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Aull 4", PROCEEDINGS VOL fol'i-owo-o" 4,11 zz' lp, ?a, Ij 11 @@ GC 1001 .025 1988 v. 3 COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTER OCEANS '88 CONFERENCE AND EXPOSITbN PRESENTED BY MTS-OES-lEEE IN COOPERATION WITH THE PORT OF BALTIMORE BALTIMORE CONVENTION NTER. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND OCTOBER 31 -NOVEMBER 2, 1988 DONALD,SCHAEFER-,@ERNOR OF MARYLAND, HONORARY CHAIRMAN ACIMIRAL PAUL A. YOST, COMMANDANT UNITED STATES COAST GUARD, GENERAL CHAIRMAN OCEANS 88 A Partnership of Marine Interests PROCEEDINGS Conference Sponsored by Marine Technology Society IEEE Baltimore, Maryland October 31-November 2, 1988 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON , SC 29405-2413 Property of CSC Library IEEE Catalog Number 88-CH2585-8 Oceans '88 Proceedings Volume 1: Pages I to 2 74 Volume 2: Pages 2 75 to 718 Volume 3: Pages 719 to 11086 Volume 4: Pages 1087 to 1732 Copies of the Oceans '88 Proceedings are available from: The IEEE Service Center 445 Hoes Lane 'Piscataway, NJ. 08854 and The Marine Technology Society 2000 Florida Avenue, N.W., Suite 500 Washington, D.C. 20006 Copyright and Reprint Permissions: Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. Libraries are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S. copyright law for private use of patrons those articles in this collection that carry a code at the bottom of the first page, provided the per-copy fee indicated in the code is paid through the Copyright Clearance Center, 29 Congress Street, Salem, Mass. 01970. Instructors are permitted to photocopy isolated articles for noncommercial classroom use without fee. For other copying, reprint or re-publication permission, write to Director, Publishing Services, IEEE, 345 E. 47th Street, New York, NY 10017. All rights reserved. Copyright '1@1 1988 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. IEEE Catalog Number 88-CH2585-8 OCEANS '88 Proceedings Volume Three Table of Contents PLASTICS IN OUR OCEANS: WHAT ARE WE DOING MESOCOSMS AS TOOLS FOR COASTAL AND ESTUARINE ABOUTIT? ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH-I Chairman: Chairman: B. Griswold G. F. Mayer OAR, National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Administration E. Klos 1529 J. M. Coe and A. R. Bunn I An Experimental Estuarine Salinity Gradient Marine Debris and the Solid Waste Disposal Crisis S. W. Nixon and S. W. Granger 16o4 D. Cottingham 6 Development of Experimental Ecosystems for the Federal Programs and Plastics in the Oceans Study of Coastal Lagoons X. Augerot 1711 J. G. Sanders and G. F. Riedel 23 Sea Grant Faces Oceans of Plastic The Use of Enclosed Ecosystems for the Study of Cycling and Impact of Trace Elements K. J. O'Hara 12 Education and Awareness: Keys to Solving the Marine S. J. Cibik, J. G. Sanders and C. F. D'Elia 29 Debris Problem Interactions Between Insolation and Nutrient Loading and the Response of Estuarine Phytoplankton J. R. Whitehead 1507 Reducing Plastic Pollution in the Marine Environment: MESOCOSMS AS TOOLS FOR COASTAL AND ESTUARINE The U.S. Coast Guard and Implementation of Annex V ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH-H of MARPOL 73/78 Chairman: CONTINENTAL SHELF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH R. E. Turner Center for Wetlands Resources, Chairman: Louisiana State University W. W. Schroeder University of Alabama A. G. Chalmers 1652 Experimental Manipulations of Drainage in a Georgia R. Rezak and D. W. McGrail 1602 Saltmarsh: Lessons Learned Geologyand Hydrology of Reefs and Banks Offshore Texas and Louisiana M. R, DeVoe, M. E. Tompkins and J. M. Dean 35 South Carolina's Coastal Wetland Impoundment W. W. Schroeder, M. R. Dardeau, J, J. Dindo; P. Project (CW[P): Relationship of Large-Scale Research Fleischer, K. L. Heck, Jr. and A. W. Schultz 17 to Policy and Management Geological and Biological Aspects of Hardbottom Environments on the LMAFLA Shelf, Northern Gulf of R. E. Turner 41 Mexico Experimental Marsh Management Systems in Louisiana W. W. Schroeder, R. Rezak and T. J. Bright 22 A. G. van der Valk, B. D. J. Batt, H. R. Murkin, P. J. Video Documentation of Hardbottom Environments Caldwell and J. A. Kadlec 46 The Marsh Ecology Research Program (MERP): The Organization and Administration of a Long-Term Mesocosm Study iv. TECHNICAL ADVANCES IN SEAFOOD TECHNOLOGY AND WATER REUSE ON ONSHORE MARICULTURE AND SAFETY PROCESSING FACILITIES Chairman: Chairman: D. Attaway R. Becker Sea Grant, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Louisiana State University Administration J. M. Fox and A. L. Chauvin 1536 R. R. Colwell 1606 Depuration of Oysters in a Closed Recirculating New Approaches for IndiceslMonitoring Microbial System Pathogens in Seafood M. P. Thomasson, D. G. Burden and R. F. Malone 70 J. Liston 52 Micro-Computer Based Design of Recirculating Microorganisms as a Cause of Economic Loss to the Systems for the Production of Soft-shell Blue Crabs Seafood Industry (Callinectes sapidus) G. J. Flick, Jr. 56 G. E. Kaiser and F. W. Wheaton 76 Sea Grant Advances in Seafood Science and Computerized Rapid Measurement of Ammonia Technology Concentration in Aquaculture Systems S. Garrett and M. Meyburn K. Rausch, W. H. Zachritz II, T. C. T. Y-Hsieh and Development of New Approaches to Seafood R. F. Malone 84 Inspection Use of Automated Holding Systems for Initial Off- Flavor Purging of the Rangia Clam, Rangia cuneata TECHNICAL ADVANCES IN SEAFOOD TECHNOLOGY AND SAFETY GULF OF MEXICO CHEMOSYNTHETIC PETROLEUM SEEP COMMUNITIES Chairman: G. J. Flick, Jr. Chairman: Virginia Polytechnic Institute R. Carney Louisiana State University R. C. Lindsay 61 Flavor Chemistry and Seafood Quality Factors I. MacDonald, R. Carney and D. Wilkinson 90 Gulf of Mexico Chemosynthetic Communities at Oil H. 0. Hultin 66 Seeps: Estimating Total Density Technical Problems and Opportunities Related to Utilization of Our Seafood Resources R. S. Carney 96 Emerging Issues of Environmental Impact to Deep-Sea J. P. Zikakis 1608 Chemosynthetic Petroleum Seep Communities A Biotechnological System for the Utilization of Waste Products of the Seafood and Cheese Manufacturing H. H. Roberts, R. Sassen and P. Aharon 101 Industries Petroleum-Derived Authigenic Carbonates of the Louisiana Continental Slope A. P. Bimbo 1513 The Production of Menhaden Surimi V. UNDERSEA VEHICLES AND PLATFORMS FOR SCIENCE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRIES CONFLICT APPLICATIONS Chairmen: Chairman: R. W. Middleton A. N. Kalvaitis Minerals Management Service National Undersea Research Program, M. Holliday National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service G. A. Smith and R. S. Rounds 106 J. Brashier 136 Scientific, Technological and Social Impact of NOAA's Coexistence of Fishing and Oil and Gas Industries in Mobile Undersea Research Habitat the Gulf of Mexico P. J. Auster, L. L. Stewart and H. Sprunk 1286 B. R. Clark 143 Scientific Imaging Problems and Solutions for ROVs Potential Conflicts Between Oil and Gas Industry L. L. Stewart and P. J. Auster 1610 Activities and Commercial Fishing Low Cost ROVs for Science R. M. Meyer 146 R. A. Cooper and I. G. Babb 112 Information on Fisheries Risk Assessment in the Alaska Manned Submersibles Support a Wide Range of OCS Region Underwater Research in New England and the Great R. C. Wingert 150 Lakes Geophysical Survey and Commercial Fishing Conflicts, R. 1. Wicklund and B. L. Olla 119 Environmental Studies and Conflict Mitigation in the Field Research Programs at the Caribbean Marine Minerals Management Service Pacific OCS Region Research Center-National Undersea Research Program A. S. Knaster 156 The Use of Alternative Dispute Resolution in OCS FISHERIES AND RESOURCES Resolving Outer Continental Shelf Disputes Chairmen: CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE OIL AND R. W. Middleton GAS LEASING PROGRAM-I Minerals Management Service M. Holliday Chairmen: National Marine Fisheries Service J. Goll Minerals Management Service R. W. Middleton 123 J. M. Teal Oil and Gas Industry Conflicts on the Outer Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Continental Shelf D. Christensen 1624 D. V. Aurand 161 Outer Continental Shelf Fisheries and Resources in the The Future of the Department of the Interior OCS Northeast Region Studies Program R. J. Essig 127 T. Chico 166 Outer Continental Shelf Fishery Resources of the Air Quality Issues, Environmental Studies, and South Atlantic Cumulative Impacts in the Pacific OCS Region B. G. Thompson 1613 R. E. Miller 172 Outer Continental Shelf Fisheries and Resources in the Georges Bank nitonng Program: A Summary Gulf of Mexico J. M. Teal 177 S. Koplin 132 The Role of the Scientific Advisory Committee, Outer The Outer Continental Shelf Fishery Resources of the Continental Shelf Program of Minerals Management Pacific Coast Service vi. CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE OIL AND OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION-11 GAS LEASING PROGRAM-11 Chairmen: Chairmen: J. R. Pearcy J. Gott Minerals Management Service Minerals Management Service C. Welling J. M. Teal Ocean Minerals Co. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute C. A. Dunkel 208 R. M. Rogers 953 A Qualitative Assessment of the Hydrocarbon Potential Factors Contributing to Wetland Loss in the Coastal of the Washington and Oregon Continental Shelf Central Gulf of Mexico M. Galloway and M. R. Brickey 1611 S. D. Treacy 180 The Hydrocarbon Potential of the Federal OCS, The Minerals Management Service Bowhead Whale Offshore Northern California Monitoring Program and Its Applications J. Kennedy and C. Grant 213 R. B. Clark 184 Impact of the Oil-bearing Monterey Formation on Impact of Offshore Oil Operations in the North Sea Undiscovered Resources of Offshore California J. P. Zippin 1615 S. Sorenson, C. Alonzo and M. Ibrahim 1612 Cumulative Environmental Effects of the Department Wilson Rock Field: A Case History of the Interior's Offshore Oil and Gas Program: 1987 Report to Congress OIL AND GAS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION-1 Chairmen: R. V. Amato Chairman: Minerals Management Service J. R. Pearcy C. Welling Minerals Management Service Ocean Minerals Co. F. R. Keer 188 G. M. Edson 219 Geologic Characteristics of an Atlantic OCS Gas The Ancient Atlantic Reef Trend Discovery and Its Implications P. K. Ray 193 B. J. Bascle 223 Hydrocarbon Potential of the Deepwater (600 Feet) The Effect of Exploration on Resource Estimates for Gulf of Mexico the Alaska Outer Continental Shelf W. E. Sweet and J. C. Reed 202 D. Mayerson 229 Correlation of Cenozoic Sediments-Gulf of Mexico Pre-lease Geophysical Permitting for the Pacific OCS: Outer Continental Shelf Procedures, Problems, and Solutions D. A. Steffy 235 Post-Lease Sale Exploration of the Navarin Basin, Bering Sea, Alaska vii. OFFSHORE DRILLING-ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS-If Chairman: Chairman: D. Cottingharn A. L Eller National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Science Applications International Corp. D. K. Franqois 241 L. C. Haines, W. W. Renner and A. 1. Eller, 295 Environmental Studies and Impact Assessment on the Prediction System for Acoustic Returns from Ocean Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Bathymetry R. B. Krahl and C. E. Smith 250 G. P. Vellemarette 298 Developing Technologies for Offshore Oil and Gas Programmable Subsurface Acoustic Recording System Structures in Frontier and Hazardous Areas D. F. McCammon 304 OCEAN LEASING AND DEVELOPMENT The Relationship Between Acoustic Bottom Loss and the Geoacoustic Properties of the Sediment Chairman: G. Pettrazzulo ACOUSTICS-NOISE Technical Resources Inc. Chairmen: S. Ashmore 259 D. J. Ramsdale Offshore Leasing Boundaries Along the Receding Naval Ocean R&D Activity Alaskan Coastline N. Miller T. J. Mac Gillvray 262 West Sound Association Development and Analysis of DCF Computer Models W. S. Hodgkiss 310 for EEZ Marine Mining Source Ship Contamination Removal in a Broadband M. E. Dunaway and P. Schroeder 268 Vertical Array Experiment Minimizing Anchoring Impacts During Construction of R. J. Lataitis, G. B. Crawford and S. F. Clifford 315 Offshore Oil and Gas Facilities A New Acoustic Technique for Remote Measurement of the Temporal Ocean Wave Spectrum ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS-I Chairman: ACOUSTICS-PROPAGATION A. 1. Eller Science Applications International Corp. Chairman: D. G. Browning W. Hill, G. Chaplin and D. Nergaard 275 Naval Underwater System Center Deep-Ocean Tests of an Acoustic Modem Insensitive to Multipath Distortion D. G. Browning, P. M. Schiefele and R. H. Mellen 318 Attenuation of Low Frequency Sound in Ocean A. Novick 1617 Surface Ducts: Implications for Surface Loss Values A Shallow Water Sonar Performance Prediction System W. J. Vetter 1540 On Ray Trajectories and Pathtimes for Acoustic R. L. Spooner 283 Propagation in a Medium with Velocity Gradients Signal Processing Using Spreadsheet Software D. K. Roderick 1619 J. M. Tattersall, J. A. Mingrone and P. C. King 1618 An Introduction to the Physics of Underwater Sound A VCR Based Digital Data Recorder for Underwater and Their Application to Passive Anti-Submarine Acoustics Multipath Measurements Warfare L. Wu and A. Zielinski 287 Multipath Rejection Using Narrow Beam Acoustic Link viii. ACOUSTICS-SIDE SCAN SEA BOTTOM PROPERTIES Chairman: Chairman: R. Walker M. Cruckshank USCG R&D Center University of Hawaii A. St. C. Wright 323 R. B. Perry 366 The Wide Sw2th, Deep Towed SeaMARC Mapping the Slopes of Expanding Continental Margins R. G. Asplin and C. G. Christensson 329 C. de Moustier, T. Hylas and J. C. Phillips 372 A New Generation Side Scan Sonar Modifications and Improvements to the Sea Beam System On Board RIV Thomas Washington E. Kristof, A. Chandler and D. Schomette 335 Using a Sector-Scan Sonar to Hunt for Shipwrecks D. E. Pryor 379 Through Ice Theoryand Test of Bathymetric Side Scan Sonar J. W. Nicholson and J. S. Jaffe 338 S. M. Smith, J. S. Charters and J. M. Moore 385 Side Scan Sonar. Acoustic Variability Processing and Management of Underway Marine Geophysical Data at Scripps R. Gandy and S. Paulet 1620 Re2ltirne Side Scan Sonar Target Analysis R. L. Cloet 1636 Implications of Using a Wide SWATH Sounding W. R. Abrams 344 System A Practical High Tech Advance in Side Scan Sonar Target Positioning and Analysis SEDIMENT STUDIES-I ACOUSTIC DOPPLER CURRENT PROFILING Chairman: A. G. Young Chairman: FUGRO-McClelland H. R. Frey Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, S. K. Breeding and D. Lavoie 391 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Duomorph Sensing for Laboratory Measurement of Sheir Modulus G. F. Appell, J. Gast, G. Williams and P. D. Bass 346 Calibration of Acoustic Doppler Current Profflers D. Lavoie, E. Mozley, R. Corwin, D. Lambert and P. Valent 397 Y. Kuroda, G. Kai and K. Okuno 353 The Use of a Towed, Direct-Current, Electrical Development of a Shipboard Acoustic Doppler Resistivity Array for the Classification of Marine Current Proffler Sediments D. Wilson, D. Bitterman and C. Roffer 359 P. F. Wainwright, B. Humphrey and G. Stewart 405 The Acoustic Doppler Current Profiling System at Sediment Contamination by Heavy Metals and AOML Hydrocarbons ix. SEDIMENT STUDIES-11 SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING Chairman: Chairmen: H. G. Herrmann III D. E. Weissman Naval Facilities Engineering Command Hofstra University A. E. Hay, L. Huang, E. B. Colbourne, J. Sheng and J. Gallagher A. J. Bowen 413 Naval Underwater Systems Center A High Speed Multi-Channel Data Acquisition System M. R. Willard 1625 for Remote Acoustic Sediment Transport Studies Ocean Sensing Capabilities on Landsat 6 D. G. Hazen, A. E. Hay and A. J. Bowen 419 S. W. McCandless, Jr. and J. Curlander 479 Design Considerations for RASTRAN-System 2 The Influence of Packing Technologies on A. G. Young, L. V. Babb and R. L. Boggess 423 Environmental Application of Space-Based Synthetic Mini-Probes: A New Dimension in Offshore In Situ Aperture Radar Testing J. R. Benada, D. T. Cuddy and B. H. jai 473 K. L. Williams and L. J. Satkowiak 428 Adapting the NSCAT Data System to Changing Bounded Beam Transmission Across a Water/Sand Requirements Interface, Experiment and Theory W. B. Campbell and M. L. Weaks 1626 L. J. Satkowiak 433 An Inexpensive Interactive Processing System for Remote Sea Bottom Classification Utilizing the NOAA Satellite Images Ulvertech Bottom Profiler Parametric Source D. S. Bryant, A. M. Ponsford and S. K. Srivastava 485 A Computer Package for the Parameter Optimization THE GREAT LAKES AS AN OCEANIC MICROCOSM of Groundwave Radar Chairman: L. Pittman Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee, U.S. Congress J. R. Krezoski 437 Particle Reworking in Great Lakes Sediments: In-Situ Tracer Studies Using Rare Earth Elements J. R. Krezoski 442 In-Situ Tracer Studies of Surficial Sediment Transport in the Great Lakes Using a Manned Submersible L. F. Boyer 443 Video-Sediment-Profile Camera Imagery in Marine and Freshwater Benthic Environments L. F. Boyer, R. J. Diaz and J. D. Hedrick 448 Computer Image-Analysis Techniques and Video- Sediment-Proftle Camera Enhancements Provide a Unique and Quantitative View of Life at or Beneath the Scdiment-Waterface Interface X. OCEAN APPLICATIONS OF REMOTELY SENSED MICROWAVE WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS-[ TECHNIQUES Chairmen: Chairmen: R. S. Mesecar D.E. Weissman Oregon State University Hofstra University T. M. Dauphinee J. Gallagher National Research Council, Canada Naval Underwater Systems Center W. Kroebel 491 .C. Bostater and V. Klemas 462 Results of Exact Investigations About the Remote Sensing of Physical and Biological Properties Characteristics of the Extremely Fast and Accurately of Estuaries Measuring Kiel Multisonde and Representations About Its Newest Performance D. E. Weissman 1546 The Dependence of the Microwave Radar Cross K.-H. Mahrt and C. Waldmann 497 Section on Ocean Surface Variables During the Field Proven High Speed Micro Optical Density Fasinex Experiment Proffier Sampling 1000 Times Per Second with 10- Precision W.-M. Boerner, A. B. Kostinski, B. D. James and M. Walther 454 R. Mesecar and C. Moser 505 Application of the Polarimetric Matched Image Filter Multi-Sample Particle Flux Collector (PM1F) Technique to Clutter Removal in POL-SAR Images of the Ocean Environment J. M. Moore, C. de Moustier and J. S. Charters 509 Multi-Sensor Real-Time Data Acquisition and D. L. Murphy 467 Preprocessing at Sea Radar Detection of Oceanic Fronts L. S. Fedor and E. J. Walsh 1697 WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS-11 Interpretation of SEASAT Radar Altimeter Returns Chairmen: from an Overflight of Ice in the Beaufort Sea J.Jaeger L. S. Fedor, G. S. Hayne and E. J. Walsh 1704 Honeywell Hydro Products Airborne Pulse-Limited Radar Altimeter Return K. Hill W,aveform Characteristics over Ice in the Beaufort Sea Honeywell Hydro Products J. Wagner and R. Mesecar 518 A Common XBTIPersonal Computer Interface D. 1. Nebert, H. Saklad and G. Mimken 1627 CTD Data Acquisition Package H. Tremblay 522 Hydroball-A New Expendable: Uses and Issues xi. COMMUNICATIONS OCEAN ENGINEERING-1 Chairman: Chairmen: R. A. Buddenberg, USCG C. A. Kohler Office of Command and Control USCG R&D Center R. A Buddenberg and A. Givens 526 R. Geminder shipboard Tactical Computer: The Coast Guard's Mechanic Research Inc. Combat Information Center Modernization R. L. Benedict 577 R. L. Moe 532 Destruction of Offshore Platforms by Accelerated Networking and Ship-to-Shore Ship-to-Ship Galvanic Corrosion Communication C. A. Kohler 582 S. C. Hall 537 Corrosive-Wear of Buoy Chain The Defense Mapping Agency's Navigation J. Larsen-Basse, B. E. Liebert, K. M. Htun and Information Network A. Tadjvar 1628 Long-Term Abrasion and Corrosion Damage to the COLD REGIONS OPERATIONS Hawaii Deep Water Power Cable Chairmen: M. Briere, K. C. Baldwin and M. R. Swift 588 S. Smith Collision Tolerant Pile Structures: Design Analysis U.S. Coast Guard Software E. Early T. Dowd 595 University of Washington United States Naval Experience with Antifouling Paints J. D. Crowley 543 Cold Weather Effects upon Marine Operations OCEAN ENtINEERING-II S. M. Smith and D. Strahl 549 Chairmen: Articulated Lights in Ice J. R. Vadus Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, M. Gorveatt and M. C. Yee 555 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Arctic Ice Island Coring Facility K. Okamura Special Assistant to the Minister of Science and COLD REGIONS MEASUREMENTS Technology, Japan Chairmen: A. Bertaux 598 S. R. Osmer Tapered Interface in Harsh Environment Connectors USCG International Ice Patrol W. E. Hanson J. F. Legrand, A. Echardour, L. Floury, H. Floch, J. USCG International Ice Patrol Kerdoncuff, T. Le Moign, G. Loaec and Y. Raer 602 Nadia: Wireline Re-Entry in Deep Sea Boreholes W. E. Hanson 561 P. K. Sullivan and B. E. Liebert 606 Operational Iceberg Forecasting Concerns Impedance Measurements of Biofouling in Seawater G. Steeves and S. Grant 567 Condensers: An Update An Autonomous Atmospheric Pressure Recorder for E. A. Fisher and H. P. Hackett 607 Establishing Polar Sea Surface Height World's First Rigid Free-Standing Production Riser T. K. Newbury and A. J. Adams 573 F. El-Hawary 291 Estimated Ice-Gouge Rates on a Manmade Shoal in the Compensation of Vertical Displacement Components Beaufort Sea in Marine Seismic Applications Using the Coupled Heave and Pitch Model xii. INFORMATION SYSTEMS-I INFORMATION SYSTEMS-111 Chairmen: Chairmen: J. A. Smith C. D. Kearse USCG R&D Center Office of Marine Operations, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration G. Williams Texas A&M University D. White General Instrument Corp. H. Bhargava and S. 0. Kimbrough 1554 Ooni: An Intelligent Decision Support System fior the G. Samuels 648 U.S. Coast Guard A Shipboard Data Acquisition, Logging and Display System T. F. Pfeiffer 612 A.Single Board Computer Based Sail Controller C. V. Baker and W. T. Whelan 650 Offshore Oceanographic Applications for Battery- M. R. Nayak 615 Powered, High-End Microprocessors On the Knowledge-Based Expert System for Marine Instrumentation R. Findley 655 CIDS-A Shipboard Centralized Integrated Data R. J. Smith 618 System OPDIN-One Way the Ocean Community Informs M. Reynolds, R. Hendershot, M. jungck,. and INFORMATION SYSTEMS-11 B. Reid 1560 The Zeno Alliance Network: A Dual-Loop Fiber Optic Chairman: Instrumentation Network for Ships P. Topoly Systems Planning NESDIS, MOORING National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Chairmen: D. Stamulis and M. P. Shevenell 623 K. R. Bitting The Use of WORM Optical Disks in Ocean Systems USCG R&D Center W. B. Wilson 629 R. Swenson A Method for Optimizing Environmental Observing Neptune Ocean Engineering Networks J. D. Babb 66o W. C. Sutherland 632 Validation of Computer Model Predictions of the A User-Friendly Muld-Functional CTD Software Large-Scale Transient Dynamic Towing Response of Package Flexible Cables D. Hamilton and J. Ward 637 H. 0. Berteaux, D. E. Frye, P. R. Clay and On-line Access to NODC Information Services E. C. Mellinger 670 Surfqce Telemetry Engineering Mooring (STEM) E. Voudouri and L. Kurz 641 Robust Sequential m-Interval Approximation Detectors D. R. May 681 with Q-Dependent Sampling New Technologies and'Developments in NDBC Buoy and Mooring Design X111. OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR EXPLORATION OF THE SEA Chairman: Chairmen: S. R. Osmer J. B. Pearce USCG International Ice Patrol ICES Marine Environment Quality Committee S. R. Osmer and D. L. Murphy 687 J. N. Moore International Ice Patrol Applied Oceanography Center Ocean Law and Policy, University of Virginia R. L. Tuxhorn 691 J. F. Pawlak 719 Oceanography on EAGLE Australia '88 Cruise A Review of the Origins, Responsibilities, Composition J. A. McNitt 696 and Main Activities of the International Council for United States Navy Operational Oceanography: the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Fighting Smart with Oceanography Intelligence S. A. Murawski 726 An Evaluation of Shellfish Research in the, OCEANOGRAPHY-MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Chairman: J. B. Pearce 732 W. D. Scherer The ICES Marine Environmental Quality Committee Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, (MEQC): Its History and Activities National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration F. P. Thurberg 736 P. Clemente-Colon and J. Zaitzeff 1629 The ICES Working Group on Biological Effects of Upwelling Monitoring Off Western Sahara Contaminants: A Case Study K. Monkelien and T. L. Murrell 699 SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL AND MONITORING Windrose, PC Software for Wind Data Analysis M. Enomoto, T. Kawanishi and W. Kato 703 Chairmen: Measurement of Luminance Distribution on the Sea C. Dougherty Surface for Comfortable Living Space Environmental Protection Agency G. Lotzic UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY New York City Department of Environmental Protection Chairman: J. C. Swanson and K. jayko 740 E. Kristof Modeling the Impacts of CSO Treatment Alternatives National Geographic Society on Narragansett Bay E. Kristof, J. Stancampiano and A. Chandler 709 H. M. Stanford and D. R. Young 745 Use of a Macro-Hybrid Camera at National Geographic Pollutant Loadings to the New York Bight Apex E. Kristof, A. Chandler and W. Hamner 713 S. E. McDowell, C. S. Albro, W. R. Trulli, 3-D as an Underwater Too] W. G. Steinhauer and F. G. Csulak 1630 Optimum. Techniques for Tracking Plumes in the Ocean: A Case Study of Sludge Plume Dispersion at the 106-Mile Site C. E. Werme, P. D. Boehm, W. G. Steinhauer and F. G. Csulak 1631 A Monitoring Plan for Disposal of Sewage Sludge at the 106-Mile Site C. D. Hunt, W. G. Steinhauer, C. E. Werme, P. D. Boehm and F. G. Csulak 1632 Monitoring Water Quality Characteristics During Dispoasl of Sewage Sludge at the 106-Mile Site xiv. MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES PROBLEMS IN OUR BAYS AND ESTUARIES Chairman: Chairman: B. Haynes V. K. Tippie Environmental Protection Agency Estuarine Program Office, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration R. J. Greenwald and H. F. Hennigar, Jr. 752 Designation of an Ocean Mining Stable Reference Area E. M. Burreson and J. D. Andrews 799 Unusual intensification of Chesapeake Bay Oyster R. M. Mink. B. L. Bearden and E. A. Mancini 762 Diseases During Recent Drought Conditions Regional Geologic Framework of the Norphlet Formation of the Onshore and Offshore Mississippi, C. F. D'Elia and P. R. Taylor 803 Alabama, and Florida Area Disturbances in Coral Reefs: Lessons from Diadema Mass Mortality and Coral Bleaching T. J. Rowland 768 Availability of Minerals Offshore Virginia P. A. Tester, P. K. Fowler and R. P. Stumpf 808 Red Tide, the First Occurrence in North Carolina C. E. McLain 777 Waters: An Overview Ocean Mining: An Opportunity for Public-Priv2te Partnership B. L. Welsh 1633 Hypoxia in Long Island Sound (LIS), Summer of 1987 R. V. Amato 783 Recent Nonenergy Mineral Activity in the Atlantic P. Molinari 1609 Outer Continental Shelf EPA's Response to the Flotables Incidents of the Summer of 1987 TRASK ALONG THE COAST THE DOLPHIN DIE-OFF Chairman: L. Swanson Chairman: State University of New York N. M. Foster National Marine Fisheries Service J. B. Pearce 786 Events of the Summer of '87 D. R. Cassidy, A. J. Davis. A. L. jenny and D. A. Saari 812 L. Schmidt 790 Pathology of the Diseased Dolphins Impacts and Implications of the Summer of 1987, New Jersey Flotable Incidents J. Geraci 1634 Epidemiology of Bottlenose Dolphin Disease-U.S. R. E. Dennis, R. P. Stumpf and M. C. Predoehl 1569 Atlantic Coast, 1987-1988 Environmental Conditions in New York Bight, July- August, 1987 J. G. Meade, C. W. Potter and W. A, McLellan 815 Statistical Characteristics of the 1987 Bottlenose R. L. Swanson, R. Zimmer and C. A. Parker 794 Dolphin Die-Off in Virginia Meteorological Conditions Leading to the 1987 Washup of Floatable Wastes on New Jersey Beaches W. Medway 818 and Comparison of These Conditions with the Results of the Dolphin Epidemic Investigation as the Historical Record Disease was Presented in Newjersey Specimens of Bottlenose Dolphins in 1987 G. P. Scott, D. M. Burn and L. J. Hansen 819 The Dolphin Dieoff- Long-Term Effects and Recovery of the Population xv. SHIPWRECK ARCHEOLOGY OIL SPILL MOVEMENT Chairmen: Chairman: W. C. Phoel D. F. Paskausky NMFS, Sandy Hook Laboratory, USCG R&D Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration J. Bondareff I. M. Lissauer 842 A Verified Model for Oil Spill Movement, Beaufort House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee Sea, Alaska J. D. Broadwater 824 M. Reed and E. R. Gundlach 847 Historic Shipwrecks: Resources Worth Protecting Hindcast of the Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill A. G. Giesecke 827 E. J. Tennyson and H. Whittaker 853 The Abandoned Shipwreck Act: A Context The 1987 Newfoundland Oil Spill Experiment: An P. J. A. Waddell 833 Overview Reburial of a 16th Century Galleon E. J. Tennyson 857 J. D. Broadwater 837 Shipboard Navigational Radar as an Oil Spill Tracking Supporting Underwater Archaeology with Ocean Too]: A Preliminary Assessment Technology C. M. Anderson and R. P. LaBelle 1673 R. W. Lawrence 1627 Update of Occurrence Rates for Accidental Oil Spills on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Consequences of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act: The North Carolina Example DRIFT MEASUREMENT J. Fullmer 1677 Myth and Management-The Shipwreck Management Chairmen: Act 1. M. Lissauer USCG R&D Center ART R. Q. Robe USCG R&D Center Chairman: H. B. Stewart, Jr. A. A. Allen and C. B. Billing 860 Old Dominion University Spatial Objective Analysis of Small Numbers of Lagrangian Drifters C. Olsen 1576 Art and Technology on 20th-Century Vessels M. J. Lewandowski 865 A Minicomputer Application to Graphically Display H. B. Stewart, Jr. 840 Tidal Current Drift Artists on Oceanographic Expeditions: A Neglected Partnership E. A. Meindl 871 Drifting Buoy Data Quality and Performance Assessment at the National Data Buoy Center P. J. Hendricks 1635 Drift Current Measurements from a Submarine Xvi. ECONOMICS OF MARINE OPERATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY Chairmen: Chairmen: F. Olson S. Bolton Environmental Consultant Office of Legislative Affairs, D. M. King National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ICF Inc. R. Dye House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee M. D. Aspinwall 876 Commercial Vessel Operations in the Exclusive R. W. Zeller 905 Economic Zone: Will the Jones Act Keep Up? Resolving the Environmental Decisionmaking and Research Dilemma M. W. Clark, Jr., D. P. Robinson and L. G. Antle 1690 Economic Impacts from Coal Exports: Through the C. A. Crampton and R. C. Helland 910 Port of Baltimore and the Port of Norfolk A Strategy for Program Implementation C. D. MacDonald and H. E. Deese 880 J. N. Leonard 914 Opportunities for Development: A Growth Scenario Updating the Stratton Commission: A Proposal for the and Situation Analysis of Hawaii's Ocean Industries U.S. Coast Guard Ocean Survey Corps D. L. Soden, J. D. Reighard and W. H. Hester 891 H. E. Schultz 920 Outside Influence on Port Operations: The Insider's National Response Mechanism Perspectives J. S. Hawkins 925 M. G. Johnson 896 Satellite Ocean Monitoring at Ten Years: Perceptions Use of Systems Analysis, Techniques in Ocean and Realities Resources Development P. Stang and E. Turner 1616 EDUCATION AND TRAINING Legal and Policy Issues at Stake in the Current 5-Year Program Chairmen: Richard Asaro, USCG ESTUARINE STUDIES-1 Office of Marine Safety, Security and Environmental Protection Chairman: Thoyer Shafer D. J. Basta Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, J. Morton 899 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Marine Field Projects: Teaching is the Easy Part S. E. McCoy 930 S. Teel 1582 Monitoring the Estuary Maritime Training and Ocean Education I. C. Sheifer 937 H. F. Trutneff 902 Climate, Weather, and Coastal Recreational Growth in The Impact of Marine Technology on Education and the Southeast U.S. in 1986 Training in Marine Transportation A. Stoddard 942 An Innovative Approach for the Synthesis of Large Oceanographic Data Sets with Pre-Processing and Post-Processing of an Ecosystem Model of the New York Bight J. Gerritsen 948 Biological Control of Water Quality in Estuaries: Removal of Particulate Matter by Filter Feeders Xvii. ESTUARINE STUDIES-11 OCEAN POLICY-A MATRIX OF FEDERAL, STATE AND INTERNATIONAL ISSUES Chairmen: S. E. McCoy Chairmen: Estuarine Program Office, E. W. Cannon National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration USCG Governmental Affairs Staff D. Ashe K. U. Wolniakowski House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee State of Oregon Oral only E. W. Cannon 1717 The USCG: A Prototype for National and International FISHERIES AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENTS Ocean Policy Implementation Chairman: L. A. Berney R. Smolowitz The Unspoken Yet Vital Partnership Between the National Marine Fisheries, USCG Reserve and the Civilian Community at Large National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration C. R. Corbett 992 F. L. Ames 961 International Oil Spill Liability and Compensation Improved U.S. Strategy for Fisheries Law Enforcement E. Hout, R. Bailey and K. U. Wolniakowski 994 G. Reetz 966 Ocean Resource Management in Oregon: Pushing California Sea Otter: Impact Assessment and Mitigation Open the Window of Opportunity D. Luo 972 J. S. S. Lakshminarayana 1000 Theoretical Analysis of Fish School Density Overview and Analysis of Coastal Zone Management in the Atlantic Provinces, Canada R. J. Smolowitz and F. M. Serchuk 975 D. C. Slade 1006 Marine Fisheries Technology in the United States: Coastal States and Marine Resource Development Status, Trends and Future Directions Within the United States Exclusive Economic Zone B. F. Beal 980 Public Aquaculture in Downeast Maine: The Soft-Shefl OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM Clam Story Chairman: P. H. Averill 1637 J. H. Clotworthy Development of Separator Trawl Technology Consultant FISHERIES-IMPACT STUDIES P. Brown, K. Lighty, R. Merrill and P. D. Rabinowitz 1012 Chairman: Collection and Quality Control of Marine Geological J. Chambers Data by the Ocean Drilling Program National Marine Fisheries Service D. Graham, B. Hamlin, B. julson, W. Mills, A. Meyer, H. A. Carr 984 R. Olivas, P. D. Rabinowitz, D. Bontempo and Long Term Assessment of a Derelict Gillnet Found in J. Tauxe 1018 the Gulf of Maine Shipboard Laboratory Support: Ocean Drilling Program A. E. Pinkney, L. L. Matteson and D. A. Wright 987 P. Weiss, G. Bode, C. Mato, R. Merrill, P. D. Effects of Tributyltin on Survival, Growth, Rabinowitz, M. Angell, J. Miller, P. Myre, S. Prinz, Morphometry and RNA-DNA Ratio of Larval Striped D. Quoidbach and R. Wilcox 1025 Bass, Morone saxatilis Core Curation: Ocean Drilling Program xviii. OCEAN ENERGY-I MARINE MAMMALS RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT Chairman: Chairman: D. Cotter D. Swanson CBI Industries National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration P. Vauthier 1029 The Underwater Electric Kite: East River Deployment H. H. Armstrong and K. R. Banks 1073 Modern Eskimo Whaling in the Alaskan Arctic D. E. Lennard and F. A. Johnson 1034 British OTEC Programmes-] OMW Floating and G. H. Allen 1079 0.5MW Land Based Observations on the 1987 Subsistence Harvest of Northern Fur Seals on St. Paul Island, Pribilof Islands, R. K. Jensen 1039 Alaska Hydro Power from the Ocean R. T. Bennett 1083 A. Thomas and D. Hillis 1045 Endangered Species and Marine Mammal Protection First Production of Potable Water by OTEC and Its During Offshore Structure Removals in the Gulf of Potential Applications Mexico OCEAN ENERGY-11 SHIP DESIGN AND REPAIR Chairman: Chairmen: L. Lewis M. S. Canavan Department of Energy USCG Office of Engineering and Development T. Colton D. C. Hicks, C. M. Pleass and G. R. Mitcheson 1049 Colton Company DELBUOY Wave-Powered Seawater Desalination System M. S. Canavan and M. D. Noll 1087 K. P. Melvin 1055 U.S. Coast Guard's New Polar Icebreaker Design A Wave Energy Engine and Proposals for its D. W. Yu and J. H. DevIetian 1098 Development and Usage Electroslag Surfacing for Construction, Restoration, L. Claeson 1638 and Repair of Ship Structures Recent Wave Energy Research in Sweden RESEARCH VESSELS K. Kudo, T. Tsuzuku, K. Imai and Y. Akiyama 1061 Chairman: Wave Focusing by a Submerged Plate W. Barbee Y. Masuda, M. E. McCormick, T. Yamazaki -and University-National Oceanographic Laboratory Y. Outa 1067 System The Backward Bent Duct Buoy-An Improved Floating Type Wive Power Device J. A. Chance 1107 Conversion of Surplus Oilfleld Supply Vessels to Research Vessels C. Hamlin 1111 Research Vessels: A Systems Engineering Approach B. L. Hutchison and S. jagannathan 1117 Monohull Research Vessel Seakeeping and Criteria R. J. Wilber, C. E. Lea and S. E. Humphris 1639 The SSV Corwith Cramer: Sea Education Association's New Sailing Research Vessel Nix. SALVAGE AND TOWING SWATH SHIPS-1 Chairman: Chairman: J. H. Boyd R. Dinsmore Booz, Allen & Hamilton, Inc. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution J. K. Edgar 1640 G. R. Lamb 1131 Haz2rdous Materials in Marine Salvage Operations Relationship Between Seakeeping Requirements and SWATH Ship Geometry C. M. Kalro 1603 Launch and Retrieval of 2 1,000 Ton Barge Shaped M. Rice, E. Craig, S. Drummond and Vessel from a Conventional Tanker C. junemann 1144 Conceptual Design of an Intermediate Size J. Strandquist 1124 Oceanographic Research Ship for the University- Removal of the Wreck of the Ex-USS TORTUGA National Oceanographic Laboratory System THE SMALL PASSENGER VESSEL INDUSTRY-I R. D. Gaul, A. C. McClure and F. E. Shumaker 1149 Design of a Semisubmerged SWATH Research and Chairmen: Survey Ship E. G. Sharf C. Kennell 1157 National Association of Passenger Vessels Tankage Arrangement for SWATH Ships H. Parker National Association of Passenger Vessels SWATH SHIPS-H W. B. Hamner 1641 Chairman: The Future of the Tourist Submarine Industry K. W. Kaulum Oral only Office of Naval Research T. G. Lang, C. B. Bishop and W. J. Sturgeon 1163 THE SMALL PASSENGER VESSEL INDUSTRY-H SWATH Ship Designs for Oceanographic Research Chairman: E. Craig and S. E. Drummond 1169 E. G. Scharf SWATH CHARWIN-Range Support Ship National Association of Passenger Vessels A. Galerne 1573 T. MacRae 1125 Development of Deep Water Technology as It Relates The Realities of Birebo2t Chartering to Future Salvage Oral only E. Craig Real World Experience with SWATH Design XX. SHIPBOARD TECHNICAL SUPPORT AN INTERIM STATUS REPORT ON ORGANOTINS-11 Chairman: Chairmen: H. L. Clark P. F. Seligman National Science Foundation Naval Ocean Systems Center H. L. Clark 1644 M. A. Champ Shipboard Technician Program of the National Science National Science Foundation Foundation K. W. M. Siu 1716 J. D. Guffy, M. A. Spears and D. C. Biggs 1173 Analytical Chemistry of Butyltins Automated Analyses of Nutrients in Seawater with the T. L. Wade, B. Garcia-Romero and J. M. Brooks 1198 Technicon TrAAcs-800 Autoanilyzer System Tributyltin Analyses in Association with NOAA's D. J. Murphy, E. Wilson and E. Powell 1178 National Status and Trends Mussel Watch Program An Application of a Low Flow Current Meter to Broad C. M. Adema, W. M. Thomas, Jr., and Temperature Range Estuarine Current Measurements S. R. Mangum 1656 M. Maccio and C. Langdon 1181 Butyltin Releases to Harbor Water from Ship Painting Description of Conversion of an EG&G VMCM into a in a Dry Dock MVMS (Multi-Variable Moored Sensor) B. Cool Summary and Status Report of EPA's Special Review AN INTERIM STATUS REPORT ON ORGANOTINS-I (PD14) Chairmen: WAVE MOTION P. F. Seligman Naval Ocean Systems Center Chairman: M. A. Champ R. H. Canada National Science Foundation National Data Buoy Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration P. F. Seligman, J. G. Grouhoug and C. M. Adema Field Monitoring of TBT Concentrations in Pearl L. J. Ladner, W. B. Wilson and P. J. Kies 1202 Harbor Correlated with Model Simulation Studies Lake Superior Winter Weather Station R. S. Henderson 1645 N. Lang Chronic Exposure Effects of Tributyltin on Pearl The Linear Properties of Spectra from a PitchlRoll Harbor Organisms Buoy M. H. Salazar and S. M. Salazar 1188 E. D. Michelena and R. Dagnall Tributyltin and Mussel Growth in San Diego Bay A Computer Controlled Signal Simulator for Buoy, Motion Sensors M. H. Salazar and M. A. Champ 1497 Tributyltin and Water Qu2lity: A Question of D. Smith and F. Remond Environmental Significance 3-Meter Directional PitchlRoll Buoy W. R. Blair, G. J. Olson, T. K. Trout, K. L. Jewett and F. E. Brinckman 1668 Accumulation and Fite of Tributyltin Species in Microbial Biotilms Xxi. WAVE MEASUREMENTS UNDERWATER VEHICLES Chairman: Chairman: L. Baer R. Blidberg Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, University of New Hampshire National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration M. Higgins and R. Whyte 1646 H. Brown 1205 Controlled Depressor Towed Sensor Platform-The Infrared Laser Wave Height Sensor U.S. Navy's Mk28 Search System G. Kontopidis and G. Bowers 1207 M. Higgins, B. Lawson and B. Field 1647 WavePro: An Autonomous Wave Processor with Long- Development and Testing of a Heavy-Duty Work ROV Range Telemetry for 10,000 Foot Service F. Ziemer, H. Ganther and E. Stockdreher 1212 H. Momma, K. Ohtsuka and H. Hotta 1253 Measured Transfer Functions for Shipmotions in JAMSTECIDeep Tow System Natural Seaways J. jalbert, M. Shevenell, S. Chappel, R. Welsh and D. W. Farrell 1587 R. Blidberg 1259 The Next Generation Water Level Measurement EAVE III Untethered AUV Submersible System: The Next Step in Real-Time Data for Navigation M. E. Cooke, S. Gittings, J. M. Brooks and D. C. Biggs WAVE ACTION ON SEA SHORES Texas A&M University Remotely Operated Oceanographic Vehicle (TAMU-ROOV) Chairman: M. Earle UNDERWATER VEHICLE SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT MEC Systems Corp. Chairmen: M. J. Briggs and P. J. Grace 1218 S. B. Cable Influence of Frequency and Directional Spreading on Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Wive Transformation in the Nearshore Region R. Wernli D. D. McGehee and J. P. McKinney 1224 Naval Ocean Systems Center Tidal Circulation Data from the Los AngeleslLong F. Dougherty, T. Sherman, G. Woolweaver and Beach Harbors G. Lovell 1265 S. L. Da Costa and J. L. Scott 1231 An Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Flight Wave Impact Forces on the Jones Island East Dock, Control System Using Sliding Mode Control Milwaukee, Wisconsin M. L. Nuckols, J. Kreider and W. Feild 1271 J.Rosati III and G. L. Howell 1239 Thermal Modelling of Electro-Mechanical Cables for A Hierarchical Multiprocessor Data Acquisition System ROV Applications for Field Measurement of Structural Response in M. P. Shevenell and C. Millett 1276 Breakwater Concrete Armor Units A LISP Environment for Real-Time Ocean Systems J. P. Ahrens and E. T. Fulford 1244 S. B. Cable 1280 Wave Energy Dissipation by Reef Breakwaters A Guideline System for the Navy's Submarine Rescue E. H. Harlow 1250 Ship (ASR) Class Why Breakwaters Break W. J. Herr 1290 AUV Technology: Development and Demonstration Program xxii. MANNED SUBMERSIBLES HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT Chairman: Chairmen: R. W. Cook L. H. Gibson Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute USCG Central Oil Identification Laboratory Oral only E. F. Batutis Phasesep Corp. DIVING OPERATIONS AND SYSTEMS W. R. Cunningham 1321 NOAA Fleet Hazardous Materials and Hazardous Waste Chairmen: Management W. C. Phoel National Marine Fisheries Service, L. H. Gibson and M. S. Hendrick 1326 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S. Coast Guard Oil Identification System J. M. Wells T. J. Haas, J. J. Kichner and T. J. Chuba 1332 Office of Marine Operations, Course in Hazardous Materials National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration J. K. Jeffries BUOY-BASED METEOROLOGY Standards and Procedures for Dry Suit Diving Education Chairman: R. Canada J. K. Jeffries National Buoy Center Thermal Guidelines for Diving Operations S. P. Burke and D. G. Martinson 1335 R. 1. Wicklund 1614 An ARGOS Meteorological Oceanographic Spar Buoy An Inexpensive Mobile Self-Contained Habitat System for Antarctic Deployments for Marine Research D. B. Gilhousen 1341 J. W. Blackwell and C. D. Newell 1300 Methods of Obtaining Weather Data in Real Time Diving in Hazardous and Polluted Waters E. D. Michelena 1649 J. M. Wells 1305 The Measurement of Precipitation at National Data The Use of Nitrogen-Oxygen Mixtures as Diver's Buoy Center Stations Breathing Gas R. R. Miller and R. Canada 1650 J. P. Fish and H. A. Carr 1309 Mini-Drifter Test Deployment Data-Gulf of Mexico Integrated Remote Sensing of Dive Sites Spring 1988 S. L. Merry, S. L. Sendlein and A. P. Jenkin 1315 P. M. Friday, J. S. Lynch and F. S. Long 1344 Human Power Generation in an Underwater Interactive Marine Analysis and Forecast System Environment (IMAFS): The Oceanographic Workstation of the Future D. A. Storey and W. E. Woodward 1348 The Global Ocean Platform Inventory VESSELS OF THE 80s AND BEYOND Chairmen: E. K. Pentimonti American President Lines, Ltd. P. Mentz Advanced Ship Operations, MARAD Oral only Xxiii. FACILITIES IN SUPPORT OF MARINE FREIGHT NAVIGATION CHARTING TRANSPORTATION Chairmen: Chairmen: R. Vorthman M. J. Vickerman, Jr. USCG Operations Control Center, Atlantic Area Vickerman, Zachary, Miller M. Kumar R. Katims Defense Mapping Agency Container Transport Technology W. M. Maynard 1371 Oral only Cooperative Electronic Chart Development: The GAADS Project NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS P. W. Mushkat and C. Lamson 1589 Chairmen: Electronic Chart Display Information Systems: G. R. Perreault Operational, Policy and Legal Issues Office of Navigation, N. D. Smith 1374 U.S. Coast Guard Automated Nautical Data and Charting Development J. Illgen E. A. Soluri A. F. E. Fuentes 1651 Defense Mapping Agency's Navigational Information A Survey of Radionavigation System Users System L. Mehrkam 1352 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS Leading Lines for the Nineties G. R. Perreault 1356 Chairmen: Contract Service of Federal Aids to Navigation C. D. Kearse Office of Marine Operations, R. J. Weaver and R. M. Piccioni 1362 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Marine Radionavigation of the Future P. Stutes John E. Chance & Assoc. Inc. L. V. Grant 1365 Federal Radionavigation Plan Overview J. L. Hammer III and W. R. Hoyle 1379 The Continuing Need for Accurate Positioning in J. Hammer III and W. R. Hoyle 1684 Naval Tactics The Continuing Need for Accurate Positioning I .n Naval Tactics E. F. Carter and J. Lewkowicz 1594 A Computer Navigation System Using Kalmaro Filter Smoothing R. Gandy and S. Paulet 1648 Design and Applications of SEATRAC, an Integrated Navigation and Data Management System D. C. Slade Solar Navigation A. E. Shaw III and T. E. Bryan 1384 Oceanographic Applications of the ARGOS System xxiv. AIDS TO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT SEARCH AND RESCUE-SURVEILLANCE EXPERIMENTS Chairman: Chairman: T. S. Winslow W@ H. Reynolds Office of Engineering, USCG R&D Center U.S. Coast Guard D. Finlayson, D. Bryant, B. R. Dawe and T. S. Winslow, M. D. Dawe, K. R. Schroeder and A. J. Armstrong 1417 W. A. Fisher 1390 Results ofqn Experiment to Examine Certain Human High-Volt2ge Sol2r-Powered Navigation Range Design Factors Relating to Searches Conducted with Marine Radar J. McCaffrey An Alternative Hull Design for the U.S. Coast Guard D. Bryant, B. R. Dawe, D. Finlayson, W. Reynolds Bell Buoy and M. J. Lewandowski 1422 Results of Canadian Shipborne Night Search GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM Exp erim en ts Chairmen: B. R. Dawe, D. Finlayson -and D. Bryant 1427 K. Nakamura Results of -a Canadian Shipbome Radar Search and Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense Rescue Detection Experiment R. S. Warren D. Finlayson, B. R. Dawe and D. Bryant 1433 TASC Results ofa Canadian Visual Search and Rescue Detection Experiment L. D. Hottram Relative GPS Kinemetric Surveying and Applications F. Replogle, Jr. 1436 for Marine Positioning A New Coast Guard Search Technique M. J. Mes 1395 SEARCH OPERATIONS Accuracy of Satellite Survey Measurements on Offshore Platforms for Monitoring Subsidence Chairmen: E. M. Geyer and R. S. Warren R. Q. Robe Mission Planning Issues and Answers for GPS Users USCG R&D Center B. Dawe SHIP OPERATIONS AND SCHEDULING Nordco Ltd. Chairman: R. W. Berwin 1439 C. Pritchett Alaska SAR Facility Archive and Operations System USCG R&D Center M. K. Kutzleb 1444 S. Cook, R. Benway, W. Krug, M. Nestlebush. A. The Search for South African Airways Flight 295 Picciolo, W. Richardson, P. Stevens and D. R. Paskausky, W. Reynolds, R. Gaines and V. Zegowitz 1400 R. Q. Robe 1605 Volunteer Observing Ships and the U.S. Improving Search Success; Real-Time Collection and Government-A Winning Partnership Transfer to User L. C. Kingsley, K. S. Klesczewski, J. A. Smith and R. A. Walters 1405 R. Q. Robe, D. F. Paskausky and G. L. Hover 1448 Comparing the U.S. Coast Guard Buoy Tender Performance of Coast Guard Medium Range Surveillance (MRS) Aircraft Radars in Search and Performance Using Simulation Rescue (SAR) Missions K. S. Klesczewski 1411 J. B. Brewster I.454 Using Spacefilling Curve to Generate the Feasible Sea Based Aerostats (SBA): Effective Surveillance for Routes for the Set Partitioning Problem Maritime Interdiction S. F. Roehrig 1643 Scheduling Patrols Using a Hybrid Integer Programmingl Rule-Based System Approach XXV. PORT MANAGEMENT AND SECURITY Chairmen: T. Robinson Port Safety and Security Division, U.S. Coast Guard D. Smith House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee D. J. Evans, R. W. Owen and P. R. Farragut 1457 Innovative Technology Applied to Maximize a Port's Lifeline: A Case History for the Sea Lanes of the Chesapeake Bay N. A. Marziani 1463 The Multi-Agency MOU on Port Security: A Model for Conflict Resolution D. J. Sheehy and S. F. Vik 1470 Mitigation Planning for Port Development J. J. Zagel, R. T. Kilgore and S. M. Stein 1642 Hydrodynamic and Mass Transport Modeling of Navy Harbors MARINE SAFETY Chairmen: C. L. Hervey USCG R&D Center S. Steele House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee F. H. Anderson 1598 Awakening the Consciousness of the Boating Public Regarding Pollution, Intoxication, and Common Sense Safety of the Nation's Waterways A. Colihan 1476 Coast Guard Recreational Boating Product Assurance Program C. L. Hervey 1482 Determining Horsepower Limits on Recreational Boats S. Johnson and J. Veentjer 1487 Regulation of Passenger Carrying Submersibles G. L. Traub 1493 Recreational Boating Accidents in Ocean Waters Manuscript unavailable for publication Xxvi. Authors List Abrams, W. R ............... 344 Boehm, P. D ......... 1631, 1632 Clark, M. W., jr ............ 1688 Adams, A. j ................. 573 Boerner, W.-M .............. 454 Clark, R. B ................. 184 Ademal C. M ............... 1656 Boggess, R. L ............... 423 Clay, P. R .................. 670 Aharon, P .................. 101 Bonetempo, D ............. 1018 Clemente-Colon, P .......... 1629 Ahrens, J. P ................ 1244 Bostater, C ................. 462 Clifford, S. F ................ 315 Akiyama, Y ................ 1061 Bowen, A. j ............ 413, 419 Cloet, R. L ................ 1636 Albro, C. S ................ 1630 Bowers, G ................ 1207 Coe, J. M ..................... 1 Allen, A. A ................. 86o Boyer, L. F ............. 443, 448 Colbourne, E. B ............. 413 Allen, G. H ................ 1079 Brashier, j .................. 136 Colihan, A ................ 1476 Alonzo, C ................. 1612 Breeding, S. K .............. 391 Colwell, R. R .............. 1606 Amato, R. V ................ 783 Brewster, J. B .............. 1454 Cook, S ................... 1400 Ames, F. L .................. 961 Brickey, M. R .............. 1611 Cooper, R. A ................ 112 Anderson, C. M ............ 1673 Briere, M ................... 588 Corbett, C. R ............... 992 Anderson, F. H ............. 1598 Briggs, M. j ................ 1218 Corwin, R .................. 397 Andrews, J. D ............... 799 Bright, T. j .................. 22 Cottingharn, D ................ 6 Angell, M ................. 1025 Brinckman, F. E ............ 1668 Craig, E ............. 1144, 116q Antle, L. G ................ 1688 Broadwater, J. D ........ 824, 837 Crampton, C. A ............. 910 Appell, G.'F ................ 346 Brooks, J. M ............... 1198 Crawford, G. B .............. 315 Armstrong, A. j ............. 1417 Brown, H ................. 1205 Crowley, J. D ............... 543 Armstrong, H. H ............ 1073 Brown, P ................. 1012 Csulak, F. G. . . . . 1630, 163 1, 1632 Ashmore, S ................. 259 Browning, D. G ............. 318 Cuddy, D. T ................. 473 Aspinwall, M. K ............. 876 Bryan, T. E ................ 1384 Cunningham, W. R .......... 1321 Asplin, R. G ................ 329 Bryant, D ........ 485, 1417, 1422, Curlander, j ................ 479 Augerot, X ................ 1711 1427, 1433 Da Costa, S. L .............. 1231 Aurand, D. V ............... 161 Buddenberg, R. A ............ 526 Dardeau, M. R ................ 17 Auster, P. j ........... 1286, 1610 Bunn, A. R ................... I Davis, A. j .................. 812 Averill, P. H ............... 1637 Burden, D. G ................ 70 Dawe, B. R ........... 1417, 1422, Babb, 1. G .................. 112 Burke, S. P ................ 1335 1427, 1433 Babb, J. D .................. 66o Burn, D. M ................. 819 Dawe, M. D ............... 1390 Babb, L. V .................. 423 Burreson, E. M .............. 799 Dean, J. M ................... 35 Bailey, R ................... 994 Burroughs, R. K ........... 1607 Deese, H. E ................. 880 Baker, C. V ................. 650 Cable, S. B ................ 1280 D'Elia, C. F .............. 29, 803 Baldwin, K. C ............... 588 Caldwell, P. j ................ 46 de Moustier, C .......... 372, 509 Banks, K. R ................ 1073 Campbell, W. B ............ 1626 Dennis, R. E ............... 1569 Bascle, B. j ................. 223 Canada, R ................. 1650 Devletian, J. H ............. 1098 Bass, P. D .................. 346 Canavan, M. S .............. 1087 DeVoe, M. R ..........I ...... 35 Batt, B. D. j ................. 46 Cannon, E. W .............. 1717 Diaz, R. j ................... 448 Beal, B. F .................. 980 Carney, R. S .............. 90, 96 Dindo, J. j ................... 17 Bearden, B. L ............... 762 Carr, H. A ............. 984, 1309 Dougherty, F .............. 1265 Benada, J. R ................ 473 Carter, E. F ................ 1594 Dowd, T ................... 595 Benedict, R. L ............... 577 Cassidy, D. R ............... 812 Drummond, S ........ 1144, 1169 Bennett, R. T .............. 1083 Chalmers, A. G ............. 1605 Dunaway, M. E .............. 268 Benway, R ................ 1400 Champ, M.A. 1497 Dunkel, C. A ................ 208 Berney, A ................. 1725 Chance, J. A ............... 1107 Echardour, A ............... 602 Bertaux, A .................. 598 Chandler, A ........ 335, 709, 713 Edgar, J. K ................ 1640 Berteaux, H. 0 .............. 670 Chaplin, G ................. 275 Edson, G. M ................ 219 Berwin, R. W ........... @ . . 1439 Chappel, S ................ 1259 EI-Hawary, F.. @ ............. 291 Bhargava, H ............... 1554 Charters, J. S ........... 385, 509 Eller, A. I .................. 295 Biggs, D. C ................ 1173 Chauvin, A. L .............. 1536 Enomoto, M ................ 703 Billing, C. 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A REVIEW OF THE ORIGINS, RESPONSIBILITIES, COMPOSITION AND MAIN ACTIVITIES OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE EXPLORATION OF THE SEA (ICES) Janet F. Pawlak ICES Palaegade 2-4 DK-1261 Copenhagen K, Denmark ABSTRACT FOUNDATION AND MEMBERSHIP IN ICES This contribution first outlines the main factors During the last decade of the Nineteenth Century, leading to the foundation of ICES in 1902 as an marine scientists and the governments of a number intergovernmental body, the first of its kind, of European countries became concerned over the concerned with the promotion and coordination of state of marine fish stocks following the expan- international cooperation in scientific investi- sion in European fisheries during the second half gations of the sea and its living resources in the of that century, that occurred after the introduc- North Atlantic area. It then traces the develop- tion of steam propulsion on fishing vessels. They ment of the Council's aims, responsibilities, com- recognized the need for an international body to position, organization, and main activities from organize and coordinate scientific investigations its foundation to the present time, with special related to fisheries. Moreover, they also realized attention to the years since World War Ii, during that isolated biological or hydrographic observa- which time the Council acquired a more formally tions were of little value in understanding a sea defined status through its 1964 Convention. The area as a whole. Accordingly, these scientists Council's role in providing scientific information proposed the establishment of an international and advice to member governments and international body that should coordinate marine scientific re- fishery management (NEAFC, IBSFC, NASCO) and pol- search on a broad basis, to understand the sea and lution control (Oslo, Paris, and Helsinki Commis- its living resources. sions) organizations, and possible future develop- ments in this and other activities are also des- After several years of discussion among these cribed. scientists and approaches by them to their respec- tive governments, the Swedish Government hosted a INTRODUCTION meeting in Stockholm in June 1899 to discuss in- ternational cooperation in the fisheries and The International Council for the Exploration of oceanographic fields in the Atlantic. While the the Sea (ICES) is the oldest intergovernmental desirability of establishing an international body marine organization in the world (Ref. 1). It was to coordinate marine scientific research was rec- founded in 1902 in response to concerns expressed ognized at that meeting, agreement was not reached by leading marine scientists and governments in as to the precise functions of such a body. A sub- northern Europe that the formation of an interna- sequent meeting in May 1901 in Kristiania (Oslo) tional body to coordinate scientific research in drew up a program of investigations on an inter- marine fields was needed to understand the con- national basis that should serve as the framework ditions in the sea and avoid the possibility of for scientific research by member states. Details overfishing. From an initial founding membership concerning the establishment of the Council were of eight countries, ICES has expanded over the also discussed (Ref. 2). years to include eighteen member countries and the entire North Atlantic and adjacent seas as its The formal establishment of ICES occurred on July area of interest. While the general aims of ICES 22, 1902 at a meeting in Copenhagen of representa- have changed little over the eight decades of its tives of governments. At this meeting, it was existence, the scientific fields covered by its agreed that the seat of the Council should be in work have expanded greatly, particularly during Copenhagen. A Central Laboratory was established the past two decades. The original fields of acti- in Kristiania, but was later closed. Officers of vity in marine, especially fisheries, biology and the Council were chosen, a General Secretary was hydrography have been expanded to encompass issues appointed, and a five-year program of coordinated related to mariculture, fish diseases, and pollu- marine research was adopted. tion of the marine environment. This expansion in numbers and types of activities has been accom- The following eight countries founded ICES: Den- panied by an increase in the number and subject mark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, areas of committees within ICES and the develop- Sweden, Russia, and the United Kingdom. ment of an extensive number of working groups re- porting to these committees. CH2585-8/88/oooo- 719 $1 @1988 IEEE Following the establishment of the Council, it basis for commercial fisheries, including possible rapidly became a major forum for the promotion of overfishing in any of the areas (Ref. 5). The in- international, cooperation in fishery science as vestigations on commercial fisheries included the well as in the field of hydrography. owing to the collection and publication of fishery statistics. Council's influence, a number of the member coun- tries provided accommodation and facilities for The Council conducted its work according to a set research that had not been available previously. of Statutes agreed among the member countries and Most member countries had special vessels built changed from time to time. After World War II, the for international marine scientific investiga- question of a more official international status tions. These developments were clearly very impor- for the Council was raised. This ultimately re- tant accomplishments resulting from the establish- sulted in the convening of a conference by the ment of the Council (Ref. 3). Government of Denmark in 1964 to conclude an in- ternational convention on the Council. Membership in ICES has varied through the years, depending on the interests of the countries and The 1964 Convention political conditions. Belgium joined the Council in 1903, and the USA in 1912. During World War I, The 1964 Convention on the International Council Germany, Russia and the USA withdrew from the for the Exploration of the Sea entered into force Council. France joined in 1920, Portugal in 1922, on July 22, 1968. This Convention defines the Estonia, Lithuania and Poland in 1923, Spain and structure of ICES and states that the duties of Latvia in 1924, and Ireland in 1925. Germany re- the Council are: entered the Council in 1926, Italy joined in 1927 and Iceland in 1938. (a) to promote and encourage research and investi- gations for the study of the sea, particularly During World War II, Estonia, Germany, Italy, those relating to the living resources thereof; Latvia and Lithuania withdrew from membership, and Poland did not renew its participation from 1950 (b) to draw up programmes required for this pur- to 1955, when it re-entered as a member. The pose and to organize, in agreement with the Con- Federal Republic of Germany re-entered in 1952 and tracting Parties, such research and investigations the USSR in 1955. Italy re-entered the Council in as may appear necessary; and 1957 and withdrew again in 1974. Canada joined the Council in 1967, the USA re-entered in 1973, and (c) to publish or otherwise disseminate the re- the German Democratic Republic joined in 1975 sults of research and investigations carried out (Ref. 4). under its auspices or to encourage the publication thereof. The following eighteen countries are present mem- bers of ICES: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, According to Article 2 of this Convention, ICES France, German Democratic Republic, the Federal shall "be concerned with the Atlantic ocean and Republic of Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Nether- its adjacent seas, and primarily concerned with lands, Norway, Poland, Portugal. Spain. Sweden, the North Atlantic'. the United Kingdom, the USA, and the USSR. Immediately after the Convention came into force, ICES was initially founded to coordinate a five- a host agreement was concluded between the Council year program of marine scientific research, Before and the Government of Denmark, which gave the this period had expired, however, it was decided Council full international status, with privileges that the Council should continue to exist, with and immunities similar to those granted to agen- membership based upon an agreement between each cies under the United Nations. member country and the council. This form of mem- bership continued until July 22, 1968, when the The Council's headquarters have been located in 1964 Convention for the International Council for Copenhagen since its foundation. At present, the the Exploration of the Sea went into effect. Secretariat includes a General Secretary, a Fish- eries Statistician, a Hydrographer, an Environment AIMS AND ORGANIZATION OF ICES officer, and 22 other staff members, including persons involved in computerized data processing, When ICES was founded, the initial agreement was technical editing of ICES publications, and for international collaboration on a five-year printing. comprehensive program, aimed at practical results, to study hydrographic conditions, biology of the The Council food fishes, and plankton of the northern seas. 'The three areas of scientific study were: (1) in- The overall responsibility for the ICES program of vestigation of the hydrographic conditions in the work lies with the Council, which is composed of North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, White Sea, not more than two Delegates from each of the mem- and Baltic Sea, and their associations with ocean- ber countries. The Delegates are the chief contact ic circulation; (2) the study of the biological in their country in all matters with which the conditions of the animal and plant life in these Council is concerned. The Council is presided over seas, with special regard to the food, reproduc- by the President, who is elected from among the tion, growth, and distribution and migrations of Delegates for a period of three years. Upon being food fishes; and (3) an investigation into the elected, the President ceases to be a Delegate and 720 is an independent officer of the Council. overview of the working group meetings proposed for the next year and the tasks assigned to them, The Bureau to ensure that all such meetings will represent a productive use of time and effort. All recommenda- The President, together with the a Vice President tions approved by the Consultative Committee and and five other Vice Presidents, also elected for the results of its consideration of other matters three years by and from among the Delegates, con- are passed forward to the Council for ultimate stitute the Bureau. Unlike the President, the Vice approval, Recommendations accepted by the Council Presidents continue to serve as national Delegates become Council Resolutions, to be implemented by during their terms in office. The Bureau is the Member States; they are published in the annual Executive Committee of the Council. It is respon- reports of the Statutory Meetings, the Proc6s- sible for convening the annual Statutory MeetingSr verbal dt 1A g6union. preparing budgets, and ensuring that the Council's decisions are implemented. It forms the main link The Standing Committees between the Council and the Secretariat. The planning, coordination, and detailed appraisal The Consultative Committee of the individual items of work within the ICES research programs are conducted by the Standing The responsibility for maintaining a supervisory Committees. Member countries may appoint up to two overview of the Council's scientific interests members to each Standing Committee. These members lies with the Consultative Committee, which cur- serve as the chief contacts in their countries rently consists of the Chairmen of the twelve concerning the activities of that Committee. A scientific Standing Committees, the Chairmen of Chairman is elected by the Committee from among the two Advisory Committees, plus its own Chair- its members for a term of three years. The duties man, elected by the Consultative Committee from of Standing Committee Chairmen are specified in among the Delegates and experts for a term of the ICES Rules of Procedure and include maintain- three years. The Chairman of the Consultative Com- ing contact with persons in member countries who mittee is an officer of the Council and ceases to are carrying out the programs of the Committee to be a Delegate during his term of office. The ensure their conduct and preparing an annual re- chairman of the Consultative Committee also parti- port on the activities conducted in member coun- cipates in meetings of the Bureau. tries to implement the programs of the Committee. According-to the ICES Rules of Procedure, the Con- There are presently twelve Standing Committees, sultative Committee has general oversight over: six of which have terms of reference, specified in the Council's Rules of Procedure, covering broad (1) the scientific interests of the Council and topics in marine science or technology; the other its scientific work, six are concerned with studies of specific groups (2) the programs of research organized or coordi- of marine organisms. nated by the Council, (3) the arrangements for carrying out the Coun- The Standing Committees concerned with broad cil's scientific work and the programs of research topics in marine science or technology, including organized by it, and their terms of reference, are: (4) the arrangements for discussing all the fore- going matters at the Council's meetings, including (1) The Fish Capture committee keeps under review the organization of special scientific meetings. and coordinates investigations concerned with fish detection and searching techniques, the design and The Consultative Committee is responsible for ad- operation of fishing gear, and the behavior of vising the Council and the Bureau on the above fish in relation to fishing operations; matters. (2) The Hydrography Committee keeps under review The Consultative Committee meets immediately be- and coordinates investigations in physical and fore and during the Council's annual Statutory chemical oceanography, including studies of the Meeting, both ensuring that all final plans are environment of living resources; complete before the opening session and reviewing the outcome of the scientific sessions after they (3) The -Statistics Committee keeps under review, have been completed. In this context, the Consul- in consultation with other relevant organizations, tative Committee reviews the recommendations from the arrangements for the collection, treatment and each Standing and Advisory Committee and decides publication of statistics concerned with the regu- whether they should be approved for consideration lation of fisheries in the area with which the by the Council. With this overview of all the rec- Council is concerned; ommendations arising from the scientific sessions, both Standing Committee sessions and Theme Ses- (4) The Mariculture Committee keeps under review sions devoted to multidisciplinary topics, the and coordinates investigations relating to the Consultative Committee is in a position to deter- culture of marine organisms, including the trans- mine whether there are overlaps between research plantation and introduction of new species; programs or other projects proposed and whether certain proposals should have priority over (5) The marine Environmental Quality Committee others. The Consultative Committee also keeps an keeps under review and coordinates investigations 721 relating to the scientific study of man-made im- The Advisory Committee on Fishery Management pacts, other than fishing, on the sea and its living resources, in particular, studies of pollu- The Advisory Committee on Fishery Management tion (see paper by Pearce, this volume); and (ACFM) is responsible for providing, on behalf of the Council, scientific information and advice to (6) The Biolociical oceanography Committee keeps Fisheries Commissions and to the Council's Member under review and coordinates the studies of bio- Governments on matters on which they may request logical oceanography in the Council's area, in- advice, or on matters that the Council or the ACFM cluding studies of plankton and benthos, and in- may consider relevant. The ACFM presently consists vestiqations on food chain dynamics. of a Chairman, nominated by the ACFM and appointed by the Council, the Chairmen of the Demersal, Pel- The other six Standing Committees have the general agic and Baltic Fish Committees, and one scientist terms of reference of keeping under review infor- nominated by each Member State and appointed by mation about the species with which each is con- the Council. The ICES Fisheries Statistician cerned and the state of the relevant stocks, and serves as Secretary of ACFM. Since 1987, the Com- coordinating investigations related to them. These mission of the European Communities has been rep- Committees are: resented by an observer at ACFM meetings. (7) The Demersal Liph Committee, which is con- The ACFM meets twice per year, usually in May and cerned with, among others, cod, haddock, whiting, November, to formulate scientific advice for the saithe, plaice, flounder, sole, halibut, redfish, management of stocks of fish and shellfish and to Norway pout, and sandeel; respond to specific requests and questions posed by the management bodies. In formulating its ad- (8) 1hq Pelagic Fish Committee, which is concerned vice, the ACFM utilizes the results of the work of with, among others, herring, mackerel, capelin, stock assessment working groups, that have been blue whiting, sardine, and sprat; established by the Council at the request of ACFM to provide information on the state of stocks of (9) The Baltic Fish Committee, which covers both particular species of fish or shellfish in certain pelagic and demersal species in the Baltic Sea, sea areas and conduct other relevant work. At the including cod, herring, and sprat; present time, there are 27 stock assessment work- ing groups, most of which are concerned with fish (10) The Shellfish Committee, which covers all stocks, some with shellfish, and one group with major commercially exploited types of shellfish in seals. This work will be discussed in greater de- the North Atlantic, such as, lobster, clams (e.g., tail later in this paper. surf clams, ocean quahogs), mussels, oysters, shrimps, squid, and Nephrops; The Advisory Committee on Marine Pollution (11) The Anadromous and Catadromous Fish Committee The Advisory Committee on Marine Pollution (ACMP) which is concerned with such species as salmon, is responsible, on behalf of the Council, for pro- eel, sea trout, and alewife; and viding scientific information and advice on marine pollution and its effects on living resources and (12) The Marine Mammals Committee, which is con- their exploitation to Member Governments and any cerned with all species of marine mammals in the intergovernmental body for the control of pollu- North Atlantic, particularly seals, whales, pur- tion that may request such advice. The ACMP pres- poises, and dolphins. ently consists of a chairman, nominated by the ACMP and appointed by the Council, the Chairmen of The Standing Committees meet once per year, during the Marine Environmental Quality, Hydrography, the ICES Statutory Meeting. At this meeting, each Biological Oceanography, and Mariculture Commit- Committee reviews scientific papers, prepared by tees, and a number of coopted members chosen for Committee members or other scientists, and reports their expertise in scientific areas of relevance on various relevant activities. Most Standing Com- to ACMP. At present, there are ten coopted mem- mittees have one or more working groups, esta-b- bers, with expertise in such areas as organic and lished by the Council on recommendation of the inorganic chemistry, microbiology, fish diseases, Committee, that serve to coordinate studies or sedimentology, and marine ecology. The ICES Envi- provide information on specific issues of concern ronment Officer is the Secretary of ACMP. to the parent Committee. The Standing Committee considers the report of each working group under The ACMP meets once per year, usually in June, to it and reviews the recommendations made by that formulate scientific advice and provide appropri- working group for future activities, such as joint ate information on a number of topics related to research programs, surveys, workshops, intercali- the contamination of the marine environment and bration exercises, etc. The Standing Committee al- its living resources and the effects of contami- so reviews any recommendation by the working group nants and to prepare responses to requests from for a next meeting and the tasks proposed for that pollution regulatory commissions. In carrying out meeting. All recommendations for activities and this work, the ACMP reviews the reports of a num- working group meetings accepted or formulated by ber of working groups concerned with various as- the Standing Committee are then passed on to the pects of the study of contaminants and their ef- Consultative Committee for further handling. fects in the marine environment. This topic will be discussed in more detail later in this paper. 722 The Working Groups will relate to these activities separately, but it must be emphasized that the founding "fathers" of Although working groups are not mentioned in the ICES, and their successors throughout the years, Council's Rules of Procedure, they have become in- have fully recognized that the understanding of creasingly important vehicles for the ground-level marine fishery problems necessitates studies of planning of new activities and the implementation the sea itself and its complex ecology. of Council-approved programs or projects. Working groups are established by the Council to assemble Fisheries information or coordinate activities on certain specific subjects. When its terms of reference one of the main responsibilities of ICES is the have been fulfilled, a working group is disbanded. coordination of fisheries-related scientific re- However, the tasks of many working groups are of a search. This comprises monitoring the abundance continuing nature, such as the assessment of par- and composition of fish stocks in the Northeast ticular stocks of fish, the study of oceanographic Atlantic, including the development of appropriate conditions, and the study of fish diseases, Thus, methods to estimate abundance, and research on the most working groups meet on an annual basis. Each early life stages of fish, recruitment to fish working group reports to a "parent" Committee, stocks, and multi-species interactions. that reviews the activities of the working group during the previous year, provides comments and In the monitoring of fish and shellfish stocks, guidance, decides whether the working group should ICES collects statistics on fish catches, fishing meet the following year and, if so, formulates effort, and relevant biological data (e.g., age, tasks for this next meeting. The reports of many length, sex, maturity compositions; egg and larval working groups are considered not only by the production and young fish surveys). officially "parent" Committee, but, particularly for working reported fishery statistics are published in the groups concerned with environmental topics, also Bulletin qt@,@ @, which has been published an- by other Standing Committees and/or by the ACMP. nually since 1905, apart from breaks during the wars. In addition, a computerized data bank con- Each Member Country may appoint as many members to taining detailed information relevant to the as- a working group as it wishes. Attendance at work- sessment of stocks is held at the ICES Secretariat ing group meetings is at national expense. for use by fish stock assessment working groups and ACFM. Since its foundation, ICES has served as At present, ICES has 70 active working groups, an important forum for the promotion and appraisal distributed as follows: of work on stock assessment methodology, including the development of mathematical models for use in (a) 27 stock assessment working groups, most of determining the effects of fishing on individual which are for fish, some for shellfish, and one resources and assessing the need for their conser- for seals; all of these groups report to ACFM; vation and management through regulatory actions. An important area of focus at the present time is (b) 16 working groups dealing with other aspects the development of models for multi-species inter- of fish and fisheries, including fisheries acous- actions and their effects on individual fish tics, fishing technology, young fish surveys, stocks. larval fish ecology, etc.; these working groups report to various Standing Committees related to Although ICES has remained a scientific body with- fish; out any regulatory power, it has been instrumental in prompting the establishment of regulatory com- (c) one working group on fisheries statistics, re- missions (see Ref. 6). At present, ICES is the of- porting to the Statistics Committee; ficially recognized international scientific advi- sory body to three international fisheries regula- (d) 26 working groups concerned with environmental tory commissions: (1) North East Atlantic Fisher- subjects, including working groups related to ma- ies Commission (NEAFC), (2) International Baltic rine chemistry, physical oceanography, sediments, Sea Fisheries Commission (IBSFC), and (3) North benthos ecology, primary production, environmental Atlantic Salmon Conservation organization (NASCO). impact of mariculture, fish diseases, effects of These Commissions, the commission of the European contaminants in marine mammals, and biological ef- Communities on behalf of its members, and govern- fects of contaminants (see paper by Thurberg, this ments of other ICES member countries formulate re- volume]; most of these working groups report to quests to ICES for information and advice on spe- the Hydrography, Marine Environmental Quality, cific stocks or groups of stocks. It is the work Biological oceanography, or Mariculture Commit- of the ACFM to ensure that appropriate responses tees; the reports of many of these working groups are made to these requests, based on the detailed are also considered by the ACMP. data and other information compiled and analyzed by the stock assessment working groups. In total, RESPONSIBILITIES AND MAIN ACTIVITIES OF ICES hundreds of scientists and other specialists in ICES member countries contribute to the conduct of The responsibilities and main activities of ICES this work, from participation in fish stock as- can be divided into the broad areas of fisheries, sessment cruises or egg, larval, or young fish oceanography, and, during the past two decades, surveys to the evaluation of the data gathered for marine pollution. The discussion in this section each stock by the working groups and ultimately the ACFM. In the course of its work, the ACFM for- 723 mulates scientific advice for the management of dition, the Hydrographer maintains a check on the over 90 stocks or management units in the North- physical and chemical oceanographic data submitted east Atlantic and the Baltic Sea. to the ICES data center verify their consistency. Until recently, the advice provided by ACFM was ICES has coordinated a number of major oceano- generally in the form of a single recommended ac- graphic investigations and multi-disciplinary in- tion, such as the se 'tting of a TAC (Total Allow- vestigations with strong physical oceanographic able Catch) for a particular stock. However, in components. Among recent such exercises are: the recent years, following changes in the management hydrographic program of the International Geophys- regime and at the request of management authori- ical Year (IGY) (1158-1959); the overflow Experi- ties, ACFM advice has been provided increasingly ments in the Iceland-Shetland Ridge (1973); the in the form of a range of management options Joint North Sea Data Aquisition Program (JONSDAP) (e.g., a series of TACs of different magnitude) (1976); the Baltic Open Sea Experiment 1977 with accompanying indications of the implications (BOSEX); and the Joint Multi-Ship Investigation of of each option in terms of the resources and fish- Patchiness in the Baltic Sea (PEX) (1986). eries. Where there is a situation of severe stock decline and a need for urgent remedial measures, Marine Pollution ACFM provides advice on the appropriate action to take regardless of whether there has been a speci- During the middle of the 1960s, ICES member coun- fic request for it (Ref. 7). The reports of ACFM, tries became concerned about the levels of contam- containing all of the advice provided to member inants in marine fish and shellfish and the pos- governments and fisheries commissions, are pub- sible effects of marine pollution on them. Accord- lished annually in the Cooperative Research Report ingly, the Fisheries Improvement Committee was es- series. tablished to coordinate work on marine pollution; in 1978, this was replaced by the Marine Environ- oceanography mental Quality Committee. The coordination of investigations of physical much of the early work concerned the measurement oceanographic conditions and the chemical. nature of concentrations of organic and inorganic contam- of the sea in support of fisheries studies was the inants in fish and shellfish, including associated other main area for which ICES was founded. At its intercalibration exercises on analyses of these first meeting in 1902, the Council decided that contaminants and work to improve data quality. A international cruises should take place quarterly Coordinated Monitoring Programme on contaminants in February, May, August, and November. Data on, in fish and shellfish was begun in the North Sea for example, currents, temperature and salinity, in 1972 and expanded to the North Atlantic in acquired during these and other cruises were sub- 1974. Two major Baseline Studies of Contaminants mitted to ICES and, during the first six decades, in Fish and Shellfish have been conducted covering published in various types of bulletins. However, the North Atlantic, including the Baltic Sea, in since the early 1960s, the increase in the amount 1975 and 1985. Now entitled the Cooperative ICES of data and the introduction of computers led to Monitoring Studies Programme, the work is primari- the cessation of publication of such volumes. Par- ly aimed at monitoring temporal trends in contami- ticularly during the earlier decades, this func- nants in certain areas. tion of ICES as a center for the deposition of data has been very important. In fact, until the ICES also coordinates work on the measurement of establishment of the World Oceanographic Data Cen- trace metals in sea water and sediments, primarily ters A (Washington) and B (Moscow), ICES was the intercalibrating sampling techniques and analyses. only international data center for hydrograhic A Baseline Study of Trace Metals in Coastal and purposes in Europe (Ref. 2). In addition to the Shelf Sea Waters was conducted in 1985-1987. Other collection and exchange of hydrographic data, the areas of work include the development of techni- Council's Hydrographers have provided appropriate ques to monitor the biological effects of contami- analyses of various types of hydrographic data nants, studies of biogeochemical cycles of contam- that have been published by ICES (Ref. 8). inants in the sea, identification of new contami- nants, reviewing issues related to the study of Another important area of work has been the devel- contaminants in sediments and their bioavailabili- opment and calibration of hydrographic equipment ty, providing advice on monitoring strategies and and the maintenance of appropriate standards of methods, and coordinating assessments of the state quality and intercomparability of hydrographic of,the marine environment on a regional basis. data. From 1902 to 1908, ICES ran the Central Lab- oratory, which served as a facility for designing, In addition to its own work on marine pollution, testing and calibrating various types of hydro- ICES serves as a scientific advisory body to three graphic equipment, and preparing and distributing pollution regulatory commissions: (1) Convention standard sea water; this latter function was.con- for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping tinued by ICES until 1968. Although no longer in- from Ships and Aircraft (Oslo Commission), (2) volved in the design of equipment, ICES has con- Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution tinued to promote the intercomparability of data from Land-Based Sources (Paris Commission), and through the periodic conduct of intercalibration (3) Convention for the Protection of the Marine exercises, e.g., on the use of salinometers and Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Com- the measurement of nutrients in sea water. In ad- mission). These Commissions formulate requests to 724 ICES for information and advice on topics relevant Techniques in Marine Environmental Sciences is a to their programs, including their respective new series containing detailed descriptions of marine pollution monitoring programs. This advice methods and procedures relating to chemical and is provided by the ACMP, on the basis of its re- biological measurements in the marine environment. view of the reports and other information provided by relevant ICES working groups. The ACMP advice ICES/CIEM information is a newsletter, published and information is published annually in the Coop- twice a year. erative Research Report series. FUTURE ACTIVITIES ICES has the first computerized international center for data on marine contaminants, containing For over eight decades, ICES has served as the data from its Cooperative monitoring studies Pro- main forum for the coordination of scientific in- gramme and also serving as the center for storing vestigations of marine fisheries and their envi- and processing data from the Oslo and Paris Com- ronment. While enormous advances have occurred, missions' Joint Monitoring Programme, covering the complexity of the ecosystem and man's in- contaminants in biota, sea water, and sediments. fluence on it underscores the continuing need for In this context, ICES has developed data reporting internationally coordinated studies of the marine formats for contaminants in all marine media. ecosystem and its living resources. New activities under ICES are being developed to explore further PUBLICATIONS the interactions between the physical, chemical, and biological systems in the North Atlantic and ICES has published scientific literature since its its sub-areas. foundation. Through the years it has issued well over a thousand different publications, many of REFERENCES which are considered standard reference works in their particular fields. current ICES serial pub- 1. Wallace, M. and Singer, J.D. 1970. Intergovern- lications comprise the following: mental organization in the Global System, 1815- 1964: A Quantitative Description. International Journal d-u Conseil is the ICES journal of marine Organization 24:239-287, p.250. science, covering advances in all aspects of the work of the Council. It is a primary source for 2. Went, A.E.J. 1972. The History of the Interna- articles on fish population biology and assess- tional Council for the Exploration of the Sea. ment, shellfish and plankton studies, and sampling In: Proceedings of the Second International gear and instrumentation. Environmental topics and Congress on the History of Oceanography. Pro- oceanography are also covered. Three to four num- ceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburg bers are issued annually. 73:351-360. Rapports e_t Proc6s-Verbaux des g6unions is the 3. Went, A.E.J. 1972. Seventy Years Agrowing. A series in which papers and proceedings of ICES- History of the International Council for the sponsored symposia and special meetings are pub- Exploration of the Sea 1902 - 1972. Rapport et lished. Proc6s-Verbaux de la R6union Conseil Interna- tional pour 1'Exploration de la Mer vol. 165, The Cooperative Research Report series comprises 252 pp. reports prepared by ICES working groups, ad hoc groups, workshops, or other ICES-sponsored activi- 4. Tambs-Lyche, H. 1979. General. Information on ties. The series also includes the annual reports the International Council for the Exploration of the ACFM and ACMP. Approximately eight volumes of the Sea. 16 pp. (mimeo.) are usually issued annually. 5. Thomasson, E. 1981. Study of the Sea. The de- The Bulletin Stati@utz is the yearbook of fish-- velopment of marine research under the auspices ery statistics of the Northeast Atlantic. of the International council for the Explora- tion of the Sea. Fishing News Books Ltd. Farn-- ICES Oceanographic Data List and inventories con- ham, Surrey, UK. 256 pp. tain oceanographic data, mainly for the Northeast Atlantic, in tables and charts prepared by the 6. Tambs-Lyche, H. 1978. Monitoring fish stocks. ICES Hydrographer. The role of ICES in the North-East Atlantic. Marine Policy 2:127-132. The FiChes d'identification du Plancton are i.1- lustrated identification keys for planktonic or- 7. Parrish, B.B. in press. Scientific Advice for ganisms, including fish eggs and larvae, in the Management of Northeast Atlantic Fisheries. In: ICES area. Fishery Science and Management: objectives and Limitations. W.S. Wooster (Ed.) Springer-Verlag Fiches d'Identification des Maladies gt Parasites Pubs. des Poissons. Crustac6z ct Mollugques/ldentifica- tion Leaflets for the Diseaties -amd Parasites of 8. Smed, J. 1968. The Service Hydrographique of Li-*h and Shel-ItiLsh are illustrated diagnostic keys the International Council for the Exploration for the principal diseases and parasites of fish of the Sea. Journal de Conseil 32:155-171. and shellfish in the ICES area, 725 AN EVALUATION OF SHELLFISH RESEARCH IN THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE EXPLORATION OF THE SEA Steven A. Murawski National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service Northeast Fisheries Center Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 USA ABSTRACT Advisory Committee on Fishery Management Since its beginnings in 1902, the international Council for the Explo- Advisory Committee on marine Pollution ration of the Sea (ICES) has served as a catalyst for research on the Shellf ish Committee biology and management of shellfish species. This research has been Mariculture Committee focused in three major areas: (1) development and support of maricul- Marine Environmental Quality Committee ture (2) effects of coastal pollution on shellfish abundance and sanita- Demersal Committee tion, and (3) dynamics and management of natural populations of Fish Capture Committee mollusks and crustaceans in relation to fishing. In all these fields, Pandalus Working Group research by ICES member nations has been important in resolving Nephrops WG technical issues and has served as the scientific basis for various Study Group on Squids authorities to enact regulatory measures. Currently, at least three Fish TL-chnology WG standing committees of ICES are tasked to coordinate and review Marine Aggregate Extraction WG shellfish-related research (i.e., Mariculture, Marine Environmental Benthos Ecology WG Quality, and Shellfish). In addition, both the Advisory Committee on Algal Blooms, Mariculture and Fisheries Fishery Management and the Advisory Committee on Marine Pollution Biol. Effects of Contaminants WG routinely address topics concerning shellfish. As research and man- Transfers of Marine Organisms WG agement-related issues become more interdisciplinary in nature, the Genetics WG challenge in the future will be to more fully integrate mariculture, pol- Pathology and Diseases WG lution, biological oceanography, and population dynamics studies to better understand these issues in the context of coastal ocean ecosys- In this paper I outline the development of tems. shellfish research in its various disciplines conducted under the auspices of ICES, and its member nations. Rather than presenting a chronology of papers, meetings, events, etc., I have chosen to review selected contributions as indicative of changing directions and Emphases. INTRODUCTION The history of shellfish. research under ICES perhaps serves as prologue, and I have taken the Evaluating the current status and historical liberty of speculating as to the potential future contribution to shellfish research by the directions of both the science and the role of ICES international Council for the Exploration of the as a medium for scientific exchange. Sea (ICES) is indeed a daunting task. This is due in no small measure to the 85+ year history of OVERVIEW OF ICES SHEI.LFISH RESEARCH innovative and productive study conducted under the auspices of ICES, but, more importantly, to the The importance of mollusk and crustacean multi-disciplinary nature of what is collectively fisheries and mariculture has dictated a long referred to as shellfish research'. Even prior to history of investigations into fluctuations in the first meeting of ICES in 1902, European and abundance of natural populations, methods for North American researchers were pursuing shellfish culture, and the effects of environmental related research along three relatively divergent contamination on the safety of these products. No paths: (1) mariculture (primarily of oysters and more so than in northern European and North mussels) , (2) effects of sewage and industrial American waters. Today, nearly 700 thousand metric pollutants on shellfish sanitation and abundance, tons of shellfish are produced from the ICES area, and (3) population dynamics and fishery regulation of which nearly one half is derived from of natural stocks. Today, these three areas are mariculture (Figure 1; Andersonl). Although recognizably distinct in the structure of ICES. dwarfed by the 10 million metric ton combined one need only consider the names of current production of finfish, because of their high unit selected standing Committees, Advisory Committees value, shellfisheries and mariculture operations and Working Groups of ICES concerned with shellfish are important sources of income and employment. problem to trace their historical roots to the Research on problem of imrine mollusk and earliest specializations: crustacean culture and fisheries was well developed 726 United States Government work not protected by copyright as a science long before ICES was formed as an Publication of the Journal du Conseil, organization in 1902, and before the first formal beginning in 1926, had an important influence on ICES meeting devoted to shellfish problem the direction of cooperative shellfisheries convened in 1932 (Went2). Indeed, between 1870 research. Early volumes of the Journal contained and 1910 overfishing of natural beds of mussels extensive bibliographic citations of research and oysters had become so problematic in the published world-wide. Thus, researchers during northern European area that intensive culture of this period were kept abreast of, for example, these species was thriving by the turn of the pioneering work by P. Galtsoff and V. Loosanoff century (Bashf 'Ord Dean3,4, Wollebaek5, Friele6, in America, and oriental methods of mariculture. Petersen7). Havinga8 notes that oyster culture in Holland was initiated in the 1870s, and that Some of the earliest work on the dynamics by 1890 the annual production was 30 million and regulation of natural shellfish populations individuals. involved nearshore and deep-water crustaceans (Williamson22; Herdman23; Meek24, Hjort and The negative impacts of coastal pollution on Ruud25). In particular, small-mesh fisheries shellfish sanitation was clearly recognized as an directed at brown (=Crangon) and northern impediment to development of many mollusk fisheries by the early 1900s. Discharge of sewage and other by-products of the industrial PRODUCTION OF SHELLFISH IN THE ICES AREA - 1984 revolution had rendered numerous coastal stocks of cockles, oysters and mussels in the North and Baltic Seas unfit for human consumption. Much of BLUE MUSSEL the research on shellfish conducted during the early 1900s concerned the development of methods NORTHERN SHRIMP of testing for shellfish contamination (johnstone9). WrightlO noted in 1927 that 'the chief difficulty in extending the home-trade for cockles is the fact that the shellfish are liable CUPPED OYSTER to be contaminated by sewage'. Such was the case for numerous molluscan fisheries in the region NORWAY LOBSTER (Anon.11; Orton12). The first organized meeting of shellfish IBLE CRAB experts convened under the auspices of ICES occurred in Middleburgh, The Netherlands, in 1932 (Wentl; Havingal3). This initial meeting ESCALLOP concerned I Bacteriological investigations of mollusks', and was convened for the purpose of FISHERY CATCH developing standard procedures to measure the SQUIDS extent of shellfish contamination. Although these experts could not agree on uniform procedures for such testing (Havingal3) they nevertheless established the precedent for multi- CRANGON SHRIMP national cooperation in shellfish research that MARICULTURE would extend to fields far removed from shellfish sanitation in the decades to follow. COCKLE The period of the 1920s and 1930s also witnessed development of research on the effects QUEEN SCALLOP of industrial pollutants such as oil on fish and shellf ish populations - Roberts14 concluded in 1926 that the effects of oil were 'not very CUTTLEFISH marked, but if unchecked will become a menace in the future I . The period of the '20s and '30s also saw intensive research and perfection of OTHERS pilot methods for mariculture of a number of mollusk and crustacean species. Methods for artificial spawning and rearing of shellfish, and 100 200 300 methods for mass culture were perfected in this era (Ortonl5; Colel6; Dannevig and Meek17). just THOUSANDS OF METRIC TONS as important at this time were early experimental introductions of non-indigenous species, and in particular oysters (Borodiriel8- Anon.19). In an FIGURE 1. Landings and mariculture produc- interesting juxtaposition of papers Ranson20 and tion of shellfish species from the ICES area orton2l simultaneously questioned the feasibility in 1984. Data are for all invertebrates of replacing local populations of oysters in exclusive of seaweeds. Total fishery catch France and England with introductions of the of shellfish was 682,000 mt, mariculture Portuguese oyster (Crassostrea angulata). production was 341,000 mt. F ED S EUC SQ IL: @UEE, UTTL 727 (=Pandalus) shrimp were considered problematic in Shellfish Ccomittee, B. Havinga. This meeting is that by-catches of small finfishes were discarded historically hTportant since it was the only frcm these fisheries. special session devoted exclusively to mariculture prior to the establishment of a Research in mariculture, sanitation and formal Mariculture Committee within ICES. population dynamics of shellfish developed more or less independently during the 1930s and early The special meeting conducted in 1963 1940s. Numerous publications in the Journal du (Cole29) was devoted to 'Problem in the Conseil and elsewhere attest to the developing Exploitation and Regulation of Fisheries for sophistication in methodology in these areas. Crustaceal. During this meeting numerous However, it wasn't until the late 1940s that descriptive, analytical, and methodological researchers were coming to a consensus that a papers regarding crustacean biology were united discipline of shellfisheries research was presented. The period of the 1950s and ea ly necessary within the context of ICES. A landmark 1960s witnessed intensive research on a number of special meeting was called in 1949 (Havinga26; species including Norway lobster (=Nephrops), Korringa27) during which all current aspects of shrimps, and American and European lobsters, and shellfish research were discussed under the them much of this work was summarized and placed in of 'Shellfish Investigations'. In his preface context at the special meeting on crustaceans. remarks, the convener, B. Havinga, first stated the case for shellfish research as a separate The special meeting of 1976 (Thoms30) is discipline in ICES by noting that in the past, important not only since it was the first ICES shellfish research had not received due attention meeting devoted to population dynamics of because in no country were shellfish the shellfish, but it was among the first predominant fishery landings. Also, shellf ish international gatherings at which researchers researchers rarely attended meetings of the discussed the unique life history and population Council because most investigators in the f ield dynamics characteristics of mollusks and were specialists rather than being generalists. crustaceans. Because of the growth, recruitment He further pleaded the case for recognition of and spatial dynamics patterns exhibited by shellfish investigations by noting that the shellfish populations, the utility of models aggregate value of all countries shellfish originally developed for finfisheries was landings in the North Sea area %iare roughly seriously questioned. New methodological equivalent to that of the plaice, but that the developmnts relating to the use of quantitative research resources dedicated to plaice w1alre much tools for designing fishery sampling, estimation greater. Summarizing the current state of of growth and mortality, and the calculation of mariculture in relation to natural production, yields were put forward. Perhaps the seminal Havinga noted that 'While the oyster has proved paper of the meeting was the contribution by D.A. to be an organism that is extremely sensitive to Hancock on 'Population dynamics and management of overfishing, nearly all the natural banks being shellfish stocks', in which he contrasted extinguished by intensive fishing, artificial shellfish and finfish population dynamics, noting culture has provided a very efficient method of at the same time the need for better quantitative producing much larger quantities of oysters than studies of shellfish, but rejecting the universal has been possible from natural banks'. Given the application of finfish-derived methods. current (1984) production of oysters from mariculture relative to natural production Two subsequent special meetings conducted in (Figure 1), Havingals statement is as true today 1979 (McIntyre and Pearce3l) and 1980 (Stewart32) as nearly 4 decades ago. A few of the titles of are notable not because of their concentration on papers frcm the 1949 shellfish meeting emphasize shellfish issues per se, but rather because they its multi-disciplinary nature: 'British oyster attest to the diversity and intensity of industry and its problems', by H.A. Cole, 'On contemporary work relating to the biological crustaceans of commercial importance in Danish effects of contaminants and the status of waters', by E.M. Poulsen, and 'Les huitres de research on fish and shellfish diseases, cotes Francaise', by L. Lambert. respectively. After the successful meeting of 1949, ICES The late 1970s and 1980s have seen a virtual established a formal Shellfish Committee, which explosion in the diversity and quantity of met for the first time in 1951. Reports of the research directed to shellfish topics within the statutory meetings from 1951 - present show that ICES arena. In the field of mariculture, studies research presented at the Shellfish Committee of genetics and disease resistance, modern meetings has retained its diversity in interest. culture techniques, and increased interest in the However, special meetings regarding shellfish, effects of the use of non-indigenous species have conducted since 1949, have been more topical, proliferated. Significant in the studies of relating variously to mariculture, pollution and mariculture operations is the increasing its effects, and natural history and population aw@reness that intensive culture operations can dynamics. impact greatly on local waters wherein such operations are conducted (Rosenthal et al.33), In 1954 a special meeting on 'Oyster and and that such operations may result in Mussel Culture' (Havin4a28) was conducted to competition among cultured and natural assess the cur-rent status of mariculture and was populations for limited food supplies convened by the first chairman of the ICES (Sauriau34). 728 Population dynamics studies on shellfish, at Underlying all these considerations is the first based on careful investigations of the life fact that ultimately research on living marine histories of the animals, have been significantly resources will progress from evaluating the aided by increasingly sophisticated techniques limits to increasing productivity of individual for the ageing of mollusks through the constituents (e.g. natural or cultured shellfish examination of shell microstructure (Ropes et populations), to an holistic approach to al.35), and the use of radioisotopes to validate optimizing ecosystem productivity for the age determinations (Berthou36). For crustacean totality of benefits to society. By all studies, the development of techniques for appearances coastal systems, particularly but not length-based assessment has significantly limited to the ICES area, have reached their improved estimates of growth, mortality and capacity to generate production from both natural recruitment. An important issue in the sources and from mariculture. The ability of management of crustacean populations has been the coastal areas to absorb increased burdens of testing and development of selective harvesting contaminants is likewise conjectural. The gear to reduce the impact of by-catches of small challenge for the future is to conduct multi- finfish in small-mesh shrimp fisheries. disciplinary studies aimed at understanding the Multispecies assessments taking into account the impacts of management decisions regarding trophic and fishery interrelationships among mariculture, pollution/contamination and invertebrates and finfishes are in their infancy harvesting of natural populations in the context (Brander and Bennett37, Anon.38). of coastal ocean ecosystems. Current relationships among shellfish research programs Recent developments in the fields of within ICES (Figure 2) will, by necessity, be contaminant assessment in relation to shellfish modified to accommodate research of a more are documented elsewhere in this symposium. interdisciplinary nature. The critical need at this juncture is a forcing function to bring the These are but a few selected examples of the various specialties together to address these impact and diversity of shellfish research more integrative problems. Perhaps ICES will conducted by researchers operating under the ICES fill that need. purview. The reader is encouraged to consult the various publications of ICES and elsewhere for a more comprehensive treatment of particular REFERENCES subject areas. SPECULATIONS (1] Anderson, E. D. 1987. Bulletin Statistique des Peches Maritimes (1984) 69. International The period of the 1970s and 1980s witnessed Council for the Exploration of the Sea. an unprecedented increase in the degree of specialization of research in the various [2] Went, A. E.J. 1972. Seventy years agrowing, A disciplines of mariculture, contaminant history of the international council for assessment relating to shellfish, and the the Exploration of the Sea 1902-1972. dynamics and regulation of natural populations of Rapp. P.-v. Reun. Cons. int. Explor. mollusks and crustaceans. Because of the degree Mer:165 252 pp. of technical sophistication in these fields, researchers by necessity developed expertise of [3] Bashford Dean. 1890. Present methods of oyster specific rather than general applicability. This culture in France. Bull. U.S. Fish. Cam. specialization in research emphasis, however, 10. p. 363. belies trends that will likely determine, the future of shellfish research in ICES. It is [4] Bashford Dean. 1891. Report on the European clear that management-related problems associated methods for oyster culture (Italy, Spain, with traditional' specialties in shellfish Portugal, Germany, Holland, Belgium, research transcend any of these areas taken England) Bull. U.S. Fish. Ccmm. 11 p.357 individually. Thus, for example, the questions of environmental effects of intensive mariculture (5) Wollebaek, A.(C.A. 1890) Kultur af blaaskjael. will require research on new culture methods, Norsk Fiskeritid 27 Aarg. P. 278 (Culture of biological oceanographic and contaminant Mussles in Norway). evaluations, and population dynamics studies to evaluate 'optimal, densities of mariculture (6] Friele, H. 1898. The oyster ponds of the coast operations in relation to environmental of Norway. Beretn. Intern. Fiskeri-Kongres. constraints. Likewise, traditional population dynamics studies will to a greater extent rely on [7] Petersen, C. G. J. 1908. Oysters and oyster investigations of biological productivity and fisheries in the Lim Fjord. Rpt. Danish species interactions, since, in many cases, Biol. Sta. harvested shellfish stocks are food sources for exploited fish populations. Improvements in [8] Havinga, B. 1939. Prediction of the time of f ishing technology will be important in setting of oyster spat and a method of minimizing harvesting interactions that are control. J. Cons. Int. Explor. problematic for optimizing productivity from Mer 14 (3):394-400. jointly harvested fin and shellfishes. 729 [9] Johnstone, J. 1910. Routine methods of shell- (191 Anon. 1927. La production artificielle de fish examination with reference to sewage 1 1 huitre Americaine. La Peche Maritime, pollution. J. Hygiene 9 p.412. 