1996).
                areas noted above that attempt to balance the com-
                peting interests at stake are also presented.




                Notes


                1. FCCSET, (Federal Consulting Council for Science,
                Engineering, and Technology), Committee on Life
                Science and Health. Biotechnologyfor the 21st Century:
                Realizing the Promise. Washington, DC.: Government
                Printing Office, 1993; OTA (U.S. Congress Office of
                Technology Assessment). New Developments in
                Biotechnology. U.S. Government Printing Office,
                Washington, DC., 1988; Rudolph, F. B. and McIntire,
                L. V (eds.). Biotechnology: Science, Engineering, and
                Ethical Challengesfor the 21st Century. Joseph Henry
                Press: Washington DC., 1996.

                2. Jeremy Rifkin. The Biotech Century: Harnessing the
                Gene and Making the World. New York: Tarcher/
                Putnam, Inc. 1998, p. xii.

                3. D. H. Attaway and 0. R. Zaborsky. (eds). Marine
                Biotechnology: Volume I, Pharmaceuticals and Bioactive
                Natural Products. New York: Plenum. 1993.


                4. P. Weber. "Abandoned seas: Reversing the decline
                of the oceans." World Watch. Paper 116, November,
                1993, p.5 and D. A. Powers "New frontiers in marine
                biotechnology: Opportunities for the 21st century."
                In: Marine Biotechnology in the Asian Pacific Region
                (eds). C. G. Lundin and R. A. Zilinskas. The World
                Bank and SIDA. Stockholm. 1995, p. 17.

                5. NSTC (National Science and Technology Council).
                Biotechnologyfor the 21st Century: New Horizons. A
                Report from the Biotechnology Research Subcommit-
                tee under Committee on Fundamental Science,
                National Science and Technology Council, July, 1995,
                p. 49.

                6. The Convention on Biological Diversity was
                opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de
                Janeiro, Brazil, on 5 June 1992 and entered into force
                on 29 December 1993.





                108









                              4. Trends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


           Panel Four examined recent and projected trends at the state level. The scope of ocean issues of
           concern to coastal states is broadening, Concern aboutfisheries management, maritime and boating
           issues, and direct involvement of local governments are new additions to what had been an agenda
           primarily concerned with environmental impacts. States have recognized the importance of guiding
           community development, conserving open space, discouraging sprawl development in rural areas,
           and protecting agricultural lands. However, it is also becoming clear that coastal communities need
           more support for an improved capacity to efficiently plan for and manage growth and development.
           In addition, states are also broadening theirfocus to include "deep blue water" issues in their overall
           coastal management efforts.


                       Building Capacity for Ocean Management: Recent Developments in
                                                  U.S. West Coast States
                          Marc J. Hershman, School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington

                                                Coastal States' Challenges
                          Sarah Cooksey, State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal States Organization

                             Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policy for Florida
                         James F. Murley and Laura Cantral, Florida Governor's Ocean Committee

























                                                                                                                109








                                                                           Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


                                    BUILDING CAPACITY FOR OCEAN MANAGEMENT-
                                  RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S. WEST COAST STATES

                                                                  Marc J. Hershman
                                            School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington


               Introduction                                                The report, which took 5 years to develop, was
                                                                           presented and discussed at a statewide conference
               In a recent paper (Hershman 1996) this author               involving over 800 people.
               summarized the ocean management initiatives of ten
               United States coastal states. These states were             In conjunction with the report's release and the
               considered "activist" because, to varying degrees,          conference, about 50 bills were introduced into the
               they had taken steps to advance state policy, institu-      legislature, and 15 became law in 1997 (dubbed the
               tions, and management over the use of                                                           "Coastal Flotilla" of
               the ocean areas adjoining the state. The
                                                                                                               bills by the environ-
               paper concluded that there was a trend                _cs new ocean Issues                      mental organiza-
               toward increased state-level participation            arise they ore likely to,                 tions partly respon-
               in ocean management within the United                                                           sible for advancing
               States, and that this trend was likely to             big resolved through                      them). These deal
               continue because the state's role in these            new policies and insti-                   with a range of
               issues had become institutionalized.                  tutions that Increase                     issues addressing
               States are active in the national Coastal             state responsibilities                    fisheries, water
               Zone Management (CZM) program, the                                                              quality, habitat
               National Sanctuary program and in                     and powers.                               protection, and
               regional bodies dealing with fisheries and                                                      shoreline erosion. In
               pollution control. I concluded that as new                                                      1998, the Marine
               ocean issues arise they are likely to be resolved           Life Protection Act was adopted. This legislation
               through new policies and institutions that increase         strives to reform fisheries management for selected
               state responsibilities and powers. The purpose of this      fisheries and to change the standards and procedures
               paper is to report recent developments in the West          for fisheries management. It sets up pilot fishery
               Coast states of California, Oregon and Hawaii to            management plans, restores professional manage-
               determine how their role in ocean affairs has pro-          ment to the fisheries agency, and calls for an ecosys-
               gressed since 1996.                                         tem approach to management.

               California                                                  Parallel to the legislative activity, the Governor
                                                                           issued Executive Order W-162-97 implementing
               California reached a major milestone in March 1997,         many of the goals from the Ocean Agenda. The
               with the issuance of "California's Ocean Resources:         Executive Order calls for an inventory of water
               An Agenda for the Future" (the Ocean Agenda)                quality monitoring programs, development of a
               (Wilson and Wheeler 1997). This comprehensive               maritime policy through a special Executive Order, a
               policy was developed by state government officials          comprehensive review of living resources manage-
               with broad-based participation from many sectors. It        ment programs, an analysis of Federal agency
               assesses the current situation in California's ocean        responsibilities, an ocean information system, and a
               waters from legal, economic, institutional, and             research agenda. The responsible agency for each
               scientific perspectives. It identifies four over-arching    goal is identified and due dates listed.
               goals, details the economic importance of ocean
               resources to the state, describes the ocean ecosystem,      Many of these actions have been taken. A statewide
               lists the responsible management agencies, and offers       Maritime Policy (Ex. Order W-182 -98) designed to
               recommended directions for the future in nine               strengthen the state's role in port-related issues was
               substantive issue areas. The recommendations                signed on August 28, 1998. The analysis of federal
               address such issues as the need for better resource         responsibilities was completed in June of 1998
               inventories, a better system of managed areas,              (Wheeler and Rooney 1998). The ocean information
               improved fisheries management, and many others.             system is now available on the web (ceres.ca.gov/


                                                                                                                                   ill







               Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               ocean). The state's Sea Grant Advisory Panel has           the State Parks Department has taken measures to
               identified the ocean research needs to support the         protect rocky shores.
               plan. The inventory of water quality monitoring
               programs and the living resources review are still in      The OCMP is facilitating a dispute between the
               progress (Baird 1999). (With a new Governor taking         fishing industry and those installing submarine
               office in California, it can be assumed that some of       communication cables. The intent is to propose
               these initiatives will be re-examined).                    policy recommendations to the OPAC for inclusion in
                                                                          the TSP. These recommendations would address the
               Finally, the state announced $3.6 million in grants to     ways damage to fishing gear can be reduced, how
               local governments under the coastal resources grant        fishing areas can remain open even in the vicinity of
               program, which under a 1996 law redefined the              cables, and procedures for establishing a fisheries
               distribution of offshore OCS revenues and reduced          compensation fund.
               local cost-sharing requirements (California,
               Governor's Office 1998). The 32 projects receiving         Four local communities are beginning to use the TSP
               funds are in the central coast region (in proximity to     as a framework for resolving site-specific problems.
               ocean areas where offshore oil and gas activity            Problem-solving is facilitated and supported by the
               occurs) and address diverse needs such as impact           OCMP using a consensus-based process. Once policy
               reduction, acquisition, restoration, fishing, and water    recommendations are formulated, they are submitted
               quality improvements.                                      to the OPAC for inclusion in the TSP. The community
                                                                          plan that is farthest along addresses Cape Arago,
               Oregon                                                     near Coos Bay and North Bend. A 15-month policy
                                                                          development process has been completed. The
               Oregon's ocean affairs over the past 3 years have          policies strive to balance growing recreational and
               centered on implementation of the Territorial Sea          tourist use of the rocky shore environment with the
               Plan (TSP) of 1994 (Oregon Ocean Policy Advisory           protection of marine creatures and their habitat. A
               Council 1994). The TSP establishes a management            primary recommendation is the establishment of an
               framework, a process for making resource use               Intertidal Marine Protected Area. Plans for Port
               decisions, and a strategy for the rocky shore environ-     Orford, Cannon Beach/Ecola State Park, and New-
               ments along the Oregon outer coast. The organiza-          port are being considered using the same approach
               tion responsible for overseeing the plan is the Ocean      as in the Cape Arago plan.
               Policy Advisory Council (OPAQ, a broadly represen-
               tative group. Implementation of the plan occurs            The OCMP promotes research to support implemen-
               primarily through various state agencies. A new role       tation of the TSP. They oversee the multi-year and
               for local governments is emerging. The Oregon              interdisciplinary Pacific Northwest Coastal Ecosys-
               Coastal Management Program (OCMP) provides the             tem Regional Study, which studies the links between
               technical, administrative, and legal support neces-        ecological and socioeconomic systems. They are also
               sary for effective implementation (Bailey 1999).           promoting new research to address rock reef ecosys-
                                                                          tems cooperatively with California and Washington.
               The OPAC is currently undertaking a comprehensive
               review of the TSP for the purpose of clarifying policy.    Hawaii
               An example of one change is the rephrasing of the
               policy to protect renewable resources. The new             Hawaii adopted the Hawaii Ocean Resources Man-
               policy being considered calls for "higher priority to      agement Plan (HO9MP) in 1991. The plan was the
               be given to the protection and conservation of living      guiding document for comprehensive ocean and
               marine resources." This statement of policy is in-         coastal resource management and contained 66
               tended to replace an earlier one that emphasized the       policies and 364 implementing actions for the 10
               priority of renewable over non-renewable resource          sectors and 16 designated agencies. During 1997, a
               use.                                                       status report on the implementation of the plan was
                                                                          produced by the Hawaii Office of Planning (1998)
               State agencies have upgraded their regulation of           and published early in the year. That report gave the
               near-shore areas in conformity to the TSP. For             plan a mixed review, noting that many sectors
               example, the Department of Fish and Wildlife has           ranked high in priority but received little attention
               issued regulations affecting fishing near rocky            (e.g., research and education, ocean recreation,
               shores, the Department of State Lands has revised          beaches, and coastal erosion) and that sectors like
               their procedures for review of kelp harvesting, and        fisheries and energy received low priorities and little