10:229. [10] Wright, F. S. 1927. A Report on the cockle [20] Ranson, G. 1926. Llhuitre Portugaise teride- beds and cockle fishery of England and. elle a remplacer 11huitre Francaise? Off. Wales. Min Agr. Fish. Fishery Invest. Ii Sci. et TL-chn. Peches Marit. Notes et 11(5). Memoires 47 (Paris). [11] Anon. 1927. Hygiene et salubrite ostreicoles; (21] Orton, J. H. 1926. Can Portuguese oysters be Pech. Maritime 644-5 (Paris). produced on English oyster beds by artificial fertilization of the sea? Nature [12] Orton, J. H. 1928. The biology of shellfish 67:857. in relation to health. Journ. Roy. Sanitary Inst. XLIX 263-74. [22] Williamson, H. C. 1900. Contributions to the life history of the edible crab. Rep. Scot. [13] Havinga, B. 1951. Report of a special meeting Fish. Bd. 18. on shellfish investigations. ICES Rapp. P, 1. Reun.128, part 11. [23] Herdman, W. A. 1904. An outline of the shrimp [14] Roberts, C.H. 1926. Oil pollution. J. Cons. question. Trans. Liverpool. Biol. Soc. 18. Int. Explor. Ner. 1 (2):245-275. (24] Meek, A. 1915. Experimental legislation with (151 Orton, J. H. 1937. Oyster biology and oyster reference to the crab and lobster fisheries of the east coast of Britain. J. Mar. Biol. culture. E. Arnold and Co., London. Assoc. 13. [16] Cole, H. A. 1938. A System of oyster Culture. [25] Hjort, J., and J. T. Ruud. 1938. Deep-sea J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer 13(2):221-235. prawn fisheries and their problems. [17] Dannevig, A., and A. Meek. 1929. The rearing Hvalradets Skr.,Nr. 17:1-144. (Oslo). of lobster at Flodevigen. J. Cons. Int. [26] Havinga, B. 1951. Report of a special meeting Explor. Mer 4:105-106. on shellfish investigations. Rapp. P. - v. [18] Borodine, N. 1926. Nourelle methode de des Reun. 128 part II. reproduction artificielle en masse des [27] Korringa, P. 1950. A review of the papers on naissains de 11huitre Americaine. Bull. de la Soc. Centrale d'Aquiculture et Pech. mollusks presented at the special meeting on 33(10-12):91-101. shellfish of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Edinburgh, 10 October 1949. J. Cons. Int. Explor. Her 17(l):44-59. NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS ADVISORY COMMITTEE EEC ON MARINE POLLUTION MARICULTURE NORTHEAST ATLANTIC COMMITTEE MARINE ENVIROLNMENTAL FISHERY COMMISSION MMITT MMITTEE ADVISORY COMMITTEE NT BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY COMMITTEE SHE FISH COMMITTEE FISHERY WORKING GROUPS PANDALUS SHRIMP NORWAY LOBSTER SQUIDS FISH CAPTURE COMMITTEE LL QUALITY CO FIGURE 2. Relationshps among various working groups, standing committees, and fishery advisory and regulatory commissions dealing with shellfish issues in the ICES area. This diagram represents both formal and informal relationships among the various entities. 730 [28] Havinga, B. 1956. Report of a special meeting on oyster and mussel culture. Rapp. P.- v. des Reun. 140, part ii. (29] Cole, H. A. 1965. Report of a special meeting on problems in the exploitation and regulation of fisheries for crustacea. Rapp. P.-v. des Reunions 156.217 pp. [30) Thomas, H. J. 1979. Population assessment of shellfish stocks. A special meeting held in Charlottenlund, 29 September - 1 October 1976. Rapp. P. - v. des Reunions 175. 288 PP. [31] I-L-Intyre, A. D., and J. B. Pearce. 1980. Biological effects of marine pollution and the problem of monitoring. Proceedings from ICES Workshop held in Beaufort, North Carolina 16 February - 2 March 1979. Rapp. P. - v. des Reunions 179. 346 pp. [32] Stewart, J. E. 1983. Diseases of ccmTetrcially important marine fish and shellfish. A special meeting held in Copenhagen, 1-3 October 1980. Rapp. P. - v. des Reunions 182. 150 pp. [331 Rosenthal, H., D. Weston, R. Gowen, and E. Black. 1988. Report of the ad hoc study group on environmental impact of mariculture. ICES Coop. Res. Rpt. 154 83 PP. [34] Sauriau, P. G. 1986. Echantillonnage des populations naturelles de mollusques competiteurs trophiques des huitres cultivees Crassostrea qjgas du bassin des Marennes - Oleron - Aspects Me-thodologiques. ICES C. M. /1986/K:30. [35] Ropes J. W. , D. S. Jones, S. A. Murawski, F. M. Serchuk, and A. Jearld, Jr. 1984. Documentation of annual growth lines in ocean quahogs, Arctica islandica Linne. Fishery Bulletin 82(l):1-19. [36] Berthou, P. 1986. L'analyse des isotopes Stables de la coquille appliquee a la determination d l1age de quatre bivalves du Golfe Normano-Breton. ICES C. M. 1986/K:16. [37) Brander, K. M., and D. B. Bennett. 1986. Interactions between Norway lobster and Cod and their fisheries in the Irish Sea. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 92:219-281. [38] Anon. 1987. Assessment of technical inter- actions in mixed fisheries: report of a ,workshop held at IFREMER in Nantes (France) under the auspices of EEC. EEC Published Report 15. 731 THE ICES MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY COMMITTEE (MEQC); ITS HISTORY AND ACTIVITIES Dr. John B. Pearce DOC/NOAA/NMFS Northeast Fisheries Center Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 ABSTRACr oil pollution was raised by Odon deBuen, Spain. The Council invited him to prepare a paper This paper reviews the early history Of pollution "embodying all the information procurable as to research and its consideration in management as the ill affects of oil on fish and fisheries" to acccloPlished within the marine Environmental be given at future meetings. Subsequently Quality Committee (ME)QC) and predecessor units, several papers were developed, presented, and International Council for the Exploration of the published in ICES amceedirigs volumes. Sea. Recent issues and developments are discussed and used to illustrate the activities In 1925 there was a resolution that a major of the ME*c since 1975. reorganization should be made in the ICES structure. Indicated in the list of comittees to be formed or added was the Hydrographical Committee. This cmmittee was mandated to THE EARLY HISTORY formulate programs which would be involved with the studies of the "hydrographical conditions, It is frequently stated that the international which might affect the life and movements of C=-Pcil for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) is fishes." At this time in history the principal the world's oldest international organization issues of pollution were not identified and no dedicated to the study and management of the special responsibility to study pollution was world's oceans. The ICES started during a series given to any of the ICES standing cmmittees. No of meetings held in the late 189os, culminating doubt it was understood, even at this time, that in the first formal sessions of ICES in 1902. pollution could be a prcblem and that there was a The council was Organized in response to a general concern. In October 1951 yet another general feeling that the development of large scheme for the ICES Committee structure was trawling vessels, involving steam or diesel developed. Again it included pollution related propulsion, and the use of the otter trawl had activities that might be relegated to the several affected fish stocks. As was the case in the full standing committees, not to any specific 1960s, in the middle of the 19th century there committee. Wentl took note that as far back as was a "firm belief" in the ability of the seas to 1931 France and its delegation had asked the Produce unlimited amounts of food stuffs. The council to establish a camnittee to deal with the effects of ran, new harvesting techniques as one, "sanitary control of mussels and oysters." The however, led some scientists to believe that the matter was left, however, for informal settlement thinking of the 19th Century was erroneous. amongst the delegates and others concerned. In his history of ICES, "seventy years Agrowinglo, During the May 1966 ICES meetings held in Wentl, detailed the early meetings, including the Edinburgh, a new structure for scientific North Sea Convention of 1882, and how these led ccmittees was outlined, to be implemented on 1 to organizational meetings which gave birth to November 1966. The new Committee structure ICES. Much of the councills early attention was included one called the Fish Improvement given to averfishuig and how it might be Comnittee (FIC) which was to be concerned with, Controlled. Relatively little thought was given among other things, problems of pollution. to matters of pollution. The committee structure Papers presented to the FIC up to 1975 frequently that was adopted at the first meeting of the concerned topics having to do with aquaculture Council, July 1902, did not indicates any large and artificial propagation. As early as 1971 or immediate concern for matters of pollution or there was concern about the overlap between the the environmental effects of man's activities. FIC and the Anadromous and Catadronious Fish By the 1920s, however, papers had been published Committee, as well as the Shellfish and Benthic which were concerned principally with the effects CmTmittee. of various forms of pollution. The tenth meeting held in Copenhagen in April 1912 resulted in In 1975 a fair amount of the dialogue within the Plans concerned with the effects of pollution on Fish improvement Committee had to do with the salmon and their spawning grounds. During the establishment of a committee that would be so-called "Jubilee Year" of 1927 the matter of concerned solely with the quality of habitats for 732 United States Government work not protected by copyright the fisheries and shellfisheries. In 1978, the The working group was also to be responsible for first meeting of the Marine Errvirormiental Quality reviewing all known inputs of Pollutants to the Ccmittee (MEQC) took place in Copenhagen. The area of interest. Given the foregoing mandates, terns of reference for the MEQC suggested that the working Group report to the 1975 meeting was this committee would have lead responsibilities accepted by the FIC and one of the world's larger for matters concerned with the sources, fates, marine monitoring programs camnenced. In and effects of pollutants. Moreover, the MEQC addition to the matter of long-term pollution would have principal working groups which would monitoring, the Committee also was coricerned report to it. While it was understood that about the issue of extraction of sands and certain pollution related issues might be dealt gravels, especially from areas that might be with by other cannittees, i.e., Hydrography or inportant spawning grounds- Aggregate mining was the future Mariculture Committee, most issues then being done and proposed in important related to pollution and physical degradation of European and North American coastal waters and habitats would be the, responsibility of the MEQC aspects of the issue were seen as deleterious to and its associated working and study groups. the fisheries. Before going on with discussions about the A total of 45 papers was presented to the 1975 activities of the MEQC, it should be rioted that meeting. About half touched on issues of pollu- in 1971 the Council took under consideration the tion and the remainder were concerned with question of "international investigation of shellfish and benthos, mariculture, and pollution of the North Sea and the wider aspects anadrcmcus fish. of pollution within the Councils' area". The Council decided that all necessary steps be taken During the 1976 meetings additional progress was to establish an "advisory committee" to provide reported for the Working Group on Pollution and scientific information and advice on marine Baseline Monitoring Studies (WGPBK). It was pollution and degradation and its effects on reccmnended that studies should not necessarily living resources. Information and advice were to be done only at the same reference sites but that be directed to the member nations as well as special areas, i.e., "hot spots", should receive several intergavernuiental agencies or regulatory additional, more indepth treatment. It was bodies having responsibilities for control of during this Copenhagen uo-eting that a small study pollution. Moreover, such agencies could request group reported on the feasibility of biolggica advice from the ICES Advisory Committee on Marine effects monitor . While several national and Pollution (ACMP). It was noted that responsible international monitoring programs had been standing camTiittees within the ICES structure inplemented, to this time none had enphasized could be called upon by the ACMP to provide looking at the effect of Pollutants on the appropriate papers, advice, or plans necessary to physiology, genetics, or biochemistry of the activities of the ACMP. Finally, because of "sentinel species". The early discussions and these interests, Professor Cole (UK) that year subsequent recommendations resulted in an gave a special lecture on "Marine Pollution and international workshop on biological effects its Effects on Idving Resources - the Role of monitoring. This 1979 meeting was held at the ICES11. Duke marine Laboratory and resulted in a proceed- ings2 which almost a decade later is still a As will be seen in the following brief para:- principal source of knowledge on the subject. graphs, the future mission of the mEQC was well established in the 1960s and the consequences of It was during the 1976 ICES Statutory Meeting its activities have been instrumental in that extensive coverage was first given to oil establishing the courses of marine pollution spills and the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons studies world-wide. on fisheries and supporting food chains. It was also noted that atmospheric irpit would be a THE REaWT BISTORY significant source of toxic trace metals and other contaminants in the Firth of Forth and the The 1975 meetings of ICES were held in Montreal North Sea In general. Several papers touched on and the work of the then Fisheries Irprovemmt trace metals, their distribution and abundance in Ccomittee (FIC) largely centered on the report of organisms, their role in the physical habitat, the Working Group on Pollution Baseline and and their possible effects on resources. monitoring Studies in the Oslo Coumssion and ICNAF areas. This working group had a responsi- By 1977, the Fic gave considerable attention to bility to develop the strategy for a baseline biologicalL effects monitoring and the use of monitoring program that would involve analyses pathological, physiological, and biochemical for contaminant levels in fish from the entire changes, and aberrant behaviors, as indicators of area of interest to ICES. Moreover, the stress due to pollution. A special report was monitoring would include a baseline survey of given on the Us ocean Pulse Program, a long-term metal levels in sea water in .the ICES area. This monitoririg program developed to assess the health latter activity was recognized as an extremely of living resources. Numerous reports were difficult task given the lack of interrelation- forthcoming from the WGPEM which reported on ships and intercalibration that might exist levels of trace metals in selected fish and between the various participating laboratories. shellfish from the North Atlantic. The data in It was to be, however, one of the first truly such reports became part of the aforementioned international efforts of its type. working group data holdings on pollution baseline 733 and monitoring studies. Spurred by several major is to concentrate on biological aspects of marine oil spills, extensive discussions were held about pollution and marine pollution monitoring. Trend haw best to assess the effects of oil spills and monitoring Contaminants in biological tissues and blow outs, such as at well head ]BRAVO in the the several physical compartments is now assigned North sea. to the working Group on Environmental Assessment and Monitoring strategies. A report on the In 1976 and 1977 discussions were held to the end Working Group on Biological Effects will be given that FIC was to be divided essentially into the during the present session. Committee emphasis Mariculture and Marine Environmental Quality has focused on determining sources and fates of Committees. This move had the distinct advantage contamination, as well as on the biolocii of concentrating presentations of all papers, effects of individual contaminants on key target reports, and activities in regard to marine species. pollution in a single committee. Prior to this time, papers on pollution could well appear at It was during the 1983 meeting that the MEQC the Hydrographic, Fish and Benthos, Fish focused on plankton blooms and from these Improvement, and several of the Fish committees, sessions the special ICES meeting on "The Causes, p2x se. Dynamics, and Effects of Exceptional Marine Blooms" evolved. Also during the 1983 meeting, It was during the 1978 session in Copenhagen that the first formal conceptualization of the the fourth report of the working Group on Marine precautionary app occurred. Several Pollution Baseline Studies in the North Atlantic scientists suggested that the world's oceans, (WGNA) (a name change from WGPBK) was presented especially coastal waters, were presently and discussed. By this time exercises concerned overloaded with wastes and it might be better to with the intercalibration of samples and begin to protect the world's oceans at the analytical methods were being widely discussed expense of other habitats. This debate has and plans for future work developed. oil pollu- continued to the present, with often very tion continued to be a maj or theme, with 13 different views held by different scientists and Papers presented. One of the min themes for the nations. Committee was the report on use of bivalve mollusks in long-term monitoring, with special Earlier, the WGRA had suggested a meeting to enphasis on the preliminary results from the develop regional assessments. In the 1982 Missel. Watch Program". Five papers were given Statutory Meeting a paper4 by J. M. Bewer et al on relationships between pollution and fish was read and discussed in terms of providing ti@e- diseases and other abnormalities. Likewise, the guidelines and protocols for preparation of first reports from mussel watch were given and regional assessments. During the 1983 meetings continued emphasis was placed on the use of of ICES, the first such assessments were biological effects monitoring. presented to the MBQC. These included overviews for and assessments of Massachusetts and Cape Cod In 1979 the meetings were held in Warsaw and the Bays. At this time it was well known that Boston principal them included information and reports Harbor was heavily polluted and that pollutants on the introduction of exotic or nonindigenous were being exported to adjacent coastal waters. marine organisms. Although there were 19 new A large NCAA/EPA offshore assessment for the papers on biological effects monitoring, am of area(s) involved with the 106-mile sludge the main thrusts of the meeting was envirmm-ental disposal site5 was also reviewed and discussed as quality in estuaries and coastal watears. Ten a paradigm for future assessments. Member Papers detailed the status of habitat quality in nations were asked to develop assessments to be estuaries along the coastline of the united used in the management of fisheries habitats States, from Maim to the Chesapeake Bay. These following the guidance given in the Bewer et al Papers, and others, were later published in an paper- ICES Cooperative Research Rep,,t3. A formal recommendation was made to the Council that During the eighties the MEQC meetings regularly mmTher nations should encourage future reports on resulted in the preparation and presentation of status of habitat quality or assessments of fully three score papers. Interests have con- national estuaries. The Committee also had joint tinued in many of the aforementioned areas but meetings with the Hydrographic Committee, with new issues and themes have emerged. These special emphasis on marine chemistry. This include the problem of floatable debris, meeting was the scene for reports from the first especially various plastics, and the matter of meeting of the Marine Chemistry working group, diseases in fish that are induced by pollution. one of the future dominant producers of water and sediment quality information for the AcmP and the The foregoing represents a necessarily brief MEQC- sketch of what the ICES MEQC has been involved with the past decade. It is important, however, All of the aforementioned "themes" have continued to note the foresight shown by this committee in into the 801s. The work of the Marine Pollution terms of its various recommendations and Baseline and Monitoring in the North Atlantic products. Working Group has continued with its assigrmients now divided between the Marine chemistry working Group and the recently formed Working Group on Biological Effects of Contaminants, whose mission 734 REFERENCES 1. Went, A.E.J. 1972. Seventy Years Agrowing: A History of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea 1902-1972. Rapp.P.-v Reun Cons. Int. Explor. Mer: 165. 252 pp. 2. McIntyre, A.D. and J.B. Pearce. 1980. Biological Effects of Marine Pollution and the Problems of Monitoring: Proceedings from ICES Workshop held in Beaufort, NC, 2/26-3/2/79. Rapp.P.-v Reun Cons. Int. Explor. Mer:179. 346 PP. 3. Pearce, J.B. (ed.) 1983. Review of Water Quality and Transport of Materials in Coastal and Estuarine Waters. Cooperative Research Report:118. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 216 pp. . 4. Bewer, J.M. 1982. Guidelines for the preparation of regional assessments. Interna- tional Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Paper C.M. 1982/E:22. 5. Pearce, J.B., D C. Miller, and C. Berman. 1983. Northeast Monitoring Program NEMP 111 83- 0002 - 106-Mile Site Characterization Update. NOAA Technical Memorandum NM-F/NEC-26. US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Marine Fisher-tes Service, Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods 11ole, Massachusetts. 735 THE ICES WORKING GROUP ON BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CONTAMINANTS: A CASE STUDY Frederick P. Thurberg National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Northeast Fisheries Center Milford Laboratory, Milford, Connecticut 06460 ABSTRACT The administrative component of ICES, located in Copenhagen since its founding, The activities of the ICES Working is run by a General Secretary and a staff Group on Biological Effects of of about 20 people. The scientific Contaminants are representative of the component comprises a series of committees responsibilities of the approximately 60 and their adjunct working groups. This Working Groups established by the Council. paper describes the role and function of The Working Groups address specific the scientific working groups. The questions and problems referred to them by Working Group on Biological Effects of the ICES Subject or Advisory Committees. Contaminants (WGBEC) will be used as an This Working Group develops and evaluates example; its function and operation is biological-monitoring techniques for typical of the approximately 50 to 60 monitoring marine pollution. It working groups active under ICES auspices coordinates its activities with other ICES at this time. Working Groups including those concerned with pathology, marine chemistry, benthic ORGANIZATION ecology, and environmental assessment, and also works closely with other national Briefly, the organizational structure and international organizations concerned of ICES through which each working group with biological effects of contaminants; operates is as follows: it has particularly close ties with the UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Each member country appoints one or commission. two delegates to the Council. Thirteen scientific committees and two advisory committes report to the Council and each working group operates under the advice and direction of one of the scientific INTRODUCTION committees. Each working group is formed to carry out specific tasks and studies The International Council for the for its parent scientific committee, and Exploration of the Sea (ICES) was founded is composed of participants named by the in 1902 with eight member countries. member countries. Each country typically Since that time membership has grown to names one or two members to those working eighteen countries bordering the Atlantic groups in which it has an interest. The Ocean and adjacent seas. Although its chairman is confirmed by the Council and specific statutes have changed over the usually serves a three-year term. Each intervening years, its main function has group functions as long as the parent remained the same: to encourage research committee requires its work. and study of the sea and to coordinate these investigations among its member Working Group an Biological Effects nations. In 1964 the ICES mandate was of Contaminants functions under the redefined to promote and encourage direction of the Marine Environmental research focused particularly on living Quality Committee (MEQC). Although other marine resources, to draw up and organize committees deal with pollution issues as programs required for this purpose, and they relate to specific committee to publish the results of these interests, the MEQC has the lead investigations. These goals remain responsibility for investigation of essentially the same today, with an sources, fates, and effects of emphasis on the North Atlantic and its contaminants in the marine and estuarine adjacent seas. waters adjacent to ICES member countries. 736 United States Government work not protected by copyright The MEQC works closely with the Advisory Although the WGMPNA had a broad Committee on Marine Pollution, whose mandate for contaminant monitoring in the responsibility is to provide scientific North Atlantic, the following section will information and advice on marine be limited to those activities that focus pollution and its effects on living on biological aspects of marine pollution resources, as well as advice on the and marine pollution monitoring. control of pollution, to member governments and any interested ACTIVITIES intergovernmental bodies. The activities of MEQC are described by Pearce elsewhere The mandate given to the WGBEC by the in this volume. Council best summarizes the scope of the activities of this working group: The WGBEC had its origin within the Working Group on Marine Pollution and 1. To develop approaches and procedures Baseline studies in the North Atlantic for discrimination between biological (WGMPNA). That working group first met in effects induced by anthropogenic 1975 and was formed to develop coordinated activities and the natural background programs in the North Atlantic for incidence of abnormalities in fish investigating levels and trends of marine and shellfish, and thus promote the contaminants in water, sediments, and development of reliable approaches biological tissues, as well as the and techniques for the detection and development of a monitoring program for evaluation of the effects of biological-effects of contaminants. The contaminants in marine organisms. membership of that working group included both biologists and chemists. 2. To maintain close contact with the Intergovernmental oceanographic In 1984 an ad hoc study group was Commission Group of Experts an assembled to formulate recommendations for Effects of Pollutants (GEEP) and a biological monitoring program. That other relevant bodies, to ensure that, study group met in Hirtshals, Denmark, in where appropriate, ICES activities April of 1985 and recommended that a are coordinated with GEEP. biological monitoring program be developed within the ICES community using proven Cooperation between working groups techniques as well as those showing plays an important role in ICES. The promise of detecting sublethal contaminant Working Group has been active in effects on marine animals. A close monitoring levels of contaminants in the cooperation between ICES and the UNESCO flesh of fish and shellfish and has International Oceanographic commission developed an extensive monitoring program (IOC) biological program on contaminant in cooperation with the Marine Chemistry effects was strongly supported. Working Group. The two working groups also sponsored intercalibration exercises In 1986 the ICES Council accepted the for pollutants, especially PCBs, in recommendations of the Hirtshals Study biological tissues. An active cooperative Group and further recommended that the study on the possible Yinks between biological studies be separated from the contaminants and diseases of marine fish chemical studies of the WGMPNA. The and shellfish continues between the contaminant chemistry work, therefore, was Working.Group and the Working Group on transferred to the Marine Chemistry Pathology and Diseases of Marine Working Group and the task of organisms. investigating and evaluating biological effects of contaminants and developing a One of the most important ICES coordinated biological monitoring program initiatives on the effects of contaminants was given to a new working group - the on living marine resources was the Working Group on Biological Effects of Workshop on the Problems of monitoring Contaminants. Effects of Pollution in the Sea, held in Beaufort, North Carolina in March of 1979. The preceding paragraphs summarize the Although not sponsored by the Working position of a typical working group within Group, it was co-chaired by two Working the ICES structure and demonstrates the Group members and has been the foundation flexible nature of working groups; they of many of the investigations of the are formed, evolve, are modified, WGMPNA. The purpose of that workshop was replaced, and finally phased out as the to examine possible approaches to needs of the ICES community change. For monitoring biological effects, to identify clarity and ease of reading, the WGBEC and those that could be put to immediate use, its predecessor, the WGMPNA, will be and to make recommendations for the refered to as the Working Group unless implementation of a major monitoring specific clarification is needed. program in the North Atlantic using 737 selected biological effects measures. program for both groups, with the talents Seven areas of study were chosen for of two quite different groups working special attention: genetics, physiology, together in an area of common interest. A biochemistry, pathobiology, behavior, shipboard workshop, co-sponsored by both ecology, and bioassay. The recommendatons groups, is now in the planning stages; it and conclusions were published in 1980 (1) will be held in the North Sea in April of in a volume still considered one of the 1990 using Federal Republic of Germany very few comprehensive reviews of research vessels as well as a shore biological effects monitoring techniques. laboratory in Bremerhaven. This workshop will employ a variety of biological During the early 1980's the Working monitoring techniques at both contaminated Group recognized the need to test the and uncontaminated stations, and will work recommendations of the Beaufort Workshop closely with the Benthos Ecology Working .in a practical field situation so that Group on benthic community studies. those techniques, as well as other recently Moreover, IOC and ICES will cooperate in developed methods, could be tested on other biological effects workshops in the animals taken directly from a contaminated next several years. By doing so, we can environment. A shipboard workshop was take the years of laboratory proposed as an initial test of these experimentation on pollutant effects into techniques. For a variety of financial the field in a meaningful attempt to and logistical reasons, a hands-on relate field and laboratory observations. practical workshop was not undertaken until 1986, when the IOC Group of Experts other areas of ICES/IOC cooperation on Effects of Pollutants (GEEP) sponsored include the development of biological- a Workshop at the University of Oslo to effects handbooks of methods and their test biological effects measurements. evaluation, and the development of Animals collected from both clean and standardized tests that can be used in contaminated sites in the Oslo Fjord were regional and multinational programs of examined by a variety of physiological, biological monitoring of environmental biochemical, cellular, histopathological, contaminants. The need for inter- and ecological methods. In addition, organizational and international marine animals were held in large cooperation in methods development and 'mesocosms, dosed with a mixture of evaluation, in long-term data gathering, pollutants, and then examined using these and in joint use is clear (3). same techniques. Several Working Group members were invited to participate in International organizations have a this very successful workshop. An clear role to play in the development and evaluation of each technique as well as implementation of monitoring programs that the results of the workshop have been take advantage of biological measures of prepared for publication (2). pollutant stress. The worldwide shortage of funds currently available for broad Interest in a shipboard workshop has development of these programs necessitates continued over the past several years; the increased cooperation and increased success of the Oslo Workshop reinforced sharing of data and interpretations. It the desire of the Working Group to is also essential to apply the research undertake an at-sea workshop. It was findings from studies in one part of the agreed that the Beaufort suggestions and world to potential pollution situations the Oslo results would serve as the core in other areas to avoid costly duplication around which to design an at-sea, of effort. The cooperative efforts of ICES, hands-on, workshop. IOC, and other national and international groups thus will help to ensure that such In 1986 IOC and ICES recognized the programs become an effective reality. common goals of their parallel working groups in the area of biological effects REFERENCES studies on marine animals and agreed to work together on complementary projects. 1. McIntyre, A. and J. Pearce. 1980. Because only limited funds and personnel Biological effects of marine pollution and are available to be applied to the the problems of monitoring. Rapp. P.-v investigation of a complex and important Reun. Cons. int. Explor. Mer. 179:1-346. problem, an official liason was developed between the two groups. The chairman of 2. Bayne, B.L., K.R. Clarke, and J.S. the ICES WGBEC was assigned as an observer Gray (eds.) In Press. A workshop on the for the activities of IOC GEEP and the biological effects of pollutants, held at chairman of the IOC GEEP was similarly the University of Oslo, Norway, August, assigned to the ICES WGBEC. This 1986. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. (Special cooperation has reduced duplication of Volume). effort and has resulted in a stronger 738 3. Dawson, R., J.M. Bewers, N.R. Armstrong and G. Kullenberg. 1988. Global strategies for the assessment of pollution in marine environments and progress achieved in the IOC-GIPME programme. Aquatic Toxicol. 11:345-356. 739 MODELING THE IMPACTS OF CSO TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES ON NARRAGANSETT BAY J. Craig Swanson Katherine Jayko Applied Science Associates, Inc. 70 Dean Knauss Drive Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882 sewage treatment system is capable of treating the ABSTRACT regular (dry weather) load of sewage, the system overloads during severe rainstorms. During these A laterally averaged channel hydrodynamics model times, flows from storm water, municipal sewage and and a pollutant transport model have been coupled industrial waste, all flowing in the same network to predict water quality resulting from combined of sewer pipes, exceed the plant capacity and the sewer overflow (CSO) discharges into estuarine excess flow is shunted directly to the Providence environments. The hydrodynamic component of the River through 65 outfalls (2). Similar situations model system is driven by river and CSO flows plus exist in other communities at the head of the bay the tide at the lower model boundary. It is based and on the Seekonk River (Figure 1). on the conservation of momentum and water mass equations. The pollutant transport model is based on the conservation of mass equation, modified to PAWTUCKET account for settling, decay and interactions NORT" A COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS between water quality parameters. The model system PROVIDENCE ", is applied to the Providence, Rhode Island, sewer 11 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS A AA 1.10'.1MW system overflows which empty into the upper reaches A of Narragansett Bay. Total coliform loadings from A A SEEKONKAIVEfi A CSOs as they currently exist and as modified are FOX simulated. The impacts on the water quality in the WOONAS ATILICKIT POINT RIM EAST PROVIDENCE tributary rivers and Narragansett Bay are then --FROVIDENCE examined. FIELDS POINT PR VID1@41VIN SABIN POINT CRANSTON PEET INTRODUCTION Narragansett Bay is one of the major saltwater "Wit POINT BARRINGTON WARREN resources on the U.S. East Coast, from both economic and aesthetic viewpoints, Surrounded almost entirely by the state of Rhode Island, its waters provide a livelihood and recreation for many WARWICK p e o p I e . The Seekonk, Moshassuck, and BRISTOL Woonasquatucket Rivers at its northern end are the major sources of freshwater entering the bay (Figure 1). The Moshassuck and Woonasquatucket Rivers join to form the Providence River which PATIE.C extends 12 km south to Conimicut Point. At Fox ISLAND Point the Seekonk River also joins the Providence River. A hurricane barrier spans the Providence River north of Fox Point to provide protection to downtown Providence from flooding due to storm Figure 1. Upper Narragansett Bay point source surges. The Pawtuxet River enters the Providence discharges. River at the Warwick/Cranston city line south of Providence. Pollution in the Providence River and upper It has been proposed that the effluent from these Narragansett Bay has long been recognized as the num erous outfalls be collected into combined sewer most serious water quality problem in Rhode Island overflow (CSO) areas and holding or treatment (1). Sewage outfalls are a major source of facilities be provided at these locations to pol:lAxti:on to this area. Whire the Providence improve the water quality in upper Narragansett CH2585-slaB/oo0o. 740 $1 @1988 IEEE Bay. This study examines CSO impacts on the tidal Kh - horizontal eddy viscosity (cm2/s) portion of the rivers and upper Narragansett Bay K, - vertical eddy viscosity (cm2/s) north of Prudence Island, and examines the g - acceleration of the earth's gravity (cm/s2) improvements in the bay's water quality to be t - time (s) expected if various CSO treatment strategies are b - channel width (cm) implemented. An integrated hydrodynamic s/water h - channel depth (cm) quality model system is used to quantitatively define water quality impacts. The model consists of multiple channels with one or more upstream channels connected to a 2. THE WATER QUALITY MODEL SYSTEM downstream channel. The upstream velocity and surface elevation needed for the downstream channel The water quality model system consists of two calculation are flux weighted averages of the model components. The hydrodynamic model describes upstream channel or channels. the circulation patterns in response to tide, wind, and density induced forcing. The pollutant The transformed set of governing equations for transport (water quality) model predicts the each channel, in concert with the boundary spatial and temporal distribution of pollutants in conditions, is solved by a semi-implicit, split the water column. It requires as input a mode finite difference procedure on a space definition of the current field from the staggered grid system (3,4). In essence the hydrodynamic model plus estimates of the sources equations of motion are vertically integrated and and sinks of the pollutant and the interaction of through simple algebraic manipulation are recast in the pollutant of interest with other pollutants or terms of a single Helmholtz equation in surface organisms present in the receiving water. elevation. This equation is solved using a tridiagonal matrix solution technique to predict HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL the spatial distribution of surface elevation for each channel. The solution is embedded in an The hydrodynamic model is based on the iterative loop on all channels with iterations conservation of momentum and water mass equations. continuing until no change in elevation is seen in Since little variability is seen across the rivers, successive iterations. the full three dimensional equations are laterally averaged but retain their longitudinal and vertical POLLUTANT TRANSPORT MODEL variability. The standard approximations for estuarine flow are assumed: (1) the f low is The pollutant transport model is based on the incompressible, (2) vertical accelerations are conservation of mass equation modified to account negligible (hydrostatic), (3) density variations for settling, sources and sinks of material and ,are important only when multiplied by gravity and interactions between water quality parameters. For (4) direct tide generating forces may be neglected. the channels the laterally averaged pollutant For the channels we assume that the cross channel transport equation is variability is small and that the coriolis force is unimportant in the momentum balance. With these a-cbh + a-ucbh + a-wcbh assumptions the laterally averaged governing equations are: at ax az .Conservation of mass h a [DxbaT + h a (Dzbaj + Sbh (4) C) C) @_z E Bx @x az aubh + a-wbh 0 ax az where the overbar indicates a laterally averaged value and Conservation of momentum allbh + au-ubh + a-uwbh c = concentration (MPN/100 ml) at ax az Dx,Dz = diffusion coefficients in the x and z directions, respectively (cm2/s) 1 Bpbh + h L[Khba@' + h a [K,baU (2) S - source/sink term (MPN/100ml-s) d ul @_z L P ax ax @x a. The source-sink term is presently formulated as a ap = - (3) single or double stage decay, depending on the az pg pollutant (e.g., fecal coliform, DO-BOD cycle). The term includes sources, growth and/or decay, where the overbar indicates a laterally averaged settling, uptake, etc. to simulate the appropriate value and kinetics. x,z = Cartesian coordinate system with x It has been assumed in the derivation of the measured longitudinally, and z measured pollutant transport equation that molecular vertically upward from mean sea level (cm) diffusion is insignificant compared to its u,w = components of the current in the x and z turbulent counterpart and that mass conserving directions,/respectively (cm/s) estimates for the time averaged turbulent velocity p = pressure ( cm-s2) field can be obtained from the hydrodynamic model. P = density (g/cm3) The form of the pollutant transport equation used 741 allows one to address an individual water quality HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL parameter or the interaction between several interrelated parameters. The hydrodynamic model was used to predict the spatial and temporal variation in the currents A simple forward-in-time centered-in-space explicit through the system. River flows into the area were finite difference technique (5) is used to solve either measured or estimated from historical data the mass conservation equation on the same space for low flow conditions. staggered grid system used in the hydrodynamic model. Concentration values are defined in the The lower model boundary at Prudence Island was center of each grid cell. driven by an M2 tidal height time series with an amplitude of 58.9 cm determined during field 3. APPLICATION OF MODEL SYSTEM TO STUDY AREA measurement programs. The M2 constituent, with a period of 12.42 hours, was chosen because The model grid system is shown in Figure 2. It observations show that it is, by far, the strongest consists of five linked channels: the signal in the upper bay and Providence River. Woonasquatucket, Moshassuck, Providence, and Other constituents, including those at diurnal, Seekonk Rivers, plus the upper bay north of semidiurnal and higher frequencies contribute only Prudence Island. The Woonasquatucket, Moshassuck variations, such as the spring neap cycle on the and Seekonk River channels represent only the tidal basic M2 cycle. portions of these rivers with a dam being the upstream boundary of each. Model predictions of tidal height and velocity were compared with observations for the Providence River. The modeled velocity amplitude of 2.7 cm/s compares well with observations of 3.0 cm/s for the M2 constituent (6). The velocities lag the elevation by 3.0 hours which is typical for this type of estuary, while observations show a phase lag of 2.4 hours (7). The model predicts a phase shift of 17 min in the surface elevation between Prudence Island and Fox Point while observations indicate a phase shift of 26 min. Previous analyses of field observations (6) have shown that local wind effects on the flows are ................ Model grid boundaries minimal. Non-local wind forcing can impact the area by raising or lowering the water levels through storm surges but no significant surges have been observed during field programs. Both the local and non-local effects of the wind were thus excluded as driving forces. The vertical velocity structure in the Providence River as measured from current meters has been ... . ................. ... shown to be minimal (6). North of the Hurricane ............. ......... Barrier no upestuary bottom flow has been noted. A vertically averaged approximation to the flow is thus reasonable. This, of course, implies that density induced flows are of secondary importance ............. L and can be ignored. POLLUTANT TRANSPORT MODEL Figure 2. Model grid system. The pollutant transport model was used to predict concentrations of fecal coliforms since this bacteria is a major problem in the upper bay. The Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management The range of scales in the system varies widely- has closed the area north of Conimicut Point Flow in the Woonasquatucket River during dry permanently and periodically closes the area weather is approximately 0.57 m3/s while the tidal between Conimicut Point and Prudence Island exchange at Prudence Island is approximately 3300 whenever rainfall exceeds 1.3 cm in a 24 hour m3/s. The Woonasquatucket River has typical depths period. of 90 cm and widths of 7 m while the Providence River and upper bay vary in width from 1 to 10 km To examine the impact of fecal coliform loads on and have a dredged shipping channel approximately receiving water, the pollutant transport model was 12 m deep. For model simulations, actual run using loading data generated by prior land and geometries of the rivers and bay were obtained from river based model applications to the various CSO field measurements, nautical charts, and flood areas (8, 9, 10). Coliform loading data for maps. reference storms of 3, 6, and 12 month return 742 frequency were used. Loads from other CSO areas 10- which have not been analyzed in detail were scaled from an earlier system wide study (11). The (a) Valley St. reference storms are synthetic design storms C_ lasting 6 hours developed for the Seekonk River CSO study (8) and subsequently used for other CSO area lot- studies. Z lot Time series of CSO fecal coliforms for a typical CSO overflow are shown in Figure 3 for the 12 month 101. storm. This case shows the loads for the overflows lot- from the upper Woonasquatucket River CSO area entering the tidal portion of the Woonasquatucket 10- River at the Rising Sun dam. The storm begins at 10, hour 2 and lasts for 6 hours. The peak in flow and loads for the river occurs 3 hours after the storm Time (hrs) starts. The simulated time series ends at hour 12 (10 hours after storm start) but since loads and flows are not yet at pre-storm levels, an lot- additional 36 hours was simulated using linear (b) Hurricane Barrier interpolation from levels at hour 12 to pre-storm 101- levels at hour 48. A two day recovery time was E used since USGS records show such a response time 101- for the Woonasquatucket River (10). Z, IL 10, 10, 20 WER LOADS WTTH CSOS 0 12 MONTH REFERENCE STORM U 10. - FLOW Is FC Y 0 IS 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 425 450 10 ------------------------------------- Time (hrs) lot- 0 1 . I . I. (c) Prudence Island 0 4 8 12. 16 @O 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 lo4_ TIME (hr.) Figure 3. Typical time history of flow and fecal 103. coliform loads in the upper Woonasquatucket River. lot io, Typical model results are shown in Figure 4 for the 10. time history of fecal coliform concentrations at various locations for the 12 month storm with loading from upper Woonasquatucket CSO sources. At 1.1 ItI 211 111 309 325 350 371 400 415 00 Valley Street (Figure 4a) closest to the dam and Time (hrs) the CSO area's overflows, the concentration rises quickly after the start of the storm at hour 2. A Figure 4. Model predicted time history of fecal broad peak is seen during the storm. After the coliform concentrations at various storm, concentration levels drop immediately and locations. are almost at pre-storm levels within 12 hours. The load has stopped by hour 48 and a tidally induced variation in dry weather concentration is evident. The response at the Hurricane Barrier (Figure 4b) shows the tidal oscillations superimposed on the The maximum fecal coliform concentrations for the storm pulse throughout the simulation. The time 12 month storm event as a function of distance scale has been expanded from 120 hours to 470 hours downstream are shown in Figure 5. Four scenarios to show the system response in the upper bay area. are shown. Scenarios 1 and 2 include all sources The system returns to pre-storm conditions at the from the other CSO areas, rivers and sewage Hurricane Barrier in approximately 5 days. The treatment plants, but in Scenario 2 the loads from time history at Prudence Island (Figure 4c) the upper Woonasquatucket CSOs have been continues to show a phase lag in time of peak eliminated. The peak concentration occurs at the concentration and time to return to pre-storm confluence with the Moshassuck River at 107 MPN/100 Valley @St. conditions. ml indicating that the upper Woonasquatucket CSO 743 loads are not the cause of the maximum calculated From these results it is evident that little concentrations. In fact a comparison of Scenario 1 improvement will be seen by eliminating upper and Scenario 2 shows no difference below the Woonasquatucket CSOs. Other CSO area sources confluence, only above. When only upper overwhelm the signal for fecal coliforms and so Woonasquatucket loads are assumed to enter the their control should be a greatc--,- priority. system (Scenario 3) , the Valley Street concentration is the highest with a gradual decline in the river and then a steep decline from the 5. REFERENCES Moshassuck River confluence to the Hurricane Barrier. Below the Barrier, gradual dilution 1. Olsen, S., and V. Lee, 1979. A Summary and continues. The same response for the case of upper Preliminary Evaluation of Data Pertaining to Woonasquatucket C loads without CSOs (Senario 4) is the Water Quality of Upper Narragansett Bay, evident with a one to two order of magnitude Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode reduction in concentrations. Island, p. 189. 2. Robadue, D.D. and V. Lee, 1980. Upper Narragansett Bay: An Urban Estuary in Transition, Marine Technical Report No. 79, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island. 3. Madala, R.V, and S.A. Piacsek, 1977. A Semi Implicit Numerical Model for Baroclinic 1 11 1 Oceans, Journal of Computational Physics, 23, 1: Loads from all sources pp. 167-178. 101- 2. Loads from all sources except 4. Swanson, J.C. , 1986. A Three Dimensional upper Woonasquatucket R. CSOs 101- 3: Loads from upper Woonasquatucket 7 Numerical Model System of Coastal Circulation R. and Water Quality, Ph.D. Dissertation, 4: Lo.cssoararnalyupper Woonasquatucket - Department of Ocean Engineering, University of :z 101- 2 R. without cSos z Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island. 104 4 5. Roache, P.S., 1976. Computational Fluid Dynamics, Hermosa Publishers, Albuquerque, New 101 Mexico. 6. Swanson, J.C., A.C. Turner and K. Jayko, 1987. Providence, Rhode Island CSO Study Area B 10 Receiving Water Quality Analysis, report prepared for O'Brien & Gere, Syracuse, New 101 r York. 7. Turner, A, C. , 1984. Tidal and Subtidal Distcnce from Rising sun dam (rj) Circulation in the Providence River. Master of Science Thesis, Department of Ocean Figure 5. Model predictions of maximum fecal Engineering, University of Rhode Island, coliform concentrations in the study Kingston, Rhode Island, 285 p. area for the 12 month reference storm. 8. Metcalf & Eddy, 1986. Report to the Narragansett Bay Commission, Providence, Rhode Island on Combined Sewer Overflows in CSO Area 4. CONCLUSIONS A. Wakefield, MA. 9. O'Brien & Gere, 1988. Combined Sewer Overflow A laterally averaged channel model system was Mitigation Study CSO Area B Moshassuck River applied to upper Narragansett Bay to investigate Interceptor Drainage Basin, Syracuse, N.Y. water quality resulting from fecal coliform loads 10. CDM (Camp Dresser & McKee), 1988. Narragansett entering the bay through CSOs, rivers and sewage Bay Commission Combined Sewer Overflow Study, treatment plants. Specifically, the improvement in Area C Upper Woonasquatucket River Drainage water quality to be gained by eliminating the upper Basin. Boston, MA Woonasquatucket River CSOs was examined. When only 11. Martin, B.K. and D.D. Robadue, Jr., 1983. coliform loads from the upper Woonasquatucket River Estimates of Combined Sewage and Storm Water were considered, elimination of the CSO loads Flows from the City of Providence. Coastal resulted in a decrease in maximum fecal coliform Resources Center, Graduate School of concentrations by a factor of 100 in the Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Woonasquatucket River, a factor of 40 at the Narragansett, R.I. Hurricane Barrier and a factor of 25 at Gaspee Point. This reduction in concentrations was completely masked, however, when loads from other CSO areas were included in the simulations. Peak concentrations reached 107 MPN/100 ml at the Woonasquatucket/Hoshas suck confluence (versus 106 MPN/100 ml and 104 MPN/100 ml when only Woonasquatucket loads with. and without CSOs, respectively, were considered). Below the confluence the impact of the Woonasquatucket CSOs was indiscernible. 744 POLLUTANT LOADINGS TO THE NEW YORK BIGHT APEX Harold M. Stanford 1 and David R. Young2 U. S. NOAA Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment 6001 Executive Blvd. (WSC-1), Rockville, MD 20852 2 U. S. EPA Environmental Research Laboratory - Narragansett Hatfield Marine Science Center, Newport, OR 97365 ABSTRACT and cellar dirt or rubble). Effective and efficient management of such waste inputs to this Pollutant loading data obtained during the marine ecosystem requires the estimation of average 1970's and 1980's for the Hudson-Raritan Estuary annual loadings via the various input routes for (HRE) and the New York Bight have been reevaluated. the individual pollutants of concern. Annual inputs of up to 35 pollutants (major constituents, trace elements, synthetic organics, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) carried to the Apex of the Bight via seven routes were estimated. Barging of dredge material and sewage sludge, and HRE outflow, accounted for more than 95 percent of the loadings of the 11 pollutants for which compre- hensive estimates were possible. Dredge material LONG ISLAND, NY NORTH barging was the largest source, contributing 30 to 40' - 83 (median: 56) percent of the total loading for [email protected]. 1 10 these 11 constituents. HRE outflow contributed 13 CONTOURS IN FATHOMS to 45 (median: 27) percent, and sewage sludge 35- barging contributed 3 to 24 (median: 16) percent. ROCKA WA Y Moving the sludge dumpsite from 12 miles to 106 POINT miles offshore appears to have decreased loadings 61/ 14 r___ to the Apex by less than 25 percent. Better HUDSON- ;,0' ;D 40'30'N RARITAN // "Zkf AMBROSE 10-ul estimates will require significantly improved ESTUARY A;e ce0 1 LIGHT monitoring of pollutants in barged dredge material. SANDY CHRISTIAENSEN BASIN DREDG 25- 1ATERIAL SEWAGE IF SLUDGE INTRODUCTION IV C@LLAR 0-7. DIRT 20'- 7 " " The marine ecosystem lying off the mouth of 11 ACID rIt 1 10 the Hudson-Raritan Estuary is known as the New York "s, WASTE Z@ 1% M1 - Bight. The inner section of the Bight that is most exposed to anthropogenic effects is known as the NEW JERSEY 151- A. 1, Apex of the New York Bight. The Apex is bounded by IPA ZI the Long Island (NY) coastline on the north by the I 111r." BIGHT APEX 0 LIMI New Jersey coastline on the west, by latiQe 40 13'N on the south, and by 1ongitude 730 35'W on the 10, east (F@gure 1). It has an area of approx mately 05, 74-00V 55, 50, 45* 40 35' 73-301W 2000 km , about 5 percent of the 38,900 km area of the New York Bight. The Apex is a region of particular concern Figure 1. New York Bight Apex and historical because of the large quantities of wastes that have dumpsites (After McLaughlin et al., been released to it during the last century. The 1975). routes of.such input include net outflow from the Hudson River - Raritan Bay Estuary (across the OBJECTIVE "Transect" between the ends of Sandy Hook and Rockaway Beach), discharges from the Long Island The objective of this study was to compile and and New Jersey coasts (municipal and industrial compare estimated annual loadings of pollutants outfalls, gauged and non-gauged surface runoff, released between the mid-1970's and mid-1980's via groundwater leachate), aerial (atmospheric) the various input routes to the New York Bight deposition, and dumping of barged wastes (dredged Apex, taking into account the estimated "filtering material, sewage or municipal sludge, acid waste, efficiency" of the Hudson-Raritan Estuary. @ANUY HOOK 745 United States Government work not protected by copyright BACKGROUND estuary obtained from Mueller et al. (1982) for additional reasonably conservative pollutants (not The comparison conducted here is based considered by Young et al. owing to a lack of principally on the results of the comprehensive sediment concentration data). Because nutrients pollutant input surveys reported for the New York are highly non-conservative, they were not included Bight (Mueller et al., 1976; New York City Dept. of in the mass balance approach. For the purpose of Environmental Protection, 1983) and the Hudson- this survey, we have simply assumed that, to the Raritan Estuary (Mueller et al., 1982). However, first order, essentially all of the total nitrogen these investigations suffered from a major and total phosphorus net input to the Hudson- oversimplification (clearly acknowledged by each Raritan Estuary is carried across the Transect into report). This was the fact that no estimation was the Apex. The resultant estimated annual Apex made for the "filtering" of pollutants (principally loadings from the estuary are listed in Table 1. via removal to bottom sediments) as they passed Detailed information regarding the approaches, through the Hudson-Raritan Estuary. Thus, that assumptions, and sources of data utilized in portion of a pollutant's annual loading to the estimating net loading values from the Hudson- estuary which is deposited to and accumulated in Raritan Estuary and the other routes of input to the bottom sediments of the estuary (at least until the Apex have been provided elsewhere (Young et al. dredged) was erroneously included in the "estuarine 1988a; 1988b). advection" subtotal of the estimated total annual loading value for the Apex and the Bight. This caused the total loading value to be too high. In Long Island Coastal Inputs addition, the 1976 report of Mueller et al. included estimated inputs to the entire Bight, even Mueller et al. (1976) did not identify any though the major concern was the significance of direct industrial discharges from the Long Island the "controllable" inputs (e.g., barge dumping) to coast into the waters of the Apex. However, they the Apex. Since the area of the Bight is much did identify four discharges of secondary-treated greater than that of the Apex, this also caused the municipal wastewater (Bay Park, Long Beach, estimated total loading of a pollutant (relative to Freeport, Wantagh) with a 1972 total discharge ilte concerns for the Apex itself) to be too high. of 85 million gallons per day (mgd) or 1.2 x 10 liter/yr. PROCEDURES AND RESULTS Because effluent concentration and loading values for most of the target constituents were Hudson-Raritan Estuary Advective Inputs either absent, estimated from other areas, or based on 1972 monitoring samples (often quite sparse), we A mass balance approach patterned after that have elected to use instead the more recent and of Olsen et al. (1984) was used by Young et al. comprehensive effluent concentration estimates for (1988a) to estimate the "filtering efficiency" of STPs in or near New York City (nationwide for the the Hudson-Raritan Estuary for particulate- additional priority pollutants) reported in Tables associated pollutants such as trace metals, the VI-5 through VI-7 of Mueller et al. (1982). (We higher molecular weight chlorinated hydrocarbons, note that the estimated concentrations for "New (e.g., PCBs; DDTs), and petroleum hydrocarbons. York City Secondary Effluent" were the values Based on average sediment accumulation rates and selected from Table VI-5.) These concentration pollutant concentrations, and assuming steady-state estimates were combined with the sum of the average conditions, they estimated that approximately 60 effluent flow rates for the four STPs to obtain the percent of the loadings of such materials to the loading estimates to the Apex from these STPs estuary obtained from Mueller et al. (1982) were situated on the Long Island coast (listed in Young removed to the bottom sediments. (In obtaining et al., 1988b). this estimate, Young et al. first assumed that 50 percent of the direct inputs to the East River by Mueller et al. (1976) identified three surface the six municipal wastewater treatment plants runoff channels on Long Island discharging into the situated there were removed by tidal action to Long Apex via South Bay (E. Meadowbrook, Bellmore, and Island Sound. They also assumed that losses from Massapequa Creeks), with a 1972 average flow rat To the estuary due to volatilization were negligible.) of 19.5 cubic feet per second (cfs) or 1.74 x 10 Thus, they applied a median "transfer coefficient" liter/yr. Because insufficient concentration data value of 0.4 to these modified values for loadings for the target constituents again were reported for to the estuary, to obtain estimated annual loadings these flows by Mueller et al. (1976), we have of eight metals, PCBs and DDTs, and five poly- utilized the average concentrations reported by nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) via advection Mueller et al. (1982) for urban runoff from the from the estuary to the Apex of the New York Bight. adjacent New York Metropolitan Area (NYC 208 (Results of an independent budget by Connell, 1982, "separate" sites) to obtain the estimated loading for petroleum hydrocarbons as a class also yielded values (listed in Young et al., 1988b). a transfer coefficient of 0.4). Although use of this median value does not reflect the probable Mueller et al. (1976) also estimated annual differences in transfer coefficients for various loading values for a few pollutants via groundwater target pollutants based on their geochemical transport from Long Island to the New York Bight. differences, it appears to be the best estimate Because approximately one-third of the coastal obtainable from present data. Thus, here we have extent included in this groundwater transport adopted this approximation, and have also applied survey borders on the Apex, we assumed that 33 it to the modified loading estimates for the percent of the groundwater pollutant transport 746 values were applicable to our Apex inputs This analysis showed that the most rapid decreases estimates. The resultant estimated pollutant in air concentrations for the three metals (iron, inputs from the Long Island coast to the Apex are lead, and zinc) occurs between the Manhattan Island listed in Young et al. (1988b). The pollutant and the Transect sites, with a much more gradual loading estimates for these three input modes have decrease occurring toward the edge of the Bight. been summed to obtain the Long Island Coastal input Thus, the "application factor" used to extrapolate values presented in Table 1. the Manhattan data to the Apex was estimated as follows. For each metal, we first averaged the New Jersey Coastal Inputs value for the two areas beyond the Apex, and then obtained the average of this "outer zone" value and Twenty of the STPs (coded Ml - 1416 and M20 - the Transect value to obtain an estimated average M22a) on the northern New Jersey coast, identified concentration for the Apex. This Apex average by Mueller et al. (1976) as significant sources, concentration then was divided by the corresponding discharge directly into the Apex. Seventeen value for Manhattan Island (M.I.) to obtain the discharge9primary effluent (totaling 17.0 mgd or application factor. 23.4 x 10 liter/yr) and three discha�ge secondary The application factors obtained for iron, effluent (totaling 5.4 mgd or 7 .4 x 10 liter/yr). As was the case for the Long Island STPs, lead, and zinc were 0.10, 0.17, and 0.15, with a sufficient data were lacking to provide relatively median value of 0.15 (Young et al., 1988b). Com- comprehensive and up-to-date loading estimates. bination of this factor with the Manhattan Island Since these STPs are situated in a relatively pollutant deposition values (Mueller et al., 1982) urbanized section of the New Jersey coast, we have yielded the estimated average aerial deposition again utilized the estimated effluent concentration rates for the Apex presented in Table 1. values for the New York Metropolitan Area (if Barge Dumping Inputs available, otherwise for 20 plants nationwide), reported by Mueller et al. (1982). The resultant Historically, four major categories of wastes estimated annual pollutant loadings via STP discharges from the New Jersey coast to the New have been dumped from barges into the Apex of the York Bight Apex are listed in Young et al. (1988a). New York Bight. These are (1) sewage (municipal) sludge, (2) dredge material (spoil), (3) acid No significant direct industrial discharges waste, and (4) cellar dirt (rubble). The from New Jersey to the Apex were identified by designated dumpsites for these types of barged Mueller et al. (1976). Regarding surface runoff wastes are shown in Figure 1. Santoro and Fikslin inputs, we have estimated that an area of about 52 (1986) summarized the annual barge mass loadings of sq mi (135 sq km ) drains from the New Jersey coast municipal sludge to the apex, and average pollutant into the Apex. The major river in this area is the concentrations in this sludge. The average annual Manasquan R. (Mueller er al., 1976), wit@oa 41 year value for the years 1982-@985 was 7470 + 340 (S.E.) average flow rate of 72.6 cfs (6.48 x 10 English tons, or 6.8 x 10 kg/yr. Application of liter/yr). Since this river drains an area of 43 the average chemical constituent concentrations in sq mi (111 sq km), we have scaled up its flow rate ocean (barge) dumped sewage sludge from all plants by the factor 52/43 - 1.2 to obtain thei8stimated for the period 1982-1985 provided by these authors annual flow rate of 87.1 cfs (7.77 x 10 liter/yr) yielded the conventional and trace metal loadings for surface runoff from the New Jersey coast into listed in Table 1. Concentration values used to the Apex. The same pollutant concentration obtain the loadings via such sludge for trace estimates used for Long Island surface runoff were organics, beryllium and selenium (Table 1) were applied to this value to obtain Apex pollutant obtained from Fricke and Clarksen (1984). loading estimates for surface runoff from the New Estimated annual loadings for the target Jersey coast (Young et al., 1988b). No correspond- constituents via dumped acid wastes and dredge ing groundwater estimates are available, as Mueller material were obtained from the technical et al. (1976) concluded that groundwater pollutant information report prepared by New York Dept. of transport to the Bight from this coast was negli- Environmental Protection (1983). These values also gible. Our estimates of the New Jersey coastal are listed in Table 1. (Loadings of these chemical inputs to the Apex obtained by summing the STP and constituents via barge dumping of cellar dirt are surface runoff estimates are presented in Table 1. not reported here, as they are believed to be negligible compared to the other waste categories). Aerial Deposition Inputs DISCUSSION Although relatively few measurements of The estimated annual mass loadings of the atmospheric pollutants have been made in the New target constituents via the seven input routes York Apex or Bight, an extensive compilation of listed in Table 1 indicate that, for the chemical pollutant aerial deposition rates in downtown constituents considered here, the three dominant Manhattan has been provided by Mueller et al. input routes to the Apex are (1) advection from the (1982). Thus, in an effort to extrapolate these Hudson-Raritan Estuary, and barge dumping of (2) deposition rates to the Bight, surface air sewage (municipal) sludge and (3) dredge material concentrations of three trace metals, made by Duce et al. (1975) at the Transect and at two sites in (spoil). Thus, in obtaining the "Total Loading" the Bight outside the Apex (Middle-Bight and New values shown in the last column of Table 1, we have placed the sum of available data in a parentheses Jersey coastal), have been combined with corresponding data from the Manhattan Island site. if loading data from one of these three dominant categories is missing. Further, if more than one 747 Table 1. Distribution of estimated annual pollutant loadings to the New York Bight Apex (approx. 1980). Parenthesis indicates that "Total" value does not include estimates for one of the three largest sources (H-R Estuary, Sewage Sludge, or Dredged Material) No value is listed if two or more loading estimates are lacking for these three sources. H - R Long Is. New Jer. Aerial Acid Sewage Dredge Constituent Estuary Coastal Coastal Deposit. Waste Sludge Material Total Suspended Solids (10 3 kg) 7.2 x 10 5 3.9 x 10 3 9.8 x 10 3 --- --- 2.1 x 10 5 4.6 x 10 6 5.5 x 10 6 Oil and Grease (10 3 kg) 4.8 x 10 4 1.7 x 10 3 2.8 x 10 3 --- 6.0 2.1 x 10 4 3.2 x 10 4 1.1 x 10 5 Nutrients (10 3 kg) Total N 1.1 x 10 5 2.0 x 10 3 1.5 x 10 3 4.3 x 10 2 --- 2.2 x 10 4 --- 1.4 x. 10 5 Total P 1.4 x 10 4 2.6 x 10 2 2.7 x 10 2 2.9 --- --- --- --- Trace Metals (kg) Antimony 1.3 x 10 5 1.2 x 10 4 3.3 x 10 3 --- --- --- --- --- Arsenic 2.6 x 10 4 1.1 x 10 3 2.8 x 10 2 2.4 x 10 2 --- 4.0 x 10 3 5.8 x 10 4 9.0 X 10 4 Beryllium 5.2 x 10 3 4.3 x 10 2 1.1 x 10 2 --- --- 2.5 x 102 --- (5.9 x 10 3 co Cadmium 2.2 x 10 4 3.6 x 10 2 1.3 x 10 3 2.9 x 10 2 3.1 x 10 2 1.8 x 104 3.3 x 10 4 7.5 x 10 4 Chromium 2.8 x 10 5 2.3 x 10 3 3.4 x 10 3 1.7 x 10 3 1.4 x 10 4 2.1 x 105 6.4 x 10 5 1.2 x 10 6 Copper 4.4 x 10 5 1.3 x 10 4 1.4 x 10 4 --- 4.8 x 10 3 5.0 x 105 1.4 x 10 6 2.4 x 10 6 Cyanide 1.0 x 10 5 6.1 x 10 3 2.6 x 10 3 --- --- 9.1 x 104 --- (2.0 x 10 5 Lead 4.0 x 10 5 6.2 x 10 3 2.7 x 10 4 2.5 x 10 4 2.1 x 10 3 3.5 x 105 8.5 x 10 5 1.7 x 10 6 Mercury 1.1 x 10 4 7.2 x 10 4.2 x 10 --- 1.5 x 10 1.6 x 103 1.6 x 10 4 2.9 x 10 4 Nickel 2.3 x 10 5 5.8 x 10 3 9.6 x 10 3 2.6 x 10 3 --- 5.7 x 104 3.4 x 10 5 6.4 x 10 5 Selenium 1.9 x 10 4 7.7 x 10 2 2.0 x 10 2 --- --- 4.6 x 102 --- (2.0 x 10 4 Silver 1.0 x 10 4 1.9 x 10 2 4.9 x 10 --- --- 1.8 x 104 --- (2.8 x 10 4 Thallium 4.0 x 10 4 4.1 x 10 3 1.1 X 10 3 --- --- --- --- --- Zinc 1.3 x 10 6 2.1 x 10 4 4.8 x 10 4 3.4 x 10 4 2.6 x 10 4 7.6 x 10 5 2.6 x 10 6 4.8 x 10 6 Table 1 continued. H - R Long Is. New Jer. Aerial Acid Sewage Dredge Constituent Estuary Coastal Coastal Deposit. Waste Sludge Material Total Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (kg) Aldrin 7.2 x 10 --- --- 7.6 x 10 --- 2.0 --- (1.5 x 10 2 1@amma-BHC 3.4 x 102 7.0 1.8 3.6 x 10 2 --- 4.1 --- (7.1 x 10 2 Chlordane 3.1 x 10 1.2 0.3 2.0 x 10 --- 6.4 x 10 2 --- (6.9 x 10 2) DDT 1.4 x 102 5.7 2.6 x 10 1.3 x 10 --- 5.5 x 10 --- (2.3 x 10 2) Aeptachlor 3.1 x 102 --- --- 3.6 x 10 2 4.1 --- --- (6.7 x 10 2) PCB 1.8 x 103 4.0 x 10 3.3 x 10 2.0 x 10 2 --- 2.3 x 10 2 4.6 x 10 3 6.9 x 10 3 Pentachlorophenol 3.2 x 103 2.6 x 10 2 1.4 x 10 2 --- --- 2.2 x 10 3 --- (5.8 x 10 3) Phenol 9.6 x 103 2.2 x 10 2 2.5 x 10 2 --- --- 4.1 x 10 3 --- (1.4 x 10 4 Toxaphene 1.0 x 102 --- --- .7.9 x 10 --- --- Ar-@ Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (kg) 10 A,nthracene 4.4 x 10 3 --- --- --- --- --- --- Fluoranthene 7.2 x 10 3 1.6 x 10 2 7.2 x 10 2 --- --- --- --- --- Napthalene 4.8 x 10 3 4.8 x 10 2 1.3 x 10 3 --- --- --- --- --- Phenanthrene 2.9 x 10 3 1.3 x 10 2 4.5 x 10 2 --- --- 1.2 x 10 3 --- (4.7 x 10 3 Pyrene 5.6 x 10 3 --- 9.3 x 10 2 --- --- 1.4 x 10 3 --- (7.9 x 10 3 Total PAH --- --- --- 5.0 x 10 3 --- --- --- Phthalates (kg) Bis (2-ethylhexyl) 4.4 x 10 4 3.0 x 10 3 2.6 x 10 3 3.6 x 10 2 --- 1.8 x 10 3 --- (5.2 x 10 4 Butyl Benzyl 6.0 x 103 1.3 x 10 2 2.8 x 10 2 --- --- --- Di-N-Butyl 7.2 x 103 5.4 x 10 2 2.8 x 10 2 3.6 x 10 2 --- --- --- --- Diethyl 2.8 x 103 8.1 x 10 1.2 x 10 2 --- --- --- --- Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (kg) 1.3 x 10 7 --- --- --- 1.3 x 10 7 --- (2.6 x 10 7 Table 2. Distribution (percent) of annual loadings for constituents which include estimates for all three major input routes (Hudson-Raritan Estuary, Sewage Sludge, Dredge Material) H - R Long Is. New Jer. Aerial Acid Sewage Dredge Col. (1+6+7 Constituent Estuary Coastal Coastal Deposit. Waste Sludge Material Total Suspended Solids 13.0 0.1 0.2 3.8 83.0 99.8 Oil and Grease 45.3 1.6 2.6 0.0 19.8 30,2 95.3 Arsenic 29.0 1.2 0.3 0.3 4.5 64.7 98.2 Cadmium 29.2 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.4 23.9 43.8 96.9 Chromium 24.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 1.2 18.3 55,7 98.3 Copper 18.6 0.5 0.6 0.2 21.1 59.1 98.8 Lead 24.1 0.4 1.6 1.5 0.1 21.1 51.2 96.4 Mercury 38.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 5.6 55.7 99.6 Nickel 35.7 0.9 0.1 0.4 8.8 52.7 97.2 Zinc 27.1 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.5 15.9 54.3 97.3 PCB 26.1 0.6 0.5 2.9 3.3 66.7 96.1 MEDIAN 27.1 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.2 15.9 55.7 97.3 of these dominant categories are not represented CONCLUSIONS for a given constituent, no total loading value is calculated at all. Compilation of available data generally collected between the mid-1970's and the mid-1980's For only eleven of the target constituents indicates that the largest source of chemical were we able to obtain annual loading estimates for pollutants to the New York Bight Apex was the barge these three major input routes. Table 2 presents, dumping of dredge material. The second largest for these eleven constituents, the percentage of source was advection from the Hudson-Raritan the total loading carried.via each of the seven Estuary, even after accounting for the "filtering" input routes included in this study. It is seen effect via estuarine sedimentation. Barge dumping that inputs to the Apex via Hudson-Raritan of sewage (municipal) sludge generally ranked advection and dumping of sewage sludge and dredge third. Inputs from the Long Island and New Jersey material made up between 95 and 100 (median: 97.3) coastlines, from aerial deposition, and from barge percent of the estimated total load for these dumping of acid wastes generally were "representative" pollutants. insignificant. By far the largest input route was ocean Regarding the eleven constituents for which dumping of dredge material; percentage-of-total loading estimates were obtained for the three values ranged from 30.2 to 83.0 percent, with a dominant sources, sewage sludge contributed 3.3% to median value of 55.7 percent. In view of the 24% of the total loading; the median contribution importance of this vector, it is unfortunate that value was 16%. Thus, the recent transference of the absence of chemical concentration data the sludge barge dumping from the Apex to the 106- precludes meaningful loading estimates for more mile dumpsite appears to have decreased the known than two-thirds of the target pollutants surveyed chemical inputs to the Apex by less than about 25%. here. The second largest input route is net For the dominant input route (ocean dumped dredge advection from the Hudson-Raritan Estuary. material), concentration or loading data for less Percentage-of-total values ranged from 13.0 to 45.3 than one third of the target chemical constituents percent, with a median value of 27.1 percent. were located by this survey. Clearly a more Sewage sludge generally ranked third among the accurate assessment of the relative importance of major input routes; contribution values ranged from these input routes will require a substantial 3.3 to 23.9 percent (median: 15.9 percent). Thus, increase in the data base for chemical pollutants the recent transference of the sludge dump-site in dredge material. from the "12-mile" Apex site to the "106-mile" offshore site (Suszkowski and Santoro, 1986) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS appears to have decreased inputs of monitored chemical pollutants to the New York Bight Apex by The authors express their appreciation for less than 25 percent. Finally, median percent assistance and advice to E. Santoro and D. loading values from coastal Long Island, coastal Suszkowski (U.S. EPA-Region II, New York, NY), to New Jersey, aerial deposition, and barge dumping of J. Tavolar (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York, acid waste are each less than about one-half of one NY), and to K. Anderson, P. Glickman, C. Parker, J. percent of the corresponding calculated total O'Connor, L. Butler, and D. Toscano (NOAA Ocean loadings. Thus, the fact that loading values for Assessments Division, Rockville, MD). The research these routes often are based on earlier or was supported by NOAA/OAD Coastal and Estuarine incomplete surveys does not substantially weaken Assessment Branch (Rockville, MD), and EPA the principal conclusions of this survey. Environmental Research Laboratory (Narragansett, RI). ERL-N Contribution Number N-069. 750 REFERENCES Young, D.R., K.A. Anderson, and H.M. Stanford. 1988a. Pollutant transport from the Hudson- Connell, D.W. 1982. Approximate petroleum Raritan Estuary to the Apex of the New York hydrocarbon budget for the Hudson-Raritan Bight. NOAA Tech. Rept. NOS 014A 4, NOAA/OAD estuary-New York. Mar. Poll. Bull. 13:89. Coastal and Estuarine Assessment Branch, U.S. Dept. Commerce, Rockville, MD. Duce, R.A., G.T. Wallace, Jr., and B.J. Ray. 1975. Atmospheric trace metals over the New Young, D.R. and H.M. Stanford. 1988b. Pollutant York Bight. NOAA Tech. Rept. ERL 361-MESA 4, inputs to the New York Bight Apex. NOAA NOAA, Marine Ecosystem Analysis Program, U.S. Tech. Rept. NOS OMA 5, NOAA/OAD Coastal and Dept. of Commerce, Boulder, CO, 17 pp. Estuarine Assessment Branch, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Rockville, MD. Fricke, C. and C. Clarkson. 1984. A comparison of studies - toxic substances in POTW sludges. Final Report to U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Criteria and Standards Division, August 1984 (Contract No. 68-01-6403). Camp, Dresser and McKee, Annandale, VA 22003, 63 pp. McLaughlin, D., J.A. Elder, G.T. Orlob, D.F. Kibler, and D.E. Evenson. 1975. A conceptual representation of the New York Bight ecosystem. NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL MESA-4. NOAA Marine Ecosystems Analysis Program, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Boulder, CO. Mueller, J.A., J.S. Jeris, A.R. Anderson, and C. Hughes. 1976. Contaminant inputs to the New York Bight. NOAA Tech. Memo. ERL MESA-6, NOAA Marine Ecosystem Analysis Program, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Boulder, CO, 347 pp. Mueller, J.A., T.A. Gerrish, and M.C. Casey. 1982. Contaminant inputs to the Hudson- Raritan estuary. NOAA Tech. Memo. OMPA-21, NOAA Marine Ecosystem Analysis Program, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Boulder, CO, 192 pp. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. 1983. Technical information to support the redesignation of the 12-mile site for the ocean disposal of sewage sludge. Prepared by Ecological Analysts, Inc. (Sparks, MD) and SEAMOcean, Inc. (Wheaton, MD). Olsen, C.R., I.L. Larsen, R.H. Brewster, N.H. Cutshall, R.F. Bopp, and H.J. Simpson. 1984. A geochemical assessment of sedimentation and contaminant distributions in the Hudson- Raritan Estuary. NOAA Tech. Rept. NOS OMS 2, NOAA/OAD Coastal and Estuarine Assessment Branch, 101 pp. Santoro, E.D. and T.J. Fikslin. 1986. Biological and chemical characteristics of ocean dumped sewage sludge. In: Proceedings, Sixth International Ocean Disposal. Symposium held 21-25 April, 1986 at Asilomar, CA. Suszkowski, D.J. and E.D. Santoro. 1986. Marine monitoring in the New York Bight. In: Proceedings, Oceans 86:.Monitoring Strategies Symposium (Vol. 3), IEEE Ocean Engineering Society, New York, NY, pp 760- 763. 751 DESIGNATION OF AN OCEAN MINING STABLE REFERENCE AREA Richard J. Greenwald & Harold F. Hennigar, Jr. Ocean Mining Associates Gloucester Point, VA 23062 ABSTRACT The scientific concept of Stable Reference Areas DVI moved to offices in Gloucester Point, defined as reference areas for purposes of Virginia, in 1970, and continued the marine hard environmental and conservational assessment has minerals R&D program at increased scale and pace. been applied by NOAA and Ocean Mining Associates Test facilities were established in Virginia, and with OMA's "DELTA-GAMMA" USA-3 minesite in the ship operations were generally conducted from manganese nodule province of the northeast Pacific ports. equatorial Pacific Ocean. Two areas within the minesite have been proposed as environmental In 1974, OMA was organized to spread the costs reference areas: and risks of the marine hard minerals R&D (1) An area of approximately 8400 sq. km. program. OMA has managed the program from 1974 to within DELTA-GAMMA has been selected by the present, using DVI as a service contractor, OMA as a provisional Preservational calling upon the OMA partners for funding and Reference Area where mining and mining drawing upon partner affiliates for appropriate impacts will not occur. skills and facilities. (2) An area of approximately 4600 sq. km. within DELTA-GAMMA has been selected by Ocean Mining Associates ("OMA") is a Virginia, OMA as a provisional Impact Reference USA, partnership organized for the purpose of Area, which will be impacted by mining. evaluating the feasibility of mining manganese NOAA is presently evaluating the nodule deposits found on the seabed of the proposal and tentative approval is Pacific Ocean. OMA is owned in equal shares by forthcoming. domestic corporations owned or controlled by Enti Nazionale Idrocarburi S.P.A. (Italy), Societe Generale de Belgique S.A. (Belgium), The Sun INTRODUCTION Company (USA) and USX Corporation (USA). In 1962, The Board of Directors of OMA's RESOURCE BASE DEVELOPMENT predecessor-in- interest, the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company ("NNS&DDCo"), From 1962 to 1982, OKA and its predecessors - in- mandated its Director of Research and Forward interest conducted more than 100 extended mid- Planning to study the commercial potential of ocean survey cruises aboard the company's 152- marine hard mineral resources. NNS&DDCo foot research vessel, R/V PROSPECTOR, and a management had in mind both the assurance of number of chartered survey ships. These voyages company requirements for specialized steels and were early concentrated primarily in the area the potential for application of its skills in between the Clipperton and Clarion Fracture Zones hydraulics, marine engineering and shipbuilding. ("CC-Zone") of the northeastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. During. the period 1962-68, NNS&DDCols Research Department formulated and implemented a research This effort represented approximately 2,500 days and development ("R&D") program of marine at sea, with about 70% of that time spent surveying and ocean engineering in order to productively on cruise-plan stations. evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of mining marine manganese nodules. A variety of state-of-the-art deep seabed survey equipment was bought and, if not available, In 1968, NNS&DDCo was purchased by Tenneco Inc. developed to gather and analyze geophysical and The marine hard minerals R&D program and its geotechnical data and samples. Many thousands of associated personnel, research vessel, patents, data points on nodule abundance and metal assay know-how, and other assets were transferred to were derived from information gained by Tenneco's newly organized, wholly owned deployment of free-fall grab samplers, box corers subsidiary, Deepsea Ventures, Inc. ("DVI"). and other nodule sampling devices. CH2585-8/88/oooo- 752 $1 @1988 IEEE These data points are supported and supplemented The operational area of DELTA-GAMMA, excluding an by analyses of over 100,000 still photographs of area reserved to the USSR, encompasses about the bottom and several thousand hours of towed-TV 150,000 sq. km. of seabed and contains two Stable bottom observations. They are supplemented by Reference Area ("SRA") environmental sites; a data from SEABEAM, FADS (Finite Amplitude Depth Preservational Reference Area ("PRA") of 8,600 Sounder), precision depth recorders, sq. km., and an Impact Reference Area ("IRA") of magnetometers and subbottom pr6filers 4,600 sq. km., as follows (FIGURE 1). representing tens of thousands of kilometers of ship tracks. In addition, OMA acquired many thousands of ship-log weather observations and a significant collection of micro-fauna samples and 1b N mega-faunal observations. Ten years of such effort in the CC-Zone led OMA, 'R IJ eH12HH1GRR'S in 1974, to publish notice of discovery of, and HOOK claim to, its chosen minesite (ILM,1975). This public disclosure facilitated the PRR identification and voluntary settlement of the +JRSHKHRBRO 513UTHI half-dozen adequately asserted overlap claims made against OMA by commercial entities in the USA, France, Japan, and the USSR. These 120 N 13MR'S settlements are part of the subject matter of DELTR-SRIdMR agreements and understandings between and among GFERNTIONRL RRER the governments of the USA, Belgium, France, the FRG, Holland, Italy, Japan, the UK, and the USSR 128'V4 123 14 (ILM,1984)(ILM,1987). These settlements, and a further ten years of at- Stable Reference Areas are to be used as sea survey and analysis of the particular reference areas for purposes of resource resource caused OMA to expand and amend its evaluation and environmental assessment of deep minesite, now known as "DELTA-GAMMA", the area of seabed mining. This requires the designation of which is now contained within the amended appropriate areas to insure a representative and coordinates of OMA"s Deep Ocean Mining License stable biota of the seabed (OPB/NRC). In the for Exploration at Site USA-3 (NOAA,1988). following sections, the history of the SRA concept is presented along with the This license was issued to OMA by the National implementation and application of the concept by Oceanic & Atmospheric administration ("NOAA") on NOAA and OMA. 28 August 1984 under the provisions of the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act of 1980 HISTORY OF THE STABLE REFERENCE AREA (SRA) (DSHMRA,1980). CONCEPT DELTA-GAMMA is located in international waters On 30 July 1970 a large tonnage of manganese some 3,200 kilometers west of Guatemala. The nodules was test@dredged from the seabed in 2,400 mineable terrain of interest in DELTA-GAMMA is feet of water on the Blake Plateau 150 miles off found in depths of 4,200 to 4,800 meters in the Georgia-Florida coast. This historic "first" undulating valleys between roughly parallel was accomplished after an eight year engineering ranges of hills trending North-South. development effort by Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company and Deepsea Ventures, Inc. The Steps, or small scarps, and small patches of dredging test utilized the 7,500 ton R/V DEEPSEA boulders and rocks are occasionally encountered MINER I , a dry cargo ship, purchased and In these valleys. Nodules are found resting on extensively converted by Deepsea for a 1/5 scale soft sticky thixotropic clay that varies in continuous mining "proof -of -concept" test of a surface shear strength, having a high shear seabed nodule collector and air-lift pumping strength gradient in the upper 30 to 60 system to be later deployed at far greater depths centimeters. in the Pacific Ocean (Kaufman et al.,1971). The nodules have a specific gravity of During these tests, a collaborative effort approximately 2, and are typically ellipsoid or between Deepsea Ventures, Inc., and Lamont oblate spheroidal in shape. Their size ranges Doherty Geological Observatory was undertaken to from sand-grain size to equivalent spherical determine the influence of ocean mining diameters of 14 centimeters, with an average of operations on the marine ecology, with specific 6.*4 centimeters. Nodule abundance in surveyed concentration on the ecological impact, if any, areas of DELTA-GAMMA varies from 0 to 30 of nutrient uplift and benthic sediment discharge kilograms per square meter (wet weight in air), at the air/sea interface (the "surface plume with an average of 10 kilograms per square meter. effect"). The results of this preliminary study, Abundance in the mineable terrain of interest in and follow-on reports, laid several questions to higher than that average. rest and pointed out the need for and direction 753 of further environmental research (Roels et (3) an information base, to prepare al. 1972). environmental guidelines for government and industry. In response to industrial seabed mining exploration activity, the National Oceanographic The DOMES project showed that many of the and Atmospheric Administration ("NOAA") activities which initially raised concerns about instituted in 1975 a cooperative NOAA/industry deep seabed mining were unlikely to have environmental research program, the Deep Ocean significant adverse impacts on the environment, Mining Environmental Study ("DOMES") project. The but that there were. three potentially adverse DOMES project involved a five year study of a 13 effects which needed to be studied further, as million square kilometer area of the Clipperton follows: Clarion Fracture Zone ("C-C Zone") of the east central Pacific Ocean (FIGURE 2), and the (1) effects of the nodule collector on potential effects of ocean mining effects on the benthic life in and near the mining marine environment therein. The final DOMES tracks, Report issued in 1981 (DOMES,1981). (2) effects of the benthic (bottom) plume on benthic life, and its food supply, away from the mining activity, and D DOMES StudY SIN suaw (3) effects of the surface plume on fish A- 0'2?'N. 150*4rW larvae. 401 - I'4YK 130-24W J 128'" 20- - The DOMES report and its associated scientific literature served as the technical foundation of @V- 7-5 a substantial number of subsequent environmental Am of Main C4nwnwcW studies and Federal actions. 0. - oil C42 During the course of the DOMES research, OMA 20- - tested its mining system at 1/5 scale and full depth at its DELTA-GAMMA mine near DOMES Site C. 40. - These tests comprised four separate test campaigns of the 20,000 ton R/V DEEPSEA MINER 11, a converted ore carrier. The tests culminated on GO-S1 10 November 1978 in a final mining run of 100-E 140* 180, 1401 100. GOV approximately 20 hours of continuous mining at 15,000 feet, during which approximately 400 tons of nodules were collected and air-lifted to the The DOMES area was selected by NOAA with the help ship as various system performance envelopes were of OKA, OMI, OMCO, and KCON, the four domestic explored. These tests proved that the OMA deep ocean mining consortia. Three specific engineering concepts worked at their mid-Pacific representative study sites within that area were Ocean site of intended application (Kaufman et designated by NOAA as loci for future ocean al.,1985). mining environmental research, captioned DOMES Sites A, B, and C. DOMES Site C was in OMA's During these tests NOAA placed scientist published claim area, later NOAA Exploration observers, or monitors, aboard the R/V DEEPSEA License Area USA-3 ("DELTA-GAMMA"). To provide MINER II to observe the mining tests and the focus for site-specific Environmental Impact attendant discharge phenomena. Additionally, Statements, the DOMES area was later reduced to a scientists aboard the NOAA vessel OCEANOGRAPHER smaller "area of main commercial interest". observed the test and sampled its surficial plume. Several years later, the Scripps DOMES consisted of two phases: DOMES I to Institution of Oceanography initiated a study of characterize the region environmentally, and the test equipment tracks, the resulting sediment DOMES II to monitor the effects of industry plumes, and the effects on benthic macrofauna. pilot-scale equipment tests therein. The specific These observations, and similar observations made objectives of DOMES were to develop: during tests by other domestic ocean mining consortia, led to useful findings regarding both (1) environmental baselines (biological, surficial and benthic plumes. However, the geological, physical, chemical) at the findings were of limited utility only, due to the three sites chosen as representative of lack of opportunity to observe sustained the range of environmental parameters operations (Ozturgut et al. 1981; Spiess et likely to be met during mining, al.,1987). (2) predictive capabilities, to identify In the light of on-going ocean mining activities potential environmental effects of in the US, France and Japan, at least one nodule recovery, and international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural 754 Resources ("IUCNNR"), early recognized the need Noting this, the IUCNNR tried again. In its 1981 for a program to set aside seabed reference areas General Assembly resolution, IUCNNR specifically to facilitate environmental monitoring of called upon UNCLOS's Preparatory Commission commercial mining operations. In 1978, at ("PrepCom") to develop and implement the concept. Ashkhabad, USSR, the IUCNNR General Assembly Failing to. detect any responsive movement upon resolved as follows (IUCNNR, 1978, 81, 84): the part of PrepCom in the next three years, the IUCNNR General Assembly, at its 1984 Meeting in "The (IUCNNR) General Assembly.... ; URGES all Madrid, resolved with continuing vigor (but more nations engaged in, or considering, deep seabed precision) as follows: mining activities to: "The (IUCNNR) General Assembly.... (a) precede commercial mining RECOMMENDS that the Preparatory operations by commissioning a Commission adopt at the earliest comprehensive ecological survey opportunity draft rules, regulations to determine the impact of such and procedures which adequately mining activity: reflect the concept of protected a r e a sand other appropriate (b) designate appropriate areas of environmental measures." the deep seabed as baseline reference areas and resource As of 1987, PrepCom was awash in draft rules. zones in which no mining will However, there was no indication that any PrepCom be allowed; draft rule yet addressed the environment or responded to ten years of persistent IUCNNR (c) designate the size and shape of resolutions on the subject (PrepCom, 1987). such area or areas to ensure that their stability will be To be fair, UNCLOS gave no mandate to PrepCom to maintained; and draft environmental regulations or to incorporate the stable reference area concept into its (d) establish guidelines for resource management scheme. It is unreasonable scientific research to ensure then to expect PrepCom to do so; bold UN minimum disruption of the organizations do not flourish. However, this natural state of such areas." revealed lack of vision in Part XI, and related institutional inflexibility, can only serve as an The US Congress became aware of the IUCNNR excellent example of why there is good reason to resolutions at an early date. At the time, sever Part XI from the otherwise equitable and domestic ocean mining legislation was being widely accepted provisions of UNCLOS. Meanwhile, crafted based upon the legal theory that ocean modern solutions to current deep seabed mining mining is a legitimate exercise of the freedom of problems must be sought elsewhere. the seas doctrine, which doctrine imposes duties as a corollary of the rights so asserted. As a Under the authority of DSHMRA, the Administrator result, Section 109 (f) of the Deep Seabed Hard of NOAA set up the Office of Ocean Minerals and Mineral Resources Act of 1980 ("DSHMRA") Energy (now the Ocean Minerals and Energy contained a requirement that the US government Division of the National Ocean Service, NOAA, US seek to establish internationally recognized Department of Commerce) which, in 1981, requested Stable Reference Areas ("SRAs") in the CC-Zone in the assistance of the Ocean Policy Board of the which no mining can occur. Recognizing that the National Academy of Science's National Research SRA concept required balance so as not to Council ("OPB/NRC") to evaluate the scientific encourage politically inspired moratoria or validity of the SRA concept, and to recommend a unreasonably exclusionary set-asides, Congress cost-effective implementation strategy. The provided that the SRA requirement shall not be resulting study report, issued in 1984, concluded construed as an authority to withdraw substantial that the SRA had two purposes: portions of the DOMES area (DSHMRA,1980). (1) to serve as preserves to ensure At the UN level, however, the IUCNNR concept fell (maintenance of) a representative and upon less fertile ground. Part XI ("the Area") of stable biota of the deep seabed, and the 1983 UN Conference on Law of the Sea ("UNCLOS") was negotiated in the 1970's to (2) to be used as a reference zone or regulate deep seabed mining, applying the zones for purposes of resource politicized solutions of the 1960's to the evaluation and environmental hypothetical problems of the 1950's. It should be assessment of deep seabed mining no surprise that the text of Part KI, finalized (impacts). in 1980, bears little relevance to present (or past) realities and contains no mention of the The OPB/NRC panel of experts concluded that the IUCNNR Stable Reference Area concept or its concept as outlined by IUCNNR in 1978 only had functional equivalent. scientific validity if two areas were established; one in which to study impacts and the other to serve as a preserve. The panel 755 stated its belief that existing knowledge was affected; IRA to be located close to insufficient to allow immediate designation of mining. SRAs, but urged "provisional" designation of such areas as early as possible to provide the loci OMA Proposals for further necessary research and to aid in the Agreed & incorporated definition of criteria for final designations (OPB/NRC,1984). 2. OPB/NRC Tmall-scaie resuspension experiment Based upon the OPBINRC study, NOAA accepted the required (highest priority research scientific validity and the utility of the two- need). area SRA concept by incorporating such concept in proposed Commercial Regulations published in OKA 1987. These regulations would require designation OMA IRA includes location of NOAA of both preservational and impact monitoring experiment planned early 1989. Data sites prior to issuance of any commercial ocean offered. mining permit, and monitoring of such sites thereafter (NOAA Regulations,1987). 3. OPB/NRC Divide CC-Zone into 9 "characteristic OMA believes that early establishment of environments", each with 1 PRA; preservational and impact reference areas in its modify if indicated by further data. ocean mining License Area DELTA-GAMMA will aid in its planning for initial mining operations and OKA future environmental monitoring, if established OMA f e e I sPRA areas may be according to scientifically valid criteria, consolidated in c e r t a I n Additionally, it is our belief that the earliest circumstances. Provisional area provisional approvals will substantially aid boundaries should be responsive to NOAA's efforts to establish such criteria for new data. final establishment and approval of such areas, if applied in an objective manner to achieve a 4. OPB/NRC valid scientific experiment. Map drift of bottom waters so PRAs are placed "upstream" of mining. Accordingly, OMA has petitioned NOAA to approve, on a provisional basis, two reference areas ONA within its license area; one area of 8,400 square Multi-layer current and sediment kilometers for use as an interim preservational excursion data needed. "Core" of PRA reference area, and the other of 4,600 square is well within outer limit. Current kilometers to serve as an interim Impact meter to be deployed in PRA by NOAA reference area. Upon provisional approval by NOAA in 1989. of each such reference area, proprietary data associated with such area would be released to 5. OPB/NRC NOAA for verification and use by NOAA in making Use future mining tests to findings and judgments leading to final tracksediment redeposition to designation of such areas (and final approval of determine PRA separation criteria. OMA's mining permit, when and if appropriate). 014A The locations of these two proposed reference This is why OMA proposes an interim areas in DELTA-GAMMA are shown in FIGURE 1. The or provisional designation. See * 8 total area encompassed within these reference below. areas aggregates to approximately 13,000 square kilometers, or about 5,000 square miles. For 6. & 7. OPB/NRC purposes of comparison, this is roughly the size Encourage Industry to disclose data of the state of Connecticut and is a bit larger and (data and samples, study existing than the island nation of Jamaica. photos and samples, and use ships of opportunity, for cost-effective OMA's environmental reference area proposals inventory of benthos to aid in PRA attempt to hew to the spirit of the IUCNNR designation. resolutions, the letter of the DSHMRA provisions, the direction of the proposed commercial regulations, and the detail of the OPB/NRC OKA findings and recommendations set forth as OMA has data and samples showing follows: biota (already furnished). 1. OPB/NRC Findings 8. OPB/NRC SRA concept scientifically valid only Make I n I t I a 1designation of with impact and preservational areas; provisional PRAs as soon as possible, PRA to be located to ensure biota not using data from * 2, 4, 5 and 7 above. 756 designation under present circumstances may be OKA tentative in nature, but trust that permanent This is the purpose of OKA's proposals. status will be forthcoming in time to provide predictability to OMA's exploration phase 9. OPB/NRC planning for at-sea commercial recovery Designate permanent PRAs upon issuance operations. Also, we believe that this proposal of first Commercial Permits using data could serve as the catalyst for, and nucleus of, from # 2, 5, 6 and 8. a constructive, cooperative program of research applicable to much of the CC-Zone nodule OKA province. Additional benefits to industry, the OKA may wish earlier Issue, if possible. Nation, and the international community would accrue should such a research program acquire 10. OPB/NRC multinational participation. We solicit an Continue long term monitoring of appointment in your offices at a time convenient selected PRAs. to you to begin these consultations relating to our planned license activities." OKA OMA has no present comment. NOAA responded to the above proposal by noting its consistency with the approach NOAA Is 11. OPB/NRC pursuing for monitoring the environmental effects Designate one IRA per Permit at time of deep seabed mining, and by stating that it Permit is issued; shape and size would be beneficial to pursue the proposal and designed to maximize potential of the potential for designation of the proposed experiment. reference area (NOAA Federal Register Notices,1988). OKA OMA feels designation should be This NOAA response, and subsequent consultations, e a r 11 e r ,if requested by license prompted ONA to supplement its PRA proposal as holder. OKA's proposed PRA is so shaped follows: and sized, subject to verification and change by NOAA if future research so "....As stated in our 19 October 1987 proposal, warrants. once the PRA is so approved, we will provide the proprietary data in the area, which derives from 12. OPB/NRC a broad spectrum of commercial sources and Promote international consultation to includes: maximize data collection and to minimize conflict. (a) results from more than 300 free-fall grabs, box cores OMA and dredge hauls, including OMA agrees. abundance estimates, 5-metal assays, and pulps for a 13. OP`B/NRC majority of samples, Committee did not address issues associated with processing at sea. (b) bathymetric data for a significant portion of the OKA PRA, OMA does not contemplate such practice in its approved exploration plan. (c) d a t a regarding nodule concentration and size, and 1. OKA PRESERVATIONAL REFERENCE AREA PROPOSAL obstructions along specific tracks, extracted from more OMA's formal proposals to NOAA took the form of than 100 nautical miles of lettens setting forth OMA's selection of two video observations. areas, one as a candidate preservational reference area and the other as a candidate As you have been informed, the PRA is classified impact reference area. Relevant excerpts from by OMA as a characteristic mining area in these proposals are set forth as follows: accordance with criteria established by OMA to identify future subareas with acceptable .... This proposal is made at this time in the topography, soil mechanics, and nodule belief that early designation of OMA's PRA best abundance/assay to qualify as component mining meets the needs of commercial planning, basic areas in a commercial mining plan. The only OMA science, and public policy. This action was criteria in which the PRA is marginal is that of contemplated in our Exploration Plan, does not total extent of the mineable resource; a affect OMA's License Area, Logical Exploration contiguous area encompassing roughly 1/3 of the Unit, ownership or capabilities, and thus is not total PRA contains nodules of acceptable an application for amendment of our license. We abundance and assay in what we have judged in a understand that any NOAA approval of our preliminary way to be acceptable terrain (more 757 detailed bathymetry of mining plan areas being a selection by OMA of an interim, or provisional, future exploration need). It thus ranks below Impact Reference Area ("IRA"). NOAA pointed out other larger mineable OMA subareas which, that its proposed commercial recovery regulations collectively, are considered sufficient to meet listed two criteria for selection of an IRA. the needs of any OMA 20-year mining plan. (1) The area should be representative of According to our data, the PRA mineable resource the environmental characteristics of is effectively surrounded by PRA terrain that the site, and lies well below several OMA criteria. It thus seems eminently qualified as the core of a (2) It should be located in a portion of preservational reference area. In addition, the a Permit area tentatively scheduled PRA is in relatively close proximity to several to be mined early in the Permit term. larger mineable areas, sharing with those areas all characteristics except abundance above the After consultations on the subject, NOAA and OMA commercial threshold. A caveat is necessary; the agreed that: OMA criteria mentioned above do not include judgments related to biological populations. (1) The IRA should be sized and shaped to While we have insufficient data to indicate that be proximate to, and to include the biota of the PRA is characteristic, we have portions of, at least two potentially no data to the contrary. early mining blocks to facilitate examination and/or monitoring of That the proposed PRA is of characteristic areas being mined, or mined out, or quality in economic and geological terms is dusted with sediment, confirmed by the fact that every known nodule mining operator who explored there ultimately (2) It should not lie exclusively within claimed all or part thereof. These claimants a previous test area, although it included OMA, OMI, OMCO, KCON, IFREMER, DORD, and could contain a test area, YUZHMORGEOLOGIYA. In fact, the PRA was the area most overlapped in the conflict resolution (3) Its boundaries should be somewhat process embracing the RSA, the FSA, the SSA, and flexible to ensure that a dusted area recent understandings concerning the USSR areas just outside would not be excluded of interest in the C-C Zone. from examination, and We are aware that the emerging stable reference (4) Its location, size and shape should area concept also contemplates the utilization of b e s e 1 e c t e d b y t h e an impact area to complete the data required to licensee/permittee, taking into judge the scale of the impact of human activity account (1) to (3) above. in virgin territory. Accordingly, we are preparing a proposal which will set forth a On the basis of these consultations, OMA further environmental monitoring site in the OMA submitted the following formal proposal of an operating area to be dedicated as an interim impact reference area to NOAA, excerpted below: impact reference area, taking into account prior NOAA activity in the OMA license area and our ONA herewith requests further consultations planning for mining activities under a Permit. It with your offices with the objective of early is our view that with these two approvals in hand designation of an area of approximately 4,629 the monitoring and research plans will be greatly square kilometers within DELTA-GAMMA to be facilitated." reserved as a Provisional Interim Impact Reference Area ("IRA"). This proposal is a On 16 May 1988 NOAA designated the proposed PRA supplement to our proposal dated 19 October 1987 as an environmental monitoring site and solicited to designate, on a provisional basis, a expressions of Interest from the public (NOAA Preservational Reference Area. It is intended to FEDERAL REGISTER NOTICES, 1988). As of I August flesh out our environmental monitoring site 1988, two other US consortia, OMCO and KCON, have proposals to you to aid in the establishment of agreed to contribute additional contiguous area criteria and locations for a scientifically valid as part of a larger Preservational Reference interim Stable Reference Area(s) in OMA License Area. To confirm the multi-consortia sources of Area DELTA-GAMMA, and to facilitate timely area contributions as well as to honor the 10th governmental research programs and industrial anniversary of the 1978 meeting of IUCNNR, which planning for environmental monitoring therein. first articulated and endorsed the Stable Said proposed IRA HENNIGAR'S HOOK is Reference Area concept, we refer to the "USA representative of t h e environmental Provisional Preservational Reference Area" as characteristics of DELTA-Gamma and portions have ASHKHABAD SOUTH. been tentatively scheduled to be mined early in the Permit term. HENNIGAR'S HOOK contains the 2. OMA IMPACT REFERENCE AREA PROPOSALS following categories of sub-areas: During April and May of 1988, NOAA and ONA (1) NOAA's "DOMES SITE C", in which NOAA entered into consultations regarding the and academia have conducted, and plan 758 further, nodule related environmental of the SRA concept must be careful to avoid the research, introduction of bias into the experiment. Should the data or conditions be deliberately skewed, or (2) areas including or impinging upon OMA's the "moratorium tendency" introduced into the "TEST SITE", which: process, the concept will lose utility. The victim would be the possibility for cooperation, (a) OMA utilized to conduct constructive consensus and useful results. multiple tests modelling a commercial nodule mining ship If NOAA can institute a procedure by which and system in all principal concerned scientists may participate with respects, government and industry in the identification of the characteristics implicit in provisional (b) NOAA and academia have become designation of preservational and impact quite familiar with, having reference areas, the result will be: monitored test operations and measured post-test impacts (1) the design of a new, valid and therein, defensible resource management tool ( the SRA concept) to assure (3) a r e a ( s )proximate to and environmentally responsible domestic impinging upon at least one government policy and actions, other potential OMA early mining site, and (2) t h e creation, through early participation, of a broad consensus (4) additional area shaped so as to to support such concept, policy and have a high probability of actions, containing at least some "downstream" area (ie; area (3) the provision to industry of a swept by currents originating predictable and reasonable set of in any nearby early mining site environmental guidelines and selected by OMA). obligations upon which to base present planning and future At the date of this writing (I August 1988), NOAA operations, and is considering the designation of the proposed IRA as an additional OKA environmental monitoring (4) the availability of an economically site. To minimize the potential for confusing rational, environmentally responsible OMA's Stable Reference Areas, the " OMA resource management tool for Provisional Impact Reference Area" is referred to consideration by other nations and as HENNIGAR'S HOOK. The hook is for capturing international institutions concerned elusive mining impacts and constructive with "shared" resources. participants in the process of implementing the Stable Reference Area concept. REFERENCES, ABBREVIATIONS, AND ACRONYMS USED SUMMARY AFERNOD: Formerly, the French deep seabed mining entity, now IFREMER. OMA is not an environmental society. It is a marine mining R&D company attempting to create AMR: A West German deep seabed mining entity. efficient technical assets and to marshal a business and regulatory environment that will C-C ZONE: The seabed area between the Clipperton impose the lowest level of investment risk during Fracture Zone and the Clarion Fracture Zone of future commercial operations. Early the northeast equatorial Pacific Ocean. implementation of. a carefully crafted stable reference area program, in association with DEEPSEA VENTURES, INC.: Service contractor to reasonable monitoring obligations, appears to OMA, offer substantial advantages in assuring that environmentally responsible operations will yield DELTA-GAMMA: OMA's minesite in the C-C Zone, NOAA the minimum of costly future "surprises". Deep Ocean Mining Exploration License Area USA--3. This will be true, however, only if the further DOMES, 1981: The Deep Ocean Mining Environmental development of the SRA concept is exposed to the Study, a long-term environmental research program earliest and broadest scientific enquiry and an funded by NOAA. The final DOMES report was absolute minimum of industrial, bureaucratic, and published as Volume 3, No. 1/2, Marine Mining political bias. Accordingly, the process of Journal (1981), Crane, Russak & Company, Inc., 3 establishment of the first "provisional" SRAs East 44th Street, NYC, NY, USA, 10017. A must be clearly understood by industry, compendium of over 150 individual domestic government, and public interest groups to be a environmental research projects and reports classic scientific experiment. As such, all funded by NOAA and supporting the DOMES report or parties engaged in development and implementation building upon its data and results may be 759 obtained from the Ocean Minerals and Energy Areas And Publication Of Revised Coordinates"; Division, OCRM, NOAA, US Department of Commerce, Federal Register, Vol. 53, No. 42, Pgs 6858-9, Room 704, 1825 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, Thursday, 3 March 1988; "Deep Seabed Mining; DC, USA 20235. Designation Of Deep Seabed Mining Environmental Reference Area"; Federal Register, Vol. 53, No. DORD: The Japanese deep seabed mining entity. 94, Pgs 17237-8, Monday, 16 May 1988. DSHMRA, 1980: The Deep Seabed Hard Mineral NOAA Regulations, 1987: National Oceanic and Resources Act of 1980, US Public Law 96-283, 30 Atmospheric Administration, "Deep Seabed Mining; USC 1401. Regulations For Commercial Recovery And Revision Of Regulations For Exploration; Supplemental FSA: The Final Settlement Agreement, a private Proposed Rule"; 15 CFR Part 971; Federal Register overlap settlement signed among OMA, OMI, OMCO, Vol. 52, No,177, Monday, 14 September 1987. KCON, AFERNOD, and AMR on 18 May 1983. OMA: Ocean Mining Associates, a US seabed mining IFREMER: The French deep seabed mining entity. consortium. ILM,1975: International Legal Materials, "Notice OMCO: Ocean Minerals Company, a US seabed mining of Discovery and Claim of Exclusive Mining consortium. Rights, and Request for Diplomatic Protection and Protection of Investment by Deepsea Ventures, OMI: Ocean Management, Inc. , a US seabed mining Inc.", 14 ILM 51 (1975). consortium. ILM,1984: "Provisional Understanding on Deep OPB/NRC, 1984: Ocean Policy Board, Commission on Seabed Matters", 23 ILM 1354 (1984). Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Resources, National Research Council; "Deep Seabed Stable ILMo1987: "Agreement on the Resolution of Reference Areas"; National Academy Press, Practical Problems with Respect to Deep Seabed Washington, DC (1984). Mining Areas, and Exchange of Notes", 26 ILM 1502, (1987). Ozturgut et al., 1981: E. Ozturgut, J. Lavelle, R. Burns, "Impacts Of Manganese Nodule Mining On IRA: Interim Impact Reference Area. The Environment: Results From Pilot-Scale Mining Tests In The North Equatorial Pacific"; Chapter PRA: Interim Preservational Reference Area. 15, Marine Environmental Pollution, 2, Dumping and Mining, R. A Geyer (Ed.) Elsevier Publishing IUCNNR, 1978, 81, 84: The International Union for Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands (1981). Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland. The IUCNNR Is an independent, PrepCom, 1987: Preparatory Commission for the non-profit, international, natural resources- International Sea-Bed Authority and for the oriented organization with a General Assembly of International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, members, and a permanent secretariat. At the time "Statement By The Chairman Of The Preparatory its 1984 General Assembly resolution was passed, Commission"; UN Document LOS/PCN/L.54/Rev. 1 (4 IUCNNR had 501 members from 114 countries, in September 1987). In the nature of UN documents, three categories: 57 nations; 123 government what is not said is frequently more important agencies; 315 non-governmental organizations; 6 than what is said. non-voting affiliates. Roels et al . , 1972: 0. Roels, A. Amos, Kaufman et al., 1971: R. Kaufman, J. Latimer, "Environmental Impact Of Mining Tests"; Manganese "The Design And Operation Of A Prototype Deep- Nodule Deposits Symposium/Workshop, Honolulu, Ocean Mining Ship"; Proceedings of SNAME Annual Hawaii (16 October 1972), Meeting, Honolulu Hawaii, USA (25 May 1971), Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, RSA: The "Reciprocating States Agreement" 74 Trinity Place, NYC, NY, USA 10006. (Provisional Understanding Regarding Deep Seabed Matters), signed among the governments of the Kaufman et al., 1985: R. Kaufman. J. Latimer, D. USA, UK, Canada, Belgium, Italy, France, Japan Tolefson, S. Senni, "The Test And Operation Of A and the Netherlands on 3 August 1984. Pacific Ocean Deep-Ocean Mining Test Ship: R/V Deepsea Miner,II"; Proceedings of the 17th Annual Spiess et al., 1987: F. Spiess, R. Hessler, G. Offshore Technology Conference, Houston Texas, Wilson, M. Weydert, "Environmental Effects Of USA (6 May 1985). Deep Sea Dredging"; (unpublished) NOAA Contract No. 83-SAC-00659, NTIS Accession No. PB KCON: The Kennecott Consortium, a US seabed 87-138319/AS (1987). mining consortium. SRA: Stable Reference Area, a new concept to NOAA Federal Register Notices, 1988: National serve as a tool for resource management and Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "Deep environmental protection. Seabed Mining; Approval Of Revisions To Mine Site 760 SSA: The Supplementary Settlement Agreement, a private overlap settlement signed among OMA, ONI, OMCO, KCON, AFERNOD, AMR and DORD on 15 December 1983. UNCLOS: The Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature at Montego Bay, Jamaica on 10 December 1982, UN Publication Sales No. E.83.V.5. YUZHMORGEOLOGIYA: The USSR deep seabed mining entity. 761 REGIONAL GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK OF THE NORPHLET FORMATION OF THE ONSHORE AND OFFSHORE MISSISSIPPI, ALABAMA, AND FLORIDA AREA By Robert M. Minkl, Bennett L. Bearden2, and Ernest A. Mancini3 ABSTRACT Numerous hydrocarbon accumulations have been discovered in the Norphlet Formation in the onshore and offshore Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida area. Petroleum traps are salt anticlines, SERIES ROCK UNIT faulted salt anticlines and extensional faults associated with halokinetics. Reservoirs include eolian dune, interdune, wadi and marine sandstones. Source rocks for the Norphlet hydrocarbons are Smackover carbonate mudstones. Hydrocarbon types are oil, condensate, and natural gas. Evaluation of the geologic Cotton information along with the hydrocarbon data from the Valley Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida area indicates that three Group Norphlet hydrocarbon trends (oil, oil and gas-condensate, and deep natural gas) can be identified. These onshore hydrocarbon trends can be projected into the Alabama and Florida state waters and Mobile, Pensacola, Destin Dome, and Apalachicola U Areas in the Central and Eastern Gulf of Mexico. Substantial H&Vnesville Formation reserves of natural gas are present in Alabama state waters and the northern portion of the Mobile Area. Significant D _Buck_ner7nh-ydri_te Cc Member accumulations of oil and gas-condensate may be encountered in the Pensacola, Destin Dome, and Apalachicola Areas. Smackover Formation Norphl t INTRODUCTION Formation pine Hill The first ,discovery of hydrocarbons in the Upper Jurassic Anhycl@rlle N11-bl. Norphlet (fig. 1) was in 1967 at Pelahatchie field in Mississippi Louenn (fig. 2). In 1979, natural gas was discovered offshore in Mobile U Salt Bay in the Jurassic Norphlet Formation. These discoveries led to active leasing and drilling programs in the onshore Mississippi, cc Alabama, and Florida areas and in adjacent offshore areas. To Warner date, 35 Norphlet fields have been discovered in the onshore and Formation offshore tri-state area with production established from eolian dune, interclune, wadi, and marine reservoir facies. The more 2 Triassic recent offshore discoveries in the Norphlet have emphasized the UNDER- Eagle Mills Formation importance of understanding the regional Norphlet geologic LYING framework of the Alabama coastal waters area and adjacent BEDS Paleozoic Rocks federal waters area. Identification of the Norphlet hydrocarbon, structural and stratigraphic trends in the onshore tri-state area Figure I-Generalized Jurassic stratigraphy of the study area. of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida is critical to the projection of these Norphlet petroleum trends into the Eastern and parts of the Central Gulf of Mexico regions. 'State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama. 2Geological Survey of Alabama- 3LIniversity of Alabama and Geological Survey of Alabama CH2585-8/88ioooo- 762 $1 Q1988 IEEE MISSISSIPPI ALABAMA Unnamed Biheament Ridge J Jackson Dome Manila Embym.nt V-1 kt. Co'ecuh Mis i West ln:..S.pp Ridge frio, Bond Salt Fault Basin Mobile System Con-h 0 G,.b.n 61 Embayment 00 Decatur Arch 00 Pollard 0 Fo6hee Fault Fault Wiggins Arch System Sy ... m Pan c d R7 Hanc:k Unnamed LEGEND Rid Basement FLORIDA Apalachicola Approximate Updip Limit of Ridge Embym.nt Norphlet Formation so Al Arch, Ridge or Anticline Fault--hachures on SCALE clownthrown side 0 1 20 30 40 Mississippi Alabama 0 Norphlet Field Shelf Miles 07. 1. n A . It 1. @.. (location is approximate) OeSoto Canyon Sal Basin West Florida Shelf Figure 2. --Regional trend map of Norphlet fields. STRUCTURE southwestern Alabama, which roughly border the edge of the The northern Gulf basin extends from DeSoto Canyon to Mississippi interior salt basin; (2) the Pollard-Foshee systems of northern Mexico and is composed of a broad wedge of Mesozoic southern Alabama and panhandle Florida; and (3) related faults and Cenozoic strata that accumulated almost continuously from in the Pensacola, Destin Dome and Apalachicola Areas (fig. 2). A Jurassic time to present. 15 The northern Gulf basin is that part of similar but unrelated fault group, the Mobile Bay fault trend is the Gulf region that is roughly outlined by the updip limits of present in Mobile Bay and offshore Alabama.3 Jurassic sediments and ranges in extent from east Texas to The present day Mississippi-Alabama shelf lies in offshore northwest Florida. 18, 2, 19 Along the inner regions of this basin Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and western Florida and, from Alabama to southwestern Texas, updip members of according to Martin,15 is separated from the Texas-Louisiana Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata rest unconformably on complexly shelf by the Mississippi Delta and adjoins the West Florida shelf faulted and folded Paleozoic rocks of the Ouachita-Appalachian along an arbitrary boundary that extends from the system.The most common structural styles in the northern Gulf southeastward bend of the shelf break to the shoreline near region are normal faults, extensional faults associated with salt Pensacola, Florida. The Mississippi-Alabama shelf is movement, salt diapirs and syndepositional growth faults. characterized by pronounced relict, topography and a gentle Normal faults in the region typically exhibit down-to-the-basin gradient. 15 displacement and in the Jurassic strata may have angles of 45' to 70*.2 Large paleohighs are found in the northern Gulf region of The most pronounced structural system of the northern Gulf Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, including the Wiggins arch region is a group of related faults, typically referred to as the and Conecuh ridge systems in southeastern Mississippi and regional peripheral fault trend, 15 which rims the Gulf basin and southwestern Alabama, and the Pensacola ridge in northwestern corresponds approximately to the updip limit of Louann Salt Florida (fig. 203, 5, 9 In addition, the Appalachian structural deposition in the region. In Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida the trend had a significant influence on the distribution of Jurassic faults that comprise this trend include: (1) the Pickens- sediments and served as a major source area for Jurassic clastic Gilbertown-West Bend systems of eastern Mississippi and sediments.31 ackson 00 ._Me y 0 00 0 .0 763 The widespread Louann S .alt created a complex network of environments. The shale lithofacies is representative of lagoonal structures in the northern Gulf region. These salt-related or mudflat deposition related to a Louann sea. The quartzose structures include salt pillows and diapirs, growth faults, sandstone has been interpreted as inland and/or coastal eolian extensional fault systems related to salt flowage, and graben dune deposits.1, 32, 23, 12, 13 The uppermost sandstone beds systems caused by salt movement adjacent to a stable basement. represent marine beach-shoreface deposits.28 The updip regional peripheral fault trend that rims the northern The area in and around the study area contains southward Gulf basin is the result of salt flowage. Grabens similar to the projections of features of the Appalachian ridges. Features Mobile graben of southwestern Alabama (fig. 2) are associated associated with Norphlet deposition include the Wiggins arch, with this fault trend. Numerous anticlines and faulted anticlines the Conecuh ridge and the Pensacola ridge. These paleohighs related to the movement of thick salt are located downdip of these were probably of importance during Norphlet time in that they extensional fault systems. The structural fabric of most of the provided local sediment sources and influenced Norphlet northern Gulf margin is largely the result of salt flowage. 15 deposition and sedimentation. 28,32,27 In the offshore panhandle Florida region, the most pronounced The sequence of deposition of the Norphlet and associated facies structural elements are the Destin anticline and the DeSoto would include accumulation of intertidal shale in isolated Canyon salt basin (fig. 2). The Destin anticline is thought to be lagoons or bays along an emerging shoreline, followed by related to a deep-seated salt feature.26 The DeSoto Canyon salt Norphlet sandstone accumulation initiated with the uplift and basin ties on the western edge of the West Florida Slope. This salt erosion of the Appalachian system. Conglomeratic sandstones basin is characterized by numerous salt piercements. were deposited in alluvial fans while red beds accumulated in Based on analyses of selected seismic lines, the authors interpret alluvial fan and plain and wadis. Sand from these environments a major fault system north and northeast of the Destin anticline was transported toward the coast across a desert plain. in the Pensacola, Destin Dome, and Apalachicola Areas. This Subsequent reworking of this sand led to the Norphlet dune and fault system is interpreted to be an extension of the regional interdune facies. A marine transgression initiated in Late peripheral fault trend that occurs along the approximate updip Norphlet time resulted in the reworking of underlying sediments. edge of deposition of Jurassic strata in the northern Gulf rim. The marine transgression continued into Smackover time. STRATIGRAPHY Excellent ancient analogs for the mode of deposition of the Norphlet Formation are the Permian sandstones of the North The Jurassic stratigraphic section in the study area consists of Sea7,8 and of Scotland.6 over 4,000 feet of elastics, carbonates and evaporites.29 One group and five formations comprise the Jurassic section and are, in PETROLEUM GEOLOGY descending order, the Cotton Valley Group, Haynesville Formation, Smackover Formation, Norphlet Formation, Louarm Norphlet petroleum traps in the onshore and offshore tri-state Salt and Werner Formation (fig. 1). Basal Jurassic sediments area of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida are principally unconformably overlie either elastics of the Triassic Eagle Mills structural traps involving salt anticlines, faulted salt anticlines, Formation or igneous/metamorphic Paleozoic basement rocks. and extensional fault traps associated with salt movement along Eagle Mills sediments fill Late Triassic grabens in the northern the regional peripheral fault trend17. Stratigraphy plays an Gulf rim. These grabens are probably related to the continental integral part in the formation of Norphlet petroleum traps, as is rifting of the Gulf of Mexico.24,26 Jurassic formations in the evidenced by the existing fields and recent Norphlet discoveries. study area are known only from the subsurface. These formations Thirty-five Norphlet fields have been established and since 1967 range in age from Callovian (Middle Jurassic) to Tithonian (Late have produced more than 54 million barrels of oil and condensate Jurassic) according to Imlay. 10 and 317 billion cubic feet of gas. The Norphlet productive trends The Norphlet Formation of Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) age10 (fig. 2) occur along the rim of the regional peripheral fault trend unconformably overlies the Louann Salt, the Werner Formation, in the central Mississippi interior salt basin,11 along the Mobile Eagle Mills Formation (Triassic) or undifferentiated basement graben, and in the offshore Alabama area. The most important rocks of probable Paleozoic age. The Norphlet in the study area petroleum exploration play in the Norphlet is the prolific deep ranges in thickness from 0 (updip limit) to possibly as much as gas trend of Alabama state waters and adjacent federal waters. In 1,000 feet in the Mississippi interior salt basin. The Norphlet is 1979, Mobil discovered the Lower Mobile Bay-Mary Ann field overlain by the Smackover Formation. The Norphlet Formation with the drilling of the Block 76 No. 1 well (fig. 3), which tested has a gradational or abrupt contact with the overlying 12.2 million cubic feet of gas per day from the Norphlet. Since the Smackover Formation.14 In some areas the Pine Hill Anhydrite discovery of this field, 11 other Norphlet fields have been Member of the Louann Salt underlies the Norphlet Formation.21, established in Alabama state waters and in adjacent federal 22,14 waters. Recoverable reserve estimates for Alabama state waters alone range from 4.93 to 8.12 trillion cubic feet of gas. 17 The large Badon,14 Wilkerson,32 Pepper,23 and Mancini and others14 natural gas fields in the offshore Alabama region are similar to recognize four lithofacies within the Norphlet Formation, and the Viking gas field in the United Kingdom portion of the North these are a discontinuous and localized basal shale, an updip Sea, as described by Gage.7 conglomeratic sandstone, red beds, and an upper quartzose Along the regional peripheral fault trend several fields have been sandstone (Denkman Sandstone Member of Tyrre]130). The basal established including the Flomaton, Sizemore Creek, and shale has a discontinuous distribution in the study area. The Chavers Creek fields. The petroleum trapping mechanism at conglomeratic sandstone occurs along the updip margins of the Chavers Creek field is an elongate, faulted salt anticline region. The red beds extend downdip into the inner margins of associated with the Pollard-Foshee fault system. The Flomaton the salt basin and embayments of the region and the quartzose field consists of a low-relief, faulted salt anticline downthrown to sandstone lithofacies occurs in the downdip and central parts of the same extensional fault system. the salt basin and embayments in the study area. In the Mississippi interior salt basin, the Copeland field is an The Norphlet was deposited in several distinct environments, excellent example of a salt anticline in the Norphlet Formation. which include alluvial fan and plain, wadi, eolian, intertidal, and Along the Mobile graben, the Hatter's Pond field in Mobile beach to shoreface. 1, 28, 32, 23, 14 The conglomeratic and red bed County is representative of prospective traps involving salt lithofacies were deposited in alluvial fan and plain and wadi movement along the west side of the graben system. 764 A A' SOUTH NORTH 4- 4 1.6-KM 4- i 4-@-41:- 2; T 'F 77 M E LOWER MOBI LOWER LE BAY FAULT -0 CRETACEOUS 1- . . . . . . ..... . MARKER N NORPHLE C M RKER 0 N ON SECO D PiNr 14111 n"ANN S MOBILE BAY BAY FIELD .1 ELD MA _RYJANLN f --tZIR@_4 I R# I Mff! 7_3 '5 Figure 3-Typical seismic profile for offshore Alabama. Interpretation by Bennett Bearden (line courtesy of Geophysical Service, Inc. (GSI) - reprinted with permission). The primary Norphlet reservoir in the study area is the this study suggest that the amount of reserves is possibly Denkman Sandstone Member, with principally eolian, marine insufficient to justify offshore development. and wadi lithofacies being productive. Porosity in the wadi and Substantial Norphlet production has occurred from fields in the dune sandstones is principally intergranular porosity. Porosity in oil and gas-condensate trend. This trend is located downdip of the the Norphlet averages approximately 10 percent, while regional peripheral fault trend and most, if not all, of the permeability ranges from 0.5 to over 100 millidarcies. The productive structures are related to salt movement. Oil, Norphlet marine sandstones typically have lower porosity condensate, and natural gas are all produced from Jurassic fields preserved because of the presence of high percentages of calcite in this trend. The projection of this trend into federal waters (fig. and silica cements. 4) would be into the central part of the Pensacola Area and the Smackover algal carbonate mudstones are the source rocks for northwest quarter of the Destin Dome Area. The potential the Norphlet hydrocarbons.4, 14,20 Geothermal anomalies may appears to be high for significant Jurassic hydrocarbon affect the maturity of the source rocks.34 accumulations in the federal waters area included in the oil and gas-condensate trend. NORPHLET HYDROCARBON TRENDS The Norphlet deep natural gas trend appears to be concentrated Three Norphlet hydrocarbon trends can be identified in the study in the Alabama state waters area and the northeast and north- area. An oil trend and oil and gas-condensate trend are defined by central portions of the Mobile Area. The Lower Mobile Bay-Mary existing onshore Norphlet fields in the tri-state area. A deep Ann and other deep Norphlet gas fields have been established in natural gas trend is defined by the Lower Mobile Bay-Mary Ann this trend. The deep natural gas trend appears to have the field and other deep gas fields in Alabama state waters and the highest potential in the Norphlet Formation in Alabama state adjacent federal waters area. waters and the northern portion of the Mobile Area. The oil trend is located updip from the regional peripheral fault SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS trend. Salt-related structures are the trapping mechanisms found in this trend. Norphlet fields have been established in the trend Study of the available stratigraphic, structural, and hydrocarbon with oil being the principal hydrocarbon produced. The projection data for onshore and offshore Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida of this trend into federal waters (fig. 4) extends into the eastern areas demonstrates that these data can be used to establish a portion of the Pensacola Area, the extreme northeastern corner of regional geologic framework for the Norphlet Formation for the the Destin Dome Area, and the northwestern corner of the onshore tri-state area and for the state coastal waters and Apalachicola Area. Although the potential for Norphlet adjacent federal waters areas. Establishment of a regional hydrocarbon accumulations in the federal waters portion of the Norphlet geologic framework along with interpretation of the oil trend appears to be relatively high, onshore data evaluated for hydrocarbon data for the tri-state area indicates that at least 765 X 014 ,?,- NORPHLET OILANDGAS-CONDENSATE TREND LEGEND ORP Approximate Updip Limit of DFs-- Norphlet Formation P NATURAL Arch, Ridge or Anticline Q.., Dome :.-. 04-1 Fault--hachureson downthrown side oo- Trend boundary (dashed where inferred) SCALE 0 10 20 30 40 M11. Figure 4-Norphlet hydrocarbon trends. three Norphlet hydrocarbon trends are present in the region. An 3. Bearden, B. L., 1987, Seismic expression of structural style oil trend is located onshore north of the regional peripheral fault and hydrocarbon traps in the Norphlet Formation offshore trend and extends into the offshore area north of the Destin Alabama: State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama Oil and Gas anticline. An oil and gas-condensate trend has been delineated Report 14, 28 p. onshore between the regional peripheral fault trend and the 4. Benson, D. J., and Mancini, E. A., 1982, Petrology and Wiggins arch and extends into the offshore area of the Destin reservoir characteristics of the Smackover Formation, anticline and north of the DeSoto Canyon salt basin. A deep Hatter's Pond Field: implications for Smackover exploration natural gas trend occurs in the Mobile Bay area and extends into in southwestern Alabama: Gulf Coast Association of the offshore area in the Mobile Area. The oil and gas-condensate Geological Societies Transactions, v. 32, p. 67-75. - and deep natural gas trends appear to be prospective for Jurassic 5. Cagle, J. W., and Khan, M. A., 1983, Smackover-Norphlet hydrocarbons in state coastal waters and federal waters areas of stratigraphy, South Wiggins arch, Mississippi and Alabama: portions of the Central and Eastern Gulf of Mexico. Substantial Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, natural gas reserves are present in the Alabama state waters v. 33, p. 23-29. area and the northern portion of the Mobile Area, and significant 6. Clernmensen, L. B., and Abrahamsen, K., 1983, Aeolian accumulations of oil and gas-condensate may be encountered in stratification and facies association in desert sediments, the Pensacola, Destin Dome and Apalachicola Areas. Arran basin (Permian), Scotland: Sedimentology, v. 30, p. 311-339. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7. Gage, Michael, 1980, A review of the Viking Gas Field, in Halbouty, M. T., ed., Giant oil and gas fields of the decade Thanks are extended to Don DuBose of Geophysical Service, Inc., 1968-1979: American Association of Petroleum Geologists New Orleans, Louisiana, for providing seismic data contained in Memoir 30, p. 39-57. this paper. 8. Glennie, K. W., and Buller, A. T., 1983, The Permian Weissleigend of NW Europe: the partial deformation of REFERENCES CITED aeolian dune sands caused by the Zechstein transgression: Sedimentary Geology, v. 35, p. 43-81. 1. Badon, C. L., 1975, Stratigraphy and petrology of Jurassic 9. Halverson, J. R., 1988, The seismic expression of the Jurassic Norphlet Formation, Clarke County, Mississippi: American Norphlet pinchout, Wiggins arch, southwest Alabama, Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 59, p. 377-392. U.S.A.: Proceedings of Oceans Technology Conference, p. 2. Beall, Robert, 1973, Plate tectonics and the origin of the Gulf 301-306. Coast basin: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 23, p. 109-114. 766 10. Imlay, R. W,, 1980, Jurassic paleobiogeography of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, conterminous United States in its continental setting: U.S. v. 32, p. 17-22. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1062, 125 p. 24. Pilger, R. H., Jr., 1981, The opening of the Gulf of Mexico: 11. Jackson, J. B., and Harris, P. M., 1982, Jurassic petroleum implications for the tectonic evolution of the northern Gulf geology of southwestern Clarke County, Mississippi: Gulf Coast: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 32, Transactions, v. 31, p. 377-381. p. 45-57. 25. Pontigo, F. A., Jr., 1982, Pre-Haynesville stratigraphy and 12. Levy, J. B., 1985, Major discoveries in eolian sandstone: structural geology of the Apalachicola Embayment: Facies distribution and stratigraphy of Jurassic Norphlet Petrology and paleoenvironmental interpretation of the sandstone, Mobile Bay, Alabama [abs.]: American Smackover Formation: Florida State University, Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 69, no. 2, p. unpublished Master's thesis, 307 p. 278. 26. Salvador, A., 1987, Lower Triassic-Jurassic paleogeography 13. Mancini, E. A., Mink, R. M., Bearden, B. L., 1985, Upper and origin of'the Gulf of Mexico: American Association of Jurassic Norphlet eolian dune, wadi, and marine petroleum Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 71, no. 4, p. 419-45 1. reservoirs, central and eastern Gulf of Mexico regions [abs.]: 27. Scott, G. W., 1986, A petrologic study of the Norphlet American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. Formation (Jurassic), Escambia, Santa Rosa, and Okaloosa 69, no. 2, p. 282-283. Counties, Florida: Northeast Louisiana University, 14. Mancini, E. A., Mink, R. M., Bearden, B. L., and Wilkerson, unpublished Master's thesis, 144 p. R. P., 1985, Norphlet Formation (Upper Jurassic) of 28. Sigsby, R. J., 1976, Paleoenvironmental analysis of the Big southwestern and offshore Alabama: Environments of Escambia Creek-Jay-Blackjack Creek field area: Gulf Coast deposition and petroleum geology: American Association of Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 26, p. Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 69, p. 881-898. 258-278. 15. Martin, R. G., 1978, Northern and eastern Gulf of Mexico 29. Tolson, J. S., Copeland, C. W., and Bearden, B. L., 1983, continental margin: stratigraphic and structural framework, Stratigraphic profiles of Jurassic strata in the western part of in Bouma, A. H., Moore, G. T., and Coleman, J. M., eds., the Alabama Coastal Plain: Alabama Geological Survey Framework, facies, and oil-trapping characteristics of the Bulletin 122,425 p. upper continental margin: American Association of 30. Tyrrell, W. W., Jr., 1972, Denkman Sandstone Member--an Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology no. 7, p. 21-42. important Jurassic reservoir in Mississippi, Alabama, and 16. Mink, R. M., Hamilton, R. P., Bearden, B. L., and Mancini, E. Florida (abs.]: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies A., 1987, Determination of recoverable natural gas reserves Transactions, v. 22, p. 32. for the Alabama coastal waters area: State Oil and Gas Board 31. Walls, 1. A., 1985, Provenance of the Jurassic Norphlet of Alabama Oil and Gas Report 13, 74 p. Formation in southwest Alabama: University of Alabama 17. Mink, R. M., Bearden, B. L., and Mancini, E. A., 1985, unpublished Master's thesis, 143 p. Regional Jurassic geologic framework of Alabama coastal 32. Wilkerson, R. P., 1981, Environments of deposition of the waters area and adjacent Federal waters area: State Oil and Norphlet Formation (Jurassic) in south Alabama: University Gas Board of Alabama Oil and Gas Report 12, 58 p. of Alabama, unpublished Master's thesis, 141 p. 18. Murray, G. E., 1961, Geology of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal 33. Wilson, G. V., 1975, Early differential subsidence and Province of North America: Harper and Brothers, New York, configuration of the northern Gulf Coast basin in southwest 692 p. Alabama and northwest Florida: Gulf Coast Association of 19. Murray, G. E., Rahman, A. U., and Yarborough, Hunter, Geological Societies Transactions, v. 25, p. 196-206. 1985, Introduction to the habitat of petroleum, Northern Gulf 34. Wilson, G. V., and Tew, B. H., 1985, Geothermal data for (of Mexico) Coastal Province, in Perkins, B. F., and Martin, southwest Alabama: correlations to geology and potential G. B., eds., Habitat of oil and gas in the Gulf Coast: uses: State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama Oil and Gas Report Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Research Conference, Gulf 10, 125 p. Coast Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation, p. 1-24. 20. Oehler, J. H., 1984, Carbonate source rocks in the Jurassic Smackover trend of Mississippi, Alabama and Florida, in Petroleum geochemistry and source rock potential of carbonate rocks: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology, no. 18, p. 63-69. 21. Oxley, M. L., Minihan, Edward, and Ridgway, J. M., 1967, A study of the Jurassic sediments in portions of Mississippi and Alabama: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 17, p. 24-28. 22. Oxley, M. L., and Minihan, E. D., 1969, Alabama exploration underway: Oil and Gas Journal, v. 67, no. 4 (January 27), p. 207-212. 23. Pepper, Fred, 1982, Depositional environments of the Norphlet Formation Qur@assic) for southwestern Alabama: 767 AVAILABILITY OF MINERALS OFFSHORE VIRGINIA T. John Rowland Minerals Management Service Office of Strategic & International Minerals Vienna, Virginia ABSTRACT commercial ventures. A number of cooperative State-Federal task forces Offshore Virginia, linear shoals have been organized to evaluate represent potential supplies of sand resource potential, economic and possibly placer minerals. If feasibility, and environmental additional exploration proves the impacts. deposits favorable, their Several studies have been published availability will be determined by while others are underway. At MMS' various factors: geological setting, request, the U.S. Bureau of Mines mining systems, the environment, conducted two reconnaissance studies multiple uses, and market economics, in 1987 relating to EEZ minerals each with the potential to affect potential -- one focused on sand and development. Based on available gravel, the other on heavy minerals. information, the area has favorable A comprehensive report by the mineral potential. Mining systems Congressional office of Technology capable of developing the deposits Assessment (1986) examined the status exist; system selection would be of knowledge of the mineral resources based on deposit characteristics and within the EEZ, assessed the the environment. Multiple-use technology, and identified pertinent factors including fisheries and issues. marine sanctuaries, military, In view of this interest, the recreation and commercial shipping linear shoals offshore Virginia will present issues but could be should be considered as potential accommodated by agreements between sources of sand and possibly other the concerned parties. The cost of minerals. Reconnaissance has bringing the minerals to market and indicated significant concentrations the price the market (local for sand, of heavy mineral placers associated international for placer minerals) with the sand. Availability, will support are critical factors in however, will be determined by determining overall feasibility. factors pertinent to development, including geology, mining systems, the environment, multiple uses and INTRODUCTION market economics. Consideration of these factors will be necessary on Since the establishment of the the site, local and regional scale. U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in 1983, a variety of efforts and DISCUSSION studies have been initiated that reflect the increased interest in Geological Setting offshore mineral resources. Within the Federal sector the Minerals Sand and placer minerals located Management Service (MMS) has created offshore Virginia are part of the the Office of Strategic and International Minerals to assure a linear shoal field extending along focused and coordinated marine the shallower portions of the minerals program within the EEZ. We continental shelf seaward from the have aggressively pursued a coast to about 75*30' W. and from CUStMiZed regulatory regime under about 37000' to 37030' N. The shoals the OCS Lands Act in order to are part of,a sand terrace dominating facilitate State involvement and the bottom topography and forming an extensive topographic high on the 768 United States Government work not protected by copyright shelf -Williams (1986) indicated bodies contained heavy minerals of that the shoals associated with possible economic value. Offshore prominent capes, regions of abundant sediment samples have shown higher sand, show potential for exploration. concentrations of heavy minerals than One such prominent shoal area is the areas to the south and only located approximately 9 miles off slightly less than the richer onshore Cape Charles, Virginia. Regionally, areas of South Carolina. Additional the topography is low relief with evaluations will be required, but water depths increasing seaward to a preliminary indications merit further maximum of 60 feet. Petrographic exploration. Potentially economic analysis of sediment samples from concentrations of minerals have been over 675 square miles of continental located in the shoal field off Smith shelf indicated that the mean grain Island, Virginia, by Grosz and size range from fine (0.125-0.25 Escowitz (1983) and Berquist and millimeters) to very fine sand Hobbs (1985). (0.062-0.125 millimeters) with an Atlantic shelf shoals commonly average mean grain size corresponding contain millions of cubic yards of to fine sand. Analysis of sand, much of which appears suitable sedimentological parameters as borrow sources. Resource characterized the sediments as well estimates for specific shoals can sorted and relatively homogeneous vary significantly based on the (Rowland, 1977). assumptions, sampling, and Shoals can be divided into two methodogy (Williams, 1986). Thus, classes: shoreface-connected and specific resource isolated. Shoreface-connected shoals estimates are premature; however, the are topographically related to the potential appears favorable based on shoreface and are generally shoreward the available data and geological of the 30-foot isobath. These shoals analogies show favorable potential. are part of the shelf-shoreface sedimentary system. Mining operations Isolated shoals show no apparent connection to the shoreface but are Mining operations would be responsive to the modern hydraulic similar to others conducted for beach regime. If located below the wave- nourishment and those conducted for base, as is common, isolated shoals offshore mining in other countries, are relict geomorphic features. As including Japan and the United such, relict shoals may have Kingdom. Offshore mining in Japan potential for development with produces 60-70 million tons of sand minimal impact to the shoreface and gravel per year, 20 percent of sedimentary system. This is a the total production (McKelvey, critical consideration for any 1986). The United Kingdom produced proposal pertinent to mining of the about 15 percent of its domestic continental shelf. Supply of sand and gravel from the Interest in the shoals focuses on offshore in 1980 (Tinsley, 1983). their potential as sources of sand mining systems would employ and minerals, such as ilmenite, either of two basic dredging color epidote, staurolite, garnet, types: mechanical or hydraulic. magnetite, and zircon. As early as Mechanical dredging excavates and 1972, reconnaissance offshore lifts the material to a ship by Virginia north of the Chesapeake Bay buckets or in a clam-shell type (Fig.1) indicated that extensive sand device. Bucket ladder dredges are 769 efficient for operations containing boulders, clays, and debris; however, characteristics of the estuaries and such operations can generate wetlands (Leatherman, 1982). For substantial turbulence can be example, intense coastal urbanization generated during operations.@ Bucket in the vicinity of Ocean City, ladder dredges have been used for Maryland and Fenwick Island, offshore mining of gold and tin Delaware, has had documented impacts (Cruickshank, 1987). Hydraulic on the coastal and shoreface dredges lift material as a sediment- sedimentary systems (Dolan and water slurry to the ship. others, 1980). In selecting shoals Development of cutterheads and as candidates for mining, an analysis submersible pumps has significantly of the particular shoal to the extended both operating capability shoreface sedimentary system is and depth range. Cutterhead suction necessary (Rowland, 1984). impacts dredges excavate compact, granular as a result of dredging could result materials from water depths of less from: (1) changes in the wave-base by than 100 feet. Suction hopper seabed alteration, (2) changes in the dredges have been used in water composition of the bottom sediments, depths of up to 120 feet, and newer and (3) increases in water turbidity. models have depth ranges of up to 150 Research by the U.S. Army Corps feet (Cruickshank, 1987). Dredging of Engineers, the British government, technology exists for operations in and coastal scientists is beinl@' at least 300 feet of water. Water conducted into the effects of depths offshore Virginia are well dredging in shallow water. Based on within the capabilities of the British experience, dredging has operational dredges. not instigated significant changes in In recent years, antiturbidity water depths of greater than half a overflow systems have been developed wave length, or more than one-fifth in Japan. Such engineering systems the length of extreme waves. In the can significantly reduce the amount United Kingdom, dredging in waters of water column turbidity generated over 60 feet generally receives from dredging operations. Thus, routine approval. Between 30 and 60 using such a system could reduce feet, a detailed study and site- environmental concerns associated specific information are required, with operations. but for operations proposed for water depths of less than 30 feet substantial studies are required (Drinnan and Bliss, 1986). Sediment resuspension near bottom Environment can also occur as the mining operation traverses the deposit. Environmental considerations Lifting sediment to the surface encompass a range of interrelated discharges sediments throughout the factors. The Eastern shore of water column. Increased turbidity Virginia is part of an extensive could result not only at the site but barrier island and wetland system. possibly throughout the area. Barrier islands are dynamic Coastal and continental shelf geomorphic features constituting an dredging resulted in sediment plumes important segment of the coastal zone that have been visible often up to 3 system. Changes in the coastal zone miles and up to 12 miles in extreme will alter the associated natural cases (DOI, 1974). A major impact of processes, and subsequently, the 770 a sediment plume is modification of Beach constitute the home port for the depth of light penetration into the U.S. Navy's Atlantic and the water column. Suspension of the Mediterranean fleets. Norfolk Naval fine-grained sediments can affect.the Air Station has extensive air gills and ability of indigenous fish operations in the area with to navigate. Dispersion by surface approximately 116,000 flights currents and currents in the water annually. Other large naval column can affect the larvae and installations in the area--Oceana juvenile stages of shell and finfish. Naval Air Station and the Little Migration routes of sea turtles, Creek Amphibious Base--conduct porpoises, and finfish can be exercises outside the Chesapeake Bay. affected by increased water turbidity Also, nautical charts identify places if turbidity remains for an extended of undetonated explosives in the period of time. Over the larger area. Four such places are apparent areas, turbidity may be more on navigation charts, two of which significant than the disturbances at are situated in what is considered the activity site. Life cycles are the shoal area. affected by the texture, composition Onshore, the Wallops Island and stability of the substrate. Many missile testing range serves as a benthic fauna have restricted base for launching weather balloons ecological niches; local communities and rockets. The Wallops Island-NASA cannot survive in a severely Warning Area extends offshore for disturbed area. nearly 80 miles across the Seabed sediment texture and continental shelf. Military and composition are vital as variability commercial "precautionary areas" and caused by erosion or additional navigation "traffic separation zones" accumulation of fine-grained sediment are indicated on U.S. Coast Guard can impact the total local navigation charts and in the Notice population. But, disturbances in the to Mariners, a weekly publication of bottom characteristics may not the Defense Mapping Agency necessarily be permanent. Dredges Hydrographic Center. leave undisturbed areas of sea floor Marine sanctuaries are between tracks that may serve as designated around distinctive marine source areas of repopulation. In a resources whose protection and use channel near Le Harve, France, requires comprehensive, recolonization occurred rapidly after geographically oriented planning and dredging (McKelvey, 1986). management. A number of marine Additional research is necessary to sanctuaries exist along the barrier focus on the aspects of dredging I islands of Virginia including some in including studies of the succession proximity to the linear shoals. For patterns of various benthic species. instance, at Cape Charles, the Fisherman's Island beach area is Multiple Uses designated as a sea turtle nesting area. Habitats of endangered species Potential multiple-use conflicts and the potential impacts to those exist between local military sites would necessarily be addressed operations and offshore mining. before offshore mining begins. Langley Air Force Recreation on the continental Base conducts a variety of missions shelf and the adjacent coastal areas off Virginia. At the mouth of the is important to the public and to Chesapeake Bay, Norfolk and Virginia local and State revenues. Coastal 771 States, including Virginia, commit sources are (1) local market large expenditures to such activities conditions, (2) exploration costs, as boating and fishing. Coastal (3) mining and processing costs, and waters--those within 3 miles of the (4) transportation costs. A detailed shoreline--comprise one of the most economic feasibility study would be intensively used areas for outdoor required before development of the recreation. In 1982, Atlantic deposits. For instance, often marine coastal counties invested heavily in exploration and initial capital outdoor recreation; $48.7 per capita, investment costs would be expected to nearly $27,000 per square mile, was be higher compared with similar spent by public agencies along the onshore costs, but the efficiencies Atlantic coast (NOAA, 1986). Coastal associated with dredging operations recreation as a component of the and the low costs associated with American lifestyle has been to an barge transport could offset those extent studied by the NOAA, Offshore costs (Economic Associates, 1986). Assessment Division. However, more The potential market of the regional and specific assessments offshore sand exists as Tidewater, will be required to provide Virginia, a metropolitan area information for strategies on using incorporating Norfolk, Virginia the near shore, especially the impact Beach, Chesapeake, Portsmouth, from mining operations. Hampton, and Newport News. The Chesapeake Bay entrance and Significant urban and industrial approaches are among the most heavily growth in this area over the last traveled in the world providing decade has resulted in a population access for commercial shipping to in excess of a million, a viable Hampton Roads. Shipping lanes are multifaceted local industrial base, indicated on the NOAA bathymetric and an increasing demand for sand. charts and are updated periodically Pending specific market feasibility in the Notice to Mariners. studies, information indicates possible economical viability for the Market Economics offshore deposits based on market proximity and relatively inexpensive Market economics is a and efficient barge transportation. consideration influencing and Additionally, the potential may influenced by the other development exist for the development of the factors. A deposit must be associated heavy mineral placers as a determined to be economically co-product. If the placers are found attractive in order for development to occur in sufficient quantitites to occur either onshore or offshore. and are developed as a co-product of Sand is a relatively low-value, high- the sand for national or volume commodity. Thus historically, international markets, the economic deposits have been located and development potential would be developed in close proximity to the greatly enhanced for the shoal field. market. Generally, the market is established first, creating a need ASSESSMENT for discovery and development of a local sand supply. In the absence of Preliminary information indicates a local supply, transportation costs a strong geological potential for the become prohibitively high. linear shoals as sources of sand and Economic factors pertinent to possibly placer minerals. However, comparison of offshore with onshore resource estimates for individual 772 shoals or for the resource area are premature. .1ldditional exploration resources in the late 1980's. and resource evaluation are needed to Historically, most offshore assess the mineral resource environmental studies have focused on potential. oil and gas leasing activities and Assuming traditional exploration ocean dumping. Despite the great methods indicate the linear shoals as amount of environmental data, certain viable targets, other geological of the data may not be directly factors will require consideration pertinent to offshore mining including: (1) geomorphic and activity. Differences in data oceanographic changes resulting from collected for offshore oil and gas excavation and (2) sediment texture and that required for marine mining alterations resulting from settling result from differences in the of suspended material. Information minerals and between the types of pertinent to those considerations operations. Variances also exist could be obtained by site-specific among the individual minerals and studies using existing geological and between their associated geological oceanographic information and by the and physical environments. For development of a geological, mineral, example, the polymetallic sulfide and engineering data base. deposits of the Gorda Ridge and the Existing mining systems can sand deposits off Virginia illustrate operate in the water depths and under the often radical differences between the physical conditions of offshore offshore mineral deposits and Virginia. Existence of the settings. technology is not the question, but If economic feasibility and rather, there is a choice of systems commercial interest exist, to be employed. Selection of a comprehensive study of the system would be an engineering environmental effects of offshore decision based on factors such as mining would be beneficial on a sediment characteristics and mineral-and site-specific basis. environment. Environmental analysis Such a study could be analogous to should examine processing and Project NOMES, which examined material handling and whether the potential environmental impacts material will be processed at sea or associated with offshore sand mining onshore and if the sand and heavy in the nearshore continental shelf. minerals will be mined as co- Project NOMES examined the impacts ,products. from hydraulic dredging at a sand and Various studies have examined gravel site in Massachusetts Bay offshore processes and potential (Padan, 1977). impacts associated with offshore Nearly two-thirds of the activities. The Department of the Atlantic commercial fish and Interior in 1974 prepared a draft shellfish are estimated to be environmental impact-statement on estuarine dependent during some stage Outer Continental Shelf mining. In of their development (Department of 1979, the Department of the Interior the Interior, 1988). The area is also prepared a program feasibility within the nation's largest document examining a variety of commercial fisheries (blue crabs, issues and site-specific marine menhaden, oysters and bluefish) and mining possibilities. Although is in proximity to the habitats of valuable contributions, these efforts certain endangered species (the Sea were not of the scope required before Turtle, Bald Eagle, and Delmarva development of offshore mineral Fox). Issues pertinent to the 773 interaction between fisheries, sea level, visibility is 12 miles; sanctuaries and mining operations thus, it would be reasonable to include: (1) the impact of noise and assume that mining operations would (2) interference between the fishing not be visible or be barely visible and mining activities and with from the Virginia shoreline. biological resources. The magnitude Anticipated heights of the mining of such issues remains to be vessel would be approximately 30 feet determined, but experience developed above the water surface. from the offshore oil and gas and Offshore recreation would be commercial fisheries could form the affected by mining operations to a basis for mitigation. For example, limited extent. However, to the since May 1, 1988, North Carolina degree possible, mining operations shrimp trawlers 25 feet or more in could accommodate such activity by length are required to use approved posted warning and restricted areas. turtle exclusion devices (TED's) on An educational shrimp nets. Costing about $100 and public information program on each, TED's provide an escape path offshore mining would be necessary to for sea turtles captured in the minimize the potential conflicts with shrimp nets. This demonstrates the recreational activities (Cruickshank, level of interaction possible and 1988). sometimes required by multiple-use Potential sites are outside the interests. commercial shipping lanes; as a Because of the deposit result, mining operations would not locations, mining operations would be be expected to require alteration of expected to minimally impact military shipping lanes. Marine mining surface ship operations. Military activities would slightly increase ship traffic areas are identified on the volume of traffic into Hampton the navigation charts and Published Roads; however, the increase would be in the Notice to Mariners., In the expected to be small relative to the vicinity of the Potential mining total ship traffic. The nature of sites, conflict between the military the increase would be a function of ships and the mining operations could the type of mining systems employed, be expected to be small and that is, the number and type of resolvable. Previous cooperation dredges and barges. between the military and the Department of the Interior with the CONCLUSION offshore oil and gas activities would form the basis for resolution, possibly by prelease and Postlease Deposits of sand, possibly with stipulations. valuable placer minerals, exist off Recreation activities in the the coast of Virginia as linear vicinity constitute a Potential shoals. Development potential MUltiPle-use conflict with offshore appears favorable, pending further mining. Coastal activities are economic feasibility assessment and generally in the category of surf resource evaluation. The minerals fishing and beachcombing. Related associated with the sand include are the aesthetic or scenic values concentrations of ilmentite and associated with this area. The zircon. If present in sufficient impact to recreation in the immediate quantities, they could be considered vicinity would depend on the scale of the proposed mining operation. At 774 by-products from mining the sand. Exclusive Economic Zone, open File Current dredging technology could be Report 3-87, 113 p. employed for the marine mining, assuming favorable mineral evaluation Bureau of Mines, 1987, An Economic and environmental analysis. Reconnaissance of Selected Heavy Prior to development, however, Mineral Placer Deposits in the U.S. additional investigations are needed Exclusive Economic Zone, Open File on the following geological topics: Report 4-87, 112 p. (1) impacts to the'shoreface sedimentary systems, (2) impacts of Cruickshank, M. and others., 1987, dredging on local geomorphology, and Marine Mining on the Outer (3) reclamation. Environmental Continental Shelf, Minerals issues related to the effects of Management Service, OCS Report 87- mining would include: (1) impacts 0035, Reston, VA, 66p. from increased and sustained turbidity, (2) the potential for Cruickshank, M., 1988, Personal recolonization including ecological Communication. successions, and (3) impacts on the biota of altered sediment texture. Department of the Interior, 1974, Offshore and coastal regions of Draft Environmental Impact Statement: Virginia are areas of varied multiple-use activities: marine Proposed Outer Continental Shelf hard sanctuaries, commercial fisheries, mineral mining operating and leasing military operations, recreation and regulations- Department of the commercial shipping. Conflicts may Interior, Washington, DC, 362 p. be anticipated but should be resolvable. The extent of specific Department of the Interior, 1988, measures necessary for resolution Draft Environmental Impact Statement- remains to be determined. However, North Atlantic Oil and Gas Lease Sale at this time, multiple-use activities 96, Minerals Management Service, . do not appear to be exclusionary to Atlantic Region, OCS EIS/EA MMS 88- mining. Experience of the Department 0001. of the Interior with offshore oil and gas programs and with commercial Dolan,@ R., H. Lins and J. Stewart, fisheries in other areas could be 1980, Geographical Analysis of expected to provide the foundation Fenwick Island, Maryland, A Middle for resolution. Atlantic Coast Barrier Island, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper REFERENCES 1177-A, Reston, VA, 24p. Berquist, Drinnan, R.W. and D.G. Bliss, 1986, C.R. and C.H. Hobbs, 1985, The United Kingdom experience on the Assessment of Economic Heavy Minerals effects of offshore sand and gravel of the Virginia Inner Continental extraction on coastal erosion and the Shelf, Virginia Division of Mineral fishing industry. Nova Scotia Resources open-File Report 86-1., Department of Mines and Energy, Open Virginia Institute of Marine Science File Report 86-054, 77 pp. Contribution No. 1287, 17p. Bureau of Mines, 1987, An Economic Economic Associates, Inc., 1968, The Reconnaissance of Selected Sand and Economic Potential of Mineral and Gravel Deposits in the U.S. 775 Botanical Resources of the U.S. Williams, S.J., 1986, Sand and Gravel Continental Shelf and Slope. Chp. deposits Within the United States VIII-E, Aggregates, p. 328-381. Exclusive Economic Zone: Resource Grosz, A.E. and Escowitz, E.C, 1983, Assessment and Uses. Offshore Economic heavy minerals of the U.S. Technology Conference, 18th Annual Atlantic continental shelf, in OTC Conference, OTC 5197, Houston, Tanner, W.F. (ed), Proceedings of the TX, P. 377-386. sixth symposium on coastal U.S. Congress, 1987, Marine Minerals: sedimentology: Florida State Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier., University, Tallahassee, FL, p. 231- 242. Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Leatherman, S.P., 1982, Barrier OTA-0-342., p.347. Island Handbook, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 109p. 7S' McKelvey, V.E., 1986, Subsea Mineral Resources, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1689, Mineral and Petroleum Resources of the Ocean, 106p. Padan, J., 1977, New England Offshore Arz,4@rjc Mining Environmental Study (Project NOMES), NOAA Special Report, Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Environmental Research AAEA OF POTEN T!AL Laboratories, Boulder, CO, 139p. ................................ Rowland, T.J., 1977, An Analysis of _17! the Distribution of Feldspars on the Inner Continental Shelf of Virginia, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, unpublished, 43p. N Rowland, T.J., 1984, Sand Ridges of the Middle Atlantic Continental Shelf, Minerals Management Service, Atlantic Region, 26p. 2,0 -f-I NOAA, NOS, 1986, Public Expenditures on Outdoor recreation in the Coastal Areas of the USA, March 1986, Oceans Assessments Division, National Ocean Service, Rockville, MD, 18p. Tinsley, D., 1983, The Trade in Sea- Dredged Aggregate to the Thames, 1st Figure 1. Area of Potential Off Virginia ed.: Port of London, p.29-33. 776 OCEAN MINING: AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP Clifford E. McLain President, Oregon Resource Exploration, Inc. Ocean hard mineral mining has represented an area of time, these same potential developments are viewed potential economic interest and development for the by many as a risk to other ocean uses and to the U.S. over the past 30 years. Its successful regional coastal environment. The resolution of these development within the U.S. EEZ will require the issues must inevitably involve the effective conciliation of potentially conflicting ocean uses: cooperation of both public and private sector parties. economic development on the one hand, and the protection of existing ocean uses and the environment This paper reviews these ocean hard mineral on the other. A public-private partnership structure opportunities, and suggests that the formation of is suggested as a vehicle for the successful public-private partnerships may constitute the most resolution of these issues. appropriate and effective path to their development within the U.S.. The views expressed are entirely those of the author, and result from his work, and Introduction that of his associates, in their work to establish practical ocean mining operations. Ocean hard mineral mining has been an area of developmental interest within the U.S. over the past Status of Ocean Mining in the U.S. 30 years. With the discovery of manganese nodules on the deep ocean f I oor, and the subsequent formation of There are currently six active or potential ocean several consortia for the exploration and development mining areas of interest to the U.S. economy at the of these mineral deposits in the 1960's and early present time: 70's, interest in the practical economic potential of ocean minerals assets has remained in a prominent o Sand and Gra,,.,el position in the ocean policy of the U.S.. Under the o Metal ore bearing placers Carter Administration, this interest among others o Phosphates motivated the U.S. to work closely with the Law of o Cobalt rich crusts the Sea Treaty organization. Under the Reagan o Polymetallic sulfides ( hydrothermal Administration, this same interest was one of the key o Manganese Nodules reasons cited by the U.S. in refraining from signing the Treaty and for the later declaration by the U.S. of The first three in the list are essentially shallow its own Exclusive Economic Zone, in March of 1984. water coastal deposits and, as might be expected, these are the areas in which there are current The idea of.seabed mineral mining still excites the practical operations. The last three areas are still ocean community, but the reality is that few either in the exploration phase, or are awaiting a practical immediate opportunities appear to exist at more suitable economic environment, or both. This this time. The number of opportunities is not zero, situation is brief Ig. summarized in Figure 1( Wenzel 1). however. In several cases, potential hard mineral Referring to Figure 1, it is sug @gested that in the case assets lie within the U.S. EEZ. The development of of the three shallow water mineral areas, the these potential assets could be an important factor 'in exploration of known deposits is within the strengthening coastal region economies. At the some capabilities of technology, and is either completed or CH2585-8/88/oooo. 777 $1 @1988 IEEE Fig. I Ocean Hard Minerals Development & Policy even in todays rather weak market. Referring again to n -0 :1 Table 1, the manganese nodules have themselves been a :1 rather thoroughly explored and characterized as a CY On 2 0 deposit. The technology for their recovery is Q cl reasonably in hand. Demonstration mining units have co C, @c M 2 been build and tested. Interestingly enough, under the U.S. Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Act, the exploration Business Factor preference rights have been well established for this Exploration particular mineral deposit in U.S. law. Policy and ........... .............. ............ ........... .... ............ rules for the most part tend to favor development and ... .............. ............ .......... Technology a reasonably cooperative policy and viewpoint exists ............... .............. ....... markets for the development of this resource within the U.S.. ............... .............. Economics Unfortunately, the current world market is such as to preclude any practical i6vestment in the development Policy Factor 2 .............. of the nodules .............. Preference Rights .............. .. Po)icy/Rules The cobalt rich crusts, which have been of great Coop Environment ............... interest in the Pacific, and which are well 111iiIiiii represented within the U.S. EEZ areas of the Central Attractive/Existing and Northern Pacific ( around Hawaii, for example ), Partial/Problems V777777ZZJ have recently received a significant amount of major Prob./Unknown exploration and are moderately well characterized. defineable for deposits suspected but not yet The technology for their efficient extraction has not yet been developed, although the general techniques characterized. The technology for recovery for these 3 for their recoverg and processing are understood minerals areas is well in hand. Markets for these minerals are in most cases practical end in some World markets for the principal metals, and the cases attractive. The placer minerals of ilmenite, economics of their recovery, even for the valuable chromite, precious metals, and gemstones, all have a cobalt content, do not now appear to be such as to encourage private investment in extensive reasonable economic value, as do most sand and characterization and development. In additio n, no gravel deposits and some phosphates, depending upon suitable basis for establishing preference or claim transportation costs and local markets. rights for these deposits under the exploration phase Most of these shallow water minerals are supported has yet been developed by the U.S- by a working set of development regulation and policy The relativelp recent discovery of polymetallic within the U.S. and State waters ( in the U.S. sulfide deep ocean hqdrothermal deposits has 1 4 jurisdiction, the States contro the seacoast waters - attracted attention in part because of their high the Territorial Sea - out to three miles from land ). concentrations of metals such as copper, tin, silver, Development lease agreements can be established and zinc. Only the first stages of exploration have with the appropriate State or Federal jurisdiction. As been completed. New technology is required for the an example of new policy, the State of Oregon has complete characterization of these deposits, as well recently developed provisions for granting right of as for any potential recovery operations. The preference at the State level during the exploration economic practicality of these deposits is as yet phase. The establishment of such leases does pose largely unassessed. The recovery costs have not get problems, both environmental and in policy, and is been determined, nor can they be until these deposits most successfully undertaken under the situation of a are more fully characterized. Again, there is at the .. cooperative environment" between the developing moment no basis for an assertion of claim during interests and the public sector. exploration within U.S. law. In the deep ocean area, there are more problems., and In summary, in the area of deep ocean deposits, there much less likelihood of near term economic development, even though some of these resources may be expected to be a continuation of research and exploration within the U.S. EEZ areas , but no near (nay be vast in extent and may hold valuable minerals 778 term economic development and little privatlg funded process and its prospect is often a very effective characterization. The picture in the shallow, coastal deterrent to project initiation. waters, is quite different. There are, and have been, Profitable commercial enterprises operating on these The primary incentive for private sector participation types of minerals, and this type of development will and development remains that of potential financial continue, but increasingly under a more careful and reward commensurate with the risk of development. often more demanding level of control by State and In the case of ocean hard mineral development, and U.S. Federal agencies. The shallow water deposits are especially in the area of exploration and found in both State and Federal waters and these characterization so necessary for undertaking any jurisdictions are often overlapping. Therefore, the developmental investment, the resolution of these establishment of an effective interitice between real and perceived high risk areas will be an essential State and Federal jurisdictions represents one of the element in the development of sufficient incentives more difficult and pressing problems for commercial to encourage effective private sector investment. development. New methods are needed by which these high risks might be reasonably reduced or resolved. Incentives for Coastal Ocean Hard Mineral Development The Public-Private Partnership Concept Within the U.S., there has been a continuing search by Many U.S. coastal States and local governments are the ocean hard minerals community for an appropriate now entering into the development of comprehensive way to encourage private sector participation in the planning for the well thought out and integrated use exploration and development of promising mineral of coastal ocean assets which, under State and resources on the ocean floor. The current and Federal jurisdiction, belong to all. The Pacific coast seemingly chronic U.S. trade deficit argues for the States are now all engaged in such planning efforts. development of more exportable resources. In These activities were pioneered by the Gorda Ridge addition, with a tightening Federal budget, the Task, Force, formed in 1965 at the request of the individual States are feeling the pinch in terms of concerned States at the behest of the U.S. Department fewer Federal dollars to support State and local of the Interior. The latest and most comprehensive needs. Since most of the shallow water ocean activity of this type has been the establishement by mineral assets of the U.S. lie at. least partially within the Oregon State Legislature4 of an Ocean Resources State territorial waters, the coastal States might Management Task Force for the creation of an look upon the development of these assets as a integrated Ocean Resources Management Plan, valuable additional source of income. Finally, many initiated by Governor Goldschmidt in late 1907. coastal regions around the U.S. have only a narrow Although in many cases in the past such planning economic 'basis, and would benefit from the efforts have been established as a reaction against development of an additional industry. untoward development, the more recent efforts, including the Oregon project, are toward the Against these incentives, however, lie a set of intelligent management of these coastal assets to problems which appear to be common to all coastal realize their maximum benefit for all coastal ocean developments. These are the perceived risks of such user interests through a balancing of ri sk, development to the environment and what might be investment., and economic value. termed the "lifestyle" of the coastal community. In This approach suggests the concept of a partnership many coastal areas of the U.S., any development at all between the State, local, and (where appropriate) is often seen as an encroachment on the current environment. In many cases, this has led to a Federal governments, the private sector development confrontation of interests which is often resolved in interests, and the ocean user communities. This concept, which has been encouraged under the policies the courts, at least temporarily, in the form of an injunction against continuation of the project, until of the current U.S. administration and the U.S. studies can be made and the claims and concerns of Department of Commerce5, is suggested in Figure 2. other ocean users resolved in the context of the judicial system. This very risky and expensive 779 Figure 2: The Public-Private Partnership Concept agencies, and interested technical and environmental State ZLocai Goyfs research organizations. Coastal Et all Rvfs The "bottom line" point of the partnership approach to Mgm't P11 :::Iurn3 coastal project development is that of recognizing Other Ocean Users Leases, Taxes the complex nature of the public and private Fishing I ownership and use of coastal assets, and the need to T he Coastal i Now provide an effective means of incorporating the Tourism Development Coastal perceived interests and needs of this ownership as an Project Asset integral part of the developmental project. In a very Wildlife real sense, from the private sector standpoint, this approach is needed to assure the existence of a cooperative environment in which the investment in the new asset is to be made. This is a highly In Ban k3, I nVe3t0r3 It important factor in the reduction of perceived risk to If t-ril the private investment community. Increased Support The Oregon Black Sand Placer Project as an As suggested by Figure 2, under a comprehensive Example Partnership coastal management plan, and the interested support of industry, investors, and the banking community, a Development of placers along the Pacific coast of the coastal development project is formulated, with the U.S. has so far been limited to gold and platinum group overall State and local government social and metal ( PGM ) placers, primarily in Alaska. Coastal economic development objectives in view. The other placer tracts in the Nome area, for example, are ocean users are coupled into the project through such currently being worked by chain bucket dredges, with means as advisory councils, inf ormal planning some economic success. The presence of gold in the sessions, and as actual participants in the project black sands associated with the northernmost itself. It is important that delegates of these other California coast, and the southern third of the Oregon ocean users will have participated in the writing of coast has been known for a long time. Gold Beach, the ocean asset management plan itself. Oregon got its name from the early gold placer operations in the late 1,500's there. These sands also This team then works together to develop and execute contain important amounts of chromite and ilmenite the coastal development project. If the private titanium ). During World War 11, the deposits on land sector provides the funding, the project must beach placers now above sea level due to coastal necessarily be designed to provide an adequate return uplifting ) were mined successfully for chromite. on investment to justify the risk undertaken by the This mining continued until the early 1950's when the private sector investors. Joint funding, or sometimes U.S. strategic stockpile purchases were terminated. sole funding, may also be provided by the Sate, local ' The limited extent of the land deposit, and the lower and Federal governments. Wherever possible, it is price of chromite ore on the world rnarket did not highly desirable to involve the State and local support continuation. colleges and universities. These can be sources of needed technical support and also provide a highly These black sands have been the subject of extensive trustworthy source of balanced risk/benefit analysis, surface ( halo ) exploration by the Oregon State which will be an important element in assuring the University ( OS'U ) School of Oceanography and by r1ther ocean users that their interests will not be others over the post 25 years. A body of knowledge undulq put at risk through the new project. The has been built up which now permits the definition of special studies of environmental impact on the a detailed plan to explore and fully characterize the affected region can often tie most convincingly done deposits6. Working with the State of Oregon over the by these acadernic institutions, and by such State past six years, the writer and his associates have agencies as the fish and wildlife service, the been developing a plan ( Figure 3 ) for the cooperative environmental protection and land conservation establishment of a project to fully explore and t The C tal evelopment D Project 780 Figure 3: Oregon Black Sands Deve lopment sublicense the development to a mining operator, or sell the development lease, as a means of achieving LO :1 an early return for its exploration investors. Upon U) C commencement of the actual mining operation, the CL M State receives royalties ( as well as taxes ) upon its ---r- operations. Assistance to the programs of other Subcontracts ocean users affected by or partners with the project Investors can also be derived from the mining returns. All of Development Explor. State of these factors, of course, have to be considered in Oregon determining the overall economic feasibility of Company Lease opening and operating the mine, once a suitable deposit has been located and characterized. This is Data the principal objective of the exploration program. Develop. Exploration EIS Investors Develop. At this time, the joint venture has been established, the appropriate authorities have been identified and Jevelopment _J' Lease established by the State of Oregon, and a Royalties comprehensive coastal resources management plan is under development by the Ocean ResourcPs characterize these deposits which w .ould merit Management Task Force, with a schedule for private sector investment and support. completion which provides that this plan will be in place in time to be used as a reference in any exploration or developmental lease entered into by Referring to Figure 3, a development company has the State. So far, the process has been working well, been established, wnich is proposed as a vehicle for and excellent open relationships have been private sector investment. This joint venture would established between the project and other concerned subcontract the bulk of its work, initially exploration ocean user groups. The writer and his associates and associated studies. The plan includes work by a believe that this approach will be an increasingly major State university ( OSU ), to perform many of important one for all major coastal development the exploration activities needed to characterize and projects, of which the Oregon black sands exploration understand the deposits as potential mine sites. The and development is but one example. development company expects to respond to a competitive colicitation b y the State for a cooperative exploration lease, which, under a new and unique Oregon law7, provides for a right of preference in converting the exploration lease to a developmental lease. In return, as a partner, the State receives data in the public domain from the exploration upon which to base its development decision and the preparation of a development environmental impact statement. Upon the determination that an economic deposit in fact exists, under the terms of the exploration lease the joint venture and its owners have. rights of preference for development ( akin to staking a mining claim ). Upon the further determination by the State that the plans and techniques for such development will not have an undue impact upon other coastal ocean users, the State is empowered to grant a development license to the Joint venture. In turn, the joint venture, under the terms of the development lease, could proceed with the development itself, J 781 References: I . J. Wenzel, "Ocean Mining Industries", Marine Development Associates, Saratoga CA, March 15, 1988 2. J. D. Nyhart, "A Pioneer Deep Ocean Mining Venture", Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sea Grant Program Report MITSG 83- 14, June 1963 3. "Mining Development Scenario for Cobalt-Rich Crusts in the Exclusive Economic Zones of the Hawaiian Archipelago and Johnston Island" Dept. of Planning and Economic Development, State of Hawaii and U.S. Dept of The Interior, Mineral Management Service, January 1987 4. State of Oregon, Senate Bill 630, 64th Oregon Legislative Assembly, 1967 Regular Session 5. C. McLain, "A Strategy for the Creation of Pubiic-Private Partnerships for Candidate NOAA Projects" System Planning Corp. Report No. 1083, May 1985 6. LaVern D. Kulm, "Potential Heavy Mineral and Metal Placers on the Southern Oregon Continental Shelf ", College of Oceanography, Oregon State University, paper for publication in Marine Mining, 10 Feb. 1988 7. State of Oregon, Senate Bill 606, 64th Oregon Legislative Assembly, 1987 Regular Session 782 RECENT NONENERGY MINERAL ACTIVITY IN THE ATLANTIC OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF Roger V. Amato Minerals Management Service Atlantic OCS Region Vienna, Virginia 22180 X 109 tonnes offshore North Carolina3 and ABSTRACT at least that much offshore Georgia and South Carolina. manganese occurs both as Large deposits of sand and gravel, nodules and thin crusts in the Blake phosphate, titanium-rich heavy minerals, Plateau, and estimates range from 186 x 106 and manganese in the Atlantic Outer to 628 x 106 tonnes of ore.4 Continental Shelf (OCS) are available as future alternatives to onshore mining and MINERALS EXPLORATION ACTIVITY importing. Several new developments concerning nonenergy minerals have taken Two mining companies, DuPont and Associated place on the OCS during the last 2 years. Minerals, explored for heavy mineral These include seabed prospecting by deposits offshore Georgia in 1986. This industry, establishment of two involved gathering geophysical data and Federal-State Task Forces to assess the obtaining and analyzing core samples likelihood of offshore mining, and release primarily for titanium-bearing minerals of studies on the economic feasibility of such as ilmenite, rutile, and leucoxene. mining offshore North Carolina and Georgia. In addition, there has been continuing Although there are currently no commercial low-level exploration and research on mining operations on the Atlantic OCS, sand Atlantic OCS minerals by the U.S. is being commercially extracted from Geological Survey (USGS), several channels in New York Harbor, and it is universities, and a few State geological dredged in State waters periodically for surveys. Recently, several cores obtained beach nourishment projects. by the U.S. Navy for platform sites offshore of Georgia were analyzed for mineral content by the USGS and State of Georgia. These cores showed that the INTRODUCTION Middle Miocene phosphate-bearing sediments were richer and more widespread than The Atlantic OCS has large deposits of a previously thought.5 Such efforts are number of mineral resources including sand resulting in the establishment of a and gravel, phosphate, manganese, calcium sizeable offshore minerals database that carbonate, ilmenite and other heavy will be of great importance in evaluating minerals (figure 1). Sand and gravel these deposits in the future. deposits are nearly ubiquitous in the Atlantic, but the higher quality, cleaner NORTH CAROLINA TASK FORCE deposits tend to occur north of New Jersey in glacial sediments. Inferred resources A joint North Carolina-Federal Task Force of 7.5 x 1011 cubic meters of sand have was established in March 1986 to examine been estimated for the U.S. Atlantic the likelihood of mining offshore phosphate continental shelf by Duane and deposits. The task force contracted a Stubblefield.' Heavy minerals occur in geologic, engineering, and economic study older beach and strandline deposits in of the North Carolina continental shelf which extensive reworking of the sand has area, which was completed in December 1987. concentrated the heavier sand grain The study3 addressed the potential size of constituents. These deposits are known to the phosphate resources, the technology exist in a number of places on the Atlantic needed to extract and process the OCS, but the most favorable sites are those resources, the present and future phosphate offshore New Jersey, Virginia, and Georgia. markets both in the United States and the Estimates of heavy minerals on the Atlantic rest of the world. It also made discounted OCS are about 1.3 x 109 cubic meters.2 cash-flow economic analyses for a Phosphate deposits are known to exist hypothetical mine site in onslow Bay, North offshore from North Carolina to Georgia and Carolina. The study estimated that as much possibly even to Florida. Phosphate re- as 99 billion tonnes of phosphate ore lie sources are estimated to be as high as 10 beneath the North Carolina continental 783 United States Government work not protected by copyright hypothetical, economically favorable 750 70' 650 mining operation in the late 1990's. The study determined that dredge mining would 450- be more economically attractive than borehole mining. However, by assuming much higher phosphate prices in the next century, the study claims that borehole mining could become economically feasible. Borehole mining is far less disturbing to 450 the ocean bottom than dredge mining. It provides a superior alternative for mine 100 waste disposal and would allow mining areas where the overburden is too thick to excavate by dredging. IA TASK FORCE GEORG 0 rganized in July 1986 by the State of orgia and the Minerals Management Service Ge 40' in response to the mineral exploration activity offshore Georgia, the Georgia- Federal Task Force directed a study by an 350 industry consultant of the geology, technology, and economics of mining phosphate and heavy minerals offshore. The study6 identified a hypothetical mine site for phosphate about 6 miles east of Savannah Harbor and a similar site for heavy minerals about 30 miles southeast of Savannah Harbor. Similar to the North Carolina report, the study concluded that phosphate prices must rise from the current 30* $22-$30/tonne to $35-$42/tonne for offshore mining to be profitable. Heavy mineral prices would have to rise from an average price (for five different mineral commodities) of $127/tonne to at least CP $152/tonne to economically mine these minerals offshore. Phosphate mining is considerably more capital intensive than EXPLANATION heavy mineral mining both in processing and SAND AND GRAVEL 2@' disposing of waste materials. F@_M@ HEAVY MINERALS @250 = PHOSPHATE NORTH ATLANTIC SAND AND GRAVEL Ffffffl MANGANESE Near future offshore mining activity for sand and gravel is most likely to take place in the North Atlantic. This 2 OPO commodity is already being shipped great 800 750 distances by land into the major northeastern metropolitan areas and serious consideration is being given to importing it from Canada and Europe. Large Figure 1. Location of major marine quantities of sand and gravel occur less mineral deposits in the Atlantic OCS. than 30 miles offshore of New York, Boston, and Norfolk. the only offshore commercial sand and gravel mining operation on the shelf, of which there are probably over lo Atlantic coast is in New York Harbor. billion tonnes of recoverable concentrate Here, a company is dredging the ship averaging 7.3 percent PJ050 However, these channel and processing the material for estimates were based on y n shallow construction aggregate. Also, a number of drilling and ocean bottom sampling; deeper coastal communities dredge sand from State drilling will be needed to prove that these waters for beach restoration or deposits contain reserves. Optimistically nourishment. higher world phosphate prices and relatively low operating costs could result, according to the study, in a 784 SUMMARY 6. Zellars-Williams Company, 1988, Resource Assessment Study for Georgia Offshore Other areas of future potential for Minerals: prepared for the Atlantic offshore mining are Virginia Environmental Protection Division of (heavy minerals), New Jersey (sand and the Department of Natural Resources, gravel and heavy minerals), and Florida State,of Georgia, Atlanta, GA, 238 p. (sand and gravel, carbonate sand, and heavy minerals). As onshore reserves are depleted and land-use pressures halt development of new mine sites, the offshore deposits will become increasingly important in maintaining domestic production of these minerals. REFERENCES CITED 1. Duane, D.B., and Stubblefield, W.L., 1988, Sand and Gravel Resources: U.S. Atlantic Continental Shelf: in Sheridan, R.E. and Grow, J.A., eds., The Geology of North America, vol. 1-2, The Atlantic Continental Margin, U.S., Geological Society of America, p. 481-500. 2. Grosz, A.E. and Escowitz, E.C., 1983, Economic Heavy Minerals of the United States Atlantic Continental Shelf: in Nearshore Sedimentology, Tanner, W.F., ed., Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on Coastal Sedimentology, Florida State University, p. 231-242. 3. DPRA, Inc., 1987, The Economic Feasibility of Mining Phosphorite Deposits of the Continental Shelf Adjacent to North Carolina: prepared for the office of Planning and Assessment, North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Raleigh, NC, 192 p. .4. Manheim, F.T., Popenoe, P., Siapno, W.D. and Lane, C.M., 1982, Manganese- phosphorite deposits of the Blake Plateau (Western North Atlantic Ocean), in Halbach, P., and Winter, P., eds., marine Mineral Deposits; New Research Results and Economic Prospects: Essen, Verlag Glueckauf, v. 6, p. 9-14. 5. Manheim, F.7., Popenoe, P., Huddlestun, P.F., Henry, J.V., Commeau, J.A., Da Silva, J.L., and Herring, J.H., 1988, Phosphorite Potential in the Georgia EEZ: Results of the TACTS Core Studies: Preliminary Report compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey and submitted to the Georgia Hard Minerals Task Force, 80 p. 785 EVENTS OF THE SUMMER OF t87 Dr. John B. Pearce DOC/NOAA/NMYS Northeast Fisheries Center Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 ABSTRACT disease in such animals. Although routine monitoring of the New York Bight has been done by In the summer of 1987 the shorelines of New state, local, and federal agencies, in recent Jersey were beset by a number of unusual years shortages of personnel and funds for envirormiental events. These included .the monitoring studies have resulted in a relatively beaching of dead and dying dolphin s, unusually low level of monitoring activity. consequently, large amounts of debris washing ashore, and sources and fates of pathogens and toxic perceptions that the coastal zone was polluted substances, and their effects, are still poorly and unsafe for swimming. A Blue Ribbon Panel was known in the overall New York Bight. cammissioned to study the events; its conclusions and recommendations are given. In late 1987 the Commissioner of the New Jersey DEP, in response to the events of the summer of 1987, decided to commission an independent Blue Ribbon Panel which would review what had trans- INTRODUCTION pired the past summer, evaluate the relative importance of the various events, and provide During the summer of 1987 the New Jersey shore advice to the State as to what had happened and was visited by numerous events that had untoward what could be done in the future to ameliorate consequences. large numbers of marine mammals, such events and their effects. especially bottlenose porpoises, were washed onto the beach; more often than not these large animals were dead or dying. At the same time THE FINDINGS OF TBE BLUE RIBBON PANEL many beaches were found littered with debris of unknown origin. The floating and beached wastes The Panel, consisting of over a dozen scientists, consisted of garbage, wooden debris, petroleum managers, and citizens from various agencies and contaminants, and various hospital wastes. backgrounds, met early in January 1988 to develop Finally, measurements were made which the thrust of the studies to be done. It was occasionally indicated that bacterial decided early-on that the Panel would review to contaminants existed in coastal waters and hence the degree possible all information related to there was concern about the safety of swimming. the events of the summer of 1987, look at various generic studies that might relate to such events, These various events were reported widely in the commission certain independent investigations and local and national newspapers as well. as on local analyses, and, based on these, develop syntheses and regional radio and television.' Merchants, which would allow conclusions to be reached and resort owners, marina operators, and commercial reccmuendations, to be made. and recreational fishermen were particularly vocal about the reported events. The New Jersey During the second meeting of the Panel, public Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) hearings were held in Asbury Park and Atlantic frequently cam under fire for not being able to City so that the concerned citizenry, political evaluate fully the situation, or for not doing entities, scientists and managers, and local sameth business leaders could bring to the attention of the Panel their various views on the events. In most instances, there was relatively little several hundred individuals participated in these that could be done immediately. Like many marine hearings. Following the hearings, and between scientists, the personnel of the New Jersey DEP major meetings, the Panel continued to work on an understood fully that the debris could have come intersessional basis. studies and reviews were from literally hundreds of sources, including done in regard to water and contaminant movement many from out-of-state. Wile marine mammals, as they might be related to wind direction and including porpoises and whales, are, quite large strength. Public health officials considered the and fairly commonly sighted, and continue to be matter of debris on the beaches and its possible of interest to the public, relatively little is relationship to contagious diseases. The general known about their biology, and very little is matter of water quality and its relation to local known about their diseases or the causes of surface drains and industrial and domestic 786 United States Government work not protected by copyright outfalls were reviewed. Full consideration was o Floatables: Floatables were deemed highly given to the relevance of the events of the visible and unacceptable. Reports of "garbage summer of 1987 and effects on living marine slicks," plastic floatables, and tar balls are resources. riot unique to New Jersey and are a worldwide problem. A review of research papers and reports The four subsequent meetings and numerous ad hoc indicated that floatables and beach litter have gatherings provided an opportunity for tl@orcZ;Ti multiple sources, including: refuse resulting discussions of the issues and for the interroga- from beach use; combined sewage outfalls; poorly tion of State officials who had been or continued managed landfills; materials jettisoned from to be involved in matters relating to the sumTer small and large vessels; and oily substances of 1987. which originate from industrial sites, roadways, and airports, as well as railways and vessels. From the meetings and associated studies and The Panel concluded that far higher volumes of seminars, the Panel reached specific conclusions, floatables existed in the New York Bight and developed a series of recommendations to be coastal waters than in many other coastal areas. considered by C=Ttissioner Dewling, Governor The way to reduce floatables is to control them Kean, other state officials, and the public, and at their source. incorporated these in a Reportl. The conclusions in the Report are as follows: 0 Ocean Diffl?ggai of Contaminated Materials: Feasible alternatives to present o Stranding and Deaths of marine Ymmals: The disposal practices of contaminated dredged hypothesis that the deaths of the bottlenose materials include: borrow pit disposal, capping, dolphins could be attributed to pollution in the use of dredged materials for sanitary landfill New York Bight or New Jersey coastal waters cover, and contairment islands. The Panel during the stmmer of 1987, was not supported by concluded that implementation of alternative evidence presented to the Panel. methods for the disposal of contaminated dredge materials will have great bearing on the o Water Qual The Panel concurred with the improvement of coastal water quality. public and the DEP that problem with coastal water quality are of the utmost importance and 0 Industrial Waste Pretreatment: The Panel must continue to receive the attention of local, concluded that a technologically sound, ccEprx-- state, and federal agencies. Closures of hensive, and strictly enforced pretreatment shellfish beds for harvest, occurrence of fish program is absolutely essential for short- and diseases such as finrot, and the accumulation of long-term improvement of water quality along the chemicals such as PCBs and dioxins in fish and coast of New Jersey. It is important that the shellfish are indicators of persistent water wastes reclaimed by pretreatment be reused, quality problem in the New York Bight, recycled, or disposed of in an erivirormentally especially the nearshore waters. safe manner. 0 Waste DigpMa : The Panel realized the o Variability in Natural Processes: The Panel importance of this issue and concluded that there concluded that acts of nature played a major role are many sources and many ways of reducing the in the events of 1987. Wind patterns during the amount of wastes deposited into the marine summer of 1987, were different from the patterns envirormmt. The evidence suggested a need for cienerall observed from 1948-1986. These enforcement of existing regulations and for far patterns intensified the garbage and other waste more concern by local gaverrmwants, and the washup problems on beaches during 1987., citizenry in regard to beach management. 0 ion of Seafood: The Panel 0 Hospital Wastes: Hospital-type wastes recognized that persistent water quality problems including syringes, IN. bags, and gauze affect the perceived wholesomeness and quality of dressings were reported to be part of the beach some fish and shellfish. There is no evidence to litter during the summer of 1987; the Panel, with suggest that the events of 1987 contributed to appropriate public health input, concluded that these problems. The DEP has comprehensive it is virtually impossible for a person to monitoring programs in place; the Panel made contract AIDS or other diseases through any form recommendations aired at improving these programs of beach litter subjected to ocean conditions for and improving the quality and abundance of several days. fishery resources in New Jersey. 0 ocean pgMiM of Sewage Sludge: Ocean o Enforcement: The Panel concluded that the dumping occurred in coastal waters for aver a present enforcement of exist conservation and half century at the 1112-mile site" within the New environmental laws and regulations is inadequate york Bight Apex. There continues to be great to ensure protection of public health, as well as concern about ocean disposal of sewage sludge at that of marine and coastal resources. the 11106-mile site" beginning in 1987. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated o Education: One of the elements missing from the 106-mile site for disposal of sewage sludge the New Jersey DEP's existing programs is a for a period of 5 years, ending in 1991. The EPA coordinated, highly visible effort to educate may redesignate the site provided that the citizens about coastal issues and to increase effects of such dumping are deemed acceptable. public participation in the regulatory process. 787 This program should include informa tion on problems caused by outfalls that combine sewer development, pollution, and resources as well as and storm water runoff, i.e., combined sewer potential solutions to major problems in this outfalls. important zone. o The DEP must consider the development of 0 Devel The Panel regarded the rate alternatives to ocean durnping and make appro- and type of construction and coastal land use as priate recommendations to communities and the most critical issues facing New Jersey. The agencies which use dumping. density of development and the intensity of land and water use along the islands, bays, and o Me Panel highly recommends that the State estuaries of New Jersey place exceptional address the problems of continued release of pressures on aquatic ecosystems and the living toxic chemicals into the coastal environment by resources. The issues often revolved around inpraving research, monitoring, permitting', and waters and their uses but the solutions mist be enforcement components of its existing industrial found on land. waste pretreatment program. o DEP Coordination: The Panel believed that 0 The Port Authority of New York and New the DEP should more carefully coordinate its Jersey must take a vigorous leadership role in several activities related to coastal issues. the planning of future dredged material disposal facilities and sites. 0 Coastal Commission: Although the Panel was not asked to review specific proposals,. for a o Consideration should be given to expanding coastal commission, it recognized that some of the number of variables rmitored and to the recommendations that follow can be addressed developing a more statistically sound sampling by the proposed coastal commission. program. o Research: The Panel recognized that there 0 Data management systems for monitoring mmt be a coherent, state or interagency should include adequate quality assurance/quality supported ocean research and monitoring program controls. to achieve an understanding of complex ocean and estuarine system. Such an understanding is o The state and Federal agencies must develop essential to a future multiple-use management monitoring criteria for unreasonable degradation strategy. that are agreed to, published, periodically The recommendations developed in relation to the reviewed and updated, and enforced. conclusions of the Panel touched on aspects of o The DEP must continue to improve its moni- development, water quality, coastal ocean public toring programs for toxic chemicals in marine health issues, control of litter and hence organism and for microorganisms in shellfish and floatables, enhancements of fisheries resources habitats. and their habitats, increased enforcement of regulations, increased education at all levels of 0 It mist be required that sanitation society, and coordination of activities to (toilet) facilities be located at beaches in improve the wellbeing and usefulness of the sufficient mubers to handle all beach users. coastal zone. , Page limitations prevent listing the recommendations in detail. The following o The DEP in coordination with the counties are, however, some of the more important and Department of Health as well as the U.S. EPA highlights of the Panel's recommendations: should continue beach monitoring efforts at cravxl?d beaches, for bacteria and other indicator o The density of development on the coast organisms. should be lowered. Future development mist be limited to areas presently providing adequate o Lifeguards, beach administrators, and beach infrastructure, utilities, and services. New cleaning personnel should be educated by State growth should not occur in undeveloped, officials (DEP and DOH) prior to the bathing environmentally sensitive areas. season in regard to issues concerning public o Local zoning ordinances must be sensitive health and water quality issues. to environmental values and strictly enforced to o The DEP mist require an increase in the control urban sprawl. number of vessel sanitary pumpout stations in the 0 Direct runoff of contaminant and debris backbays and estuaries. laden waters into coastal waters should be o The DEP must work with the legislators and prohibited and prevented. sewerage authorities to improve operation and o The DEP should work toward improving public maintenance of all sewage treatment plants. systems designed and implemented to control 0 The DEP must continue to develop and pollution caused by land development. enforce statewide standards for municipal public works activities such as drain cleaning and 0 The DEP mist work with the appropriate street sweeping; storm drains must have trash agencies and industry to reduce or eliminate the collectors. 788 0 The DEP and tile Attorney General must continue to work with the State of New York and habitats on the land mass. New York City to improve solid waste handluxj Practices at transfer points within N.Y.C. Without limits on development and without proper management of terrestrial habitats it will be o The DEP and the Attorney General must work impossible to prevent continued degradation of riverine, estuarine, and coastal habitats and the toward increasing penalties, and strengthening many amenities associated with them. and enforcing the littering laws. o The DEP or local agencies should provide REF P.ENCES sufficient litter containers and trash 1. The New Jersey Blue Ribbon Panel on ocean receptacles, and litter control grants (under Incidents - 1987. 1988. The State of the ocean strict regulations and guidelines) should be made - The Report by the Blue Ribbon Panel on ocean available to municipalities. Incidents. New Jersey Department of o Manufacturers of packaging, and especially Envirormiental Protection, Office of Science and floatable products, should be encouraged to Research, Trenton, New Jersey. May, 1988. develop alternatives. Thirty-three pages. 0 The DEP should continue to support an aggressive recycling program for glass, cans, and plastics. 0 The majority of the Panel believed that having a container deposit bill will reduce the amount of litter on the beaches. o The DEP mist commit sufficient financial resources for research in shellfish contamination to determine the most effective strategy for preventing both potential public health risks and resource degradation. 0 The Panel recommended that a thorough review of all State of New Jersey environmental and conservation laws be undertaken and provisions made for more stringent interpretation, stiffer penalties, and timely judicial processing. o Building upon the Environmental Education Act of 1971, the DEP should initiate a program with the Department of Education to educate all citizens about ocean issues. o The DEP should institute a position in the Ccmmissioner's Office for a Coastal Activities Coordinator and an Advocate. 0 The Coordinator would be responsible for preparing an annual agenda for ocean research which would assist the DEP to achieve its mission. The reader can see that the Panel stressed the importance of enforcement, education of the general citizenry, future monitoring and research, and the necessity somehow to manage development in the future so that it will have minimal effects on coastal resources and other uses of the coastal zone. Of special note is the recamendation to regulate or license develcpTent so that it occurs in areas al developed and serviced with proper infrastructure, including roads, high levels of sewage treatment, and mass transport system. The Panel recognized that while the issues develop in aquatic habitats and involve fish and people, solutions can only be found in limiting developTient and managing 789 IMPACTS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE SUMMER OF 1987, NEW JERSEY FLOATABLE INCIDENTS Lawrence Schmidt, Director Planning Group office of the Commissioner New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection ABSTRACT The New Jersey coastal area Initially, the public response was suffered from a number of cascading to seek out and prosecute the pollution incidents during the Summer of individuals responsible for this 1987. The various incidents are despicable act. When a "smoking gun" described and observations are made on could not be identified, it became more the resultant public policy initiatives, apparent that the region's waste the implication for the shore economy, disposal practices, or lack thereof, and the need to focus on long term were largely responsible for the solutions. hospital-like waste in the coastal ocean. The floatable incidents of 1987 mark a turning point in our resolve to improve the health of the ocean. But is it possible to eliminate or reduce ocean pollution without first solving the myriad of problems associated with The events along the New Jersey management of waste streams on land? coastline during the Summer of 1987 have The New York Bight directly or set the stage to bring ocean pollution indirectly receives pollution resulting to the forefront as one of the from the day-to-day activities of over preeminent environmental issues facing 20 million people. the Nation. The coastal waters of the New York Bight have long been plagued During the summers of 1987 and with anthropogenic inputs such as 1988, veteran beachgoers in New Jersey floatables, nutrient enrichment, and and on Long Island have noted that the contaminated water in the surf zone. water in the surf zone has never been so Prior to 1987, coastal pollution was of filthy. A valid question is why now, local concern and lacked national why not f ive, ten, or twenty years ago? significance. However, on August 13, The States of New York and New Jersey 1987 a 75 mile long slick of refuse, and the federal government have recently timbers, and hospital waste washed taken a number of actions designed to ashore on New Jersey's premier beach improve water quality in the Bight and communities. The insult of syringes, in the Hudson-Raritan Estuary. For hypodermic needles, blood bags, and example: bandages was repugnant to the beachgoers, public officials and the - New York City has eliminated the community at large. This event, in discharge of 225 mgd of raw sewage combination with the concurrent dolphin by placing two new sewage treatment deaths and beach closings attributed to plants on line. bacterial contamination, galvanized the public's disgust with ocean pollution - All of New Jersey's coastal and catapulted the issue into the sewage treatment plants are now national limelight. operating at a secondary level of treatment. CH25ss_8/88/oo00_ 790 $1 @1988 IEEE - Sewage sludge disposal has been 1987. Over one hundred bills and relocated from the Bight Apex resolutions were quickly introduced into (12-mile Site) to a new site off of the New Jersey legislature. Governor the Continental Shelf (106-mile Thomas H. Kean proposed a 14-point Site). Action Plan to Preserve New Jersey's Ocean and Beaches. Hearings were held - The cyclical nature of dredging and bills introduced in Congress. The has resulted in a significant New Jersey Department of Environmental downturn in the volume of dredged Protection and the New Jersey Attorney material being disposed of in the General's Office took steps to learn ocean over the past several years. about the nature of the floatables problem and take corrective actions to - All but one industrial permittee minimize similar ocean incidents in the has phased-out ocean disposal of future. Some of the legislative waste materials. proposals were farsighted and necessary, others sought a "quick fix" based on an other factors have not changed oversimplification of the problem. substantially in recent years. The region's storm drains, combined sewers, and overland drainage have not been radically altered. As a society we On balance, the legislative process continue to produce solid waste, litter seems to be working well by providing at will, and use fertilizers and the regulatory agencies with the tools pesticides without hesitation. necessary to address a complex set of Non-point sources of water pollution are issues. Existing regulatory and now being recognized as a major resource management programs as well as contributor to coastal and Pstuarine the initiation of lawsuits have also water quality degradation. But these been utilized to protect the coastal factors in themselves don't explain why ocean from further degradation. The our beaches have suddenly turned filthy. f ollowing is a list of significant actions which have been taken since the Probably the best explanation of Summer of 1987: the current state of affairs is the variability in natural processes. Dr. - The Commissioner of the NJ Lawrence Swanson will shortly present a Department of Environmental paper on the meteorological conditions Protection formed a Blue Ribbon which lead up to the garbage and medical Panel to report on the ocean waste washups on the New Jersey Shore incidents of 1987. In May of 1988, during the Summer of 1987. In previous the Panel issued a report, State of work he concluded that ... "During summer the Ocean. The Report provided an months prevailing winds have a independent scientific viewpoint on pronounced effect on the qistribution the incidents and made many far and fate of floatables" It is ranging recommendations. Dr. Jack interesting to note that during the Pierce served as the Panel's Summer of 1988, New Jersey's beaches chairman (Dr. Larry Swanson also have been relatively free of floatable served as a panel member). incidents while New York City, Long Island, and even New England beaches - In November 1987, New York City have taken a beating from washups of entered into a consent agreement medical wastes. with the State of New Jersey to improve its management practices Wind patterns and other with respect to solid waste which meteorological conditions cannot be could end up in a waterway. legislated. However, there has been heightened political interest in - State legislation was enacted to responding to the coastal incidents of beef-up New Jersey's Marine Police. 