               112








                                                                           Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


             implementation. They did note that the waste                  floating platforms for many types of industry, and for
             management, marine minerals, and aquaculture                  launching communication satellites, is actively under
             sectors were being implemented appropriately given            evaluation and a site near Hawaii is being evaluated
             the status assigned to them.                                  by Boeing's Sea Launch venture (but licensing issues
                                                                           remain). Mariculture issues received continuing
             The report addressed institutional issues as well,            attention in the legislature, but most of the measures
             pointing out that in 5 of the 10 sectors identified no        did not pass. One bill establishing an offshore
             lead agency was assigned and as a result concerted            mariculture demonstration site passed. Finally,
             efforts were lacking. They underscored the impor-             acoustic impact issues from the Navy proposal for
             tance of the Marine and Coastal Zone Management               monitoring submarines is of great concern to Hawai-
             Advisory Group (MACZMAG) as the forum "ideally                ian citizens.
             suited" to address the findings of the 1997 review
             and to coordinate more effective implementation of            It should be pointed out that many of the     *coastal and
             the HORMP.                                                    ocean-related bills introduced into the Hawaiian
                                                                           legislature in the last 2 years were sponsored by state
             The MACZMAG is required by law to advise on the               Representative David Tarnas, a specialist in coastal
             status of the state's CZM program and on the imple-           and ocean affairs. The fact that he was not re-elected
             mentation of the HORMP. MACZMAG has 20                        in 1998 may slow legislative action on behalf of
             members, 6 non-governmental and 14 from local and             coastal issues.
             state agencies. The non-governmental members issue
             a separate report yearly to the legislature. In their         As Hawaii addresses implementation of the HORMP,
             1998 report, they point out the importance of more            some larger issues play a critical role. The first is the
             public awareness and participation in the work of the         challenge of a stagnant economy. This reduces the
             MACZMAG, and the need for greater independence                ability of the state to finance coastal and ocean
             by the state CZM program. At least one member                 programs and pushes the state toward seeking novel
             made an impassioned plea for greater participation            avenues for economic development (such as leasing
             by state agencies and county officials in the work of         state lands for mariculture and investing in marine
             MACZMAG.                                                      biotechnology). Next is the goal of Hawaii to expand
                                                                           its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to include the
             The Hawaiian legislature passed several laws in 1998          remote islands of the archipelago. Should this come
             dealing with management of marine fisheries. A West           to pass, it would greatly heighten the need for
             Hawaii Fishery Management Area (FMA) was                      Hawaii to improve its ocean management capacity to
             established, requiring the state DLNR to formulate a          account for such issues as the Johnston Atoll Chemi-
             plan designating a minimum of 30% of the FMA as               cal Agent Disposal Site.
             "no-take" zones and establishing a mooring buoy
             system with no anchoring zones. The state's Depart-           Discussion
             ment of Aquatic Resources was given greater
             rulemaking authority over certain fishing practices,          All three states have continued to advance an ocean
             and the law increased participation by fishers in the         program. In California, new initiatives came prima-
             process. The state DLNR was given greater authority           rily from the executive branch, with considerable
             to protect irresponsible fishing practices.                   additional leverage exerted by the powerful coastal
                                                                           and marine environmental NGO's. In Oregon, the
             The legislature also addressed boating recreation in a        state government apparatus centered in the OCMP
             variety of ways. Thrill craft regulation was extended         pursued its implementation program systematically
             and a special advisory committee established to               with considerable accomplishment. The Hawaiian
             advise on education and training requirements for             efforts at the executive branch level are still some-
             thrill craft operators. The Hawaii Maritime Authority         what unfocused, and the legislative initiatives have
             was set up to address statewide issues and to change          been the primary vehicle for change.
             the management of small boat harbors (HB2998).
                                                                           Political and leadership changes can influence
             Hawaii addressed some challenging opportunities in            progress in a new subject area like ocean manage-
             new ocean uses during this 2-year period. The state           ment. A new governor from a different political party
             will be a key link in a new submarine cable connect-          is entering office in California, and a key legislator in
             ing the United States, Australia and New Zealand,             Hawaii was not re-elected. (Similarly, a new gover-
             due to be completed in 1999. The use of offshore              nor is taking office in Florida and the Governor's


                                                                                                                                       113







                  Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                  Ocean Committee established under Governor Chiles sea plan. California's coastal grants program pays for
                  in 1997 likely will not survive). In California and             specific projects, but there is no linkage with the
                  Hawaii, new shifts have occurred in assignment of               Ocean Agenda. An interesting development in
                  ocean responsibilities                                                         Washington State adds to this local
                  to executive agencies,
                                                                                                 government emphasis. When the
                  similar to shifts made
                                                                                                 proposal for a national marine sanctuary
                  in the past. Interest-                  -em...      Otlrvshed6s
                                                                                                 for the Northwest Straits reached
                  ingly, the Oregon                                    h,11mar
                                                      a                                          political roadblocks, the U.S. Congress
                  program seems to            *46",                            S,:@on            passed the Northwest Straits Marine
                                                                  n
                  maintain steady
                                                                                                 Conservation Initiative (Title IV, HR
                                                          t
                  progress regardless                                                            3461, 105th Cong., 2nd Sess.). This law
                                                   6    qgoverr)          'oh,                   establishes a new Northwest Straits
                  of political changes
                                                      wn
                  since it is firmly
                                                @'@'neW d,                                       Advisory Commission to pay for and
                                                                        S to
                  rooted in a respected                                                          coordinate the planning efforts of seven
                                                                                  4,
                                                   bd-,@,     en,an
                                                      d b
                  program activity of                                                            local governments in marine resource
                                                  pnt@adly cbhcer
                  the executive branch.
                                                                                                 protection and restoration.
                                                                                 ï¿½R
                  As noted in the
                                                 @bhylrpn
                  earlier article                                                                A third policy shift is in the area of
                  (Hershman 1996,                                                                maritime policy. California and Hawaii
                  p.33), organizational                                                          passed new laws establishing maritime
                  change and revision of policy documents have                    policy for the state and designating responsible
                  hindered progress. With the exception of Oregon this            agencies. California's law was aimed at clarifying a
                  pattern may still dominate.                                     state role in advancing the commercial ports of the
                                                                                  state, especially in areas like dredging policy,
                  There appears to be a substantive shift in at least             intermodal coordination, and environmental policy.
                  three areas. One of these is fisheries policy. Over the         Hawaii's new maritime authority will strive to bring
                  past decade, issues centering on adverse impacts                together the commercial shipping and recreational
                  from offshore oil and gas, dumping or discharge of              boating interests of the state under a single indepen-
                  pollutants, and other effects from industrial-type              dent public entity to improve planning and coordi-
                  uses primarily drove ocean policy development. I                nated use of maritime resources.
                  noted in the earlier article that fisheries-related issues
                  were left untouched because of existing fishery                 Conclusion
                  management agencies (Hershman 1996, p. 34).
                  However, in the past two years all three states have            The experience of these three states suggests that the
                  adopted new laws or policies dealing with fisheries             scope of ocean issues of concern to coastal states is
                  management. California's new law seeks to change                broadening. Concern about fisheries management,
                  fisheries management by promoting pilot projects                maritime and boating issues, and direct involvement
                  using new techniques. Oregon agencies have                      of local governments are new additions to what had
                  adopted new rules for rocky reef fisheries, and a               been an agenda primarily concerned with environ-
                  major research initiative is underway to better                 mental impacts. For these three states, one could
                  understand ecosystem issues for rocky coasts.                   conclude that their capacity for ocean management
                  Hawaii has established a new fishery management                 has improved since new laws and governmental
                  regime for the West Hawaii region that includes                 responsibilities have been identified and added to the
                  mandatory no-take zones and use of buoys rather                 states' suite of management tools.
                  than anchoring. Given the national and international
                  Political attention to depletion of world fishery               On the other hand, many of the cautionary com-
                  resources, it is not surprising that the states should          ments mentioned in the 1996 paper still hold. With
                  start experimenting with new strategies.                        the exception of Oregon, there is considerable flux in
                                                                                  defining responsibility for ocean issues in the states.
                  A second policy shift since the last report is in the           Further, the states are dependent on federal pro-
                  area of local government involvement in ocean                   grams such as the national CZM program, the
                                                                                  0
                                                                                  d






































                  affairs. Oregon has initiated local coastal planning for        National Marine Sanctuary program, and the Na-
                  rocky shore areas, with the Cape Arago plan as the              tional Sea Grant Program for much of their progress.
                  first to be completed. This strategy involves local             This suggests that new initiatives often will be
                  communities in the evolution of the state's territorial         partnerships between federal and state programs.


                  114








                                                                         Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


              These partnerships may restrain state initiatives but      Wilson, Pete and Douglas P. Wheeler, 1997.
              in return provide greater resources and staying            California's Ocean Resources: An Agenda for the
              power once a federal-state accommodation is                Future. Sacramento: State of California, The Re-
              reached. In fact, the institutional structure provided     sources Agency. (Available at "ceres.ca.gov/cra/
              by federal programs may be the vehicle for overcom-        ocean")
              ing the vicissitudes of state and local political forces.

              Acknowledgments

              Thanks are due to Andrew Bennett and Jennifer
              Wadell for research assistance in this paper.

              Literature Cited


              Bailey, Bob, 1999. Telephone interview with Andrew
              Bennett on 1/5/99.

              Baird, Brian, 1999. Telephone interview with the
              author on 1/7/99.

              California and the World Ocean, 1997. Proceedings of a
              conference in San Diego, CA, March 24 - 27,1997. New
              York: American Society of Civil Engineers.

              California, Governor's Office, 1998. Press Release 98 -
              399: Governor Wilson announces $3.6 million to local
              governments. December 22, 1998.

              Hawaii Ocean and Marine Resources Council, 1991.
              Hawaii Ocean Resources Management Plan. Honolulu:
              State of Hawaii, Dept. of Business, Economic Devel-
              opment and Tourism.

              Hershman, Marc, 1996. Ocean management policy
              development in subnational units of government:
              Examples from the United States. Ocean and Coastal
              Management 31: 25 - 40.

              Hawaii Office of Planning, 1998. Survey Overview and
              Analysis of the Hawaii Ocean Resources Management
              Plan. Report to the Nineteenth Legislature of the
              State of Hawaii. Honolulu, January 1998.

              Oregon Ocean Policy Advisory Council, 1994.
              Territorial Sea Plan. Portland: State of Oregon, Land
              Conservation and Development Commission.

              Wheeler, Douglas P, and Peter M. Rooney, 1998. An
              analysis offederal responsibilities related to ocean resource
              management in California. Sacramento: State of Califor-
              nia, Secretary for Resources and Secretary for Envi-
              ronmental Protection.








                                                                                                                              115








                                                                                   D-ends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


                                                      COASTAL STATES'CHALLENGES

                                                                      Sarah Cooksey
                                      State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal States Organization


                Editor's note: Thefollowing remarks represent the                  10 states have adopted comprehensive growth
                author's dual capacity as the Administrator of the Divi-           management acts that establish more rigorous
                sion of Soil and Water of the Delaware Department Of               requirements for local planning of community
                Natural Resources and Environmental                                                                       development and
                Conservation and as the current Chair of the                                                              for related state and
                Coastal States Organization (CSO). CSO was                     It is becomina increas-'                   regional actions.
                formed in 1970 to represent the interests Of                     y                                        States have also
                coastal states, including territories and                      Ingi clear that coastal                    recognized the
                commonwealths.                                                 communities need More                      importance of
                                                                                                                          conservation of
                                                                               support for on Improved
                The Coastal Zone Management Challenge                                                                     open space, discour-
                                                                               capacity to efficiently
                                                                                                                          aging sprawl
                As we seek to enhance our nation's                             plan for and manage                        development in
                prosperity, revitalize communities and                         growth and develop-                        rural areas, and
                enhance economic development, we have                                                                     protecting agricul-
                                                                               ment,
                a concurrent responsibility to address the                                                                tural lands. The
                increased demands that growth and                                                                         public also has
                development places on our coastal re-                                                                     indicated its strong
                sources.                                                           support for these initiatives.     In 1998, nearly 200
                                                                                   ballot initiatives were approved by voters in calling
                Congress was prescient when in 1972 it passed the                  for the management of development and the conser-
                Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) providing                       vation of open space.
                incentives for states, on a voluntary basis, in coopera-
                tion with local governments                                        It is time for a major commitment through the CZMA
                                                                                   to provide new and improved planning and manage-
                         ... to encourage and assist the states to exercise        ment tools for local communities to help them better
                         effectively their responsibilities in the coastal zone    understand and address the extremely complex
                         through the development and implementation of             economic and ecological dynamics of coastal systems
                         management programs to achieve the wise use of            and communities.
                         the land and water resources of the coastal zone,
                         givingfull consideration to ecological, cultural,         Background
                         historic, and esthetic values as well as the needs
                         for compatible economic development pro-                  The CZMA incorporated the essential principles of
                         grams ... (16 USC 1452(2))                                the "smart growth" and "sustainable development"
                                                                                   movements over 20 years before the terminology
                It is becoming increasingly clear the coastal commu-               came into vogue. It is not surprising that these
                nities need more support for an improved capacity to               principles were recognized first as essential to proper
                efficiently plan for and manage growth and develop-                management of coastal resources and development
                ment. An increased commitment is needed if we are                  where the concentration of people and their demand
                going to achieve cost-effective investment in public               for the use of natural resources was most acute.
                infrastructure; identify and encourage a compatible
                mix of residential, commercial, and open-space uses;               Providing suitable incentives and encouraging
                revitalize communities; and conserve and restore                   cooperation among the federal, state, and local
                natural resources.                                                 governments is more important today than ever
                                                                                   before. Coastal areas become more crowded every
                States have recognized the importance of guiding                   day. The rate of growth is fastest in coastal counties,
                community development to make it more efficient,                   where population densities are already five times the
                environmentally compatible, and integrated among                   national average. In addition to being home to over
                the various government agencies. As of early 1998,