791 The emphasis of the legislation is - legislation by the State of New to establish a presence in the Port Jersey to expend $125 million to of New York/New Jersey for the upgrade stormwater management purpose of surveillance and systems in coastal areas and enforcement against marine correct combined sewer overflows in polluters. urban communities within the Hudson Raritan Estuary. - State legislation was enacted to make intentional dumping of The ocean incidents of 1987 have materials in coastal waters a had a devastating effect on the State of criminal offense in New Jersey. New Jersey. Coastal tourism and recreational activities along the coast - State legislation was enacted to contribute between $7-8 billion to the prohibit New Jersey communities State's economy each year. Tourism has from the disposal of sewage sludge become the State's number one industry. in the ocean after March 17, 1991. There is no absolute method to estimate the economic losses attributable to - The United States Senate ratified pollution, beach closings, or the MARPOL Annex V which will prohibit current negative image of the Shore. In overboard disposal of plastics from 1988, merchants and businessmen estimate ships in international waters and that business is off by as much as 30%. strictly regulate other forms of Although the downturn in the shore solid waste disposal by ocean going economy is primarily the result of vessels. continued coastal incidents and media "hype", many other factors can influence - Federal legislation was enacted a person's decision to spend a day or a to implement MARPOL Annex V, week at the shore. The high cost of require EPA to study methods to summer rentals, traffic congestion, reduce plastic pollution, and have crowds, or poor weather are but a few EPA prepare a New York Bight factors that are taken into Restoration Plan. consideration. - The EPA Administor selected the The events of 1987 could have New York - New Jersey Harbor f or easily been forgotten in the public's inclusion into the National Estuary mind if it were not for the medical Program. A Management Conference waste and the resulta L fear that will be convened to develop a swimming could lead to illness or Comprehensive Conservation and disease. Medical waste has tarnished Management Plan. the image of the Shore, and more importantly, the image of the entire In addition to the above, there are State. The citizens of New Jersey take a number of pending State and Federal great pride in the beautiful beaches of legislative initiatives designed to the New Jersey Shore. The State has reduce ocean pollution, especially worked hard to reverse a once negative floatables. These include: image. Now, those relatively few incidents, many of which have been - legislative proposals to track overexaggerated, have done untold damage medical waste so as to ensure by violating the State's greatest proper disposal natural resource. - federal prohibition of ocean Unfortunately, the prospect of disposal of sewage sludge after economic recovery for the Shore in 1989 1992. and the following years rests more with the variability of natural processes 792 than by the legislative juggernauts in Trenton, Albany, and Washington, DC. Tracking medical waste through a manifest system or imposing criminal sanctions for improper disposal does not get to the heart of the problem. Very simply the New York Metropolitan area has run out of adequate facilities within reasonable distances to dispose of or recycle all types of solid waste. What will New York City do when the Fresh Kills Landfill runs out of space? Virtually all of the solid waste produced in Northern New Jersey is trucked to out of State landfills. The likelihood for new facilities being sited and on-line is not encouraging at this time. Community resistance and the not-in-my-backyard syndrome have delayed much needed resource recovery plants on both sides of the Hudson. The prospect of siting incinerators for infectious medical wastes and municipal sewage sludge is equally dim. The floatables that washup on our beaches are simply the artifacts of a society that has not come to grips with the management of all types of wastes. The ocean will become free of pollution only when the people of the region finally accept the risk of having facilities in their backyards and are willing to pay the price for decades of neglect. 1. The Blue Ribbon Panel on Ocean Incidents - 1987; THE STATE OF THE OCEAN; May, 1988; Appendix I - Floatables, by R L Swanson; New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. 793 METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS LEADING TO THE 1987 WASHUP OF FLOATABLE WASTES ON NEW JERSEY BEACHES AND COMPARISON OF THESE CONDITIONS WITH THE HISTORICAL RECORD R. L. Swanson @ Robert Zimmer', and Charles A. Parker 2 iWaste Management Institute, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794-5000, 2 NOAA/OAD During the summer of 1987, the New York Bight and the larger Mid-Atlantic Bight once again experienced a series of There were a few unusual sources of incidences whereby waterborne floatable materials that contributed to the 1976 waste materials and debris were stranded incident (i.e. , a sewage sludge tank along beaches from New Jersey to Virginia. of particular concern were the explosion in Hempstead Bay and pier fires stranded. carcasses of dolphin and in the Hudson-Raritan Estuary); it has hospital wastes. Examinations of the been established that there were unusual local climatological data help to explain the process by which floatable material incidents in 1987 as well. Specifically, was transported shoreward. Concern this past summer there were several cases however exists that, short of eliminating of illegally disposed municipal and the sources, the events of 1987 portend beach conditions of the future. hospital wastes. However, the bulk of noxious materials continue to reach Bight The climatology of the summer of waters and beaches from the same sources 1987 is compared with that of 1976 when similar strandings of floatable wastes in 1987 as in 1976. These include occurred on the south shore of Long combined sewer outfalls (CSO) from the Island. The summer wind record of these New York-New Jersey metropolitan area and two years is also compared with the historical wind record 1949-1987. These poor solid waste handling practices at analyses indicate the unusual nature of transfer points as well as during conditions that prevailed in both 1976 transport in the Hudson-Raritan Estuary and 1987 and how they differed from each other While major washups of floatable and at the Fresh Kills Landfill. other waste; are unusual we now know under what contributors include commercial and conditions they are likely to occur. recreational boats, and outflow from bays Emphasis must be placed on alleviating the problem at the sources. and estuaries. The larger floatables typically do not occur in quantity in sewage sludge as they are effectively screened. With In the summer of 1987, the New regard to finding floatable wastes York Bight and the larger Middle Atlantic (particularly tampon applicators) Bight once again experienced a series of associated with sewage sludge dumping, it incidences whereby waterborne floatable should be pointed out that previous waste materials and debris were stranded investigations have led to negative along beaches from New Jersey to results. That is, essentially none have Virginia. Of particular concern were the been recovered when using neuston nets to stranded carcasses of dolphin and skim the surface waters behind sludge hospital wastes. These events rekindled dumping vessels. In the 1976 the overall attentiveness to the issue of investigation, with the use of marketing water quality in our marine waters and statistics, estimates of potential how we might relieve the stress placed inefficiencies in the sewage treatment upon them. system, and knowledge of oceanic transport processes, it was estimated During the summer of 1976, the wash- that only 7% of the tampon applicators up of floatables was so extensive along recovered on the beaches were, the south shore of Long Island that the theoretically attributable to ocean Governor of New York declared Nassau and dumping. Suffolk counties disaster areas. The President assigned the Job Corps, under The Hudson-Raritan estuary serves the supervision of the U.S. Coast Guard, as the greatest source of floatable waste to clean the beaches. to the Bight since the bulk of the individual sources tend to be located around the periphery of the estuary. CH2585-8/88/0000. 794 $1 @1988 IEEE Floatables are effectively flushed from in current flow in bottom waters and the estuary during the time of the spring transported a subsurface bloom of freshet, typically from March to May in phytoplanktons acros the shelf which the upper Hudson. The impact of the converged on the New Jersey coast. freshet on the Bight lags this by about Oxygen replenishment was inhibited in one month so that large quantities of bottom waters and the massive bloom floatables can be expected to be flushed created an excessive oxygen demand. The into coastal waters at or near the time floatable load was heavy because of of the commencement of the summer beach extremely large river runoff in may. season. Other than at the time of the spring freshet, the floatable load at any In 1987, the New Jersey Department one time in the estuarine plume is of Environmental Protection has indicated largely a consequence of the relatively that the wash-up of floatable material recent rainfall history. A heavy rain was prevalent during the periods of 27-29 following an extended dry period will May, 13-16 August. Also during the most likely produce the heaviest volume periods 3,4 and 9,10 September, heavy of floatable material; streets will be concentrations of floatable material was cleansed, sewage treatment plants observed off the coast of New Jersey. bypassed, and the transfer points and landfills flushed by runoff and perhaps The May incident was prece .eded by higher storm high waters. it takes a the flushing action of the spring freshet rainfall intensity of only a few of the Hudson River. Based on river hundreths of an inch per hour for an hour stage data at Green island, the peak flow or more in the metropolitan area for is estimated to have reached the Bight in sewage treatment plants to be bypassed. early May. Easterly to southeasterly winds occurred over, much of 18-27 May Once floatable materials are (Figure 1), driving the recently flushed flushed into the Bight, they are subject floatable material back toward the New to the physical oceanographic and Jersey coast. meteorological processes operating on Bight waters. Most frequently they will Easterly to southeasterly winds be carried, preferentially with the dominated the period of 5-14 August Hudson-Raritan estuarine plume along the (Figure 2). Further, between 3-10 New Jersey coast. This is why the August, there was rainfall in excess of beaches at Sandy Hook are so often two inches in the metropolitan area which cluttered with undesirable materials. undoubtedly thoroughly flushed the streets, combined sewers, and other major The general flow of surface waters sources of floatables. Thus there were over the continental shelf is from the meteorological conditions that led to northeast to the southwest parallel to heavy concentrations of floatables along the trend of the coast. Floatable the New Jersey coast this past summer. materials in the surface layers are Streaks of floatable material were transported with these currents but also observed on two occasions just off the influenced by wind driven transport. coast in early September but in neither instance did the material wash ashore in During summer months prevailing appreciable quantities. On 31 August and winds have a pronounced effect on the I September a total rainfall of 0.6 in. distribution and fate of floatables. was recorded at J. F.Kennedy (JFK) Typically the prevailing wind is from the Airport. Over the period 6 - 8 September south or southwest. These winds tend to another 0. 8 in. of rain was recorded. transport the floatables to the north and Easterly winds blew much of the time east. Thus floatable materials will tend between 4 - 8 September (Figure 3). Thus to be well disbursed - some lost at sea, there was the potential to wash materials others creating the general clutter that into the Bight and then ashore during the we have objected to on both New Jersey period of concern. For comparison see the and Long Island beaches. progressive vector diagrams for the months of June and July 1987 (Figures 4 In 1976, the prevailing summer wind and 5). The winds were by and large to field intensified and was extremely the north and offshore. Floatables were persistent for a period of two weeks (9- not reported as a problem during June and 25 June), driving the floatable material July. northward and eastward and eventually ashore on Long Island. This wind condition was an important aspect Review of the 1987 summer contributing to the large-scale oxygen climatological information suggests that depletion in Bight bottom waters later in the normal southerly to southwesterly the summer. The winds created a reversal wind field was less persistent and less 795 energetic than normal. Throughout the however, if floatable material was in the summer the normal wind field was surface waters of the Bight, there was a interrupted with winds from the east and good possibility that it would be washed northeast. As a consequence of the less ashore. This would also include energetic winds, the northeasterly to carcasses of 'bottle nose dolphins that southwesterly flow of surface waters was may have died of natural or other causes., intensified. The Hudson-Raritan River Table I. a. Wind constancy for the plume stayed closer to the New Jersey months of June, July and August for 1976 coast than is typical of these months. and 1987 compared with the 25-year normr Currents and their loads of floatables 1949-73. veered shoreward in response to the winds b. wind energy for 1976 and from the east and northeast. 1987 expressed as a percentage of the Review of the wind records norm, 1949-73. relative to the historical record (1949 - 87) and the reference period (1949 - 73) Constancy indicates that the 1987 winds were on an average considerably different. For Month Norm 1976 1987 example, see Figures 6 and 7 that display the progressive vector diagram of the June 31.9 55.3 26.2 monthly resultant winds for the period May through September and June through July 39.1 38.8 28.7 August. The resultant vector for both the five month and three month cases are August 28.1 23.3 13.1 considerably shorter and slightly west of the 25-year mean resultant vector. b. Energy Statistically the lengths of the resultant vectors for the two periods are June 100 104 84 significantly different from the mean of the two series (historical record and July 100 104 67 reference period). The direction, however, is not. These conditions are August 100 129 94 indicative of the winds, having blown from easterly and northerly quadrants A major fact is that floatable more than usual. wastes are ubiquitous in the New York Bight. The sources of floatable waste in Meteorologists use a measure called the New York Bight are primarily from "constancy" as an indicator of the combined sewer outfalls, poor solid waste persistence of the wind blowing f rom a disposal practices, commercial and given direction. The higher the value, recreational boats, and outflows from the more persistent the wind; a steady bays and estuaries. Occasionally wind would have a constancy of 100. The accidental spills, illegal discharges, 25-year norms for June, July and August etc. , will add to the normal heavy at JFK Airport are tabulated. in Table I floatable load. Source reduction and more along with the corresponding values for intensive beach clean-up endeavors are 1976 and 1987. The lower values of the the only solutions to the problem as constancy in 1987 suggest that the wind meteorological and oceanographic was more variable about the mean conditions will often tend to intensify direction and that the wind did not just the quantity of floatables on the blow from the same southerly to beaches. ocean disposal of sewage sludge southwesterly direction, but with less at the 106 nautical mile site is not a intensity. These data indicate two significant contributor to the floatable unusual but totally different wind problem. fields. Thus stranded floatable material would be expected to be greater than Certain technological improvements normal f or each of the years but in one should be explored to reduce the case, on Long Island, on south shore quantities of floatable waste reaching beaches and in the other on New Jersey marine waters: beaches. - Improve operation and maintenance Interestingly, the meteorological of sewage treatment plants, conditions of 1987 contributed to relatively high dissolved oxygen levels - Strive to reduce or eliminate in nearshore bottom waters in the Bight. combined sewer overflows,(CSO), Thus while aggrevating the floatable situation in New Jersey, the summertime - Explore more thoroughly,alternatives climate also improved the health of for isolating material released to the bottom waters in 1987. Essentially, marine environment by combined sewer overflow, 796 - Continue to improve the process of removing litter and floatable debris from streets and other paved areas Figure 2 served by combined sewer systems, PROGRESSIVE VECTOR DIAGRAM - Improve solid waste handling DAILY WINDS SUMMER 1987 practices aimed toward recycling and 2 the use of wastes as an energy source,. 1.8 - AUGUST - Improve the process of transferring 1.6 - materials to landfills and reduce the 1.4 - 20 volume of material escaping to 1.2 - estuarine,and marine water from land- 1 fills, and 0.8 - 1 10 25 - Intensify removal of floatable L(Lni 0.6 - 3 materials from area beaches to reduce _j in 0' 0.4 - J__ !D 0.2 -0 Figure 1 z START PROGRESSIVE VECTOR DIAGRAM 0 AUGUST 1 DAILY WINDS - SUMMER 1987 -0.2 2 -0.4 1.8 -0.6 WASH-UP 1.6 MAY -0.8 EVENT 1.4 -1 1.2 6.6'-6.2 0'2 0'6 1' 1'4 1.'8 1 (Thousands) 0.8 f'n I` ,j 0 0.6 _j in 0.4 0 START z 0.2 MAY I 0 -0.2 51 H 10 -0.4 Figure 3 -0.6 WASH-UP -0.8 PROGRESSIVE VECTOR DIAGRAM 1 2 DAILY WINDS - SUMMER 1987 -1 -0.6 -0.2 0.2 0.6 1 1.4 1.8 MILES 1.8 SEPTEMBER (Thousands) 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 c@ 0.8 V) 'j 0 0.6 _j U) ;i Z' 0.4 0 F- 0.2 0 START z 0 SFPT j - 30 -0.2 - -0.4 - OFFSHORE -0.6 - EICONCENTRATIONS -0.8 - -1 1 T I -1 -6.6'-6.2 0.2 0.6 i 1.'4 1.'8 (Thousands) 10 21 @3 @TART Y@ 797 Figure 4 Figure 6 PROGRESSIVE VECTOR DIAGRAM ANNUAL P.V.D. OF MAY - SEPTEMBER 2 - DAlLY WINDS - SUMMER, 1987 13 - AIR MASSES, 1949 TO 1987 1.8 - 12 - 1.6 - JUNE 11 - 1.4 - 10 - 2 1.2 - 9 - 1 8 q 0.8 7 0.6 25 6 LLJ a 0.4 T 5 0 F- 20 E :3 cl@ 0 0.2 0 4 0 z 57-V START 13 JUNE 1 -0.2 10 15 2 -0.4 1 -0.6 0 -0.8 1 -2 -6.6 -6.2 0'2 0'6 1' 1'4 1.8 -3 (Thousands) -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 (Thousands) miles Figure 7 Figure 5 ANNUAL P.V.D. OF JUNE- AUGUST PROGRESSIVE VECTOR DIAGRAM AIR MASSES, 1949 TO 1987 2 DAILY WINDS -SUMMER,1987 12 1.8 JULY 3 1.6 10 1.4 15 25 1.2 1 2 8 U) En 0.8 6 10 0 c 0.6 U) Uj a E D -j (0 0 D 0 0.4 4 0.2 0 15 z 0 START JULY 1 2 -0.2 -0.4 0 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -2 0 8, 110 .1 112 -1 -6.6 -6.2 0'2 0'6 1.4 1.8 ('Thousa'nds) (Thousands) miles References Swanson, et al. 1978. June 1976 Pollution of Long Island Ocean Beaches. of the Environmental Engine Journal ering @2 @25 Division. ASCE, Vol. 104, No. EE6. pp1067-1085. 798 UNUSUAL INTENSIFICATION OF CHESAPEAKE BAY OYSTER DISEASES DURING RECENT DROUGHT CONDITIONS Eugene M. Burreson and Jay D. Andrews Virginia Institute of Marine Science School of Marine Science College of William and Mary Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 ABSTRACT hardest hit were the private planters who had been producing about 85% of the annual harvest. MSX Two protozoan parasites of oysters, Haplosporidium causes about 50% annual mortality in the endemic nelsoni (MSX) and Perkinsus marinus. have severely area (4) , and this rate is intolerable for limited the harvest of oysters in lower Chesapeake transplanted seed stocks that require two or three Bay during the past 30 years. The distribution and years to mature to marketable size. All of the abundance of both parasites appears to be regulated traditional private growing areas in the lower by salinity and the three consecutive drought years James River and Mobjack Bay have been abandoned from 1985-1987 have resulted in a dramatic increase since the early 1960's because of the continued in mortality from these diseases in Chesapeake Bay. presence of MSX. Oyster mortality from MSX in monitoring trays at VIMS was 77% and 78% for 1986 and 1987 The distribution and abundance of both diseases respectively. the highest values ever recorded in appear to be controlled by salinity. In years with 28 years of continuous monitoring. In addition. normal rainfall, MSX is restricted to the lower Bay Perkinsus was at record high levels and. for the and the lower portions of tributaries south of the first time in history. both diseases invaded and Rappahannock River (4). During periods of drought, caused serious mortality in the upper James River MSX may spread throughout upper Virginia and many seed-oyster area. The increased salinity resulting Maryland tributaries into populations of highly from low runoff over the watershed allowed both susceptible oysters, but it recedes as rapidly when diseases to spread deep into the Maryland portion salinity returns to normal. MSX requires about 15 of the Bay in 1987 and cause serious mortality. ppt salinity to infect oysters and usually does not Bay-wide oyster stocks are now severely depressed cause serious moralities unless summer salinity and prospects for rapid recovery are poor. reaches 18 to 20 ppt (4, 5) . However, these limitations are coupled with seasonal fluctuations in salinity that allow expulsion of the parasite in spring if salinity drops below 10 ppt for ten days INTRODUCTION or more (6, 7). Two protozoan parasites of oysters. Haplosporidium Perkinsus marinus requires only about 12 to 15 ppt nelsoni. popularly called MSX, and Perkinsus salinity to infect oysters and cause mortality marinus, popularly, but improperly. called Dermo. (3, 8). Therefore. it has a far wider endemic area cause serious annual oyster mortality along the than MSX and persists in nearly all Virginia Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. MSX tributaries and also in the lower portions of causes oyster mortality from Massachusetts to Maryland. Furthermore. Perkinsus is suppressed but Chesapeake Bay (1). and an organism similar to MSX not easily exterminated by low salinities. It can has been reported as far south as Florida (2). persist several years at low seasonal salinity Perkinsus causes mortality throughout Chesapeake without causing appreciable mortality. Nearly all Bay. south along the Atlantic coast, and in the oyster growing areas reach 12 to 15 ppt salinity Gulf of Mexico (3). during average summers. which allows some multiplication of Perkinsus. MSX first appeared in Delaware Bay in 1957 and spread to the lower Chesapeake Bay in 1959. METHODS Perkinsus has probably always been endemic in high salinity portions of the Bay and has caused The annual abundance of MSX in the endemic area is significant. but tolerable. mortality. However. determined by placing susceptible oysters from the within a few years of the appearance of MSX the upper James River seed area into trays in the lower annual Virginia oyster harvest decreased from an York River. Replicate trays of 500 oysters each average of about 3.5 million bushels to less than I are established on May lst each year. Counts of million bushels (Figure 1) . The industry in live and dead oysters are made semi-monthly Virginia has never recovered. During the 1960s through December. Dead oysters are removed. mortality was high on public oyster grounds. but Samples for histological diagnosis of MSX CH2585-8/88/0000- 799 $1 @1988 IEEE prevalence are removed in August. September and streamflow since 1985 has not been particularly low October. All gapers (recently dead oysters) are (Table 1). there has been greatly reduced winter processed for histological diagnosis. First season and spring streamflow which has allowed salinities (May - December) mortality is determined from the to increase far above normal. and the typical number of live oysters remaining in each tray after spring expulsion of MSX has not occurred in many adjusting for those removed for diagnosis. areas. MSX again invaded deep into the Maryland Abundance of Perkinsus is not adequately assessed portion of the Bay in 1987. Both MSX and Perkinsus in tray samples because this parasite spreads are presently at record high levels of intensity slowly into imported oysters. and have invaded farther into Virginia and Maryland tributaries than ever before. During 1986 and 1987 The annual distribution of MSX and Perkinsus. and the first season mortality from MSX in monitoring the intensity of Perkinsus. are determined by trays at VIMS was 77% and 78% respectively. the analyzing samples of native oysters from most highest values ever recorded in 28 years of growing areas in Virginia. Perkinsus is diagnosed continuous monitoring (Table 1). The prevalence of by the thioglycollate culture method (9). Perkinsus was greater than 90% in important growing areas such as Pocomoke Sound and the lower EFFECT OF DROUGHT CONDITIONS ON Rappahannock River and mortality was high. During DISEASE DISTRIBUTION AND INTENSITY 1987 there were only two locations in Maryland that did not have one of the two diseases (C. Austin There have been three prolonged droughts in Farley, Oxford Cooperative Laboratory. Oxford. MD. Chesapeake Bay during the period 1960 to 1987. personal communication) and in Virginia, for the During each multi-year drought, 1963-66, 1980-82, first time in history both diseases invaded and and 1985-87 (Table 1). MSX invaded upper Virginia caused serious mortality in the upper James River and many Maryland tributaries and caused extensive seed area, a region usually protected by low mortalities. MSX invaded deep into the Maryland salinity (Table 2). portion of the Bay in 1982 after a very dry 1981 (Table 1) . Only the years 1983 and 1984 brought Although Perkinsus was overshadowed by the high some relief from drought. These two years mortality caused by MSX during the 1960s and eliminated MSX in most areas above its endemic 1970s. it is presently the most serious threat to zone. but they did not stop Perkinsus which has oyster populations in the Bay. The spread of been steadily advancing up the Bay and increasing Perkinsus into areas with dense populations of in intensity during the 1980s. Even though annual susceptible oysters and favorable salinities has allowed a rapid intensification of infections and unusually rapid transmission from bed to bed rather, Table 1. First season (May-December) mortality than the more typical situation of confinement to a from MSX in monitoring trays and mean annual total single bed with slow transmission from oyster to streamflow in Chesapeake Bay (X 1000 CFS) oyster. Streamflow data from USGS. The intensification of Perkinsus and a comparison Year Mortality (%) Streamflow of the different responses of MSX and Perkinsus to low salinity is illustrated in Table 2. Neither 1960 30 77.3 disease was present at Wreck Shoal in June. 1987, 1961 33 78.0 but both MSX and Perkinsus became abundant during 1962 35 69.8 late summer and fall with a high proportion of 1963 42 52.4 heavy and moderate infections. During winter of 1964 44 61.9 1988. prevalence and intensity of Perkinsus 1965 56 49.0 1966 56 53.3 1967 62 77.2 Table 2. Prevalence and intensity of Haplospor 1968 44 60.1 idium nelsoni (MSX) and Perkinsus marinus at Wreck 1969 48 54.9 Shoal in the James River, Virginia seed area. 1970 42 77.2 1971 41 79.0 MSX Perkinsus 1972 7 131.8 DATE INF./EXAM.-% H-M-L* INF./EXAM.-% H-M-L 1973 20 95.2 1974 59 76.9 6-15-87 0/25 - 0 0/25 - 0 1975 51 103.1 8-20-87 12/25 - 48 1-1-10 14/25 - 56 0-0-14 1976 56 84.4 9-23-87 6/25 - 24 1-0-5 25/25 -100 3-6-16 1977 51 80.1 11-4-87 10/25 - 40 2-1-7 23/25 - 92 5-3-15 1978 42 91.3 1-7-88 10/25 - 40 4-1-5 20/25 - 80 1-1-18 1979 49 113.8 2-4-88 13/25 - 52 2-1-10 17/25 - 68 0-1-16 1980 56 64.0 3-2-88 14/25 - 56 2-0-12 17/25 - 68 1-2-14 1981 48 54.2 4-6-88 14/25 - 56 1-0-13 12/25 - 48 0-0-12 1982 38 73.0 4-27-88 13/25 - 52 1-0-12 4/25- 16 0-0-4 1983 30 88.2 6-6-88 9/25 - 36 3-2-4 14/25 - 56 3-3-8 1984 13 99.7 7-6-88 3/25 - 12 0-0-3 21/25 - 84 2-6-13 1985 42 68.4 7-27-88 3/25 - 12 0-0-3 22/25 - 88 10-3-9 1986 77 69.4 1987 78 74.0 *H=heavy infection, M--moderate. L=light 800 gradually declined, but MSX persisted through The increase in Virginia landings since 1985 is April. May. 1988 was very wet and by early misleading. Estimated overall mortality for public June salinity at Wreck Shoal was near 10 ppt. beds in Virginia during 1986 and 1987 was between Although there was some development of MSX in early 70 and 90% as a result of the combined effects of June as water temperature increased. it appears both MSX and Perkinsus. Because of the scarcity of that the low salinity greatly reduced the market oysters on most public beds in 1986. small prevalence and intensity of MSX (Table 2). seed oysters from the James River were harvested However. the prevalence of Perkinsus was not as market oysters for the first time in history. affected by the low salinity; it rapidly Prior to 1986, these small oysters were always intensified as temperature increased in early transplanted to private beds for additional growth. summer and heavy infections developed much earlier During the 1986/87 season. 68.4% of the market than in 1987. oysters harvested from public beds came from the James River seed area, and during the 1987/88 EFFECT OF DISEASES ON CHESAPEAKE BAY OYSTER HARVEST season. 91.0% of the oysters came from the James River seed area (VMRC, unpublished data). Thus. The drought conditions and resulting increase in the impact of diseases has caused a change in oyster disease intensity and distribution has been market oyster production in Virginia from the catastrophic for oyster populations. Total annual traditional harvest areas to the James River seed Chesapeake Bay oyster landings declined area. This change has resulted in a slightly dramatically in the early 1960s. primarily because increased harvest, but has effectively denied of the impact of MSX on Virginia Landings (Figure private planters an economical source of seed 1). A second major decrease in landings occurred oysters. and has concentrated the fishery in a very in the early 1980s as a result of the spread of MSX small area with risk of overfishing. With into Maryland and intensification of the disease in broodstocks already seriously depleted rapid Virginia. Harvest increased slightly as a result recovery of the industry is unlikely. of the wet years 1983 and 1984. but harvest in Maryland was depressed again in 1987, as a result of both diseases. 7.0- TOTAL LAND146S 6.0- VRr2N1A LANDINGS .......... MARYLAND LANDNGS C1 _J) 5.0- W 3: 4.0- co U- 0 3.0- Vo C13 z 0 2.0- 1.0- 0.0 m e Figure 1. Annual Chesapeake Bay oyster production.. Virginia data courtesy of the Virginia Marine Resources Commission; Maryland data courtesy of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources. vor, 801 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5. Haskin. H. H. and S. E. Ford. 1982. Haplosporidium nelsoni on Delaware Bay seed We thank Juanita Walker for expert diagnostic oyster beds: a host-parasite relationship along assistance for both MSX and Perkinsus. Kenny a salinity gradient. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 40: Walker. Beth Robinson and Judy Meyers assisted in 388-405. the field. Virginia Institute of Marine Science contribution no. 1477. 6. Andrews, J. D. 1983. Minchinia nelsoni (MSX) infections in the James River seed-oyster area REFERENCES and their expulsion in spring. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 16: 225-269. 1. Andrews, J. D. 1988. Haplosporidium nelsoni disease of oysters. Pgs. 291-295 In: 7. Ford, S. E. and H. H. Haskin. 1988. Sindermann, C. J. and D. V. Lightner (Eds.), Comparison of in vitro salinity tolerance of Disease Diagnosis and Control in North American the oyster parasite, Haplosporidium nelsoni Marine Aquaculture. 2nd Ed. Elsevier. (MSX) and hemocytes from the host. Crassostrea virginica. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 90A(l): 2. Hillman. R. E., P. D. Boehm and S. V. Freitas. 183-187. 1988. A pathology potpourri from the NOAA mussel watch program. J. Shellfish Res. 7(l): .8. Mackin, J. G. 1956. Dermocystidium marinum 216-217. and salinity. Proc. Nat. Sbellfisheries Assoc. 46: 116-1128. 3. Andrews, J. D. and W. G. Hewatt. 1957. Oyster mortality studies in Virginia. II. The fungus 9. Ray. S. M. 1952. A culture technique for disease caused by Dermocystidium marinum in diagnosis of infection with Dermocystidium oysters of Chesapeake Bay. Ecol. Monogr. 27: marinum Mackin. Owen, and Collier in oysters. 1-26. Science 116: 360. 4. Andrews. J. D. 1984. Epizootiology of diseases of oysters (Crassostrea virginica). and parasites of associated organisms in eastern North America. Helgolander Meeresunters. 37: 149-166. 802 DISTURBANCES IN CORAL REEFS: LESSONS FROM DIADEMA MASS MORTALITY AND CORAL BLEACHING Christopher F. D'Elia and Phillip R. Taylor Biological Oceanography Program, Division of Ocean Sciences National Science Foundation Washington, DC 20550 ABSTRACT programs, and we speculate where the best opportu- nities will arise for basic research to make funda- Population fluctuations are common features of ma- mental advances in understanding these population rine ecosystems. In western tropical Atlantic coral fluctuations. Finally, we argue that future scientific reefs, the sudden mass mortality of the sea urchin, credibility and success will depend in large part on Diadema antillarum. in 1983-84, and the widespread the ability of scientists to educate the public about the bleaching of corals, in 1987, were well publicized practical value of basic research and on the willing- events. Unfortunately, the causes are unknown. ness, in turn, of the public to support such research. Episodic perturbations like these frustrate a scientific 2. BACKGROUND Fommunity that is hard pressed to explain them to an impatient public. The typical a posteriori analysis Figure 1 illustrates a simple point that is perhaps employed seems ineffective to us in establishing cau- more simply made by the old aphorism that it does sality in such cases; instead, robust basic research little good to lock the barn after the horse has escaped. programs, undertaken by skilled observers and ex- One cannot easily deduce the cause of a population ex- perimentalists, offer more promise. We propose that plosion or mass mortality after it occurs: yet the hue periodic ecological disturbances in tropical benthic and cry is to investigate the direct effects on the sub- communities should be construed as natural experi- ject population, when the clues are sparse as to the Inents and opportunities to make observations lead- nature of the causative agent(s). In any case, if a ing to substantial insight into other aspects of ecologi- chain of causative events is suspected, distinguishing, cal function and population ecology. To support this, from proximate and ultimate causality is often impos- we compare ecological effects of Acanthaster out- sible after the fact. However, the great opporunity to breaks in the Pacific, Diadema mortality in the west- assess indirect effects on populations dependent on ern tropical Atlantic, and coral bleaching events in the subject population is not often appreciated. both places. Disturbances occur in virtually all ecosystems-rain forests to chaparral, coral reefs to the deep sea. The term "disturbance" as it pertains to ecological sys- 1. INTRODUCTION tems has been used wit@ ambiguity in the literature (see Pickett and White 2 for review); here we use it Population densities of marine organisms typically sensu Taylor and Littler to include all factors that di- vary widely with time. Such variations go mostly un- rectly or indirectly cause the removal of organisms noticed because the species in question is not a struc- and the freeing up of substratum. These factors could turally visible component of an ecosystem, because it include physical influences (storms, fire, ice scour- is economically unimportant, or because adequate ing, predators, active interference by competitors) and census information for it is unavailable. Occasional- physiological stresses (toxins, pathogens, pollutants, ly, scientists note radical changes in population den- extreme temperatures or salinities, etc.) which can sitV. Sometimes the public becomes aware of the affect morbidity, and in severe cases, mortality. scientific observations or alerts scientists to specific events. Only rarely can scientists provide adequate The spatial extent to which disturbances affect a com- cause-and- effect information to explain such phe- munity can vary tremendously. While most distur- pomena. Yet public impatience is growing with the bances have localized effects, such as individual pre- inability of scientists to provide adequate and timely dation events, a pulse of pollutants from a point answers, and scientists are recognizing the need to source, wide ranging effects seem more likely to re- address this disaffection. late to meso- or macroscale climate events, and in some cases, pathogens. Here we consider disturbanc- In this paper, we consider variations in the popula- es that act over very extensive areas, but it is impor- tion densities of several marine organisms that have tant to recognize that these are composed of the sum captured widespread public attention. We speculate of effects on local populations. about the causes of these events, which we term "idio- pathic," borrowing the term medical science applies Below we provide case study examples of region-wide to diseases arising from an obscure or unknown perturbations for coral reefs for which cause-and- cause. We use these examples to show that our best effect relationships are poorly defined. We will not re- clues to causes and effects of idiopathic population strict ourselves to Atlantic and Caribbean examples, fluctuations have come from strong basic research but will consider coral reefs world-wide. 803 United States Government work not protected by copyright Causative $ublect llh@ Indirectly Agent Population PF Affected Populations -pathogen Where Effects Are Where Effects Are -predator 'Competitor First Observed, Where Often Ignored,- -physical disturbance Efforts Are Typically Where More Effort -physiological stress Focused Should Be Focused Figure L A diagram relating typical agents of population disturbances to their proximate and ultimate effects. siderable loss of competent larvae by off-reef trans- 3. CASE STUDIES port). Crown-of-Thorns Population Explosions The lesson of Acanthaster is clear: clues to outbreaks rest not only in isolated studies of individual popula- The major effects in tropical Indo-Pacific reefs related tions, but in the development of a more synthetic un- to the well-known, but heretofore inscrutable out- derstanding of the ecosystems in which the species is breaks of Acanthaster planci. can be viewed from two found. We have gained little in trying to piece the very different foci-the causes and the consequences. puzzle together after the fact. However, the changes Viewed from either perspective, there is more hope that Acanthaster has wrought on coral reef commu- for understanding these population explosions if t e nities illustrate the key roles of the species most sus- entire system of predators, community associates, ceptible to it. and abiotic influences are not viewed simplistically from the perspective of isolated populations, but rath- Diadema er from the perspective of the entire ecosystem. The dramatic die-off in 1983 of Diadema antillarum in The effects of these population explosions of Acan- the western tropical Atlantic Ocean MA) remains a thaster are similar to those of the other examples giv- mystery with regard to its etiology", although in- @n below, i.e., coral bleaching and sea urchin die-offs formed guesses about the whats and why.1,can be in over-fished regions, in that reefs are suddenly left made. The speed and trajectory of the die-off ' impli- with vast amounts of "bare" substratum open to the cates water-born pathogens as potential causes. The processes of colonization and succession. initial observation at Galeta, Panama, at the Atlantic mouth of the Panama Canal hints at some trans- Understanding the cause of these population explo- canal introduction. With our very limited understand- sions results from understanding the population dy- ing of the role of marine pathogens in controlling flor- namics of Acanthaster, its reproductive life history, al and faunal populations, and our poor success at and contril-ling factors (chemical, physical and bio- isolation, identification, and culture of pathogens, dis- logical) in larval, juvenile, and adult stages. This is ease as a cause, will be difficult to pursue. not an easy pursuit, but is one in which attention to ecological complexity is paying off. Early, simplistic The consequences of the loss of this sea urchin from hypotheses related to pollution, loss of predators, and the entire WTA region, however, placed in context of adult behavior (see Potts' for review) have not been ro- basic research on herbivore-plant relationships, are bust enough to account for the occurrence of out- not surprising. This predictability rests on our knowl- breaks in geographically and ecologically different edge of the general role of such regularly encountered reef systems where levels of pollution, terrestrial in- urchins in shallow-water ecosystems of tropical and fluences, ambient nutrients for primary producers, temperate seas: (1) the intqrTelationships with prey, anthropogenic impacts and "normal" population den- competitors and predators"; (2) their reproductive sities of Acanthaster vary widely. Even Birkeland's4 ecology; (3) our understanding of the variation of ur- more mechanistic view of the importance of terrestri- chin densities in space; (4) qiq appreciation of the al runoff and plant nutrients does not appear to apply consequences of perturbations" to associated species to outbreaks in regions that are constantly oligotroph- populations of the commu 'nity/system, and ic and far from terrigenous influence. ous occurrences of abrupt population declinesh),YTv'_ Approaches directed at larval phases [email protected] This knowledge derives from basic research in popu- ple processes affecting recruitment . . . . offer lation and community ecology of marine grazer spe- much potential for understanding why population cies or systems in which grazers are common; it also densities can vary so widely. The abilities of larvae to clearly points to the need to consider such an "event" develop normally with V low phytoplankton densi- in the context of the system when we ask questions ties typical of coral reefs , the morphology and behav- about effects and causes. To understand the conse- ior of pre-settling larvae, the relationiNp between the quences of the demise of Diadema in the WTA, we occurrence of outbreaks and currents , a @he bathy- must also look at what has caused it to flourish in q@ have I much of this region. This is because the consequences metric patterns of observed recruitment ed Olson to predict (pers. comm.) that outbreaks occur are very much dependent upon antecedent conditions. stochastically following the unusual retention of large larval cohorts on reefs (the usual situation being con- Coastal harvesting of reef-associated fish stocks is in- 804 tense in many regions of the WTA (e.g., Haiti, Jamai- to confirm on a broader level what we know from ca, the Virgin Islands); it is relatively low-level in oth- more restrictive experimental manipulations. er regions (e.g., Belize, Honduras, some of the Baha- mas). The harvest is primarily by way of artisanal Coral Bleachin fisheries with a preponderance of use of gill nets and fish traps which can decimate fish populations. In Considerable attention was paid in the world press to heavily fished regions, primary competitors (parrot- observations in the fall, 1987, of widespread "bleach fish, surgeonfish, chubs) and predators (triggerfish, ing" of corals and other zooxanthellae-bearing cm- hogfish) of sea urchins are part of the acceptable darians throughout the Caribbean and Bahamas. The catch, with the result that urchins are released eco- term bleaching refers to the loss of algal endosymbi- I ically from major controlling elements in the natu- onts (i.e. zooxanthellae) from their host invertebrates, 'o rafreef arena. While not shown experimentally, there and it has been a well recognized phenoignon physi- existed in the VVTA prior to the 1983 die-off, a very ologically since the observations Yonge- , who was strong correlation between fishing pressure, reef fish among the first to observe it experimentally. Because stocks and the abundance of Diadema. This relation- bleaching typically occurs when hosts are exposed to ship was seen on regional as well as local geographic stresses such as oxygen deprivation, lowered salinity, scales. For example, in the U.S. Virgin Islands, local or elevated temperature, it is generally regarded as a areas protected from fishing pressure (U.S. National response to a pbysical perturbation, with the latter Parks and territorial reserves) exhibited rich reef fish usually associated with its ecological manifestation- populations and consequently much reduced urchin although there is no evidence to preclude a disease- densities inirgmpanson to nearby areas,without fish- based etiology. Public speculation as to the causes of ing controls". the event were essentially the same as those proposed for Dhaddema mortality several years before: pollution, On the basis of experiiiWital studip _% from before the disease, climate change, etc. die-off, Hay and Taylor and Hay"' contended that ov9rfishing on reefs encourages the success of sea ur- In fact, sporadic reports of transitory coral bleaching chins, particularly Diadema, via reduced population events in the WTA have been reE?JV . 2ftseein to re- controls of competition and predation. Once well esta- late well to temperature stress I , . However, blished, the urchins themselves can depress herbivor- we are not aware of any published scientific reports ous fish (competitor) populations by exploitation of re- documenting the previous widespread occurrence of sources and faci4tate their own success. From this, the phenomenon in the WTA, as was reported in the Hay and Taylor" predicted that in overfished areas, popular press for 1987. While there is no doubt that the loss of urchins will have a greater effect than in widespread observations of severe bleaching oc- non- fished areas because: curred, several problems have arisen in interpreting the seven't of the event: (1) many of the observations 1. Compensatory shifts in grazing pressure were anecYotal, not systematic, owing to the relatively' are hampered. Both functional and numerical limited presence of trained observers and researchers (recruitment and population increases) re- in the Caribbean; (2) no unifying causative agent sponses by the herbivorous fish guild to the could be identified after the fact; and (3) follow-up loss of urchins are needed in overfished re- studies have been limited owing to fiscal limitations gions, rather than the predominantly func- on research budget-, of nations in the Caribbean ba- tional responses (greater resource consump- sin. Moreover, the sensational nature of press reports tion per individual) in areas of lower fish has rendered it difficult to place the dimensions of the harvesting. problem in perspective. 2. The population density of urchins will be In contrast to the recent bleaching events in the WTA, larger due to the decreased abundance/impact there have been widespread observations of persistent of key urchin controls (predators). coral bleachings in the tropical Pacific that have beg well documented in the scientific literature. Glynn Intra-region comparisons of heavily fished and pro- provided convincing evidence that the widespread in- tected waters around St. Thomas following the 1983 cidence of this disturbance in the eastern Pacific was die-off support these general predictions, as do much associated with high temperature anomalies relating broader geogra p@ic comparisons, i.e., Belize vs. the to the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) of 1983- Virgin Islands . The effect of a >95% reduction in one that has been regarded as a 100-year event. urchin densities in Belize (it remains at better than 90% reduced to date) was essentially disguised by the The recovery of bleached hosts and the resultant long- rich and compensating fish assemblages of the barri- term ramifications of bleaching appear to relate to the er reef system. Community composition, algal pri- length of the stress event more than the size of the mary productivity and the abundance of algal assem- temperature anomaly, Corals that bleach as a result blages have remained within the realm of normal of short-term, acute temperature stress (up to about variation. The importance of ecological context is un- 40C over maximum thermal tolerance level) often ap- fortupt3tely not frequently recognized and consid- peq, ii? and repopulate with zooxanthel- ereq@ 2 r, 8.,9 Reports on the results of th g-off to lae n contrast, long-term, chronic tem- date , have focused only on what someTA , would perature stress (approximately 20C over maximum consider to be anomalous states of reef systems in thermal tolerance level) may cause massive mortality which fish populations are uncharacteristically low. to susceptible sn nd can lead tn. substantial eco- logical alterations "7 found that lipid W@9 Glynn et al.- The lesson from Diadema is straightforward: natural depletion in corals accompanied the loss of zooxan- experiments" (i.e. mass mortalities) have enabled us thellae and increased morbidity and mortality; they 805 suggested that a long-term influence on coral recov- cause medical science has a more constrainted focus ery to chronic temperature stress relates to the loss of and is more mature scientifically, but the comparison nutritional benefit of the zooxanthellae. Although dis- is nonetheless instructive. While medical science has ease does not appear to be the primary causative developed strong support for both a research compo- aWt of bleaching and mortality in the eastern Pacif- nent and a healing component that communicate ic", as a secondary effect, stressed corals ypear to with each other well, in the environmental sciences, be more susceptible to disease complications the diagnostic and "healing" component (i.e. environ- mental engineering) is poorly developed and commu- When chronic stresses occur, and when bleaching nicates poorly with the research component. There is and high mortality among susceptible species causes no equivalent of the M.D.-Ph.D. in the environmental shifts in community structure, populations depen- science s-someone trained equally to diagnose, to dent on corals as a nutritional source or habitat ex- treat, and to conduct research. In the environmental hibit effects comparable to those described above sciences, we rely on brute force engineering technolo- Acanthaster or Diadema For example, Glynn gy to diagnose and cure our ecological ills. While in found that the relative effect of corallivore predation medical science it would be preposterous to make nu- by Acanthaster and Arothron meleagris (a tetrodon- merical modeling the basis for diagnosis and cure, in tid pufferfish) increased after the 1983 bleaching and environmental science it is de rigueur. While medical coral mortality occurred. Not only were surviving science devotes massive resources to the study of pa- populations of bleaching- susceptible species more thology, in the environmental sciences there is no strongly affected by Acanthaster predation, but also equivalent interest in what might be termed ecopa- were populations of species that although insuscepti- thology, the study of the course of anomalous ecologi- ble to bleaching were more susceptible to Acanthaste cal events. While in medical science handbooks such predation and were often protected from corallivore as the Merck Manual offer physicians an orderly and predation by being surrounded by bleaching- codified guide to the etiology, pathology, diagnosis, susceptible species, but Acanthaster-insu8ceytible prognosis, and treatment of human disease, we have species-the loss of perimeter "defense" appeare to be not even a first approximation of that for environmen- an important factor in the declines of these species. tal science. Clearly, the lesson from the bleaching of corals, like In short, we in environmental science have done a that of other major reef disturbances has not been in poor job of summarizing, codifying and understand- what it has taught us about corals, but instead what it ing what ecosystems have and have not in common. has taught us about indirect ecological effects that Until we do better at this, our ability to diagnose or their population changes have had on other species. correct environmental ills will be extremely limited. We will not be able to do this without adequate basic 4. DISCUSSION research. Although it may never be practical or fully desirable to pattern "ecological medicine" on the mod- Prediction of the effects of idiopathic events on com- el of human medicine, it is probably worthwhile to plex communities is not easy, but in many systems draw eclectically from it. we have enough knowledge based on experimental and correlative studies to help us make educated 5. CONCLUSIONS guesses. If we can infer some generalities in the structuring elements of similar communities from a. Episodic, large-scale fluctuations in populations of geographically separate regions, with different spe- Caribbean marine organisms have received consider- cies components, then predictions may be readily able public notice, but ultimate cause-and-effect rela- achievable. These may derive from basic experimen- tionships are largely unknown. tal investigations, comparative observations, or local- ized perturbations that have affected the same species b*By focusing on proximate effects, i.e., population or related species or associates. Our existing under- fluctuations of a single species, we lose information standing of the habitat requirements, reproductive on ultimate causes. However, opportunities for natu- modes, life histories, trophic interactions, etc., should ral experiments exist infollowing the relations be- give us considerable insight into how communities tween affected species and species that it in turn af- will respond to species losses providing we are able to fects; such experiments have yielded useful generalize from this information. information in the past and offer promise in the fu- ture. Public impatience with science's lack of answers to anomalous events relates, in part, to poor public un- c. Failure of the public and public officials to under- derstanding of how science is conducted. It is axio- stand scientific limitations and to act accordingly can matic that science education and scientific communi- result in public loss of confidence in science and sci- cation to the public must be improved. However, as entists. We must improve science education and pub- environmental scientists, we must ask ourselves lic awareness of the strengths and limitations of what else we must do, and how we can become more science. predictive and better able to ascribe mechanisms to phenomena we observe. d. Continuing support of basic research provides the best opportunities for understanding ultimate cause- Some interesting comparisons can be made between and-effect relationships in idiopathic population de- medical science, which is clearly successful at diag- clines and outbursts. nosing and predicting the course of anomalous events (i.e. disease) and environmental science, which is e. The role of marine pathogens in the etiology of epi- clearly not. The comparison is somewhat unfair, be- sodic populations events is largely unstudied. 806 (14) Scheibling, R.E. and R.L. Stephenson 1984. Mass f. Anecdotal or press-related reports of episodic events mortality of Stronaylocentrotus droebachiensis cannot be relied upon as adequate documentation; we (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) off Nova Scotia, Cana- must rely on the peer-reviewed scientific literature for da. Mar. Biol. 78:153-164. that purpose. (15) Pearse, J.S. and A.H. Hines. 1979. Expansion of a g. A better understanding of "ecopathology" may re- central California kelp forest following the mass mor- sult if we do a better job of comparing ecosystems and tality of sea urchins. Mar. Biol. 51:83-91. codifying and summarizing their characteristics. (16) Hay, M.E. 1984. Patterns of fish and urchin graz- 6. REFERENCES ing on Caribbean coral reefs: are previous results typ- ical? Ecology 65:446-454. (1) Pickett, S.T.A. and P.S. White. 1985. The ecology of natural distubance and patch dynamics. Academic (17) Taylor, P.R., unpubl. Press, N.Y. (18) Carpenter, R.C. 1988. Mass mortality of a Caribb- (2) Taylor, P.R. and M.M. Littler. 1982. The roles of ean sea urchin: immediate effects on community compensatory mortality, physical disturbance, and metabolism and other herbivores. Proc. Nat. Acad. substrate retention in the development and organiza- Sci. 85: 511-514. tion of a sand-influenced, rocky-intertidal communi- ty. Ecology 63:135-146. (19) Hughes, T.P., D.C. Reed, and M.-J. Boyle. In press. Herbivory on coral reefs: community structure (3) Potts, D. 1981. Crown-of-thorn starfish-man- following mass mortalities of sea urchins. J. Exp. induced or natural phenomenon?, pp. 55-86. In: The Mar. Biol. Ecol. Ecology of Pests, R.L. Kitching and R.E. Jones, eds. Melbourne Press. (20) Yonge, C. M. 1931. Studies on the physiology of co- rals, pp. 83-91. Great Barrier Reef Exped. 1928-29, (4) Birkeland, C. 1982. Terrestrial runoff as a cause of Vol. 1, Brit. Mus. outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: As- teroidea). Mar. Biol. 69:175-185. (21) Shinn, E. A. 1966. Coral growth-rate, an environ- mental indicator. J. Paleontol. 40:233-240. (5) Olson, R.R. 1985 In situ culturing of larvae of the crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci. Mar. (22) Jaap, W.C. 1979. Observations on zooxanthellae Ecol. Prog. Ser. 25:207-210. expulsion at middle Sambo Reef, Florida Keys. Bull. Mar. Sci. 29:414-422. (6) Olson, R.R. 1987. In situ culturing as a test of the larval starvation hypothesis for the crown-of-thorns (23) Jaap, W. C. 1985. An epidemic zooxanthellae ex- starfish, Acanthaster planci. Limnol. Oceanogr. pulsion during 1983 in the lower Florida Keys coral 32:895-904. reefs: hyperthermic etiology. Proc. Fifth Int. Coral Reef Congr. 6:143-148. (7) Williams, D. McB., E. Wolanski, and J.C. An- drews. 1984. Transport mechanisms and the potential (24) Hudson, J.H, 1981. Response of Montastrea annu- movement of planktonic larvae in the central section !Uia to environmental change in the Florida Keys. of the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 3:229-236. Proc. Fourth Int. Coral Reef Symp. 2:233-240. (8) Yamaguchi, M. 1977. Larval behavior and geo- (25) Glynn, P.W. 1984. Widespread coral mortality graphic distribution of coral reef asteroids in the and the 1982-83 El Nino warming event. Environ. Indo-West Pacific. Micronesica 13:283-296. Conserv. 11:133-145. (9) Yamaguchi, M. 1986. Acanthaster planci infesta- (26) Glynn, P.W. 1985. El Nino-associated distur- tions of reefs and coral assemblages in Japan: a retro- bance to coral reefs and post disturbance mortality by spective analysis of control efforts. Coral Reefs 5:23-30. Acanthaster planci. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 26:295-300. (27) Glynn, P.W., M. Perez, and S.L. Gilchrist. 1985. (10) Moran, P. 1987. The Acanthaster phenomenon. Lipid decline in stressed corals and their crustacean Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 24:379-480. symbionts. Biol. Bull. 168:276-284. (11) Lessios, H.A., P.W. Glynn, and D.R. Robertson. (28) Glynn, P.W., E.C. Peters, and L. Muscatine. 1984. Mass mortalities of coral reef organisms. 1985. Coral tissue microstructure and necrosis: rela- Science 222:715. tion to catastrophic coral mortality in Panama. Dis. Aquat. Org. 1:29-37. (12) Lessios, H.A., D.R. Robertson, and J.D. Cubit. 1984. Spread of Diadema mass mortality through the (29) Antonius, A. 1985. Black band disease infection Caribbean. Science 226:335-337. experiments on hexacorals and octocorals. Proc. Fifth Int. Coral Reef Congr. 6:155-160. (13) Hay, M.E. and P.R. Taylor. 1985. Competition be- tween herbivorous fishes and urchins on Caribbean reefs. Oecologia 65:591-598. 807 RED TIDE, THE FIRST OCCURRENCE IN NORTH CAROLINA WATERS: AN OVERVIEW Patricia A.'Tester, Richard P. Stumpf 1, and Patricia K. Fowler 2 National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Southeast Fisheries Center, Beaufort Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516 National 2Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service, NOAA, Washington, DC 20235 North Carolina Department of Human Resources, Division of Health Services, Shellfish Sanitation Program, Morehead City, NC 28557 ABSTRACT On August 24, 1987, 68 days prior to the first reports of a red tide on the North Carolina On 2 November 1987, the toxic "red tide" dino- beaches, 6 P. brevis bloom was reported off flagellate, Ptychodiscus brevis, was identified Naples, FL. Satellite imagery (AVHRR) of sea from nearshore waters of North Carolina. This surface temperatures (SST) and thermal frontal massive and persistent red tide was a major bio- analyses of the position of the Gulf Stream geographic event and extended the range of P. showed a strong shoreward intrusion of the Gulf brevis by 800-900 km. Before the end of tt@ls Stream onto the continental shelf in Raleigh bloom some 3.5 months later, there were 48 Bay on 19 October, 19874. This warm filament cases of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning repor- continued to move shoreward and by 22 October ted in humans and over 1,480 km2 of shellfish was within 7 kin of the shore east of Cape harvesting waters were closed. This affected Lookout (Fig. 1). This parcel of water re- approximately 50% of the waters normally used mained intact for at least 17 days and in- for commercial harvest of oysters and 95-98% of shore waters of both Onslow and Raleigh Bays those areas used for commercial harvest of warmed from less than 210C to 22-240C in clams. The economic loss to the coastal com- about 6 days. Dinoflagellate blooms develop munity was conservatively estimated at $25 mil- in a defined water mass and the sustained lion. The following is a summary of this event. integrity of this water mass determines the duration and extent of a bloom 5. The original parcel of warm water remained intact until 1. OCCURRENCE AND TRANSPORT OF THE BLOOM mid to late November. Satellite imagery of SSTs on 14 December 1987 indicated that On the weekend of 31 October-1 November 1987, another parcel of Gulf Stream water had entered there were reports from people on or near the Raleigh Bay, keeping nearshore water tempera- beach (Emerald Isle on Bogue Banks, NC 34038'N tures warm enough to maintain the P. brevis 77006'W) of water discoloration and eye and bloom6. respiratory distress and skin irritation. These symptoms are frequently recorded during 2. CELL CONCENTRATIONS AND SHELLFISH Florida red tides where waters are closed to HARVESTING BAN shellfishing when P brevis concentrations reach 5,000 cells/_11.@ Normally this species Since P. brevis cells are both motile and is present in the Gulf of Mexico in low con- positively phototactic7, they can concentrate centrations (<1,000 cells/1) but blooms on the surface during the day and physical fac- (>5,000 cells/1) can develop offshore and tors such as percent cloud cover, winds, cur- about 25% of these reach rxearshore areas along rents, and tides affect their distribution. The the west coast of Florida2. There have only highest and most persistent concentrations of been three documented cases of P. brevis cells P. brevis cells were immediately adjacent to the cnthe Atlantic coast of Florida and each of parcel of Gulf Stream water. The highest cell these occurrences was preceded by a bloom on concentrations of this bloom (2,000,000 the west coast. Murphy et al.3 documented cells/1) were within 18 km of Cape Lookout on the transport of cells @Tot'h_e Atlantic coast 4 November, 1987. P. brevis cell concentra- of Florida via the Florida Current-Gulf Stream tions were generall7y @;1_001000 cells/l from System. Each of these three "transported" Cape Lookout Bight to 100 km southwest into blooms occurred in October and none lasted Onslow Bay from 3 November 1987 to late Decem- much more than a week. ber 19874. Based on recommendations of the FDA8 and procedures followed by the Florida Department of Natural Resourcesi, shellfish The U. S. Government has the right to retain waters were closed to harvesting when P. a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and brevis cells exceeded 5,000 cells/l. to any copyright covering this paper. CH2585-8/88/0000- 808 $1 @1988 IEEE October 22, 1987 Scale 360 00' 0 50 km Cape Hatteras a, 35000, Cape T-t@ Lookout No 2 0 34" 00' 770 00' 760 100' 1330 00' Figure 1. strong shoreward intrusion of the Gulf Stream onto the continental shelf in Raleigh Bay, 22 October 1987. Center of water parcel from the Gulf Stream is 280 C (solid). Drawings based on satellite imagery of sea surface temperatures from S. Baig, National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, FL, J. Clark, National Ocean Service, Camp Springs, MD, T. Lemming, National Marine Fisheries Service, NSTL, MS and R. Stumpf, National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service, Washington, DC. 809 As cells were moved into different areas along P. brevis. We consider it more likely that the coast, sampling efforts were extended and any future red tide bloom in North Carolina additional closures of shellfish beds resulted. waters will result from the transport of The initial closure of 375 km2 was on 2 November organisms by a sequence of physical oceano- and was followed by 5 more closures to include graphic events similar to those which caused more than 400 km of coastline (1,480 km2 of this bloom. Any future efforts to predict shellfish harvesting area). these blooms should consider factors affecting the variability of the Florida Current-Gulf 3. TOXICITY TESTS AND REOPENING OF SHELLFISH Stream System and Continental -9helf transport AREAS mechanisms. P. brevis produces several neurotoxins which 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS can accumulate in filter-feeding shellfish causing mild to severe nausea, vomiting, We would like to thank R.L. Ferguson and P.J. diarrhea, chills, dizziness, numbness and Hanson who collected the samples on 2 November tingling of face, hands or feed within 3 to from which the initial observations and identi- 4 hours after consumption of contaminated fication were made, G.H. Gilbert, D.L. Mason, shellfish. P. brevis toxin can be detected S.W. Mobley, D.P. Clawson, J.P. Lewis, J. King, in shellfisl;-me@a_tsby a standardized mouse bio- L. Brooks, T.D. Willis, L. Settle and T. Stiles assay8 and all openings of shellfish harvest- for sampling and/or counting assistance and ing ar'eas were based on bioassay test results. J. Overton and his staff for their technical The first reopening of a shellfish harvesting assistance. K.A. Steidinger, C. Tomas, and area was on 19 February 1988, some 3.5 months B.S. Roberts we re particularly helpful during after the bloom first occurred. All re- this bloom. Travel funds were provided by the openings prior to 31 March 1988 were for Southeastern Massachusetts University Research clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) only. Oysters Committee for J.T. Turner and his help and support (Crassostrea virginica) apparently depurated made our work far easier. We had an unusual the brevitoxins more slowly. On 31 March level of cooperation, understanding and facili- about 21 km2 of oyster harvesting area was tation from our colleagues and we would espec- reopened but the 80 km reach extending south- ially like to acknowledge F.A. Cross, D.E. Hoss, west of Cape Lookout remained closed until W. Hogarth, and R. Benton for their support. 6 May 1988. This was the area of highest P. brevis cell concentrations as well as 7. REFERENCES the highest toxicity according to the bioassay results9. 1. Florida-Department of Natural Resources, Contingency.plan for control of shellfish 4. NEUROTOXIC SHELLFISH POISONING potentially contaminated by marine bio- toxins. Bureau of Marine Research, St. The epidemiological investigation of cases of Petersburg, FL (1985). neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) revealed that 48 persons were confirmed to have become 2. Steidinger, K.A., Basic factors influencing ill from consumption of shellfish that were red tides. In Proceedings of the First affected by the P. brevis toxin". The ill- International Conference on Toxic Dino- ness was generally mild and of short duration flagellate Blooms (ed. V.R. LoCicero) 153- (mean = 17 hours). Thirty-five of 48 cases 162, Massachusetts Science and Technology (73%) occurred before the first ban on shell- Foundation, Wakefield, MA (1975). fish harvesting was instituted on 2 November and the majority of illness occurred between 3. Murphy, E.B., K.A. Steidinger, B.S. Roberts, 27 October and 5 November 1987. An illness J. Williams and J.W. Jolley, Jr., An that occurred in December was from shellfish explanation for the Florida east coast harvested on 31 October and frozen. Most of Gymnodiniurn breve red tide of November, the people affected by NSP lived along the 1972. Limnology and Oceanography 20:481- North Carolina coast from Cape Lookout to 486 (1975). 75 km southwest. 4. Tester, P.A., J.T. Turner and P.K. Fowler, 5. EPILOGUE Gulf stream transport of the toxic dino- flagellate Ptychodiscus brevis. Submitted Whether this red tide bloom represents true (1988). dispersal of the species or is simply a "transported bloom" of expatriate organisms 5. Steidinger, K.A. and K. Haddad, Biological is not yet known. Some toxic dinoflagel- and hydrological aspects of red tides. lates produce encysted zygotes that remains BioScience 31:814-819 (1981). dormant in sediment as part of a sexual life cycle". In such cases, cysts may seed near- 6. Stumpf, R.P., National Environmental Satel- shore waters for future red tide blooms. A lite Data and Information Service, NOAA, true dormant (zygotic) cyst is not known for Washington, D.C., unpublished data. 810 7. Steidinger, K.A. and R.M. Ingle, Observations on the 1971 summer red tide in Tampa Bay, Florida. Environmental Letters 3:271-278 (1972). 8. National Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Operations, Part 1. Sanitation of shellfish growing areas, U.S. Depart- ment of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, FDA, Shellfish Sanitation Branch, Washington, DC (1986). 9. Tester, P.A. and P.K. Fowler, Effects of the toxic dinoflagellate (Ptychodiscus brevis) on the contamination, toxicity and depuration of Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria mercenaria. In preparation. 10. Morris, P., Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, North Carolina, 1987. Department of Public Health, Epidemiology Branch, Raleigh, NC, unpublished report. 11. Walker, L.M., Evidence for a sexual cycle in the Florida red tide dinoflagellate, Ptychodiscus brevis (=Gymnodinium breve). .-j'f- Transactions the American Microscopical Society 101:287-293 (1982). 811 PATHOLOGY OF THE DISEASED DOLPHINS Delmar R. Cassidy, Arthur J. Davis, Allen L. Jenny, and Dennis A. Saari National Veterinary Services Laboratories Ames, Iowa 50010 Tissue to be examined by transmission electron Introduction microscopy were stained with a five,percen- taqueous solution of uranyl acetatek/) and the During the Summer and Fall of 1987, approximately Venable-Cogsill method for Lead Citrate.(5) Tis- 750 Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) died sues to be examined for the presence and location along the eastern and gulf coasts of the United of lipid deposits were stained with one percent States. Mortality of such magnitude affecting osmium tetroxide(7). Examinations of the tissues animals of all ages, both sexes and in different were.conducted by diagnostic veterinary nutritional states has not been previously pathologists and an electron microscopist. reported. A response team of scientists focused Results on the problem in an attempt to study and, if possible, determine the cause of the deaths. The pathology studies involved the necropsy of This paper presents the results of the pathology dead animals and collection, fixation, process- portion of the study. Standard methods .of. ing, staining, and examination of approximately examination including necropsy, light microscopy, and electron microscopy were utilized. ,Our 400 tissues. Fifteen of the tissues were results indicate that death of the dolphins, in examined by electron microscopy. most cases, came as a result'of an overwhelming Among the more frequently observed gross bacterial infection. Whether this occurred due lesions were the following: to increased virulence of bacteria with which the dolphin has co-existed for many years, or whether 1. Sloughing of large areas of skin to the level some as yet unidentified mechanisms caused a of the subcutaneous tissue. Many of the skin reduction in nonspecific disease resistance and/ lesions, according to Dr. Joseph Geraci, or immunosuppression of the dolphins was not resembled burns from phenol and hydrochloric acid determined by this study. which he had observed in dolphins earlier in his Materials and Methods career. Dolphin tissues were collected .during the 2. Ulcers on the palate, gingiva, lips, tongue, postmortem examination at the Dolphin Study Cen- and skin. ter at Virginia Beach and the Brigantine Strand- 3. Large volumes of port wine-colored fluid in ing Center, Brigantine, New Jersey. The majority the abdominal and thoracic body cavities. of dolphins necropsied were found along the beach. after being washed ashore. In many cases, the 1 4. Spleens enlarged two to three times normal putrefactive, postmortem changes were so advanced size. that the carcasses were useless for laboratory studies and had to be discarded. 5. Yellow discoloration and emphysema of the Tissues collected during necropsy and considered pancreas. suitable for microscopic examination were placed 6. Urinary bladder filled with coffee-colored in 10 percent phosphate-buffered formalin solu- urine. tion. Tissues selected for electron microscopy were cut into I mm cubes and placed in 2.5 per- 7. Pulmonary congestion, hemorrhagic infarction, cent sodium cacodylate-buffered glutaraldehyde and/or bronchopneumonia. solution. Processing and staining of the tissues were by previously published standard methods.1,2 8. Liver abnormalities ranging from severe fatty All tissues for light microscopic examination change to extensive cirrhosis (fibrosis). were stained by the Harris Method for Hematoxylin 9. Brain hemorrhages. and Eosin.2 Where indicated, selected tissues were stained with Gomori's Methenamine Silver, Examination by light microscopy disclosed a wide the Periodic Acid Schiff Reaction method, and Brown and Brenn's tissue Gram stain.(2) variety of pathomorphic tissue alterations attributable to septicemia. The tissue sections 812 United States Government work not protected by copyright microscopy, a consistent finding was the presence contained areas of infarction and numerous of septic thrombi blocking the underlying vas- thrombi in the blood vessels. Myriads of culature. The lack of oxygen and nutrients bacteria were present in many of the thrombi and resulted in the death of the tissue. Many of the appeared to have invaded the walls of blood ves- morphologic manifestations of shock, specifically sels and passed through them into the adjacent of septic shock, which we observe in domesticated tissues. Electron microscopy also demonstrated land animals, were present in varying extent and this change. In many cases, inflammatory cells number frequency in these cetaceans. Some of had surrounded and engulfed the bacteria. In these changes include acute renal tubular several lungs, changes typical of a bacterial necrosis, disseminated intravascular coagulation pneumonia were observed along with a concurrent (widespread clotting within blood vessels) ', mycotic pneumonia. The ulcers and other areas ok sludging or slowing of the blood circulation, and degeneration in the skin were with few exceptions visceral pooling of bood. The manifestations of associated with septic thromboemboli within blood septic shock.when compared with the observations vessels supplying the area. Within the kidneys, made during the necropsy of the dolphins appear changes of acute tubular necrosis were present to be compatible in many respects. Bacteria are along with thromboembolism of the blood vessels. the most likely etiogenic agent of these lesions A fibrinopurulent necrotizing myositis with in view of there frequent occurrence within his- severe diffuse necrotizing vasculitis was present tologic lesion and the large number of isolations in many of the skeletal muscle sections. In the made from the tissues. heart sections, bacterial emboli were detected within the blood vessels'and in some cases, bac- The changes observed microscopically suggest that teria had invaded the blood vessel walls. In an overwhelming Gram-negative, bacterial infec- both lymph nodes and spleens, the most remarkable tion with resulting endotoxemia was the primary changes were the paucity of lymphocytes, areas of cause of septic shock and the death of the necrosis, and bacterial emboli within the vas- dolphins. culature. In the other tissues examined, lesions identical or closely resembling the lesions If the above inferences are correct, what factors described above were seen. The presence of colo-'; are responsible? Two possibilities with the most nies of bacteria in normal appearing tissues were proponents are 1) that the animals became also observed. In many instances, the bacteria immunosuppressed or had increased susceptibility were large Gram positive bacilli. These changes to various organisms or, 2) the virulence of the are recognized as postmortem events occurring causative bacteria became increased by some, as after the death of the animal being examined. yet, undeterm ined mechanism. Discussion While there are several procedures capable of evaluating humoral and cell-mediated immunity as During the die-off of.Bottlenose Dolphins well as macrophage functions, they were not (Tursiops truncatus) along the eastern and gulf applicable to this situation. This was due to coasts of the United States in the Summer and the nature and quality of the specimens and the Fall of 1987, reporting agencies estimated that logistical difficulties previously mentioned. at least 750 Bottlenose Dolphins died. Due to Some observations made during the course of this environmental conditions which enhanced the auto- study support the hypothesis that immunosuppres- lytic and putrefactive decomposition of the dol- sion of the dolphin immune system could have- phin carcasses, less than five percent of played a role in the death of the animals, e.g., thesespecimens were suitable for comprehensive lymphocyte depletion in the spleen and lymph laboratory examination, i.e., bacteriology, nodes and mycotic pneumonia in several of the virology, toxicology, parasitology, and pathology animals. Tissue levels of several potentially immunosuppressive agents are being studied by the studies. The frequent delays in transporting the Pathobiology Laboratory of the National Veteri- specimens from Brigantine, New Jersey, and nary Services Laboratories, however, no defini- Virginia Beach, Virginia, study centers to Ames, tive data was available at the time this Iowa, was due to less than ideal air carrier I presentation was in preparation. scheduling compounded the loss of specimens from decomposition. Increased virulence of the bacteria interfacing To conduct a meaningful examination of tissue by with dolphins in the affected pods is another light or electron microscopy, the specimens must possibility currently being studied by two groups be removed from the carcass and placed in fixa- of scientists in Maryland. tive as soon as feasible. This enhances fixation of the tissue cells thereby retaining the Bibliograph greatest possible degree of structural detail necessary for an accurate diagnosis. The 1. Thompson, R.G. 1984. General Veterinary inability to achieve this accounts for the small Pathology. 2nd Ed. W. B. Saunders Company, number of specimens examined at the laboratory. pp. 431-433. The pathomorphic changes present in the epidermis 2. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 1960. of these dolphins appeared during gross examinA- Manual of Histologic and Special Staining Tech- tion to be the niques. 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, result of caustic or corrosive New York. p. 32. chemicals. However, when examined bv light 813 3. LaVia, F. and Hill, R.B. 1972. Principles of Pathobiology. oxford University Press, New York. pp. 149-152. 4. Muneer, M.A., Farah, 1.0., Neuman, J.0., and Goyal, S.M. 1988. Immunosuppression in Animals. British Veterinary Journal 144. p. 288. 5. Venable, H. and Coggeshall, R. 1965. A Simplified Lead Citrate Stain For Use in Electron Microscopy. Journal of Cell Biology 25. pp. 407-408. 6. Glauert, A.M. 1974. Practical Methods in Electron Microscopy. Part I: Fixation, Dehydra- tion and Embedding of Biological Specimens. American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc, New York. p. 60. 7. Hayat, M.A. 1970. Principles and Techniques of Electron Microscopy. Vol. I. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. pp 264-274, 283-285. 814 STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 1987 BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN DIE-OFF IN VIRGINIA. James G. Mead, Charles W. Potter and William A. McLellan National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC ABSTRACT The mortality affected all age classes (Figure 1)..and is important as it is the A sample of 153 bottlenose dolphins only sample of a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) that died during 1987 population that can be considered random. was examined. The age and sex composition That led us to treat it as a separate led us to believe that the factor that sample instead of merging it with our increased the mortality was random with long-term data base. This sample should respect to those parameters. There were 3 valuable in trying to deduce the causes of lactating and 3 pregnant as well as non the mortality. reproductively active females in the sample. The sex ratio was 69 females to MATERIALS AND METHODS 66 males, 16 sex unknown. There were 19 sexually mature females, 20 sexually The Marine Mammal Program of the mature males and 11 dependent calves in Smithsonian Institution examined 153 the sample. The ratio of dependent calves (Figure 1) specimens of dead bottlenose to lactating females (3.6:1) indicates dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) that were greater mortality in calves than in mature found on the coasts of Virginia during the animals. months of June through October 1787. Skulls, gonads, stomach contents, vertebral epiphyses, and external INTRODUCTION morphometrics were collected. The summer of 19e7 was unusually warm, providing a In July of 1987 we began to notice handicap in dealing with carcasses. The increased mortality in the bottlenose study lost important data from some dolphin, Tursiops truncatus in Virginia. animals due to decomposition. We had been monitoring cetacean mortality for more than ten years and the historic One tooth was longitudinally sectioned and data (1977-86) provided an average ground to about 150 microns. The section mortality for Virginia in July of was stored in water and examined under a 0.9/year. After 10 animals had been stereo dissecting microscope which was reported in July of 1987 we felt that we equipped with a set of simple photographic were dealing with an unusual situation. polarizing filters. Age estimates were We reported our findings to the Marine made by counting the growth layer groups Mammal Commission and the National Marine following the procedures outlined in Fisheries Service and they rapidly Perrin and Myrick (1980). convened the Dolphin Response Team under the direction of Dr. Joseph Geraci. Mammary glands were examined visually for presence of milk. Ovaries and a sample of Although mortality had been reported from the mammary gland were preserved in 10% North Carolina to New Jersey, we felt that formaldehyde. The ovaries were examined it was best to concentrate our efforts in for the presence of corpora albicantia and what seemed to be the most active center corpora lutea. Presence of either of of mortality, the Norfolk - Virginia Beach those bodies indicated sexual maturity. area. When the morality tapered off in Virginia at the end of October, there had Samples of testes was sectioned and been 233 reported carcasses, 166 of which stained with Berg's stain (Berg 1963). were examined by biologists. In normal Testes samples were then examined under a years (1777-B6) the average for those compound microscope and were scored as months is 4.9. The causative agent immature (no visible sperm or spermat,ids)v responsible for this mortality has not maturing (trace of sperm or spermatids) or been defined as of the end of July 1988. mature (abundant sperm or spermatids). 815 United States Government work not protected by copyright RESULTS towards representation of calves in the sample bya factor of almost 4. Looking Reproduction - females at the ratio of males/females above age 6 (Figure 1), we find 28 males to 18 Of 83 females in the sample, 11 proved females, a ratio of 1.6:1. or, to put it sexually mature and 13 sexually immature. another way, there were 45% more males The longest sexually immature female was than females in this sample. If we assume 230 cm in total length, the shortest that the sex ratio should be 1/1 then some mature female was 236 cm. Using 236 cm as factor led to a decreased abundance of the point at which females become sexually sexually mature females in our sample. mature, all 19 females in the sample with Even if we increase the adult female total lengths exceeding 236 cm were portion of the sample by 45%, we obtain classified as sexually mature. between 4 and 5 lactating females, which Unfortunately we were unable to examine still leaves a 2:1 calf/female ratio. the gonads on 8 of those. The females reached sexual maturity at between 2.2 and It is logical to expect that the normal 6.0 growth layer groups. The oldest natural mortality should be highest in immature female had 5 growth layer groups. calves and that any factor that leads to an increased mortality rate will have a Of the 11 mature females, 3 were pregnant disproportionate effect on the calf And 3 were lactating. Two fetuses were population. Other than that factor there near-term (93 and 110 cm total length) and is nothing in the age or sex structure of one was mid-term (22 cm total length). this sample that leads us to believe it is non-random. Reproductian - males ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Of 55 males in the sample, we were able to confirm 7 sexually mature and 12 sexually We would like to thank the many people immature males, based on presence of whose help made this study possible. Dr. abundant sperm in the testes. The maximum Joseph Geraci, who headed the Dolphin testis length of a sexually immature male Response Team, (University of Guelph), Dr. was 12.3 cm, of maturing males, 12.7 cm. Robert Hofman and John Twiss (Marine The minimum length of a mature testis was Mammal Commission), Dr. Gerald Scottv Fred 13 cm; therefore we can say that males George and Thomas McIntyre (National reach sexual maturity at a testis length Marine Fisheries Service), Gregory Early of 12.7 - 15 cm. The longest sexually (New England Aquarium), Susan Barco and immature male was 242 cm in total length, Mark Swingle (Virginia Marine Science the shortest sexually mature male was Museum) and Wayne Creef (Virginia Beach 248cm. The youngest sexually mature male Beautification Department). Mary Bagladi had 8 growth layer groups in its teeth and prepared the tooth sections on contract. the oldest sexually immature male had 9. This was investigation was aided by an Using 248 cm as the point at which males Interagency Agreement (No. 47-0000-16-MMC- become sexually mature, there were 20 01) from the Marine Mammal Commission and mature males in the sample and 39 immature a grant from the Research Opportunities males. Fund of the Smithsonian Institution. Reproduction - calves LITERATURE CITED Mead and Potter (in press) considered 150 Berg, J. W. 1963 Differential staining cm in total length to be the mean length of spermatozoa in sections of testis. at weaning. There were 11 animals with American Journal of Clinical lengths shorter than 150 cm in this Pathology, 23:513-515., sample. Extrapolating from the growth curve presented by Mead and Potter, there Mead, J. q. and Potter, C. W. (in press) were 22 animals less than a year old (less Natural History of bottlenose than 170 cm in total length) and 14 do'lphins along the central Atlantic yearlings (between 1 and 2 years old; coast of the United States in total lengths between 170 and 200 cm). Leatherwood, J. S. and Reeves, R. R. This was confirmed by the tooth sections (ed).The Bottlenose Dolphin, Tursiops for this sample. spp.,, @cademic Press. Sample Biases Perrin, W. F. and Myrick, A. C. (eds) 1980 Age, determination of toothed whales In an unbiased sample there should be a and sirenians. International Whaling 1:1 ratio of calves to lactating females. Commission, Special Issue 3, viii + The ratio of calves to lactating females 229 P.P. (3.6:1) indicates that there is a bias 816 Virginia Tursiops Mortality 1967 - use/box commposition 30- Z4 - Z2 - zo - 18- 16- 14- 12- INN z 0 0-1 2-3 4-5 6-7 0-9 10-11 12-13 14-15 16-20 21+ P-71 A B C I) CKM E AGE CLASS Figure 1. Age/sex distribution of the 1987 Tursiops mortality in Virginia. Age classes are in growth layer groups. A = sexually immature females, B = sexually immature males, C = sexually mature females, D sexually mature males, E sex unknown. 817 RESULTS OF THE DOLPHIN EPIDEMIC INVESTIGATION AS THE DISEASE WAS PRESENTED IN NEW JERSEY SPECIMENS OF B07MENOSE DOLPHINS IN 1987 William Medway, Ph.D., DVM University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine Philadelphia, PA 19104 Dolphins examined from New Jersey waters demonstrated pox inclusion particles in several tissues. Pox-like lesions were .found around the lips and snout and in soft tissue of the mouth. Histopathologic studies showed pox inclusion bodies which were confirmed by electron microscopy. The significance of the pox virus findings in the overall disease presentation is discussed. CH25054/8810000- 818 $1 @1988 IEEE THE DOLPHIN DIEOFF: LONG-TERM EFFECTS AND RECOVERY OF THE POPUI-ATION Gerald P. Scott, Douglas M. Burn and Larry J. Hansen NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center, Miami Laboratory 75 Virginia Beach Drive Miami, Florida 33149 ABSTRACT information on the biology and status of the affected bottlenose dolphin population is presented in six sections: spatial and temporal distribution, The 1987-88 mortality of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) along the stock differentiation, change in population levels, estimates of human-in- U.S. Atlantic coast was an order of magnitude greater than the prior three duced mortality, OSP, and estimates of recovery. year average primarily due to an apparent disease epidemic. Although both coastal and offshore stocks of dolphins are believed to inhabit the waters 2. SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION off the east coast, population surveys and biological samples from stranded and live-captured animals suggests that the observed mortality was prin- Bottlenose dolphins are distributed throughout U.S. Gulf of Mexico and cipally from a mid-Atlantic coastal, migratory stock of dolphins. Available U.S. Atlantic waters. In the U.S. Atlantic, this species is distributed along data suggest a decline of at least 53% in the stock abundance may have oc- the coast from Long Island, NY to the Florida Keys (1,2). North of Cape curred. If this degree of reduction has occurred and this stock proves to be Hatteras, NC, this species demonstrates a disjunct distribution, with con- reproductively isolated, then the stock is likely below its optimum sus- tainable population (OSP) level, and thus a depleted stock. Population trajectories from a 53% reduction level were simulated using a range of vital a b rate and other demographic parameter values. Under the parameter as- sumptions used for calculations, no combinations resulted in trajectories toward extinction. The resulting distributions of recovery time to the lower limit of OSP were strongly skewed. In the absence of human-induced mor- tality, the median time to recovery was 32.5 yr (range, 14-90 yr). Under the SUMMER assumption of a constant human-induced mortality rate equal to estimates of pre-event rates, the time to recovery estimates ranged from 18 to 100 + yr with, a median time to recovery of 50.5 yr. In more than 20% of the cases simulated with human-induced mortality, recovery was not achieved within 100 yrs. WINTER 1. INTRODUCTION In the United States, marine mammal populations are managed under the legislative authority of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of Figure 1. a) Distributional range of bottlenose dolphins along the U.S. Atlan- 1972 (as amended). The management goal defined in the MMPA is op- tic coast. b) Areas of major concentrations of coastal migratory stock of timum sustainable population (OSP) level, which has been defined to be bottlenose dolphins during summer and winter. population levels at or greater than those that produce maximum net productivity (MNP) to the ecosystem carrying capacity. Population stocks outside of OSP (below MNP) are defined as depleted. Removal of animals centrations of animals near-shore (in embayments and within several (incidental bycatch, live-capture, etc.) can be legally authorized from non- kilometers of the coast) and offshore, near the continental shelf margin, depleted stocks. from 60 to 200 km from the coast. South of Cape Hatteras, the near- shore/offshore distribution pattern is less distinct and there appear to be Although there is considerably more information on bottlenose dolphins latitudinal clusters of animal concentration rather than the longitudinally than most other cetacean species, for the most part, information necessary discrete concentration areas found north of Cape Hatteras (Fig. 1a). for determination of stock status relative to OSP levels is inadequate. Generally, Iong, consistent indices of population production and abun- Seasonal density distribution patterns have been described for waters north dance are necessary to determine OSP. However, there are cases where of Cape Hatteras (1) and for U.S. waters south of Cape Hatteras (2). During catastrophic changes in populations can occur, thereby allowing assessment summer in the U.S. Atlantic, bottlenose dolphins are distributed along the of the degree of change and status relative to OSP. The recent massive die- coast, usually as far north as Long Island, NY, and offshore as far north as off of bottlenose dolphins along the east coast may be such a case. Nova Scotia, Canada. The main concentrations of bottlenose dolpins during the summer are along the coast from North Carolina north to New Jersey During the summer and fail of 1987 and the winter of 1988, an apparent dis- (Fig. 1b.). During autumn, density distribution patterns suggest near-shore ease epidemic resulted in the death and stranding of an unusually large animals migrate south along the coast to Florida. During winter, animals in number of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) along the U.S. the Atlantic are distributed from south of Cape Hatteras to the northern east coast from New Jersey to central Florida. In response to this anomaly, and central Florida coast, but are concentrated at the southern end of this a multi-agency team was formed to investigate the causes and effects of the range (Fig. 1b.). Although bottlenose dolphins occur along the southeastern mortality event. This paper is directed at the second component of the in- Florida coast, in winter they are only about VIO'h as abundant as along the vestigation: assessment of the effects of the mortality event. The available central and northeastern Florida coasts (2). During spring, the animal con- 819 United States Government work not protected by copyright both the near-shore and offshore groups (1). The best available informa- tion suggests that in recent times, coastal North Carolina and Virginia sup- JUL ported 1,200 or more dolphins during pad of the spring and summer (12). N This number may have represented a substantial portion of the mid-Atlan- AUG tic coastal migratory stock prior to the disease epdemic. SEP IOCT MAR Population survey data from several independent sources suggest that there INOV was a greater abundance of dolphins near-shore in 1987 and early 1988 than DEC in recent prior years (13,14). Offshore, the abundance of dolphins may have been slightly lower in August, 1987, than in the summers of 1980-81 (15). JAN The apparent increase in near-shore abundance might have been caused FEB by immigration from the offshore stock, a real increase in the coastal stock, I concentration of animals from wide geographical range, a change in the sightability coefficient for animals surveyed, or some combination of these factors. It is not clear if both the coastal and offshore stocks were affected by the I I mortality event. The size and coloration of some of the stranded animals Figure 2. Interquarrile latitude range of bottlenose dolphin strandings along examined suggested that both of the groups were involved (12). In addition, the U.S. Atlantic coast; June 1987 - March 1988. reports received from fishermen and recreational boaters of floating car- casses in the offshore mid-Atlantic region, although not verified, further centrations shift northward along the coast to complete the hypothesized suggested involvement of the offshore group. Recently, Duffield (16) migratory cycle. It is unclear if the offshore portion of the population fol- analyzed 36 blood samples from different stranded and live-caught bot- lows a similar north-south pattern or what the actual extent offshore dis- tlenose dolphins sampled from Virginia and Florida during the mortality tribution might be since sampling has been generally limited to areas within event. All but one of the samples analyzed exhibited the coastal hemoglobin 200 km of the coast. characteristics (17). The single different sample exhibited hybrid coas- tal/offshore characteristics. This result does not necessarily imply that the 3. STOCK DIFFERENTIATION offshore stock was unaffected since the likelihood of an animal dying off- shore and then being cast ashore is expected to be considerably less than There appear to be both near-shore and offshore forms (stocks) of bot- that for an animal dying near the coast. There were no known animals from tlenose dolphin along the U.S. Atlantic coast and in other ocean areas (3,4). resident, local dolphin stocks, such as the Indian and Banana River, FL Burn (5) found the pattern of strandings to correlate with the hypothesized stock, found stranded with symptoms of the disease epidemic. At present, coastal migratory pattern based on density distribution patterns along the the best information suggests that the observed mortality may have primari- U.S. east coast (Fig. 2). The stranding data collected during 1987 and 1988 ly affected the coastal, migratory stock of animals that ranges between and the observed density distribution patterns along the U.S. Atlantic coast, Florida and New Jersey. support the hypothesis of a single coastal migratory stock of animals that ranges seasonally as far.north as Long Island, NY and as far south as central The most direct means of assessing the impact of the mortality on the dol- Florida. It has been observed that many geographically localized popula- phin population is by comparison of consistent pre- and post-event popula- tions of dolphins in the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic waters show seasonal- tion indices. Assessment of impact on the basis of the number of dolphins ly cyclical patterns in abundance, suggesting emigration from and stranded relative to the population at large is dependent on assumptions immigration into embayments (6, 7, 8). It has been well documented that about the accuracy of abundance estimates and the relationship between there are both resident and transient animals that utilize localized, near- the stranded carcass count and the true total mortality (15). The number of shore environments over numerous years (9). The working hypothesis for animals observed washing ashore is likely a fraction of the total mortality. bottlenose dolphin stock structuring in southeastern U.S. waters is that the There is also some chance that the reporting rate of stranded carcasses dif- near-shore bottlenose dolphin population is structured such that there are fered between the years prior to the stranding anomaly due to increased local, resident stocks in certain embayments and that transient stocks public awareness in 1987-88. In addition, the accuracy of absolute abun- migrate into and out of these embayments on a seasonal basis (3, 9). dance estimates maybe questionable since the estimates are usually of sur- 4. POPULATION LEVELS AND INDICES OF CHANGE face abundance, unless there has been an effort to correct for animals submerged at the time of the sample. At present there is no comprehensive estimate of the size of the stocks of bottlenose dolphins in U.S. jurisdictional waters. The abundance of bot- For the offshore stock in the mid-Atlantic region, a comparison of a pre- denose dolphins in certain "priority" regions has been estimated. Scott, event (1980-81) average population index and an index based on a sample Hansen and Burn (10) summarized these estimates and proposed that the taken in August 1987 was used to assess the likely range of the impact of number of bottlenose dolphins comprising the numerous stocks throughout the mortality on the stock (15). The 1987 sample indicated that the impact both the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and U.S. Atlantic waters prior to 1983 may through August was most likely small (< 10%) relative to the 1980-81 sum- have ranged to at least 23,000 individuals. Extrapolation of this estimate to mer abundance level. Because the mortality event was not complete at the existing abundance, however, assumes that the stocks have been stable over time of the August, 1987, sample, and due to the uncertainty about the a period of 15 or more years and that no net migration occurred during the population trajectory since 1981, this result needs further testing. different sampling periods of the studies summarized. The abundance of the stock(s) affected by the apparent disease epidemic was certainly less For the coastal stock of dolphins, there are no consistent pre- and post- than the total number of U.S. Gulf of Mexico and U.S. Atlantic bottlenose event population survey indices yet available with which to assess potential dolphins. impact. The pre-event patterns observed in areas such as the Chesapeake Bay mouth (13) and Nassau County, FL (14), may be confounded by the Historically, about 15,000 animals are thought to have lived in mid-Atlan- apparent increase in abundance in 1987 and 1988. Thus, the potential im- tic near-shore waters based on North Carolina shore-based fishery catch pact on the coastal stock was estimated by comparison of the die-off period records from the turn of the century (11). In 1979-81, the estimated average to prior year average stranding rates. Inherent in this estimation is the as- mid-Atlantic summer abundance of bottlenose dolphins is believed to have sumption that stranding rate is a consistent index of the stock mortality rate. ranged from 4,300 to 12,900 animals (95% confidence region), including 820 As of June, 1988, 742 stranded bottlenose dolphins from New Jersey to ongoing stranding anomaly. For the range of the disease-affected coastal Florida's east coast were reported to the Smithsonian Institution's marine stock of dolphins, Table I lists the bottlenose dolphin strandings. by state mammal stranding events program for the 11 month period from June, 1987 and type of purported human-induced mortality. through April, 1988 (12). In the prior 3 years, for the same geographical range and months, an average of 73.33 dolphins were reported to the strand-m Assuming the classification scheme of Burn and Scott (20) to be accurate, ing network. Thus, the 1987-88 anomaly represents an order of magnitude and that the stranding data indexes human-induced mortality rate in increase (10.11 times) in reported strandings relative to the most recent proportion to the natural mortality rate, then estimates of human-induced three year historical level. Natural mortality rates on the order 7 to 14% per mortality rates can be derived from these data. Using the range of natural year are believed to ecompass the most likely range for bottlenose dolphin mortality rates (m = 7 to 14%), the additional mortality rate due to hunian- populations (18). Assuming the stock natural mortality rate (m) to be at the related activities Q) can be estimated by these proportions (f =m((1-p)*1 lower end of the reported range (7% per year, 6.42% per 11 months), that - 1)). Estimates off by state and for the coastal migratory stock range are the observed mortalitywholly affected the near-shore stock, and further as- presented in Table 1. These data indicate that added mortality due to suming that the reported stranding rate is proportional to m and consistent human activities may range from 0.7 to 1.4% per year for the coastal between years, then the observed mortality represents an 11 month m of migratory stock of dolphins. 64.9%. Anannual m would be slightly larger than this value if only the long- term average risk of death was applied to the final 1 month period. 6. OSP The OSP is defined as the range of population size from the level resulting The annual rate of change in the dolphin stock abundance is the difference in maximum net productivity to the ecosystem carrying capacity (K). Under between the annual mortality rate, annual birth rate, and annual net im- the terms of the MMPA, population stocks outside the OSP range are migration rate. For the coastal mid-Atlantic stock of dolphins affected by defined as depleted. By analogy with other large mammal species, the the disease epidemic, Blaylock (19) observed up to 11.5% of the popula- population level expected to result in MNP for bottlenose dolphins is tion sampled were calves, implying an annual birth rate (b) on that order. greater than 50% of K (21, 22). Data collected from stranded animals suggest that calving for this stock oc- curs in the spring and is not generally protracted over the year. Thus, a Management of bottlenose dolphin stocks has been based not on explicit potential decline for this stock since early 1987 is estimated as > 50% (b - determination of stock status relative to OSP, but rather on the estimated rn = -53.4%). MNP for the stocks of interest. The basic assumption upon which this 5. ESTIMATES OF HUMAN-INDUCED MORTALITY management method was developed was that annual MNP for cetacean stocks generally ranged from 2 to 6% of stock abundance. This range has The present take of bottlenose dolphins in U.S. waters comes from the live- been demonstrated to be biologically achievable, depending on combina- capture fishery for public display, incidental catch in other fisheries, and by tions of calf and non-calf mortality rates and upon the age of first calving other direct human actions (9). Live-capture removals for public display and calving intervals (23). are not authorized for the coastal migratory stock of dolphins affected by the disease epidemic. The magnitude of annual removals from this stock Under this management scheme, if 2% represents the true MNP, then a due to incidental catch and other directed human causes is not well docu- long-term average removal rate of 2%, in addition to natural mortality and mented. with no net migration effect, is expected to result in an equilibrium stock abundance level -at the lower end of the OSP range for stocks with initial Marine mammal stranding data provide information useful for estimating abundance within the OSP range. For stocks with initial abundance outside an index of human-induced mortality of cetaceans in the U.S. Gulf of of OSP, an average long-term removal equal to MNP is expected to result Mexico and along the U.S. Atlantic coast. Many of the cetaceans that strand in an equilibrium stock level below OSP. Stocks outside of OSP can be are examined for causes of mortality. Burn and Scott (20) examined the recovered to OSP while sustaining removals as long as the long-term stranding data provided by the Smithsonian Institution (12) for evidence of average removal rate is less than MNP. human-induced mortality in bottlenose dolphins. A total of 386 bottlenosed dolphins stranded from central Florida north along the Atlantic coast were 7. ESTIMATES OF RECOVERY reported from 1982 through May 1987. of these, the percent of strandings The dynamics of the mid-Atlantic coastal migratory stock of bottlenose dol- showing some evidence of human-induced mortality (p) was 9.3%. Data phins were modeled as a difference equation with density dependence as from June 1987 to present were not examined in this context because of the described by the Pella-Tomlinson model standardly applied to whale stocks Table 1. Summary ofcoastal U.S. Atlantic bottlenose dolphin strandingsfrom by the Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission (24, 1982 to May, 1987, classifled by interaction type. Dataprovided by Sm ith - 25). The model takes the form: sonian Institution Marine Mammal Events Program. Pt+l = (Pt -Ht)S + Rt+l Fishing Parts Gun Prop Broken State All Gear Missing Shot Wound Bones Other p1 f, where P represents the population size, H, human-induced removals, R, MA 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 33.0 3.5-6.9 recruitment, and S, survival over time index t (taken as I year). Human-in- RI 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 duced removals were taken as: NY 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NJ 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 25.0 2.3-4.7 Ht = Pt-le"2(I-e-) DE 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 MD 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 where f is the human-induced mortality rate estimate, conditioned on VA 70 8 5 0 0 1 0 20.0 1.8-3.5 natural mortality rate, m. The annual survial rate, S, is taken as e-'. The NC 122 3 3 0 0 0 1 5.7 0.4-0.8 number of recruits, R, is defined as: Sc 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 GA 38 1 4 1 0 0 0 15.8 1.3-2.6 Rt + 1 = (1-S)Ptx(l +A (I-(Pt_x/K)z) FL2 129 4 3 0 0 0 0 5.4 0.4-0.8 Total 386 17 is 1 1 1 1 9.3 0.7-1.4 where x is the median age at maturity (Table 2),A the resilience term, K p, percent of total strandings resulting from human actions; f, expressed as per- the carrying capacity; and z the compensation term. Given a range of the cent, represents the estimated annual human-induced mortality rate using p and relative lower limit of OSP (i.e. MNPL) and independent ranges of MNP the range of natural mortality rates 7-14% per year. and m assumptions (see Table 2 for values used), the corresponding 2 D ata for Florida represent central Atlantic and northeastern coastal regions only. parameter value for A was found as in Holt (26): 821 Frequency A = MNP1m(l-MNPLZ) 10 with the value ofz found by solution of. 20 30 MNPL = (I/(_z+2))"(z+') 40 The time to recovery was taken as the number of years required for the y 50 simulated stock size to reach MNPL after an overall reduction of 53% from 60 the assumed equilibrium population level in existence just prior to the dis- 70 ease epidemic. Holt (26) argues that A > V(z + 1) results in a super com- so pensation effect in the stock-recruitment relationship whereby the absolute number of recruits increases at declining population sizes relative to that 90 a CKI > 0 ET number at X However, constraining A < 1/@ + I)implies that the fall range @100 of assumed MNP cannot be realized given the range of assumedMNPL. As 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Table 2. Parameter values used in simulations of the dynamics of the coastal I I migratory stock of bottlenose dolphins. Figure 4. Frequency distribution ofsimulated bottlenose dolphin population Symbol Values recoveiy times in years Mfor the cases off = 0 (no human -induced mor- Natural Mortality Rate m 0.07,014 tality ) andf > 0 (constant human-induced mortality rate). Human-Induced Mortality Rate f 0.0,0.007 m=0.07 tions from K and thus may reasonably reflect expectations for reductions 0.0,0.014 m=0.14 > 53%. In contrast, if the true reduction was less than the specified level Maximum Net Productivity Rate MNP 0.02, then the recovery time distributions are non-conservative. 