                                                                                                                                                  117







                 D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                 50 percent of the U.S. population and most of its               the state and local level through technical
                 major cities, economic activity in coastal areas is vital       assistance and targeted support to states and
                 to the nation-supporting 28.3 million jobs, incalcu-            communities, to implement place-based manage-
                 lable indirect economic benefits as well as direct              ment in our nation's critical coastal areas.
                 support for port and maritime trade, fisheries and
                 mariculture industry, travel, recreation and tourism,           (2) Provide for increased support for state coastal
                 oil and gas development; and, other ocean and                   programs to address the cumulative and second-
                 coastal dependent industries.                                   ary impacts of development and land-based
                                                                                          sources of polluted runoff.
                 The growing
                                                                    W11"", ;"A
                             of                                                           (3) Provide funding under the Coastal
                                                                    -6rt     ',""b of 1@
                 importance                               4W                        Al
                                           'The gtdwing,@@imO            bn'&
                                                                  0
                 wise coastal
                                                                                          Zone Management Fund for regionally
                                           WIS
                             t in              e coos di manager                              ificant projects, international
                 managemen                                                                sign
                                                                             an,          projec
                 economic and                                                                   ts, emergency response to coastal
                 human terms was                                                          hazards, and innovative demonstration
                                           -term@,,,,'@vas,drcimatico.y,@
                 dramatically                                                             projects addressed at local communities.
                                               M'o
                 demonstrated in          @,oe      nAfdtedin:1998hV
                 1998 by the               -1he.., otjtbtedi@S`bf ha"riMs"k
                                                                                          (4) Clarify the role of and provide
                 outbreaks of              &1gd1'b'166ms, and the ex-                     increase support for the National Estua-
                 harmful algal                                      dI'e                  rine Research Reserves and seek to build
                                           pans             h,           ao@-
                 blooms and the                                                           closer links to coastal program
                                                                               as
                 expansion of the
                                                                    SiVe@,,,              (5) Enhance federal support for base
                 "dead zone" of the        we'll                  n
                                                                             J"                             th
                 Gulf coast, as well       -  @V'@
                                           090
                                               0         ibsult6d,frotffi'@:              programs under e CZMA consistent
                                                                                          with increased challenges and responsi-
                 as the extensive          hyfficanes ondlhe 4ffectS'                     bilities, particularly in the nation's
                 damage that
                                                                                          argest
                 resulted from                           -event,                          I      states where base grants have
                                           offl Nhi&              s
                 hurricanes and the
                                                                                          been capped for the past seven years
                 effects of El Nino                                                       despite substantial increases in state and
                 events. These                                                            local need.
                 events demonstrate the need for increased support
                 for state and local efforts to control land-based           What Are the Current Trends in Coastal Management
                 sources of coastal pollution and to improve planning        in the First State - Delaware?
                 for coastal hazards. The potential impacts of human
                 activities on coastal resources and conflicts among         Many things are happening in the Coastal Manage-
                 the competing uses for coastal resources will increase      ment arena:
                 substantially in the years ahead as population and
                 development increase.                                       We have almost completed construction of a 5,550-
                                                                             square-foot building for research and education for
                 The CZMA is the only federal statute which sets forth       coastal management, the first phase construction at
                 a comprehensive voluntary federal-state partnership         our Delaware National Estuarine Research Reserve.
                 based on the goal of maximizing sustainable eco-            That building will be used for targeted, focused
                 nomic and environmental objectives. The CZMA                education and research for current CMP needs.
                 also provides a framework to enhance integration
                 among federal, state, and local governments, encour-        We have a new process to focus decision-making.
                 age interagency coordination, provide incentives and        Partnering with NOAA, Delaware Coastal Programs
                 assistance to communities, streamline the regulatory        has institutionalized a method that uses internal and
                 process, and encourage proactive planning and               external experts and the public to problem solve in a
                 coastal management at the local level.                      much shorter time frame. Successful projects that
                                                                             have used this process include the Pea Patch Island
                 Summary of CSO's proposals for Reauthorization of           Special Area Management Plan, COMPAS Delaware:
                 the CZMA in 1999                                            Kent County Resource Protection Module, Dredging
                                                                             in Delaware, and Delaware Coastal Zone Act Envi-
                   (1) Provide increased support for the develop-            ronmental Indicators Project). The process recog-
                   ment of new tools, which will build capacity at           nizes the importance of good planning, but is ori-


                 118








                                                                 T@ends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


             ented toward implementation of methods to provide
             for reasonable growth and development while
             conserving and protecting our irreplaceable coastal
             resources.



























































































                                                                                                                 119








                                                                                Rends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


                        DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPREHENSIVE OCEAN POLICY FOR FLORIDA

                                                     James F Murley and Laura Cantral
                                                     Florida Governor's Ocean Committee



                Background                                                      mental health. Governor Chiles also appointed the
                                                                                Florida Governor's Ocean Committee (FGOC). This
                The state of Florida is a thin strip of land measuring          Committee is responsible for promoting public
                nearly 35.7 million acres, and bounded on three sides           awareness of the significance of the ocean to Florida,
                by the ocean. Approximately 8,400 miles of tidal                as well as guiding the state's efforts to develop and
                coastline wrap around it, and off its southern tip lie          implement a coordinated and comprehensive ocean
                the only living coral reefs in North                                                               resources manage-
                America - third largest in the world.                                                              ment strategy.
                Florida's territorial waters stretch for 3
                miles off the Atlantic coast and 3 marine              Increasing demands                          This article discusses
                                                                       for Floridas ocean                          Florida's efforts to
                leagues in the Gulf of Mexico, with
                approximately 6 million acres of sub-                  fesources, COUP/ed                          develop an ocean
                merged lands underneath. Without                       with an ever-growing                        management ap-
                doubt, Florida's ocean is its most                                                                 proach that is coordi-
                distinctive feature.                                   abIlity to recover those                    nated and comprehen-
                                                                       resources, are? threat-                     sive, and that can
                Much of that distinction lies in the                   enIng the health and                        account for a wide
                ocean's cultural, environmental, and                                                               variety of uses and
                economic importance. Florida's very                    'vitality of Florida's                      activities. It includes a
                identity is intimately linked to the                   ocean,                                      brief history of the
                ocean; millions come to the state to                                                               current ocean plan-
                experience the ocean's ability to relax,                                                           ning initiative,
                rejuvenate, comfort, and inspire. In                                                               describes the prelimi-
                addition to its intangible powers, the ocean is liter-          nary projects that laid the groundwork for the
                ally life-giving. It is the source of oxygen we breathe,        creation of the Florida Governor's Ocean Committee,
                water we drink, food we eat, and medicines that                 and summarizes the Committee's work to date.
                maintain our health. As an economic engine, it is the
                basis for some of Florida's most important industries,          History
                including fishing, shipping, and tourism. But while
                its abilities are great and its resources vast, they are        Impetus for developing an ocean management
                not inexhaustible. Increasing demands for Florida's             strategy for Florida began with the Florida Coastal
                ocean resources, coupled with an ever-growing                   Management Program (FCMP), which is housed in
                ability to recover those resources, are threatening the         the state's Department of Community Affairs. The
                health and vitality of Florida's ocean.                         Program's motivation sprang from a number of
                                                                                factors. For example, even though in recent years the
                When the United Nations proclaimed 1998 to be the               state has made great progress in terms of responsible
                International Year of the Ocean, it provided an                 management of Florida's coastlines and near-shore
                excellent opportunity to highlight the importance of            waters, management of offshore resources continues
                the ocean to life on this planet. The proclamation              to be conducted on an issue-by-issue basis, often
                spurred many efforts and activities aimed at raising            with conflicting and contradictory results. As the
                awareness of the ocean's value, and encouraged                  coordinating agency for the nine state agencies that
                individuals, organizations, and governments to look             regulate coastal activities, it became apparent to the
                for ways to make changes needed to sustain the                  FCMP that the state needs an integrated framework
                world's precious ocean resources.                               to manage offshore ocean resources and to eliminate
                                                                                inconsistencies between different agency responsi-
                Following that lead, the late Governor Lawton Chiles            bilities. Furthermore, through administration of the
                proclaimed 1998 the Year of the Ocean for Florida,              federal consistency review process, it became clear to
                and encouraged the state to focus on the importance             the FCMP that there are conflicts between private
                of the ocean to its cultural, economic, and environ-            and public activities-for example, between fishing


                                                                                                                                            121







              Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

              activities and military missile testing over the Gulf of     ocean resources. With financial support from the
              Mexico.                                                      FCMP, the report was developed by the Florida State
                                                                           University College of Law, and provides background
              In addition, the need for an ocean management                and perspective on ocean issues. It also summarizes
              structure could be seen through the analysis of              the ocean management efforts of other states, reviews
              important emerging trends in the state.                                                          federal and state law
              Information from a number of sources,                 -A,                                        and policy regarding
                                                                     A
              including the FCMP's own trend reports,
                                                                @@,"BY re%@       ... tn-theneed'@             Florida's ocean
              Florida Assessment of Coastal Trends                                                             resources, and offers
                                                                                       eep blue
              and The State of the Coast, has consis-                                                          suggestions for
              tently maintained that pressures on                    .. ... .          Floridd",               improving the
              coastal and ocean resources will continue
                                                                    'in,                     of                state's managerial
              to grow as transportation needs, boating
                                                                                                               regime.
                                                                             'Other state""'
              activity, tourism, and population growth
                                                                              management
              all increase at astronomical rates.                                                              The second prelimi
                                                                                             (4sing            nary project is
                                                                               s.. in f0c,
              Finally, influences outside the state had a                        on                            entitled the State-
                                                                                      offshore
              bearing on FCMP's decision to initiate                                                           wide Ocean Re-
                                                              ,'Ii":@@,@:.reso@jrces and activities
                ean planning efforts for Florida. By
              oc                                              I                                        I If,-  source Inventory
              recognizing the need to address "deep                      JhcItiding them In                    (SORI). Comple-
              blue water" issues, Florida joined the                                                           menting Looking
                                                              I  . their overall coastal
              efforts of several other state coastal                                                           Seaward's focus on
                                                                                                       2
                                                                  management eff6r1s.,
              management programs, including
                                                                                                               legal and policy
              Oregon, California, Hawaii, Maine,                                                               issues surrounding
              Massachusetts, and North Carolina, in                                                            ocean resources,
              focusing attention on offshore resources and activi-         SORI is designed for use by the marine resource
              ties and including them in their overall coastal             management community and attempts to provide
              management efforts. Provisions in Section 309 of the         accurate and up-to-date information about ocean
              federal Coastal Zone Management Act, which                   resources. Funded by the FCMP and developed by
              authorize the use of federal coastal zone funds to           the Florida Department of Environmental
              support ocean policy projects, helped enable the             Protection's research arm, the Florida Marine Re-
              FCMP to fund a series of preliminary projects to             search Institute (FMRI), SORI is an ArcView-based
              develop an understanding and appreciation of the             Geographic Information System (GIS). Using data
              need for comprehensive ocean resource manage-                compiled by and permanently housed at FMRI, SORI
              ment. With the Year of the Ocean proclamations, the          enables a user with World Wide Web access to view
              time was ripe for a policy dialogue on ocean issues.         and download existing ocean resource information.
                                                                           While it does not contain all the data ever collected
              Preliminary Projects                                         on ocean resources, it continues to grow and evolve,
                                                                           and is a valuable tool to help policy-makers identify
              To give shape and direction to the ocean manage-             what is known and what is not known about
              ment effort, the FCMP funded a series of preliminary         Florida's ocean resources.
              projects that were designed to provide not only
              baseline data on the status of Florida ocean resources,      While the first two projects addressed legal and
              but also to generate support for ocean planning and          policy issues surrounding ocean resources and the
              ultimately to justify the creation of a high-level group     resources themselves, the third in the series of
              that would be charged with developing coordinated            preliminary projects focused on ocean users and
              ocean governance strategies for the state, including         management issues related to the use and protection
              the means to ensure their implementation.                    of Florida's ocean resources. Invited by the Executive
                                                                           Office of the Governor and the Florida Coastal
              The first in a series of three preliminary projects is a     Management Program, the Florida Ocean Policy
              comprehensive analysis of the status of marine law           Roundtable was comprised of state agency represen-
              and policy in Florida. Looking Seaward: Develop-             tatives, maritime industry professionals, and techni-
              ment of a State Ocean Policy for Florida updates an          cal experts - all knowledgeable about the numerous
              earlier study completed in 1989, and is a detailed           issues facing Florida's offshore areas. The purpose of
              overview and assessment of law and policy related to         the Roundtable meetings was to encourage discus-
              the management of Florida's "deep blue water"                sion at the state level concerning ocean resource