0.04,0.06 Maximum Net Productivity Level MNPL 0.6,0.8 Consistent and long-term population monitoring of the affected stock will Median Age at Sexual Maturity x 8,11,14 be necessary to reduce the uncertainty associated with the estimates of recovery. Assumptions about the magnitude of depletion, the degree of literature suggests that the MNP and MNPL ranges are biologically human-induced mortality, and the degree of involvement of other bot- reasonable (21, 22, 23), the unconstrained A values were used. tlenose dolphin stocks need testing via direct experimentation and monitor- ing. As no consistent pre- and post-event indices are yet available, Population trajectories resulting from the range of parameter values used development of such indices through continued and new population sam- are shown in Fig. 3 for MNPL values of 0.6 and 0.8. The distribution of pling surveys and studies of biological samples from stranded animals Will recovery times over the first be needed to test the assumptions. parameter range is shown in 1. Fig. 4 for the the cases of no 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS human-induced mortality versus constant human-in- Drs. James G. Mead of the Smithsonian Institution and Daniel K Odell of duced mortality rate@s. he P SeaWorld, Florida, kindly provided stranding data used in this paper. Drs. T Joseph E. Powers and Bradford E. Brown reviewed the manuscript and Ms. recovery time distributions .4 Lynn Pulos provided editorial advice. This paper is Miami Laboratory, are heavily skewed. In the 0.2 - Coastal Resources Division Contribution No. CRD-87/88-28 dated August cases of no human-induced 1, 1988. This paper was prepared for the Unusual Environmental Events mortality, the median ex- IW17.9.... 2 .0.3....... 2,6,2.3... 2@43 2@63 243 Symposium held at the Oceans '88 Conference, October 31 - November 2, pected recovery time from a YEAR 1988, Baltimore, MD. The National Marine Fisheries Service does not ap- reduction of the specified prove, recommend, or endorse any proprietary product or proprietary magnitude was 32.5 yr with a material mentioned in the publication. range of 14 - 90 yr. In the cases where there is an as- .6 9. REFERENCES sumed constant rate of human-induced mortality 0.6 1. CETAP. A characterization of marine mammal and turtles in the mid- equal to estimates ofthe pre- P and North Atlantic areas of the U.S. outer continental shelf. Final report epidemic rate, the distribu- of the Cetacean and Turtle assessment program. Bureau of Land Manage- tion of expected recovery ment Contract No. AA551-CT8-48. U.S. Department of Interior, time is shifted to longer Washington, DC. 1982.450pp. periods, with a median value 13....... ,2.3... 41 ..1 20 ..3 of5O.5 yr and a range offrom YEAR 2. Burn, D.M., Scott, G.P., Owen, R.E., and Hansen, L.J. Bottlenose dol- 18 to > 100 yr. For the cases phin (Tursiops truncatus) distribution patterns in the southeastern United including human-induced States. Poster presentation at the Seventh Biennial Conference on the Biol- mortality, 22% of the Figure 3. Simulatedpopulation levels relative ogy of Marine Mammals. Miami, Florida, USA. December 5-9,1987. simulations resulted in no to carrying capacity (P) over the range of recovery within a 100 yr time modelparameter values used. Upperplate 3. Hersh, S.L. Stock structure of bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops) in interval. None of trajectories hatching represents OSP range with MNPL the southeastern U.S.: a review and management considerations. Final simulated resulted in extinc- 0. 6, lowerplate MNPL 0.8. report to NOAA/NMFS/SEFC, Contract 40GENF700715.1987.35pp. tion. 4. Hersh, S.L. Characterization and differentiation of bottlenose dolphin As the recovery standard used in these calculations was the lower limit of populations (genus Tursiops) in the southeastern U.S. based on mortality can be considered conservative. Uncer- OSP, the recovery time estimates patterns and morphometrics. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Miami tainty in the degree of reduction was not explicitly treated in the simulations Coral Gables, FL. 1987.213pp. run. However, the parameter ranges used result in a large range of reduc- 822 5. Burn, D.M. NOAA/Smithsonian cooperative mid-Atlantic bottlenose 21. Fowler, C.W. Density dependence as related to life history strategy. dolphin aerial survey program: final report. NOAA/NMFS1SEFC/Miami Ecology. 1981. pp6O2-610. Laboratory, Coastal Resources Division Contribution MI-CRD-87/88-22. 1988.17pp- 22. Fowler, C.W. Comparative population dynamics in large mammals. In: Dynamics of Large Mammal Populations. C.W. Fowler and T.D. Smith 6. Shane, S.H. Occurrence, movements, and distribution of bottlenose dol- (eds.). Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY. 1981. phins, Tursiops truncatus, in the Aransas Pass area of Texas. National Tech- pp437-451. nical Information Services, DB-283 393. U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA. 1980. 130pp 23. Reilly, S.B. and Barlow, J. Rates of increase in dolphin population size. Fish. Bull. 1986. pp.527-534. 7. Gruber, J. A. Ecology of theAtlantic Bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops oun- calus) in the Pass Cavallo area of Matagorda Bay, Texas. M.S. Thesis. 24. Allen, KR. A more flexible model for baleen whale populations. Rep. Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 1981. Int. Whal. Comm. 1976. pp.247-263. 8. Shane, S.H., Wells, R.S. and Wfirsig, B. Ecology, behavior, and social or- 25. de la Mare, W.K. The sensitivity of MSY to the parameters of the baleen ganization of the bottlenos dolphin: a review. Marine Mammal Science. whale model. Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. 1986. pp.425-427. 1986. pp34-63. 26. Holt, S.J. The classification of whale stocks and the determination of 9. Scott, G.P. Management oriented research on Tursiops truncatus at the catch limits under the new management procedure with limited informa- Southeast Fisheries Center. In: Selected papers on bottlenose dolphins. S. tion. Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. 1985. pp.487-494. Leatherwood and R. Reeves (eds.). Academic Press. San Diego, CA. In Press. 10. Scott, G.P., Hansen, L.J. and Burn, D.M. Preliminary report on status of the bottlenose in stocks, US Gulf of Mexico and US Atlantic Ocean. NMFS/SEFC, Miami Laboratory, Coastal Resources Division Contribu- tion MI-CRD-87188-23.1988. 11pp. 11. Mead, J.G. Preliminary report on the former net fisheries for Tursiops Ouncatus in the western north Atlantic. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 1975. pp.1155-1162. 12. Mead, J.G. Personal Communication. National Museum of Natural His- tory, Smithsonian Instistution, Washington, D.C. 20560 1988. 13. Keinath, J.A. and Musick, J.A. Population trends of the bottlenose dol- phin (Tursiops truncatus) in Virginia, 1980-1987. Final Report to NOAA/NMFS/SEFC/Miami Laboratory, PO# 40GENF800564. 1988. 36pp- 14. Valade, J.A. Personal Communication. Consultant Biologist, Jackson- villc, FL 32239. 1988. 15. Scott, G.P. and Burn, D.M.. The potential impact of the 1987 mass mor- tality mid-Atlantic off-shore stock of bottlenose dolphins. NOAA/NMF'S/SEFC/Miami Laboratory, Coastal Fisheries Resources Division Contribution CRD-87/88-10.1987. 11pp. 16. Duffield, DA. Personal Communication. Portland State University, Portland, OR 97201.1988. 17. Duffield, D.A., Ridgway, S.H. and Cornell, L.H. Hematology distin- guishes coastal and offshore forms of dolphins (Tursiops). Can. J. Zool. 1983. pp.930-933. 18. Hersh, S.L. Mortality, natality, migration, and organismic growth rates of bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops): a review and management con- siderations. Final Report to NOAA/NMFS/SEFC, Contract 40GENF-700715.1987.27pp. 19. Blaylock, R.A. The distribution and abundance of the bottlenose dol- phin, Tursiops truncalus, in Virginia. M.S. Thesis. The College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA. 1984. 56pp. 20. Burn, D.M. and Scott, G.P. Synopsis of available information on marine mammal-fisheries interactions in the southeastern United States: prelimi- nary report. NOAA/NMFS/SEFC/Miami Laboratory, Coastal Fisheries Resources Division Contribution CRD-87/88-26.1988. 823 HISTORIC SHIPWRECKS: RESOURCES WORTH PROTECTING John D. Broadwater Senior Undervater'Archaeologist Virginia Division of Historic Landmarks Department of Conservation and Historic Resources Williamsburg, Virginia 23187 ABSTRACT ships fished and traded throughout most of the world's seas. We know very little about the Historic shipwrecks are classified by ships that the early explorers and colonists archaeologists as Itcultural. resources" to sailed, since the first accurate plans of indicate that shipwrecks are a significant ships were not produced until the late 1700s. facet of America's resources--as much so as Although plans and models of European warships her natural resources. Like coal and oil, survive from that period, very little is known cultural resources are non-renewable: once about the merchant ships and small craft built destroyed, they are lost to us forever. How in America until the mid-1800s. Even such do we determine which are historically famous warships as the Civil War USS Monitor significant? Fortunately, there is already in are known only by early plans and an effect a valid and pragmatic evaluation occasional faded photograph. America has system: criteria for the National Register of enjoyed an exciting and important maritime Historic Places. The Register applies strict heritage, and our knowledge of this legacy can standards for the determination of be enhanced and enriched through the study of significance. only a small fraction of all historic shipwrecks. sunken ships lying in U. S. waters would meet Historic shipwrecks are classified as these criteria. Currently, no state or "cultural resources" by archaeologists and federal law prohibits diving on shipwrecks. preservationists to indicate that shipwrecks, Hopefully, divers and archaeologists will join along with other types of archaeological forces to protect these historically sites, are a significant part of America's significant sites. vast resources,_ as much so as her natural resources. Like coal and oil, cultural resources are non-ienewable and, once INTRODUCTION destroyed, are lost forever. Nost ships lying in the waters of the United States never During the past few years, controversy carried important passengers, fought famous raged over proposed federal legislation to battles nor set speed records; however, many protect historic shipwrecks. Such of these ships could provide important legislation, some said, would result in loss archaeological data which would shed new light of business for dive shops, instructors, on our past * if interpreted through charter boat services and salvage companies publications, museum exhibits and films. and, in addition, - create cumbersome and Archaeology is much more than the recovery of arbitrary federal and state regulations, artifacts; it is the interpretation of the punitive enforcement and, eventually, loss of artifacts, within the context of the entire all wreck diving privileges. In 1988, the shipwreck and its historical background, which Abandoned Shipwrecks Act became law. gives meaning and significance to the site. Guidelines are being prepared to assist states in conforming to the new federal legislation. Let's put concerns over the law aside for a PROTECTION OF HISTORIC SHIPWRECKS moment and take a look at the source of the controversy--America's historic shipwrecks. With so many shipwrecks out there (estimates -range in the thousands), is it really necessary to protect them? The general THE NATURE OF HISTORIC VESSELS public, including the sport diving community, has for many years actively supported the The first European settlements in America conservation of natural resources, recognizing were established along the coast where small that these resources should be preserved for boats soon sailed the bays and rivers which future generations because of their beauty and were the highways of the seventeenth century. intrinsic value. Cultural resources, too, America continued to have a strong maritime require protection if they are to offer value orientation, and by the nineteenth century our to those that come after us. Although there CH2585-8/8s/oooo. 824 $1 @1988 IEEE are indeed many shipwrecks yet to be protected for many years and several federal discovered, only certain ones are capable of laws dictate protection of submerged sites in providing the archaeological information that cases where federal funding or federal permits we seek. It is those shipwrecks that should are involved. The main benefits of the new be protected for long-term preservation and federal legislation should be the future study. clarification and coordination of current Contrary to the information being laws, separation of admiralty and salvage distributed by some groups, a shipwreck does claims from those involving historic not have to be located and salvaged in order shipwrecks and better protection of those for it to have historic value. In fact, wrecks which have been determined to be historic shipwrecks lying undetected in deep significant. silt are like untapped oil reserves: they lie Determination of significance has been in a stable state of equilibrium with their the subject of much unnecessary concern. Some environment, deteriorating at an impressively fear that all shipwrecks will capriciously be slow rate, waiting for the time when adequate classified as significant and sport and funding and personnel are available to commercial wreck diving will be virtually excavate them properly and to recover from eliminated. No such action has been them their precious glimpse into our past. contemplated and almost all existing state ocean engineers and sport divers seem to shipwreck legislation permits some type of be among the most appropriate advocates for public access to shipwrecks, including the protection of shipwrecks, since those historic wrecks. In fact, there is already groups are generally more aware than the in effect a valid and pragmatic evaluation general population of the importance of the system: the criteria for the National Sea and are more sensitive to maritime Register of Historic Places. In order for a matters. Few ocean scientists or sport divers shipwreck to be declared eligible for the loot historic shipwrecks, and so they may not National Register, it must meet a series of be aware of the amount of destruction taking tests for significance. The criteria are place. specific and are designed to recognize those I have seen many offshore wrecks badly archaeological resources which are most damaged--not by sport divers, but by salvage representative of our past. Already, the companies looking for a few dollars' worth of National Park Service has issued a special copper or brass. My dive buddies and I have publication which describes the criteria for returned from dives saddened by the nominating a historic shipwreck to the irreversible destruction of our favorite dive National Register. Dozens of U. S. shipwrecks sites. In other cases, historic shipwrecks have been placed on the National Register of were damaged by small groups of divers, who Historic Places after a careful review at both often left recovered artifacts to rust away state and federal levels, while many have been under back porches or in garages. Countless found ineligible for the Register. other wrecks were destroyed in previous years through construction and dredging projects where proper archaeological surveys were not NEW OPPORTUNITIES conducted in advance. Some serious,damage to shipwrecks is inadvertent. Wrecks are often New laws do not have to adversely affect damaged by commercial fishing activities, the recreational activities of most divers. especially trawling and dredging, by boat and In fact, divers have already discovered that ship anchors, and by the forces of nature. participation in scholarly shipwreck research These forces and activities often result in can be rewarding and exciting. All over the loss of important archaeological sites, which world, groups of sport divers are teaming up deprives all of us of the opportunity to learn with professional archaeologists Iand ocean from and enjoy the information which the site surveyors and engineers to locate and might have offered. investigate shipwrecks: It is interesting to note that many preservation efforts in England, Europe, PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION Canada and elsewhere are actually organized and carried out primarily by sport divers. In If we accept the fact that there are Ontario, for instance, divers concerned about numerous historic shipwrecks in American their historic shipwrecks have formed waters and that some, if not many, of these organizations such as "Save Ontario's are currently threatened with damage or Shipwrecks" (SOS) to take an active role in destruction, let us turn to the idea of the preservation process. In this country, protective legislation. Should there be laws sport divers have already worked alongside to protect historic shipwrecks? What archaeologists on shipwreck excavations in applicable laws currently exist? Florida, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, At the present time nearly all U. S. South Carolina, Virginia, Vermont and coastal states have laws protecting historic elsewhere. shipwrecks from improper salvage. Although National 'certifying organizations have the federal shipwreck protection law is new, begun to develop training programs in archaeological sites on land have been underwater archaeological methodology. In 825 1979, a National Scuba Workshop in Florida produced a resolution asking all national certifying agencies to include in their basic training programs a brief statement on the importance of preserving cultural as well as natural resources. Efforts are underway to create more such programs. Many universities now offer courses in underwater archaeology, either for college credit or for continuing education credits. Many sport divers are interested in history and archaeology, and quite a few are skilled researchers. As federal and state underwater archaeological programs begin to develop and grow, so will opportunities for sport divers to become involved in sponsored research projects such as archival research, shipwreck surveys and excavation, conservation and museum exhibit preparation. Instead of prohibiting diving, the new federal legislation may well foster a whole new age of cooperation between professional and amateurs interested in our maritime past. 826 THE ABANDONED SHIPWRECK ACT: A CONTEXT Anne G. Giesecke Consultant 1001 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22209 ABSTRACT jurisdictional conflict between the authority of state governments and the The Abandoned Shipwreck Act became law in Federal court to control the excavation 1988. As author of the act, and as a of state land for the purpose of resource manager,,the author discusses recovering shipwrecks. In response to the act. this situation I drafted federal legislation resolving the conflict in favor of the state governments. The discussion includes, the purpose of the act, the potential effects of the The purpose of this article is to explain Act, and the current status of state law. the need for and the purpose of The To understand the act one must understand Abandoned Shipwreck Act. This article the relationship of shipwrecks and will briefly present the state historic shipwrecks, in particular, to perspective, the most relevant federal broad based social, economic and court decisions on this issue, and the environmental s 'ystems. The magic lure of purpose of the bill. gold and the evolution of state laws in the face of conflicting social values has INTEREST IN SHIPWRECKS left a ten year legacy of confusion. The act and the paper should contribute to Since the 1950's, rapid advances in the sorting out the confusion. technology of diving and remote sensing equipment have for the first time made shipwrecks accessible to many people. Three groups have a special interest in abandoned shipwrecks: the sport diving INTRODUCTION community, members of the archaeological and historic preservation communities, "In the early morning hours of July 31st, and.professional treasure salvors. the wind suddenly shifted to the east- northeast, and the hurricane struck with Although most shipwrecks have been all its fury. The ships, gripped in the located by.fishermen. Recently many incredible force of the crashing waves wrecks have been located by sport divers. and mighty winds of nature's most awesome Most shipwreck sites are destroyed by phenomena, were lifted like match9ticks dredging and port development, but on mountainous crests to be plummeted in recently many wrecks have been damaged by the next instant into deep troughs of the treasure salvors and some by sport ocean. Tons of seawater crashed over the divers. A few shipwrecks have been railings of the galleons and, with the protected by the designation of shriek of the wind, drowned out the underwater parks and a few have been screams of the seamen washed overboard to excavated by archaeologists. their death." (Cobb Coin, Inc. v. The Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned The state as a multiple-use manager of Sailing Vessel, 525 F. Supp. 186 [S.D. its resources must consider these three Fla. 19811). So begins U.S. District groups. Each group has a different use Judge J-ames Lawrence King's decision for the resource. For the sport diver, concerning the fate of the artifacts the wrecks are an important focus for recovered from the shipwrecks of the 1715 recreational diving; some divers like Spanish Plate fleet off the coast of marked underwater trails explaining the Florida. A decision which challenged wrecks, some like wrecks undisturbed by state laws. modern man, and others like to collect artifacts from wrecks. The diver's In 1981 and 1982 decisions resulting from desire for unrestricted access to the Cobb Coin case in the Southern shipwrecks may conflict with the treasure District of Florida created a salvor's desire for exclusive use of a CH2585-8/88/oood- 827, si @1988 IEEE wreck, and the diver's random collecting in the 1960's are: Georgia, Maine, North of artifacts from wrecks may conflict Carolina, and Texas. Since 1970, 25 with the archaeologist's concern for additional states have passed laws ordered collection. specifically addressing shipwrecks. States without specific legislation for To the archaeologist, shipwrecks are an shipwrecks treat them under their general integral part of the total material historic preservation legislation. cultural resource base. Certain social, economic and technological systems of the Although the laws developed in different past are reflected in the patterned legal and resource contexts over a 25- pieces of ship and cargo spread across year period, the laws in Eastern and the ocean floor. The treasure salvor's Western states are remarkably similar. goal is primarily economic; he wants to It is notable that no state prohibits minimize the cost of recovering gold, sport diving on historic shipwrecks. silver or artifacts that have a maximum Indeed 15 out of the 30 laws provide commercial value. state compensation to private parties for recovery activities. STATE LAWS Each state defines the area of state States have generally managed shipwreck jurisdiction to be compatible with the resources in the context of the water or state law implementing the federal law coastal management priorities of the which affirmed title to the land, the state. The first state ("state" will Submerged Lands Act (43 USC 1301-1315) continue to be used to refer to and generally includes rivers, lakes and jurisdictions of the United States coastal waters out to three miles. including states, territories, STATE MANAGEMENT possessions, and the District of Columbia) to pass legislation which The state's ability to issue or deny specifically addressed abandoned and permits for activities on state lands is historic shipwrecks was Colorado in 1963. essential to good management. An "after the environmental damage has been done" Colorado is typical of many Western case-by-case Federal Court approach to states, that is those west of the 98th each archaeological site would be meridian (about the Mississippi River). burdensome to those states attempting to Colorado is short of water and follows a manage intensively used areas such as principle of prior appropriation of ports and state parks. water: first come,first served. The laws regarding water and the lands beneath.the Over the years, states have worked water are carefully drawn to protect closely with the groups interested in individual and state rights to use and to shipwrecks, the archaeologists, sport allocate a scarce resource. The divers, and salvors. States have definition of the state's area of recognized that sport divers are jurisdiction, the state's claim to title discovering and studying,historic to the shipwrecks, and the state's permit shipwre-cks and are also major process reflect the priority concern for contributors to many local economies. At the protection of water resources. This least 80% of the known shipwrecks have strong concern for water management been discovered by sport divers, 15% by explains the existence of laws , state projects and fisherman, and 5% by specifically addressing shipwrecks in treasure hun.ters. states where few, if any, shipwrecks have been located-. Under the Act, states are expected to continue tc; protect historic shipwrecks In contrast to the Western water rights and encourage sport diving on wrecks. system is the Eastern system of riparian States such as Michigan, Vermont, South rights. Where water is more plentiful, a Carolina, and Florida have encouraged system of use, return, and reuse of water sport diving by producing publications, by those adjacent to the water source is creating underwater parks, placing feasible and has become customary. Laws moorings near wrecks, and sinking ships concerning shipwrecks in the Eastern as dive sites. states tend to have been developed in response to comprehensive historic Based on current figures, only about 5% preservation legislation and to the of the 12,000 or so known,wrecks will be location of particular shipwreck sites defined as historic. The historic rather than as part of water resource shipwrecks are mostly prehistoric canoes, systems. In Florida, for example, canal boats, and steamboats with mundane legislation developed between 1965 and cargoes such as cloth and shovels. 1967 in response to the discovery of Archaeological excavation of these sites artifacts from the 1715 Spanish Plate is being accomplished by sport divers-and fleet. The other states to develop laws college students. Every year more than 828 25 groups sponsor, through participant expended by the salvor. In case of funding, over 50 projects to map and abandoned property, the salvor may recover shipwrecks. However, most of the receive the property or the proceeds from fishing boats, barges, ferries, and work the sale of the property. boats that are lying on the bottom are not of interest to the treasure hunter or Three important features of the court the archaeologist, but are a major source system are time, cost, and a case-by-case of recreational interest to a minority of approach based on judge-made law. First, sport divers. time is a critical consideration in an understanding of court responsibilities Since the 1950's, states have managed and procedures. There are a limited historic shipwreck archaeological sites number of courts and judges and in each as part of their historic preservation case all parties have full rights programs and, since 1966, have applied according to procedure. Currently, there minimum national standards to their may be a delay of as much as two years in management efforts. The National many courts before a case is heard and Historic Preservation Act standards then the appeal process may postpone a define what is historic and set forth decision for as many as ten years. management procedures that incorporate: 1) public participation on decision- Second, cost is important to individuals .making boards, and 2) public hearing and filing a claim for an award with the appeals processes. Historic shipwreck court because the complex procedures projects are eligible for grants and, in usually require the services of a lawyer addition, 15 states, provide monetary and if there are counterclaims by other compensation to private sector profit parties, states, or the Federal groups. There have been problems in the government, legal fees and court costs past involving state permits and may escalate rapidly. Often, too, for contracts, yet these conflicts have been highly specialized cases such as for judiciously resolved by state courts, and historic shipwrecks, the court may citizens have always had an impartial request the services of a special master, forum for conflict resolution. a-specialist, and this cost is then added to the court costs. States manage many offshore resources including major sectors of the economy Third, the court takes a case-by-case such as fishing, oil and gas, and. approach. Each judge in each district tourism. The disposition of artifacts makes an independent decision based on recovered from shipwrecks has not been a precedent after a case is brought to major administrative burden or economic court. In the realm of marine affairs, benefit. States may be expected to where there is little statutory law, continue to accession and deaccession there is much room for interpretation by their cultural resources for parks and the judges. Also critical is the concern museums for the public benefit. that a wreck must be located and efforts made to recover Drovertv before there is THE FEDERAL COURT a claim to file with the court for an award. The public interest-of--the Federal Unfortunately, the conflict of use Admiralty Court, to return goods to commerce, has its roots in English concerning the submerged land often comes history during a time when commerce and during attempts to locate buried piracy had reached points of significant shipwrecks, since the excavation of a economic impact and the admiral of a ship particular site might conflict with was the law of the sea. The admiralty excavation for some other purpose, such system developed in the courts, rather as mining, that is. not part of the than through legislation, during a time court's tradition. when there was a need for the ordered recovery of goods. only about a dozen cases in the history of the Admiralty Court have dealt with The Federal Court sitting in admiralty abandoned property. Of these cases only makes a salvage award considering three half have concerned shipwrecks with some historic value. As mentioned earlier, criteria based on rules established in states have claimed historic shipwrecks The Blackwall (77 U.S.(10 Wall) 1, in state waters. T1869)) opinion: (1) marine peril; (2) voluntary service, Conflict between the authority of the and (3) success in recovering the vessel Federal Court and that of state or cargo. Further, the court will government was created when the Federal consider the degree of danger present in Court for the Southern District of the rescue, the value of the property Florida determined that contrary to state recovered, and the time and labor claims they had jurisdiction over a 829 shipwr6ck in state waters. The decision, the action for lack of jurisdiction at quoted at the beginning of this article the request of the State of referred to here as Cobb Coin, placed the Massachusetts. Maritime Underwater state of Florida and potentially other Surveys, Inc., v. the Unidentified states in a conflict relationship Wrecked and Abandoned Sailing Vessel, her situation with the Federal court over the Tackle Etc., 717 F.2d.6(lst Cir. 1983). resource represented by buried shipwrecks. The conflict situation The U.S. District Court for the District increased in complexity with a later of Maryland reached a similar decision in contradictory court opinion in Subaqueous Exploration and Archeology, Massachusetts where the Federal court Ltd., and Atlantic Ship Historical determined that it did not have Society, Inc.,v. The Unidentified Wrecked jurisdiction. and Abandoned Vessel, 577 F. Supp. 686(D.MD.1983), finding the state's claim To date, seven conflicting federal court' to the vessel colorable, the action being actions have thrown into doubt the legal in effect an action against the state, regulations that govern abandoned and the Eleventh Amendment a bar to the shipwrecks within state waters. In the action. first case, Cobb Coin Co.,Inc. v. The Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned In a complex set of actions the Fifth Sailing Vessel, 549 F. Supp. 540 (S.D. Circuit, certain salvors obtained title Fla. 1982) the U.S. District Court for to items recovered from a buried wreck the Southern District of Florida held within submerged lands of the State of that the Federal admiralty 1-aw of salvage Texas after having obtained from the applied to abandoned shipwrecks lying Texas legislature a waiver of the within Florida's submerged lands. The sovereign immunity of the state. An court found that the Submerged Lands Act earlier unreported District Court of 1953 transferred title to the lands decision, that was not appealed, found and natural resources of the lands that the State of Texas owned the beneath navigable waters to the states, artifacts recovered from the wrecks and but that title to abandoned wreck sites that the Eleventh Amendment barred suit was not included in the transfer. The against the state. Platoro, court found that the traditional Ltd.,Inc.,v.Unidentified Remains Etc. No. principles of salvage govern activities 81-1257,695 F.2d.893 (5th Cir.,January associated with these shipwrecks. The 20, 1983). court determined that the Florida statute In one of the opinions in the litigation, purporting to govern shipwrecks within the District Court for the Western .state waters was, in some ways, District of Texas, specifically declined inconsistent with and was superseded by to hold the salvors to the standards of salvage principles, and the Cobb Coin expertise required of marine Co.,Inc., was entitled to exclusive archaeologists, as the state had urged. salvage rights over the wreck and cargo. The court also suggested that Federal In an 11th Circuit decision, the U.S. admiralty principles, as applied to the District Court for the Southern District salvage of historic shipwrecks, could be of Georgia upheld the state's claim that fashioned to safeguard the artifacts and the wreck was embedded on state property invaluable archaeological information. and that consequently title to the vessel associated with the shipwreck, and that rests with the state. In addition, the the public's interest in the shipwrecks court found that under the Eleventh could be accommodated through a proper Amendment, and alternatively due to the award of a portion of the artifacts to salvors' failure to assert a valid the State of Florida. As a result, the salvage claim, the claim for award was court currently is the overseer of five denied. Frank Chance, Paul Chancer and state-permitted wreck sites in Florida's David Topper v. Certain Artifacts Found waters. and Salvaged From the NASHVILLE a/k/a The RATTLESNAKE, Her Engines, Boilers, In contrast, the U.S. District Court for Tackler etc. 606 F.Supp. 801 (S.Ga.); the District of Massachusetts found that affirmed, 775 F.2nd 302 (11th Cir.1985). the State of Massachusetts had a plausible, that is a colorablej claim to Another 11th Circuit decision indirectly an abandoned shipwreck located within affirmed state authority. Joan M. Klein state waters. This meant that any action v. Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned against the vessel was in effect a claim Sailing Vessel, etc., 758 F.2d. 1511 against the state. But the Eleventh Ulth Cir. 1985). In that case the court Amendment of the United States determined that a shipwreck embedded in Constitution barred an action against the the submerged lands of Biscayne National state without its consent. When a salvor Park owned fee simple by the U.S. filed a claim in Federal court seeking government was as a consequence of being title to the vessel, the court dismissed embedded, the property of the U.S. 830 government. The U.S. government had unnecessary litigation. State authority received the land and the shipwreck from has been challenged in Federal Court on the previous fee simple owner, the State six occasions. In one case, Cobb Coin, of Florida. the Court assumed jurisdiction over the excavation of state land for the purpose In October 1987, The U.S. District Court of recovering shipwrecks, without regard for the Eastern District of North for environmental or'redreational Carolina upheld the state's assertion concerns. Many cases are still pending. that the Eleventh Amendment bars an Now, no future litigation on this action by a salvor when that state jurisdictional question will add to the asserts title to a shipwreck located in estimated $20 million that the state its waters. Alan Richard Riebe v. The taxpayers have spent. Moreover, the Act Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned 18th will not cost the Federal government any Century Shipwreck, etc.- unpublished, money and will not expand the Federal decided October 6, 1987, W. Earl bureaucracy. Britt,J.,U.S. District Court. In reference to proposals for a strong In sum,,_the Federal court has, but once, Federal role, for either the executive or upheld state authority. the judiciarYr in the management of shipwreck resources, it seems redundant THE ABANDONED SHIPWRECK ACT and'expensive. The bill was introduced in 1983 and As an alternative to the Act, passed the House of Representatives,in conditioning the state's authority to own 1984 but was stopped in the Senate by shipwrecks would require the development Senator Paula Hawkins of Florida. The of a costly Federal bureaucracy. If the bill has been reintroduced in each state's authority is conditioned, in any Congress. In December 1987, the bill, S. manner, an administrator such as the 858, passed the Senate and was sent to State Governor,,the Secretary of the the House. S. 858 passed the House on Interior or of Commerce must determine April 13, 1988 and was signed into law that the state law meets the conditions April 28, 1988 as the Abandoned Shipwreck of the Federal law. If the state law did Act. not meet the conditions, then there would be the need to establish a Federal The primary purpose of the Act is to bureaucracy to administer shipwrecks., recognize each state's authority to Such expensive and drastic measures seem control the excavation of state lands for unnecessary when 1) the states are the purpose of recovering embedded and managing these resources, and 2) the historic shipwrecks. The Act Secretary of the Interior already accomplishes this purpose by declaring controls much of the state's historic that the state has title to shipwrecks preservation activities through the which are either embedded in submerged National Register of Historic Places and lands, or coralline formations, or are money from the Historic Preservation Fund eligible for the National Reaister of for state plans. Historic Places. Because states already administer The Act is needed for two reasons. shipwreck archaeological sites, there is First, there is a clear need for no need to substantively distort the management. Environmental conflicts Federal Court system, which applies to often occur when treasure hunters are ships and cargoes that are in imminent looking for shipwrecks. Dynamiting of danger, to administer archaeological coral reefs, dredging of endangered sites. The establishment of a complex turtle nesting habitat, excavation of court filing system will require shellfish beds, and disruption of increased tax support for the Federal recreational swimming and diving are Court and increased state taxes to examples of the activities that the support state participation. Sport states need to control. The Act meets divers, in particular, are understandably this need by clearly stating that the adverse to paying higher taxes for the state has title to the land and all that purpose of being excluded from dive is embedded in the land. The Act sites. There are probably only two addresses the state's right to permit the commercial operators working in the excavation of state land, and the state's United States who might benefit from this right to spend money on the creation of salvor subsidy on mining old wet wrecks. underwater parks, on the conservation of There are more than 3 million sport recovered artifacts, on public education, divers. However, the majority of sport and on displays about shipwreck sites. divers will not be affected by this Act. Even the majority of wreck divers will The second reason the Act is needed is to not be affected because they prefer decrease the costs to the state caused by wrecks which are not legally abandoned 831 and that"they can see, not wrecks embedded and covered with earth. CONCLUSION In summary, this article has presented the three groups interested in shipwrecks, the sport divers, the archaeologists and the treasure salvors. A brief review of existing state law and some multiple-use management concerns have been Presented. Federal Court challenges to the existing system of state law have been identified. Finally, the purpose of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act to affirm the existing system has been stated. In conclusion, continuation of the assignment of title to abandoned historic shipwrecks'to the states is the simplest, clearest management system. With title, the expenditure of state funds for administration of permit systems, the conservation of materials for public benefit and the transfer of title to certain artifacts would be most clear. Any international claims to historic shipwrecks in state waters would be foreclosed. The sport divers and other interested groups who know their own interests and their own resources should be allowed to continue to evolve appropriate systems to manage their state's shipwrecks. The management system for a prehistoric canoe in North Dakota need not be the same as the system for a Spanish galleon in Florida or a World War II fleet in Truk Lagoon. 832 REBURIAL OF A 16th CENTURY GALLEON Peter J.A. Waddell Marine Archaeology Unit The Canadian Parks Service Environment Canada Ottawa, Ontario KlA OR3 For eight years (1978 - 85) the Marine Archaeor, logy Unit of Environment Canada was involved in C the excavation of Spanish Basque whaling vessels in Labrador. During excavation, one of the -@1-11 galleons was completely disassembled. Upon completion of excavation and structural re- cording, the timbers were systematically reburied on the seabed using a method intended to preserve the timbers. Provision has been made to ensure ongoing monitoring of timber degradation. The rationale behind the proce- d'ure, the procedure and the results to date are discussed. RED BAY Labrador HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Quebec Following Cabot's voyage to Newfoundland at the Newfoundland close of the 15th century, Portuguese, English, French and Basque commercial interests ventured into the northern New World. These Europeans were drawn by the rich stocks of protein in the form of codfish and train oil of the bowhead and right whales. Clearly at the forefront of New Brunswick these commercial ventures were the Basques who had a monopoly on the lucrative whale oil trade CP in Grand Baya (the general area of the Strait of Bell Isle). The whaling traditions of the Basques predate the Middle Ages and their ship", 0 320 building abilities in the 16th century produced vessels capable of continuous transatlantic krn duty. The fact that the Basques were world Figure 1 leaders both in the realm of whaling technology and shipbuilding combined to give them a virtual monopoly on early New World whaling. In peak years, from approximately 1540 until into the This excavation was concurrent with and compli- late 16th century, up to 2000 Basques in as mentary to the excavation of the Red Bay whaling many as 30 vessels journeyed to Labrador in station by James Tuck and the Memorial University pursuit of whales. The vessels spent four to of Newfoundland (Tuck & Grenier, 1985). six months per year harvesting whales from a series of whaling stations along the north shore INTRODUCTION of the Strait of Belle Isle. This heavy marine traffic in new waters and often threatening ice Over the course of six excavation years, the conditions resulted in its share of shipwrecks, Canadian Parks Service completed the structural several of which have been reported by Selma disassembly of the Basque Galleon thought to be Barkham (Barkham, 1978: 8-19). The Canadian the -San J!Ian (Waddell, 1986). By 1985 the wreck Parks Service's Marine Archaeology Unit, under had been completely disassembled. Over 3000 the direction of RobertGrenier, has been con- timbers had been raised to the surface, recorded ducting an excavation on one of these shipwrecks, and placed in temporary, underwater reburial pits. a 16th-century galleon at Red Bay Labrador, The -major task of the 1985 field season was to (Fig. I). permanently rebury the entire complement of ship's CH2585-8/88/0000- 833 $1 @1988 IEEE timbers. This paper will provide a general out- This permitted the stacking of timbers in three line of that undertaking. Systematic reburial distinct layers with 20 cm of sand above each of such a large number of timbers had never layer. The profile of the reburial area was kept previously been attempted. The Conservation as low as possible in order to minimize any ice- Division of the Canadian Parks Service was as2ed berg contact,.which is unavoidable in the area. to develop guidelines for the work. After litera- The seabed depression created by excavation of the ture searches, several consultation meetings and San Juan was the obvious area to locate the pit, some experimentation, a reburial plan was for- thereby reducing overall profile and avoiding mulated (Murdock and Stewart, 1985). The essence disturbance of the surrounding artifact-bearing of the plan was to cost-effectively create a unexcavated seabed. sealed and anaerobic environment in which to store the timbers. The reburial would attempt To contain timbers and sand, a sandbag dyke was to duplicate the pre-excavation environment of built using approximately 1200 plastic salt bags, the wreck timbers in terms of light, temperature containing somq 36 metric tonnes of sand (Fig. 2). and gas exposure. The dyke walls, built in stages, were supported by timbers and sand on the inside and by rock fill on REBURIAL the outside. Emphasis was o .n the use of readily available materials (rock, sand, salt bags) to An estimate of the timber volume was done in create a stable tapered wall. In addition, it was order to determine the space requirements of felt that a tapered rock wall was essential in the reburial area. It was calculated that an minimizing disturbance by scouring icebergs that area 14 m by 16 m by 1 m high would be required. could severely damage any vertical sandbag wall. C _"C-r1q916 WOOP X7, MAI 20H ED CD KS) CD -ED W." 11IRM196- WhfCR 51WRI116 7/"Am @O r"W -rA.- Figure 2 8.34 The area of the wreck slopes slightly downward I @ '71 @j from southwest to northeast. The deeper portion "O'A"e" of the pit, the northern side, was used for lar, ger timbers that passed through more than a W X"t j single reburial layer. This included the 14- -metre keel, keelson and several other great and compass timbers. Generally the timbers were buried in three distinct layers. The first layer was laid within the dyke on sterile, previously excavated seabed. Timbers were fitted or "nested" to maximize the total wood volume in each layer (Fig. 3). Upon completion of a layer, the area was mapped to show the location of each timber. Following the verification of the layer map, the sand-covering operation began. Sand was lowered into position over the site in a speci-- 1-0 ally designed dump bucket, carrying approximately two metric tonnes of sand (Fig. 4). This was manoeuvered into position and released into the reburial pit. Gaps between timbers were filled and then 20 cm of sand was used to cover the entire level. The following two timber layers were built up similarly, producing an overall height of approximately one metre. Ninety-six metric tonnes of sand were put over the first timber layer, followed by 93-metric tonnes for the second layer and 126 metric tonnes for the final layer, totalling 315 metric tonnes. Figure 4. Sand being dumped onto reburial pit (Photo by D. Pag6) 7* Figure 3. Timbers fitted into northern half of reburial layer 3. (Photo by P. Waddell) The reburial pit required a covering to prevent erosion of the sand and to minimize gas transfer. The covering used was a 36-mil hypalon tarp, which is a synthetic elastomer rubber with a re- inforcing weave. To simplify handling, the cover was made in two pieces, which were laced together underwater (Figs. 2 and 5). The 16-m-byl8-m dimensions permitted coverage outside the walls of the reburial pit by one metre on each side. To hold the cover down, 60 concrete-filled tires, Figure 5. Tr;c@l jo@ni'ng of rebur@al tarp on totalling nine metric tonnes, were dispersed over surface. its surface. (Photo by R. Chan) 835 Reburial of the timbers at Red Bay was the largest These results are very promising in terms of undertaking of its kind aimed at maintaining ship- achieving an anaerobic state within the sand wreck timbers in an optimum state. To help at the buried timber level. This is essential determine the effectiveness of the methodology, to reduce wood degradation. The first wood a testing procedure has been established incorpo- samples will be pulled for comparative analysis rating wood samples placed at three different with the frozen control samples in 1990. This depth levels through the reburial site. The test and continuing comparisons will, over the samples were strung on ropes that can be pulled years, determine the long-range effectiveness of from the pit without disturbing the other timbers this preservation technique. The results will (Fig. 2). Over time these timbers can be re- provide essential information for those charged covered for comparison with frozen control wood or concerned with long-range preservation of samples from which they were cut. Some timbers cultural resources from the sea. were reburied outside the reburial pit and these could also be used in assessing the effective- ness of the reburial methodology. Current plans REFERENCES call for the initial recovery of wood samples after five years (1990) and at several more Barkham S., 1978, "The Basques: filling a gap in intervals over the next 50 years. The effec- in our histo-jZy,,between Jaques Cartier and tiveness of sealing will also be gauged by Champlain""--Ganadian Geographic, Feb/Mar: 8-19. taking water samples from within the pit itself. Plastic tubing was modified and reburied with Genier, Robert, and James Tuck, 1985, "16th the timbers. These vertical tubes (Fig. 2) Century Basque Whalers in America", National provide access to water at the bottom of the Geographic, July: 40-71. pit. Syringes can be fitted to sampling tubes incorporated into the protruding vertical tubes. Murdock, L., and J. Stewart, 1985,"Recommendations This permits the drawing of water samples with.- for Reburial of Ship's Timbers". Unpublished out opening and.thereby contaminating the pit. report, Conservation Division, Environment There was an opportunity to take an initial Canada - Parks. water sample from the pit after one year (1986). Analysis of the sample was done and compared to Waddell, P., 1986, "The Disassembly of a 16th- the sea water immediately above the reburial Century Galleon". The International Journal area. Results were as follows: of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Expl ration, 15.2: 137-148. Ambient Reburial Sea.Water Pit Water Measured Test Name SLaUle SERle Units Sulfide 0.05 0.04 mg/L S Dissolved oxygen 9.82 0.20 mg/L 0 Alkalinity 100.00, 101.00 mg/L CaC03 PH 7.83 7.09 units, Nitrate 0.002 0.008 mg/L N Nitrite 0.002 0.008 mg/L N Ammonia 0.01 1.1 mg/L N@ Orthophosphate 0.013 0.076 mg/L P04 Total phosphorus 0.034 0.309 mg/L P04 Silicate 0.10 0.75 mg/L Si Iron 0.09 9.9. mg/L Fe Kjeldahl nitrogen 0.13 1.6 mg/L N 836 SUPPORTING UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY WITH OCEAN TECHNOLOGY I John D. Broadwater Senior Underwater Archaeologist Virginia Division of Historic Landmarks Department of Conservation and Historic Resources ABSTRACT Division of Historic Landmarks, Department of Conservation and Historic Resources) The Yorktown Shipwreck Archaeological coordinated a series of technological and Project has employed ocean technology for the archaeological studies. In 1976 and 1977, location, assessment and excavation of ship- with support from the Magnetics Branch of the wrecks from the Battle of Yorktown, 1781. A David W. Taylor Naval Ship Research and total of nine shipwrecks was located, using Development Center, Annapolis, Maryland, and remote-sensing surveys. The best-preserved of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the shipwrecks was excavated using a unique Gloucester Point, Virginia, two magnetometers method: a steel enclosure, or cofferdam, was were utilized for locating additional constructed around the shipwreck, and fil- shipwrecks at Yorktown. Shallow areas were tration systems were used to clarify the en- surveyed with a Schonstedt high-balance closed water, thus alleviating strong currents gradiometer, while deep-water areas (as deep and near-zero visibility which hampered pre- as 90 feet, or 27 meters) were searched with vious research. During the excavation, re- an AN/ASQ 81 magnetometer. Almost 300 cording was accomplished using a three- magnetic anomalies were recorded and plotted dimensional measurement system. Final hull on a large-scale map. measurements were recorded with a device which In 1978, the Landmarks Commission utilizes high-frequency sonic signals to pro- received a one-year survey grant from the vide precise measurements. A computer-aided National Endowment for the Humanities, thus. design and drafting (CADD) system provided formally establishing the Yorktown Shipwreck analysis and report-quality drawings. Archaeological Project. The first project activity was to survey the same areas near Yorktown with a Klein Associates Hydroscan 530 INTRODUCTION sonar, which has both side-scanning and bottom- penetrating capabilities. Sixteen primary and In the fall of 1975, a small group of 35 secondary sites were identified, many of archaeological volunteers, with assistance which correlated closely with previous from state archaeologists, began a study in magnetometer data. the York River which eventually became a full- All remote-sensing data were correlated scale research project for the Commonwealth of and primary zones were established for diver Virginia. Those archaeologists located and investigations. The follow-on surveys by reported on the remains of a large wooden ship underwater archaeologists resulted in the believed to have been lost during the Battle verification of nine British shipwrecks from of Yorktown, 1781. At least 26 British the Battle of Yorktown: six were parallel to vessels were sunk during that famous battle, the Yorktown shoreline, two lay in shallow which proved to be the last major battle of water on the opposite shore, near Gloucester the American Revolution. Unfortunately, Point, and the ninth was in the deep water of however, strong currents, near-zero visibility the main channel. In 1980, with the and persistent stinging jellyfish hampered assistance of an archaeological team from diving activities, thus limiting the Texas A&M University, one of the Gloucester effectiveness of the archaeological team. Point sites was positively identified as the During the years that followed, numerous remains of the largest British warship, HMS applications of ocean technology were utilized CHARON. in a coordinated effort to locate, evaluate and excavate ships from the sunken fleet at THE COFFERDAM EXCAVATION Yorktown. One of the shipwrecks, referred to by its archaeological site designation, 44YO88, was LOCATING AND EVALUATING THE SHIPWRECKS found to be in an excellent state of preservation. The state archaeological team Beginning in 1976, the Virginia Historic felt that complete excavation of the ship Landmarks Commission (now the Virginia would yield new information on 18th century CH2585-B188/0000- 837 $1 @1988 IEEE ship construction and warfare; however, they visibility occasionally reached as much as 30 felt that it would be very difficult to feet (9.1 m.), permitting excellent conduct the excavation in the adverse photographic recording of the site. environment of the York River. As a result of the cofferdam's success, The same problem had plagued earlier the project was reported in the June, 1988 archaeological diving. In 1976, the state issue of National Geographic magazine, and contracted with archaeologist Dr. George F. also featured in the BBC-TV documentary Bass, Texas AkM University, to conduct a "Discoveries Underwater." survey of one of the Yorktown shipwrecks. In Each year since 1982, research has been an attempt to offset the poor diving conducted at the site in cooperation with the conditions, Bass and his team constructed a Program in Maritime History and Underwater floating cofferdam designed to isolate a Research at East Carolina University, portion of the wreck and filter the enclosed Greenville, North Carolina. This cooperative water. The system, which had to be research has helped refine excavation and constructed hurriedly and on a small budget, recording methodologies and has provided an was not successful, but the concept appealed excellent training opportunity for students to the state team when they began long-range pursuing an advanced degree with a specialty planning in 1979. in underwater archaeology. Within the A new proposal was prepared, this one protective confines of the cofferdam, students calling for the construction of a rigid steel do not have to contend with the hostile cofferdam to surround 44YO88 and for the environment posed by most coastal or riverine installation of a filtration system to clarify sites; instead, they can concentrate on the enclosed water. The project was archaeological methodology. The cofferdam is constructed in 1982 with funds from the U. S. an ideal training situation. Department of the Interior, the National Silt was removed from the site by Endowment for the Humanities, the Commonwealth airlifts, often referred to as "underwater of Virginia, the National Geographic Society vacuum cleaners." These devices use and numerous other corporate and private compressed air to create a suction in a rigid sources. Such a cofferdam had been proposed hose or pipe. The suction is used to remove before but never built; cofferdams had been Silt and clay from the wreck site. As used on several occasions for shipwreck artifacts were exposed, they were recorded excavations in Europe, but all had been using a variety of techniques. The main constructed in shallow water, with the recording system utilizes a three-dimensional enclosed water being removed for a dry-land- measurement and calculation scheme devised by style excavation. The Yorktown cofferdam was Charles Mazel. Three surveyor's tapes are the first to create a ..swimming-pool" pulled from known reference points to an environment in a silty, algae-rich river. object being located; these direct tape The Yorktown cofferdam is constructed of readings are then converted to rectilinear interlocking sheet steel pilings to form an coordinates using a simple computer program. enclosure 97 feet (27.4 m) long by 45 feet This same measurement job can now be done (13.6 m) wide. It should be noted that since electronically using the Sonic High-Accuracy the ship would have been built using the Ranging and Positioning System (SHARPS). This English system of measurement, that same device, developed by Applied Sonics Corp. and system was used throughout the Yorktown distributed by Marine Telepresence Inc., project. With a water depth at the site of Poquasset, Massachusetts, utilizes sonic approximately 20 feet (6.1 m.), the cofferdam signals and associated computer hardware and encloses approximately one-half million software to locate objects quickly and with a gallons (1,892,500 1.) of water, which is very high degree of accuracy. The system was being filtered by commercial swimming pool given its first field test at the Yorktown filters donated by the Purex Corporation. Two cofferdam in 1985, then used in 1987 to record separate filtration systems are employed, each in detail the hull shape of 44YO88. using an electric pump to circulate water Following data collection, SHARPS data through a bank of sand filters. were transferred by phone link to a Prime mini- Initially, the system did not work as computer at the Virginia Beach facilities of expected. River water was freely exchanged Advanced Marine Enterprises, where a computer- with cofferdam water through seams in the aided design and drafting (CADD) system helped walls and through the porous silt and clay in generate detailed drawings of the hull and the river bottom. Introduction of river water other key features. This combination of brought new silt and algae to be removed and electronic data-gathering and computer limited the effectiveness of the filters. processing provides a rapid and efficient flow Then, in 1985, the Ecolochem Corporation of of data from field to final drawings. Norfolk, Virginia, offered long-term assistance with the problem Ecolochem, the largest mobile filtration company in the THE SHIPWRECK, 44Y088 world, conducted a series of tests and monitored the filters around the clock. From The technology discussed above has late 1985 to the close of the project in 1988, produced a wealth of data on Yorktown average visibility was better than ten feet, shipwreck 44YO88. The vessel was a merchant compared to near-zero in the open river;, ship which had been leased by the British Navy 838 for use as a supply ship during the Revolutionary War. From its boxy shape and heavy construction, the ship is believed to have been built in England as a collier, or coal-carrier. It was a brig, a two-masted ship with square sails, rated at approximately 170 tons. A hole found in the ship's starboard side verifies that it was one of a group of ships purposely scuttled to produce a barricade against an amphibious landing on the Yorktown beach. The ship's structure contains several unusual features, especially in the construction of bow and stern, which include horizontal timbers in place of cant frames. Objects found within the hull indicate that the captain had a well-appointed cabin, with fashionable furniture, panelling with raised molding, and a unique china cabinet. Dozens of intact barrels carry markings indicating a variety of contents including beef, pork, grains and other supplies. CONCLUSIONS Ocean technology made numerous significant contributions to the Yorktown Shipwreck Archaeological Project. From the remote-sensing surveys which helped locate the shipwrecks, to the cofferdam technology and, later, the recording techniques utilized at the site, ocean technology was involved in every phase of the research. It is hoped that in the future there will be even more interchange of ideas, methods and skills between underwater archaeologists and marine engineers, which will enhance even'further the efficiency and accuracy of underwater excavation. In turn, underwater archaeologists will produce further evidence of America's rich maritime heritage. 839 ARTISTS ON OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPEDITIONS, A NEGLECTED PARTNERSHIP Harris B. Stewart, Jr. Oceanography Department Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 ABSTRACT The partnership between artist and marine scientist The 34 paintings show the ship off Gibraltar, off has too long been neglected and needs to be brought many of the islands in the Atlantic Ocean and the to the attention of both artists and oceanographers. southern Indian Ocean, at Halifax, St. Croix, The work of two ard ts nearly one hundered years Capetown, and six paintings of the ship among the apart Is presented with examples of their art at sea. iceburgs near the Antarctic Circle. Shephard's depiction of the ship in every painting is Benjamin Shephard on H.M.S. Challenger during its accurate and very detailed. Other than for the 1872-1876 global expedition painted a series of charm- paintings themselves, Shephard had a delightful ing sketches of the Challenger between her departure disregard for accuracy. For example, the vessel and her arrival. in Australia. A century later, the U.S. towed by the Challenger into St. Thomas in the marine artist, Jack Coggins, aboard the NOAA Ship Virgin Islands on March 23, 1873, was named Varuna. Discoverer painted oils, watercolors, and sketches of Shephard has a good painting of the ship in tow, but work aboard. his title lists her as the Baruner, missed the actual date by four days, and even misspelled the name of the island to which the abandoned vessel was being INTRODUCTION towed. Another titled "H.M.S. Challenger in a gale In the Gulf of Florida, May 2f-t-h; 1873" shows the Oceanographic ships and the work of marine scientists ship under reduced sail heeled way over amidst at sea could provide exciting subjects for the marine monstrous seas under black @15uds. In truth the artist, yet few have risen to accept the challenge. official log of the expedition mentions no storm With a conference theme of "Partnership of Marine in May of '73. The ship was enroute from Halifax to Interests", the artist/marine scientist partnership, one Bermuda, a-ad there Is no Gulf of Florida between long neglected, seemed a natural to bring to the these two ports, or anywhere else, for that matter. attention of both artists and oceanographers. A But these are the comments of an incurable nineteenth century sailor who filled a sketchbook with nitpicker. Shephard's water colors are magnificantly paintings of his research ship and a twentieth century done and well preserved. They provide to today's professional artist as a member of the scientific party oceanographers and maritime and scientific aboard an oceanographic ship exemplify this unique historians a new dimension to our knowledge and partnership. understanding of what is still regarded as the greatest marine science expedition of all time. SHEPHARD ABOARD H.M.S. CHALLENGER Shephard's original sketchbook now resides In the J. Welles Henderson is the "guru", the "godfathee', of Philadelphia Maritime Museum. The sketches have the Philadelphia Maritime Museum. A number of years been reproduced In the original sketchbook format, ago on a visit to Boston, he was pursuing his favorite and an accompanying text for each painting has pastime- snooping second-hand and antique bookstores borrowed extensively and shamelessly from two for Illustrated log books of 19th century ships to add contemporffy yeSscffll journals kept by expedition to his museum's collection. It was there that he found members (4) In - Copies of the Challenge a sketchbook of really delightful sketches of a british Sketchbook are available from the Philadelphia ship on what appeared to be a long voyage. He bought Maritime Museum, 321 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, the sketchbook. On his return to Philadelphia, he P A. 19106. studied the sketchbook more carefully and felt that the vessel might have been engaged in some sort of COGGINS ABOARD NOAA SHIP DISCOVERER marine scientific, oceanographic endeavors. lie called me at the NO A A lab in Miami and asked if I had ever In 1968, at the invitation of the Expedition Chief heard of a british ship named H.M.S. Challenge Scientist aboard the NOAA Ship Discov the Indeed I had, and I questioned him at length about his well-known American maritime artist, Jack CogginB, discovery. It proved to be an exciting find - an joined the expedition at Barbados. The ship w as original book full of sketches of the Challenger at sea carrying out studies of the Interactions between the and at various ports of call. Each full-page sketch sea and the atmosphere as precursors to the was tided and dated. The artist was one B. Shephard. multi-ship B 0 M E X Expedition. 0 perations included CH2585-8/88/0000- 840 $1 @1988 IEEE CTD lowerings, meteorological, and tethered balloon REFERENCES observations, and the anchoring of instrumented vertical towers that obtain meteorological data at (1). Thomson, Wyville and John Murray, "Report several heights above the sea and oceanographic data of the Scientific Results of the Voyage of ' at several depths as well as wave data at the sea H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-T surface. Professor Michael Garstang and his students H.M. Stationer y Office, London 1885, Vol. 1. at Florida State University had designed and built these towers and were proud that the ballasting (2). Spry, W.J.J., "The Cruise of Her Majesty's system maintained the towers in the true vertical -an Ship 'Challenger'," Harper and.Brothers, New essential characteristic for their measurements. York, 1877. Coggins did a large oil painting of one of these (3). Campbell, George C., "Log-Le%ters of the towers with a Boston whaler in the foreground and 'Challenger', MacMillan & Company, New the Discoverer in the background. Like Shephard a York, 1877. hundred years earlier, Coggins also injected an element of artistic license. When he painted the (4). Stewart, Harris B., Jr. and J. Welles instrumented tower as floating absolutely in the Henderson, "Challenger Sketchbook", vertical, it looked to him like a bridge abutment rising Philadelphia MaFitime Museum, Philadelphia, from the sea floor. To impart the feeling of its being Pa. 1972. a floating tower, he painted it as leaning aboul 20 degrees in a choppy sea. The painting is magnificent, but Professor Garstang was furious when this painting was reproduced as a NOAA Christmas card and widely distributed throughout the oceanographic community. The othe 'r three large oils depict a nighttime CTD lowering, interior view of night operations on the ship's bridge, and one of the ship underway. Water colors show a meteorological balloon release, the instrumented inflated kite (Kytoon), putting Mansen bottles on the wire and a series of sepia sketches of work aboard. These paintings are skillfully done with great attention to accuracy and detail, the hallmark of all of Coggins' work. These paintings hung for a number of years on the walls of NOAA's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory in Miami and are now in the possession of the person who commissioned and paid for them. Some 25 color slides of the artistry of Shephard and Coggins constitute the major portion of the paper presented at Oceans '88. They are, however, too numerous and too expensive to reproduce in color for this proceedings volume. CONCLUSION With the availability of good cameras and good photogaphers, artists are no longer required to document our work at sea. But in the tradition of the Roux (pere et fis) in Marseille, Fritz Hugh Lane in Gloucester, Coggins, Barber, and Goertmiller today, ships and their work at sea still provide a challenge to the capable artist. Today's oceanographic expeditions should provide a berth for an artist. It is a long neglected but very appealing partnership of marine interests. 841 A VERIFIED MODEL FOR OIL SPILL MOVEMENT, BEAUFORT SEA, ALASKA Ivan M. Lissauer U.S. Coast Guard R&D Center Avery Point Groton, CT 06340-6096 ABSTRACT model designed f or Arctic areas. The model using the vector addition The discovery of oil and gas along the technique will be the fundamental source North Alaskan coast led to development for oil transport information until the and exploration on shore; offshore National Oceanographic and Atmospheric drilling on the continental shelf has Administration (NOAA) Scientific Support already begun. The Coast Guard has Coordinator (SSC) can be activated to responsibility for insuring effective prepare detailed oil spill movement oil spill response in these waters which data. may be ice-infested during all or part The oil spill model that has been of the year. To increase the Coast developed is easily accessible and, most Guard's expertise, methods were devel- important, easy to implement. it is oped to detect and monitor oil spills in designed so that on being notified of a the Arctic. A key element was develop- spill the OSC can turn the computer on, ment of a comprehensive model to predict enter a small amount of easily obtained the short-term movement of oil spills. data and then let the computer run while To verify the model, a drift experiment the. OSC is preparing to depart for the was conducted at Prudhoe Bay. Tracks of scene of the spill. When ready to several drifters were compared to the depart, the OSC will return to the model's output, indicating that it had computer and gather the printed output. the ability to successfully simulate Thus, for the OSC, a forecasting system direction of movement and speed of has been developed which will: advance of an oil spill. 1. INTRODUCTION a. Predict the movement of the oil spill with sufficient accuracy to permit The U.S. Coast Guard's Arctic Spill the OSC to make proper decisions about Response project was designed to insure the deployment of his resources. that the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) had b. Consider all factors affecting the background information and technical the movement of the oil slick including: expertise to monitor the progress of an spreading, size and time of original Arctic oil spill and its cleanup discharge, size and time of any operation. Initially, it may be crucial additional discharges, winds, surface for the OSC to determine pertinent facts currents, and site-specific geography. about a particular discharge of oil particularly the probable direction and c. Require as inputs only that speed of advance of the oil. This would information which is readily available provide the OSC with information to make to the OSC such as: time and size of judgements concerning the areas where spill, location of spill and local the environment will be affected, and weather conditions. the resources and priorities for protecting them. Should a spill occur d. Be capable of providing updated today, the best method for forecasting projections as additional information during the early stage of the spill becomes available or conditions change. would be similar to the basic vector addition technique used by the National e. Be capable of real-time operation Response Center for many past spills. to give timely results. This technique is excellent for immediate forecasts of the oil slick's f. Present its output in a format directional movement and outer that can be easily used and understood. boundaries. The vector technique has been incorporated into a simple computer 842 United States Government work not protected by copyright 2. COMPUTER MODEL which the model was developed is that portion landward of the 40 meter In this model the movement of a isobath. Current measurements in this waterborne conservative property such as area are sparse due to the difficulty of an oil slick is assumed to be described setting and maintaining current meter by a diffusion-advection equation. The moorings in the presence of sea ice. equation describes the Eulerian concept However, drifter data, from Matthews of concentration changes with time at (1981), and current meter measurements fixed locations as the oil is advected made by Aagaard (1981) provide some and diffused over a region. The information about the surface water diffusion equation was tested in zero movement. Generally these studies current fields. Coefficients were indicate that the water movement on the determined f or this equation which shelf tends to be in the longshelf allowed for a circular spread rate direction (generally east and west). comparable to those rates determined However, there is an occasional cross- from actual spills (Murray, et al., shelf flow (north and south) of a highly 1970) and theory (Fay, et al., 1970). variable nature. It has been generally agreed that the predominant mechanism A real-time spill trajectory model for water movement on the inner shelf consists of two parts. The f irst and and within the barrier islands is the most important part is the data base wind. This hypothesis is supported by which provides the surface currents. several different researchers including The second part is the trajectory model Lissauer and Matthews (1982), Matthews is an algorithm which uses the data base (1981), Mungall and Whitaker (1979) and to.move the oil. Barnes and Reimnitz (1977). Lissauer and Matthews (1982) studied the movement A shortcoming of many models occurs not of surface drifters placed under the in the development stage of the shorefast ice just prior to summer algorithms but in the validation of break-up of ice and in leads in the pack those models to real-world events that ice on the inner shelf. Results of the they are trying to predict. Because drifter returns f rom two years of this model was developed for response to releases show 74% were found to the west oil spills, it was considered essential of their release points indicating a that the short-term predictive model be predominant westerly flow. This tested to determine its ability to westerly flow is in agreement with the provide the basic parameters of oil dominance of easterly winds in the area slick directional movement and outer of the drifter releases documented by boundaries. Therefore, a detailed Hufford, et al., (1976). Barnes and discussion of the mechanics of the model Reimnitz (1977) has reported good will not be presented; instead the focus correlations between near surface will be on the experiments conducted to currents and local winds off of Prudhoe test the model. Bay, Alaska. 3. BEAUFORT SEA OCEANOGRAPHY A key ingredient to the successful implementation of the model was the the movement of oil will be affected by development of the current data base for winds, tides, surface currents, river input to the model. In 1979 the Coast runoff and waves. For the North Slope Guard R&D Center conducted an experiment of Alaska the primary mechanisms for to observe the dynamics of ice movement movement are the winds and surface during break-up of the ice in the currents. Surface winds play an Prudhoe Bay area (Lissauer and Tebeau, important role in the transport of oil 1980). on the water. The wind drift of an oil slick can be described by a wind factor: During surveys conducted with ice i.e., oil slick drift rate is a concentrations of less than 50%, floe percentage of wind speed. speed varied between 6.0% and 11.7% of the wind speed for, one survey and 5.5% Actual observations of oil slick and 12.4% for the second survey. These movement at sea indicate that the drift values are significant because they rates are between 3.0 and 4.5 percent of greatly exceeded expected values even the wind speed. The difference between considering the leeway caused by the the value of wind drift current and oil "superstructure" of the ice. This slick drift is called leeway. In the initial indication that the current data model presented the wind drift factor base might require additional input led has been set at 3.5% of the wind speed. to other studies. The direction of movement of the oil spill is downwind. Lissauer, et al., 1984, examined the circulation on the Beaufort Sea Shelf in The area of the Beaufort Sea shelf for "Atlas of the Beaufort Sea." As noted 843 before it was determined that this motion. This may be due to light winds circulation is dominated by a longshore only moving the top f ew inches of the transport caused by large-scale water; while in 'rough sea, turbulence meteorological conditions. smoothes out the vertical gradient of current for the upper few feet. Persistent winds from the northeast or Therefore, the effect of the surface strong northwest winds cause patterns of current on an oil spill may be somewhat mean current conditions. in order to different than the effect on the drift- determine the transport of oil it was ers in light winds. However, because of found that 3.5% of the local wind speed errors caused by estimations of winds had to be added to the mean currents. and their variability, this difference Thus for a local northeast wind of ten will not cause a significant problem for knots in the vicinity of Prudhoe Bay, the fundamental use of the model. oil would be transported by the mean currents and an additional 3.5% factor All position information for the for the local wind. Thus oil transport drifters was processed and recorded by a could be approximately 6.5% if the mean desktop computer. Approximately 40 currents and the local wind transport hours of drift was required to were in the same direction. The adequately verify the model. A total of validation experiment proved that using 54.28 hours of drift was obtained. the mean current patterns plus a wind factor provides accurate oil spill In addition to the drift data, wind movement patterns. speed and direction were measured on Cross Island (approximately ten miles 4. VALIDATION EXPERIMENT offshore) and on the Arcat vessel which was used as the command center for In order to test the validity of the releasing the drifters. Also, current model a field trip to Prudhoe Bay, measurements were taken from the deck of Alaska, was conducted during the period the Arcat. 1-14 August 1985. Experiments were conducted to study the coastal 5. SURFACE DRIFT circulation inside the barrier islands, in order to test the short-term model. Comparisons were made between the wind A microwave tracking system system (MTS) speed and current speed, as well as the was set up at Prudhoe Bay. The NTS wind speed versus the drifter speeds. system can track transponders at line- As noted before, we expected the of-sight distances. The R&D Center has currents and the drifter movement to be developed surface drifters with in excess of the 3.5% value used to transponders imbedded in them. The estimate the effect of the wind on an drifters consist of a waterproof box oil spill. our hypothesis that currents floated by polystyrene foam sandwiched along the North Slope were not solely a between two pieces of plexiglass. An function of the local winds appears to MTS transponder and batteries are be correct. Figures I and 2 show both contained in the waterproof box and are current speed and drifter speeds exceed connected by flexible wave guides to the the 3.51% leeway drift speed in all but antenna on a 4-foot pole. The drifters three cases. Based on this information, float with the upper surface awash, thus the model was developed with a the leeway of the drifter is expected to background current data set, upon which be small to negligible. The structure a wind drift data set is imposed. of the drifter is such that it marks the movement of the upper 2 to 3 feet of I -T water, which is deeper than the layer that will affect an oil spill. The MTS, drifters were tested for their ability 0.4 to describe surface movement by . ... ... deploying one or more drift cards next 0.3 - to them. The drift cards were brightly painted 4 feet by 4 feet sheets of 1/2- inch plywood whose positions were marked 0.2 periodically by a monitor boat. Although the absolute motion of the MTS 0.1 - drifters and the drift cards was very similar, some relative motion was observed. In light winds, calm 0 - conditions, the drift cards had a 0.1 0.2 0.'3 O@4 d.5 d.6 0.7 greater motion downwind than the C,,,e,t Sp@ (K-ts) drifter. In 14-20 knot winds, there was Figure 1. Comparison of Current Speeds no appreciable difference in their with 3.5% Values of the Wind Speed - Z' 844 32 31 30 29 to n W 2e oil 27 26 0 LMMdH) 25 0 Im'r 24 OL ;?.".,L 23 :9!NS LLL 22 21 a 20 0on= 1.0 1 it 114 slas ona 0.9 41=0 a ON I N0:14% 0 11 0119na Sol 154 4 a 11 It N'%' 0 9 N a 4 K Sig N S, Vn a n 0.7 . ... ... 3 gsgs@ 2 lagg 0.6 2109a n a On a4 as s 9 s4aaa"nsof a as NN a 9N99 "n No NN, n""Nn %a 0.4 6 N 7 5 "Ng"n1l9l lt "ttOg N9%49@@ In nau%V 4 2NN9012:ng �N%SS 69:S0 nn"9'@'g z @@4 11t 4N11Jn6 N onn - tg""Usnnn S n at 2 lgglfill ON e I t N --CZ so "S . J4 1 1 -4 1 DoNg"S la a to Nan a MrInn TIME <HR) 9*00 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 BELT 3600 I)ELX 141276 WDIR 219 ASP 494 Drift9f SPOON (Knots) SPILL PT:26,18 Figure 2. Comparison of Drifter Speeds Figure 3. Verification of Model with 3.5% Values of the Wind Speed, Using Drifter Tracks A total of just under 53 hours of drift The first drift period on 4 August 1985 data was obtained. Table 1 below gives lasted for just under seven hours. The the date and time period of the drifts comparison of the drift track to the that were recorded, as well as the model output is in good agreement. The average wind speed and direction for the core of the oil spill simulation for the drift period. model output appears to be slightly to the south of the drift track, and the drift track exceeded the model output distance by approximately one grid square (1413 meters). However, for the objective of the model to provide the general direction of movement and approximate rate of advance of the oil, the results exceeded our expectations of the forecasting ability of the model. The other drift track/model output comparisons also fortified the predictive capability of the model. The remaining model outputs for the various drifts were in excellent agreement with the drift tracks. These drift data 6. MODEL VERIFICATION indicate the ability of the model to successfully simulate the direction of In order to verify the predictive movement and speed of advance of an oil capability of the model, the drift spill in the Arctic. It will provide tracks were overlaid on model outputs. the OSC with an adequate prediction Although there were some discrepancies technique for the short-term period of between the model output and the drift 24 hours. In addition it can be used to tracks, the overall results verify that verify predictions of oil movement which the model will provide useful are provided to the OSC by other information to the OSC for the first 24 sources. hours of drift of an oil spill in the 7. REFERENCES Beaufort Sea. Figure 3 shows the model output and drift track for 4 August. The model displays letters (H, M, L) 1. Aagaard, K., 1981. Current which correspond to oil concentrations Measurements in Possible Dispersal of High, Medium or Low. The path of the Regions of the Beaufort Sea. In: drifter is shown by an arrow with the Environmental Assessment of the Alaskan starting point of the drift marked by a Continental Shelf. Volume 3: Physical circle. The shoreline and barrier Sciences Studies. USDC Office of Marine islands are represented by the dotted Pollution Assessment. Washington, DC, figures. pp 56-100. 845 2. Barnes, P.W. and E. Reimnitz, 1979. 11.Murray, S.P., W.G. Smith and Charles Marine Environmental Problems in the J. Sonu, 1970. Oceanographic Ice-Covered Beaufort Sea Shelf and Observations and Theoretical Analysis of Coastal Regions. In: Environmental Oil Slicks During the Chevron Spill, Assessment of the Ali-skan Coastal Shelf, March 1970. U.S. Coast Guard R&D Report Annual Reports, 9: 164-267. CG-03592-A. Available from National Technical Information Service, 3. Crowley, W.P., 1968. Numerical Springfield, Virginia. 714104/A/006-2. Advection Experiment. Monthly Weather Review. 96:1. 4. Fay, J.A., and D.P. Hoult, 1971. Physical Processes in the Spread of Oil on the Water Surface. U.S. Coast Guard R&D Report 714107/A/001. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia. ADA714107. 5. Hufford, G.L., I.M. Lissauer and J P. Welsh, 1976. Movement of Spilled Oil Over the Beaufort Sea Shelf - A Forecast. U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Report CG-D-101-76. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia. AD-A033-580, 87 p. 6. Lissauer, I.M. and P.A. Tebeau, 1980. Investigations to Determine the Transport of oil in Arctic Waters. Coastal Zone 80, Hollywood,' Florida, pp 2797-2813. 7. Lissauer, I.M. and J.B. Matthews, 1982. Surface Drifter Study - Beaufort Sea, Alaska. U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center Report CG-D-33- 82. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia. AD-A126-350, 10 p. 8. Lissauer, I.M., L.E. Hachmeister and B.J. Morson, 1984. Atlas of the Beaufort Sea. U.S. Coast Guard R&D Report CG-D-33-84. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia. ADA-149-545. 9. Matthews, J.B., 1981. observations of Surface and Bottom Currents in the Beaufort Sea near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Journal of Geophysical Research. Volume 86, No. C7, pp 6653-6660. 10.Mungall, J.C.H., R.E. Whitaker and S.F. Pace, 1979. Oceanographic Processes in a Beaufort Sea Barrier Island-Lagoon System. Numerical Modeling and Current Measurements. In: Environmental Assessment of the Alai-kan Continental Shelf, Annual Reports. National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 8: 182-287. 846 Hindcast of the Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill Mark Reedl and Erich R. Cundlach2 lApplied Science Associates, Inc. 2E-Tech, Inc. 70 Dean Knauss Drive 70 Dean Knauss Drive Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882 Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882 ABSTRACT watering) is allowed to occur for oil which is on the foreshore or backshore. A coastal zone oil spill model developed for the U.S. Department of Interior, Minerals Management Oil coming ashore may be deposited on the Service, was used to hindcast the fate of oil foreshore or the backshore, or carried into from the Amocb Cadiz tanker accident. Hindcasts coastal lagoons, ponds, or fjords. Oil on the were performed on two spatial scales, one small, foreshore penetrates into the underlying to provide higher resolution of the coastline sediments at a rate dependent on sediment grain details within a few tens of kilometers of the size and oil viscosity. Oil may also be carried wreck, the second extending several hundreds of into the beach groundwater system by wave kilometers along the coast. The mass balance overwash. Reflotation of surface oil occurs and physical distribution of oil agreed during rising tides. These mass transfer reasonably well with area-wide observations for pathways are shown schematically in Figure 1. both large and small tests. Agreement at the larger scale deteriorated somewhat with respect LONGSHORE AND OFFSHORE to detailed spatial distributions. The small EVAPORATION TRANSPORT EVAPORATION scale hindcast appeared to retain too much oil early in the simulation, although mass balances DEPOSITION after 30 days agreed well with observations. REFLOATION WAVE OVERWASH BA S=RE 1. INTRODUCTION (SURF ZONE SURFACEI FORESHORE SURFACE E Oil spill trajectory and fates models typically ENTRAINMENT EROSION PENETRATION follow a surface slick until it contacts a coastline, at which time the simulation ceases. SURF ZO FORESHORE The coastal zone oil spill (COZOIL) model NE SURFACE SEDIMENT described here is designed to simulate oil spill WATER COLUMN fates both before and after a coastal contact. The model has been designed to include explicit PENETRATION representations of as many of the known active I processes as possible. Multiple discrete BEACH GROU WATER SYST batches of oil, or spillets, are used to FLUS ING E.: represent the surface slick. Spillets are circular while offshore but become elliptical LONGShORE AND OFFSHORE upon contact with the shoreline. The amount of TRANSPORT onshore-offshore foreshortening is governed by a balance between wind stress and gravity spreading forces, and results in alongshore Figure 1. Schematic of processes included in the spreading of the spillet. Evaporated COZOIL model. hydrocarbons are given no spatial representation, but are simply accumulated from The most severe test of any model is a hindcast all sources during the simulation. Entrained of a real event having a strong observational oil offshore is represented by discrete data base. The Amoco Cadiz spill offers the particles which are advected by the local most complete data set of any coastal oil spill currents. Inside the surf zone, entrained oil to date and, therefore, was selected to test takes on a continuous representation, COZOIL. Principal summary references on the discretized by alongshore grid cell. Transport spill are Hess (1978), CNEXO (1981), and REF'O W-V A N5 D AT'. O_' r '-E IWA 1AM @Fl. @.,N@ in the surf zone is governed by a classical NOAA/CNEXO (1982) Primary references radiation stress formulation. Incorporation of concerning development of the COZOIL model are water into surface oil (emulsification) is Gundlach and Reed (1986), Kana (1986), and Reed simulated offshore. De -emulsification (de- et al (1986, 1988). CH2585-8/88/0000- 847 $1 @1988 IEEE- The sequence of events to be hindcast began at Table 1. COZOIL input parameters for 06:00 on 17 March 1978 when the supertanker deterministic simulation and values used for the began to break apart 2.4 km off the Brittany Amoco Cadiz hindcasts. (France) coastline after grounding during storm conditions (Hess, 1978). A location map of the Input Parameters Value Comments site is provided in Figure 2. The ship's cargo consisted of about 220,000 mtons of light Middle oil type Hurban crude Primarily light Arabian ,r"d,, Ille-1978) Eastern crude oil and a small amount of bunker Spill size 220,000 tons 1.61 ".00 b"i 1978) oil, all of which was lost over the next two Number of pLIl.t. 144 conforms to H.- sc al (1978) weeks (Hess, 1978). The oil rapidly emulsified Interval between I every 2 bra conforms to Hann at al in the high waves around the vessel, sequantial releases (1978) Coastal reach parameter. Read at al, 1988 some field measurements incorporating up to 90% water (Hann et al, Air temperature 7.5*C Brest airport 1978). After initial oil transport to the Wind time ..rise Brost airport Tidal period 12.4 hour SHOM (1973. 1978) south, strong winds spread the oil towards the Range 6.5 a SHOM (1973. 1978) east for the first ten days. A shif t in wind Tidal current amplitude 1.46 m/sec SHOM (1973, 1978) Time after mean low 6 hr SHOM (1978) direction to the northeast then carried oil tide for simulation start offshore, with a reversal toward the southwest after six days (Hess, 1978). Oil was ultimately .spread over more than 300 km of coastline and a bedrock-dominated shores, mixed sand and gravel large area of offshore waters (Fig. 2). beaches, sand beaches backed by dunes or riprap, and estuaries with large mud flats. Because of the large tidal range, sand flats extending up to several kilometers from shore are exposed at low tide. Shoreline classification is based on Berne (1982), modified to conform with shoreline types def ined by the COZOIL model. Shoreline slopes -7 are based on the measurement of topographic profiles across sand, coarse sand with f ine gravel, and gravel beaches in Brittany at the time of the spill. Values for adjacent beaches were estimated using these measurements as a basis and from repeated observations of the L shoreline by the second author. The foreshore slope, as defined by model requirements, is the slope of a straight line between the berm or high-water mark and the low-tide line. The backshore is the area above the berm or high- Figure 2. Study area map for the Amoco Cadiz water mark. The position of this dividing line hindcast showing coastal areas impacted by oil can vary substantially in Brittany depending on and borders of the small-scale and large-scale the tidal phase. A value of 20 m is used as test cases. representative of the narrow backshores common in Brittany. 2. MODEL INPUT DATA The 'resulting coastlines for the two hindcasts are shown in Figure 3. In the small-scale case, The inputs to COZOIL used for the Amoco Cadiz lengths of individual shoreline segments or test cases are presented in Table 1. other reaches vary from about 1.7 to 5 km, At this inputs, such as simulation duration and time scale, the model is capable of resolving intervals between subsequent output to the individual estuaries and embayments along the monitor or data files are also required, but do coast. For example, the Abers Benoit and Vrach not materially affect the computations. (Fig. 3 top) are clearly represented. For the large-scale test case (Fig. 3 lower), the reach The COZOIL model contains a library with seven lengths range from 20 to 46 km, a much coarser crude oils and petroleum products. Of these, representation in which 11 reaches cover over Murban Abu Dhabi appears to closely approximate 600 km of actual coastline. the oil carried by the Amoco Cadiz (Anonymous, 1973; NOAA/CNEXO, 1982). 3. SUMMARY OF OIL DISTRIBUTION DATA Hindcasts of the fate of the spilled oil were performed on small and large scales (Fig. 2) to The distribution and quantity of oil along the reflect localized oiling within the convoluted shoreline during the Amoco Cadiz.spill was based coastline adjacent to the grounding site and to on surveys conducted by a combined French- cover distribution over the entire spill- American field team. Measurements during the affected area. The Brittany shoreline being spill included oil thickness, surface coverage, represented in the COZOIL model is complex and burial, and alongshore distribution at twenty diverse, containing a closely spaced mixture of stations along the coast, augmented by 848 Small-Scale Test Case For this test case, shoreline reaches vary from 1.7 to 5 km in length adjacent to the wreck site. The offshore model boundary is located 15 km or less from the shoreline (Fig. 2). 0 km 5 ;7 Otfshore and onshore distribution 0 QDb SMAtt-SCALE TEST-CAS! The distribution of oil on the water surface and b P.-At A... 11-sie on the shoreline for the small-scale test case is presented for four time periods in Figure 4. SMALL-SCALE TEST CASE 0 km 20 LARGE-SCAtE TEST CASE 6d .0 0 G,.,d C." N..b.' 0 Sh-IiA. R ... It A.C- S_.Y (29781 Figure 3. Modeled coastline for both test cases. Grid cells and shoreline reaches are indicated f or each. The locations of field stations AMC-5, 11, and 12, are indicated in the top diagram. OFFSHORE SURFACE OIL ONSHORE OIL. L approximately 150 additional ground observation stations and an extensive set of oblique and Figure 4. Distribution of offshore surface oil vertical aerial photographs. Results, published and onshore oil (foreshore surface and in Gundlach and Hayes (1978), D'Ozouville et al backshore) for the small-scale test case. (1981), and Finkelstein and Gundlach (1981), Offshore, circles indicate computed areal indicate that approximately 62,000 mtons of oil coverage of thick oil. Onshore, circles are were onshore during the period of 17 March to 2 proportional to the oil mass associated with April, and that from 20-28 April slightly less each grid cell. The maximum value of the circle than 10,000 mtons was onshore. for each time plot is given. For these simulations, original data were analyzed and recalculated to determine more At 5 days, oil has already been distributed over exact dates with respect to onshore oiling, to the entire study area (onshore and offshore), differentiate between surface and buried oil, conforming well to that reported by study of and to calculate 95% confidence intervals for aerial photographs (CNEXO et al, 1978). This each time period. Stations within the small- rapid distribution is the result of strong tides scale shoreline section were most often surveyed and winds, plus longshore transport inside the and provide oil quantities for three time surf zone. At day 5, the model shows the periods, 8.5, 15 and 36 days after the beginning highest surface oil concentration in Aber of the spill. For the large scale test, Benoit, an area that was heavily impacted by the shoreline oil was calculated for 9 and 38.5 days spill and contained traces of oil at least until after the initial release of oil. In all cases, 1987. By day 10, oil quantity within Aber the extent of shoreline oiling (in km) was taken Benoit has decreased while oil in the nearshore from Finkelstein and Gundlach (1981) and area remains fairly evenly distributed DIOzouville at al (1978). Only oiling of the alongshore but with less occurring along the mainland was considered as offshore islands and eastern edge. Between days 10 and 20, most of rocks are not represented in these model test the oil on the water surface has been cases. transported out the northern model boundary due to strong offshore winds. A subsequent wind to the southwest, beginning about day 18, carries 4. RESULTS most of the remaining surface oil out the western model boundary. The overall sequence of The first simulation discussed is the small- oil distribution conforms very well to ill .R. @@..FAC. OIL scale test case, extending about 30 km from the observations except that the actual spill spill site. The second is an order of magnitude contained. no artificial boundaries so ... that.. re-_ more extensive spatially, representing over 600 oiling of the shoreline and offshore waters to km of actual coastline. the southwest occurred after transport offshore. 849 The onshore distribution of oil (Fig. 4) is the shoreline could be due in part to removal represented by circles proportional to the total rates which are too slow in the model and/or the mass of oil found on the foreshore surface of absence of storm surge events in the hindcast. the beach and the backshore of each grid cell. Two such events were recorded during the first On day five, shoreline oil is concentrated in two weeks following the start of the spill Portsall harbor adjacent to the wreck site, in (Hess, 1978) and resulted in the rapid removal Abers Benoit and Vrach, and on the two north- and transport of oil from several segments of trending headlands (Presqu'ile Ste. Marguerite the shoreline. The model, however, clearly and St. Cava) which form a barrier to the shows dynamic variability both from low to high easterly drifting oil. This conforms very well tide and from one tidal cycle to the next, which with observations made at the time of the spill is entirely consistent with the field (Gundlach and Hayes, 1978). observations (Gundlach and Hayes, 1978). At day 10, the model indicates substantial SMALL-SCALE TEST CASE oiling of the embayment at Guisseny as did occur; however, the model may over estimate BEACH SURFACE oiling at this location because of the lack of -Total on beach surface shoreline detail. In this case, a large spit Foreshore protecting the embayment is not adequately m_ @ FC-1 T represented (Fig. 3 top). At days 20 and 30, CY . .-...2.N.-: B.ckshont oil is found along most of the coast in L continually decreasing quantities. 44 .Ad, .7. 0 10 20 30 40 Dynamic mass balances The dynamic mass balance of oil for 40 days of 0 Total ashore COASTAL COMPONENTS simulation time is shown in Figure 5 for the U Z Foreshore surface small-scale study area. The bottom diagram shows the overall mass balance of oil divided X, Elackshore into five major spill components: ashore, water Ground water surface, atmosphere, water column, and outside Surf zone the simulation area. The curve labeled "Ashore" ......... .... corresponds to the curve labeled "Total Ashore" .0 0 10 20 A 4'0 of the middle diagram, which is composed of four -.1 subdivisions: foreshore, backshore, ground water, and surf zone. The top diagram of Figure Total 5 represents the total oil on the beach, OVERALL MASS BALANCE composed of surface and backshore oil but excluding oil in the ground water. This represents the quantity of oil that would be Outside measured on the beaches at the time of the - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - spill. Estimated amounts of oil along this .............. ......... ... section of shoreline during the spill, compiled --- ---------- - ----------------- for 8. 5, 15 and 36 days after the spill, are Atrnesph- r water surface superimposed on this plot. Ashore -PAP Figure 5 illustrates that the proximity of the 0 5 io 15 20 25 30 35 10 release point to shore, combined with onshore Time (doys) winds result in a steadily increasing amount of oil deposited onshore during the first 10 days. Figure 5. Dynamic mass balances (overall, The removal and deposition of oil in conjunction coastal components, and beach surface) for oil with the rising and falling of the tide is associated with the small-scale test case. clearly reflected in the interchange of oil Observed values of oil quantity on the shoreline between the ashore and water surface components. and 95% confidence intervals are indicated in From days 10 to 15, the abrupt increase in oil the top diagram. mass leaving the study area, shown by the curve labeled "outside", is due to strong offshore Large-Scale Test Case winds. Note the simultaneous decrease in oil on the water surface (Fig. 5 bottom). This case encompasses the entire northwestern Brittany region and contains only 11 coastal In comparing the observed versus simu 'lated total segments ranging in length from 20 to 46 km in quantity of oil ashore (Fig. 5 top), simulation contrast to the previous case having a maximum values exceed observed'values on both days 8.5 length of 5 km (see Fig. 3). At this scale only and 15, but compare well with those from day 36. coastline trends and very large embayments, as Observations in the field were always made at Brest, can be differentiated. within low- to mid-tide levels, which conform to the higher values of total oil on the beach Offshore and onshore distribution surface. The high oil quantities simulated on Results of the large-scale simulation of the 850 distribution of the oil is indicated in Figure (Fig. 6), perhaps due to under estimation of 6. The distribution of offshore surface oil tidal currents for this portion of the study after 5 days compares extremely well with that area. observed after 4.5 days using vertical aerial photographs taken by the French government Dynamic mass balances (CNEXO, et al, 1978) during the spill (Fig. 6, The various mass balances for the large-scale top left) . The, onshore distribution at this hindcast are shown in Figure 7. The effect of time also conforms very well that reported. the extended boundary is immediately apparent Note the oiling at St. Michel, the site of a when comparing this overall mass balance to that large kill of intertidal organisms (Hess, 1978). from the small-scale analysis (Fig. 5). The The consistent distribution for both the onshore total lost,dut the model boundaries reduces from and offshore cases continues through 10 days. 30% after 15 days in the small-scale study to Note particularly the oil along the shoreline about 15% after 30 days in the large-scale test. from St. Michel to Ile Grande. Ile Grande was oil is transported north during the southerly the site of extremely heavy concentrations wind event from days 10 to 15, but remains within a marsh environment (Hess, 1978). within the model boundaries. When the wind shifts back towards the southwest between days 16 and 21, some of the surface oil which was transported offshore comes ashore between days 22 and 29. Note the increase in the oil ashore e, particularly in plots of the at this tim coastal components and beach surface. The total oil ashore is approximately the same 7 (62,000-64,000 mtons) for the large- and small- LARGE-SCALE TEST CASE .1 an beach ..,face BEACH SURFACE Z_ r ac a are C.I. Fares ... 10 20 30 40 o yl@ ,,Total ashore OFFSH.. SURFACE OIL ONSHORE OIL COASTAL COMPONENTS LARGE-SCALE TEST CASE -0 Fore,hore surface /@Surfzone 7 3 Ground water Figure 6. Distribution of offshore surface oil and onshore oil (foreshore surface and backshore) for the large-scale test case. 0 10 20 30 40 offshore, circles indicate computed areal coverage of thick oil. Onshore, circles are proportional to the oil mass associated with Total OVERALL MASS BALANCE. each grid cell. The maximum value of the circle for each time plot is given. --------------------------------- -------- column Between days 10 and 20, much of the onshore and nearshore oil is transported offshore because of Atmosphere ---- All. ----------------- the wind shift, and at day 20 the oil is L j I-___ Water Surface share '@Outside returning from its northern excursion and poised ------- ........... to come onshore again. At day 30, this oil is 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 transported to the southwest, oiling the Time (doys) shoreline south of the wreck site. This sequence of offshore transport with very late oiling of the shoreline to the south of the Figure 7. Dynamic mass balances (overall, wreck site was well documented at the time of coastal components, and beach surface) for oil the spill (Gundlach and Hayes, 1978). The associated with the large-scale test case. A southernmost extent of shoreline oiling is second heavy oiling of the shoreline, reflected essentially correct, ending at Pointe de St. in the observations but not in the small-scale Mathieu, although the model does have one impact test results,'is visible between days 23 and 28. near Pointe de Pen Hir which is not documented. observed values of oil quantity on the shoreline The model, however, inadequately depicts the and 95% ,confidence intervals are indicated in eastward transport of oil to Sillon de Talbert the top diagram. 851 CNEXO, IFP, and IGN, 1978, Amoco Cadiz, Tdldd6ction des scale test cases for the first 20 days. This is Pollutions par Hydrocarbures, Rapport Pr6liminaire, because the wind is almost continuously onshore Centre National pour 1'Exploitation des Oc6ans, for the first 10 days, then offshore for 5 days, Paris, 9 maps. and onshore again. The amount of oil on the D'Ozouville, L., E.R. Gundlach and H.O. Hayes, 1978. beach surface, however, now agrees reasonably Effect of Coastal Processes on the Distribution and well with the field values after 9 days and 38.5 Persistence of Oil Spilled by the Amoco Cadiz - days. Preliminary Conclusions: Actes de Colloques, No. 6, COB-CNEXO, Brest, p. 69-96. Finkelstein, K, and E.R. Gundlach, 1981. Method of 5. CONCLUSIONS Estimating Spilled Oil Quantity on the Shoreline.. Environ. Sci & Technol. Vol. 15, p.545-549. Two tests cases of the COZOIL model against the Ford, R.C. , 1983. Oil Slick Sizes and Length of Amoco Cadiz data set have been performed. In Coastline Affected: A Literature Survey and general, the model effectively reproduced the Statistical Analysis. Final rept. to U.S. Dept. Interior, MMS Contract No. 14-12-0001-30226. 34 p. offshore and onshore distribution of the Amoco Galt, J., 1978. Investigations of Physical Processes. Cadiz oilspill. Mass balance distributions were In Hess (ed). p. 7-20. also simulated realistically, considered from a Gundlach, E. and M. Hayes, 1978. Investigations of variety of viewpoints. The lifting of oil off Beach Processes. In Hess (ed), p. 85-196. the intertidal beach surface and its Gundlach, E., P. Boehm, M. Marchand, R. Atlas, D. Ward, redeposition. on a falling tide under appropriate D. Wolfe, 1983. The Fate of Amoco Cadiz Oil. wind conditions show clearly in the mass balance Science. Vol. 221, p. 122-129. time series plots. Gundlach, E. and M. Reed, 1986. Quantification of Oil Deposition and Removal Rates for a Shoreline/Oil Spill Interaction Model. Proe. Ninth Arctic Marine The small-scale test case, with relatively Oil Spill Conf., Edmonton, Alberta. p. 65-76. detailed resolution of the coastline adjacent to Gundlach, E. 1987. Oil-Holding Capacities and Removal the site appropriately reproduced onshore and Coefficients for Different Shoreline Types. Proc. offshore surface oil distributions, but 1987 Oil Spill Conf., Baltimore, Md. p. 451-457. generally placed too much oil onshore, perhaps Hann, R., L. Rice, M. Trujillo, H. Young, 1978. Oil due to a too slow removal rate and the lack of Spill Cleanup Activities. In Hess (ed), the Amoco correct hydrodynamics (i.e. including storm Cadiz Oil Spill. p. 229-276. surge). The limited boundaries also inhibited Hess, W. (ed), 1978. The Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill. the model from effectively reproducing the NOAA/EPA Special Report. U.S. Government Printing subsequent redeposition of oil after being Office, Wash. D.C. 281 p. + 66 figures. Kana, T. (proj. dir.), 1986. Development of a Coastal transported offshore.by winds. On a very fine Spill Smear Model; Phase I, Analysis of Available scale of 0.5 km, the model reproduced the and Proposed Models. Rept. to Minerals Management general variance noted in the Amoco Cadiz spill Service, Anchorage, AK. 121 p. incident, and came close to observed values at NOAA/CNEXO, 1982. Ecological Study of the Amoco Cadiz three particular stations. -Variations in oil Oil Spill, Part 1. E. Gundlach, Ed. Report of the quantities onshore within specific grid cells NOAA/CNEX0 Joint Scientific Commission. U.S. Dept. can be lessened by grouping together oil within Commerce. 478 p. the grid cells composing the same shoreline O'Sullivan, A. J., 1978. The Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill. reach. Mar. Poll. Bulletin. Vol. 9, p. 123-128 Reed, M., M. Spaulding, E. Gundlach, T. Kana, 1986. Formulation of a Shoreline/Oil Spill Interaction The large-scale test case, using only 11 Model. Proc. Ninth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Conf., shoreline segments over the entire area, Edmonton, Alberta. p. 77-100. portrayed the overall distribution of offshore Reed, M., E. Gundlach, and T. Kana, 1988. Development and onshore oil quite well, but fell about 30 km and Testing of a Coastal Zone Oil Spill Model. short in the eastern migration of the oil, Final Report to U. S. Dept. Interior, Minerals perhaps due again to inaccurate hydrodynamics. Management Service, Alaska Regional Office, The mass balance of onshore oil quite Anchorage. Contract No. 14-12-0001-30130 (in realistically depicts the actual spill case and review). Seip, K.L., K.A. Brekke, K. Kveseth, and H. lbrekk, compares well with observations. 1986. Models for Calculating Oil Spill Damages to Shores. Oil and Chemical Pollution. Vol. 3, p. 69-81. 6. REFEREkES SHOM, 1973. Courante de Marde de Dunkerque A Brest. Service Hydrographique et Oedanographique de la Anonymous, 1973. Evaluation of the World's Important Marine, Brest, France. 20 p. Crudes. The Petroleum Publishing Company, Tulsa, SHOM, 1978. Marde de Brest. Service Hydrographique et OK. 77 p. Ocdanographique de la Marine, Brest, France. 6 p. Berne, S, 1982. Vielle Ecologique Vulnerabilit6 Morpho-sedimentaire du Littoral aux Pollutions par Hydrocarbures de la Pointe Saint-Mathieu au Sillon du Talbert. 47 p. Calder, J., J. Lake, J. -Laseter, 1978. Chemical Composition of Selected Environmental and Petroleum Samples from the Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill. In Hess (ed), The Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill. p. 21-84. CNEXO, 1-981. Amoco Cadiz, Fates and Effects of the Oil Spill. Centre National pour llExploitation des Oc6ans. Brest, France. 881 p. 852 THE 1987 NEWFOUNDLAND OIL SPILL EXPERIMENT An Overview E.J. Tennyson and H. Whittaker Minerals Management Service; and Environment Canada Ottawa, Ontario ABSTRACT wind velocities and air and water temperatures. A joint Canadian-United States exercise involving A wave rider was deployed at the test site but the intentional spilling of 18,000 gallons of failed to function during the exercise. Conse- specially treated crude oil was conducted off quently, sea conditions were estimated, with Newfoundland in September 1987 to evaluate the reasonable agreement, by various trained observers. containment and recovery capabilities of three state-of-the-art booms and skimmers. As part of The test plan called for the deployment of three the exercise, data were collected on a specially booms as follows: A 250 meter length of the instrumented oil spill boom in an attempt to specially instrumented Oil and Hazardous Material verify a proposed performance test procedure for Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) boom open-ocean oil spill booms. A visco-elastic would be deployed in normal catenary. Approxi- chemical additive was used after the equipment mately 18,000 gallons of treated Brent Crude evaluation was completed to enhance recovery would be spilled by the command/recovery ship operations. Additional observations were made on "Terra Nova Sea" into the catenary. The oil the persistence of spilled oil slicks in advanced would be held in the boom for approximately 1 hour sea states. The containment and recovery effort while freeboard and draft data and visual observa- was one of the most successful on record and was tions of oil retention were recorded. During this conducted in winds and sea states commonly thought period, 200 meters of the Canadian Coast Guard's to be beyond existing capabilities. RO-BOOM would be deployed behind the OHMSETT boom. The tow speed would be increased to significant INTRODUCTION loss speed (0.5-1.0 knot). One end of the boom would then be released and the oil discharged into An intentional oil spill of 18,000 U.S. gallons the RO-BOOM. Oil would be held in the RO-BOOM was conducted on September 24, 1987, offshore of for approximately 1 hour while the oil retention St. John's Newfoundland to evaluate the contain- capabilities were observed. The St. John's Coast ment and recovery capability of three booms and Guard Vikoma Ocean Pack boom (400 meters) would be skimmers. The spill also provided an opportunity deployed behind the RO-BOOM during the observation to verify a nonpolluting performance evaluation period. The last procedure involving lost tow procedure for offshore oil containment booms. speeds would be repeated with the RO-BOOM, and the The spill was conducted approximately 25 nautical oil would be released intoo the Vikoma. miles east of St. John's. Ocean dumping permit requirements included south southwest currents Oil would be retained in the Vikoma for approxi- and westerly winds to minimize chance of shoreline mately 1 hour. The "Terra Nova Sea" would then contact; water depths of at least 100 meters; the commence skimmer evaluations. Two skimmers, the site had to be at least 25 nautical miles from Framo ACW400 and an innovative Coast Guard Heavy shore; and the area had to be within 2 to 3 hours Oil Skimmer (HOS), would be evaluated for 20 steaming from St. John's. The center of the area minutes each, and the remaining contained oil selected was 47 degrees, 40 minutes North and would be recovered by the skimmer with the better 52 degrees, 03 minutes West. performance (Ross, 1987b). A crude similar to the typical high wax Grand The intent of the OHMSETT boom deployment would Banks crude was unavailable. Brent crude from be to verify the hypothesis that a boom's ability the North Sea was treated by adding 1 percent slack to contain oil is correlated with its ability to wax by volume to yield an oil of similar physical sea keep or comply with wave-induced surface properties to the Grand Banks crudes. The modified motion. If this hypothesis could be verified and oil was to have a density of 839.8 kg/m3 and a quantified, future performance evaluations of viscosity of 20 m Pas at 12 degrees C (Ross, 1987a). offshore containment booms could be restricted to measuring seakeeping capabilities in a range of Mereorological conditions were recorded on the sea states. No further spills of the 20,000 gallon Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) Cutter "Grenfell" at size of light and heavy oils would be required, 15 minute intervals. These included corrected in a range sea states, to evaluate each type of 853 United States Government work not protected by copyright boom. ocean dumping permits are difficult to Period Between the Dry Run and the Trial obtain and intentional oil spill exercises of this magnitude approach the million dollar funding Several meetings of the senior people involved in level. Intentional spills also constitute a risk the exercise occurred between September 21 and of potential damage to the imTkediate environment. September 23, 1987. It was decided to remove COG Clearly a cost-effective and nonpolluting evaluation "Cutter 20611 from the exercise. The Boston Whaler procedure for offshore equipment is necessary to was able to tow and hold the boom in sea state 1, develop a predictive capability for the performance but it was recognized that this would be difficult, of offshore response equipment. Wind conditions with oil, in the desired weather. The Newfoundland desired were sea state 2 to 4, and winds from 10 Fisheries department had provided a vessel, the to 20 knots. "Bernier," and it was decided to use her and a second chartered offshore supply vessel (OSV) to tow the RO-BOOM. Practice Run - September 21, 1987 concern was registered that the weather might, The ships and smaller vessels sailed at 6:00 a.m. surprisingly, be too calm on September 24, the and proceeded to a location 5.5 miles off Torbay day which looked best for the actual trial. It Point. The COG "Grenfell" then deployed the was, therefore, decided to interchange the OBMSEIT OBMEM boom and passed one end to the COG "Cutter and RO-BOOKs to take advantage of the higher winds 21211 which took the boom in tow. The COG "Cutter and waves expected later in the day. 20611 then attempted to pick up the trailing end of the boom, a job which took 45 minutes. As soon The long tire required to deploy the RO-BOOM from as the 206 had the end of the boom secured, the the "Sir Humphmy Gilbert" led to the decision to two cutters attempted to tow the boom, in a 11U11 deploy that boom from the second OSV, the "Triunph configuration, into a position astern of the Sea." Repairs were carried out on the OHMS= boom ,,Terra Nova sea.,, This resulted in the OBMSMT instrumented cabling, and the boom with instrumen- boom immediately beginning to twist on itself, tation was functional by 5:00 p.m. on September 23. and 1 hour hour was lost in straightening the boom. Eventually the boom was positioned relative Since the "Terra Nova Sea" had oil recovery tanks to the nerra Nova sea,, and simulated discharge on board, it was decided to dispense with the of the oil was carried out. Data collection, dumb barge and to release the oil directly from without oil, for almost 1 hour followed. that OSV. While the OBMSM boom was being deployed and positioned, the RO-BOOM was deployed from the CCG Trial with Oil on September 24f 1987 "Sir Hunphrey Gilbert" and passed to COG "Cutter 214.11 This procedure took almost 2 hoursf and the The "Tritmph Seat' and the "Bernier" sailed at Ra-Boom was rapidly positioned with respect to 3:00 a.m. All other vessels sailed at 4:00 a.m., the oHmsm boom because both the "Cutter 21411 and everyone was on station by 6:45 a.m. The and a Boston Whaler were able to tow the boom at "TriuTph Sea" cmnenced deployment of the RO-BOOM speeds of 5 knots. enroutef and by 7:30 a.m. the boom was ready to receive oil. once the OHMS= boom was deployed, with the RO-BOOM in position, the COG "Catters at 8:15 a.m., the oil was purq3ed into the RO-BOOM 212 and 20611 cormvxiced to maneuver, presumably to with supervision from the helicopter and a small form a 11J.11 The COG "Cutter 20611 then snagged boat. the OHmErr cable in her screws and cut it, disabling herself. This resulted in delay in the All oil was in the boom by 9:00 a.m. exercise while the cable was freed, and because COG "Cutter 21411 and the Boston Whaler were now It was decided to give the news media a chance to approaching closely, the "Catter 212" took the view the test from the air and this was done from boom and "Cutter 20611 in tow and cleared the area 9:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. During this period, the so as not to impede the exercise. COG "Cutters 212 and 21411 attempted to pull the OHM= boom into proper position astern of the During the period in which the RO-BOOM was being RO-BOOM and keep it there. Every attempt to move deployed, the COG "Grenfell" deployed the Vikoma the boom, in a catenary, in the 15 knot winds boom. once the simulated oil release was over, blowing at the time resulted in the boom twisting. the "Terra Nova Sea" took the other end of the As a result the oBMM boom fell progressively boom and the vessels formed a catenary. After further astern of the RO-BOOM. holding position relative to the RO-BOOM for a period, the ships formed a "J" with the boom and At 10:30 a.m. the oil in the end of the pocket of practiced deploying the skirmers. the RD-BOCM was 30 cm thick, the wind was 15 knots, and some splash-over and significant drainage All ships returned to harbour by 5:00 p.m. under the boom were occurring. The vessels, therefore, formed a "J" and released one end of the boom to allow the oil to flow into the OBMSETT boom. The OBMSM boom was approximately 1 km 854 astern, and the vessels were having trouble towing both skinners being frequently suhnerged so that the boan in a catenary without the boom twisting. oil and water were washed into the sump of the It was, therefore, decided to direct the cutters skimier. with the OBMSFIT boom, to the oil, by helicopter, keeping the boom in a straight tow. After 20 The second skimmer the Framo ACK-400 was deployed. minutes, the cutters were adjacent to the thick The overall rate of oil recovery of the Frano was' oil, and, after a further 20 minutes, approximately 60 gallons per minute with unknown amounts of the 80 percent of the thick oil was in the OBMSETT recovery resulting from.frequent partial submer- boom. The remaining 20 percent was contained in gence- the Vikama boom. Data collection on the OHMEIT boom started as soon as the oil was captured and At this point, it was decided by the on-scene continued for 56 minutes. The COG cutters then Connander that the skimmer evaluation was complete. stopped across the path of the vessels towing the Additional measures were needed to ensure recovery Vikoma boom and released one end of the boom. The of the remaining contained oil because the weather oil spilled into the Vikoma boom catenary, and one was deteriorating and night was approaching. CCG cutter trailed the OHMSETT boom at the throat Accordingly, approximtely 7 pounds of the visco- of the catenary allowing the waves to wash the elastic agent "Elastoll, were spread from an 8- oil into the Vikoma boom. ounce styrofoam coffee cup into the estimated 7,400 gallons of oil and oil water emulsion in The COG "Grenfell" and "Terra Nova Sea" towed the the contairnent boom. "Elastol" was added because oil filled Vikoma boom for approximately 1 hour. previous research funded by the Minerals Management During this time, the wind had freshened to 15 Service and Environment Canada had shown that the knots to 20 knots. The boom was moving at aver elastic and adhesive properties of the oil could 1.1 knots relative to the sea, and sorne oil was be increased by addition of the agent, thus making being lost (approximately 3 mm thick). The CCG the oil more readily capturable with these types "Grenfell" then atteupted to move ahead to form of skimmem. The Framo ACW-400 was retrieved from the "J" for the skimmrs. Not being very maneu- the slick as the "Elastol" was added and because verable, she quickly reached 3.4 knots and the of the operational constraints on the recovery oil was lost. operation, due to the weather and lateness of the With the oil now lost, the weather abated slightly. day, the skimmer was riot redeployed. The RO-BOOM was still streaming astern of the The weir-type skimmer, Pharos Marine GT-185, was "Triumph Sea" so it was decided that she and the deployed into the treated slick and recovered "Bernier" would form the boom into a catenary and near capacity rates of 85 gallons per minute of attempt to recover the oil downwind. The helicop- oil and oil emulsion with no free water. This ter had been lost to the exercise for approximately recovery rate was higher than anticipated and may 1 hour at this time. As soon as it returned, it have been even higher if the oil had been untreated. was refueled and deployed to assist. In the Treatment significantly increased the viscosity interim a small boat was used to guide the tow of the oil. The skinmr was removed from the vessels into the heaviest portions of the slick. slick, cleaned, and stored op board. when the helicopter was over the thick oil, it was apparent that the vessels with the RO-BOOM were The HOS skimnier was redeployed and failed to adjacent to some of the oil and unable to see it. function because of a piece of steel in the return They were, therefore, directed from the air and pump. The skimmter was recovered, the steel piece small boat, and managed to collect 80 to 90 percent removed, and the skimmer was redeployed. of the thick oil which was on the surface at the time. The HOS skimTex yielded a recovery rate of 50 gallons per minute with a portion of the oleophilic oil was successfully contained and recovery was fabric on one of its two drums damaged. ;Debris was attempted using the three skimmers on board the collected at this time in the ventury system used recovery-command vessel. The first skimmer, the to measure recovery fluid flow rates. The debris Heavy oil Skimneer (HOS), was deployed and no may have contributed to the subsequent failure of measurable recovery was observed. The oil used the HOS skimmer return hose. No flow-rate measure- was modified by adding petroleum wax so that it ments were taken before the failure. Visual would resemble a typical Grand Banks crude oil. observations on the amount of oil adhering to the This type of oil is uncharacteristic of most oleophilic fabric of the HOS skimTer indicated crudes in that it possesses law adhesive Proper- that recovery rates were significantly increased ties. Therefore, oleophilic skimners, which by the addition of "Elastol.11 depend upon the adhesive nature of the recovered oil, do not perform well with high parafin-based operations were suspended because of the advancing oils. This was again proven with the oleophilic sea states and increasing darkness. HoS skimTker. The skimmer was recovered after several trained observers were satisfied that the An overflight of the area, by helicopter, was Hos skimmer had had sufficient evaluation time in carried out during the skinning operation. This the contained slick. Problem with the ability of revealed a sheen approximately 2.5 by 0.5 nautical the support arms, used to suspend both the HOS miles with 3 patches of brown oil. It is estimated and Framo skimmers, to adjust to the roll of the that no more than 260 gallons of oil remained in vessel and short period wave action resulted in the thick patches. A further flight 18 houm later 855 showed that only small brown patches and sheen DISCLAIMER remained, and this was rapidly dispersing. :Mention of specific products in this paper does riot constitute or infer endorsement or acceptance I.essons learned or Relearned by the Minerals Management Service, the Conservation and Protection, or the authors. o Thorough proficiency with the recovery equipment to be used is essential. REFERENCES Routine practice is required. Ross, S. L., 1987a--offshore Testing of Booms S S. L. Ross, Environmental Research � Targe volumes of oil are necessary to Limited, Ottawa, Ontario. realistically evaluate performance of offshore response equipment. Ross, S. L., l9s7b-irest, Protocol for offshore Boom Trials, 3rd Draft, S. L. Ross, Environmental � The use of helicopters to direct the place- Research Limited, Ottawa, Ontario. ment of tow vessels and the use of small vessels to monitor and advise on boom con- ditions are essential to maximize the efficiency of conventional recovery operations. � Accurate measurements of the meteorological and sea conditions are necessary for acc ura te analysis of the evaluations. � The requirements for slow-speed towing and maneuvering of large containment boom necessitate the use of vessels with variable pitched propellers, thrusters, and good seamen in control. � It was not possible to form a recovery configuration with two vessels while towing upwind. The third vessel was necessary for recovery in normal catenary. � Upwind collection proved impossible when winds approached 15 knots. This is con- sistent.with many past observations for containment operations conducted upwind. � The upper meteorological and sea state 1 imi ts for downwind containment and recovery were not reached during this test. � steps should be taken to avoid loss of contained oil by shipboard discharges such as cooling water impinging upon the slick. � Tankage should be available for recovery of several times as much fluid as discharged to account for the oil and water emulsions and free water recovered. � Analysis of the correlation of the ability of a boom to seakeep with its ability to contain oil is continuing. � Recovery of high wax oils similar to Newfoundland crudes in 10 degrees C water is significantly enhanced by the use of "Elastol. if 856 SHIPBOARD NAVIGATIONAL RADAR AS AN OIL SPILL TRACKING TOOL A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT E.J. Tennyson Minerals Management Service ABSTRACT limited oil spill detection range of shipborne radar. However, evaluations during this cruise The utility of shipboard navigational radar as an indicate that clear depictions of slicks are oil spill tracking tool was evaluated in a wide possible at ranges of 12 nautical miles or more. range of sea states during an intentional oil spill exercise off Nova Scotia, in September One explanation of how the radar receives returns 1987. Specially tuned ship's navigational radar from the ocean surface is through back scattering. onboard the Canadian Coast Guard Cutter "Mary Microwave back scattering from the ocean surface Hitchens" was able to detect slicks of five may be due to Bragg scattering by the short barrels of spilled crude oil during periods of (approximately 5 cm) waves for x-band radar fog, rain, and darkness. Slicks were detectable causing a resonance in the microwave return to in winds ranging from less than 10 knots to over the antenna. This constructive interference is 30 knots. There appeared to be a correlation apparently necessary for discernable depiction of between slick thickness and the capability for differences in sea surface texture except when radar detection. breaking waves are present (Milgram, 1988). Bragg scattering is also a function of antenna viewing angle. INTRODUCTION this evaluation of shipboard radar was predicted The capabilities of two x-band shipboard navi- on the damping of short period waves by the slick gational radar units to detect oil slicks were and the ability of radar to detect and represent evaluated during a joint Environment Canada- differences in the short period wave field. Minerals Management Service cruise offshore of Nova Scotia, Canada, in September 1987. Two Field Experiment series of spills were conducted; each consisted of five releases of 5-imperial-barrels of The joint Environment Canada-Minerals Management Alberta Sweet Blend Mix (ASBM) crude and ASBM Service cruise to evaluate two oil spill chemical to which Bunker C had been added. The behavior additives was conducted from the Canadian Coast of these slicks was monitored until the slicks Guard Cutter "Mary Hitchens" on September 9-10, had visually dissipated. Radar was used to track 1987, offshore of Nova Scotia, Canada. Two ship- these slicks, and the radar images were compared board radar units were used coincidentally to with visual observations when conditions permitted. track and monitor each of the ten 5-imperial- winds ranged from less than 10 to over 30 knots barrel oil spills during this exercise. It should during the radar evaluation. Weather ranged from be noted that an unidentified freighter transited fog to rain to clear conditions. the restricted exercise area and discharged an oil slick approximately 50 meters wide from The application of airborne x-band and synthetic horizon to horizon. The results of the evaluation aperture radar for slick detection is a proven of the chemical additives are reported elsewhere technique with a number of worldwide operational in these proceedings. units routinely available. Previous evaluation of shipborne radar (Axelsson, 1974) indicated The two radars evaluated were the Sperry MK-340 that detection ranges for oil slicks were limited and the Decca 914 with a Bright Track repeater. to approximately 1 kilometer even though the The Sperry MK-340 is an x-band radar with a radar unit evaluated had a maximum nominal range horizontal beam width of 1.9 degrees and nominal of 75 nautical miles. Discussions of factors ranges of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 3, 6, 12, 14, 24, influencing radar imagery conventionally describe 48, and 120 nautical miles. The radar is a 50 a critical viewing angle of at least 20 degrees kilowatt unit with its antenna approximately 50 for sufficient reflection to yield a discernable feet above the ocean surface. The Decca 914 is pattern of sea surface conditions (Simonett, also an x-band radar with nominal ranges of 0.25, 1983). One evaluation of optimal antenna viewing 0.5,0.75, 1.5,3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 60 nautical angles (C-Core, 1981) indicated that 30 to 45 miles. The horizontal beam width is 1.9 degrees. degrees from the vertical angle would be required. 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Jr:)(:n S WawbuueW STPxauTN 3PTTs 9qL - (9AT-4eTaa OOZ-OST) X00T0,0 L pa:poddns sem 4u9msassv AaPUT=Tead sTqL 0`4 9 MaJ 40'PJTl.TP 4sm 9q4 SMOLP t, 8a@Ta Y .4 -anbTutpa4 P4,,L, Y'- -aq4 lCjT-4uprdb seqe4s sTtp go sqTurFl o-4 paiTnbea s-u eas Pue sTTO 30 e IRTM U0T,4L2nTPA9 aatpanj - - - - - - - - - - - - .;@@IL 'P@ Ow AT9"Tq ea Pue IssaLoflep IIITP 7 -eT boj q4Tm peqvTooss-e s Tqpad uo-rqoe4ap eq4 go I m uem a4oxMTq ueo pup bxr-PP24 NOTTS P'Pdx9 UeD 9sn sr4T Pu2 's-Tatmoct-M, 4sm 04 TOC4 9TcCPTTPAla ATTPL-aa le ST auptd TleT4TUT eq4 EUOUI Otr4 UOT T4STWOS a14 -l'aOT14 ;DtU '4TrOTJJTP PL "4Tun 9t4 30 U0T-4L'3T'4sTtId0s 9tP tPTM A;WA Ulrtqaa Ms 92=4& 04 JWP-l ata buTura mi squauraiTrbau '9ST0aBX8 W4 bUTXM PeAXaSqO SaT T3o'[9A UUIHTUTui atp al-am .4. LPT14m 'sW'm IW4 OT-9 uT aTqe40e49P exam M(PTTS SPATIAL OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS OF SMALL NUMBERS OF LAGRANGIAN DRIFTERS Arthur A. Allen and Clare B. Billing U.S. Coast Guard R&D Center Avery Point Groton CT 06340-6096 ABSTRACT accurate prediction of the drift of the survivors are therefore limited to one To analyze the irregularly spaced tracks or two points. The development of VHF of freely drifting surface buoys, Loran-C buoys (5), has demonstrated that objective analysis techniques were coded buoys reporting their Loran-C applied to produce optimal estimations positions every 30 minutes will deliver of forecast surface current fields on a far more positions, more accurately and regularly spaced grid. With the therefore more surface current data to interpolation of raw data to the grid the search planner. This provides the points, further analysis can be done search planner a clearer picture of the with other computer programs. A surface currents. The increased data computer program using this technique rate requires a more involved analysis has previously been successfully applied than do the data from the RDF-DMB's. to large oceanographic data sets of many This paper summarizes a first look at drifter tracks. The objective analysis the use of objective analysis for program has been converted for use on analyzing data from freely drifting Hewlett-Packard microcomputers and buoys and other sources of irregularly applied succesfully to much more limited spaced surface current data. A complete data sets of from one to six drifters. account of this work is found in (6). 1. INTRODUCTION The use of statistical models for the optimal estimation of oceanic fields The oceanography Branch has, as part of given limited measurements is known as the Improvement of Probability of objective analysis (7). The basic Detection in Search and Rescue Project, equations of objective analysis are an ongoing investigation into the drift described in (8). The technique used and leeway of survivors and survivor here is the same as that used by the crafts (1). Others, (2-4) have evalua- statistical component of the Harvard ted the Coast Guard's operational search Ocean Descriptive Predictive System (9). planning computer models. They 'have shown that model drift predictions for In this study, objective analysis was survivors and survivors' crafts, based used to nowcast/forecast the surface on either historical current files or currents using limited drift surface current values derived from measurements. Several types of freely large-scale winds from U.S. Navy Fleet drifting buoys that transmit their Numerical Oceanography Center (FNOC), positions to a shore-based receiver have rarely predicted the actual drift as been used by the Oceanography Branch. A simulated by freely drifting buoys. At local positioning system using the present, a single radio-direction finder Microwave Tracking System (MTS) was used type datum marker buoy (RDF-DMB) is used with surface drifters in leeway studies. to measure surface currents during a Both polar-orbiting NOAA/TIROS series search. The initial position of the satellite and Loran-C positioning were buoy is established when the RDF-DMB is used with surface drogued buoys during dropped from an aircraft. However, to drift studies on the continental shelf. obtain a velocity datum, a second All of these studies (4,5,10) typically position, at a later time, must be contained data sets in the form of a determined for the RDF-DMB. This time series of buoy positions for one to requires the aircraft to break off the six drifters. A time series of a freely search for the survivors and search for drifting buoy's positions is called a the RDF-DMB, causing the loss of drift track. The purpose ofthis study valuable time and fuel. The important was to apply the technique of objective velocity measurements necessary for an analysis to one of our data sets. A 860 United States Government work not protected by copyright computer program using this technique alongshore velocity on t Ihe continental has been successfully applied to large shelf; the coherence is very long oceanographic data sets of drifter (-200km) in the alongshore (y) direction tracks (9). These large data sets, and short in the cross shelf (x) however, included many more drifter direction (-20km) and about two days in tracks than are typically used in our (t) time. These values could be used as studies. Therefore, the objective a first guess of the e-folding scales analysis program was converted for use for x, y and t. The appropriate values on Hewlett-Packard micro-computers and are based on the physical scales of the applied to a data set from an MTS leeway value used. study. 2. THE CORRELATION FUNCTION The covariance matrices required in the solution of the objective analysis are defined by correlation functions. The correlation function is the planar (x,y) O.B and temporal (t) distribution of the weighting factors for estimating an 0.6 unknown value from the surrounding observations. Essentially, closer ob@ 0. 4 servations are weighted more in 3 determining an unknown value than more 0.2 2 distance values. At sufficiently large distances and time lags the observations 0 ........ Y ............... -2 will have no appreciable influence on -2 0 the interpolated value. Thus, a limit X 2 3 over which the observations are not included in the interpolation is assumed. This greatly simplifies the Figure The defined- correlation computation. The correlation function function (equation 1) where xfold and can be determined directly from a data yfold = 1. The z axis is the value of set that is sufficiently large. the correlation function. The circle at However, when the data set is small, the z = 0.368 is the e-folding scale. mathematical form of the correlation function is artificially imposed. The 3. TEST RUNS correlation function used in this present study is: objective analysis has been successfully applied to large data sets of freely C (R) = e-R X 2 y 2 t 2 drifting oceanographic buoys. However, where R RA )+(A I +t A what occurs to the results when the data tTf-old/ X-yfold/ t -fold available to the objective analysis program is systematically reduced to the where delta_.@X, delta_y, and delta-t are limit of a single available point? Does the components of the difference from the technique fail catastrophically, or the data point to the interpolated do the results simply degrade with fewer point; and where xfold, yfold, and tfold data available for input? And i f the are the e-folding scales of the results just degrade, how do they correlation function. degrade? To answer these questions, a series of test runs of the scalar Equation (1) f or x and y is plotted in objective analysis (SOA) program were Figure 1, for values of xfold, and yfold done. The data set used to test the SOA equal 1. At x,y = 1,0 and x,y = 0,1 the was from the Fort Pierce, Florida, correlation (z) value is 0.368, this is March-April 1985 Leeway Experiment. called the e-folding scale. The e- During the afternoon of 1 April, six folding scale is shown in Figure 1 as surface drifters were deployed and were the circle at z = 0.368. As the tracked with the Microwave Tracking correlation function approaches zero System, (MTS) . Lieutenant Louis Nash, asymptotically the outer portion is cut USCG, provided the edited u and v off to increase computational velocity data in the X-Y state efficiency. The appropriate values for coordinate plane,.Figure 2. Thus we had the e-folding scales are the physical a data set which was large by our scales of the motions. This is the standards for investigating the SOA scale in time and space of the coherence program. To further simplify the of the dominant motions. The e-folding problem we only used velocities at a scale is symmetrical about its axis, but single point in time - 14:30. does not have to be equal about all axes. An example would be the During the test runs of the objective 861 4000 . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Drifters 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10 Spring 1905 Leeway Drift E,periment 7 Scalar Analysis 3000 10. 91 Forecast Field U - Eastern Speed L 9.98 3000 lu Analysis Date/Tile 01 Apr 1985 0 2500 14:30:00 X: Reference Point 2000 E2000 Y: 234500 U Y: 349000 C 12. 48 lu .0 41 1500 L Field Data Limits M- 9.0531 9.02 Ma. : 16.529 1000 Contour Setting, 1000 Min: 9 Me.: 17 500 't I:I 0 10 0 + 13. 28 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0 X Distance (meters) 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 X Distance (Meters) Figure 3. Objective Analysis Forecast of Figure 2. Position and u-component the u-component of velocity for Case 6. speeds at 14:30, 1 April 1985. The symbols 11+11 indicate the drifter the SOA program to produce a sensible location. The numerals above the "+" current field?" To start, all six denote the drifter ID; while the numbers drifters were used to fully determine below 11+11 denote the values of the xi- the current field (Figure 3). This component (cm/sec). The reference point provided the best estimate of the u- (0, 0) is located at x 234500 m and y current field against which the other 349000 m in the East zone of the Florida fields were compared. When drifters State Plane coordinate system. were removed one at a time from the data set the estimated fields changed. The fields generated by the reduced number analysis program we first tried to of drifters were then compared to the calculate the correlation function on results with the "best estimate" field all six drifters. However, six drifters determined by all six drifters. Two proved to be insufficient for the different schemes for removing drifters calculation of a sensible correlation were investigated. Case "All was to function. Therefore we used the remove the least useful drifters one at analytic form of an exponential decay a time leaving the "best" to be used to function as given by equation (1) , the estimate the U-field. Case "Bill was to correlation function. remove the most useful drifters one at a time leaving the "worst" to provide the Equation (1) was used as the basis for estimate of the U-field. Both schemes generating current field values on a are shown in Table I. grid of 15 by 15 regular spaced points TABLE I from the observed surface current data. DRIFTER CASES That grid has points between current data points and to a limited extent The Best (A) and the Worst (B) cases outside the region. Figure 2 shows the used for comparisons of subsets of eastward component of velocity (u) at drifters with the full set of six 14:30 from the six drifters. In Figure drifters. 3 the current field generated by the SOA scheme for the six drifters is shown. CASE-A DRIFTERS CASE-B DRIFTERS The currents near the drifters are (BEST) (USED) (WORST) (USED) reproduced faithfully enough, including 6 5,6,7,8,9,10 6 5,6,7,8,9,10 the region of currents less than 10 cm/s 5A 5,7,8,9,10 5B 5,6,7,9,10 in the upper central region and the 4A 7,8,9,10 4B 5,6,7,9 currents greater than 16 cm/s in the 3A 7,8,10 3B 6,8,9 southwest corner. 2A 8,10 2B 6,9 The question was then asked, "What is 1A 8 the minimum number of drifters needed by 862 The differences were calculated at each flow field is estimated, reading from 15 by 15 grid point between the top to bottom - Table II. An example of forecasted field derived from all six an application would be the placing of drifters and each 15 by 15 grid point of two buoys on either side of an oceanic the cases above. The differences from front. This scheme would estimate the all the 225 points produced the measured currents better than several buoys all error f ields. The square root of the on the same side of the front. A few sum of the squared differences is an well-placed buoys will provide better index of the cumulative measured error information than many poorly placed (CUME). The equation for cumulative buoys. Therefore, the search planner measured error index for case 5A is should use remote-sensing information shown below: (e.g., Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) derived sea surface roughness or Cumulative Measured Error Index (CUME) NOAA6 satellite Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) derived sea surface temperature imagery) to assist in the optimal placement of CUME (6 5A (2) buoys. The determination of the correlation where the subscripts 11ij" are the function from the statistics did fail elements of the 15 by 15 array. for the data set used here. The number Therefore, we have fields of the of buoys required to determine the forecasted U-velocity, an index of the correlations functions is greater than cumulative error for each case of the six. Therefore an analytical formula two schemes. The indexes of cumulative (Equation 1) was used instead. In this measure error are present in Table II. study neither the v-velocity (north - south) field nor the time dependent The cumulative measured error index for field were considered. Since there the two schemes are presented in Table should be a relationship between the u and v fields and between the spatial and temporal fields, correlations in time TABLE II could be used to infer correlations in CUMULATIVE MEASURED ERROR INDEX space. Thus, the buoys' track histories FOR SCHEME A AND SCHEME B could be used to determine the time correlation which then would provide a better estimate of the velocity field. Number of drifters used for Analysis Further work is being conducted on improving estimates of the current field from limited amounts of drifter data. 6 5 4 3 2 1 5. CONCLUSIONS Scheme A 0. 3. 6. 13. 15. 49. The search planner requires real-time Schemd B 0. 15. 19. 27. 24. surface current information to determine the most probable location of the This suggests that 112A11 did as good a survivors and survivor craft. The job at predicting the U-field as did displacement with time of the search 115B11. datum can be estimated from the track histories of freely drifting surface Scheme 111AII with just drifter #8 is the buoys. All types of freely drifting special case of the objective analysis buoys will generate data sets that taken to its limit. The forecast field consist of a time series of irregular- is uniform at the value of the drifter spaced positions. As a set of buoys (9.028 cm/s). freely drift in the ocean, (1) positions at any one time are not on a regular 4. RESULTS OF TEST RUNS grid, (2) the displacement from the previous positions of that buoy to the The main portion of the objective next position is uneven, and (3) the analysis technique did not fail relative displacement among all the catastrophically as input data was buoys is changing with time. removed. Instead, the quality of Additionally, some types of buoy (e.g., resulting velocity fields decreased TIROS satellite track buoy) positions relative to the original field, reading are reported intermittently. This from left to right - Table II. However, results is a "messy" data set. the more important point is that the placement of the buoys or drifters To take advantage of computer analysis relative to the flow field features will of the buoy tracks, the data set must greatly influence how well the total first be cleaned up. The essence of 863 objective analysis is that, given an (5) Allen, A.A., S.L. Eynon, and R.Q. irregular-spaced data set in time and Robe, 1987. Descriptions of HF and VHF space, a data set is interpolated and Loran-C Buoys and Evaluations as extrapolated to a regular (even and Potential Datum Marker Buoys. Report square) grid. From this many standard No. CG-D-02-88. U.S. Coast Guard, computer programs are available that can Office of Engineering and Development, be brought to bear on the analysis of Washington D.C. 20593, 43pp. the buoy tracks. This analysis can then provide the most information in a timely (6) Sun, L.C., A.A. Allen, and C.B. manner for the search planner. Billing, Jr., 1988. Statistical Models for the optimal Estimation of Oceanic In summation, an objective analysis Fields. U.S. Coast Guard, office of program was modified and tested to Engineering and Development, Washington, demonstrate its capabilities on small D.C. 20593. data sets. The results of the test show that objective analysis can effectively (7) Thiebaux, H.J. and M.A. Pedder, work on as little as two buoy drift 1987. Spatial Objective Analysis: with tracks. The search planner is going to Applications in Atmospheric Science. be required to utilize a variety of Academic Press Inc. Orlando Florida data sources to effectively locate the 32887, 299pp. most probable positions of survivors. The use of objective analysis is a first (8) Bretherton, F.P., R.E. Davis, and step in preparing these data sets for C.B. Fandry, 1976; A Technique for use by the search planner. The objective Analysis and Design of application of these data sets to other oceanographic Experiments Applied to computer programs will provide the MODE-73, Deep Sea Res., V.23, pp. 559- search planner with the most probable 582. positions of the survivors. (9) Robinson, A.R. and W.G. Leslie ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (1985). Estimation and prediction of oceanic eddy fields, Prog. Oceanogr. 14, The authors would like to extend their 485-510. appreciation to Dr. L. Charles Sun of the University of Hawaii, Mr. Michael (10) Nash, L., and J. Willcox 1988. D. Couturier and IT Louis Nash of the Spring 1985 Leeway Experiment. (In U.S. Coast Guard Research and Preparation). U.S. Coast Guard Research Development Center. and Development Center, Avery Point, Groton, CT 06340. REFERENCES (1) Paskausky, D.F. 1986. Surface Current Real-time Prediction for Search and Rescue, Proc. Offshore Technology Conf. 1986, Houston, Texas, pp. 499-501. (2) Murphy, D.L., L. Nash, D.F. Cundy, and S.R. Osmer, 1982. An Evaluation of SARP Drift Prediction Using Satellite- Tracked Drift Buoys. Report CG-D-05-83. U.S. Coast Guard Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C., 20593, 67pp. (3) Anderson, 1., 1984. An Evaluation of Computer Assisted Search Planning Using TIROS oceanographic Drifter Tracks. Unpublished Manuscript. U.S. Coast Guard International Ice Patrol, Avery Point Groton, Connecticut 06340, 11pp. (4) Murphy, D.L., and A.A. Allen, 1985. An Evaluations of CASP Drift Predictions near the New England Shelf/Slope Front. Report CG-D--16-85. U..S. Coast. Guard .Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C., 20593, 51pp. 864 A =CadVM APPLICAXION TO GRAPHICALLY DISPLAY TIDAL CMUZERr DRIFT M. J. Lewandowski Oceanography Branch U. S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center Groton, CT 06340 ABSTRACT planning phase when efforts could be better spent on initial resource mobilization and utilization. An application on a minicomputer has been developed to account for the drift of an object This report describes the development and test of due to tidal currents for up to three tidal a technique used for applying tidal current drift cycles. An algorithm using the National Ocean to the last known position of a drifting object. Survey's Tidal Current Tables and Tidal Current Charts of Long Island Sound and Block Island Sound 2. BACKGROUND as data sources accounts for the changes in current velocity over the duration of the tidal In 1986, an effort began at the Coast Guard cycles. This algorithm allows for entry of the Research and Development Center to design a system last known position and time of an object and for solving maritime drift using the Geographical yields both a graphic and tabular display of Analysis and Archiving Display System (GAADS). subsequent times and positions of the object. The GAADS was developed in-house as a refinement of a resulting drift position can then be used on the ship-based Aerostat radar tracking and display same minicomputer to derive bearing and range of system. The object in development of a maritime the drift position from other geographic positions drift solution system using GAADS was to provide a or can be used to update the most probable search planner with rapid. calculations and position in Search and Rescue (SAR) case planning. graphically show the results on a digital chart display, in a user friendly manner, on a desktop mini-computer. 1. INTRODUCTION The area chosen as a procedural test-bed was Long The key to successful SAR in any circumstance is Island Sound and Block Island Sound. This timely and accurate location of the search provided an area with tidal currents of a high object's most probable position or "datum". velocity (hence a major factor in determining Search patterns are usually centered around datum. datum drift), and in close geographic proximity to Datum moves over time due to environmental factors the R & D Center for testing. acting on the search object. Datum drift is composed of total water current acting on the The algorithm used is based wholly upon data search object and the object's leeway (movement of presented in the annual Tidal Current Tables, the object with respect to the water due to wind Atlantic Coast of North America (Tidal Current action on the freeboard or "sail area" of the Tables)' and Tidal Current Charts, Long Island object). Sound and Block Island Sound, Seventh Edition 1979 (Tidal Current Charts)2. Hence, this is an In an estuarine environment the total water adaptation of existing, standard information current is mainly composed of tidal current, wind rather than development of a tidal current driven current, and occasionally, location forecasting method. ,particular river outflow current. 3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION In accounting for tidal current drift over time, a SAR case planner would normally be required to The Tidal Current Charts (TCC's) give a full make numerous calculations to achieve a vector sum discussion of their proper use. In brief, there based on the last known position of an object, and are thirteen charts depicting the direction and the time elapsed until a search response unit magnitude of the tidal currents at 144 tidal arrives on scene. Use of manual methods is very current stations (TCS's). The direction is tedious and time consuming, increasing opportunity represented by an arrow. Magnitude is shown by for error and inaccuracy. figures with the speed in knots at average spring tide velocities (figure 1). The data shows Having a desktop computer perform the many average speed and direction at the exact location calculations required to solve for tidal current of the tidal current station. drift relieves the SAR controller of a sizeable burden, particularly at a time in the SAR case 865 United States Government work not protected by copyright horizontal axis represents units of equal time interval with respect to Slack, Flood Begins (SFB) and Slack, Ebb Begins (SEB) at The Race. This depiction is not a representation of actual time. The vertical axis indicates magnitude of the 7, current velocity. 5 TCS 0 48 KNOTS FLOOD 4 3 2 SEE I CUT 04 TINE Figure 1. Excerpt from Tidal Current Charts 7 7 2 There are six charts for the duration of the flood tide, and seven for the duration of the ebb tide. 3 The charts are computed on an "equal- interval" -4 basis for each flood and ebb phase. F8r'reference to a specific chart, the user must Idivide the -5 KNOTS EBB duration of flood or ebb from the Tidal Current Tables by six or seven, respectively. There is also a table of "Factors for correcting Figure 2. Comparison of Tidal Current Station speeds" which must be applied to the charted velocities with respect to equal velocity values to account for the daily intervals of the tidal cycle differences between the maximum predicted current of a tidal cycle at "The Race" (from the Tidal The resultant "curve" shown in figure 2 is not Current Tables) and the averages on which the "smooth" in that it does not depict the actual charts are based. addition of constituent sinusoidal elements. The approximation of velocities between times of equal Proper use of this technique gives a interval suffices for the purposes of this work. straightforward prediction for the tidal current Though the velocity of the tidal current is always at a known position and time. For continuous changing with respect to time, an adaptation of drift while time and position keeps changing, this concept was necessary for microprocessor adaptation of this technique was necessary. application. A TCS array was conf igured using 83 of the 144 Rather than account for an object's drift over a stations shown on the' TCC's. TCS's in Gardiners small increment of time, (in effect interpolating Bay and the Peconic Bays were not included, nor velocities of current between the forecast were those inside relatively closed embayments and velocities at equal intervals of the tidal cycle rivers. Examples of some of these include the from the TCC's) , the increment of time was set as Housatonic, Connecticut, and Thames Rivers, and the duration of an equal interval of the tidal New Haven Harbor. The array was made up by cycle. Using the time of equal interval found as listing TCS location by longitude and latitude, per the instructions in the TCC's, the duration of thirteen direction and velocity pairs each equal interval was centered at the time of corresponding to the thirteen equal interval each equal interval. This produced an incremental charts in the TCC's, the TCS number from the or "stepped" representation of velocity with charts, and the TCS number from the Tidal Current respect to time as shown in figure 3. Tables. The direction values used in the array are those from the Tidal Current Charts. Since the "curves" represent tidal current Comparison of the direction vectors on the charts velocity with respect to equal intervals of tidal with the average direction values from the Tidal cycle, the area between the curve and horizontal Current Tables shows agreement in all but a few zero axis represents a "distance" value for the instances. In those instances where the duration of the tidal cycle. Comparison of the differences were greater than five degrees, the area below the curves shows approximate agreement values from the Tidal Current Charts wereused. between the "smooth" curve and the "stepped" curve. In fact, 6 representative curves were If the velocity values found in.the Tidal Current examined, and by use of a polar, planimeter, the Charts for the TCS's are compared to time, a areas under the curves agreed in most instances regular distribution replicating the 'sinusoidal within 2 %. This degree of accuracy was viewed nature of tidal function is found. Figure 2 shows acceptable, considering that for a value of 3 this for a representative TCS. In figure 2, the knots, accuracy is within .06 knots. 866 island. From the other, effects of current flow as represented by techniques such as a streamline analysis of currents, with gradient resolution, is -5 TCS 0 48 not taken into account. KNOTS FLOOD -4 Comparison of actual drift versus predicted drift -3 gives an indication of validity of the methods -2 used. 4. TEST AND EVALUATION As this work was conducted on a minimally funded -1 basis, full scale, real world drift testing of the -2 . . . . R algorithms and techniques used was not conducted. -3 Instead, "tests of opportunity" were conducted. These tests of opportunity involved free drifting -4 objects, where their deployment was necessary for -5 KNOTS EBB other aspects of SAR research. Two drift tests were conducted during evaluation of small, remotely monitored LORAN-C drifting buoys. Three drift tests were conducted during drogue effectiveness comparisons. These tests were Figure 3. Incremental representation of Tidal conducted in the areas shown in f igures 4 (a) and Current velocities over the tidal cycle 4 W. Both the LORAN-C drifting buoy tests and the drogue effectiveness tests relied on a 5' x 5' An additional consideration was the point during x 5' cross-type drogue, buoyed at the water the equal interval at which the value of the surface to ensure that only surface currents were incremental velocity should be centered. measured, without any object leeway. Comparison between beginning the step at the instant of equal interval and at half the equal interval preceding the moment of equal interval (the curve shown in figure 3) was done. Beginning the step at the preceding half interval showed closest correlation with respect to time. Jr AA The method described accounts f or the change in B tidal current velocity over the duration of the R tidal cycle. The algorithm uses predicted tidal current values 41 at the tidal current station nearest the last le known position of the search object, predicts drift for an equal interval of the tidal cycle, then selects the nearest tidal current station closest to the predicted drift position, and uses 41. that predicted value for the subsequent drift. This occurs for every equal interval of the tidal current cycle, and for additional tidal current 7235 7210 72 5 cycles if desired. A "dead reckoning" feature of Tld,l C-- D,Ifl the GAADS software allows for interpolation of datum between the times of equal interval. Figure 4 (a). Areas in Long Island Sound where Two factors yield uncertainty in this process. drift tests were conducted one is that the magnitude and direction of the predicted value at a particular time is used for Table I shows values for elapsed time of each the entire equal interval of the tidal cycle (from test,total actual and predicted drift, final approximately 53 to 65 minutes) . In fact, for position difference, and drift variation between most equal intervals of the tidal cycle the the start point and the final total drift current is continually increasing or decreasing. positions. A value called "drift error" is also The other factor is that as the "closest" (in included. "Final Position Difference" is the linear distance) tidal current station is used for difference in position from the final actual drift drifting the search object, tidal current shear, position to the final predicted drift position. divergence or convergence may not be adequately This difference is given in compass bearing and addressed. Also no "averaging" of the values range (polar coordinates, not Cartesian). Drift between tidal current stations is done. This may Variation is the difference between the total or may not have major effects on prediction. From predicted drift from the start point and the total one aspect, this may be of benefit, particularly actual drift from the start point. Direction drift where tidal current stations are separated by a error is the percentage of drift direction hydrographic/geographic feature such as a shoal or variation over 1800 (if predicted drift were 867 opposite to actual drift, direction drift error would be 100%. Distance drift error is the percentage of the distance drift variation over total actual drift distance. 114 SEP 87 ACTUAL TRACK B PREDICTED TRACK A TOT ACTUAL DRIFT 248 @ 1.3 NX 1 TOT PREDICTED DRIFT 293 0 0.9 NM 1 ELAPSED TIME 2 h 27 m A FINAL POS DIFFERENCE 025 @ 0.9 NM 1 41 DRIFT VARIATION 450 @ 0.4 NM 1 15 DRIFT ERROR 25 % DIRECTION 1 31 % DISTANCE 1 116 SEP 87 ACTUAL TRACK D PREDICTED TRACK C TOT ACTUAL DRIFT 085 @ 2.5 NM 1 TOT PREDICTED DRIFT 086 @ 0.8 NM 1 ELAPSED TIME 1 h 46 m i 41 - FINAL POS DIFFERENCE 265 @ 1.7 NM 1 DRIFT VARIATION 10 @ 1.8 NM 1 T@@.' C@ ... D@- 61 DRIFT ERROR <1 % DIRECTION 1 70 % DISTANCE I Figure 4 (b). Area in Block Island Sound where 117 NOV 87 ACTUAL TRACK DA drift tests were conducted PREDICTED TRACK G TOT ACTUAL DRIFT 060 @ 3.6 NM I Graphic representation of the tests are given in TOT PREDICTED DRIFT 067 @ 3.2 NM 1 figures 5 (a) through 5 (e) . Symbology in these ELAPSED TIME 2 h 58 m i figures is as follows: The position where drift i began is indicated by the wide arrow. The track FINAL POS DIFFERENCE 197 @ 0.6 NM 1 of the actual drift object is shown with the DRIFT VARIATION 70 @ 0.4 NM recovery point indicated by a drift object name i label (e.g. "B", "DA", etc.). The predicted track DRIFT ERROR 4 % DIRECTION 1 is shown with the dead reckoned drift position 11 % DISTANCE 1 indicated by a crosshair and narrow pointer. 118 NOV 87 ACTUAL TRACK X8 PREDICTED TRACK F TOT ACTUAL DRIFT 095 @ 5.4 NM TOT PREDICTED DRIFT 076 @ 5.1 NM I V ELAPSED TIME 2 h 14 m 41 FINAL POS DIFFERENCE 346 @ 1.8 NM 1 DRIFT VARIATION 190 @ 0.3 NM 1 DRIFT ERROR 11 % DIRECTION 1 6 % DISTANCE 1 119 NOV 87 ACTUAL TRACK X9 I PREDICTED TRACK H TOT ACTUAL DRIFT 086 * 4.0 NM TOT PREDICTED DRIFT 069 @ 4.2 NM 1 41 14 ELAPSED TIME 3 h 12 m ...... ..... FINAL POS DIFFERENCE 357 0 1.3 NM I 7224 DRIFT VARIATION 170 0 0.2 NM 1 -1226 7222 1 DRIFT ERROR 9 % DIRECTION 1 5 % DISTANCE 1 Figure 5 (a): Chart Showing Predicted Drift (A) I vs. Actual Drift (B) for 14 September 1987 TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF ACTUAL DRIFT TO PREDICTED DRIFT 868 The first test was conducted in Long Island Sound as wind conditions had been light and variable on 14 September 1987 (Area A in figure 4 (a)). prior to and during the test. The drif t The drift trajectories in figure 5 (a) show a trajectories for this test are shown in figure 5 sizeable difference in drift direction (the (c). greatest for any of the tests) between predicted and actual drift. Initially, the actual drift shows more motion to the east during the last stages of the ebb current, with the direction of the westward drift (flood current) approximating the natural channel flow between the shoal area to the south of the actual drift trajectory and the Connecticut Coast. Winds were very light and 41 variable before and during the test. A test was conducted on 16 September 1987 in the northern portion of Area B of figure 4 (a). The 14 drift trajectories for this test are shown in figure 5 (b). This test resulted in the greatest distance drift error of all the tests. The test occurred during the final one-third of the ebb 41 cz=' 12 cycle. Again for this test, winds were very light and variable before and during the test. In this area, the nearest TCS used is located two-thirds 7156 7 IL52* 7 ISO 7 144B 7 1'46 7 1'44 of the way from the drift start point to the point T-1 C.11.1t D'Ift of land immediately to the north. The increase in current gradient as distance from the shore increases appears to be the major factor for the large difference in total drift distance. In Figure 5 (c): Chart Showing Predicted Drift (G) fact, the predicted values of current show a vs. Actual Drift (DA) for 17 decrease from 0.4 knots to 0.1 knots, where actual November 1987 values show a current diminishing from approximately 1.5 knots to 1.0 knots. A test on 18 November 1987 was conducted in the southern portion of Area B in figure 4 (a). This test yielded the greatest absolute difference between final actual and predicted drift positions, however due to this test having the greatest actual dr ft distance, distance dr ft error was only 11%. Drift trajectories are shown in figure 5 (d) . This test was conducted during ......... the middle one-third of the tidal cycle, with drift being subjected to maximum ebb velocities. Winds prior to the test were light and variable increasing to 12 knots from the west-southwest towards the end of the test. The most visible result shown is the difference in drift direction. The actual drift track to the east-southeast 41 follows what is often viewed as the prevailing 16 flow of the ebb current exiting Long Island Sound through The Race. The test on 19 November 1987 (figure 5 (e)) was 7212 7210 72 8 conducted in the same approximate position of that on 17 November, and near the same time in the tidal cycle. However, predicted currents were higher (2.0 knots diminishing to 1.2 knots), and a Figure 5 (b): Chart Showing Predicted Drift (C) moderate westerly wind (,10-15 knots) was present vs. Actual Drift (D) for 16 prior to and during the test. Though not fully September 1987 analyzed, this wind may have accounted for a wind- driven current component, yielding actual drift to The smallest absolute difference in final position the right of predicted drift. This test yielded occurred during the 17 November 1987 test. This the smallest percentage of distance drift error. test was conducted in an open area (Area C of figure 4 (b)) known to be relatively free of bathymetric or topographic effects on tidal current (water depth in the area is greater than 100 ft) . The drift occurred during the mid to later portions of the ebb with predicted currents diminishing from 1.6 knots to 1.0 knots. In addition, any wind-driven current was negligible 869 test (figure 5 W) nearshore, and the 18 November test (figure 5 W). Though these absolute values are one measure of 41 le effectiveness, the drift error percentages should be evaluated when considering the two factors that might yield uncertainty by using the technique described as mentioned earlier: (1) use of a 41- predicted value for an entire equal interval of 16 the tidal cycle and (2) use of the geographically "closest" tidal current station values. Three of the tests (17, 18, and 19 November) 41 showed fairly small (less than 15%) distance drift 14 error. In these three instances, drift distance variation was less than 0.5 NM. In these tests, the direction drift error was also less than 15% 72'14 72,12 7 2'10 72' 8 72' 6 in all cases. These three tests were conducted in relatively open water. One of these three did T-1 -- show a large final position difference, but due more to drift direction variation than distance variation. Figure 5 (d): Chart Showing Predicted Drift (F) vs. Actual Drift W) for 18 The two tests conducted near the shore showed November 1987 sizeable drift error. These errors were discussed under the test and evaluation section, but point to the problems associated with using the nearest tidal current station, without any allowance for current gradient (as in the 16 September test), or bathymetrically induced current divergence (as in the 14 September test). In the same light, the 18 ...... November test showed how by relying on the nearest 4 1,:Z@ TCS, predicted drif t yielded an absolutely large 16- ..... .... divergence from actual drift. Though only one test (14 September) was conducted 41 during the change from ebb current to flood, the 4- three open water tests (with thier small distance drift errors) pointed to the validity of using a single current magnitude for an entire equal 41 interval of the tidal cycle. 12 6. SUMMARY 7156 ? 154 7152 @IW 7148 F 145 7144 Though the method described could assist a SAR T-1 C-11- Dlift S,p-, 1987 planner in determining the most probable position of a search object, the planner's "local knowledge" and skill level must be strong enough Figure 5 (e): Chart Showing Predicted Drift (H) to be able to relate to the method's shortcomings. vs. Actual Drift (X9) for 19 This is highlighted in the instructions for use of November 1987 the Tidal Current Charts. As noted "inference of the current between stations must be done 5. CONCLUSIONS according to the user's experience and local knowledge." Development of this application was to assist a SAR planner in determining the effect of tidal 7. REFERENCES current drift on a search object (the most probable position of the object) and where to 1. U. S. Department of Commerce, National oceanic begin searching for the object. Thus, one and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean evaluation of this application's effectiveness is Service, Tidal Current Tables 1987, Atlantic Coast how close the object's predicted drift was to the of North America (August 1986) actual drift. 2. U. S. Department of Commerce, National The 17 November test (figure 5 (0) in open water Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National yielded the smallest final position difference. Ocean Survey, Tidal Current Charts, Long Island In order of increasing final position difference, Sound and Block Island Sound, (1979) this test was followed by the 14 September test (figure 5 (a)) nearshore, the 19 November test (figure 5 (e)) in open water, the 16 September 870 DRIFTING BUOY DATA QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT AT THE NATIONAL DATA BUOY CENTER Eric A. Meindl National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-6000 ABSTRACT for forecasters, and cited at least one occasion when bad data led to an erroneous solution by operational models. Yet, it is only recently that The first, large-scale, centralized, drifting buoy, data quality program a formal, centralized program to perform QC on drifting buoy data in was initiated in April 1988 by the National Data Buoy Center (NDBQ, near-real time was begun. The need for QC will become more critical as an agency within the National Weather Service (NWS). This program is increasing numbers of drifting buoys are deployed. leading to improved meteorological observations in data-sparse oceanic areas, and hence can improve operational numerical analyses and 2. ESTABLISHING A DATA QUALITY PROGRAM prognoses. FOR DRIFTING BUOYS All North American drifting buoy reports enter the Global Telecom- The National Data Buoy Center (NDBC), an agency of the National munications System (GTS) in Washington, DC. The Service Argos U.S. Weather Service (NWS), has operated and maintained a meteorological Global Processing Center (USGPQ places the reports in DRIBUformat buoy network since the early 1970's. The Coastal-Marine Automated Net- and sends them to the NWS IBM 4341 computer system, where the data work (C-MAN) program extended NDBC's network to coastal land sta- are subjected to gross range and time-continuity checks before dissemina- tions in 1982. The initial small, experimental, three-buoy network in 1970 tion on the GTS. More stringent checks, including comparison with has now grown to approximately 100 land and moored buoy stations, climatology and NMC-generated model fields, are then performed at which provide routine operational data to the NWS. The commitment NDBC by data analysts in near-real time. NDBC is cooperating with the to the importance of data evaluation in early test programs remained with National Ocean Service (NOS) Ocean Products Center (OPQ, where ad- NDBC as its operational mission grew. As a result, NDBC's data quality ditional quality control will eventually be performed before the data are program is nearly two decades old, and has matured into a program based used for numerical prediction. heavily on automated data checking in real time, combined with near- real-time examination using more stringent automated checks and human The close monitoring of drifting buoy sensor data permits analysis of evaluation to detect subtle but real errors. NDBC station data have become system reliability and performance, which can be used in general evalua- recognized for high quality[61, and are used by numerous investigators tion of hardware quality. as ground truth in various experiments and research projects. This experience is being applied to QC of drifting buoy data in real time using a program developed, coordinated, and implemented over approx- 1. INTRODUCTION imately one year. The program is designed to monitor and validate measurements received from drifting buoys under control of North Prior to the mid- I 970's, vast ocean areas of the world lacked a sufficient American investigators. A means to perform real-time checks was number of in situ observations to provide consistent data for reliable recognized when CLS Service Argos, Inc., announced plans to open the meteorological forecasting and modeling. Most available observations U.S. Global Processing Center (USGPC) in Landover, Maryland. The were from ships. Problems caused by lack of data were particularly acute USGPC, which became operational in late 1987, receives data via satellite in the southern hemisphere, where there is a small percentage of land mass. from ground receiving stations at Wallops Island, Virginia, Gilmore In the middle and late 1970's, satellite imagery and relatively inexpensive Creek, Alaska, and Lannion, France. Since April 1988, those observa- drifting buoys that communicated through satellites began to make prac- tions received from drifting buoys under control of North American in- tical a greater number of surface observations. Drifting buoy observa- vestigators are automatically selected by the USGPC and converted into tions from remote areas were first used in great numbers during the First World Meteorological Organization (WMO) DRIBU Code form, then GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) in 1978-79, when several hundred forwarded to the NWS IBM 4341 computer at the National Meteorological buoys were deployed in the oceans of the southern hemisphere. These Center (NMC), near Washington, DC. Real-time gross error checking in situ drifting buoy measurements, combined with early remote sensing is performed on the 4341, using NDBC-developed algorithms, before by the TIROS-N satellite, where shown to improve meteorological forecast dissemination on the Global Telecommunication System (GTS). Closer products from both weather centers and local forecast offices[l]. Several checks of the data are performed within 24 hours at NDBC using a com- other scientific programs have used drifting buoys since that time[2]. Cur- bination of automated and manual procedures (man-machine mix). When rently, the greatest supplier of drifting buoy observations is the Tropical errors are noted, an NDBC data analyst directly updates a status file at Ocean and Global Atmosphere Research (TOGA) Program for which ap- NMC. This update can remove bad data from distribution on the GTS, proximately 200 drifters have been deployed beginning in 1984. The rate or on rare occasions, adjust or rescale data from specific sensors. of deployment has been roughly 40 to 50 systems per year; thus, TOGA will sponsor several hundred more drifting buoys through 1995[3]. The Data received from drifting buoys not under the control of North technological refinement of hardware, the expansion of measurement American investigators are routinely processed and disseminated on the capabilities, and the perfecting of inexpensive drifting minibuoys that can GTS by the Argos French Global Processing Center (FRGPC) in be air-deployed through sonobuoy launch mechanisms will probably lead Toulouse, France. However, there is redundancy in the Argos system, to a great increase in the number of drifting buoy observations through so that in the event one center ceases to operate, the other can fully pro- the 1990's. For example, the Experiment on Rapidly Intensifying Cyclones cess and support worldwide data commitments. in the Atlantic (ERICA) alone calls for the deployment of 100 minidrifters in just three months during the winter of 1988-89[4]. 3. DRIFTING BUOY DATA QUALITY CONTROL METHODS AT NDBC The need for a formal, centralized program to quality check.(QC) drif- ting buoy data has been recognized for several years. Gilhousen[5] cited Data QC at NMC in real time is largely automated and is intended to several specific instances when poor drifting buoy data caused problems detect obvious errors. More subtle errors, such as sensor bias or scatter, 871.United States Government work not protected by copyright require closer scrutiny, which usually involves human intervention and By comparing observations with NMC-generated analysis and 12-hour judgement. forecast fields, and using monthly statistical summaries compiled by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF), A. Real-time Data Quality Checks NDBC data analysts can manually evaluate data biases over extended time periods. Sometimes, data can also be compared with other marine reports, Gross QC of environmental and position information is applied in real such as moored data buoys or ships. After a bias has been reasonably time. Environmental measurements include sea level pressure, air quantified, measurements can be rescaled. This is normally done after temperature, and water temperature. Wind speed and direction will soon permission has been granted by the Principal Investigator, and directly be added. The automated, real-time checks are very effective in remov- at Service Argos. In this way, Argos files are simultaneously updated at ing data with large errors caused by total sensor failure and transmission both the Landover and Toulouse processing centers, so that if the USGPC problems. fails, properly scaled data continue to be disseminated by the FRGPC until normal operations resume. The limits applied to drifting buoy measurements are of two types. The first is based on absolute sensor limits supplied by the manufacturer and Environmental range and time-continuity limits were provided by the Na- confirmed in factory acceptance testing. Table I lists absolute value limits tional Climatic Data Center (NCDC), and were based upon archived ship of specific parameters. These limits are actually set within a slightly smaller data. The algorithms used are nearly identical to those for real-time checks range than the manufacturers' specifications to eliminate transmission for both time continuity and positions, except tighter values have been of measurements at the sensor limit, which could represent environmen- applied. The NMC sea level pressure and air and water temperature tal conditions that equal or exceed sensor capabilities. When analysis fields are compared with the drifting buoy observations. measurements exceed these limits, they are automatically deleted. The However, it has been noted by Gilhousen[7] that the process of deter- second type of limits is environmental, based upon range and time mining sensor bias using NMC-generated analyses and forecasts must be continuity. done carefully. He has shown that the NMC numerical models in use tend to be conservative near strong pressure centers. That is, in deep cyclones, The algorithm to check time continuity is based on a formula that relates the models tend to generate pressures which are not low enough, and in the time rate of change of a normally distributed measurement to an auto- strong anticyclones, pressures which are not high enough. Therefore, it correlation coefficient[7]. Using data obtained and analyzed from moored is important that bias determination be done over extended time periods buoys, and an empirically derived correction coefficient, this formula was and only during selected meteorological situations to avoid extremes. derived: M = 0.58 u V--AT, A number of graphic data quality tools are used by NDBC data analysts, incorporating latest buoy positions, tracks, and data plots. Time series where M is the maximum allowable difference, a is the standard devia- plots are also produced to help evaluate sensor performance. tion of each measurement, and T is the time since the last observation. Under normal circumstances, T is never greater than 3 hours. However, Figure I shows an example of a time-series plot of barometric pressure time continuity limits, standard deviations, and climatological limits can data from a buoy compared to NMC-gencrated analysis and 12-hour be removed in special cases, such as severe storms, where extreme data forecast values. Note that prior to July I the buoy values are consistently values exceeding preset limits could be legitimate, but would be lost if at least 15 hPa lower than values in the NMC products. A correction of limits were applied. 15 hPa was applied on July 1, and the bias error was significantly reduc- ed making the observations useful. A second rescaling of 3 hPa was ap- The method for checking buoy positions involves computing accelera- plied in mid-July. tions from one report to the next. This is considered a better method than velocity Checks, since acceleration is more sensitive to slight position er- Drifting buoy position plots are also used for.QC, by superimposing a rors than velocity. The acceleration limit selected was 4 knots/hour, or specific measurement over analysis or forecast fields, as in Figure 2. This 0.0006 M/SeC2 in either the north-south or east-west direction. Rejected is another easy way for the data analyst to check the quality of observa- position fixes are not used for subsequent acceleration computations. tions for nearly any geographic location on earth. B. Near-real-time Data Quality Checks 4. EXTENDED BENEFITS OF THE NDBC DRIFTING BUOY DATA QC PROGRAM Beyond automated methods, close attention must be paid to subtle measurement errors that may be reasonable, but are incorrect. These sub- A. Logistics and Deployment Support tle errors are typically related to gradual sensor degradation. A man- Considerable effort had to be expended to develop graphic products which machine mix is used at NDBC to examine data failing more stringent could be routinely produced and used by NDBC data analysts for near- criteria than those established for real-time data. To accomplish this, real-time data QC. An earlier example showed drifting buoy position and observed data are compared with NMC analysis and "first guess" fields, specific parameters plotted with corresponding NMC analysis and forecast local analyses, and satellite imagery. fields. Early in the QC program development, other applications for these same graphics were recognized, which are proving helpful in logistical A degraded sensor typically displays increasing scatter or bias. Scatter planning and engineering reliability assessment. It was found that some refers to more random measurement variations that occur when the sen- of the basic programs developed for QC support could be used to more sor sensitivity decreases. These are typically the hardest to detect, since easily identify areas where there were not enough buoy reports (Figure the errors may tend to cancel each other out. They are nearly impossible 3). The graphics program was further modified to color code active buoys to correct or rescale since, at any given time, measurements may be too according to age, making it possible to more easily recognize older buoys high or too low. that are more likely to fail. Existing programs also permit plotting of buoy Bias, or the tendency of the sensor to display a consistent error relative drift tracks for various time periods. By plotting these regularly, trends to the correct value, can be more easily recognized and accommodated can be identified. These features can be subjectively applied to improve or restore network configuration. For example, they are used by TOGA officials and NDBC, the lead agency for TOGA drifting buoy support, Table 1. Absolute Limitsfor Range Checks and Standard Deviations Used for more effective decision-making. for Time-Continuity Checksfor Real-Time Validation of High B. Buoy Reliability and Performance Latitude Drifters. Limit Range is Reduced for Low Latitude Drifters in Real Time and for Near-Real-Time QC at NDBC. The application of accurate sensor monitoring and rescaling, as described earlier (Sec. 3B), can also extend into engineering hardware reliability LOWER UPPER STANDARD analysis and even prolong useful life of sensors and systems. This is be- MEASUREMENT UNITS LIMIT LIMIT DEVIATION ing done more and more for the drifters deployed in support of the TOGA Program (Table 2). The typical TOGA-type drifter reports barometric SEA LEVEL PRESSURE hPa 905.0 1060.0 21.0 pressure, air temperature, and sea surface temperature. NDBC adopted AIR TEMPERATURE C -14.0 40.0 11.0 a simple hardware reliability analysis program that lists each buoy, its date of deployment, the failure date of each sensor, and the failure date WATER TEMPERATURE @c -2.0 40.0 8.6 of the buoy transmitter. WIND SPEED MIS 0.0 60.0 25.0 SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT M 0.0 16.0 6.0 The program can be used to help spot trends in service life of components and systems. Its application could be extended to determine, for exam- DOMINANT WAVE PERIOD 1.95 26.0 31.0 pie, length of service of buoys deployed by ship versus by air, length of service based upon deployment location, or buoy life based on 872 TIME SERIES PLOT LAT 27.1 5 IBAROl TIME SERIES PLOT LRT 26.4 5 1 ARD 1 562851 VS NMC t LON 170.5 E :MC 12H SLP FCST 0 HK 12 SLP FCST M SL P M14AL 0 569051 US NMC C LOM 1ES.5 E LR 0 MMC S P ATIRL 0 0 0 0 a . 0 0 IBIS.- 0 IWS.- 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 C' 6 0 .3 0 0 V 0 0 0 lose. st 1520- 9 HS.- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IBIS. 11 12 0 10 0 ILI 8 12 11 12 0 12 11 1 12 . 11 - 9 12 a 12 0 12 'la a la a '2 a '2 0, '11als, 11,21a, 'I .8 rVez 6124 6125 5129 6130 7, 2 7/ 4 7/ 6 71 9 7110 7/12 UTC(HOURS) 1999 UTE(HOURS) loss Figure]. A time series plot of barometric pressure observations from buoy 56805 (small dots connected by solid lines), NMC sea level pressure analyses (o), and NMC 12-hour sea level pressure forecasts (EI). Upward trend of each series of drifting buoy pressure observations represents the daily diurnal pressure rise. (a) Between June 20 and June 30, the buoy consistently reported pressure values approximately 15 hPa too low (comparing observations nearest 00 Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) and 12 UTC, which are valid times of NMC products), (b) A 15 hPa rescaling was applied July 1, and low bias is reduced to approximately 3 hPa. 120 W 90 W 60 W 1020 32813 270 222 0 32806 oo/ 300 30S ' 1014 32801 261 320 255 0 32903 @&. 3281 54824 p 0) 91 303 32811 4823 34814 107,? 1006 1010 213 ) I'll, - 54821 1 1 100, 31 1 10 9 55828 060 924 34813 984 341 55823 49 4822 996 177 @0- q,. 992 SOS 54820 SO 984 gas 092 984 71804 % -.000, 2 990 988 992 996 - 1000 996 1004 Figure 2. A plot program allows the NDBC data analyst to superimpose observed drifting buoy data with NMC analyses or forecast fields, making it easier to spot data that may be erroneous. In this example, in which TOGA drifting buoy reports are plotted, buoy 55828 (near 50'S 122 1 W) is reporting a surface pressure of 1031.1 hectopascals (hPa), while the NMC analysis indicates pressure in the area should be approximately 1024 hPa. 01/ 024 873 32802 32813 32801 -17809 32806 34811 15810 32812 i2803 * 31810 5i824 54823 -32811 o338o2 348'4 33815- 34J@l 2 338 1'8* 33819 5@82i *21 "'555825 34813 *54822 M20 33 h4820 *71804 120 90 60 30 0 Figure3. The plot program used for drifting buoy data analysis can also be used by program management officials for deployment planning. In this example, a plot of TOGA drifting buoy positions shows large network gaps east of Argentina, west of southern Chile, and in the south A t1an- tk east of 300W. Table2. Worktable listing each drifting buoy by year of launch, and number of days of service of each component or sensor, including buoy transmit- ter (Tx), barometer (p), air temperature (7a), sea temperature (To), and buoy drogue (DROG). For the month April 1988 (Final Report) BUOYS DEPLOYED IN 1984 BUOY WM0 LAUNCH LAUNCH LAST Tx P Ta To DROG jTxYjP Ta To IDROG ID. ID. DATE POSITION POSITION FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE DA I DAY REMARKS 6000 17805 11/19/84 35S/OOOE/W 31.4S/029.9W 05/30/85 05/30/85 05/30/85 05/30/85 05/20/85 1921 192 192 192 182 DROG FAILURE 6001 15801 10/31/84 25S/OOOE/W 27.2S/006.2W 08/16/85 08/16/85 08/16/85 08/16/85 08/16/85 289 289 289 289 289 6002 15802 11/02/84 21S/009W 22.3S/031.SW 09/11/85 09/11/85 09/11/85 09/11/85 09/11/85 313 313 313 313 313 6003 31801 11/03/84 21S/018W 32.gS/039.3W 09/06/86 09/06/86 09/06/86 09/06/86 06/23/85 672 672 672 672 232 DROG FAILURE 6004 31802 11/04/84 25S/025W 35.6S/019.OW 04/29/86- 0-412-9/86 04/29/86 04/29/86 04/29/86 541 541 541 541 541 6005 33801 111/07/84 35S/03OW 27.lS/034.5W 04/19/86 04/19/86,04/19/86 04/19/86,04/19/86 528 528 528 528 528 6007 15803 10/28/84 31S/013W 2 9. I_S_/ 0 1 4_0 W07/25/85 07/25/85107/25/85--07/25/85 07/25/85 270 270 27-0 -270 270 6010 32801 11/17/84 15S/080W 14.9S/111.2W 03/30/86 03130/86 03/30/86 03/30/86 03/30/861498 498 49814981498 6011 32802 11/18/84 20S/079W 19.IS1O99.6W 04/09/86 04109/86 04/09/86 04/09/86 04/09/86 507 507 S071507 507 6 0 12- -3 2-89-3 -11 / 1-9 / 8 4255/078W 19.2S/099.6W 04/28/86 04/28/86 04/28/86 04/28/86 04/28/86 525 525 525 525 525 6013 32804 11/20184 3OS/O77W__24.9S/081.6W 02/23/85 02/23/85 02/23/85 02/23/85 02/23/85 95 95 95 95 95 RAN AGROUND 6014 34801 11/28/84 45S/08OW 16. 1S_/_O93. IW--06/26/86 06/26/86 06/26/86 06/26/86 06/26/86 575 575 575 575 575 6015 34802 12 / 0 6 / 8-4 -6 O-S / 0-6-54 45.2S/043.8E,08/10/86 08/10/86 08/10/86 08/10/86 08/10/86 612 612 63.2 612 612 6016 34803 1 12/13/84 58S/065W 48.4S/022.IE 05105/86 05/05/86 0-51-0-5 /_86- -0-5 /_05 /86 05/05/86 508 508 508 508 508 6017 34804 12/22/84 59S/052W 47.8S/014.IE 04/23/86 04/23/86 04/23/86 04/23/86 04/23/86 487 487 487 487 487 6020 32805 12/07/84 10S/105W 11.9S/138.2W 05/19/86 05/19/86 11/21/85 05/19/86 05/19/86 528 528 349 528 528 AIR TEMP F AILURE 6021 32806 12/10/84 11S/09OW 07.gS/136.6W 03/24/86 03/24/86 03/24/86 03/24/86 03/24186 469 469 469 469 469 6022 32807 12/19/84 25S/074W --1-8.2S /105.8W 08/22/86 08/22/86 08/22/86 11 / 15185 _O_8_/ 2-218-6 6-11 611 611 331 61-1 SEA TEMP FAILURE 6023 34806 12/ 01/� 4+05 8S/066W 52.5S/023.2E 04/30/86 04/30/86 04/30/86 04/30/86 04/23/86 515 515 515 515 508 REFURB 6037 14801 12/06184 5S/075E 126.5S/073.OE 05/11/86 05/11/86 12/02/85105/11/86 05/11/86 521 521 361 5211521 AIR TEMP FAILURE 5 5 9 0 2 7 5 5 S 9 0 2 5 7 5 575 575 612 6,2 508 508 487 487 '28 349 469 469 11 11 J66 51, ,1 521 361 MEAN TIME TO FAILURE 14631463 446 449 440_ 874 manufacturer. Further, if data are successfully rescaled to prolong buoy The potential benefits of the data quality program extend into several life, total costs are reduced as a result, primarily for mission support to areas of the drifting buoy program, including deployment planning, deploy replacement drifting buoys. logistics, and engineering reliability analysis. 7. REFERENCES 5. COOPERATIVE DATA QUALITY EFFORTS 1. Mills, G.A. "An Objective Limited-Area Analysis/Prognosis Experi- ment Using FGGE Data in the Australian Region." Monthly Weather The drifting buoy data QC program within the National Oceanic and At- Review (109) 1898-1913, 1981. mospheric Administration will increase over the coming years. The Ocean Products Center (OPC) of the National Ocean Service is beginning the 2. Kerut, Edmund G. "Development of Drifting Buoy Systems for first stage of a three-phase effort to eventually monitor and QC in real Oceanographic and Meteorological Applications." Proceedings of time all marine observations [81, including subsurface oceanic Oceans '80, Seattle, Washington, September 8-10, 1980. measurements. NDBC assisted in the initial development of the data quali- ty software for the OPC. The QC of all marine observations in real time 3. Kozak, R.P. and R.M. Partridge. "The Role of Drifting Buoys in the will be an enormous undertaking. Even after the OPC becomes fully Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program." Proceedings operational, NDBC will continue to monitor drifting buoy data in order of Oceans '85, San Diego, California, November 12-14, 1985. to detect subtle errors that might pass automated real-time error checks to determine, coordinate, and document the failure or appropriate rescal- 4. Hadlock, Ron. "ERICA Field Implementation Plan." ERICA Field ing of sensors and systems, and to generally assist in the OPC's real-time implementation Workshop, Duxbury, Massachusetts, September effort. 14-17, 1987. 5. Gilhousen, D.B. "Quality Control of Drifting Buoy Data." Pro- 6. SUMMARY ceedings of the 1987 Argos Users' Conference, Landover, Maryland, The number of drifting buoy observations has increased dramatically since September 14-17, 1987. the mid-1970's, and there is a high potential for explosive growth in the 6. Dischel, R.S. and W.J. Pierson, Jr. "Comparison of Wind Reports number of drifting buoy observations over the next decade. The need for by Ships and Data Buoys." Proceedings of Marine Data Systems improved quality of drifting buoy meteorological observations has been Symposium '86, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 30-May 2, 1986. recognized for several years, and NDBC began the first centralized drif- ting buoy data quality program in April 1988. 7. Gilhousen, D.B. "Quality Control of Meteorological Data From Automated Marine Stations." Proceedings of AMS Conference on The drifting buoy data quality program operates on two general levels. Interactive Information and Processing Systems for Meteorology, Data are initially subjected to automated time-continuity and range-limit Oceanography, and Hydrology, Anaheim, California, January checks at NMC. Data passing these tests are then subjected to more 31-February 5, 1988. stringent near-real-time checks designed to eliminate bad data, or rescale observations containing subtle errors, such as those due to gradual sen- 8. "Quality Control Implementation Plan." Ocean Products Center, Na- sor degradation. tional Ocean Service (NOAA), September 1987. 875 COMMERCIAL VESSEL OPERATION IN THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE: Will the Jones Act Keep Up? Mark D. Aspinwall Committee on Merchant Marine and fisheries U.S. House of Representatives salvage, although the domestic vessel requirement for salvaging is limited to internal and territorial waters. The authority for these determinations Abstract flows from section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act Commercial vessel operation in the coastwise of 1920 (the Jones Act.), the Passenger Ship Act of trade is limited to American vessels. Applying the 1886, and the Towing Act of 1940.3 The functional intent of these archaic laws to increasingly complex scope of U.S. cabotage policy, therefore, is almost ocean resource exploitation projects has proved an entirely based on the concept of transportation. arduous task, especially in light of expanding U.S. Most recently, the transport of valueless material, jurisdiction offshore. Congressional actions and such as sewage sludge, contaminated dredge spoil, administrative interpretations in this area are and other waste, was brought within the purview explored. of the cabotage regime. The geographic scope of the American coastwise trade, or the coastwise area, is generally Introduction considered to include the navigable internal and Federal support of the U.S. maritime industry territorial waters of the states of the United States, has been a part of American public policy since including many of its territories and possessions. 1789, Policymakers have long felt that a healthy, Further, certain points on the Outer Continental homegrown merchant marine is good for jobs and Shelf (OCS) and in the Exclusive Economic Zone trade promotion, balance of payments, and national (EEZ) are also within the realm of the coastwise security. The support has taken a variety of forms: area. This will be discussed in more detail later. one of the most common is the practice of cargo Therefore, coastwise points include any port or preference, where certain cargoes on certain routes place within U.S. jurisdiction (with some are reserved for American ships. The oldest form exceptions), as well as some structures and vessels of cargo preference is the barring of foreign vessels tethered to the OCS. from merchandise carriage in the cabotage trade Background (or coastwise trade), a policy that began in 1817.1 The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 Because of its historic evolution, cabotage policy -- (OCSLA) extended "the Constitution and laws and for the most part -- affects only transportation civil and political jurisdiction of the United States ... services. to the subsoil and seabed of the Outer Continental The degree of required American involvement Shelf and to all artificial islands and fixed in cabotage operations is quite high. The vessel structures which may be erected thereon for the must be U.S.-built, -owned, and -flagged, and purpose of exploring for, developing, removing, vessels which meet these criteria are issued a and transporting resources."4 This statute coastwise license by the U.S. Coast Guard, in established the policy that fixed drilling equipment essence a ticket to operate in the cabotage trades.2 on the OCS was as much a coastwise point as the The U.S. Customs Service, in charge of enforcing port of New York. It was a significant extension of the cabotage laws, considers them to include the U.S. cabotage policy inasmuch as it meant that any transportation of merchandise and passengers ships trading between the offshore rigs and any between coastwise points, towing -- in cases where other coastwise point must be qualified under merchandise or passengers are transported -- and American cabotage law. CH2585-8/88/0000- 876 $1 @1988 IEEE An amendment to the OCSLA was passed into Yet commercial activity of all kinds is on the law on September 18, 1978 which changed section rise, and the question of applying the Jones Act to 4a of the Act by including within federal those activities is likely to become more pressing jurisdiction structures permanently or temporariLy as time passes.8 Most equipment that is employed attached to the OCS seabed.5 This change brought extracting ocean resources, including oil rigs, sand anchored vessels, including ships and other floating and gravel mining vessels, OTEC vessels, and others equipment, within the purview of the cabotage do not fall within the cabotage guidelines, and laws, provided they were involved in the recovery there is often a high degree of foreign involvement of OCS resources. The legislative history indicates in these operations. Moreover, the vessels which that Congress intended no change to existing law as service the processors -- if they are not engaged in far as artificial islands and structures, fixed a transportation service -- often'are not bound by platforms, and mobile drilling rigs attached to OCS the strict domestic requirements of cabotage law. were concerned.6 In other words, this equipment The question of when a service operation is a was still considered part of the coastwise area-, the coastwise activity become's the ultimate change made by the 1978 amendment was that determinant of "Americanization" of the EEZ. As any equipment temporarily attached to the seabed stated earlier, the only relevant criteria in for the purposes of resource exploitation was also determining whether these vessels are engaging in to be considered a coastwise point. a coastwise activity and therefore must be U.S.- The 1978 amendment has been interpreted built, -documented, and -owned under U.S. administratively to include such features a's cabotage law is whether they are transporting marker buoys and capped wells. A marker buoy is individuals or merchandise between coastwise secured to the seabed temporarily and is used to points. mark an offshore site which is to be drilled. The significance of such rulings is that the shipment of H.R. 82: Congress Acts to Strengthen Cabotage drill jackets -- the frame derrick-like structures in the EEZ that hold the drilling platform -- must be H.R. 82, introduced by Rep. Mario Biaggi (D- performed by coastwise-qualified launch barges if N.Y.) on January 6, 1987, requires that all they are brought from the United States to the valueless material being moved between coastwise marker buoy. The agency has also maintained that points, or between a coastwise point and the EEZ, a capped or plugged exploratory well that will be be transported on coastwise-qualified vessels. produced is a coastwise point, regardless of Valueless material does not include scrap metal, whether there is a marker buoy at that point or waste paper, landfill, and similar material that is not.7 used as a raw material, or otherwise has In a significant extension of U.S. control over usefulness. ocean resource exploitation, President Reagan On June 7, 1988, the Senate version of the bill established, on March 10, 1983, an Exclusive M 1988) was signed into law. The measure makes Economic Zone (EEZ) extending out to 200 nautical two substantive changes to American cabotage miles from the baseline from which the territorial policy. First, it effectively places matter of no sea is measured. The proclamation was consistent value on the same level as merchandise and with the terms of the Third United Nations' passengers for the purposes of U.S. cabotage law. Conference on the Law of the Sea, and it assured Second, it extends the existing cabotage regime -- U.S. jurisdiction over the resources contained for the purposes of waste transport only -- to the within the waters ol the zone as well as the subsoil EEZ, without respect to whether the dump site is a and seabed beneath them. coastwise point or not. In essence, it defines the The extent to which structures and vessels entire EEZ as a coastwise point for the purposes of within the EEZ qualify as points or places in the waste disposal. United States for the purposes of our cabotage laws H.R. 82 was introduced as a reaction to a has been a growing concern in recent years. The decision by the City of New York to contract with a Customs Service has had an increasingly difficult Singapore shipyard for construction of four barges time applying outdated federal law to ever more capable of transporting sewage to a deepwater site. complex offshore projects. This is especially true At a hearing on the bill on April 23, 1987, Biaggi of oil recovery operations, where a plethora of said that "H.R. 82 specifically deals with vessels ancillary anchor handling, icebreaking, inspection, used to transport sewage sludge. However, this and other vessels accompany a rig to an OCS site. hearing will give us the opportunity to look just 877 beyond the particulars of this case to whether we and salvaging. The latter tw o activities would be should harmonize the Jones Act with the considered coastwise commerce in the EEZ when contemporary concept of U.S. sovereign they are undertaken in conjunction with resource jurisdiction." exploration, development, or production. What began as a simple reaction to a single case was quickly expanded, and by the time the Concl bill was reported out of Committee, it had grown to American cabotage policy with respect to the encompass all transport of valueless material EEZ is limited to transportation service. Other within 200 miles. At the same time, requirements services provided in the EEZ, as well as for the movement of over-sized platform jackets transportation service to non-tethered vessels, were relaxed such that if a launch barge of 12,000 may be done by foreign-flagged, built, and owned tons or more is necessary for the work, a non vessels. coastwise -qualified vessel may undertake that In the event of expanding exploitation of EEZ employment. This is despite the Jones Act resources, the clear potential exists for a growing requirement mandating use of American employment of support ships, and the recurring coastwise-qualified vessels in movements from the issue of protecting U.S. industry versus allowing United States to OCS resource exploitation points. free trade will present itself to policymakers. Under the terms of the new law, the barges must Congress has demonstrated in 1988 that it is be U.S.-flagged, -owned, and -crewed. Only the willing to side with the "protectionists" by construction provisions were waived, including waste transport under the aegis of the to large launch barges was that none were Jones Act. available that qualify under Jones Act rules. In The offshore search for and recovery of fact, relying on a 1984 Customs Service ruling, resources is likely to continue and to grow in the McDermott, Inc., a Louisiana jacket fabricator, long term, creating a demand for a fleet of service acquired four non-qualified barges for use in boats capable of servicing resource processing transporting its platform jackets to sites on the equipment.11 Whether Congress will be willing to OCS. In the ruling, Customs stated that the go beyond transportation to apply the Jones Act transportation contemplated was not within the rules to non-transportation services remains to be coastwise trade; however, the agency later seen. Some maritime groups would certainly argue reversed its position, and held that such that such a Policy change would provide more transportation was subject to the Jones Act rules. shipyard and seagoing jobs, and add to the security So the legislation was viewed as an equitable posture of the nation. solution to the problem faced by McDermott -- namely, having bought four foreign-built launch barges under an understanding that they would be NOTES eligible for the intended work.9 1. Act of March 1, 18 17, ch. 3 1, sec. 4, 3 Stat, Another bill that would change the rules of the 15-1. game in the EEZ is H.R. 3106. Though there is little likelihood of it being considered in the 100th 2- Vessel Documentation Act, December 29, Congress, interested groups should watch for it in 1980, codified at 46 U.S.C. 12102, 12106. the 101st Congress. It is a broad restructuring of the coastwise laws, and would change the 3. Merchant Marine Act of 1920, sec. 27, A6 definition of both the coastwise area and coastwise APP. U.S.C. 883. Act of June 19, 1886, sec. 8, 46 trade.10 The coastwise area would be enlarged to ADD. U.S.C. 289. Act of June 11, 1940, 46 App. include resource processing vessels or structures in U.S.C. 316 the EEZ without regard to whether they were actually tethered to the ocean floor. The coastwise 4. Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, sec. 4(a), trade, defined statutorily for the first time under August 7, 1953. 43 U.S.C. 1333a(l)). The purpose the term "coastwise commerce," would be of the Act was, in part, to see to it that the subsoil expanded to include a variety of services not now and seabed of the OCS "appertain to the United covered under the coastwise laws, including States and are subject to its jurisdiction, control, lodging passengers or property that are enroute and Power of disposition,.." Id, sec. 3. from one coastwise point to another, and dredging 878 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments, September 18, 1978, sec. 4(a), 4.3 U.S.C. 1333(al. 6. U.S. Congress, House, House Report No. 95- 5-9-0 p. 129; Conference Report No. 95-1474 p.80, 124 (note 1)). 7. U.S. Customs Service, C.S.D. 81-214, May 6, 1981. 8. See for example, "On Ship Off Alaska, All That Glitters is Gold From Sea Floor," The Wall Street journal, Sept. 18, 1987, p. 11; "Offshore Phosphate Mining Could Pay Off, Report Says," The Virginia Pilot, Oct. 17, 1987, pp. BI, B4; "Tenneco Unit to Go Off Alaska In $70 Million Search for Oil, The journal of Commerce, Sept. 16, 1987, pp. IA. 10A; "Dredging the Bering Sea for Some of What Glitters," The New York Times, Oct. 13, 1987, p. 2 1: "Trash Disposal Problem Besieging Philadelphia,' The New York Times, February 20, 1988, p. 7-1 "Gulf of Mexico Drilling Shows Signs of New Life," The journal of Commerce June 19, 1987, p. 15. 9. U.S. Congress, House, Sewage Sludge Disposal House Report 100-219, July 14, 1987, pp. 5-6. 10. U.S. Congress, House, H.R. 3106 100th Congress, P. 3. 11. Burroughs, R.H. (1984), "Offshore Supply Vessels: An Emerging Maritime Industry," Maritime Poligy and Management Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 269-276. The views expressed here are solely the author's, and do not necessarily represent those of his employer 879 OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT: A GROWTH SCENARIO AND SITUATION ANALYSIS OF HAWAIIS OCEAN INDUSTRIES Craig D. MacDonald and Howard E. Deese State of Hawaii Department of Business and Economic Development P.O. Box 2359 Honolulu, Hawaii 96804, U.S.A. ABSTRACT It is now clear that the growth of Hawaii's ocean industries is helping to advance the State's general policy goal of increased economic Hawaii's ocean industries consist of aquaculture, diversity and stability [4]. It is less clear, commercial fishing, ocean research ' seafood however, what the likelihood might be of marketing, ocean recreation and maritime. A continued high growth among the ocean industries growth scenario for the ocean industries over the and what the economic outcomes of any such five-year period 1986-90 is developed and a continued high growth might be. situation analysis is conducted. Total direct revenues and employment for the industries as a This paper uses the rudiments of the previously whole are projected to increase from about $900 developed (and updated) ocean industries million and 10 thousand employed in 1986 to about portfolio model [11 to depict a constant growth $1.4 billion and 13 thousand employed in 1990, an scenario for the five-year period 1986-90. increase of 53% in revenues and 24% in Critical factors impinging upon the scenario are employment. A constant growth rate through 1990 evaluated as part of a situation analysis. is anticipated for each of the industries except Results stemming from the analysis have policy for seafood marketing which is likely to implications that pertain to industry, education decrease. The ocean recreation industry will and government, and are briefly discussed. This realize the greatest overall economic gains. exercise in foresight serves to further refine Results of this analysis have implications for and strengthen the State's strategic orientation policy formulation pertinent to industry, to ocean resources development in Hawaii. education and government. 2. INDUSTRY CATEGORIES 1. INTRODUCTION The categorization of Hawaii's ocean industries Economic activities involving the ocean in Hawaii is based on types of activity that are are highly diversified and make up six industries sufficiently alike to be rec 'ognized as specific composed of multiple sectors. A comprehensive entities and to respond to similar market forces analysis of the ocean industries was recently and policy actions. The categories tend to completed [1,21. As part of that analysis, follow existing lines of administrative several portfolio models were developed to better responsibility within State government in Hawaii. visualize the relative attributes of the and are well-suited for the purpose of general industries and their principal sectors. comparison and analysis as presented in this Additionally, general strategies and tactics to paper. A succinct description of each of these help facilitate the industries' further growth industries follows; elaboration is provided and development were broadly outlined. elsewhere [1,21. Collectively, the ocean industries are equal in The aquaculture industry is composed of two size to and growing faster than a number of sectors: a) commercial production, and Hawaii's more commonly recognized industries b) research, training and technology transfer [1,21. As of 1986, ocean industries generated (R,T&7r). More than 20 different species from estimated total direct revenues of about $900 fresh, brackish and salt water were produced million and total employment of approximately 10 commercially in 1986. The R,T&Tr sector involves thousand persons (based on recent revisions). State and Federal agencies and private consulting During 1980/81 - 1985/86, the only period for companies. which comprehensive data are available, the ocean industries realized an average annual rate of The commercial fishing industry is dominated by revenue growth of about 12% (in nominal terms). the catch of tunas, other pelagics, bottomfishes By comparison, the Hawaii Gross State Product and lobsters. The marine aquarium fish trade is grew at an average annual rate of 6.6% during treated as a subset of commercial fishing. It is essentially the same time period [3]. CH258s_s/ss/oo00. 880 $1 @1988 IEEE organized into segments comprising collectors, (1) (Rl)(l+Gl) = R2 importers-exporters or wholesalers, and retailers. (2) (El)(l+GI-II) = E2 The ocean research industry is composed of a broad spectrum of entities ranging from small Rl -Previous Year's Revenue Estimate private consulting firms to diverse government El -Previous Year's Employment Estimate agencies and the University of Hawaii. Gl -Average Annual Revenue Growth Rate Presently, the industry is heavily institutional 11 -Expected Consumer Price Inflation Rate in make-up. Research on virtually every R2 -Current Year's Revenue Estimate important facet of ocean activity is carried out E2 -Current Year's Employment Estimate in Hawaii. These calculations assume a constant growth rate The seafood marketing industry is particularly for 1986-90. A constant growth rate implies that complex. The total volume and variety of seafood demand will grow as it has in 1981-86 more-or- products bought and sold is large and the number less without interruption and that there will be of marketing participants and transactions is no productivity growth, i.e. no increase in the high. The major portion of sales are imported ratio of output to employment. seafood products. The revenue values reported here do not include local revenues of commercial fishing or aquaculture production. B. Results The ocean recreation industry is highly segmented According to the growth scenario (Fig. 1), and dynamic. The sectors involved include: industry rank order based on revenues and inter-island cruise ships, tour boats, dive employment will change little between 1986 and shops, surf shops, charterboat fishing, 1990 (Table 1). The aquaculture industry will recreational fishing, personal boating, major remain the smallest of the ocean industries both yacht races, competitive ocean swims, Hawaiian in terms of revenues and employment. The canoe races, and wind-, board-, and body-surfing maritime industry will remain the largest in events. terms of revenues. The ocean recreation industry will continue to have the highest employment. The maritime industry is composed of two Although employment rank reversals for the sectors: a) shipbuilding and repairing, and seafood marketing and maritime industries are b) ocean transportation (cargoes). Being an indicated in Table 1, such an eventuality is island state, Hawaii relies on the ocean considered unlikely in view of the results of the transportation sector to carry about 99% of all situation analysis for seafood marketing that incoming cargo. The revenues and employment follows. presented do not include the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard. 26 24- SEAFOOD MARKETING 22- 3. GROWTH SCENARIO 3c 20 Cc 18 AJUACUL M (W) _P@ - I=U) ir, ICEAN RESEARCH A. Methods Z 14- OCEAN RECREATION Ocean industry revenue and employment estimates Cc 12 ---------- C--- _J < io- for 1986 and average annual revenue growth rates :3 Z Z representative of 1981-86 were based on previous W,.ERCIAL FISHING research [1,21 and recent updates and revisions. (a MARITIME Revenue projections for the years 1987 through 4 1990 were calculated by multiplying each previous > 2 year's revenue estimate by the average annual 011. 