              122








                                                                           T@ends and Future Issues in the Coastal States


              management in Florida and to identify current and            public awareness of the importance of the ocean to
              potential problems and conflicts that result from the        Florida.
              existing management regime. The participants
              identified numerous issues, including issues related         The first challenge facing the FGOC was how to
              to marine habitat, water quality, fisheries manage-          organize its consideration of Florida's many ocean
              ment, oil and gas development, boating and marine            issues. Consequently, considerable effort was put into
              recreation, as well as legal and policy issues and           developing a structure for the Committee's discus-
              conservation and protection considerations. Of the           sions and a process for formulating a package of
              many issues identified by the Roundtable as impor-           recommendations to the Governor. Using the priority
              tant and in need of consideration, fisheries manage-         issues identified by the Ocean Policy Roundtable as a
              ment and marine habitat, the development of ocean            frame of reference, the discussion of the issues was
              energy resources, and marine pollution were identi-          organized into three broad issue areas: environmen-
              fied as top priority issue areas.                            tal protection, living marine resources, and economic
                                                                           development. In addition, issues related to intergov-
              With the preliminary projects complete, the next step        ernmental coordination and public outreach and
              toward the development of a comprehensive ocean              education were added to the Committee's work plan.
              management strategy was the formation of a formal
              policy committee, known as the Florida Governor's            The Florida Governor's Ocean Committee met for
              Ocean Committee (FGOC). To assist the FGOC, a                the first time in February 1998. The Committee's
              final discussion piece was prepared - a synthesis            work is being conducted in two phases. Phase 1,
              document entitled Florida's Ocean Horizon. In-               recently completed, explored the issues related to
              tended to be a coherent package that conveys the             environmental protection, living marine resources,
              challenges and opportunities facing Florida as it            economic development, intergovernmental coordina-
              develops a comprehensive ocean policy, the docu-             tion, and public outreach and education through the
              ment describes and offers highlights from Looking            course of five full committee meetings and numerous
              Seaward, SORI, and the Ocean Policy Roundtable.              small working group meetings. The result is the
              While not intended to dictate to the FGOC what               development of two documents. The first, entitled
              issues it should consider, it served as a point of           Florida's Ocean Challenges, is a companion to the
              departure for the Committee's discussions by focus-          Committee's earlier discussion piece, Florida's Ocean
              ing on the three priority issue areas as identified by       Horizon, and serves as the Committee's interim
              the Roundtable.                                              progress report to the Governor. The report describes
                                                                           what the Committee sees as Florida's "Ocean Assets"
              The Florida Governor's Ocean Committee                       - those resources that make a valuable contribution
                                                                           to the state's quality of life - such as living marine
              The Florida Governor's Ocean Committee was                   resources, recreation and tourism, ports, national
              created by executive order on January 9, 1998. The           defense operations, and marine education and
              Committee is composed of 24 members representing             research capacity. The report also includes what the
              government, conservation, education, science,                Committee sees as "Ocean Management Challenges"
              recreation, and business interests. The FGOC is              - those issues, conflicts, or problems that threaten the
              chaired by University of South Florida President             health of Florida's ocean resources. Consideration of
              Betty Castor. It is assisted by 6 ex officio members         those ocean assets and challenges forms the basis for
              representing federal agencies, and is staffed by the         the development of "Ocean Management Strate-
              Florida Coastal Management Program, Florida State            gies"-recommendations about actions the state can
              University, and 1000 Friends of Florida. Process             take to better manage ocean resources in a way that
              design and facilitation services for the Committee's         balances protection with reasonable and responsible
              meetings are provided by the Florida Conflict                use.
              Resolution Consortium.
                                                                           The Ocean Management Strategies are contained in
              The FGOC is charged with several important respon-           the Committee's Draft Final Report. They are orga-
              sibilities including identification of instances where       nized into five broad categories that address:
              current responses to ocean issues are inadequate or
              conflicting; development of strategies that address              Improving information on and understanding of
              those inadequacies or conflicts; improvement of                  ocean resources
              coordination of management efforts by local, state,
              and federal governments; and, finally, promotion of


                                                                                                                                     123






                D-ends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                ï¿½   Creating an improved ocean management                  and strategies should be. In addition, there is strong
                    framework that is more coordinated and compre-         Committee support for establishing a nonprofit
                    hensive                                                group to advocate for ocean issues and education.
                                                                           Finally, there is a move to have the FGOC appointed
                ï¿½   Achieving and sustaining diverse marine ecosys-        by the Legislature as the Florida Ocean Study Com-
                    tems that are capable of supporting multiple uses      mission, with a one-year term to further refine and
                                                                           develop recommendations. In any event, the work
                ï¿½   Raising awareness, promoting education, and            that has been done so far lays a solid foundation for
                    fostering stewardship of the ocean                     future efforts. Through the leadership of the FGOC,
                                                                           Florida stands poised to develop a truly comprehen-
                ï¿½   Facilitating greater financial support for ocean       sive ocean management strategy. As a result, the state
                    research, education, and management                    will be able to better manage its ocean resources and
                                                                           ensure that future generations will have a healthy,
                Each strategy contains a number of recommended             vital ocean to depend upon and to enjoy.
                specific actions aimed at implementing the ocean
                management strategies, including suggestions for
                state agencies that should play a lead or implement-
                ing role in executing strategies and specific actions.

                In addition, the Committee has proposed one
                "Overarching Recommendation." It recommends
                that the Florida Legislature create a Florida Ocean
                Council to provide leadership on ocean issues,
                coordinate ocean resource management, and identify
                priorities for research, education, and information
                needs. The Council would be a nonregulatory
                oversight group, with the primary purpose of
                providing clear policy direction on ocean issues and
                reducing duplication among agencies with responsi-
                bility for managing ocean resources and activities.

                The Draft Final Report will be the focus of Phase 11 of
                the Committee's work, which will consist of a
                dedicated public outreach effort and the refinement
                of the draft. The draft will be presented to Governor
                Bush, state and federal agencies, and the public for
                comment and refinement in the early months of 1999.
                The Committee will then meet again in Spring 1999
                to review the public comments and make necessary
                adjustments to the Draft Final Report before finaliz-
                ing the report and delivering it to the Governor on
                June 30,1999.


                Conclusion


                As of this writing, the Committee is preparing for its
                next meeting, during which it will reach consensus
                upon and formally adopt its Draft Final Report. State
                goverrunent is presently in a period of transition;
                Florida's new governor was inaugurated on January
                5,1999. With a new administration and many legisla-
                tive changes, there is some uncertainty about the next
                steps for implementing the FGOC's work. There is,
                however, a surprising amount of consensus among
                the Committee members on what the important goals


                124








                                Appendix 1. Biographies of Authors and Moderators


              Tundi, Spring Agardy                                       ment at regional, national and international levels.
                                                                         He is a science advisor to the Chesapeake Bay
              Tundi Spring Agardy joined Conservation Interna-           Program and to Maryland agencies and in such
              tional in June 1997. As Senior Director of Coastal and     diverse regions as Alaska, San Francisco Bay, South-
              Marine Programs, she oversees Cl's global marine           ern California, coastal Louisiana and south Florida.
              conservation work and provides the organization            Over a twelve-year period he was a member of the
              counsel on marine policy and science. Through              Marine Board and the Ocean Studies Board of the
              research and applied work in tropical marine ecology       National Research Council, chairing committees that
              and biodiversity conservation, Tundi has instituted        produced significant reports on marine environmen-
              marine protected areas and other coastal manage-           tal monitoring, ecosystem science and coastal science
              ment measures around the world. She is author of           and policy. He has served on numerous agency
              Marine Protected Areas and Ocean Conservation, a           advisory committees and currently serves as Vice-
              comprehensive treatise published by Academic Press,        Chair of the Governing Board of the Consortium for
              UNESCO's Guidelines on Coastal Biosphere Reserve           Ocean Research and Education (CORE).
              Planning, numerous scientific publications on marine
              biodiversity, species conservation, and marine             Charles A. Bookman
              protected areas, and several other popular and
              technical books on the sea.                                Charles A. Bookman (Charlie) works with the Special
                                                                         Projects Office of NOANs National Ocean Service,
              Tundi is an avid diver and has done extensive marine       where he is responsible for the National Dialogues on
              research and surveys in many parts of the globe. In        Coastal Stewardship.
              her current capacity as Senior Director at Conserva-
              tion International and her former position as Senior       Last year, Charlie directed the Year of the Ocean
              Scientist at WWF, and as an independent consultant         Project at The Heinz Center, which brought together
              to the World Bank, UNDP, and private consulting            leaders from industry, government, academia and
              firms, she has undertaken field research in Algeria,       environmental organizations to address the nation's
              the Black Sea region, Canada, Cape Verde, through-         stake in the oceans. "Our Ocean Future," the report
              out the Caribbean, Guinea Bissau, Indonesia, Mexico,       of that effort, has been widely discussed.
              Papua New Guinea, Tanzania and Zanzibar. Prior to
              coming to Washington, Tundi spent three years as a         Charlie directed the Marine Board of the National
              research fellow/ scientist at the Woods Hole Oceano-       Research Council from 1986-1997. The Marine Board
              graphic Institution. She received her Ph.D. in             organized teams and implemented more than 80
              Biological Sciences and her Masters in Marine Affairs      high-level assessments of important national issues
              from the University of Rhode Island, and did her           affecting oceans and coasts. The activities of the
              undergriduate work at Wellesley and Dartmouth              Marine Board were supported by 24 government
              Colleges.                                                  agencies.

              Don Boesch                                                 Charlie is a graduate of the URI Marine Affairs
                                                                         program and also Columbia University. He con-
              Don Boesch is a Professor in and President of the          ducted oceanographic research at Lamont-Doherty
              University of Maryland Center for Environmental            Earth Observatory of Columbia University, and
              Science. Previously, he was the first Executive            helped develop the Maryland Coastal Zone Manage-
              Director of the Louisiana Universities Marine Con-         ment Program. He is a past director and member of
              sortium, and was Professor of Marine Science at            the executive committee of the Marine Technology
              Louisiana State University. An internationally             Society and also the Society of Naval Architects and
              known marine ecologist, he has conducted research          Marine Engineers.
              in coastal and continental shelf environments along
              the Atlantic Coast, and in the Gulf of Mexico, eastern     Susan Bunsick
              Australia and the East China Sea.
                                                                         Susan Bunsick is pursuing a Master's degree in
              Don Boesch is particularly active in extending             marine policy at the University of Delaware, where
              knowledge to environmental and resource manage-            she is focusing on policy issues in the development


                                                                                                                                125







              Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

              of offshore marine aquaculture in the United States.       Sarah Cooksey
              Earlier, she spent many years working in Washing-
              ton, D.C., most recently as a consultant in interna-       Sarah Cooksey is an Environmental Program Admin-
              tional energy for the U.S. Energy Information Admin-       istrator for the State of Delaware's Coastal Manage-
              istration. Ms. Bunsick holds an M.A. in Public Affairs     ment Programs. Since 1992, Ms. Cooksey has been
              from the George Washington University and a B.A. in        responsible for ensuring that federal and state actions
              Public Service from the Pennsylvania State Univer-         are consistent with state policies to provide reason-
              sity.                                                      able growth and development while conserving and
                                                                         protecting Delaware's irreplaceable coastal resources.
              Laura Cantral                                              She utilizes Delaware's National Estuarine Research
                                                                         Reserve as a field site to implement research and
              Laura Cantral is a consultant in Tallahassee, Florida.     education to better coastal management. She was
              She has worked in the coastal and ocean manage-            recently elected by her peers to serve as Chair of the
              ment field for more than ten years. Her primary            Coastal States Organization. CSO represents Gover-
              work experience has been related to ocean policy           nors of coastal states, islands and territories on
              issues, and she serves as a legal and policy advisor       important coastal issues.
              through research, writing, workshops, and confer-
              ences. Her academic training is in law, and she has        Prior to working for the State of Delaware, Sarah
              taught legal research and writing. She also conducts       worked at the United States Environmental Protec-
              workshops on enhancing communication and                   tion Agency in Washington, D.C. At EPA she worked
              leadership skills for scientists and resource manag-       on industrial and municipal National Pollution
              ers. Cantral works closely with NGOs and public            Discharge Elimination System permits, specializing
              sector entities, including academics, managers,            in water quality based effluent controls. Sarah has a
              policy-makers, and scientists, to address a variety of     Masters Degree in Biology from Towson State
              issues related to understanding, using, and manag-         University. She is married, has two young sons and
              ing coastal and marine resources.                          enjoys spending time with her family at the beach
                                                                         and in the garden.
              Biliana Cicin-Sain
                                                                         Thomas 1. Culliton
              Biliana Cicin-Sain is Professor of Marine Policy in the
              Graduate College of Marine Studies at the University       Thomas J. Culliton is a Physical Scientist in the
              of Delaware where she also holds a joint appoint-          Special Projects Office of NOAA's National Ocean
              ment in the Department of Political Science and in         Service. Mr. Culliton has led or participated prima-
              the School of Urban Affairs and Public Policy.             rily on marine assessment, marine monitoring and
              Professor Cicin-Sain serves as Co-Director of the          integrated coastal management projects during his
              Center for the Study of Marine Policy and as Editor-       14-year tenure at NOAA. He has also worked
              in-Chief of Ocean and Coastal Management, an               extensively on planning activities associated with
              international journal devoted to the analysis of all       NOANs National Marine Sanctuary Program. He
              aspects of ocean and coastal management. She chairs        has authored several papers related to population
              the Secretariat of the Ocean Governance Study Group        and development in coastal areas. He holds both an
              and has written many articles and books on coastal         MA in geography and a BS in physical geography
              and ocean governance; most recently, Integrated            from the University of Maryland.
              Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and Practices
              (1998), and The Future of U.S. Ocean Policy: Choicesfor
              the New Century (1999).                                    Richard Delaney

              Among her current advisory positions, she is a             Richard Delaney is the Director of the Urban Harbors
              consultant to the United Nations (UNESCO), the             Institute. The Institute was founded in 1989 at the
              World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank,           University of Massachusetts, Boston. It is a public
              and NOAA, and serves on the Marine Board, Na-              policy and scientific research institute dedicated to
              tional Research Council, and the Department of             public service, research and education. The Institute
              Interior's Scientific Committee on the Outer Conti-        conducts multidisciplinary research on urban harbor
              nental Shelf. She has a PhD in political science from      planning issues ranging from water quality and
              UCLA and has done postdoctoral work at Harvard             coastal resource protection to harbor management
              University.                                                and port planning. Previously, Mr. Delaney has


              126







                                                                                         Workshop Participant Biographies

             served as President of the Coastal States Organiza-          Coastal Zone Management. Prior to that she served
             tion and as Director of the Massachusetts coastal            as the Deputy Assistant Administrator for the
             zone management program.                                     National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in the
                                                                          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
             Rick DeVoe                                                   U.S. Department of Commerce. She also served as
                                                                          the Acting Assistant Administrator for Fisheries from
             Rick DeVoe is Executive Director of the South                January through October 1993.
             Carolina Sea Grant Consortium, Research Associate
             of the Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology          Dr. Foster received her M.S. in Marine Biology from
             and Coastal Research at the University of South              Texas Christian University and her Ph.D. in Marine
             Carolina, and Associate Faculty Member of the                Biology from the George Washington University
             Graduate Program in Marine Biology at the Univer-            where her doctoral research focused on the ecology
             sity of Charleston, S.C. He earned degrees from              and systematics of polychaetous annelids. She began
             Fairleigh Dickinson University (B.S. in Marine               her career with the National Oceanic and Atmo-
             Biology), CUNY/City College of New York (M.S. in             spheric Administration in 1977, first with the Office
             Biological Oceanography), and the University of              of Research and Development, followed by 9 years as
             Rhode Island (M.M.A. in Marine Affairs).                     the Deputy Director then Director of the National
                                                                          Marine Sanctuary Program and the National Estua-
             DeVoe was involved in establishing the agency's              rine Research Reserve Program.
             programmatic and procedural protocols for adminis-
             tering and managing the Consortium's grant pro-              Richard Grainger
             grams. Now, as Consortium Executive Director, he
             serves as the Principal Investigator for the state Sea       Richard Grainger is Chief, Data and Information
             Grant Program and other Consortium federal, state            Service of the Food and Agriculture Organization of
             and private grants, which totaled more than $4.1             the United Nations.
             million in FY1998. DeVoe has also published articles
             on policy and management aspects of marine aquac-            Allen Hammond
             ulture development in South Carolina and the United
             States, and is currently involved in federal Sea Grant       Allen Hammond is Senior Scientist and Director of
             initiatives in marine aquaculture and coastal natural        Strategic Analysis at World Resources Institute. His
             hazards.                                                     responsibilities include institute-wide leadership for
                                                                          new analytic approaches and for WRI's Communica-
             Tim Eichenberg                                               tions 2000 effort; he also directs the Strategic Indica-
                                                                          tor Research Initiative and writes and does research
             Tim Eichenberg is Program Counsel for the Center             on long term sustainability issues. Prior to his current
             for Marine Conservation in Washington D.C. and Co-           position, he was director of the WRI Program in
             Chair of the Clean Water Network, a coalition of             Resources and Environmental Information where his
             more than 1000 organizations working to reauthorize          responsibilities included oversight of the World
             the Clean Water Act. He has served as Legal Counsel          Resources series and he leads WRI's policy research
             for the California Coastal Commission, the Environ-          on environmental and sustainable development
             mental Defense Center, and the Marine Law Institute.         indicators. His WRI publications include Resource
             He has written extensively on ocean and coastal              Flows: The Material Basis of Industrial Economies;
             issues, and has lectured at he University of Maine           Environmental Indicators; editor-in-chief of World
             Law School, Golden Gate University Law School,               Resources 90-91, 92-93, and 94-95; and editor-in-chief
             and the Environmental Law Institute. He is a                 of the Information Please Environmental Almanac for
             graduate of the Washington University School of              1992,1993, and 1994.
             Law and Earlham College, and was a Post-Doctoral
             Fellow in Marine Policy at the Woods Hole Oceano-            Dr. Hammond is an accomplished scientist and
             graphic Institution. He is a member of the Bar in            science journalist whose experience includes serving
             California and the District of Columbia.                     as founder and editor of Science 80-Science 86
                                                                          magazine for the American Association for the
             Nancy Foster                                                 Advancement of Science, founding editor of the
                                                                          National Academy of Sciences' Issues in Science and
             Nancy Foster, Ph.D., was recently appointed the              Technology, and research news editor of Science. In
             Assistant Administrator for Ocean Services and               addition, he was a broadcaster for CBS radio and is


                                                                                                                                   127







               Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               the author or editor of 9 books and numerous               Dosoo lang
               scientific publications. He has won a number of
               national magazine awards and other journalistic            Dosoo Jang is currently a John A. Knauss Marine
               honors. Dr. Hammond has served as a consultant to          Policy Sea Grant Fellow at the International Pro-
               the White House science office, to several U.S. federal    grams Office of the National Ocean Service, NOAA,
               agencies, and to the United Nations. He has degrees        where he is specializing in international exchanges
               from Stanford (in engineering) and Harvard (in             on coastal management between the United States
               applied mathematics).                                      and Asian nations. Mr. Jang is completing his
                                                                          doctoral degree in marine policy at the University of
               Marc Hershman                                              Delaware on policy issues facing the U.S. marine
                                                                          biotechnology industry. Earlier, he served as Chief
               Marc Hershman is a professor and Director of the           Research Assistant, Center for the Study of Marine
               School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington.        Policy, University of Delaware. In 1997, Mr. Jang
               His expertise includes business, environmental             received the Walter B. Jones Memorial and NOAA
               issues, fisheries, international affairs, and oceanogra-   Excellence Award for "Excellence in Coastal and
               phy in a variety of subjects that include coasts, shores   Marine Graduate Study," and in 1998, he was a
               and beaches, ocean and coastal development policy,         consultant for the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
               offshore drilling, and ports. His interests include the    Commission in Paris.
               need to simplify regulation of wetlands; coastal
               zones; development of wetland mitigation banking           Paul L. Kelly
               and law; and planning and managing coastal re-
               sources.                                                   Paul L. Kelly is senior vice president of Rowan
                                                                          Companies, Inc., with responsibility for special
               Don Hinrichsen                                             projects and government and industry affairs.
                                                                          Rowan is a major provider of international and
               Don Hinrichsen lives in London and is contributing         domestic offshore contract drilling and helicopter
               editor to Amicus journal and People and the Planet.        services. Through its subsidiary, LeTbumeau, Inc.,
               He is also United Nations consutant specializing in        Rowan also operates a mini-steel mill, a manufactur-
               environment and populations issues.                        ing facility that produces heavy equipment for the
                                                                          mining and timber industries, and a marine division
               Thomas Hourigan                                            that has built over one-third of the worldwide fleet of
                                                                          mobile offshore jack-up drilling rigs.
               Thomas Hourigan is the Biodiversity Coordinator at
               the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-           Mr. Kelly represents the oil service/supply industry
               tion (NOAA), National Marine Fisheries Service             on the U.S. Secretary of Interior's Outer Continental
               (NMFS). He has responsibility for both U.S. domes-         Shelf Policy Committee, serving as chairman of the
               tic and international marine biodiversity policy and       Committee from 1994 to 1996. He also serves as a
               initiatives, including those under the Convention on       member of the U.S. Coast Guard's National Offshore
               Biological Diversity. He is spearheading the develop-      Safety Advisory Committee (NOSAC), which pro-
               ment of a NOAA Marine Biodiversity Initiative,             vides advice to the U.S. Department of Transporta-
               including the Aquatic Restoration and Conservation         tion on offshore mineral and energy issues. He is a
               (ARC) Partnership for Marine, Estuarine and Fresh-         member of the American Petroleum Institute Execu-
               water Living Resources as well as components               tive Committee of Exploration Affairs, as well as an
               recently announced by President Clinton as part of         advisory member of the executive committee of the
               the new Lands Legacy Initiative. Before coming to          Gulf of Mexico Offshore Operators Committee.
               NMFS, Dr. Hourigan was the Senior Policy Advisor
               for Biodiversity and Climate Change at the U.S.            Mr. Kelly has written widely on the subject of energy
               Agency for International Development, where he led         policy and is a member of the Editorial Board of
               the development of the Agency's Biodiversity Policy        World Oil. He has appeared on behalf of industry in
               and Strategy. He received his doctorate from the           numerous Congressional and federal agency hear-
               University of Hawaii working on the ecology of             ings dealing with offshore oil and gas issues. Most
               corals and coral reef fishes, followed by postdoctoral     recently, during 1997, Mr. Kelly served on an OCS
               research in Antarctica and Japan.                          Policy Committee Working Group which produced a
                                                                          report for the Secretary of Interior recommending
                                                                          that an OCS impact assistance and ocean/coastal


               128







                                                                                        Workshop Participant Biographies

               resource protection program be added to a revived          President. The ACC is a national advocacy organiza-
               and enhanced Land and Water Conservation Fund.             tion for local governments, business people, property
               He represented the offshore petroleum industry on          owners and others who live or do business in the
               the U.S. Steering Group planning activities related to     coastal regions of the United States.
               the UN "1998 International Year of the Ocean." Mr.
               Kelly holds B.A. (Political Science) and law degrees       James F Murley
               from Yale University.
                                                                          James F. Murley has spent his entire professional
               Robert W Knecht                                            career working to strengthen local communities. He
                                                                          first joined the Florida Department of Community
               Robert W. Knecht is Professor of Marine Policy in the      Affairs in 1983 as its director of Resource Planning
               Graduate College of Marine Studies of the University       and Management. In that position, Jim helped draft
               of Delaware. He is also Co-Director of the Center for      and gain passage of Florida's landmark Growth
               the Study of Marine Policy and holds joint appoint-        Management Act. In 1987, Jim left DCA to head 1000
               ments in the School of Urban Affairs and Public            Friends of Florida-a nonprofit, public interest group
               Policy and in the Department of Political Science.         that works to promote sensible planning, economic
               From 1972 to 1980, as Assistant Administrator for          development and environmental preservation. Jim
               NOAA in Coastal Zone Management, he directed the           was lured back to DCA in 1995 by Governor Lawton
               initial implementation of the Federal Coastal Zone         Chiles who called him a "seasoned leader on growth
               Management Program. He has written many articles           management issues with nearly two decades of
               on national ocean policy.                                  experience under his belt."