1 . I . . . . . . . . . . revenue growth rate for each industry. This 0 40 80 120 00 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560 600 calculation is illustrated in formula (1) below. ANNUAL REVENUES (MILLIONS OF DOLLARS) Employment projections were calculated in a Figure 1. The Hawaii ocean industries growth scenario. similar manner but with one important Circle area is proportional to employment. Hatched difference. The expected consumer price circles represent 1986 estimates; open circles represent inflation rate for each year was subtracted from 1990 projections. Two alternate growth rates for seafood the average annual revenue growth rate to marketing are indicated as per the Situation Analysis and calculate the average annual employment growth Discussion sections. The horizontal dashed line divides rate. This value was in turn multiplied by each the figure into regions of high and low growth based on previous year's employment estimate. This the Hawaii ocean industries portfolio model [1]. calculation is illustrated in formula (2) below. This process is a simple but effective way of Revenue gains in absolute terms will be higher estimating employment based on real dollar for ocean recreation, maritime and seafood revenues per employee. marketing than the other ocean industries; employment gains will be higher for ocean 881 Table 1. Gross estimates and ranking of direct revenues and employment for Hawaii's ocean industries based on the growth scenario (in millions of dollars and numbers of employed persons). Revenues Employment Revenue Estimate Rank6 Estimate Rank@;' Industry GrowthM 19-87---179 0 19@@1990 19T6 --- F9-9 0 19T6--1990 Aquaculture 17 $13 $24 6 6 423 6SI 6 6 Commercial fishing 9 33 47 5 S 689 818 S 5 Ocean research 13 5S 90 4 4 1,342 1,823 4 4 Seafood marketingb 21 (11) 116 247 (176) 3 3 2,108 3,744 (2,66S) 3 2 (3) Ocean recreation 16 269 481 2 2 2,970 4,415 1 1 Maritime 7 @34 1 1 2,454 2,726 2 3 (2) Total 12c(ll) $886, $1,423 (1,3S2) -- -- 9,986 14,177 (13,098) -- -- a 1 highest, 6 lowest b Alternative projection based on the situation analysis c Weighted mean Table 2.. Abs'olute gains in revenues and in excess of either of these two other industries employment for Hawaii's ocean industries between (Table 1). The most salient feature of the growth 1986 and 1990 based on the estimates in Table 1. scenario would appear to be the considerable degree to which the larger industries grow apart from the smaller based on revenues (Fig. 1). However, roughly equal contributions to the Gross Revenue Employment State Product probably will be made by these Industry Gaina G'ainb three industries in view of their similar employment gains. The significance of making Aquaculture $11 228 such distinctions in regard to economic impact Commercial fishing 14 129 should not be overlooked. Ocean research 35 481 Seafood marketingc 131 (60) 1,636 (SS7) Ocean recreation 212 1,445 4. SITUATION ANALYSIS Maritime 134 -272 Totalc .$537 (466) 4,191 '(3,112) Specific attention is paid to what we consider to be the critical success factors associated with each of the ocean industries and their principal a Millions of dollars sectors. Where possible, published data sources b Numbers of employed persons and technical literature constitutethe primary c Adjusted values based on the situation basis of our analysis. In addition, we have analysis. relied on interviews with industry leaders, technical experts and program administrators to provide further perspective. recreation, seafood marketing and ocean research (Table 2). Aside from the seafood marketing values which required adjustment and will be A. Aquaculture explained in Section 4-D, the ocean recreation industry will account for the greatest absolute Revenue growth in the aquaculture industry is increases both in revenues and employment and expected to approximate the 1990 scenario will realize the greatest economic gains among projection of $24 million resulting from the the ocean industries. Overall, the ocean average annual rate of 17%. The production indust 'ry totals are projected to increase by 53% sector, which had revenues of $3.6 million in revenues and 24% in employment between 1986 (producer product value) in 1986, is expected to and 1990 based on the adjusted estimates in grow at a rate significantly greater than 17% Table 1. while the research training and technology transfer sector (R,T&TT), with revenues of $9.7 Of particular note, the projected employment million (project value) in 1986, is expected to gains for aquaculture and ocean research.are grow at a rate somewhat less than 17%. comparable in magnitude to or exceed the employment gain for maritime (Table 2). Yet Expected production sector growth acceleration by maritime has annual revenues and employment far 1990 is attributed to expansion of operations 882 that are now in the pilot phase of commercial primarily by the resource condition of the production. Production technologies and markets stocks, which could be limiting in the near for these products have been reasonably well term. By contrast, the growth potential of the established and expansion will accomplish aku, ahi, and other pelagics sectors will be economies of scale. The critical success factors affected primarily by market factors such as are expected to be premium market price and consumer preference and demand and Hawaii fleet technological competence. size and technology adoption, which could increase greatly over 1986 levels. The major disadvantage in Hawaii is higher production and transportation costs relative to Hawaii's lobster fishery is based in the other areas of the world. This disadvantage will Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and has been be offset by taking advantage of Hawaii's "fishing down" essentially unexploited stocks of superior position in terms of market image, spiny and slipper lobsters since its inception in market logistics (east/west), production 1977. The long-term maximum sustainable yield technology and natural resources such as warm (MSY) of legal-size spiny and slipper lobsters climate and clean water. As a result of these [51 is estimated to be 33% of the 1986 harvest factors, Hawaii is likely to be one of the few level [6]. This situation suggests that the areas that will supply the U.S. Mainland with catch rates and total landings realized over the fresh cultured tropical seafood at a premium 1981-86 period very likely cannot be maintained. price. Current trends in fresh seafood Instead, total landings are expected to stabilize consumption in Mainland markets support the under long-term equilibrium conditions around the assumption that consumers are willing to pay MSY estimate. higher prices for quality and variety. Declining catches and catch rates in 1987 [6] and Star performers in the production sector are the sensitivity of fishermens' net revenues to likely to be marine shrimp, freshwater prawns, relatively small changes in catch rates [71, abalone, macroalgae, microalgae and red tilapia. further indicate the likelihood of reduced These products have developed production revenue growth in this sector. An added factor, technologies, appear to be economically feasible ex-vessel price, also affects revenue outcomes and should be able to enter specialty markets for but is less predictable. Price is determined fresh product on the U.S. Mainland and in Japan. outside of Hawaii since lobsters are an The key to success will be to avoid competition internationally traded commodity. Although price with lower cost commodity products from has consistently increased as the fishery has commercial fishing and foreign aquaculture matured [6] and all indications suggest a production and to meet production cost pos itive market outlook for Hawaii lobsters [81, expectations by relying on farm management a price reversal combined with lowered catch technology. rates could substantially reduce revenues relative to expectations based on the level of Growth in R,T&TT is expected to drop below 17% as stock abundance alone. a result of competing priorities in State and Federal research dollars, Hawaii's lack of Bottomfishing in Hawaii is based on catches from infrastructure with which to conduct training and two relatively discrete regions, i.e. the Main perform farm-scale research, and increasing Hawaiian Islands (MHI) and the Northwestern competition from other areas in consulting. Hawaiian Islands (NMI). In general, 1986 However, this outlook could improve should Hawaii harvest levels in the MHI are believed to be near decide to set up permanent, large-scale research MSY and the fishery is considered to be stable, and training facilities. Such infrastructure whereas 1986 landings of bottomfish from the NWHI would allow increased training revenues, a better exceeded the best available estimate of MSY by image for Hawaii technology and increased numbers 18% and the fishery is considered to be in a of skilled workers with which to staff the state of disequilibrium [9]. There is evidence production sector and conduct consulting. of overfishing for some of the most important bottomfish species in the MHI, which is both economically and biologically undesirable, but B. Commercial Fishing there is additional capacity to encourage further exploitation of certain other species [9). Revenue growth in the commercial fishing industry is expected to approximate the 1990 scenario Conditions overall suggest a reduction in the projection of $47 million resulting from the rate of revenue growth of this sector as sto 'ck average annual rate of 9%. However, this level abundance is reduced and overfishing occurs.. of growth will be maintained through increased However, the degree of revenue reduction owing landings of aku, ahi and other pelagic species, entirely to stabilization of catches at a lower which will offset declines in the catches of. equilibrium level will be moderated somewhat by a lobsters and bottomfishes. positive price effect owing to domestic market rowth in relation to a growing Hawaii population Hawaii's commercial fishing industry is composed K01. By contrast, bottomfish imports, which of five principal sectors based on the species realized a substantial 46% per year growth rate groups targeted (lobsters, bottomfishes, aku, ahi between 1984 and 1987 and accounted for and other pelagics). The growth potential of the approximately 20% of the Hawaii market in 1987' lobster and bottomfish sectors will be affected 883 (based on weight), will pose significant price National Science Foundation funding (HR 4418, competition to Hawaii bottomfish landings [111. S 1632) for fiscal 1989 (status as of July 14, 1988). The National Sea Grant College Program, The aku (skipjack tuna) and ahi (yellowfin and however, may be allocated continued level funding bigeye tuna) fishing sectors are perceived to for fiscal 1989 despite an authorized increase of have the greatest potential for expansion among up to 32% [211. Collectively, these three Hawaii's commercial fisheries [12,131. Future sources accounted for 82% of total Federal growth depends primarily on economic factors funding for ocean research in Hawaii during rather than on the status of the stocks. Whereas 1980-86 [201. The overall Federal funding there are no precise estimates of MSY for these picture for ocean research is greatly complicated species, there is no solid evidence for a decline because appropriations are scattered across in their abundance [12,131. Expanded markets, numerous other agencies in addition to these. consistently high product quality, and product forms with a long shelf life to absorb peak Certain circumstances introduce a considerable production during the summer are seen as the most degree of uncertainty into this picture as well. important factors contributing to increased First, the fiscal 1989 Federal budget and revenue growth [14,15]. Assuming that these subsequent Federal budgets will be greatly favorable market conditions can be realized, and affected by the increasing pressures being placed there are growing signs that they will be, the on non-defense discretionary spending to reduce contraction and decline of the aku sector that the budget deficit to zero over the next five occurred during 1981-86 should reverse and the years [221. Accordingly, non-defense Federal R&D expansion of the ahi sector that occurred during funding will be in increasing competition for a the same time period should accelerate. bigger piece of a smaller pie. Second, there is a growing politicization of decisions about Less is known about the stocks that compose the spending Federal research dollars by Congress in other pelagics sector. However, this sector contrast to traditional merit-review procedures appears not to be as resource-limited as the [231. This trend is expected to increase in lobster and bottomfish sectors. Landings of the years to come as lawmakers become persuaded that principal species (mahimahi and ono) continue to economic vitality and competitiveness - local, as increase and market demand remains strong [161; well as national - is closely tied to investments the catch rate for many billfish species in R&D [241 and try and get special projects meanwhile shows no evidence of decline [17,181. earmarked for their states. Finally, the Accordingly, we conclude that the average annual presidential election later this year will play a rate of revenue growth for this sector during big role in Federal spending patterns and could 1981-86 will remain more or less constant through dramatically change the general budget 1990 or possibly increase. environment. At the State level, a slight increase in growth C. Ocean Research rate seems likely for the State research sector, as the Hawaii State Legislature seeks a leading Revenue growth in the ocean research industry is role on issues involving ocean resources use and expected to approximate the 1990 scenario development [251. Accelerated growth is possible projection of $90 million resulting from the for the university research sector, given the average annual rate of 13%. National research recent establishment of the new School of Ocean and development (M) funding trends (all and Earth Science and Technology which is expenditures, not just ocean research) estimated expected to significantly strengthen Hawaii's through 1988 suggest little overall change in the competitive position in obtaining Federal funds average annual rate of revenue growth (in nominal for ocean research [261. However, the greatest terms) from that realized during 1980-8S [191. potential for further growth has been Since 1980, most of the gain in national R&D demonstrated by the private research sector [2]. support is attributable to major increases in Federal defense spending. Sources of national Future increases in revenue growth for private R&D support include the Federal government, sector ocean research will depend largely upon private industry, the academic sector and other innovation and entrepreneurship of "home-grown" nonprofit institutions. The Federal government companies and upon U.S. Mainland firms relocating and private industry are expected to continue to or expanding their operations to Hawaii. provide on the order of 97% of the total R&D Opportunities for foreign investment in this funds spent. During 1980-8S, industry support sector should increase, but will be influenced for R&D slightly exceeded that of the federal strongly by the strength of the U.S. dollar government, whereas a slight reversal of that against foreign currencies. While Hawaii has trend is emerging for the 1986-90 period. certain comparative advantages based on the attributes of its ocean resources, e.g. Hawaii's ocean research industry is dependent for unpolluted ocean water, close-in access to deep funding upon Federal sources which provided 93% ocean water and warm ocean water there are of the total in 1980 and 86% in 1985 [201. As obstacles to be overcome, e.g. distance from examples of proposed spending, pending Federal markets, availability of financing and venture legislation would authorize an increase of up to capital and cost of living [20,27J. With State 7% for basic research in defense funding (HR 4264 marketing and facilities support for ocean compromise bill) and an increase of up to 19% in 884 research increasing, however, this sector is Exports to the U.S. Mainland market are likely to expected to continue to perform well through 1990. grow on the or-der of 10-IS% per year through 1990, with tuna sales eventually dominating. Bottomfish, lobsters and most other locally D. Seafood Marketing produced fish sold in this market are resource limited and further rapid growth is not Revenue growth in the seafood marketing industry anticipated as a consequence. One area which has is expected to be less than the 1990 scenario not been accorded much attention, but which is projection of $247 million resulting from the growing in importance, is the brokerage or average annual rate of 21%. We see the rate of transfer of bottomfish and pelagic species from increase of seafood sales in Hawaii decelerating the Pacific Islands through Hawaii to the U.S. through 1990 and converging on the projected Mainland. Another area of uncertain, yet national annual rate of growth of about 11% promising, outlook is the introduction of fresh during 1980-90 (Fig. 1)[28,291. skipjack tuna (aku) into the U.S. Mainland market. These latter two possibilities could Seafood marketing in Hawaii is a complex process generate stronger sales growth through 1990 than [30,31,32,331. The trend since about 1980 is currently is anticipated. toward an even greater complexity and sophistication with the industry largely serving Fresh tuna's popularity, particularly yellowfin, three distinct markets: Hawaii, the U.S. has increased dramatically throughout the U.S. Mainland and Japan. The latter two represent Mainland and the trend is expected to continue. specialized export markets in high-valued In Hawaii, yellowfin typically is caught by the product, most notably fresh tuna. handline fleet, but suffers from quality control problems related to tuna "burn" [391. Burnt tuna Seafood sales in the Hawaii market are roughly is less desirable for consumption as sashimi (raw expected to grow 10% per year through 1990. fish), but is acceptable for grilling. Growth in the Hawaii market appears to be Competition from Florida primarily, but also strongly related to increases in per capita Taiwan, the Philippines and Ecuador is likely to seafood consumption and to a lesser degree capture the major share of the U.S. Mainland tuna population and price inflation. The major cause market. All of these locations have distinct of the earlier higher growth rate, a boom in the advantages in pricing while Florida tuna is popularity of seafood which changed national additionally known for its excellent quality. eating trends, already has had the principal Improvements in quality, which are attainable effect of raising the overall level of seafood based on current knowledge [391, would improve consumption. Hawaii's competitive position. The market, however, is growing rapidly and even with pricing Increases in per capita consumption in Hawaii and quality disadvantages, Hawaii is likely to apparently have resulted from the combination of see good growth in yellowfin tuna sales. increased numbers of seafood consumers and an increase in frequency of consumption [34,3S]. Exports to the Japan market are not completely The proportion of Hawaii's resident population understood and no firm estimate of the direction that eats seafood grew from 89% to 94% between of future sales is possible at present. The 1983 and 1987. Significant increases in primary factor affecting the rapid growth in frequency of consumption by both heavy and light sales since 1986/87 appears to be the high users also occurred during this period. With valuation of the yen against the dollar. Hawaii's per capita consumption substantially Attractive dollar prices in concert with limited above the national average to begin with [361, we fish supplies have drawn Japanese buyers to expect a slower rate of increase through 1990. Hawaii in recent years. Potential long-term working relationships with the Japanese have Hawaii's total de facto population grew at an developed out of the resulting sales. Sales are average annual rate of 1.7% during 1980-85 and is expected to increase as relationships improve, projected to grow at 2.2% per-year during provided the exchange rate remains strong. Sales 1985-90 [371. Notably, the number of visitors growth is likely to parallel growth in the Hawaii present in the population grew at an average longline fleet, the primary source of the annual rate of 3.9% during 1980-8S and is preferred fish, bigeye tuna. Since growth in the projected to grow at 6 4% per year during 198S-90 longline fleet can be financed quickly by (about 4% for 1987-90)[371. Price inflation grew investment, it is thought to be capable of rapid at an average annual rate of S.2% during 1980-8S expansion. Reportedly, the fleet will increase [3] and is expected to grow at 4.6% per year by about 18 vessels (42%) this year. during 1985-90 [381. Accordingly, Hawaii's total de facto population will continue to grow at Currently, Japan has little interest in Hawaii's essentially the same rate and inflation will other kinds of fish. This may be due to the remain relatively low throughout the 1985-90 relatively high prices, seasonality of period. The increasing proportion of visitors availability or undeveloped tastes for Hawaii within the population, however, will increase the fish on the part of Japanese consumers. Very relative importance of the restaurant segment little Hawaii yellowfin tuna is sold to Japan. which could provide the greatest impetus to Supplies from other sources are cheaper and further growth in the Hawaii market. adequate while the Hawaii supply suffers from. quality control problems as previously noted. 885 Should the existing currency situation continue, businesses offering submarine tours to visitors however, one would expect that long-term growth recently have begun or are in the process of in this market could be realized, especially if becoming established on the islands of Oahu and trade and consumer promotion were conducted in Hawaii. Japan. Third, consumer demographics are changing in ways which also will necessitate shifts in market E. Ocean Recreation focus'and which will have varied impact among the various ocean recreation industry sectors [e.g. Revenue growth in the ocean recreation industry 441. For example, we see increases in the is expected to approximate the 1990 scenario following consumer categories: the middle-age projection of $481 million resulting from the population (as the "baby boomers" mature) and the average annual rate of 16%. The ocean recreation over-50 age group; working women; affluent industry in Hawaii is dependent upon tourism. dual-income households; and Japanese visitors Thus for the most part, growth in this industry (the number of which is forecast to double by is determined by such factors as visitors present 1991 [451). Key attributes generally associated and visitor expenditures. The average annual with these changes include: greater personal percent change in estimates of these factors is discretionary income; a transition towards less projected to be about the same during 198S-90 as strenuous forms of recreational activities; during 1980-85 [371. reorientation of priorities from self to family; and a larger foreign visitor segment that is However, a number of factors of increasing increasingly more selective and value-oriented. importance could act to dampen this growth. In view of these changing demographics, we might Although we.do not anticipate that these factors see, for example, greater growth than expected in will exercise overriding influence by 1990, their the cruise ship and tour boat sectors than in the effects already are being felt. These factors surf shop sector, compared to the estimates based include limited infrastructure and facilities, on recent growth rates alone. user conflicts, access and allocation issues, resource overuse and degradation, increasing The effect of these emerging trends will be more concern for consumer safety, diminishing noticeable among individual industry sectors than availability of affordable liability coverage for the industry as a whole. While we believe these the industry and soaring property valuations at trends will play a significant role in popular coastal ocean recreation locations [e.g., restructuring the industry, and may be having an 40,41,42,431. These factors are significant and effect already, we do not anticipate major far-reaching and are expected ultimately to related change to occur overall until sometime trigger regulatory and public policy changes of beyond 1990. considerable consequence to the industry. In a different vein, a number of emerging trends F. Maritime associated with market forces also are likely to induce some restructuring of the industry, but in Revenue growth in the maritime industry is ways which will accommodate increased growth and expected to approximate the 1990 scenario generate additional capacity. First, further projection of $534 million resulting from the niche differentiation and segmentation of markets average annual rate of 7%. As already noted, the will occur due to continuing development of new maritime industry consists of two sectors: marine technologies. New products and services a) shipbuilding and repairing, and b) ocean will result, for example, from continued transportation (mainly cargoes and related miniaturization and computerization of equipment support activities). The ocean transportation and further design and materials innovations in sector dominates the industry in terms of manufacture. Examples of "next generation" revenues and employment and for the most part equipment poised to appear on the Hawaii scene determines overall. maritime industry revenue are a variety of minisubmarines to be priced growth. competitively in the range of upscale recreational fishing boats. The ocean transportation sector is dominated in turn by one major carrier, Matson Navigation Second, the cruise ship and tour boat sectors Company Inc., which normally earns about 70-80% serve as highly visible examples of areas where of Hawaii's cargo transportation revenues [461. major new capital infusion is leading to greater one other shipping company with a 15-25% share market segmentation and increased capacity. The and several barge carriers with about 5% between two currently operating inter-island cruise ships them account for the rest. Matson revenues grew were refurbished in 1987; a new entrant underwent at an average annual rate of 7.S% from 1982 to refitting in 1987 and is scheduled to begin 1986 [471. Projected maritime industry growth service in 1988. All-day luxury touring around rates thus are based on the historical growth of Kauai aboard a 130-foot custom motor yacht began this industry leader. Of note, Alexander & service in mid-1988. A 131-foot SWATH (Small Baldwin Inc., owner of Matson, was the most Waterplane Area Twin [lull) vessel is scheduled to profitable transportation-related company in the begin inter- as well. as intra-island commuter U.S. during 1987 [481. ferry service in conjunction with conducting regularly scheduled tours in mid-1989. Further, 886 The shipping companies offer containerized, S. DISCUSSION five-day service from the U.S. West Coast to Honolulu. The barge carriers offer lower-cost service that takes 9 to 11 days and consists of a A relatively constant growth rate through 1990 mix of containerized and palletized break-bulk seems likely for five of the six ocean shipments. Significantly, the Mainland to Hawaii industries, based on the situation analysis. The market is considered to be as big as many of the possible exception, seafood marketing, is likely U.S. export markets to Asia and Europe. to decrease in growth rate to 11% annually Inter-island (i.e. intra-state) cargo shipments through 1990 based on nationally projected are provided largely by barge carriers. seafood sales. Consequently, we have included the revenue and employment projections for Cargoes consist of supply cargoes (every day seafood marketing at this lower rate of growth in supplies for the population base) which do not Fig. 1 and Tables 1 and 2 to depict the range of vary much in volume and trade cargoes such as outcomes possible for this industry. With this cars, building materials, chemicals, equipment adjustment, the growth scenario is believed to and household goods. Matson, for example, afford a realistic look at the revenue and generally ships the supply cargoes while both employment gains that are likely to accrue to,the Matson and the barge carriers compete for the ocean industries through 1990. remainder. Supply cargoes have the advantage of a steady predictable volume whereas the volume of, The growth scenario and situation analysis trade cargoes varies considerably based on a together enable one to better anticipate the variety of economic conditions. kinds of socioeconomic impacts that are likely to, accompany further development of the ocean Revenue growth in the ocean transportation sector industries. These impacts have extensive public is determined mainly by three basic elements: policy implications involving all levels of population growth, inflation and to a lesser government in Hawaii - Federal, State, and extent price variance resulting from County. Consider for example: a) whether competition. Growth is thus largely a function current education and training programs are of derived demand. Hawaii's total de facto adequate to prepare workers for the job population has been growing at approximately 2% opportunities created by ocean industry growth; per year since 1980 and is expected to continue b) whether existing government services and at roughly the same rate through 1990 [37]. facilities are adequate to meet the demands,of Inflation has been growing at about 5% per year heightened business needs and increased over the same time period [31 and is expected to commercial ocean.use; and c) whether the present grow at 4.6% per year through 1990 [381. @ regulatory framework is adequate to provide for Population growth and inflation largely have compatible use among growing commercial and determined cargo revenue growth in the past with noncommercial ocean interests as well as to guard cargo shipping price varying primarily among the against ocean resources overuse and degradation. barge carriers. We do not see these elements differing in any major way during 1986-90. Hawaii's primary economic and business development aim is to diversify and strengthen Hawaii's overall ocean cargo capacity has the current economic base and to provide high expanded significantly since 1986. Matson has levels of employment and job enhancement initiated a major and continuing fleet upgrade opportunities [501. Industry and business and new capital has been infused in Hawaii's opportunities are being analyzed and prioritized principal provider of inter-island barge to determine their relative compatibility as service. However, a number of factors have prime business candidates to be marketed by the developed recently that could affect revenue State. The large size and high growth potential growth in the industry in ways which are demonstrated by the ocean recreation and seafood uncertain at this time. These include a 1988 marketing industries make them prime candidates ruling by the State Public Utilities Commission now; being smaller, the aquaculture and ocean to reduce some inter-island shipping rates and research industries appear more promising over impending competition in containerized ship cargo the long-term. However, the manner in which as early as 1989, subject to approvals by the' issues such as the above ultimately are resolved U.S. Maritime Administration. Also, a plan has will bear considerably on Hawaii's ability to been developed and actions initiated to market expand existing ocean industry activities, and promote Hawaii's commercial harbors with attract new ocean-related businesses and become results that have yet to be determined [491. more competitive in national and international Further, inter-island commuter ferry service markets for the products and services produced. between Oahu, Molokai and Maui was initiated late in 1987, although the Molokai-Maui route is partially subsidized by the State. There also 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS are plans for privately operated intra-island commuter ferry service on Oahu that could begin as early as 1990. Dr. John Mapes and Mr. Robert Shore, Research and Economic Analysis Division, and Ms. Elizabeth 887 Corbin and Mr. Howard Pennington, Ocean Resources [81 Samples, K.C. and P.D. Gates. 1987. Branch, State of Hawaii Department of Business Market situation and outlook for Northwestern and Economic Development commented critically on Hawaiian Islands spiny and slipper lobsters. the manuscript. Other expert opinion was National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest provided by numerous individuals, but in Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, particular: Mr. John Corbin, State of Hawaii Administrative Report H-87-4C, Honolulu. Aquaculture Development Program; Drs. Sam Pooley and Christopher Boggs, Honolulu Laboratory, [91 Ralston, S. and K.E. Kawamoto. 1987. An National Marine Fisheries Service; Mr. John assessment and description of the status of Jankowski, Economic Analysis Studies Group, bottom fish stocks in Hawaii. National Marine National Science Foundation; Mr. Glen Tanoue, Fisheries Service, SoutTw-est Fisheries Center, Hawaii Seafood Promotion Committee; Dr. Jan Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report Auyong, University of Hawaii Sea Grant Extension H-87-7, Honolulu. Service; Mr. Terry O'Halloran, The Ocean Recreation Council of Hawaii (TORCH); and Mr. [101 Pooley, S.G. 1987. Demand considerations Pieter Hallewas, Maritime Affairs Committee, The in fisheries management - Hawaii's market for Chamber of Commerce of Hawaii. Ms. Dorothy bottom fish. In Tropical snappers and groupers: Faison of the East West Research Institute biology and fisheries management. ed. J.J. prepared Fig. 1. This paper solely represents Polovina and S. Ralston, pp. 605-638. Boulder, the opinion of the authors and does not CO: Westview Press. necessarily reflect the policy of the State of Hawaii. This paper is Ocean Resources Branch [111 Pooley, S.G. and K.E. Kawamoto. 1988. Contribution No. 71. Status of Hawaii's bottom fish fishery in 1987. National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 7. REFERENCES Administrative Report H-88-10, Honolulu. [121 Boggs, C.H. and S.G. Pooley. 1987. Forces [11 MacDonald, C.D. and H.E. Deese. 1987. A of change in Hawaii's aku (skipjack tuna) - typology and portfolio model of Hawaii's ocean industry, 1986 workshop summary. U.S. Department industries., In OCEANS 187 Proceedings, pp. of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS, 76S-772, Vol. II. Marine Technology Society, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-72, Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. [131 Boggs, C.H. and S.G. Pooley. 1987. [21 MacDonald, C.D. and H.E. Deese. 1988. Hawaii's tuna fisheries. In Tuna and billfish Hawaii's ocean industries: relative economic summaries of major stocks. ed. N.W. Bartoo, pp. status. In Proceedings of Pacific Congress on 111-2.1 - 111-2.21. U.S. Department of Commerce, Marine Science and Technology, PACON 88, pp. MRM National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest 4/8-4/17. Pacific Congress on Marine 9cience and Fisheries Center, Administrative Report LJ-87-26, Technology, Honolulu. La Jolla. [31 Department of Business and Economic [141 Boggs, C.H. and S.G. Pooley. 1987. Development, State of Hawaii. 1988. Statistical_ Strategic planning for Hawaii's aku industry. & economic report - lst & 2nd quarters 1988. National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Honolulu. Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report H-87-1, Honolulu. [41 Hawaii Revised Statutes, Section 226-l0(a),(b)(1),(b)(4),(b)(7) (Supplement.1987). [151 Hudgins, L.L. and S.G. Pooley. 1987. Growth and contraction of domestic fisheries: [51 Polovina, J.J., R.B. Moffitt, and R.P. Hawaii's tuna industry in the 19801s. In Tuna Clarke. 1988. Status of stocks of lobsters in issues and perspectives in the Pacific Isl-an-ds- the Northwestern Hawaiian @Islan s@,1987. region. ed. D.J. Doulman, pp. 22S-241. National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Honolulu: East-West Center. Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report H-88-3, Honolulu. (161 Pooley. S.G. 1988. Western Pacific E@lagic fisheries in 1987. National Marine [61 Clarke, R.P., S.G. Pooley, P.A. Milone, and Fisheries Service, So-u-tNw-est Fisheries Center, H.E. Witham. 1988. Annual report of the 1987 Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report western Pacific lobster fishery. National Marine H-88-1, Honolulu. Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report [171 Shomura, R.S., ed. 1980. Summary reEort of H-88-5, Honolulu. the billfish stock assessment workshop Pacific resources. U.S. Department of Commerce, RO-AA [71 Clarke, R.P. and S.G. Pooley. 1988. An Technical' Memorandum NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SY1FC-5, economic analysis of lobster fishing vessel Washington, D.C. performance in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA [181 U.S. Department of Commerce, National TeUiF`1`Eal Memorandim NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-106, Marine Fisheries Service. 1988. Director's Washington, D.C. report to the thirty-ninth tuna co-nTe-rence on 888 tuna and tuna-related activities at the Southwest [321 Higuchi, W.K. and S.G. Pooley. 198S. Fisheries Center 75-76-11=@@ifornia. Southwest Hawaii's retail seafood volume. National Marine FES-Feries Center, Administrative Report LJ-88-12, Fis-Ne-ries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center, La Jolla. Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report [191 National Science Foundation. 1988. H-85-6, Honolulu. Science resources studies highlights. NSF [331 Pooley, S.G. 1986. Conetitive markets 88-303. Washington, D.C. and bilateral exchange: the wholesale seafood market in Hawaii. National Marine Fisheries [201 Gopalakrishnan, C. and J.S. Sisson. 1987. Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Economic impact of ocean research funding on the Report H-86-8, Honolulu. State of Hawaii. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-ME-88-01. University @F-Hawaii Sea Grant College Program, [341 Deese, H.E. 1985. Seafood consumption in Honolulu. Hawaii. Unpublished research report based on a [211 "National Sea Grant College Program Uune1983 East West Research Institute survey. Authorization Act of 198711 (PL 100-220, Sec. [351 Faison, E.W.J. 1987. Seafood consumption 3101, 29 Dec. 1987), United States Statutes at in Hawaii. Unpublished interim research report Large 101, pp. 1469-1475. Fa-s-eT -on a July/August 1987 East West Research Institute survey. [221 "Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Reaffirmation Act of 1987" (PL 100-119, [361 Hudgins, L.L. 1981. Per capita annual 29 Sept. 1987), United States Statutes at Large utilization and consumption of fish and shellfish 101, pp. 7S4-788. in Hawaii, 1970-77. Marine Fisheries Review 42(2):16-20. [231 Cordes, C. "Biggest pork barrel ever: $225-million for projects that bypassed merit [371 Department of Business and Economic reviews." The Chronicle of Higher Education, Development, State of Hawaii. 1988. Revised January 27, 1988, p. A-1. long-raae economic and population pro! @Ions t [241 National Governors' Association Center for Z010 (Series M-K) - preliminary re2ort. Honolulu. Policy Research and Analysis and the Conference [381 Research and Economic Analysis Division, Board. 1987. The role of science and technology Department of Business and Economic Development, in economic caripetitiveness. National Science State of Hawaii, 1988: personal communication. Foundation, Washington, D.C. [391 Nakamura, R.M., J.S. Akamine, D.E. Coleman [251 Alton, H. 1!Hawaii seeking a leadership role and S.N. Takashima. 1987. The management of on ocean use." Honolulu Star-Bulletin, May 2, yellowfin tuna in the handline fishing industry 1988, p. A-3. of Hawaii: a fish-handl @n ook. UNIHI-SEAGRANT-AR-88-01. University of Hawaii 1261 University of Hawaii, State of Hawaii. Sea Grant College Program, Honolulu. 1987. A prospectus for a school of ocean and earth science and technology at the UniversT-ty of [401 Aotani and Associates, Inc. 1988. A Hawaii. Honolulu. statewide ocean recreation management plan for tFe -State of Hawaii. Department of [271 Arthur Young and Company. 1987. The Transportation, State of Hawaii, Honolulu. ocean: a resource for economic development in Hawaii. Honolulu. [411 Auyong, J., ed. 1987. Summa!)@ of research needs related to ocean recreation and tourism in [281 Business Trend Analysts, Inc. 1981. The Hawaii and the Pacific. University of Hawaii Sea market for canned, frozen and cured seafood:-an_ Grant College Program, Honolulu. analysis of current performance and future prospects. Commack, N.Y. [421 Department of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii. 1988. Main Hawaiian Islands [291 Seafood Business Report. 1985. The marine resources investiia-tion1988 survey. seafood marketing guide. Camden, ME. Honolulu. [301 Cooper, J.C. and S.G. Pooley. 1982. Total [431 Pfund, R.T. 1987. Risk management of seafood volume in Hawaii's wholesale fish oceanfront resort operations. In Coastal Zone markets. National Marine Fisheries Service, 187 Proceedings, pp. 3459-3466, Vol. III. New SoutFw-est Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, York: American Society of Civil Engineers. Administrative Report H-82-15, Honolulu. [441 Crane Enterprises. 1988. The currents [311 Cooper, J.C. and S.G. Pooley. 1983. shaping diving. Diving Equipment Manufacturers Characteristics of Hawaii's wholesale seafood Association T-D8MN), Tustin, CA. market. National Marine Fisheries Service, SoutHwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Administrative Report H-83-22, Honolulu. 889 [451 Wiles, G. "Japanese tourism expected to double - and change." The Sunday Star-Bulletin & Advertiser, January 17, 1988, p. B-4. [461 Dougherty, M. 1988. Stormy seas. Hawaii Business, April: 47-49. [471 Alexander & Baldwin, Inc. 1982 Annual Report, February 2S, 1983 and 198T -Annual Report, February 27, 1987, Honolulu. [481 Fortune. 1988. The Fortune directory of the largest U.S. non-industrial corporations. June 6, p. D31-32. [491 Reed Kaina Schaller Advertising, Inc. 1986. PORT Hawaii, a plan to promote Hawaii's E commercialiarbors. Department of Transportation, State of Hawaii, Honolulu. [501 Department of Business and Economic Development, State of Hawaii. 1988. Concepts, analysis, goals and activities in support of DBED's strategic plan to business and industry Ue-velopment and marketing'. Honolulu. 890 OUTSIDE INFLUENCE ON PORT OPERATIONS: THE INSIDER'S PERSPECTIVES J.D. Reighard, D.L. Soden and W.H. Hester ,Coastal Zone Management Studies The University of West Florida Pensacola, FL 32514 ABSTRACT operations, thereby reshaping their operating environment. Earlier laissez-faire behavior in This study views outside influences of the port operations arena has given way to a regulation at the local, state and federal more controlled and strictly monitored setting levels, planning restrictions, and group (1). Thus, it is important to consider the influence as they are perceived by port degree to wtdch port operators, who contend managers. Using survey data collected from with regulatory influences on a daily basis, among port managers in the Southern U.S., these feel that regulation has hindered their aspects of outside influence are investigated operating abilities. This study investigates to provide a basis for understanding how this issue by looking at the perceived inpact predisposed port operators are to activities of of regulation across two dimensions, namely, external actors who act as partners in this general environmental regulatory influence and area of marine interests. initiatives related to growth management. General regulatory inpacts are important to the INTRODUCTION overall level of port growth and development (5), while initiatives related to growth management are increasingly emerging, Regulatory and pluralistic influences affect especially in the southeastern United States many different aspects of U.S. seaport (6). operations. These influences have gained the attention of numerous scholars, which in turn A second reason for investigating this area is have produced a large body of work on how these that the relationship between port operators influences affect port operations (1). This study provides a different view of the effect and pluralistic interests (e.g., trade interest outside influences have on port operations by groups, environmental groups, real estate investigating the perceptions which port developers, econoadc development groups, the operators hold about outside influences. Using general public, business and industry) is survey data collected by the Coastal Zone poorly understood. Port operators are often Management Studies program at The University of caught in the cleft between opposing interest West Florida in early 1988, perceptions about group demands. For example, business and regulatory and pluralistic influences on port economic developnnnt interests typically operations are investigated. Research into how support large-scale projects such as the regulatory and pluralistic influences affect dredging of the Pensacola Pass and Pensacola public administrative functions is of obvious Bay in Florida to allow homeporting of the importance. Research investigating the large aircraft carrier the U.S.S Kitty Hawk in perceptions wtdch administrators (port light of the deployment of men which the operators in this case) hold about regulations, carrier will bring into the commmity. In the general public, and public and special contrast, environmentalists struggle to interest groups is seriously absent. Studies preserve endangered species or protect assessing the view of the insider have been sensitive coastal and estuarine beaches from scant, either investigating the interactions dredge projects. The self-styled public between decisionmakers and interest group interest groups are wont to claim that special leaders (2) or are minor parts of larger interests way have too much influence with port studies wherein passing attention is paid to operators, whereas special interest groups are agency perceptions of the general public (3;4). inclined to think they have little access to port operators and believe that port operators The insider's view is important for several often succumb to well-intentioned, but reasons. First, it has been suggested that ill-informed public interest group pressures. regulation originating from all levels of Determining which interests are perceived to government has placed new restrictions on port bring their pluralistic wares to bear in the CH2585-8/88/0000- 891 $1 @1988 IEEE port operations arena, from the perspective of necessary to either shift operations to the port operator, would help to determine if available land away fran the port itself or operators, as a whole, exhibit very narrow create new land via landfill (8). Over the feelings about groups involved in their purview years, this and other changes in technology or whether they see a broad spectrum of have led to the development of new external group actors having an impact. environmental standards at the national, state and local levels which have placed limitations THE POLICY SF=G on many of the development intentions of ports; intentions designed to stimulate the port Communities have traditionally developed in economy but inevitably became part of the those areas where goods can easily be conflict between develoFnient, conservation and transported. Access to safe harbors, for preservation. These limitations imposed by example, was a key factor to the growth and environmental considerations have created new location of many early American cities such as cost for ports which previously had not been New York, Boston, and Baltimore. These cities part of their accounted cost structure. developed particular areas to attract the shipping industry thereby providing an economic Ports have obviously been surrounded by special base for the growth of their community (7). interest groups (i.e., barge operators and During the past 25 years, significant changes tugboat operators). With the introduction of have occurred in cargo and passenger environmental issues, however, a greater number transportation, as well as in the economic role of goverrmiental agencies as well as private of urban areas and central cities in general. actors have become involved in the social and These changes have had, and will continue to political agenda attendant to port development have, significant impacts on the social, decisions. Traditionally, many port economic and physical aspects of port areas in authorities have acted as private firms meeting large cities (7;5). competition by reacting to the interactions of market and technological changes. The influence of the port on ccanwnity Environmental concerns about port development development is extensive, most notably in have altered the role of port authorities which regard to surrounding lands. Port activities now find themselves managing the social have greatly determined the economic and social conflict occurring between commercial and structure which its surrounding lands take. environmental interests in the port zone.. Port Restaurants, lounges, hotels, boutiques, and authorities increasingly find that their various other service establishments, typically functions place them in a situation of having locate near ports to service port needs and to satisfy a myriad of conflicting forces. on benefit from the commercial activity associated one side, they want efficient development of with ports. Similarly, industrial firms locate new projects (e.g., container storage near ports to facilitate the receipt of raw facilities) . on the other side, environmental materials and the eventual shipment of finished concerns force ports to be adaptive in their products. Residential neighborhoods follow development paying close attention to possible and, in the past, were built in the vicinity of environmental impacts and seeking effective ports for dock workers and hcmeport crews - mitigation which allows for development Railroads, the primary mode of onshore shipping (8;9;1). As environmental concerns have grown, until more recent times, also acquired large more policies have been created to deal with parcels of land adjacent to ports in order to the effects of port operations and development facilitate the direct movement of goods. When on the environment, including the quality of ports are viewed collectively throughout the air and water, landfill management and disposal United States it is evident that the very of dredged material. For those deepwater ports nature of ports and their activities has involved in receiving, pumping and storing of greatly influenced community development. petroleum products tlkere is a plethora of These influences combined with changes in issues to consider (e.g., safety precautions to marine transportation technology and the guard against oil spills which would not only economic function of central cities has exerted destroy marine life but would also disrupt the a substantial effect on the nature and tourist industry). Many argue that the character of port activities, particularly that increasing number of environmental and of the urban port. political issues which ports must deal with are making it more difficult for port authorities For every major change in shipping technology, to act efficiently (10,11,12). Thus, it is ports must alter their operations as well as both timely and important to address concerns their structures to acccmx)date these changes about environmental regulation and the role of and remain competitive. For example, to interest groups on port operations. acccnmdate containerized cargo, ports have been faced with a number of issues. It is necessary to acquire land adjacent to the port for storage of containers (from 30 to 50 acres). This move is exceptionally difficult and expensive for urban ports close to downtown areas where land is typically scarce and costly. As a consequence, ports are finding it 892 These responses represent a forty percent sum METHODS AND PROCEDURES for each across the two response categories, as compared to only 12 percent for local The results reported in this study are based on government in the same categories. By looking a mail survey questionnaire designed fran a at mean responses we can also see that state review of the literature regarding port government is viewed as the most limiting on operation and the impacts of regulation and growth and development through environmental pluralistic activity (1). The data collected regulation (mean7-2.84), followed closely by the for this portion of the study were obtained via federal government (nean--2.76) with local a mail questionnaire survey distributed to goverment viewed as the least limiting twenty-nine port mangers in the states of (mean7-2.16). These findings suggest that state Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi and government has placed the largest set of Florida. The survey included two mailings: an environmental regulations upon the operations initial survey mailing and a follow-up survey of ports. Local jurisdictions often are more mailing approximately one month later. The inclined to be motivated by economic questionnaire consisted of thirty@three development concerns than environmental questions, requiring careful thought as well as protection, and have often acted through less knowledge of the issue area (a copy of the regulation or relied on state or federal survey is available upon request). Of the regulation. As such they are seen in a twenty-nine surveys mailed, twenty@five different light. Further, since it is the responses were obtained resulting in a response state and federal jurisdictions which are more rate of eighty-six percent, reflecting a return active in the environmental regulation issue which allows for generalization of the results area, most laws concerning the enviroment are across the geographic region of the Southern designed to address concerns of large regions U.S. versus specific concerns limited to local jurisdictions. It is somewhat surprising, FINDINGS however, that state government is seen as more hindering than the federal government which is Table I reports frequencies about the attitudes generally considered to be the primary source which port operators hold regarding the effect of environmental regulation (13). of environmental regulation on port growth and developmnt. This first consideration Table 2 reconfirms that state government is addresses whether or not port operators see viewed as the most active in the environmental environmental regulation in a negative or a regulation related to port operations. Growth positive way, and which jurisdictions are seen Management initiatives have been heralded as as being more stringent in regards to the most significant measures to insure sound environmental regulation. Both Federal and environmental management, particularly in the State levels of goverment receive equal southeastern United States. Over two-thirds, responses in categories 4 and 5 of the scale, 72 percent of the responding port operators, those categories which view environmental note that their states have undertaken growth regulation by these government entities as management initiatives. Inawwh as growth being a hindrance to growth and development. TABLE 1 EFE= OF ENVIROIZqENTAL F@EGULATION ON PORT GRORM AND DEVELOPMENT Regulatory Influences of Federal, State and Local Government QUESTION: To what degree to you feel env=omental regulation at each level of goverment has hindered the growth and development Of Your Port? Response Categories-M 1 2 3 4 5 No A Great Mean Answer A Little Scim Deal Response Federal 8.0 24.0 8.0 20.0 24.0 16.0 2.76 State 8.0 20.0 8.0 24.0 24.0 16.0 2.84 Local 8.0 28.0 24.0 28.0 4.0 8.0 2.16 N = 25 893 TABLE 2 REGULATION BY COMPREHENSIVE GROWTH MANAGEMENT QUESTION: Which of the following levels of government in your state have undertaken comprehensive growth managerrent initiatives with which the port must ccgnply? Response Category Frequency Percentage (Yes) (No) (Yes) (No) State Government 18 7 72.0 28.0 County Government 8 17 32.0 68.0 Regional Government 4 21 16.0, 84.0 City Government 4 21 16.0 84.0 management is seen as closely linked to have shaped contemporary ports and their environmental regulation, and with the operations. This paper has investigated how continued interest in growth management outside port operators, the "insiders", view two of the southeast, witnessed by the recent these factors-enviroratental regulation and initiative in Orange County, California, it may pluralistic influences. The survey research be safe to say that this form of outside reported here, which was conducted as part of influence can be expected to increase. While the first step in a national study of port states have taken the early lead in this area, operators, has shown at least among port local jurisdictions can be expected to take on operators in the southern United States, that an increasingly more active role in insuring their respective states are seen as having the the implementation of growth management goals greatest environmental regulatory influence and objectives. Further, as is the case in which affects port operations. Among outside Florida, ports will be asked to become involved forces which effect internal management in the growth management process by developing decisions, business and industry is seen as their own planning documents in conjunction having the most affect while the federal with neighboring jurisdictions. As part of government, in contrast to state or local this process they can be expected to experience! governments, was seen as placing more pressure the pressures which can be levied by various on internal management. The findings presented interests who have a stake in growth management here are preliminary in scffe respects, since at the local level. each case related to the events and administration of a port in a specific locale Table 3 illustrates the degree to which port can yield results independent of those derived operators feel internal management affairs are from survey data based analyses. Local affected by the involvement of eleven types of political settings , the size of the external actors. Given that the port is an jurisdiction, pro-enviromental - versus important * econamic entity wherever it is pro-developTent orientations among government located it is not surprising that Business and agency representatives, the varying strength of Industry records the highest percentage in the group interests, the role the port plays in the "A Great Deal" category, 32 percent. In terms livelihood of the ccmmmity and the individual of man responses, Business and Industry, characteristics of the individual port Federal Agencies, and Chamber of Commerce or operator, can render results of regional econcmic developwent groups all record the surveys inapplicable in the aggregate. Recent highest scale means, 3.24, 3.36, 3.08, trends in the strength which outside forces respectively. It is interesting that state such as environmental regulation and group agencies and state government officials are not interests can bring to bear on port operators seen as affecting internal management affairs may, however, give rise to considerable since they are seen as strong forces in the conflict putting the port operator against environmental regulationarea. outside influences as they struggle to remain competitive. SUMARY AND CONCLUSION It has been suggested that significant technological, economic, and group influences 894 TABLE 3 Effects Of Eleven Types of Political Actors On Internal Management Affairs of Ports Question: To what degree are internal management affairs affected by the involvement of each of these actors? (Percentage %) No 1 2 3 4 5 A Great Mean Actors Answer A Little Sam Deal Response Local government officials 4.0 16.0 12.0 44.0 12.0 12.0 2.80 local Agencies 4.0 24.0 28.0 28.0 12.0 4.0 2.32 State government elected officials 4.0 12.0 24.0 48.0 8.0 4.0 2.56 State Agencies 4.0 12.0 20.0 32.0 24.0 8.0 2.84 Federal Agencies 4.0 12.0 12.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 3.24 Interest groups (other than environmental) 4.0 48.0 8.0 20.0 16.0 4.0 2.08 Environmental interest groups 4.0 20.0 12.0 20.0 36.0 8.0 2.88 Business and Industry 12.0 8.0 4.0 16.0 28.0 32.0 3.36 Real Estate Developers 8.0 44.0 24.0 16.0 8.0 0.0 1.76 Chamber of Cbmmerce or econcmic 4.0 12.0 16.0 24.0 28.0 16.0 3.08 development groups General public 4.0 36.0 12.0 28.0 20.0 0.0 2.24 RNFERENCES MANAGEMENT JOURNAL 2:3, 1976. pp- 1. Hester, Worth and Soden, Dennis L. "The 223-245. Impact of Environmental Issues and 8. Boschken, Herman L. "The Demands of legislation on Port operations: Conflicting Change on Public Findings fran Port Managing in the Enterprise: West Coast Seaport Southern United States" OCCASIONAL Development and Environmental PAPER IN COASTAL STUDIES No. 88-3, Regulation." PUBLIC ADMMISTRATION Pensacola, FL: The University,of West REVIEW 42:3, 1982. pp. 220-226. 2. Pfund, Rose T. "Analysis of Fishery 9. Hershman, M., R. Godwin, A. Ruotsala, M. Management Decisionmaking in Hawaii:, bL-,Crea, and Y. Hayuth UNDER NEW The Application of Dogmatism-Rigidity MANAGEMENT: PORT GROWM AND EMERGING Model." PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REVIEV COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS. Seattle: 45, 1985. pp. 593-601. University of Washington Press. 1978. 3. Kaufman, Herbert THE FOREST RANGER. 10., Price, Willard "Offshore Oil and the Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Coastal Zone: A Role for Seaports." Future. 1960. COASTAL zONE mANAGEMU JOURNAL 15:3, 4. Clawson, Marion THE FEDERAL LANDS 1987. pp. 229-245. REVISITED. Baltimore, MD: The Johns 11. Rosen, Warren "Facilitating U.S. Oil Hopkins University Press. 1983. imports: Deepwater Ports in the Gulf 5. Cuzan Alfred G. "The Political Economy of of Mexico." TRANSPORTATION JOURNAL Ports in the United States and Great 20:2, 1980. pp. 41-49. 11A Britain." COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT 12. Cooper, H.B. and G.M. Mahdi 'it JOURNAL 11:3, 1983. pp. 1497167.- Pollution krpact of Maritime Shipping 6. DeGrove, John LAND, GROWTH, AND POLITICS. operations in the Port of Houston." Washington, D.C.: Planners Press. COASTAL ZONE b9MX;E1-1ENT JOLIF40L 1:4, 1984. 1974. pp. 415-432. 7. Moss, Mitchell L. "The urban Port: A 13. Rosenbaum, Walter A. ENVIRONMENTAL Hidden Resource for the City and the POLITICS AND POLICY. Washington, Coastal Zone.11 COASTAL ZONE D.C., CQ Press. 1985. 895 USE OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES IN OCEAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT Milton G. Johnson Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers 2906 Radius Road Silver Spring, Maryland, U.S.A. Introduction There is a growing need for the engineer, scien- measures of achievement. Also, an objective should tist, and administrator to better understand the kind be expressive of its direct impact on the public. of overall, across-the-board planning problems in- But deciding what the objectives are is only half the volved in the development of coastal and off-shore battle. The plans for achieving these objectives resources. Of primary concern is the awesome problem must be developed as well as a method for checking of maintaining, even improving the quality of the progress. It must be understood that MBO involves ,marine environment. The waters that ripple and break people-to-people communication. Objectives are not on any shore are a part of vast regimes which are necessarily imposed from above. They should be international, yes global in character, covering about developed at the work *ing levels through personal 70% of the world and touching countless lands. The consultation with the individuals who are responsible bigness of this water phenomenon calls for an overall for their achievement. perspective that must meet the challenge of size and complexity. It is particularly important that coastal Relevance of Zero-Base Budgeting countries should approach water questions with the kind of analytical and managerial knowledge that can In the strategy for linking MBO into detailed cope with large, interacting problems. Governmental action, one technique is known as "Zero-Base bodies as well as private industries are finding that Budgeting." At the national level it has become a the use of systems analysis techniques can lead to management process that provides for systematic sounder decisions. consideration of all programs of a given agency in the formulation of budget requests. The central con- Principles will be set forth on maintaining and cept or key to ZBB's full utilization is that this improving the quality of the marine environment, with management tool requires the participation of managers considerations of cost in so doing. In making the at all levels in the planning and evaluation processes. analysis, an early step is to identify specific needs As with MBO, we could say that ZBB's objective is to and appropriate roles. A next step is to lay out compare alternative uses of scarce resources. In alternatives for achieving objectives both within a a real sense, the job of an executive is to make these given organization and external to it. The alter- comparisons in order to decide'how best to exploit natives may be appraised through their costs and them, then to move forward in implementing the best benefits. But, how do you make choices between goals alternatives. Thus, ZBB can be combined with MBO to when resources.are limited? Each proponent of an become an important component of systems analysis aspect of water technology usually believes that his for improving the decision-making process. field must be greatly enlarged in the near future. How can we gather the data, accomplish the evaluation, The Intergovernmental Interface and do the planning that will make rational choices possible? With respect to intergovernmental relations, actions would be taken to formalize the framework Management by Objectives within which well-controlled exploitation may take place. The term "intergovernmental" is used here This process may be called "Management by Objec- because the rules must be laid down for various tives" and is a widely accepted management technique. levels of jurisdictions from metropolitan through Why? Because MBO gets results! Indeed, managers are state (or province) and regional to national and judged by the results they achieve. MBO is a systems international. Among the coastal districts there is approach to management that focuses on growth oppor- growning concern over jurisdiction of the sea floor tunities. It aligns a manager's need for self- along the coastlines and out onto the continental development with corporate goals so that teamwork shelves. Boundary problems are certain to increase, replaces the divergent activities that often particularly in areas of higher population and re- characterize the operations of an industrial or source use. governmental organization. Managing for results is organized around three basic elements: There have been fears that rapidly advancing technology in the ocean might result in anarchy un- 1) A clear statement of objectives that ate less the serious questions of jurisdiction can be verifiable and can be achieved. resolved. Our sea technology is bringing us closer 2) A plan to achieve these objectives, including to total undersea capability at various depths of the individual steps required and when each the world ocean. It is important to increase our step may be taken. knowledge and develop the roles or regimes for 3) A method for keeping account of these plans goverrbng the exploitation of resources in off-shore and steps to make certain that they are being areas that are beyond present national jurisdiction. followed and, if not, what corrective actions The complex problems of these vast areas have been should be taken. studied by lawyers, diplomats, engineers, geographers, oceanographers, economists, and others, under the The objectives as well as the steps leading to subject known as "Law of the Sea." The result, of their achievement must be clearly verifiable. Wher- course, was the United Nations effort to develop ever possible, objectives should include quantitative rules for exploiting the ocean, CH2585-8/88/0000- 896 $1 @1988 IEEE Although the above discussion may seem detailed, it cannot be over-emphasized that if objectives are Problems Impeding Exploration not correct, subsequent analyses will almost certain- ly be fruitless. If wrong objectives are specified, One of the purposes herein is to identify some of then the most ingenious selection of sophisticated the contributions that can be made in the analysis of techniques and criteria or measures of effectiveness coastal and ocean exploration problems by scientists coupled with mountains of data processed on the most and engineers within the current state-of-the-art. In advanced computers will all be wasted. Specific, setting forth these critical questions the following realistic objectives for coastal programs may be might be included: difficult to formulate but the effort made in this direction will certainly lead to improvements and a 1) Storms at sea and along the coastline, includ- better look into the future. ing hurricanes, typhoons, and other types of Criteria or Measures of Effectiveness storm surges. 2) The movement of waste products through the waterways of the coastal belt into the ocean An intermediate step is to analyze the output of which becomes the sink for all pollutants. a given program in terms of the objectives initially 3) Damaging and costly interference.with specified. In other words, there would be a reason- ecological balance from unwise exploitation able description of outputs underlying the objectives, of resources of the coastline and adjoining that is, services and products emanating from the areas. Here, estuaries and salt marshes program. In considering-both "objectives" and become critically important. 11criteria" it is important to understand that these 4) As aforementioned, the improper and ineffi- terms are to be concerned with "ends" rather than cient use of coastal space through inadequate it means." That is, they are intended to reflect boundary demarcation.- At one end of the what ultimately is to be accomplished and for whom, spectrum this creates problems between not the ways to accomplish such objectives. The nations while at the other end, disputes be- establishing of objectives and criteria are inter- tween shell fishermen often result in costly acting processes; the selecting of criteria may even law suits. suggest the need for revision of the objectives. These criteria may be referred to as measures for In evaluating the existing situation it is well to determining effectiveness. search out and delineate the specific problems which obstruct the achievement of objectives. Criteria as explained above, should have the following general properties: Selecting Meaningful Objectives 1) Each criterion should be relevant and As discussed above, under "Management By Objec- important to the specific problem for which tives," an essential first step in the analysis of it is to be used. coastal problems is the formulation of goals and 2) The criteria so used should consider all objectives. But in dynamic economic development, what major effects relative to the objectives. types of statements can be made concerning them? A sufficient number of criteria should be Listed below are some objectives which would have included to cover all major effects. unanimous acceptability: 3) Ideally,. each of the criterial should be capable of meaningful quantification. 1) Developing ways of opening up the coastal areas for exploration and development, such Selection of Alternatives as improved maps, charts, and geodetic control. A crucial next step has to do with program 2) Maintaining and improving the quality of the alternatives or what may be considered as the best coastal environment in order to promote and methods of accomplishing an agreed set of objects. protect the ecological balance. In this, we analyze alternatives seeking those which 3) Clarifying the problem of jurisdiction in have the greatest effectiveness in achieving the increasingly complex boundary situations specified objectives or which achieve those objectives which will become more prevalent on local, with the least cost. In this process, the programs state, regional, national, and international are considered not as ends in themselves, but rather bases. (Boundaries between claims, leases, as means to higher objectives and in competition etc., of competing companies will need ever with other and possibly more effective programs. It sharper and more accurate delineation.) is this competition among alternatives which is a 4) Protection of life and property from coastal crucial device for testing the effectiveness of Storms and storms at sea through improved existing and proposed programs. marine environment prediction and knowledge. Supportive Analysis In proposing progress for coastal development, systems analysis would help make specific and quanti- The next step conce Irns the analysis process which tative the objectives to be attained through measuring is in support of the objectives and alternatives de@ the dimensions of relevant national needs and esti- scribed above. Although many different kinds of mating the cost of meeting them. In particular, the analyses may be performed, it is useful to distinguish analysis helps to find out exactly what may be two levels; one which may be considered as a pre- accomplished, to identify alternatives and provide a liminary or more rigorous analysis. The latter would basis for choosing among them. Stating the objectives be a more refined, detailed type of analysis. in meaningful terms would be difficult for this may question the very existence of an activity. The value A less-rigorous analysis can be carried out where of agreed upon, clearly-stated objectives is that the more detailed studies are not possible. Much techniques can then concentrate on the relatively of the relevant analytical work done thus far has straightforward effort required for-achieving the resulted not from the various kinds of sophisticated objectives. technical analyses but from penetrating questions. 897 Much can be derived from the dialogue, or questioning [5] Hatry, H. (1973) Pra@tical Program and response among the decision-makers, the proposal- Evaluation for State and Local ' makers, and the analysts. Where appropriate factual Government. Washington: Urban Institute. data are not available, one has to rely on whatever analyses can be found. [6] Migliore, R.H. (1983) An MBO Approach to Long-Range Planning. New York: Program analysis is not easy, whether it is done Prentice-Hall. at the less rigorous level or using the more refined methodology. Some of the most important limitations [71 U.S. Congress. Senate Commerce.Committee. on the carrying out of these analyses are: (1) (1974) Economic Value of Ocean Resources. The problem of defining the real objectives; (2) Washington: GPO. the presence of multiple benefits; (3) inadequacies of data relevant to the analysis; and (4) difficulties in considering costs and benefits over a long period as well as a single point in time. Quantitative estimates are not the only elements of systematic analysis. Human factors and-intangible elements must not be ignored. Systematic analysis is designed to:, (1) Uncover the 'relevant issues; (2). identify the specific assumptions, and factual bases upon which alternative recommendations,rest; and (3) trace out the consequences and costs of each alter- native. Socio-Economic Evaluation The systems approach should-be addressed not only .to the furtherance of scientific and engineering efforts but to analyze the effects of coastal ex- ploitation upon society. Thus,'before we embark, .upon scientific efforts in the coastal zone we would be well-,advised to make analyses of their anticipated costs, together with social and economic benefits. This admonition applies particularly to competing programs. Systematic commitment of resources depends upon a balanced program of:. (1) Science, engineering, and technology; (2) services; and (3) socio-economic evaluation. We have consistently downgraded the last, yet without analysis of human impactsIwe risk developing service without focus or with potentially danger6us results. Conclusion Through systems analysis we are able to assess the costs of achieving objectives against the benefits-to be expected, thereby making possible a more intelli- gent, efficient use of the resources available. This process should-be viewed in the wider context of the coastal environment which is at once both urban and non-urbarL in.character yet encompassing much wider regimes. References Journal Articles (11 Borgese, E.M. (1983) "The Law of@the Sea." Scientific American vol. 248,No. 3, pp. 43-49. [2] (1985) Law of the Sea. UN Chronicle vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 36-39 Books and Monographs [31 'Black, G. (1968) The Application of Systems Analysis to Government Operations. New York: Praeger. [41 Cheek, L.M. (1977) Zero-Base Budgeting Comes of Age. New York; American Manage- ment Association. 898 MARINE FIELD PROJECTS: TEACHING IS THE EASY PART Jack Morton Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, FL 32901 ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Marine Field Pro3ects is a 9 credit course Florida Institute of Technology is one of that serves as the principal field experience in very few universities offering undergraduate de- the undergraduate curricula in the oceanography grees in oceanography and ocean engineering- In and ocean engineering program at the Florida doing so it accepts the responsibility to provide Institute of Technology. Students participate in meaningful field ecperience in those areas to its biological, chemical, or PkWsical Oceanography students. (Graduate students at many institutions projects or ocean engineering construction are expected to pick up this eyDerience in their projects under faculty and graduate student research, if at all.) F.I.T. Is location On the supervision. Integral to this experience is a five day cruise aboard the R/V Osprey, F.I.T. Is Indian River lagoon allows day trips into the field year round, and many introductory and 951 coastal research vessel, aver the continental advanced courses take advantage of this. For the shelf, Gulf Stream, and the nearby reef systems of last ten years, however, Marine Field Projects, the Bahamas. This presentation highlights some of ordinarily taken by students during the summer the logistical, economic and academic between junior and senior years, has provided this considerations inherent in operating such in the most concentrated and intense programs, with particular en#iasis on the sea experience program. format. Beginning in 1989, improved and enlarged DESIGN AND PERSONNEL accommodations aboard the Osprey, acquired in 1986, will allow F.I.T. to open this program to NFP is an 8 week course, meeting daily, students from other colleges and universities Monday thr-ough Friday. The first week is seeking ocean field experience. Toward this goal, primarily dedicated to organization, assigning the 1988 program included students from depart- students to project groups, testing their swimming ments other than O&OE, within F.I.T. to assess the ability, checking them out to safely use small impact of non majors on the program, and to en- outboard boats, and teaching them the correct use sure that non majors will be able to participate of the field sampling and collection instruments fully and productively- necessary for their work. In weeks two through seven, students will typically gather at 8 AM to organize and then. disperse in groups to field sites to gather data, tend research installa- tions, collect samples, make observations, or construct their engineering projects, as dictated by their majors. During the eighth week students hold a ,conference,, at which each group will present a paper, detailing the results of their research efforts. For the engineers, this will include a demonstration of their Pro3ect In ser- vice. For enxample, the 1988 engineering Project culminated in a regatta, in which the different engineering teams raced the human Powered submersibles they had built. Ultimately, the winning sub will enter a national competition for such vessels built by engineering students around the country. Enrollment for this program has varied from Students prepare to take plankton samples in the 40 to 70+ and has. seen corresponding changes in Indian River lagoon the numbers of faculty and graduate students in- volved. Major sections are oceanography, led by CH2585-8/88/oooo. 899 $1 @1988 IEEE Tr@ -1 14 j 0 0 A- 4b4 0 j Ir p a 10, 41 11) 0 Ir4 > 104 P4 I W.0 44 4-4 rO- 4.4 44 ;s -1 Ij 0-,' 00 > 493 'Z3 11 W P4 p 0 � 44 tj 0 44 b 14 14 44 0 4-) 4J U 49 t' B -1 -J P .,r. 44 844.0 9 A A z 0 44 44 44 A @ A I p 2 's & I @ ro- 8 rl .1 R 404.1 0 9 - @ a .. _p 44 03 r@j, I' ) a) A a) 22. 0 r-I 8 p 00 4-4 . W 44 44 0 to Pj@44 (IS a) 4 @4 0 41- () p a) :p 44 rg .9 1 @ 4-- 41 @1 '0 co t FtB 8 @gj @-,4 0%1 Ia. E Z 0 49 4NI Q w EM e4 144 o -P. 0 z 0 >4 1 9 w o g in @ 8 0 44 1@ 49 4b4 0 10 44 0 0 14 r- 0 44 rd - M.- 0 v W 2 w :p >1 44 go: 44 0 b H 0 0 p 024 R - I 4WJ 4J P 4J. 41 49 1 8 'o ro- s 44 4j t/1 0 4S 04-) 4J ,Q) - 44 1 1 3, 41 0 Q)" 49 4-)0 84 OD 44 (a 0 4-4 'MM 1!!111@@@ @@140 ECONOMICS UK' -0@ The costs of personnel, transportation, lab supplies, project supplies (materials for the 9@ engineering projects) food, and ship operations make this a very expensive course to conduct. As M a private 164@!i iE"N school F.I.T. must pay its bills, but MFP is not how we do it. In fact, even tbough a 'lab' fee is added to the customary tuition small for this course, many times it operates in the red, but is continued for a variety of reasons. 0@ 110W Even if offered at a loss, such a course is nec- essary if undergraduate programs in oceanography -xN and ocean engm eruig are to be offered in good conscience. In marketing terms it can also be thought of as a 'loss leader' itel whose high Students lower a niskin bottle at an ocean station profile and attractiveness act a magnet, bringing students to the school. Such values help to offset the high dollar cost. Field courses require a careful assessment of current insurance coverage to determine wtmther PROSPECTS any more need be added. Sometimes activities which are covered in the U.S. will rbquire a rider Current enrollment figures do not fully for that coverage to be effective in another utilize the potential for Marine Field Projects. country, and at a more basic level some things, The limit on total class size is currently the for example diving, may be excluded entirely from capacity of the ship to carry students in the standard coverage. middle weeks of the course. The availability of the R/V Osprey, with its enlarged capacity, has It is anticipated that some of the field made it possible to contemplate offering MEP to a equipment will break down, and provisions are made limited number of students from other colleges and for that in advance. For critical pieces of universities, either as groups or as individuals. gear, that may be a second unit, while for others Toward that objective, during the 1988 program, a it may involve substituting another measuranent, limited number of students from the science or lumn-ig where to get another instrument in a education curriculum at F.I.T. were enrolled in hurry. Even more inconvenient than switching gear the course to determine the impact of outside to meet contingencies, however, is switching pro- students on the MFP students from Oceanography and grams, as ray become necessary due to weather. ocean Engineering, and to assess how well students with a basic science background but no ocean- MFP is offered in the summer partly so its ography would be able to keep up with and benefit heavy time demands will not interfere with other from participation in the program. Thus far coursework (students generally take MFP alone, results have been most encouraging in both areas, i. e. , not at the same time as any other courses) and plans are moving forward to invite students but also because that is the time of the most from other schools for the 1989 program. settled weather. While Florida winters are benign by comparison with the rest of the nation, it is typical that from about late October through April cold fronts will come through with some wind and fury about once a week. For the two to five days they exert their effect, the weather offshore is such that vessels under 100 1 are severely limited in what they can do. Summer is generally, though not always, free of such patterns, and we ordinarily can do our teaching unimpeded by the conditions that break gear and sicken scientists. Rarely, (as in July, 88) such a system does strike in the sumrrk-x, and even more rarely, an early season Hurricane will threaten the area. In such times the OSPREY cruise plan is necessarily radically changed. A backup plan to be carried out in inland waters has been developed to deal with such events, but is recognized as a difficult accommodation at best. More typically the summer pattern of warm days punctuated by afternoon thunderstorms interferes with the offshore work not at all, merely encouraging the Melbourne based Research team t;aking a core on the Indian RlVer projects to finish field work in the morning lagoon hours, and be doing lab work in the afternoons. 901 THE IMPACT OF MARINE TECHNOLQGYZON.@EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN MARINE TRANSPORTATION HENRY F. TRUTNEFF, Ph.D. MARITIME INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & GRADUATE STUDIES As the raison d'etre of the Marine Technology greatest emphasis on education and training lies Society (MTS) is to promote the exchange of in- within the marine transportation segment of the formation in ocean and marine engineering, industry, the officers and seafarers who man the science and policy, the precluded assumption is cargo, tanker, passenger (cruise) and container its stewardship of a body of professional know- vessels which trans it the oceans, bays, rivers ledge. Frontiers of this body are constantly and sounds of the world. The extent of the educa- being broadened by MTS scientific and engineer- tion and training required by a flag nation of its ing arms. The marine transportation arm, on officers and crews, measured on a scale from 0 to the other hand, is one of MTS largest users of 10 is dependent upon the flag flied. And, a ves- the knowledge gleaned. How users is the marine sel might fly, other than its national flag, the transportation arm implement this knowledge flag of any one of 20 or more 'k'open registries" through post-graduate education and training is as they are called which suit the needs of a par- the theme of this paper. U5ed to demonstrate ticular owner. Quite often, or should I say most this hypotheses is the Maritime Institute for often, as is the case, a particular open registry Training and Graduate Studies (MITAGS), Balti- is chosen over another, or, the flag of origin more based and serving professional ship,_@s of- nation, because of monetary considerations alone, ficers, pilots, MSC, NOAA, the Corps of Army which quite often includes the exclusion of educa- Engineers, and many other professionals in the tion and training standards for the crew. Many advancement and enhancement of their seagoing shipowners contend that flags of parent nations careers after job entry upon academy gradua- require too many rules and regulations that build tion. safety and restrictions into a ship. And as most casualties to life, ship and the environment are cauaed by human error, some would avoid the logi- cal solutions which accept rules and regulations as measures of safety for the crew, ship and the If the question was posed as to which was the environment -- but this is another subject, unto least mutually exclusive category among those la- itself, and is somewhat tangential to the theme. belled for paper themes -- Education and Training would be the hands down winner. For, among the The point that I am trying to make here has noth- myriad professions, businesses, technologies, ing to do with flag waving but one that stresses science, commercial enterprises, arms of govern- the need for education and training as it affects ment, etal., comprising the marine industry -- the common good of us all. Fifty years ago, well none escape the needs, disciplines and exchanges before the .formation of MTS, the International provided through education and training. MaritiMe'Organization (IMO) thd International Con- vention of the Standards of Training, Certifica- Precluded in the Marine Technical Society's (MTS) tion, and Watchkeeping (STCW), MARPOL, segregated stated mission to promote the exchange of informa- ballast tanks, ocean dumping, ARPA, SATNAV -- to tion in ocean and marineeengineering, science and name a few of the policy setters, problems and in- policy, is a vast body of knowledge. Frontiers of novations, little thought was given,to the protec- this knowledge are constantly being broadened by tion -- or should I say problems in the making, to the MTS scientific and engineering components. the ocean environment. In the past 20 years know- Upon these broadened frontiers policies are made ledge through science and technology has outpaced and implemented: the industrial users educated induatry practices to such a degree, we in mari- and trained. Thus, education and training is the time are still learning to deal with what is hap- cohesive element that molds and channels fragment- pening, It is in these areas that education and ed isolated frontier discoveries into a powerful training arevital. State of the art education and dynamic data base for industry users to draw and training in the marine transportation area is from. best exemplified in Baltimore's own Maritime In- stitute of Technology and Graduate Studies (MITAGS) Among the heaviest industry users are those invol- the educational arm of the International Organiza- ved in marine transportation, commercial fishing tion of Masters,.Mates and Pilots, AFL/CIO, the and r6creational boating. Unfortunately, the leading deck.officer union in the United States. CH2585-8/88/0000- 902 $1 @1988 IEEE MITAGS is world renowned as the foremost maritime training institution of its kind given to an array been proposed. MM&P pilot members are active in of courses using marine simulation. And, it is this group. truly a.graduate school, being dedicated to the ad- vancement in upgrade and training of those maritime There are many more examples where types of prob- college graduates who have chosen careers at sea. lems and questions can be given answers through Most of today's young maritime officers entering the direct research capability available at MITAGS. the seafaring profession as Third Mates are grad- This capability centers around two ship simulators uates of one of seven maritime colleges, namely: which have a 360 degree, high resolution visual Kings Point, the Federal United States Merchant scene which can present an enriched twilight Marine Academy; Fort Schuyler, the University of through to dawn simulation of a port and any spe- the State of New York Maritime College; Massachus- cific area in question.. The vessels that will etts Maritime College; Maine Maritime Academy; typically be using a port can be accurately model- Texas Maritime Academy, a part of Texas A & M; led or may already be available in our extensive California Maritime Academy, and, Great Lakes library. Additionally,' the staff available for Maritime Academy. such projects consists of researchers who have ex- perience in a widerange of disciplines including To describe the course offerrings would not only personnel testing,'measurement, the experimental be redundant, but a poor substitution for the design of studies, programming and simulator equi- audio-visual presentation I am about to show you. pment engineering and designing. Again, of most However, one of the few courses not simulated, importance to a marine project is the number of Laws and Ships Business, needs a bit more elabor- experienced Pilots and Offshore licensed personnel ation, illustrating how one facet of MTS impacts that are available as advisors and subjects for upon another. research programs. This is that vast reservoir, the resource reference pool touched upon a few MITAGS staff, apart from instructing ships cap- minutes ago. tains in the latest Coast Guard directives, com- ments and advises regularly on various advanced As automation and the new advances in technology notices of proposed rule making (ANPRNS) publish- have taught us, quality of crew is not measured in ed in the Federal Register. Our comments on terms of navigation, seamanship and engineering the recently revamped licensing examinations were prowess alone. American President Lines didn't included almost totally in the final revisions. think so when it commissioned MITAGS to develop a Simulation, incidentally, is now an accepted par- training program for its officers who were to man tial substitute for actual sea experience. Cur- the new, state of the art, D 10, PRESIDENT TRUMAN rently, pollution is the major concern. ANPRN's class container,vessels. Sea-Land didn't think so on the disposal of liquid hazardous material and either when it held seminars at MITAGS for both the latest scourge to the environment, plastic officer personnel and shoreside personnel, one waste are of top priority for comment and sugges- week this past June. And, MITAGS doesn't think so tion in classroom seminars. As an advisory as it is ever in the process of changing and re- source, MITAGS draws from the collective frames vising curriculum, Training tapes are in constant of reference and experience of better.:than 1000 states of either revision or development. The ov- ships Masters, State and Federal Pilots, Panama erview tape you are about to see,is about three or Canal Pilots, federal employees including members four years old but has been subject to changes from the Corps of Engineers, NOAA and the Mili- which few are able to pick up. One, for example, tary Sealift Command -- MM&P members all. MITAGS, involves the Computer Course. The Commodores you therefore, not only implements policy, but con- will see have been replaced by IB14 PC's and Epson tributes to it. printers. The introductory course is two weeks long, 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday. Basic The latest ANPRN proposing regulations to implement proficiency in operating.,tbe DOS and LOTUS.pro- Pollution Prevention Requirements pertaining to grams.are course expectancies. PC proficiency is Annex V of MARPOL 73/78 on the disposal of plastic a must for any mate or master with a high powered waste touches the summer seashore communities to ompany. such a degree that it is front page news in Long Island and the Jersey shore where beaches are So then, when one speaks to education and training closed. Home prices, vacations jobs and the in- through upgrading of licenses and the advancement come of a number of other businesses are impacted of skills of seamen, much more than rote learning upon the severest way -- economically, through is implied, And it should be, when one considers the pocketbook. MTS scientists and researchers the responsiblity for safe passage of A $100 mil- have been warning of problems in waste disposal lion ship and the safe delivery of its $100 mil- for years. It has now hit home and I am sure most lion cargo. To this end none of the 15,000 or more all MTS components are touched by it in one way or students who have passed through MITAGS these past another. MITAGS staff is now poring over this pro- 16 years have been involved in a maritime casualty. posal seeking advices from both in house and in This is somewhat of a record, and one in which we the many MM&P field offices on how to contribute are most proud. positively to the proposal. Ad hoc groups sucb.as SAVE OUR PORT in New York and New Jersey have been I hope tbat.many among you have the opportunity to seeking solutions to waste problems for years. visit with us during this conference period. Subaqueous burrow pits, among other remedies, have Should time permit for post-audio commentary, I 903 shall be glad to answer any questions -- or, at least try to. .904 RESOLVING THE ENVIRONMENTAL DECISIONMAKING AND RESEARCH DILEMMA Robert W. Zeller, PhD Office of Marine and Estuarine Protection U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2. BASIC ENVIRWENIAL RESEARCH ABSTFaCr Shortsighted pollutant source controls and Basic environmental research is an ongoing activity fragmented research activities too often result that normally follows disciplinary lines (areas of from the typical environmental decisionmaking expertise and interest). University and research process that tends to focus very narrowly, foundation physical scientists, chemists, and sometimes mistakenly, on only the perceived biologists conduct research on environmental and cause(s) of marine ecosystem problems. A two-part ecosystem subject areas that is of interest to the resolution of this dilemma is recommended: sponsoring institution. Currently, much of what we know today about marine and estuarine ecosystems 1) Environmental managers and researchers need to and their responses to wants activities has been broaden the context and perspective of their generated by this kind of basic research. efforts to consider holistic ecosystem processes. Unfortunately, there is no institution, or and responses to stress. Development and mechanism established for the purpose of validation of quantitative, marine ecosystem risk coordinating the dozens, perhaps hundreds, of basic assessment models are recommended as an appropriate research program related to marine and estuarine mechanism for cost-effectively and efficiently ecosystem processes. Th my knowledge, nobody is improving our understanding of how marine routinely reviewing available research results and ecosystems respond to multiple, nwmiade and natural ongoing and planned research objectives for the stresses. Establishment of quantifiable ecosystem purpose of synthesizing research findings and objectives could result from such holistic assessing our understanding of marine and estuarine ecosystem perspectives and modeling capabilities. ecosystems and the probable impacts of wants activities on those ecosystems. Lacking this kind 2) Environmental managers and researchers need to of review and assessment, managers and communicate more effectively so that researchers envirorun-mtal researchers cannot understand or be can input latest, relevant scientific findings advised of the most significant gaps and weaknesses effectively into the environmental decisiormaking in our capability to quantify the probable risks to process, and environmental managers can provide marine and estuarine ecosystem from man's feedback on specific research needs. Such input activities. Consequently, although we know a lot and feedback will contribute simultaneously to about major elements of marine and estuarine marine ecosystem problem solving and our collective ecosystems, our knowledge is fragmented and, at the understanding of ecosystem processes. A national present time, we cannot quantify ecosystem risks workshop is recomTended to develop an appropriate within acceptable ranges of uncertainty. mechanism for improving environmental manager- Furthermore, we are not likely to develop credible researcher commmications. ecosystem risk assessment capabilities anytime l.INIR0DUC`rION soon unless we find an effective way of coordinating relevant research activities and For purposes of this presentation, it is important improving communication between researchers and to understand that these are my own views and governmental agency environmental managers. This recommendations as an experienced environmental is an extremely important issue, and I will talk manager, not those of the office I represent. more about it later. Also, please understand that the pattern of 3. IDEWIFICATION OF BCOSYSTEM PROBLEMS activities described below does not follow an established format or decisionmaking structure. Identification of ecosystem problems tends to fall Rather, this is the typical pattern of activities into two categories. At one extreme, major fish currently followed by most environmental managers kills (or dead dolphins on the beaches, as happened and researchers and applies to ecosystem problem last summer along the mid-Atlantic coastline), red generally, not just marine and estuarine ecosystem tides, and human food poisonings from contaminated problems. sea-food are acute, crisis type events that are readily recognizable and usually result in public demand for some kind of immediate regulatory 905 United States Government work not protected by copyright reaction, even though we may not know what has determine the physical, chemical, and biological specifically caused Such visibly evident problems. cause(s) of the problem. Sometims, an evident At the other extreme, problem related to gradual problem, such as the dead dolphins example or environmental degradation (such as increasing red tides, may be the consequence of natural incidence of seasonal hypoxia. problem, widespread causes, not man's activities. In any case, habitat losses, long term reductions in however, "cause" determinations should be recreational and commercial fish catches, and documented by available data or persuasively accumulations of water column and sediment toxics) argued from a combination of data and widely tend to be much less visible and, consequently, accepted biological response theory findings. more difficult for many of us to comprehend as Problem caused by man's activities. determine the source(s) of the causative factor(s). In a complex environment, In either case, other than public health preventive determining the source(s) of physical and measures Such as oyster bed and swimming beach chemical pollutants that are linked by cause closures, cost-effective decisionmaking on and effect to an evident ecosystem problem can appropriate regulatory responses to marine and be a major challenge because, more often than estuarine ecosystem problems can be very difficult. not, there are multiple potential sources Prerequisite to effective decisionmaking are: contributing to the problem. - a statutory framework that authorizes imposition determine whether or not the identified Of controls applicable to the evident ecosystem source(s) is (are) controllable within the problem(s) and framework of existing regulatory authorities. - hard evidence or credible predictions linking Such reviews of available data and literature are the problem(s) to controllable pollutant usually done informally but may take the form of sources. highly structured, interagency studies, such as for the Great Lakes, Chesapeake Bay, and the several The relationship between these prerequisites is estuaries within EPA's National Estuarine Program. important to understand. We have, for example, In any case, however, program dead-lines and public explicit arid enforceable authorities under the pressures tend to limit this "study period" to a Clean Water Act for imposing national technology- span of months, one or two years at the most. All based performance standards on point source too often there is insufficient time for additional discharges to waters of the United States, field studies or research to accomplish the review including coastal waters. However, when objectives. Simply put, environmental agency technOlOgY-based point source controls do riot managers usually must make ecosystem problem adequately protect water quality, more stringent response decisions based on limited review and controls are authorized that will depend on analysis of readily available data and literature. evidence or credible predictions linking achievement of water quality standards to the 5. RBGUIATORY CCNIRCLS IMPOSED contributing point sources. The clean water Act also Provides for limited management Controls on "Armed" with results from this limited review and n0nPOint Pollutant sources but, here again, there analysis, environmental managers normally will needs to be a demonstrable link between resolution of identified ecosystem problem and planned levels impose whatever controls are: Of nOnPOint source controls. Therefore, whenever ecosystem problem are identified for regulatory - available within the statutory framework, control purposes, environmental managers need to establish cause and effect linkages between - relevant to identified pollutant sources that Proposed point source and nonpoint source controls are linked to the Problem, and and the identified ecosystem problems. - demonstrated to be meaningful and feasible. 4. REVIEW OF AVAILABLE DATA AND LITERAR)RE In many cases, national technology based Once a major ecosystem problem has been identified, performance standards have already been imposed to resolve persistent ecosystem problem. Such the first step normally taken by environmental additional controls are usually calculated to managers is to review available data and literature ensure compliance with State approved water quality to: standards which, in turn, are based on published EPA, numeric water Quality Criteria. EPA Criteria - define and understand the scope and nature of are intended to reflect the latest scientific the problem. This is extremely important findings. However, there is a necessary time lag because the "evident" problem, such as reduced of, perhaps, several years between research fish catches, may be Caused by a combination of findings for individual chemicals and organism and complex problems, such as overfishing, direct State approval of enforceable water quality toxic stress, anoxia or hypoxia, particulate standards. consequently, there is always the smothering of spawning beds, or habitat losses. possibility that approved standards do not reflect the latest scientific findings. 906 nationally were improving or, at least, not getting Also, EPA's Water Quality Criteria are based on any worse, ecosystem conditions in many of the toxic dose-response data for individual, selected @ationls estuaries and coastal waters were not freshwater and marine species. Although an improving and, in some cases, were in fact getting application factor is incorporated to help ensure worse. simply put, worsening conditions of many of Protection of biological communities and trophic the Nation's estuaries have prompted Congressional levels, the Criteria are not literally based on legislation of statutory authority and funding toxic dOse-response data for entire ecosystems.* support for the National Estuarine Program (NEP). Finally, the interrelationships among toxic The purpose of NEP is to focus cooperative Federal, State and local attention on identifying and stresses, nutrient imbalances, excessive turbidity resolving ecosystem Problems of selected estuaries. high temperatures, etc. as determining factors @@ Clearly, successful achievement of NEP objectives ecosystem health are, generally speaking, poorly will require implementation of improved scientific understood. Consequently, imposing controls on any One of these factors without considering relative understanding of cause and effect relationships and synergistic effects of multiple stresses on the between man's activities (including both point and ecosystem May not be an adequate response to nonpoint pollutant sources) and estuarine ecosystem evident problems on a case@by-case basis. problems of coastal waters such as the New York Bight and Southern California Bight. Therefore, environmental managers normally provide the research ccmTunity an opportunity to comment on And, this leads us to the subject of environmental controls that are proposed before such controls age@cy directed research. Very often, when are finalized. And, EPA@s Water Quality Criteria environmental managers (sometimes Congress) feel and techno-logy-based point source controls are the need for a better understanding of ecosystem Proposed in the Federal Register for public comment responses to man's activities, we "direct" before they are promulgated. additional research to specific subject areas of concern. EPA and the National oceanic and Consequently, I feel that, under existing Atmospheric Administration, for example, are circuTistances, environmental managers not only do cooperating in major, directed research programs their best to build state-of-the@art scientific on the Great Lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters to better understand the nature and extent of water understanding into proposed decisions but also try quality and associated ecosystem Problems, also the to Provide the research community an opportunity to relationship of pollutant dischargers to those input last-mdnute scientific findings into the problem. Sindlarly, EPA and the Corps of final decisions. Engineers have cooperated extensively Years On 6. DIRB=_ RESEARCH characterizing particulate resuspension, transport, fate and biological effects from contaminated dredged materials dumped into marine Imposing national technology-based performance waters. Finally, the Minerals Management Service standards on point sources does not require has camdtted large sums of money to directed quantifiable relationships to local water quality research on pollutant source characterization, conditions and the health of affected biological transport, fate, and effects of gas and Oil communities for specific water bodies. However, as exploration, developro-it, and production activities mentioned above, when experience shows that in marine waters of the United States. implementation of technology@based requirements has not achieved water quality standards, more Tw often, however, directed research program do stringent point source controls are authorized. not effectively advance our overall understanding Although more stringent controls must be linked to of the effects of man's activities on marine and achievement of water quality standards, such estuarine ecosystems - Directed research programs standards themselves tend to represent only normally tend to focus on those "bits and pieces" fragments of ecosystem health. Hence, there is of ecosystem response for individual chEmicals, usually no direct link to biologic or geographic individual organisin species, individual pollutant ecosystem objectives. sources, etc. This aspect of many directed research programs is important because it means Me resulting pattern of environmental agency that scientific advances resulting from marine and responses to water quality and ecosystem problem estuarine ecosystem related research Programs, in the United States, therefore, is not normally collectively, cannot be assembled to yield the result of a definitive and quantifiable equivalent advances in Understanding the broader understanding of cause and effect relationships question of ecosystem responses to man's between man's activities and ecosystem problems. activities. For example, when conducting research with statutory emphasis on technology-based point on seasonal hypoxia problem in estuaries, the source Controls, State environmental agencies, focus tends to be on phosphorus and nitrogen consistent with EPA guidelines, have focused their controls rather than the broader questions on energies over the past fifteen years on imposing relative and synergistic effects of nutrient technology-based controls on municipal and fluctuations (including organic and inorganic industrial dischargers. (This is the NPDEs program carbon), turbidity, temperature, alkalinity, and under Title IV of the Clean Water Act). By the freshwater flow effects on. algal productivity and early 19801s, however, it was becoming evident associated hypoxia Problems. Similarly, when that, although the average water quality conditions 907 conducting research on f ishery or habitat losses, the focus tends to be on individual factors, such 8. A BE7TER WAY as direct chemical toxicity, rather than the Yes, there is a better way. Several years ago, a combined effects of toxicity, turbidity, number of researchers and contract consultants temperature, salinity changes, overfishing and began developing quantitative risk assessment predation. models. Typically and very simply put, these models are designed to similate productivity and There are at least three reasons why directed natural variations in productivity of research may be too narrowly focused or, in some interconnected, rrultitrophic level ecosystems as cases, focused on the wrong factor(s). First, functions @ of nutrient (food) availability and environmental managers don't always know the right environmental variables, such as sunlight and questions to ask. we have an evident problem we're temperature. The models predict productivity trying to resolve, but the "obvious cause" of the changes (usually rates -of biomass increases or problem (that we consequently direct research to decreases) of the several trophic levels as a focus on) may not be the total or, in some cases, result of induced stresses, such as toxic exposure. even the correct cause. And, second, our available The models also attempt to predict the induced communications with the research community may be stresses as functions of time. inadequate. And, of course, budget and time constraints are a factor. This whole issue of Quantitative ecosystem risk assessment models are fragmented ecosystem research activities "directed" intended to express numerically our current at visibly evident problem is another aspect of understanding of ecosystem responses to a variety the uncoordinated research issue mentioned at the of stresses. The levels of uncertainty associated beginning of this paper. Fragmented . and with modeled ecosystem risk predictions depend on* uncoordinated research has very serious implications for resolution of marine and estuarine modeling error, that is, the extent to which ecosystem problems. productivity algorithms (in the model) for such 7. REFINEMENT OF PBGULATORY CCNIROLS processes as photosynthesis, respiration, and food uptake and depuration. represent the complete Over time, environmental managers will normally and real thing, review directed research results plus field data natural variability of the biological processes, from monitoring programs to further refine existing and controls on point and nonpoint sources. However, environmental managers are not likely to feel parametric error, that is, uncertainty of data entirely comfortable with this decisionmaking inputs to the model. framework for three reasons. First, the results from the narrowly focused research programs may not In an ideal world, if we completely understood yield adequate controls on all parameters impacting biological processes and responses to environmental ecosystems of concern. Also, the envirormiental stresses, assuming accurate data inputs, we would managers may not be aware of ongoing, basic be able to simulate ecosystem responses to stress research results that are relevant to the problems accurately. they are trying to resolve. Men you think about it, there simply is no effective communications Clearly, however, we do not understand biological link between the basic research ccuuunity and processes very well or biological process responses environmental agencies on resolution of individual to environmental stresses. And we do not environmental and ecosystem problem. And, understand transport and fate of pollutants in the finally, field monitoring data will likely lead environment very well either. Even i f we did, environmental managers to suspect that, indeed, algorithmically representing such processes they are not regulating all of, or the correct sources that are contributing to persistent correctly and completely would be exceedingly ecosystem problem. difficult. In fact, currently available ecosystem models tend to predict ecosystem (productivity) In summary, then, this gets to be kind of a "catch responses to toxic exposures only within several 22". Mien faced with ecosystem problems, orders of magnitude. envirorriental regulatory agencies normally impose controls on those pollutant sources that are However, the holistic representation of ecosystem evidently causing the problems, are amenable by processes and responses to stress by quantitative statute to control, and which we are authorized by models is an excellent way to focus research the statute to control. Mien the results of attention on improving our understanding of such directed research and monitoring program indicate processes and responses. Sensitivity analyses, for the problems are not fully resolved, regulatory example, will help tell us which of the model Controls are likely to be escalated on the same variables are most significant for influencing sources. There mist be a better way. changes in productivity for individual trophic levels and. the. ecosystem as a whole.