               Ryck Lydecker                                              While at DCA, Jim oversaw a department with an
                                                                          important mission-to help Floridians create safe,
               Ryck Lydecker is Associate Director for State Affairs      vibrant and sustainable communities. The Depart-
               for the Boat Owners Association of The United States       ment of Community Affairs protects Floridians from
               (BOAT/U.S.), with 500,000 members, the nation's            natural and man-made disasters, encourages sound
               largest organization of recreational boaters. He           land-use planning and environmental protection and
               is also Associate Editor of BOAT/U.S. Magazine,            promotes a broad spectrum of economic develop-
               covering boating, fisheries, public policy and marine      ment initiatives which includes involvement with the
               resource issues.                                           WAGES Welfare Reform Board.


               As a free lance writer he has written about boating,       Jim is a 1974 graduate of George Washington Univer-
               fisheries, marine policy and maritime issues for           sity Law School where he specialized in environmen-
               consumer magazines, trade publications and news-           tal and land use law. Before coming to Florida, he
               papers for over 20 years. In addition, Lydecker            worked for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
               covered boating policy and politics as Washington          Administration in coastal zone management. In
               Correspondent for Boating Industry Magazine for            February, Jim will be taking over as interim director
               nearly 10 years. Prior to that, he served as Communi-      of the FAU-FIU` joint Center for Environmental and
               cations Manager for the University of Minnesota Sea        Urban Problems in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
               Grant Program and was subsequently selected for a
               three-year assignment to NOANs National Sea Grant          Michael Orbach
               College Program as Director of Communications.
                                                                          Michael Orbach is professor of anthropology in the
               Howard Marlowe                                             Department of Sociology and Anthropology and
                                                                          senior scientist with the Institute for Coastal and
               Howard Marlowe is president of Marlowe & Com-              Marine Resources at East Carolina University. His BA
               pany, a Washington, D.C. public affairs consulting         in Economics from the University of California at
               firm. He has 25 years of experience as a lobbyist          irvine, and his MA and PhD are in Cultural Anthro-
               working with Congress and the executive branch.            pology from the University of California at San
               Founded in 1984, Marlowe & Company provides                Diego.
               Washington representation, coalition-building,
               grassroots lobbying, and public relations services to      From 1976 to 1979 Mike served as social anthropolo-
               its clients. One of those clients is the American          gist and social science advisor to the National
               Coastal Coalition, of which Mr. Marlowe serves as          Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Wash-


                                                                                                                                  129







               nends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               ington, D.C. From 1979 to 1982 he was the Associate           derived, biologically-active compounds with thera-
               Director of the Center for Coastal and Marine Studies         peutic potential. A major emphasis of her research is
               at the University of California at Santa Cruz, during         on the development of methods for sustainable use
               which time he also served as a member of the                  of marine resources for drug discovery and develop-
               scientific and statisitical committee of the Pacific          ment, and in particular, on developing cell lines of
               Fisheries management Council. He has been at ECU              bioactive marine invertebrates and determining the
               since 1983.                                                   role of associated microorganisms in the production
                                                                             of bioactive secondary metabolites.
               Mike has worked with coastal and marine policy
               issues on all coasts of the U.S. and in Alaska, the           Pietro Parravano
               Pacific and Central America. He has published
               widely on marine social science topics including              Pietro Parravano has served as Pacific Coast Federa-
               fisheries limited entry and effort management,                tion of Fishermen's Associations (PCFFA) president
               IndoChinese fisherman adaptation, marine mammal-              for the past seven years. His work on behalf of
               fishery interactions and state, regional and federal          fishing fleets and his work to protect fish stocks and
               fisheries and marine policy including "Hunters,               habitat earned him the 1997 "Highliner of the Year"
               Seamen and Entrepreneurs", an ethnography of the              award given each year by National Fisherman
               San Diego tuna fishermen published by the Univer-             magazine. He is an ardent advocate in the U.S. and
               sity of California Press.                                     abroad on behalf of fishing family operations. He
                                                                             served as president of his local that first gained
               Margaret Podlich                                              prominence when Half Moon Bay fishermen success-
                                                                             fully halted a plan by the Port of Oakland, California
               Margaret Podlich is the Director of the BOAT/US               and the Army Corps of Engineers to dump dredge
               Clean Water Trust, a national nonprofit organization          spoils in a near shore site off San Mateo County,
               promoting environmentally sensitive boating and               California that was prime crab and fishing grounds.
               angling through education. She is also an environ-            As a result of these efforts, all dredge materials from
               mental advisor to the Boat Owners Association of the          San Francisco Bay disposed of in the ocean must be
               United States, the largest membership association of          dumped off the shelf at a site in 1200 fathoms,
               recreational boaters nationwide.                              approximately 50 miles west of the Golden Gate.

               During her career, Ms. Podlich has conducted                  Alison Rieser
               numerous education projects with boaters, at the
               Trust, and previously at the Center for Marine                Alison Rieser is Professor of Law at the University of
               Conservation, and the Chesapeake Bay foundation.              Maine School of Law in Portland, Maine and Director
               She is a lifelong boater who actively competes at the         of the School's Marine Law Institute, where she
               local, national, and international level in sailboat          oversees legal and policy research on fisheries
               races.                                                        management, coastal land and water use, marine
                                                                             biodiversity protection, and international maritime
                                                                             relations. She teaches courses in coastal zone
               Shirley A. Pomponi                                            law, marine resources law, environmental law, and
                                                                             law of the sea. Professor Rieser is a consultant to
               Shirley A. Pomponi received her Ph.D. in Biological           state and federal agencies and faculty advisor to the
               Oceanography in 1977 from the University of Miami,            Ocean and Coastal Law journal. She is co-author of
               Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric                   the leading textbook in coastal and ocean law and
               Science. Since that time, she has conducted research          has published numerous articles on environmental
               on the systematics, ecology, physiology, and cell             law and ocean law. Her previous government
               biology of marine sponges at the University of                service includes work with the U.S. Environmental
               Miami, the University of Maryland, and Harbor                 Protection Agency and the National Oceanic and
               Branch Oceanographic Institution. She joined Harbor           Atmospheric Administration. She spent
               Branch in 1984, and was Group Leader of the Sample            two years at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-
               Acquisition Program for the SeaPharm Project and              tion as a Research Fellow in marine policy and ocean
               then the Division of Biomedical Marine Research. In           management before joining the Law School. Her
               1994, she was appointed Director of the Division of           bachelor's degree is from Cornell University and her
               Biomedical Marine Research, a multidisciplinary               law degrees from George Washington University and
               research program for the discovery of novel, marine-          Yale Law School.


               130







                                                                                       Workshop Participant Biographies


              Rod Vulovic


              Rod Vulovic is a graduate of the University of
              Belgrade with degrees in mechanical engineering as
              well as in naval architecture and marine engineering.
              Mr. Vulovic is Vice President of Sea-Land Service,
              Inc., responsible for the ocean transportation ser-
              vices. This encompasses all aspects of fleet opera-
              tions, maintenance repair, crewing, asset acquisitions
              and chartering for both U.S. flag and foreign flag
              fleets.


              Maureen A. Warren


              Maureen A. Warren is a geographer and Branch
              Chief in the Special Projects Office, National Ocean
              Service, NOAA, working for over 20 years in the
              field of coastal and marine resource assessment and
              management. She has contributed to and coordinated
              the development of four regional and one national
              data atlas projects, several management plans for
              coastal protected areas, and authored or co-authored
              numerous publications and presentations. Ms.
              Warren presently supervises a staff of geographers
              and physical scientists in the Integrated Planning
              Branch who are involved in the integration of
              information and resources for planning and decision
              making, consensus-based design and planning to
              address coastal resource use issues of national
              significance, data synthesis and analysis projects
              related to coastal resource use and resource use
              conflicts, and use of the Internet as a medium for
              information dissemination. Ms. Warren holds under-
              graduate and graduate degrees in geography from
              the Hunter College, CUNY and the University of
              Pittsburgh respectfully, and has completed graduate
              coursework in the doctoral program in geography
              from the University of Maryland.


















                                                                                                                              131






                Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                                                 Appendix 11: Workshop Agenda

                                              Trends and Future Challenges
                               for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                                                              Friday, January 22, 1999
                                                                 Hotel Washington
                                                          15th St. and Pennsylvania Ave.
                                                                 Washington, D.C.



               830 A.M.                                                     Nezv Approaches to Environmental Management: Lessons
                                                                            from the Chesapeake Bay
               Welcome and Introduction                                     Donald F. Boesch, Center for Environmental Studies,
               Nancy Foster, NOS/NOAA                                       University of Maryland
               8.45 to 10:15                                                Perspectives on Marine Water Quality
                                                                            Tim Eichenberg, Center for Marine Conservation
               PANEL 1. The Context of the Next Twenty-five                 Conserving Ocean Biodiversity: Trends and Challenges
               years: Continued Economic Globalization, Re-                 Thomas Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries Ser-
               source Decline, Population Pressures on the Coast,           vice, NOAA
               Changes in Social Values: National and Global
               Perspectives.                                                Global Trends in Marine Protected Areas
               Biliana Cicin-Sain, University of Delaware, Chair            Tundi Agardy, Conservation International
               Ocean and Coastal Futures: The Global Context                Noon to 1:00 Lunch
               Allen Hammond, World Resources Institute                     1:00 to 3:15
               Global Trends in Fisheries and Aquaculture                   PANEL 3. Industry-Driven Changes and Policy
               Richard Grainger, Fisheries Department, UN Food              Responses
               and Agriculture Organization
               The Coastal Population Explosion                             Robert W. Knecht, University of Delaware, Chair
               Don Hinrichsen, UN consultant and author                     Changing Ship Technology and Port Infrastructure
               Coastal Megacities and Sea Level Rise                        Implications
               Rosemarie Hinkel, University of Delaware                     Rod Vulovic, Sea-Land Service, Inc.
               Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998                    Deepwater Offshore Oil Development: Opportunities and
               Charles Bookman, Thomas Culliton, and Maureen                Future Challenges
               Warren, National Ocean Service, NOAA                         Paul L. Kelly, Rowan Companies, Inc.
               10:15 to 1030 Coffee Break                                   Assessing the Economic Benefits of America's Coastal
                                                                            Regions
               1030 to Noon                                                 Howard Marlowe, American Coastal Coalition
               PANEL 2. The State of the Coastal and Marine                 A Profile of Recreational Boating in the United States
               Environments: Trends in Non-point Source Pollu-              Rick Lydecker and Margaret Podlich, Boat Owners
               tion, Habitat, and Biodiversity.                             Association of the United States (BOAT/US)

               Michael K. Orbach, Duke University, Chair


               132







                                                                                                     Workshop Agenda

              Marine Aquaculture in the United States: Current and
              Future Policy and Management Challenges
              M. Richard DeVoe, South Carolina Sea Grant
              Consortium


              Aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
              Legal and Regulatory Concerns
              Alison Rieser* and Susan Bunsick**
              *University of Maine School of Law, "University of
              Delaware


              The Potentialfor the Marine Biotechnology Industry
              Shirley A. Pomponi, Harbor Branch Oceanographic
              Institution, Florida

              Challenges Facing the U.S. Commercial Fishing Industry*
              Pietro Parravano, Pacific Coast Federation of
              Fishermen's Associations


              3:15 to 3:30 Coffee Break


              3.30 to 4.30


              PANEL 4. Trends and Future Issues in the Coastal
              States


              Michael K. Orbach, Duke University, Chair

              Building Capacityfor Ocean Management: Recent
              Developments in U.S. West Coast States
              Marc J. Hershman, School of Marine Affairs, Univer-
              sity of Washington

              Coastal States' Challenges
              Sarah Cooksey, State of Delaware and Chair, Coastal
              States Organization

              Development of a Comprehensive Ocean Policyfor Florida
              James F. Murley and Laura Cantral, Florida
              Governor's Ocean Committee


              430 to 5:00


              Summary and Conclusions

              Michael K. Orback, Duke University

              5:00 to 6:00 Reception









                                                                                                                      133








                                          Appendix III: Workshop Participants


             Dr. Tundi Agardy                                           Washington, DC 20009
             Conservation International                                 Telephone: 202-265-6738
             2501 M Street, NW                                          Fax: 202 986 6041
             Washington, DC 20037                                       E-mail: [email protected]
             Tel: 202 973 2203
             Fax: 202 887 0193                                          Daniel J. Basta
             E-mail: [email protected]                          Chief, Strategic Environmental Assessment Div.
                                                                        NOAA/National Ocean Service
             W. Andahazy                                                1305 East-West Highway
             Washington, D.C. Representative                            Silver Spring, NO 20910-3281
             Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                       Telephone: 301-713-3000 x128
             Woods Hole, MA                                             Fax: 301-713-4384
             Telephone: 202-863-0001                                    E-mail: [email protected]
             Fax: 202-863-0096
             E-mail: [email protected]                                 Paul H. Bea, Jr.
                                                                        Port Authority of NY & NJ
             Allison Areias                                             1001 Connecticut Ave., NW #610
             Council on Environmental Quality                           Washington, DC 20036
             Old Executive Office Bldg., Room 360                       Telephone: 202-887-5240
             Washington, D.C. 20502                                     Fax: 202-887-0282
             Telephone: 202-395-5750                                    E-mail: [email protected]

             Stephanie Bailenson                                        Barbara A. Best
             U.S. Subcommittee on Oceans and Fisheries                  Marine Resource Specialist
             428 Hart Senate Office Building                            USAID/Global Environment Center
             Washington, DC 20510                                       1300 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
             Telephone: 202-224-7874                                    Washington, DC 20523-3800
             Fax: 202-228-0326                                          Telephone: 202-712-0553
             E-mail: [email protected]            Fax: 202-216-3174
                                                                        E-mail: [email protected]
             Ronald C. Baird, Director
             National Sea Grant College Program                         Julia Blackwell
             1315 East West Hwy.                                        NOAA/NOS
             Silver Spring, MD 20910                                    1305 East West Highway
             Telephone: 301-713-2448                                    Silver Spring, MD 20910
             Fax: 301-713-1031                                          Telephone: 301-713-3000 x213
             E-mail: [email protected]                              Email: [email protected]

             Miriam Balgos                                              Dr. Donald E Boesch
             Center for the Study of Marine Policy                      Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies
             Graduate College of Marine Studies                         University of Maryland
             University of Delaware                                     P. 0. Box 775
             Newark, DE 19716-3501                                      Cambridge, MD 21613
             Telephone: 302 8318086                                     Telephone: 410-228-9251 Ext. 601
             Fax: 302 8313668                                           Fax: 410-228-3843
             Email: mbalgosgudel.edu                                    E-mail: [email protected]

             Christopher Ball                                           Mr. Charles A. Bookman
             Director of Outreach                                       Special Projects Office
             Ozone Action                                               National Ocean Service, NOAA
             1636 Connecticut Ave., NW                                  1305 East-West Hwy.
                                                                        SSMC4,911 floor

                                                                                                                             135







               Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               Silver Spring, MD 20910                                  Dr. Biliana Cicin-Sain, Co-Director
               Telephone: 301-713-3000                                  Center for the Study of Marine Policy
               Fax: 301-713-4384                                        Graduate College of Marine Studies
               E-mail: [email protected]                    University of Delaware
                                                                        Newark, DE 19716
               Baruch Boxer, Professor                                  Telephone: 302-831-8086
               Visiting Scholar                                         Fax: 302-831-3668
               Rutgers University                                       E-mail: [email protected]
               Resources For the Future
               2801 New Mexico Avenue, NW #1117                         Jessica Cogan
               Washington, DC 20007                                     Environmental Protection Specialist
               Telephone: 202-939-3423                                  EPA
               Fax: 202-939-3460                                        401 M Street, SW (4504F)
               E-mail: [email protected]                                    Washington, DC 20460
                                                                        Telephone: 202-260-7154
               Glenn Boledovich                                         Fax: 202-260-9960
               National Ocean Service, NOAA                             E-mail: [email protected]
               1305 East West Highway
               Silver Spring, MD 20910                                  Sarah Cooksey
               Telephone: 301-713-3074                                  DNREC, State of Delaware
               Fax: 301-713-4269                                        Division of Soil and Water
                                                                        P. 0. Box 1401
               Brian Braginton-Smith                                    Dover, DE 19903
               The Conservation Consortium Foundation, Inc.             Telephone: (302) 739-3451
               1 Atlantic Avenue, Suite B                               Fax: (302) 739-6724
               South Yarmouth, MA 02664                                 E-mail: [email protected]
               Telephone: 508-775-1367
               Fax: 508-380-3800                                        Tom Culliton
               E-mail: [email protected]                 NOAA/National Ocean Service
                                                                        1305 East West Highway
               Leah L. Bunce                                            Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281
               Contractor                                               Telephone: (301)713-3000 x 142
               1305 East West Highway                                   Fax: 301-713-4384
               SSMC4 #13403                                             E-mail: [email protected]
               Telephone: 301-713-3078 x 129
               Fax: 301-713-4263                                        Penny Dalton
                                                                        Senate Commerce Committee
               Susan Bunsick                                            566 Dirksen Office bldg.
               Graduate College of Marine Studies                       Washington, D.C. 20510
               University of Delaware                                   Telephone: 202-224-4912
               Newark, DE 19716-3501                                    Fax: 202-228-0303
               Telephone: 302 8318754
               E-mail: [email protected]                                 Chris Darnel
                                                                        Ocean Policy Analyst
               Dr. Young Tae Chang, Visiting Scholar                    Coastal States Organization
               Korea-America joint Marine Policy Research Center        444 N. Capitol Street, NW, Suite 322
               Department of Environmental and                          Washington, DC 20001
               Natural Resource Economics                               Telephone: 202-508-3860
               University of Rhode Island                               Fax: 202-508-3843
               319 Lippitt Hall                                         E-mail: [email protected]
               Kingston, RI 02881
               Telephone: 401-874-7427                                  Margaret A. Davidson
               Fax: 410-782-4766                                        Director
               E-mail: [email protected]                             2234 South Hobson Avenue
                                                                        Charleston, SC 29405-2413



               136







                                                                                 Appendix III. Workshop Participants


             Telephone: 843-740-1216                                   1305 East West Highway
             Fax: 843-740-1297                                         Silver Spring, MD 20910
             E-mail: [email protected]                            Telephone: 301-713-3074
                                                                       Fax: 301-713-4269
             Richard Delaney, Director                                 E-mail: [email protected]
             Urban Harbors Institute
             100 Morrissey Boulevard                                   Dr. Annamarija Frankic
             Boston, MA 02125-3393                                     Coastal States Organization
             Telephone: 617-287-5570                                   Hall of the States
             Fax: 617-287-5575                                         444 North Capitol Street, NW
             E-mail: [email protected]                          Suite 322
                                                                       Washington, D.C. 20001
             Richard DeVoe                                             Telephone: 202-508-3860
             South Carolina Sea Grant                                  Fax: 202-508-3843
             Ocean & Coastal Resource Management Office                E-mail: [email protected]
             287 Meeting Street
             Charleston, SC 29401                                      Peter Fricke
             Telephone: 843-727-2078                                   National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA
             Fax: 843-727-2080                                         1315 East-West Highway
             E-mail:                                                   Silver Spring, MD 20910
                                                                       Telephone: 301-713-0596
             Milen Dyoulgerov                                          E-mail: [email protected]
             Sea Grant Fellow
             11305 East West Highway, SSMC4 13408                      Walter R. Gerich, Counselor
             Silver Spring, MD                                         Thyssen Group/TRT
                                                                       1762 Baltimore-Annapolis Blvd.
             Charles Ehler, Director                                   Annapolis, MD 21401
             International Program Office/National Ocean Service       Tel: 410 974 0635
             NOAA                                                      Fax: 410 757 3530
             1305 East West Highway
             Silver Spring, MD 20910                                   Tony Giordano
             Telephone: 301-713-2989                                   Chief, International Activities and Marine Minerals
             Fax: 301-713-4389                                         Div.
             E-mail: [email protected]                            Dept. of the Interior/MMS
                                                                       381 Elden Street, Mail Stop 4030
             Tim Eichenberg                                            Herndon, VA 20170-4817
             Center for Marine Conservation                            Telephone: 703-787-1300
             1725 DeSales St., NW                                      Fax: 703-787-1284
             Washington, DC 20036                                      E-mail: [email protected]
             Telephone: 202-429-5609
             Fax: 202-872-0619                                         Linda K. Glover
             E-mail: eichent%[email protected]                       Special Assistant/Policy Office
                                                                       Oceanographer of the Navy
             William Erb                                               3450 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
             Department of State                                       Washington, DC 20392
             Washington, D.C. 20520                                    Telephone: 202-762-1008
             Telephone: 202-736-7912                                   Fax: 202-762-0480
             Fax: 202-647-0774                                         E-mail: [email protected]
             E-mail: [email protected]
                                                                       Joelle Gore
             John Field                                                NOAA/National Ocean Service
             Fish and Wildlife Committee                               1305 East West Hwy
                                                                       11311 SSMC4
             Dr. Nancy Foster, Assistant Administrator                 Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281
             National Ocean Service, NOAA                              Telephone: 301-713-3117 x177


                                                                                                                          137







                Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

                Fax: 301-713-4367                                       Tom Hourigan
                E-mail: [email protected]                            Marine Biodiversity Coordinator
                                                                        Office of Protected Resources
                Dr. Richard Grainger                                    National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA
                Chief, Data and Information Service                     SSMC 3
                FA0                                                     1315 East-West Highway
                Rome, Italy                                             Silver Spring, MD 20910
                Telephone: 39 06 57054828                               Telephone: 301-713-2319
                Fax: 39 06 570 52476                                    Fax: 301-713-0376
                E-mail: [email protected]                        E-mail: [email protected]

                Melissa Grimm                                           Kathy Hurld
                American Association of Port Authorities (AAPA)         Oceans and Coastal Waters
                1010 Duke Street                                        EPA
                Alexandria, VA 27314                                    Telephone: 202-260-9134
                Telephone: 703-684-5700
                Fax: 703-684-6321                                       Suzanne Jacobson
                                                                        The Heinz Center for Science, Economics and the
                Geoff Grubbs                                            Environment
                Environmental Protection Agency                         1001 Pennsylvania Ave., Suite 735S
                401 M Street, SW                                        Washington, DC 20004
                4503 F                                                  Telephone: 202-737-6307
                Washington, DC 20024
                Telephone: 202-260-7040                                 DosooJang
                Fax: 202-260-7024                                       International Program Office/National Ocean
                                                                        Service/NOAA
                Alan D. Guimond                                         1305 East West Highway
                126 Robert's Lane #301                                  Silver Spring, MD 20910
                Alexandria, VA 22314                                    Telephone: 301-713-3078n x173
                Telephone: 703-683-3270                                 Fax: 301-713-4263
                E-mail: [email protected]                              E-mail: [email protected]

                Dr. Allen Hammond                                       Marcella R. Jansen, Issues Team Leader
                Senior Fellow & Director                                NOAA/Coastal Programs Division
                Strategic Analysis                                      SSMC4,  111h Floor (N/ORM3)
                World Resources Institute                               1305 East West Highway
                1709 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 700                     Silver Spring, MD 20910
                Washington, DC 20006-5283                               Telephone: 301-713-3098 x 143
                Telephone: 202-662-2556                                 Fax: 301-713-4367
                Fax: 202-662-2511                                       E-mail: [email protected]

                Professor Marc Hershman                                 Jennifer Jarratt
                School of Marine Affairs                                Vice President
                University of Washington                                Coates & Jarratt, Inc.
                Box 355685                                              Washington, D.C.
                Seattle, WA 98195-5685                                  E-mail: [email protected]
                Telephone: 206-685-2469
                Fax: 206-543-1417                                       Gary Jensen
                E-mail: [email protected]                        National Program Leader
                                                                        USDA/CSREES
                Don Hinrichsen                                          Stop 2220
                235 E 5V Street, Apt. 3C                                1400 Independence Avenue, SW 20250-2220
                New York, NY 10022                                      Washington, D.C.
                Telephone: 212-223-5842                                 Telephone: 202-401-6802
                Fax: 212-207-3888                                       Fax: 202-401-1602
                E-mail: doceanusQaol.com                                E-mail: [email protected]

                138







                                                                                       Appendix III. Workshop Participants

               Peter Jensen                                                Silver Spring, MD 20910
               Deputy Director, Division of Fisheries                      Telephone: 301-427-2089 x 137
               Maryland Dept. of Natural Resources                         Fax: 301-427-2222
               Thwes State Office Building C-2                             E-mail: [email protected]
               Annapolis, MD 21401
               Telephone: 410-260-8261                                     Anne Kitchell
               Fax: 410-260-8278                                           Graduate College of Marine Studies
               E-mail: [email protected]                              University of Delaware
                                                                           Newark, DE 19716-3501
               Catherine Johnston                                          Telephone: 302 8314665
               Center for the Study of Marine Policy                       Fax: 302 8316838
               Graduate College of Marine Studies                          E-mail: [email protected]
               University of Delaware
               Newark, DE 19716-3501                                       Professor Robert W. Knecht
               Telephone: 302 8318086                                      Center for the Study of Marine Policy
               Fax: 302 8313668                                            Graduate College of Marine Studies
               E-mail: [email protected]                                   University of Delaware
                                                                           Newark, DE 19716
               You-Sub Jung                                                Telephone: 302-831-8086
               First Secretary for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries          Fax: 302-831-3668
               Korean Embassy                                              E-mail: [email protected]
               2450 Massachusetts Avenue
               Washington, DC 20008                                        Dr. Virginia Lee
               Telephone: 202-939-5676                                     University of Rhode Island
               Fax: 202-387-0402                                           Narrragansett, RI
               E-mail:                                                     Telephone:
                                                                           E-mail: [email protected]
               Jonathan Justi
               NOAA/OAR                                                    Howard Marlowe
               1315 East-West Highway                                      President
               Suite 11415                                                 American Coastal Coalition
               Silver Spring, MD 20910                                     1667 K Street, NW, Suite 480
               Tel: 301713 3080,                                           Washington, DC 20006
               Fax: 301713 1459                                            Telephone: 202-775-1796
               E-mail: [email protected]                             Fax: 202-775-0214
               Note: presently at OAR, moving to NOS next week
                                                                           Kelli McGee
               Dr. Jeanne Kelly                                            American Oceans Campaign
               Coates & Jarratt, Inc.                                      Telephone: 202-543-3561
               Washington, D.C.
                                                                           Jack B. Mingus
               Paul L. Kelly                                               Legislative Professional
               Rowan Companies, Inc.                                       Van Ness Feldman
               5450 Transco Tower                                          1050 Thomas Jefferson St., NW, 71 floor
               2800 Post Oak Boulevard                                     Washington, DC 20007
               Houston, TX 77056-6196                                      Telephone: 202-298-1899
               Telephone: (713) 960 7580                                   Fax: 202-338-2416
               Fax: (713) 960-7678                                         E-mail: [email protected]
               E-mail: [email protected]
                                                                           Ben Mieremet
               John L. Kermond                                             10920 Ralston Rd
               Visiting Scientist                                          Rockville, MD 20852
               NOAA/Office of Global Programs
               Suite 1225
               1100 Wayne Avenue


                                                                                                                                  139







               Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

               Robert J. Moran                                            Nick Perugini
               Director, Government Affairs                               Senator John Kerry's Office
               National Ocean Industries Association
               1120 G Street, NK Suite 900                                Margaret Podlich
               Washington, DC 20005                                       BOAT/U.S.
               Telephone: 202-347-6900                                    880 S. Pickett Street
               Fax: 202-347-8650                                          Alexandria, VA 22304
               E-mail: [email protected]                                      Telephone: 703-461-2878 x 3369
                                                                          Fax: 703-461-2855
               Jim Murley                                                 E-mail: [email protected]
               Department of Community Affairs
               State of Florida                                           Dr. Shirley Pomponi, Division Director
               Tallahasse, Florida                                        Biomedical Research Division
               Telephone: 850-488-8466                                    Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution
               Fax: 850-921-0781                                          5600 US Rt. 1, North
               E-mail: [email protected]                                 Fort Pierce, FL 34946
                                                                          Telephone: 561-465-2400 x 449
               Kwang Suk Oh                                               Fax: 561-461-5415
               University of Delaware                                     E-mail: [email protected]
               Graduate College of Marine Studies
               Newark, DE 19716                                           Kennard Potts
               Telephone: 302-731-8091                                    EPA Oceans Protection
               Fax: 302-831-6838                                          Washington, DC
               E-mail: [email protected]                                     Telephone: 202-260-7893

               Shauna Oh                                                  Nancy Ragland
               Marine Specialist                                          National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science
               California Sea Grant College                               NOAA/National Ocean Service
               University of California at San Diego                      1305 East-West Hwy, Rm. 13446 N/COP
               9500 Gilman Drive, Dept. 232                               Silver Spring, MD 20910
               La Jolla, CA 92093                                         Telephone: 301-713-3060
               Telephone: 619 534 4440                                    E-mail: nancyragland&noaa.gov
               Fax: 619 534 2231
               E-mail: [email protected]                                  John Rayfield
                                                                          Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife and Oceans
               Professor Michael K. Orbach                                Committee on Resources
               Coastal Envirorunental Management Program                  US House of Representatives
               School of the Environment                                  805 O'Neill House Office Bldg
               Duke University Marine Laboratory                          Washington, D.C. 20515
               111 Pivers Island Road                                     Telephone: 202-226-0200
               Beaufort, NC 28516                                         Fax: 202-225-1542
               Telephone: 252-504-7655 or 7606                            E-mail: [email protected]
               Fax: 252 504 7648
               E-mail: [email protected]                                       Jim Reilly
                                                                          S.C. Sea Grant Consortium
               Pietro Parravano                                           287 Meeting Street
               The Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associa-       Charleston, SC 29401
               tions (PCFFA)                                              Telephone: 843-727-2078
               Southwest Office                                           Fax: 843-727-2080
               P. 0. Box 29910                                            E-mail: [email protected]
               San Francisco, CA 94129-0910
               Telephone:                                                 Ed Rhodes
               Fax: 650-726-1607                                          Aquaculture coordinator
                                                                          NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service
                                                                          1315 East West Hwy.
                                                                          Silver Spring, MD 20910

               140







                                                                                Appendix III: Workshop Participants

             Telephone: 301-713-2334 x 102                            Fax: 703-660 6329
             Fax: 301-713-0596                                        E-mail: [email protected]
             E-mail: [email protected]
                                                                      Harry Strong, Director
             Peyton Robertson                                         Mitretek Systems
             NOAA/National Ocean Service                              7525 Colshire Drive
             1305 East West Hwy                                       McLean, VA 22102
             11311 SSMC4                                              Telephone: 703-610-1722
             Silver Spring, MD 20910-3281                             Fax: 703-610-1767
             Telephone: 301-713-3098 x137                             E-mail: [email protected]
             E-mail: [email protected]
                                                                      Boyce Thorne-Miller
             Naomi A. Rose                                            SeaWeb
             Marine Mammal Scientist                                  1731 Connecticut Ave., NW
             The Humane Society of the U.S.                           Washington, DC 20009
             2100 L Street, NW
             Washington, DC 20037                                     Richard Volk
             Telephone: 301-258-3048                                  Coastal Programs
             Fax: 301-258-3080                                        USAID/G/ENV/ENR
             E-mail: [email protected]                             RRB, Room 308
                                                                      Washington, DC 20523-3800
             Craig Russell                                            Telephone: 202-712-5373
             National Ocean Service, NOAA                             Fax: 202-216-3174
             1305 East-West Highway                                   E-mail: [email protected]
             SSMC4,  91h floor
             Silver Spring, MD 20910                                  Rod Vulovic
             Telephone: 301-713-3000                                  Ocean Transportation Services
             Fax., 301-713-4384                                       Sea-Land Service, Inc.
                                                                      6000 Carnegie Boulevard
             Jae H. Ryoo                                              Charlotte, NC 28209-4637
             University of Delaware                                   Telephone: 704-571-2250
             Graduate College of Marine Studies                       Fax: 704-571-4653
             Newark, DE 19716
             Telephone: 302-894-0126; Fax: 302-831-6838               Katherine Wannamaker
             E-mail: [email protected]                                     Knauss Fellow, Senate Commerce Committee
                                                                      Telephone: 202-547-6516
             Daniel Sayre, Editor-in-Chief
             Island Press                                             Maureen Warren
             1718 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 300                     Special Projects Office
             Washington, DC 20009                                     National Ocean Service, NOAA
             Telephone: 202-232-7933                                  1305 East-West Highway
             Fax: 202-234-1328                                        SSMC4,  91h floor
             E-mail: [email protected]                           Silver Spring, MD 20910
                                                                      Telephone: 301-713-3000
             Amy Schick, IMP Coordinator                              Fax: 301-713-4384
             Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission              E-mail: maureen.warrengnoaa.gov
             1444 Eye St., NW 611 floor
             Washington, DC 20005                                     Eli Weissman
             Telephone: 202-289-6400                                  Sea Grant Fellow
             Fax: 202-289-6051                                        Congressman Frank Pallone's office
             E-mail: [email protected]                                410 Cannon House Office Building
                                                                      Washington, DC 20515-3006
             Rich Schwabacher                                         Telephone: 202-225-4671
             Cousteau Society                                         Fax: 202-225-7665
             Telephone: 703 660 8683                                  E-mail: [email protected]


                                                                                                                         141







              Rends and Future Challenges for U.S. National Ocean and Coastal Policy

              Christopher White
              Government Affairs
              National Ocean Industries Association
              1120 G Street, NW, Suite 900
              Washington, DC 20005
              Telephone: 202 347 6900
              Fax: 202 347 8650


              John L. Wickham
              NOAA/Coastal Ocean Program
              1315 East-West Highway
              Room 9700
              Silver Spring, MD 20910-3282
              Telephone: 301-713-4044
              E-mail: [email protected]

              Lori C. Williams
              Vice President for Ocean Programs
              Center for Marine Conservation
              E-mail: [email protected]






































              142




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