- Focusing research attention on the most significant variables will hasten improvement in modeled predictions and our understanding of the processes 908 involved. This would be an eff icient way to In closing, I feel that, through effective address the fragmentary nature of our present comrru-mications between environmental managers and knowledge of ecosystem responses to man's researchers on issues and problem within a activities. consequently, I urge the research holistic ecosystem context, the environmental ccmmmity to do two, related things: program decisionmaking process can, in fact, encourage productive research and adapt -broaden the design of individual research program effectively to evolving scientific understanding. perspectives towards a more holistic consideration of ecosystem processes and responses to stress and -cooperate with each other and environmental management and regulatory agencies in the promotion, developTtent, validation, and use of quantitative ecosystem models. Similarly, I recommend that we environmental managers begin to think in more holistic ecosystem terms about how pollutant controls, environmental quality, and ecosystem health are related to each other. For example, we need to question whether or not the controls we prepare to impose in response to evident or potential ecosystem problems really do make sense for ecosystem that are impacted by multiple, manmade and natural stresses. Over time, I believe that such holistic thinking and questioning, in combination with credible ecosystem risk modeling capabilities, could result in establishment of quantifiable ecosystem objectives (fishery productivity objectives, for example) that would provide a meaningful context for related environmental standards and pollutant source controls. In the short term, I am conf ident that trying to think in holistic ecosystem terms will cause environmental managers to see the importance of improved communications with our research colleagues. indeed, improved commications; and cooperation between environmental managers and researchers is essential, and we environmental managers mist shoulder the major burden for improved communications. Simply put, the research conmmity and environmental agencies need to find some way of efficiently communicating research findings and needs. All of us are busy. I have made the point several times above, for example, that environmental managers have limited time available for literature surveys, data collection, and analyses in support -of decisionmaking on pollutant source controls that are responsive to evident or potential ecosystEm,problems. There is no question that we very often miss relevant research findings in our reviews and analyses. This is unfortunate but inescapable under existing circumstances. Therefore, I suggest at least one major, national workshop of representative researchers and environmental managers devoted exclusively to developing an efficient communications link between the research community and environmental agencies, also within the research community and among the environmental agencies. If such a mechanism exists today, I am totally unaware of it. 909 A STRATEGY FOR PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION Carl A. Crampton, LCDR, USCG Randolph C. Helland, LCDR, USCG U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters (G-MPS) 2100 2nd Street SW Washington, DC 20593-0001 ABSTRACT to this study. The thesis was titled "Marine Sanitation Devices, a Mechanism for Achieving The Clean Water Act of 1972 mandated "fishable, the Clean Water Act Goals: An Evaluation of a swimmable waters" for the United States by 1983, Decade Old Environmental Management yet our research into just one phase of that Decision." The magnitude of the problem was original decision indicates that the program assessed by using demographic data from implementing the legislation fell short of its recreational boating statistics provided by the goals, resulting in agency and public frustration, Coast Guard. A stochastic simulation model was misspent resources and wasted regulatory effort. used to evaluate the risk of discharging sewage Our paper recommends and discusses the into a. waterbody. Field visits to a Mari Ine following ideas: look before you legislate, use Sanitation Device (MSD) manufacturer, a Coast complete solutions, avoid unilateral approaches to Guard approved testing facility for MSDs, and to environmental problems and use , periodic Canadian government officials also provided program evaluation. valuable input. From this experience four generic 1. INTRODUCTION recommendations have been synthesized. Our paper recommends and discusses the following The Clean Water Act mandated "fishable, ideas: research before legislation, using complete swimmable waters" for the United States by 1983. solutions, avoiding unilateral approaches to A new, computer simulation model, cost and environmental problems and using periodic feasibility analysis, legislative and literature program evaluation. Recommendations such as review, interviews and surveys were used to these have been made before. Our intent here is evaluate the success of one aspect of the 1972 to highlight how their use may have provided for a Federal Water Pollution Control Act. That work more effective regulatory program. Each focused on requiring Marine Sanitation Devices recommendation is followed by examples from (MSDs) on recreational vessels 65 feet in length our research of the (MSD) portion of the Clean and less with installed toilets. Our research on Water Act. that phase of the original decision indicates that the program implementing the legislation fell In order to avoid some of the frustrations short of its goals, resulting in agency and public experienced in implementing the MSD program frustration, misspent resources and wasted we recommend that the following process be regulatory effort. This paper evolved from our considered from start to finish when addressing a master's thesis completed at the University of problem. Michigan in 1987 which provided valuable input CH2585-8/8810000- 910 $1 @1988 IEEE 2. LOOK BEFORE YOU LEGISIATE treatment systems for others and a deadline for compliance that was impossible to meet because The leading edge of legislation often exceeds the producers of equipment could not meet demand. leading edge of technology. Efforts to provide immediate technological solutions to complex Study the hazards of the problem. One may start problems fall short because the path from the by asking some basic questions, "How big is it? drawing board to the public bypasses the bogs of Are there patterns?" A close look at the problem sufficient research and adequate field testing. or hazard is necessary to develop a picture of it. Legislation may also change before technological A 1967 government study examined the problem innovations can meet the expectations, and of wastewater from vessels by concentrating on demand, of the public. The standards for commercial and public vessels because that data discharge limits, and the type of equipment that was readily available. Authorities were aware of would be allowed, changed during the legislative the hazards of wastewater from recreational evolution. The program's original intent for vessels but did not study them enough to discover limiting effluent was "no discharge" type the incidence rate and the probable location of its equipment-, however, it was discovered that there occurrence. We developed a model for use in weren't enough pump out stations. The use of determining levels of fecal indicator organisms in "treatment" devices was allowed within a waterbody. The model indicated what everyone restrictions based on municipal sewage treatment had suspected: concentrations of effluent occur standards. During this evolution technology and in waterbodies with low flows. An unexpected the boating public were attempting to keep up discovery was the relatively small number of with the changes in legislation. Technology and vessels necessary to create unsafe levels. the equipment testing process to verify the proper operation of that technology weren't in Next, define the problem. Defining the problem place. Although the presence of an MSD was often sounds like a silly exercise, but unless you verified during a vessel boarding, no attempt was have defined the problem you are not going to made to test its operation, or in the case of know when it has been solved. This is a critical treatment devices, its effluent. This -type of step. All other steps revolve around how the equipment had never been used aboard vessels problem is defined. In the MSD case the problem before. was defined as one that applies for all waters and all vessels; however, this didn't appear to be an Changes in standards or regulations are often very accurate assumption. The problem definition, confusing to the public. In this instance it was coupled with agency practices, led to a focus on made more onerous because the changes in one type of vessel. An organization or agency standards required boat owners to expend should not focus on portions of the regulated additional resources and purchase equipment to public unless there is a very defensible reason for comply with the regulatory intent. People will doing so. In the MSD case the focus was on reach a point where too many changes divert larger commercial vessels examined regularly by their attention from the problem the regulatory the U. S. Coast Guard. Smaller commercial and program was developed to remedy. In the MSD recreational vessels were required to be equipped case they focused on the regulatory burden that with MSDs if they had installed toilets, but since seemed to change in an irregular way, resulting in they weren't required to be examined as were a negative cash flow, and wasting tY eir time. The larger commercial vessels, enforcement did not original intent was holding tanks for all vessels. offer the incentive for compliance that it did with This changed to holding tanks for some vessels, inspected vessels. 911 The process continues by examining possible not be solved, and people are forced to purchase liroblern solution alternatives. Examining equipment that is not reliable. They are caught in alternatives actually involves generating a "no win" situation. alternatives, developing criteria for selecting alternatives and the actual selection process. The 4. AVOID UNILATERAL SOLUTIONS selection process is usually set up so that the most time consuming analysis is left for those Single agent solutions to environmental problems final alternatives that have made it through other should be avoided. Environmental problems selection processes. usually cross the jurisdiction of more than one agency or industry and many times cannot be Some problems could have been foreseen through implemented and enforced by one agency. There feasibility analysis. Feasibility analysis is usually must be a coordinated effort that utilizes as many the last hoop that an alternative must go through agents' strengths as possible. and is the most extensive. It is a framework for examining the proposed "life" of an alternative. Coordination leads to cooperation and The "life" of an alternative includes the normal development of a larger acceptance base. If analysis of costs and benefits but looks at them government officials and private sector people are from an agency standpoint. The analysis involved in the decision making process, and examines communication of policy objectives, ultimately the program itself, they will feel a operational demands, resource availability, agency sense of "program ownership," and be more likely morale and effects of shared responsibility. to support its goals. There are many methods for conducting this analysis and we make no recommendations other The Coast Guard was faced with an enforcement than to use a defined process. burden that they could not accommodate. Cooperation, even between Federal agencies, was 3. USE COMPLETE SOLUTIONS not encouraged. An unpopular regulation was enforced by a single agency without the resources Once a program is approved it is important to necessary to accomplish the task. If states and implement all its provisions or the proposed impacted private sector . groups' had been solution may fail. Many programs have been encouraged to participate in the planning and brilliantly written and coordinated, but have failed execution of the program it would have been miserably during implementation because of easier for all involved and perhaps more effective. resistance from within the agency that had responsibility or resistance from the regulated 5. USE PERIODIC EVALUATION public. In the MSD case, pump out stations were needed for holding tanks. The standards and Periodic program evaluation can be used to requirements for pump out stations were never increase effectiveness. It forces reviewers to developed though mandated by Congress. The measure program effectiveness by determining approval of equipment was not well coordinated. whether the program goals and objectives are Equipment was approved that had not been being met. In addition, periodic program tested in a marine environment: it met the evaluation assists managers in delineating the effluent discharge standards but wasn't suitable direction of a program. It might lead the for vessel use. Dual problems occur from this: program manager to major program the equipment doesn't work so the problem will modifications. In addition, evaluation enables managers to "fine tune" the program. We often 912 leave programs to run themselves and only return when someone outside the program suggests that a problem exists. Programs should be examined on a periodic basis so that problems can be alleviated while they are still small. This is done by defining measures of program effectiveness that are observable achievements of the program. The measures of effectiveness should correlate to goals needed to solve the problem. For many environmental problems, this is a difficult task to accomplish. Once completed, however, the program will have direction and changes will be easier. 6. CONCLUSIONS These generic suggestions are intended to provide a process for program implementation and evaluation. Generic suggestions don't guarantee success but may decrease the amplitude of problems encountered in implementing a program. These processes, if followed when the MSD program was first initiated, might have produced different and more beneficial results for both the Coast Guard, boat owners and others who enjoy our nation's waters. The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private ones of the authors and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the opinions of the Commandant of the Coast Guard, the Chief Counsel of the Coast Guard, or the Coast Guard at large. 913 UPDATING THE STRATTON COMMISSION: A PROPOSAL FOR THE U. S. COAST GUARD OCEAN SURVEY CORPS John N. Leonard Department of Oceanography and Ocean Drilling Program Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843 ABSTRACT years, it still stands as a landmark document whose wisdom was far ahead of its time. Twenty years after the Stratton Commission Report recommended consolidation of the nation's many ocean Before the advent of the Stratton Commission, federal programs, federal agencies with marine responsibilities are marine activities had grown over the years largely without as fragmented as ever, and the U.S. government still lacks any plans to meet specific situations and problems and were an effective policy system to coordinate and manage multiple scattered throughout the government. In 1969, some 38 ocean resources. Although the creation of NOAA was a federal agencies had programs with marine responsibilities, major step towards unification of this effort, the exclusion of and there existed significant duplication and overlap. The the Coast Guard has hampered NOAA's effectiveness and vision of the Stratton Commission was to create a single, diminished the sea-gping efficiency of federal ocean large civilian agency to be the principal instrument within the scientists and engineers. Today, in separate departments, federal government for administration of the nation's civil the USCG continues to maintain the nation's aids to marine and atmospheric programs (1). But the Com- navigation, but NOAA provides the hydrographic survey mission was thwarted on two of its primary goals; first, to information and the charts, and each agency is tossed about make NOAA, like NASA before it, an independent agency yearly by stormy budgetary seas. Changing conditions over reporting directly to the President; and second, to include the the years have once again set the stage for functional Coast Guard. The objective of this plan was to create one reorganizations. This paper proposes that parts of NOAA's major organization with a "critical mass" large enough to National Ocean Service and the NOAA ships and officers be compete successfully for attention and funds within the integrated into the Coast Guard, forming the nucleus of an federal bureaucracy. Untethered to the policies of any Ocean Survey Corps (OSC), similar to the Army's Corps of particular cabinet department, NOAA could thus adequately Engineers. The OSC fleet- CG icebreakers, buoy tenders represent diverse ocean interests and encourage ocean and NOAA ships- should be manned as research vessels b; development. The Coast Guard, together with the U.S. dedicated CG/OSC personnel, performing the NOS survey Coast and Geodetic Survey, was to have provided the ships and ocean science functions, while also policing the EEZ. add operational capabilities needed for going to sea by the ocean and atmospheric bureaus coming together under the NOAA umbrella (2). INTRODUCTION But the fish don't vote, most people in this country paid little attention, and politics, as usual, triumphed. After One of the objectives of the Commission on Marine having chased smugglers for every Secretary of the Treasury Science, Engineering and Resources when it issued its since Alexander Hamilton in 1790, the USCG had just been comprehensive 1969 report "Our Nation and the Sea - A moved by President Johnson into his newly created Plan for National Action" was to streamline the jumbled Transportation Department in 1967. Even before he federal ocean bureaucracy by consolidating mo* st of those received the Stratton Commission Report on his way back to agencies into one major organization responsi ble for the Texas, LBJ was in no mood to rhove the Coast Guard again, nation's ocean effort. This single agency became the and this view continued to persist after he left office. So in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The the summer of 1970, when Richard Nixon signed Executive Commission, named for Chairman Julius Stratton, was a Reorganization Plan No. 4, NOAA was created without product of the heady days of the 1960's, when President what was supposed to be its major component of critical John F. Kennedy, followed by Vice President Hubert H. mass. Instead of an independent agency of nearly 55,000 Humphrey, spearheaded a drive to put men in the deep sea people, the new organization included only about 15,000 along with men on the moon. Their efforts helped catapult employees. As early as 1972 it had already started to oceanography to the forefront of scientific interest and become obvious that because the Commission's funding at that time. There was an idealistic feeling then that recommendations were not fully implemented, NOAA was from the oceans would come the food, minerals and other never going to be the strong leader in the ocean arena that its resources necessary to meet the world's needs for the rest of creators had envisioned (3). Thus today, 54 federal the century and beyond. But the intervening years have agencies have marine activities, and two of the most shown that the boom on the ocean frontier erroneously politically feeble, NOAA, placed by President Nixon in the envisioned to begin in the 1970's never occurred, and, Department of Commerce, and the Coast Guard, in DOT, except for those who study marine affairs, the Stratton are tossed about yearly by stormy budgetary seas. The Commission Report has been largely forgotten since its Coast & Geodetic Surveyors, a commissioned corps of less issuance with modest fanfare only a few days before than 400 sea-going officers created in 1917, has become the President Lyndon B. Johnson left office. But, even after 20 NOAA Corps, which, along with the Public Health Service, form the sixth and seventh of the uniformed services. CH2585-8/88/000o- 914 $1 @1988 IEEE The purpose of this paper is to briefly review the officers, 31,000 enlisted and 5,000 civilians, along with relationship between the Coast Guard and NOAA since the hundreds of ships, aircraft and stations all over the globe- Stratton Commission, focusing on smaller scale suggestions which led the Commission to recommend that NOAA for future improvement of the operational performance of include the Coast Guard. ocean science and engineering by these agencies at the field level, rather than on "big picture" decisions about ocean Interestingly, at the same time many in the ocean policy and the organization of the entire government. community have begun a renewed call for an independent However, a quick review of the many reorganization NOAA, other supporters of the Coast Guard have begun a proposals put forth since the Stratton Commission is useful. loud drumbeat to move the service out of the Transportation Department. They use an argument similar to that of ocean FEDERAL ORGANIZATION FOR MARINE AFFAIRS advocates, citing a lack of strong federal coordination of the Drug War. A recent poll found that over 90% of CG Reorganizing the federal government's ocean effort personnel, weary of budget cuts, now support a move to has been a consistently recurring theme over the past twenty greener pastures, but it is not a new idea. Even before the years. Just as there were many wars following the 1914-18 Stratton Commission and subsequent proposals, between "Great War to end all wars", many reorganization proposals 1790 and 1967 Congress had talked about moving all or part have followed the great blueprint for ocean development that of the Coast Guard to another federal agency at least 15 was supposed to finally put the nation's ocean policy house times (8). Don Walsh has written that most of the recent in order for the long haul, the Stratton Commission. Since list of reorganization proposals put forth by ocean policy 1969 there have been at least five major reorganization study groups remind him of an ice cream sundae- the proposals: (1) the Ash council "Department of Natural obligatory whipped cream and cherry popped on top is Resources" proposal (1971); (2) the Norton "Independent always the Coast Guard- they rarely get left out of any NOAA" proposal (1976); (3) Senator Hollings' "Department centralized ocean organizational plans! (9) of Environment and Oceans" proposal (1976); (4) President Carter's Reorganization Project/Department of Natural The United States Coast Guard is. truly a singular Resources report (1978); and (5) the National Advisory organization in the world. Great Britain's Coastguard is Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) largely a volunteer maritime safety organization much like "Department of NOAA & NASA" proposal (1979) [4). the USCG Auxiliary here, and Canada's few Coast Guard During the time the Reagan Administration has been in ships and icebreakers are manned by federal civil servants. Washington however, any reports of proposals which saw In Ecuador and in Chile, on the other hand, the Coast Guard the light of day seem to have been confined to academic operates small patrol boats and does hydrographic surveying journals, such as Gail and Miller's "U.S. Ocean Resources as a division of the Navy at all times, and the navies of most Service" Proposal (1986) (5). But the sheer number of small and developing countries are really coast guards in the reorganization plans put forth hammers home the general strict sense. But the global responsibilities of the United perception in the ocean community of the inadequacy of the States Navy create for the USCG a niche unique amongst present federal structure. The lack of an administrative focal the naval forces of the world. Yet this unique spot poses the point with direct access to the President as an oceans same problem faced by NOAA- where should each one fit advocate, jurisdictional overlap, and duplication of effort are into the organization of the Executive Branch as a whole? common themes. So is the call for a cabinet-level agency to The ocean community has coveted the Coast Guard since coordinate federal ocean activities( 6 1. Most reorganization 1967, when the service was transferred to fill out LBJ's new advocates feel that a "Secretary of the Oceans" would Department of Transportation as the federal maritime provide the needed focus on the marine environment that has component to the Aviation, Highway and Railroad been missing for so long. Administrations. But now the organizational debate has gone beyond ocean interests and been taken up by a broad THE ROLE OF THE COAST GUARD spectrum of public and Congressional USCG supporters, as many charge that the legacy of twenty years in DOT has The Stratton Commission also reported that the most moved the Coast Guard more towards a regulatory difficult question faced by its members in over two years of bureaucracy than an operational military service, causing it study and hearings was whether or not to recommend the to fall behind in the War on Drug Smuggling. These people transfer of the Coast Guard into NOAA. As the nation's now believe the Coast Guard rightly belongs in the Defense oldest continuous sea-going service, the USCG is a multi- Department, Justice Department, or elsewhere. Their mission maritime police force which has grown and evolved arguments usually proclaim primacy of a particular CG in response to the needs of the country since its inception. mission, like maritime law enforcement, as reason to move The many missions of the service have been acquired to another department, such as DOJ. They argue that in through the absorption of different federal agencies as those DOT the service has been underfunded and ill-equipped to bureaus with marine responsibilities grew to be overlapping meet the increased demands of the many new statutory and interdependent through the years. Alexander duties which have expanded throughout the last two Hamilton's original Revenue Cutter Service merged with the decades. Indeed, just since 1970 the original base of Coast Lifesaving Service in 1915 and became the Coast Guard. Guard authority in federal law has been expanded greatly by During the World War III period, the Coast Guard took in the passage of at least 12 major acts, giving the service new Lighthouse Service, and the Bureau of Navigation and duties in marine fisheries and pollution protection, coastal Steamboat Inspection. Congress additionally tasked this defense, and drug law enforcement. The CG regulatory amalgamated agency with icebreaking, port security, and shift was accelerated for a time by the country's anti-military marine environmental protection duties, and, as the fifth "Vietnam Syndrome", which caused the service to publicly armed force, the Coast Guard has served as a branch of the emphasize its non-military "good guy" roles as maritime U.S. Navy in almost every war since 1790 (7). Ultimately lifesavers. and defenders of the environment, at the expense it was this breadth of experience, along with the USCG's of other duties. Strangely, during the Reagan era, even impressive physical resources- it ranks as the world's 12th though CG funding has gone down, morale and retention largest naval fleet, with a complement of over 6,000 have generally gone up. Still, in the last few years the many 915 missions of the Coast Guard have produced spirited budget for the USCG as a naval force. So, in March 1984, a year battles between competing programs within the service, after President Reagan proclaimed full U.S. jurisdiction over causing both internal and external parochial interests to the 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), Secretary of suggest that the CG should give some of its "other" the Navy John Lehmann and Secretary of Transportation missions away to federal, state, or private agencies. This Elizabeth Dole implemented the Maritime Defense Zone dissension generates an omnipresent and uneasy coexistence (MDZ) concept, giving the Coast Guard, in its wartime role between those members committed to duties like law as part of the Navy, the principal responsibility for defense enforcement and military readiness operations, and those of this nation's coastal zone out to 200 nautical miles. who joined the service strictly to "save lives- not take them". Planning and exercises in the EEZ/MDZ area for mine countermeasures, antisubmarine and inshore undersea Fueling the argument of those who would like to see warfare, port security, and antiterrorist activities now fall to the Coast Guard in another department is the fact that during the Coast Guard Atlantic and Pacific Area Commanders. the 1980's the phrase "Ronald Reagan's defense buildup" These two admirals now have a joint service staff and CG has basically meant "Department of Defense buildup". Like and Navy units assigned to them in the event of a NOAA, the Coast Guard has actually experienced declining mobilization, and they are directly responsible to the Naval real budgets since the 1970's, and the service's shrinking Commander-in-Chiefs of the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets for number of large cutters have an older average life in service coastal defense (11). So, as the service approaches its than the aging NOAA and University (UNOLS) federal 200th birthday, the U.S. Coast Guard can finally say that it oceanographic fleets. Concurrently, the naval warfare truly does, indeed, guard the coast. capability of these cutters is also mired in the 1960's. Since 1966, the number of CG high endurance cutters (250' or The flip side of this trend toward law enforcement and longer) has declined by two thirds, from 36 to 13, and more military readiness is that the money to support it comes out than half of the nation's former fleet-of 8 polar icebreakers of other Coast Guard missions, because the budget pie has has been cut as well, with only 2 replacement icebreakers on actually been shrinking when adjusted for inflation since the the drawing board for the 1990's. The Coast Guard does Carter Administration. The Stratton Commission reported continue to maintain an inventory of about 2000 utility and that 13 percent of the Coast Guard budget then went to rescue boats under 65 feet long. Although this figure and oceanography, meteorology, icebreaking, and other marine the number of CG personnel has declined only slightly from sciences; and 28% to provide for the nation's aids to those reported by the Stratton Commissio *n, the total number navigation system. In the 1988 budget, all icebreaking and of vessels over 65 feet- those, like icebeakers, capable of marine science operations make up a meager 4 percent, and performing ocean science and engineering jobs- has dropped aids to navigation is down to a 21% slice of the pie. from 343 ships and patrol craft in 1966 to 242 today ( 10). Probably the most startling budget priority change, however, is in search and rescue, which has dropped from THE 200 MILE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC AND 35% of the total twenty years ago to just 18.7% in the MARITIME DEFENSE ZONE current fiscal year. If the USCG's pre-eminent roles in the 1970's were THE NOAA-COAST GUARD RELATIONSHIP search and rescue (SAR), marine safety, and environmental protection, the service's new dominant duties in the 1980's Throughout their histories, NOAA and its predecessor have been law enforcement and nhval defense operations. agencies have had an especially close relationship with the These two activities have jumped from less than a 20% slice Coast Guard. Information provided by the Coast Guard's of the Coast Guard budget pie as reported by the Stratton aids to navigation teams and buoy tending cutters has been a Commission to a 42% share today. As recently as 1982, regular part of U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey and now law enforcement and defense operations still constituted just National Ocean Service charts and Coast Pilot books since 25.9% of USCG funding. It can almost go without saying the early part of the century. During the 1950's and 60's, that our nation's vigorous and increasingly vocal War on the Coast Guard's largest cutters were placed for month- Drugs is the obvious reason for the significantly bigger long periods at fixed points in the North Atlantic and Pacific Coast Guard outlays on law enforcement, but the driving Oceans to provide observations to the National Weather force behind the recent larger naval defense expenditures has Service, collect oceanographic data, and to serve as its own story. The Stratton Commission stated that "the navigational way points and potential rescuers for trans- Coast Guard is indeed the Nation's guardian against the oceanic airplane flights. This program lasted until 1978, hazards of marine operations ... it's multi-purpose vessels do when NOAA satellites finally made the last of once almost everything in the broad and often dangerous reaches numerous CG "Ocean Stations" obsolete. CG-NOAA close of the sea but guard the coast in the military sense". At the cooperation probably reached its zenith, however, in the time that statement was written in 1968, most CG cutters middle 1970's, when much new federal environmental, and facilities had served in World War 11, and in the post fisheries, and marine mammal protection legislation had war period only perfunctory naval defense exercises were large segments of NOAA and the Coast Guard working side conducted as other Coast Guard duties expanded. by side to implement commercial fish management plans and Historically, the USCG has never had specific naval environmental baseline studies. The centerpiece of their tasking, and has performed different "jack of all trades" relationship was Washington Senator Warren Magnuson's functions for the Navy when called upon in every conflict Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (MFCMA) of through Vietnam. But even before the Reagan 1976, which established the 200 mile Fisheries Administration took office, the Coast Guard and Navy had Conservation Zone (FCZ), giving the USCG and National recognized how far behind the CG had fallen behind in the Marine Fisheries Service responsibility for patrolling and expensive technology necessary for most cutters to be of use regulating some 10 percent of the world's fisheries to the Navy fleet in fighting a modem, high threat electronic resources over a 2.2 million square mile area. missile war. As a result, the services undertook joint planning to look for a more realistic Coast Guard role in Coast Guard participation in marine environmental U.S. sea power strategy, including specific warfare tasking science goes back at least to the sinking of the Titantic in 916 1912. Since then the Coast Guard has been the operating have been removed from all but the 2 Polar class icebeakers, agency of the International ice Patrol, tracking iceberg and the oceanographic cutters have been redesignated as movements into North Atlantic shipping lanes. The Coast drug patrol vessels. A consolidated Strike Team now does Guard's most famous ocean scientist, Admiral "Iceberg" not have a single diver. Marine Science is no longer a major Eddie Smith, later headed the Woods Hole Oceanographic at the Coast Guard Academy, ending with the Class of '85, Institution. In 1961, Senator Magnuson pushed through and rare is the CG officer these days who receives a legislation expanding the Coast Guard's authority to engage graduate degree in Oceanography or Ocean Engineering. in oceanographic research, thus providing better data And several hundred enlisted MSTs are now on their way collection utilization for cutters on ocean station. The toward an official role change to Marine SAfM Technicians. service's role in oceanography then expanded throughout the Besides continuing joint fisheries enforcement, mostly in 1960's, and reached fever pitch when the CG got wind of Alaska, and doing some data buoy work in Bay St. Louis, the Stratton Commission's intention to recommend their Mississippi, it is hard to find anything much going on today inclusion in the new NOAA. All of the sleek, destroyer-type between NOAA and the Coast Guard but the traditional Hamilton class 378-foot high endurance cutters under exchange of hydrographic survey and navigational data. construction at that time were built with features similar to the large Class I NOAA ships, such as an oceanographic TBE ROLE OF NOAA lab, wire winch, and weather balloon shelter. The service even remodeled several of its WW II vintage tugs and buoy After six years of regulating the Fisheries tenders and designated them as oceanographic cutters, used Conservation Zone, in 1983 President Reagan expanded the for studying surface currents and towing big NOAA data U.S. offshore claim from just the fisheries to include all the buoys. Three marine pollution "Strike Teams", including resources on and under the sea bed in the 200 mile zone. divers, were created, stationed on each coast. These Strike This area encompasses some 3 billion acres off the coasts of Teams and their equipment could fly by C- 130 to a location the United States and its territories. The EEZ has given at a momenfs notice in the event of a major accident or spill. NOAA ships the large task of using today's advanced The U.S. Coast Guard Academy in New London, electronic surveying methods to produce detailed Connecticut, established an undergraduate major in Marine bathymetric maps of the huge area of continental shelf and Science to train future officers, and the service also cross- slope over which the U.S. has now claimed exclusive trained its enlisted weathermen ("Aerographer's Mates"), economic rights. We have to know what is out there, and converting them into all purpose, sea-going Marine Science maps, charts and resource assessment surveys will certainly Technicians. To top all this off, page 45 of the Stratton be needed if the area is ever to be utilized. But recently the Commission Report even shows a picture of a Coast Guard National Ocean Service has been particularly hard hit by planned helicopter-carrying "High Endurance Oceanographic budget cuts. NOAA has had numerous internal Cutter", saying it was scheduled to be built by 1972. reorganizations in the eighteen years since its inception, and NOS is now composed of five offices: (1) Charting and All this effort ultimately went for naught when Geodetic Services, (2) Ocean and Coastal Resource Executive Reorganization Plan Number 4 went into effect in Management, (3) Oceanography and Marine Assessments, 1970, creating NOAA in the Commerce Department and (4) Marine Operations, and (5) Ocean Services. The leaving the Coast Guard behind in DOT. Throughout the National Marine Pollution Program Office is also assigned to decade CG oceanography basically ran on the momentum NOS. The Office of Charting and Geodetic Services generated at the time of the Stratton Commission Report, but provides charts and related information for the safe by 1973 it had become obvious that oceanography in the navigation of marine and air traffic, maintains the National Coast Guard was doomed by shifting budget priorities never geodetic networks, and conducts supporting research and to be a major program. That same year, the Coast Guard development. The Office of Marine Operations is in charge made its very first seizure of a vessel trying to smuggle of operating the NOAA Fleet, consisting of 23 ships, several tons of marijuana into the United States. ranging in size from Class 1 (275' or more) to Class VI (65 ft.) research vessels (12). These ships support all NOAA By the early 1980's, the NOAA-Coast Guard missions and are operated by the 400 commissioned officers honeymoon, following their brief marriage in the church of of the NOAA Corps. The officer-scientists who serve in fisheries enforcement, was over. The MFCMA was NOAA hold naval ranks from Ensign to Rear Admiral and working very well, but CG and NOAA people had no time comprise the nation's Seventh, and smallest, uniformed to rejoice, because since then they've been too occupied service. The Corps, renamed in 1970, was created in 1917 hunkering down every year or two to duck salvo after to provide engineers qualified for ship command who could budgetary salvo from the Administration and the Congress. conduct coastal hydrographic and geodetic surveys. These The CG leadership has been forced at times to tell the officers supervise crews of civil servant merchant seamen troops, "we've suffered another budget cut - but we're not when assigned to NOAA ships and perform research or going out of business!" NOAA has been in even worse administration duties when assigned to NOAA facilities shape, with a total budget decrease of 27 percent just from ashore. A few pilots among them also run the Office of Fiscal Year 1985 to FY 88. Overall, the NOAA budget is Aviation Operations, which flys and maintains NOAA's difficult to analyze, because expenditures for atmospheric small fleet of P-3 and C-130 research aircraft. and satellite activities have actually increased by 25% in the last year, while the deepest cuts have fallen on the agency's In almost every fiscal year in this decade, at least one ocean and research programs, with recent decreases of over of these research ships or aircraft has had to be laid up due 50 percent (12). If these budget cuts threaten to remove the to funding constraints. With budget problems paralleling "0" from NOAA, however, the "0" in the Coast Guard is those of the Coast Guard, NOAA has also seemed to lack already gone. Only a handful of physical oceanographers in direction, and a NACOA study group has recommended that the International Ice Patrol remain. The service-wide "NOAA accelerate efforts to clearly define its long term role program coordinator, the USCG Oceanographic Unit in in the nation's ocean research effort." ( 12) Recently retired Washington, D.C., was disestablished a few years ago. Rear Admiral J. Brad Mooney, former Chief of Naval Laboratories, wire winches, and Marine Science Technicians Research and Oceanographer of the Navy, has stated that "if 917 NOAA is to continue to exist, NOAA needs a charter. Until This reorganization would accomplish several things. then, there will be territorial disputes among several federal It would consolidate the services of nearly 45,000 people agencies that do work in the ocean" ( 13 1. and provide more of the critical mass envisioned by the Stratton Commission and certainly needed in the era of As an ocean agency in the Department of Commerce, Gramm-Rudman-Hollings. It would bring together the NOAA has the same problems getting attention as the Coast organizations charged with providing the nation's Guard does as a sea-going armed service in the Department hydrographic: and navigation information, and do away with of Transportation. Both agencies' constituencies are not big the "union shop" frustration faced by NOAA Corps officers, or loud enough to channel even emergency funding away who currently must stop surveying at 4 pm every day at sea from politically powerful bureaucratic competition like the or pay overtime to the unionized federal merchant seamen International Trade or Federal Aviation Administrations. who crew their ships. It would reduce the oversize crews of NOAA makes up 38% of the Commerce Department work Coast Guard polar icebreakers, which have become force, and the Coast Guard is definitely the majority essentially polar research vessels, to give more room and component of DOT. The DOT Secretary travels in CG make them more responsive to the research scientists they aircraft and enjoys the services of a Coast Guard aide, as serve; as well as reducing the crew complement of CG buoy does the Commerce Secretary, who is assisted by a NOAA tenders, helping to silence those who scream for officer. Yet last year, the Coast Guard received only 9.2% privatization. The Ocean Survey Corps would provide a of the total Transportation Department budget, a category more complete and diverse career ladder for those NOAA known as Function 400. During the Reagan years, Corps officers who complain that they get too many tours at privatization advocates have claimed that many USCG sea, as well as those Coast Guard personnel in marine safety duties, such as aids to navigation; and NOAA services, such or aids to navigation who don't get enough sea duty. The as hydrographic surveying and chart production, should be OSC organization immediately puts more Coast Guard hulls turned over to the private sector. For its part, the Coast at sea for drug smugglers to have to avoid, and the reduced Guard has responded that only the military can perform crews, supplemented by LEDETS and reserves, frees up these vital functions during wartime, which is the reason the other Coast Guard people for law enforcement and military USCG got into the merchant marine inspection business in readiness duties in the regular white hull fleet. This will the first place during World War 11. Ironically however, the allow for higher, naval ship-size manning levels on both marine safety program also forms the basis for the service's current and future patrol cutters, which will be needed for home in DOT. But, as politicians continue to argue public policing and defending the EEZ@MDZ. In the multi-mission versus private sector ideology, budget cuts slash both CG-OSC, NOAA ships without employment wouldn't have agencies to the bone. The Administration blames Congress, to be laid up; the crew could simply be augmented and the Congress blames the Administration, and in the meantime vessel sent out on patrol until other ocean projects come NOAA ships and Coast Guard cutters sit at the dock, laid up along. Conversely, an OSC ship engaged in research or or out of money for fuel, as EEZ ocean research goes survey would simply radio the position of any spotted undone and drug smugglers have free passage to our shores. smuggling suspects to CG aircraft or other patrol vessels for them to track and make the interdiction. The concept of an TBE USCG OCEAN SURVEY CORPS Ocean Survey Corps fleet provides a more stable and efficient operating environment for CG red hull (icebreakers) In the midst of all this, and with the federal budget and black hull (buoy tender) sailors, NOS personnel, and deficit and the current need for greater government efficiency those members of the Coast Guard to whom the growing firmly in mind, it seems that the time has come, as it did in missions of law enforcement and military readiness hold no 1915, during World War 11, and in 1969, for a appeal. It also retains the basic multi-mission character of reorganization of the federal marine agencies, and that a the service, while simultaneously providing a broadened and politically plausible approach is necessary. The Coast better sense of direction for the NOAA Corps, and a degree Guard maintains the nation's aids to navigation, but NOAA of specialization for CG officers. For example, OSC provides the hydrographic information and the charts. The officers could retain the distinctive NOAA Corps insignia, EEZ and MDZ have set the stage for the 38,000 members of just as USPHS medical personnel do while wearing the the Coast Guard to absorb a portion of the 15,000 Coast Guard blue uniform. The OSC allows CG officers employees of NOAA to form a Coast Guard counterpart to more career opportunities in ocean science and engineering, the Army's Corps of Engineers. The USACOE operates in while giving more NOAA Corps people opportunities for support of both the nation's civil works and construction responsibilities in administration. With a Vice Admiral as needs and the Army's combat engineering readiness. With Chief of the OSC, the organization would not have to this model, the National Ocean Service's Offices of Charting change much from what is currently found in the USCG and Geodesy, Marine Operations, Aviation Operations and Office of Navigation and the National Ocean Service. the NOAA Corps would remain basically intact and be Taking the NOAA Corps just by itself, it does seem integrated into the Coast Guard, forming the nucleus of an ludicrous for this country to continue to maintain a quasi- Ocean Survey Corps (OSC) within the service, probably military group of less than 400 commissioned officers, all under the USCG Office of Navigation. Over 100 Coast chiefs with no real indians, adrift in the middle of a civilian Guard buoy tenders and icebreakers, together with the 23 agency. NOAA ships, would become part of the OSC. These vessels, all of which have virtually no capabilities to fight a Exploration of new frontiers under military auspices is modern naval war, would basically be considered support or a tradition as old as mankind. Virtually all of history's great auxiliary ships, a separate component from the main Coast explorations of discovery, including space exploration, have Guard fleet. They would be crewed entirely by OSC been supported by military personnel. The problem is in military personnel, mostly Marine Science Technicians, at adapting the military organization to meet the needs of the minimum manning levels necessary to accomplish only exploring the EEZ. As NOAA ships and Coast Guard polar the peacetime jobs.. The crews could then be augmented by icebreaker crews are presently organized, however, this kind CG Law Enforcement Detachments (LEDETs) and CG or of scientific efficiency is simply not possible. Neither Navy reservists, if necessary, for special deployments. 918 unionized seaman nor oversized wartime complements of few years. But, above all, Walsh argues, any new plan military men can efficiently perform marine science at sea. must be politically "do-able", or it is no plan at all. What is A streamlined and dedicated group of scientists and MSTs obvious from twenty years of hindsight is that the Stratton can accomplish much more. Another function which has Commission's Report had miserable political timing. The been conspicuously lacking in strength in NOAA which had lesson to be learned is that any national ocean policy been recommended by the Stratton Commission is the "window of opportunity" which opens in the early 1990's vigorous development of new marine technologies. This is should not be squandered again 14). the muscle that has long been essential in moving toward new maritime goals. After lagging for awhile, however, the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS marine technology situation is quickly improving, as evidenced by the recent highly publicized use of Remotely The author would like to thank Drs. Lauriston R. King Operated Vehicles (ROV's) for the exploration of the and Richard A. Geyer for valuable discussions, and Drs. Titanic, as well as in the search for the remains of the space Feenan Jennings, Richard Rezak and Capt. T.K. Treadwell, shuttle Challenger. A large number of other innovative all of Texas A&M University, for critical review of drafts. technologies for exploring the last frontier on planet earth are currently under development. The proposed Ocean Survey REFERENCES Corps would also facilitate better coordination and funding for this kind of R&D by the two military sea services, Coast 11 Stratton, Julius A., Chairman. (January, 1969) Our Guard and Navy, who are already drawing closer on the Nation and the Sea- A Planfor National Action. Report MDZ front, to focus their efforts on the strategic of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and implications of ocean development in the EEZ. Currently, Resources. U.S. Government Printing Office, 305 p. the EEZ is nothing but a geographic boundary, but long term development will eventually require a vigorous maritime 2) Wenk, Edward L. (1972) The Politics of the Ocean, police force, with many new and more capable patrol and University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA, 590 p. research vessels above and below the waves. (3) Geyer, Richard A. (1986) Vice Chairman, Stratton CONCLUSION Commission, personal communication, Bryan, TX There is not space here to discuss all the ramifications (4) Bowen, R.E. (1981 The Major U.S. Government of this organizational change. Many Senators and Reorganization Proposals. In: Hoole, F.W., Friedheim, Congressmen with ocean and maritime interests, however, R.L., & Hennessey, T.M. (Eds.), Making Ocean are already taking action on the subject. Several related bills Policy. Westview Press, Boulder, CO, p. 51-69. were introduced in 1987 and are currently pending in committee. One Senate bill would make NOAA an [5) Gale, R.P. & Miller, R.L. (1986) The United States independent agency, fully establishing it as the principle Ocean Resources Service: A Proposal. Policy Studies civilian ocean agency in the federal government. Clearly, Review, 6:2, Nov. 1986, p. 310-320. NOAA would be better off concentrating on policy and coordinating ocean science research and technology, while 16) Brooks, D.L. (1983) America Looks to the Sea . Jones leavft operations to the UNOLS fleet, the OSC and private & Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Boston, MA, 266 p. charter vessels. NOAA should become the strong, independent agency originally envisioned by the Stratton (7) Sheina, Robert L. (1986) Coast Guard History. USCG Commission, especially if the Commerce Department Commandant's Bulletin, 16-85, 8/4/86, p. 11-34. continues to move toward becoming the Department of International Trade and Industry (DITI) as has also been (8) Powers, P.A. (1987) CG Money. USCG proposed. At the same time it seems that certain NOAA Commandant's Bulletin, 19-87, 11/20/87, p. 2-5. service operations could be more efficiently accomplished from within the Coast Guard. ( 9) Walsh, Don. (198 1) National Organization for Ocean Management: Centralization vs. Functionalization. In: Finally, in the larger scheme of things, if NOAA and Hoole, F.W., et al., p. 71-87. the Coast Guard are to be moved, where should they go? I tend to agree with Don Walsh, who believes the Stratton [ 10) Baker, L. & Puckett, D.L. (1987) CG Overview. Commission's "centralized" plan of reorganization was too Comnandant's Bulletin, 11-87, 9/30/87, p. 15-36. politically radical to succeed, and instead prefers a "functionalized" scheme, similar to the current cabinet ( 11) Webster, Lt. W.R., USCG (1988) The Development departments, which requires a minimum of political of the Maritime Defense Zone. U.S. Naval Post- wrangling with Congress. In this framework only two new Graduate School Paper, Monterrey, CA, p. 7. organizational elements would be created, and both NOAA and the USCG would each become independent agencies. J 121 Flipse, J.E., Chairman. (1987) The Roles & Missions The Coast Guard, in a separate USCG Administration, of NOAA. NACOA Special Report - 114 p. would include the NOAA Corps and ships; while NOAA, NASA, and the National Science Foundation would form ( 131 Larry L. Booda, "Despite Lack of NOAA Charter, an independent but closely allied National Science and NOAA-Navy Cooperation Good", Sea Technology, Technology Administration (NSTA). August 1986, p. 48-54. In the current climate, I believe this plan could (14) Knecht, R.W., Cicin-Sain, B., & Archer, J.H. (1988) succeed, especially if the USCG Administrator was also National Ocean Policy: A Window of Opportunity. appointed the overall coordinator, or "czar" of the drug war; Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 19, and if some of the "lost sheep" marine programs in other p. 113-142. agencies eventually joined the new NOAA down the road a 919 NATIONAL RESPONSE MECHANISM Harry E. Schultz, LCDR, USCG U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters (G-MER-2) 2100 Second St. S.W. Washington, DC 20593-0001 ABSTRACT section individually and then reviewing the integrated system. The four sections to be The United States has developed a national oil and examined are: The statutory authorities, the hazardous substance spill response system as required regulatory structure, the agency response under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) organizations and the composition of the local of 1972, as amended, and the Comprehensive response community. This paper concentrates Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980. The National Contingency Plan on the U.S. Coast Guard role in the response (NCP) establishes the National Response Team (NRT), system but also represents the general Regional Response Teams (RRTs), and the National Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) role in Response Center (NRC). It also defines the role of the the same system. On-Scene Coordinator (OSQ. The system relies on the maintenance of comprehensive contingency plans and functions through an intricate network of interagency 2. FEDERAL RESPONSE STATUTES relationships. The four critical aspects of this system are the statutory authorities, the regulatory structure, The first section to be examined is the the agency response organizations and the composition of the local response community. Each of these aspects statutory authorities. There are three federal is examined individually, and then presented as an statutes that provide the basis for Coast Guard integrated spill response system. This paper focuses on authority to respond (Figure 1). Each statute has the U.S. Coast Guard role in the response system and the specific intent and equally specific limitations. Coast Guard's spill capabilities in the coastal zone. (a) The Federal Water Pollution Act (FWPCA, 1972, as amended) in section 311 (k) Oil Chemical created the $35 million Pollution Fund. This Spill Spill fund, administered by the USCG, but equally available to the EPA, may by used to finance the response to and removal of a pollutant if: (1) The spilled material is either oil or one Comprehensive Federal Water Intervention Environmental of 297 specified chemicals, Pollution on the High Response (2) the spill has entered Control Act Seas Act Compensation and Liability Act navigable/tributary waters or threatens same, and Figure 1 (3) the spiller is unwilling to undertake cleanup or the identity is unknown. 1. INTRODUCTION The Pollution Fund is an appropriated resource requiring periodic Congressional action The federal response mechanism is a for continuation. Monies collected through the national oil . and hazardous substance spill reimbursement processes are returned to the response system. It is based on statute and fund. regulation, relies on the maintenance of (b) The Comprehensive Environmental comprehensive contingency plans and functions Response, Compensation, and Liability Act through an intricate network of interagency (CERCLA) OF 1980 established the original relationships. The system can be best explained Superfund. The Superfund Amendments by breaking it into four sections, examining each Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 reauthorized 920 United States Government work not protected by copyright the original Superfund at $9.0 billion. This fund, administered by the EPA, but also available to U OSC G the USCG, may be used to finance an immediate EPA and/or remedial response to either an actual or potential chemical release which threatens the environment. Oil is an excluded substance, and chemicals are identified by characteristic rather than by name to avoid possible oversight. Superfund monies are accumulated from tax revenues related to chemical production. (c) A third statute which is related to both NRT the FWPCA and CERCLA is the Intervention on the High Seas Act (IHSA, 1974). The IHSA authorizes the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard, following a series of Figure 3 consultations/notifications among State Department, EPA, and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to assume physical control of any (non-military) vessel on the high seas, regardless of flag, which poses a substantial environmental threat to specific United States' resources. Both the FWPCA Pollution Fund and the CERCLA Superfund may be used in directly to incidents but provides guidance prior conjunction with high seas intervention to an incident and assistance as requested during activities. an incident. Its membership includes representatives from those fourteen federal agencies having environmental responsibilities (Figure 3). The NRT is chaired by the EPA and CED vice-chaired by the USCG. Meetings are held in National N flanal Figure 2 Washington, DC once a month. The NCP also Co ntlngency :.ponse Plan Team established the National Response Center (NRC) as a 24 hour report processing and response coordinating center. The NRC is supported by 8 the members of the NRT and staffed by USCG Regional Regional ContingencY Response (080 personnel. Plan Team- EFIT NSr The NCP. created a second organizational PIAT SSC level through the establishment of Regional Local Contingency Response Teams (RRTs). Like the NRT, RRTs are Plan The pro-desIgnated federal On-Scene coordinators have planning policy and coordinating bodies and do resources to support the LCP not respond directly to incidents. There are 13 RRTs, one for each of the ten federal regions plus one each for Alaska, the Caribbean, and the 3. FEDERAL REGULATORY STRUCTURE Pacific Basin. RRT membership is basically the same as the NRT but also includes a The second section to be examined is the representative from each state in its respective regulatory structure (Figure 2). Both the FWPCA region. Each RRT is co-chaired by the USCG and and SARA require the development of a National EPA. RRTs meet semi-annually, more often if Contingency Plan (NCP) to establish the federal necessary, to maintain their Regional framework for oil and hazardous material spill Contingency Plans (RCPs) and to provide local contingency planning and response organization. resource support. The NCP has been codified and appears as The third organizational level created by federal regulation in Title 40 of the Code of the NCP is at the local level. The Local Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 300. The NCP Contingency Plan (LCP) is a specific document establishes the National Response Team (NRT). which identifies environmentally sensitive areas The NRT is primarily a national planning, policy and resources at risk, contains a response and coordinating body that does not respond equipment guide and response procedures, and ,(E JA 921 identifies operational contacts throughout the local response network. The LCP is developed as U.S. Coast Environmental an "immediate response" document. As with Guard Protection most operational planning documents, a Agency significant benef it is derived during the National Response Center development and annual updating of the LCP. The most important element in regulatory USCG EPA structure is the role defined for the On-Scene Coordinator (OSQ. The OSC is the predesignated federal official responsible for ensuring proper Figure 4 d RA pollution response and enforcement. The OSC: coordinates all federal containment, removal and disposal efforts and resources during an incident; authorized to control and finance pollution cleanup operations; serves as point of contact for the coordination of federal efforts with those of the local response community; and is a source of mep ER valuable support and information to the local 1 response community. The USCG provides OSCs for the coastal zone and the EPA provides OSCs for the inland zone. The boundary between the coastal zone district boundaries and federal regions don't and inland zone is determined by an agreement align. between the USCG and the EPA for each of the 13 Next in the actual line of authority after regions and is found in the respective RCPs. the District Commander is the Captain of the Port (COTP) (Figure 5). The COTP is normally the 4. USCG/EPA RESPONSE STRUCTURES Commanding Officer of the local Marine Safety Office (MSO). This individual serves as the USCG The organization of the response agencies OSC when an incident occurs. There are is the third section to be examined. Figure 4 currently 48 MSOs in the Coast Guard. illustrates that the national structure allows for The EPA organization parallels that of the the designation of essentially parallel agencies USCG to a large degree. The EPA has an (USCG and EPA) to resolve inland and coastal Administrator (A) (instead of G-C) and the zone spill situations using the same planning, Administrator's representative serves as chair of logistics, and funding strategies. The USCG, an agency in the Department of Transportation, is headed by the Commandant (G-C), to whom the Secretary of Transportation G-C Commandant has redelegated the various authorities for the FWPCA, CERCLA, and IHSA. The Commandant's representative serves as vice-chair of the NRT. The USCG is divided into ten districts which don't District coincide with the ten federal regions. Each d Commander district is headed by a District Commander (d), to whom most of the statutory authorities. have been transferred (except IHSA). Assisting the District Commander in a staff capacity -is the Chief, Marine Safety Division (in) and the Chief, COTP 0SC Marine Environmental Protection Branch (mep). The Chief, Marine Safety Division serves as co- chair of the RRT. The Chief, Marine Captain of On-Scene Environmental Protection Branch generally the Port Commander manages each district's allocation from the Pollution Fund. Close coordination among USCG Figure 5 districts and associated staffs is required since 0 mmandant st �LD i riCt Com mander 922 the NRT. There are ten Regional Administrators are especially suited to large-scale, immediate- (RA) (instead of d), and each region has an Office response oil spills and chemical releases in the of Emergency and Remedial Responses (OERR), or marine environment, but also include site equivalent (instead of in). The regional Chief, assessment; safety and action plan development; OERR generally serves as co-chair of the RRT. and documentation for both inland and coastal The similarity ends with Emergency Response zone incidents. Branch (ER) (equivalent to mep). Unlike the USCG which has a three-level organization (b) The Scientific Support Coordinator (national, district, and local), EPA has a two-level (SSC) is a scientific and technical advisor funded organization (national and regional). Since there by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric is no local-level EPA structure, the pre- Administration (NOAA) and assigned one to each designated OSCs come from a group in the USCG 'district. The SSC assists OSCs in the regional offices. evaluation of availabld technical data and serves as the principal point of contact for members of 5. LOCAL RESPONSE COMMUNITY the scientific community. The SSC network involves detailed and frequent exchanges of The f ourth and final section to be information to support one another. Their examined is the composition of the local capabilities include: S urface/sub surface response community. The focal point of activity trajectory forecasting/hindcasting, resources at for all majqr response episodes involving the use risk analysis, technical hazard data, contingency planning, and general communications. (c) The Public Information Assist Team (PIAT) is a highly skilled unit of Public. Affairs Specialists funded by the USCG and based in NSF Washington, DC. At the request of an OSC, PIAT is prepared to either complement the existing or rPIATJ SSC provide additional public information capability The pre-designated federal for 'an OSC to pro .perly address the role of the On-Scene co-ordinators have media during an immediate response. PIAT resources to support the LCP maintains and coordinates the flow of timely and factual information from the OSC to the public through frequent and direct contact with the Federal, news media. State and Cleanup Disposal Local Contractor(s) (d) The Environmental Response Team Agencies (ERT) is a group of highly-trained scientists and engineers funded by the EPA and based i n Figure 6 Edison, NJ and Cincinnati, OH. The capabilities of the ERT include multimedia sampling and of federal funds is the OSC, (Figure 6). Most Arialysis, hazard evaluation, contamination cleanup activities are accomplished through. monitoring, cleanup techniques and overall prenegotiated agreements with private sector technical support to the OSCs. contractors. In addition to the cooperative assistance of various federal, state, and local 6. CONCLUSION agencies, and contracted services, the OSC (either USCG or EPA) has Special Forces to call upon. The purpose of this paper has been The Special Forces. are four unique resources: identify and examine the four parts of the (a) The National Strike Force (NSF) consists national spill response system. The dynamic of two strategically located strike teams on the integration of the components (Figure 7) during Pacific coast and the Gulf coast. These units arc an actual incident enables an On-Scene composed of a corps of extensively trained USCG Coordinator to assemble a multi -disciplinary personnel who have a large pollution response support group which is otherwise unavailable equipment inventory. Strike Team capabilities during an emergency time frame. 923 The National Response Mechanism Oil Chemical Spill Spill Comprehensive Federal Water Intervention Environmental Pollution on the High Response Control Act Seas Act Compensation d Liability Act U.S. Coast Environmental Guard Protection Agency National Response Center USCG EPA ciEi) d RA National National Contingency Response Plan Team Regional Regional Ue p UR Contingency Response Plan Team Local Contingency (DOC Plan EFIT NSF PIAT SSC Figure 7 The pre-designated federal On-Scene co-ordinators have resources to support the LCP Federal, State and Cleanup Local Agencies Contractor(s) Id Disposal .924 SATELLITE OCEAN MONITORING AT TEN YEARS: PERCEPTIONS AND REALITIES Jamison S. Hawkins National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Washington, D.C. 20233 ABSTRACT * Witness illegal refuse dumping 0 See the Statue of Liberty unveiling fireworks display Satellite remote sensing of the ocean is important to the 9 See Halley's Comet maritime industry, fishing, and environmental research, - See Skylab reenter the atmosphere but has real limitations. The capabilities and limitations of * Identify fields of marijuana remote sensing should be better understood by policy and decision makers, as well as nonremote-sensing The tenth anniversary of the current series of NOAA oceanographers. operational polar-orbiting satellites, TIROS-N, is a good time to re-examine satellite remote sensing for ocean Satellites are perceived as being the solution to many applications and to set the record straight about satellite nagging ocean surveillance problems, like pollution capabilities. monitoring. While satellites hold the promise to do more in the future, and are critical elements of various maritime SATELLITE-DERIVED SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURES programs today, the applicability of space-based remote sensing should not be oversold. Origina. The reason for attempting oceanography from space in the first place was to improve weather forecasting. Several This year is the tenth anniversary of the TIROS-N series of patriarchs of numerical weather forecasting had long polar-orbiting spacecraft. It is time to reexamine what the pointed out that the modelling of air-sea interaction was nation's only operational remote sensing satellites have 'essential for good numerical weather prediction. [71 The contributed to oceanography and commerce. When planned, conventional ship and buoy network was hopelessly these satellites were not expected to be beneficial as they now inadequate in depicting the thermal properties of the earth's are or can be. enormous ocean surface. [101 INTRODUCTION In the late 1960s, thoughts in weather forecasting circles turned to satellites as potential sea surface temperature (SST) Faced with increasing coastal pollution and erosion observers. 15,83 Polar-orbiting spacecraft were perfect in that problems, and, following a series of maritime mysteries like they provided global coverage of the global ocean.'(Figure 1) dolphin deaths, mid-latitude red tide blooms, and Caribbean coral bleachings, scientists and politicians are looking to the N skies for answers. Earthbound efforts have yet to yield many definite conclusions. Satellites, we are led to believe, are Gilmore Creek, exactly the high-tech oce Ian watchdogs that we need. They Alaska "J%r4, can see everything over the entire globe. They help find Wallops hurricanes where no ship-board weather observers exist. Island, Surely they can find plumes of pollution where no EPA or DA-o Virginia Coast Guard observers are sailing. Stations 530 MI Unfortunately, too many policy and decision makers are victims of false perceptions about satellite capabilities that circulate in the media, in the Congress, even among some scientists on the periphery of ocean studies. quator Misconceptions about satellite capabilities in general, and remote sensing from space in particular, are not limited to 28.80 national tabloids. Here are some examples of things NOAA Earth Rotation satellites can not do that were legitimate requests from our Orbit Path constituents: Per Orbit � Identify earthquakes Figure 1. Configuration of sun-synchronous polar-orbit � See the mid-air explosion of an Irish jetliner used by NOAA's TIROS-N series of environmental � identify the vessel which cast off a lifeboat of refugees near satellites. Newfoundland in 1986 9@5 United States Government work not protected by copyright Planners for the 1968 Carribbean-Atlantic atmospheric As for the fisherman, the success stories are many. Entire research experiment, BOMEX, speculated that satellites fleets now rely on satellite-derived ocean thermal boundary 11 may prove almost as useful as ships for the synoptic data charts, radioed from the National Weather Service or private needed for environmental predictions." [51 consultants, to save fuel and increase catches by identifying the most likely areas of high fish concentration. Satellite- Other scientists were quick to point out that the utility of derived sea ice charts, used primarily by the Navy, are also satellite-derived SSTs would extend to the maritime being received by fishermen in Arctic regions. industry, particularly to fishing. [61 Although NOAA had been producing satellite and ship- Ibased The First Practical Applications. The distance between a ocean current analyses for the National Weather Service weather satellite in orbit and the surface of the sea or the deck operationally since 1973, it was with the 1978 launch of the of a fishing boat loaded with albecore has decreased over the improved "third generation" polar-orbiting satellite, past two decades, figuratively speaking. In 1966, when some TIROS-N, that satellite oceanography came of age. The NASA researchers first looked at crude SST fields derived sensors were higher resolution and less noisy. The spectral from their Nimbus II spacecraft, the captain of a Starkist response and calibration were better, allowing for more Tuna boat or an Exxon tanker would have dismissed remote- accurate retrievals that accounted for atmospheric effects. sensing satellites as toys for white-collared, slide-rule-toting Computer power had increased substantially, too, allowing physicists hunkered over light tables in some back-East for more timely fields on finer (as low as 14 kilometers) research lab. (Figure 2) grids in numerous regions globally. Global distribution of analyzed satellite SST maps burgeoned, and a greater However, in 1975, a fleet of eleven Exxon tankers was used to variety of users, commercial and government, research and prove the benefit of using satellite current analyses for operational, began receiving them on a subscription basis. navigation. Five of the ships received satellite-derived maps By 1981, the National Weather Service Forecast Office at of the Gulf Stream and were told to use them for routing from Redwood City, California, had added locally-derived the Gulf of Mexico to the Northeast. The other six did not satellite-based thermal boundaries to their twice-weekly receive them and navigated by customary means. The Pacific sea-surface analysis. [31 In 1983, further savings were significant: Exxon estimated that 31,500 improvements in accuracy were wrought by a new multi- barrels of fuel oil per year could be saved by its fleet of 15 channel SST algorithm using all infrared bands of the tankers using satellite data to find the stream northbound newest version of NOAA's Advanced Very High Resolution and avoid it southbound. [31 Radiometer flying on NOAA-8. OPERATIONS VS. DEMONSTRATIONS By early 1983, some five years into the TIROS-N program, and hundreds of millions of SSTs, thousands of upwelling boundary charts, current analyses, and sea ice maps later, the following uses. of satellite observations for operational purposes were well established: 9 SSTs globally for input to weather modelling e SSTs for local weather forecasts 0 Ocean thermal boundary analyses for fishing, ship routing, search and rescue missions, sailing races, offshore oil and mineral production Ice boundary analyses over oceans and the Great Lakes for the Navy and commercial shipping For experimental purposes, these other applications had been GULF STOAN at least demonstrated: NIMBUS 11 RRIR * Wetland habitat change monitoring ORBIT 2448 9 Oil spill tracking 15 Nov 196610504Z 9 Sedimentation of river deltas, estuaries, sounds * Marine-mammal habitat surveillance ISITIREINS AT 2K INTERVAL * Pollution plume surveillance SHADED AREA 290 K Clearly the most significant contribution of oceanography from space had been and continues to be radiometric thermal analysis. [91 The highly publicized, ongoing NOAA investigation of the 1987 Carolina Red Tide event uses a 72 A satellite-based SST analysis as a focus for forwarding the Figure 2. Earliest satellite-derived SST fields, like this one idea of operationally monitoring for such events in the along the East Coast from NIMBUS II data, were of little future; it was not direct space-based observations of Red Tide, operational use; the views were distorted and lacked but observations of extraordinarily warm filaments of water adequate, cloud and atmospheric moisture corrections. breaking away from the Gulf Stream near Cape Hatteras that (From Rao, 1969 [71) propelled this investigation. But, what put the brakes on furthering other demonstrated applications, like those listed above, and kept us from 926 developing them into operational programs? For example, the NOAA TIROS-N series repeats a view twice each day--once in darkness, once in daylight--and has a The Oil Pollution Examnle. We have looked at pollution resolution of 1.1 kilometers. Landsat, with a much better from space. Point source and non point source pollution has resolution of thirty meters, repeats a view only every sixteen been identified from TIROS-N series and Landsat satellites. days. Two general criteria must be met to identify ocean pollutants from these spacecraft: 1) the pollutant must cover a large An orbit inclined to, for instance, 40 degrees to the equator enough area -- more than the 1.1 kilometer square pixel in the will offer a more frequent view and could be set up to afford a case of the TIROS-N sensors, and 2) the pollutant must be of a high resolution view, but would not be sun-synchronous. In different reflectivity or have significantly different thermal addition, its repeat cycle would be an irregular pattern. or spectral properties than the surrounding water mass. (A third criteria, frequent repeat viewing, must be met for Cloud Climatology - A Hard Reality. One problem too successful source identification of point-source pollution.) frequently overlooked is that most weather instruments on satellites were designed to look at clouds, not through them, Plumes of turbid water are relatively easy to discern. But, and the Earth is a cloudy planet. Passive microwave sensors identifying slicks of floating plastics in well-mixed water is can detect surface properties where there are clouds, but the virtually impossible. Landsat has seen acid iron waste resolution of current microwave instruments is far too coarse plumes from vessel durnpings because of their spectral for many detailed oceanic applications, except for ice difference from sea water. Oil spills have been seen on determination. For visible and infrared surveillance many occasions because they alter the reflectivity of the considerations, U.S. satellite users must contend with a surface. [41 rather cloudy EEZ. During a relatively clear month, climatology shows that, over New York Bight for instance, Oil spill detection and tracking from space, however, have skies are less than one-fourth cloud covered only about 40% of been limited in an operational sense. The world's largest oil the time; clear skies account for only about 15% of all spill, originating from a blown-out platform in the Gulf of observations. (121 Some 200 miles off San Francisco, the odds Campeche in 1979, offered the chance to use multiple space decrease to 29% and 9%. [121 In the famous "Doughnut Hole" platforms to track an oil slick with mixed success. While a of the Bering Sea, the numbers drop to a dismal 6% and 2%. (21 post-analysis of nearly six months of Landsat imagery left (Figures 4,5,6) no doubt that oil washing ashore in Texas was indeed from Campeche, sensor resolution, sun-angle variations, and OTHER SATELLITE SYSTEMS AND SENSORS cloud cover limited the usefulness of imagery from NOAA satellites for accurate tracking. [41 Landsat. The Landsat system, originally a NASA research program, was turned over to NOAA for operations in the THE REAL LIMITATIONS early 1980s. With a thematic mapper sensor resolution of 30 meters, and a multispectral scanner resolution of 80 meters, Orbital Problems -- Reneat Views. Satellites in polar orbit it held the promise of sea-surface and coastal scrutiny from can see the entire globe. The benefit of making these orbits space. If NOAA weather birds and NASA research sun-synchronous means a constant sun angle for image spacecraft were sentinels in the guard tower, Landsat would comparisons. The frequency of repeat viewing is dependent be the spy, it was thought. But, though many ocean-related upon the width of the swath over the the ground viewed by the investigations utilized high-re solution, multispectral sensors, as well as the altitude and inclination and imagery from Landsat, too few of them demonstrated the procession of the orbit. In general, higher resolution means a applicability for an operational program. The reasons are narrower swath which means a less frequent repeat view for painfully simple: Landsat has a sixteen day repeat cycle a given point on the ground. Lower resolution means a versus twice-daily for the NOAA polar orbiters. Even the larger swath can be sampled and the repeat view is more addition of a second Landsat would reduce the repeat view to frequent. (Figure 3) only eight days. In addition, the higher resolution of Landsat data means a smaller areal coverage, and a much greater A data processing volume and cost for viewing a TIROS-N- sized swath portion. Processing time for Landsat is much AN, longer, too, with a twenty-four hour turnaround about the best possible (compared with an hour or so for the TIROS-N series). Ocean Color Coincident with the advent of TIROS-N was the NASA research mission satellite, NIMBUS VII. Onboard was the first coastal zone color scanner (CZCS) -- an instrument designed to reveal biological activity near the ocean surface. CZCS showed color variations linked to seasonal blooms of algae, and nutrient variations on upwelling boundaries in the open ocean, sounds, and estuaries. Researchers had a field day intercomparing CZCS -N. In the fields and satellite temperature data from TIROS remarkable 1982-1983 El Nino, CZCS data showed biological ...... ... changes in areas of unusual surface warming along the Figure 3. Narrow orbital coverage swaths (A) of most high- Pacific Coast. resolution satellite sensors in polar orbit yield less frequent repeat views. Wider swaths (B) of the NOAA TIROS-N A new ocean color instrument called SeaWiFS (Sea Wide series afford repeat viewing of any point twice daily at a Field Sensor) is scheduled to fly on the Landsat 6 satellite, lower resolution (1.1 km). slated for a 1991 launch. 927 Radar. Besides passive microwave, the limitations of which have already been described, what satellite-borne sensor could aid in piercing clouds? The only unclassified answer to date is radar -- specifically, synthetic aperture radar New York (SAR). SAR, with a resolution of as little as 25 meters, has been shown to be able to detect ships and ship movements. The ships themselves appear only as quasirectangular blips on the SAR image. The data processing volume of SAR data, a research version of which flew on SEASAT in 1978, is enormous. Turning the raw data into a product in time to be useful for enforcement or surveillance purposes is unlikely, 40 and has yet to be demonstrated. Moreover, SAR instruments are big and expensive. A NASA SAR will probably fly on the polar platform of the late 1990s. The European Space Agency's ERS-1, slated for a 1990 launch, will carry a SAR. 30 NOAA will process limited ERS-1 SAR data through a direct readout station in Alaska. SAR, as well as similar radar instruments like the space shuttle's SIR (Shuttle Imaging Radar), do provide exciting Kgure4. Clouds hamper routine monitoring of small scale new ocean-surface observations which have yet to be ocean events from space. Contours show percent of time sky thoroughly exploited. Space-based radar holds the promise to is less than one-quarter cloud covered -- October ("Clear" bear plenty of ocean-dynamics-re search "fruit" in the next month) New York Bight. decade. Other space-borne instruments, like scatterometer and the radar altimeter (both on SEASAT) will be flying on the polar platform, and will add much to ocean flux studies and other research experiments geared toward identifying global change processes. SUMMARY 20 Remote sensing from space is not the solution to numerous nagging ocean-related problems, specifically in certain programs of surveillance and enforcement. Future systems for ocean color and radar imaging, experimental versions of 30 which have already flown on research spacecraft, will spur more investigations aimed at developing programs to San FrancIsco monitor and protect the oceans and coasts. But, today's real limitations related to orbital cycles, cloud climatology, and 40 data processing will not go away. Remote-sensing satellite capabilities should be better understood by policy and decision makers, and others on the ,Ngure5. Same as Figure 4 for West Coast. periphery of ocean sciences. Applications of satellite oceanography, which came of age ten years ago with the advent of the TIROS-N series of satellites, are critical elements of various marine programs today. Exploiting the existing systems, recognizing the limitations, P and developing plans to use proposed sensors are the keys to 20 realistic satellite ocean programs in the future. 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to thank Luisa Rebull for her diligent typing, layout, and figure preparation efforts, and Syndrae fol < 0% Billings and Emogene Lawson for editing and proofing. Also, special thanks to Marcia Weaks and Julie Campbell of 10 NOAA for inspiration and advice, and to William Pichel for background information. @2O Figure 6. Same as Fig. 4 for Bering Sea & "Doughnut Hole. 928 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Baker, D. James and W. Stanley Wilson. "Spaceborne Observations in Support of Earth Science". Oceanus Volume 29, Number 4. Woods Hole, Massachusetts: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Winter 1986/87. 2. Brower, William A., Harold W. Searby, and James L. Wise. Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf Waters and Coastal Repions of Alaska. Volume 1: The Bering Sea. Anchorage, Alaska: Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center and National Climatic Center, 1977. 3. Hussey, W. John. The Economic Benefits of Operational Environmental Satellites Washington, D.C.: National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, March 1983. 4. Johnson, Robert W. and John C. Munday, Jr. "The Marine Environment". Manual of Remote Sensing, Volume II. ed. John E. Estes and Gene A. Thorley. Falls Church, Virginia: American Society of Photogrammetry, 1983. 5. Kerley, Roger H. "Experiment at Barbados." Mariners 3Yg&thu-LgZ Volume 12, Number 5. Reprint used. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Science Services Administration, 1968, pgs 152-154. 6. Leese, J., W. Pichel, B. Goddard, and R. Brower. "Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Sea Surface Temperature Measurements from ITOS-SR Data." Reprint from Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Develonment. Conference Pre-print number 90 on Propagation Limitations in Remote Sensing. Washington, D.C.: NOAA/NESS, 1972. 7. Namias, J. "Use of Sea Surface Temperature in Long- Range Prediction." World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Technical Note No. 103, pgs. 1-18,1969. 8. OceanoLyranbic Data Arcbived by Satellite Data Services Division. Washington, D.C.: NOAA/EDIS, Satellite Data Services Division, 1980. 9. Rao, P. Krishna. "Sea Surface Temperature Measurements From Satellites." Mariners Weather Lo Volume 12, Number 5. Reprint used. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Science Services Administration, 1968, pgs 152-154. 10. Smith, W.L., P-K. Rao, R. Koffier, and W.R. Curtis. "The Determination of Sea Surface Temperature From Satellite High Resolution Infrared Window Radiation Measurements." Monthly Weather Review- Volume 98, Number 8. Reprint used. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Science Services Administration, August 1970, pgs 604-611. 11. Szekielda, Karl-Heinz- "Scales of Oceanic Parameters as Monitored from Space." University of Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany: Geological and Paleontological Institute, 1981. 12. U.S. N= Marine Climatic Atlas of the World. Volumes I and II, North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Asheville, North Carolina: Naval Weather Service Detachment, NOAA/ National Climatic Center, 1978. 929 MONITORINd THE ESTUARY Samuel E. McCoy NOAA Estuarine Programs Office, Washington., D-C- took a back seat to agriculture for ABSTRACT decades, but now it rivals. Industrial The importance of estuaries cannot be over water use,contributes to bay pollution; stressed because of their tremendous ', ' waste water from treatment plants and biological productivity and proximity to effluents from power plants are getting centers of commerce and population. Most increased attention as sources of trouble of the.shellfish and much of the finfish for bay life. Sedimentation in the consumed by man are harvested from bays.- estuaries - the process of deposit of Definitive monitoring is crucial to restore material from the land into the bays by the the national resources. Enhanced tributaries - has been increased by the monitoring will allow for sufficient data:' activity of man: e.g., sprawling housing to make valid management decisions. complexes, massive highway networks, large industrial parks, and shopping centers. 1. INTRODUCTION All of this denuding of natural vegetation and laying bare of the soil surface has The environmental quality of major U.S'. created greater runoff. In terms of estuaries today when compared with volume, sedimentation ranks Above domestic historical accounts of 2-3 hundred years sewage, industrial wastes, and chemicals as ago leaves something to be desired. Today, a major cause of water pollution. These the greatest population .densities are and other disconsonant uses have resulted located in the estuarine environments. The in degraded environmental quality and large magnitudes of people have resulted in consequently there has been substantial intensive uses of the estuaries. Agricul- reductions in living marine resources. ture has been the backbone of bay area Capt. John Smith, in 1608,.wrote about the economies. Poor farmin:g techniques have Chesapeake Bay, "a country that may have the prerogative over most places known, for caused water pollution through erosion, large and pleasant navigable rivers, heaven siltation, and chemical runoffs. Industry and earth never agreed better to frame a 930 United States Government work not protected by copyright Place for man's habitation." Smith and the which can then be used to document the early settlers praised the clarity of response (hopefully improvement) of the estuarine waters as well as the bounty of system to the many abatement acitions the living resources found. planned by State and Federal governments. This documentation process has been the The estuaries after more than 10,000 years principal emphasis of the program. Both of developing into major and generous the initial establishment of base-lines and resources, and after neglected and taken the ongo ing monitoring program are for granted for the last 200-350 years predicated upon a long-term commitment without proper manag Iement, are finally that will ensure consistent data covering getting the attention of some. "Save the many years. Emphasis has been placed on Bay" organizations around the country are obtaining high quality data that can serve poised to clean up the estuaries. A vast reliably to document changes in the system range of citizens, farmers, educators, over time, taking into account natural researchers, resource managers, legislators, year-to-year variations. Estuaries and governors will use monitoring typically show seasonal and annual information to answer questions and solve differences which reflect meteorological problems about the estuaries. and hydrolo.gical patterns as well as . cyclic phenomena which may cover a number 2. CHESAPEAKE BAY PROGRAM of years@ This kind of information is essential to provide a clear record of the The Chesapeake Bay Program (CBP) may serve impact that Federal and State governments' as a benchmark program for other remedial programs, both current and estuaries. IThe achievements and future, have on the Bay. (CBP Monitoring experiences of the CBP may be emulated by Subcommittee, 1985). other regional estuarine programs. In 1976, Congress directed the U.S. The CBP Study, which was directed in 1976, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to was completed in 1983. The study conduct a 5-year, $25 million study of the identified 10 primary water quality Chesapeake Bay, The CBP established a problems of the Bay, and chose three Chesapeake Bay Monitoring Plan. critical areas from the ten to receive intensive investigation: nutrient The monitoring program/plan was designed to enrichment, toxic substances, and the provide, initially, a sound "base-line" or decline of submerged aquatic vegetation. characterization of the health of the Bay, The major findings of the Bay Program 931 were: o THE AMOUNT OF BAY WATER SHOWING LOW (OR NO) DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN THE SUMMER IS 0 SUBMERGED AQUATIC VEGETATION (SAV) HAS ESTIMATED TO HAVE INCREASED 15-FOLD IN THE DECLINED THRO13GHOUT THE BAY. The 105S Of LAST 30 YEARS. Currently, much of the submerged aquatic vegetation appears to be water deeper than 40 ft., plus or minus, most severe in the northern Bay and is anoxic from early mid-May through western shore tr ibutaries. September in an area reaching from the Bay OYSTER SPAT SET HAS DECLINED SIGNIFICANTLY Bridge to the Rappahannock River. IN THE PAST 10 YEARS, particularly in the upper Bay, western tributaries, and some o ELEVATED LEVELS OF HEAVY METALS AND Eastern Shore areas such as the Chester TOXIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ARE FOUND IN BAY River. Trends in oyster harvest show a WATER AND SEDIMENTS. Highest concentra- similar pattern. tions occur near urban or industrialized areas, and in theupper Bay. Some of the o LANDINGS OF FRESHWATER-SPAWNING FISH, toxicants are being bioconcentrated by SUCH AS SHAD, ALEWIFE, AND STRIPED BASS plankton, shellfish, and finfish. (EPA, HAVE DECREASED IN RECENT YEARS. Spawning 1983). su ccess of these and other semi-anadromogs These findings strengthened the recognition or anadromous species has also been fair that because of the historical decline in to poor in most areas sampled. Harvests the living resources of the Chesapeake Bay) of marine-spawning fish, such as, menhaden, a cooperative approach was needed. The have generally remained stable, or inc- Chesapeake Bay Agreement of 1983 was signed reased. in 1983, by -the EPA Administrator, o LEVELS OF NUTRIENTS (PRIMARILY NITROGEN Governors of the States of Maryland) ,AND PHOSPHORUS) ARE INCREASING IN MANY Pennsylvania, and Virginia, and the Mayor AREAS OF THE BAY, LEADING TO DECLINING of the District of Columbia, to fully WATER QUALITY. Nutrient enrichment is address the extent,-complexity, and most severe in the northern and middle sources of pollutants entering the Bay. Bay, and upper reaches of tributaries and In addition, Memorandums of Understanding large algal blooms have been observed. (MOUs) were established between EPA and Only parts of the Potomac and James River, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. and some smaller areas currently exhibit Geological Survey, the Soil Conservation improving water quality with regard to Service, and the National Oceanic and nutrients. Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These MOUs established the participation of these 932 Federal Organizations in the management of government. the Chesapeake Bay Program. Under this institutional framework, the 1985 Each year since the Agreement of 1983 was Restoration and Protection Plan was placed into effect,the CBP Executive developed to "Improve and protect the water Council has reviewed the progress toward quality and living resources of the achievement of the set goals. CB Chesapeake Bay's ecological integrity, research, assessment, management, and of productivity, and beneficial uses and to course, monitoring, were examined for protect public health" (CBP Executive successes. These initiatives clearly indicated the complexity of the Bay's Council, 1985). This plan has been ecosystem and the parallel difficulty in implemented through the commitment of attempts to understand it. Nevertheless, Federal, State, and Local governments, in-depth monitoring interpretations and public and private entities, and citizens. correlations enabled the linkages between The plan was structured to address the problems and their causes to become following goals: increasingly clearer .during the course of o Nutrients: the CBP study: (1) Pollution activities Reduce point and non-point source nutrient occur throughout the drainage basin loading to attain nutrient and dissolved oxygen concentrations necessary to support affecting water quality in the tributaries the living resources of the Bay. and the Bay; (2) Degradation of the Bay's o Toxics'. water and sediment quality, in turn, has Reduce or control point and non-point affected the living resources; and (3) sources of toxic materials to attain or Declines in living resources have been maintain levels of toxicants not harmful to paralleled by changes in water quality which humans or living resources of the Bay. includeincreases in nutrient concentrations, o Living Resources: chlorophyll a, turbidity, and toxic Provide for the restoration of living chemicals/metals, and decreases in resources, their habitats, and ecological dissolved oxygen. relationships. o Related Matters: The adoption of these findings resulted in Develop and manage related environmental enhancement of programs to reduce and ,.programs with a concern for their impact control nutrient loadings to the system. on the Bay. Further, regulation of toxic contaminant o Institutional Manaoement: loadings were enforced more rigidly. Support and enhance a cooperative approach Stormwater management and the installation toward Bay management at all levels of 93.3 of best management practiced for plans. The centerpiece of the Agreement agricultural and urban lands reduced the is the commitment to achieve a 40% flow of toxic substances and nutrients reduction in total nitrogen and total improved monitoring has increased the phosphorus inputs to the Bay by the year understanding of the fate and effects of 2000, an ambitious target by any standard. toxic materials and ability to determine Emphasis is now being placed on living. the levels which are not harmful to humans resources'. needs in the Bay ecosystem. and the living resource. Continuation of Previously, the highest priority was enhanced monitoring programs is necessary restoring water quality. This Agreement to provide answers to the remaining calls for emphasizing improvements in research and management questions. living resource habitats, of which the A few hopeful signs should be noted. water column is a key component. Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) beds are coming back strongly, SAV are 3. WHY MONITOR? important habitat for fisheries and waterfowl; this could lead to increased Monitoring by itself will not solve the living resources in the future. Ospreys estuarine problems but it can provide data and eagles are rebounding.. The "ro ckfish" that will answer or contribute to appears to be benefiting from recent answering some key questions: protective regulations, and there is o Is the anoxic region increasing over the optimism about the hatchery release long-term? program. Although the shad)' river o Are submerged grasses recovering or herring, Yellow perch, and oyster remain at continuing to decline? all-time lows, the blue crab is still o Are stocks of anadromous (river spawning) abundant. The upper Potomac estuary has fish decreasing or increasing? recovered partially and is attributed to o How are oyster and other shellfish stocks the control of point sources, particularly changing? at the regional wastewater treatment o Are nuisance algal blooms worsening or plants, e.g., Blue Plains. improving? Are they occurring near sources of nutrient loading? In December 1987, a new Chesapeake Bay o Are bay waters becoming turbid, or Agreement was signed which committed the. clearer over time? signers to a detailed set of goals and o What are the levels of specific toxic ob.Jectives including a timetable for the compounds in the estuary and in bottom- development of specific Bay-w .ide man agement dwelling organisms? What is happening to 934 these compounds? was nebulous; (5) Data quality assurance o Are pollutant load reduction programs and uniformity of sampling and analysis improving the quality of receiving waters? procedures are lacking which result in error uncertainties; and (6) Coordination Locally? In the tributaries? Bay-wide? and communication among the agencies, What is the response time? scientists, and managers were absent which A monitoring program must accumulate a indicated no commitment toward regional number of year's data before statistically comprehensive data management. supportable interpretations can be made on These problems will be solved greatly if water quality and living resource trends. strong objectives are accomplished: At the same time, we may also gain short- o Describe and track long-term trendg: term',insighis into how water quality Monitoring should be done in an uninter- responds to local intensive cleanup rupted fashion for at least 15-20 years, activities, and improve our ability to for the value lies in longevity. interpret the effects of short-term o Characterize the estuary: phenomena such as storms and drought. it If longevity is maintained, the long-term is important that we learn how to trends will be detected-on a seasonal interpret long-term trends against the basis. Calculation of means and background of short-term interference. estimation of variability may be associated which will enable the 4. OBJECTIVES FOR A MONITORING 'PROGRAM determination'of how a bay may'respond to new stresses or the remedial action to An analysis of existing.estuarine data and take place. Accurate assessments are its availability for most troubled fundamental. estuaries reveal numerous problems: (1) o Assure a bay-wide Perspective: Because of gaps in the historical data The estuary should,be dealt with in an bases, trends (temporal and spatial) are holistic fashion because it is a singular difficult to detect; (2) Water quality and ecosystem associated with inter-connected subsystems ranging from the fresh water living resource data surveys were not ongoing and future scientific studies. planned in concert which make correlations Data should support research and modeling hard to achieve; (3) Often, monitoring which will enable hindsight and sites were not planned with the total predictability. estuary as a concern, e.g., only a o Esta lish a M itorin_i@wo@4 tributary might be surveyed for a Mechanisms should be developed to assure particular reason; (4) The integration of the development of a data basethat cuts monitoring programs and research programs across all'disciplines. The holistic 935 perspective should be maintained. The (3) Chesapeake Bay.Program Monitoring scientific community and estuarine Subcommittee, 1987, The State of the users should have rapid access to Chesapeake Bay. monitoring data. All should be committed to an integrated approach which (4) Chesapeake Bay Program Monitoring allows the synthesis of comprehensive and Subcommittee, 1985, Monitoring 1984, confident interpretation of biological, physical, and chemical data. (5) National Oceanic and Atmospheric 5. CONCLUSION Administration, 1982, Marine Ecosyste The continuing and often disconsonant uses Modelino. of the estuary cause modification in environmental quality which affect natural (6) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, resources, human health, and/or the 1983, ChesaReake Bay: A Framework for quality of life. Development of monitoring Action. strategies that lead to improved use of the Nation's bays requires a body of useful and (7) United States Geological Survey, 1985, reliable information about ambient A Water Quality Study of the Tidal Potomac conditions in these environments. This River and Estuary An Overview. information, in turn, must be based upon systematic monitoring if trends in environmental quality are to be detected. Comprehensive long-term observations are .necessary for promulgation of effective estuarine restoration, protection, and preservation initiatives. 6. REFERENCES (1) Chesapeake Bay Program Executive Council, 1985, Chesapeake Bay Restoration and Protection Plan. (2) Chesapeake Bay Program Executive Council, 1987, Second Annual Proaress Report Under the Chesapeake Bay Agreemen,@. 936 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND COASTAL RECREATIONAL GROWTH IN THE SOUTHEAST U.S. IN 1986 ISOBEL C. SHEIFER Assessment and Information Services Center National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Washington, D.C. 20235 without them (see below, National Parks and Stat ABSTRACI parks). A climate that supports recreation or being outdoors most of the year is particularly Along the Southeast Atlantic coast of the sought by people investing in second residences and U.S., attractiveness of climate and an ocean by retirees seeking homes that allow them the setting highlighted by a string of barrier islands maximum opportunity for leisure living. The and sandy beaches have drawn large numbers of significance of an aging population with retirement people not only to visit but also to become secur .ity to this type of recreational/residential permanent residents of the coastal zone. This development has been pointed out by students of expansion has been part of the increasing demand population dynamics and recreational demand.(4) for outdoor recreation, the national movement toward the coasts, and other economic factors Recreational Climate of the Southeast including overall growth in the Southeast. However, weather in any one year may stimulate or The temperature regime of the south Atlantic curtail recreational activities and, as in the case coast varies from temperate in the northern part of of destructive hurricanes, interrupt short-term the area to subtropical in the southern part to recreational and residential development in a tropical in the Florida Keys.(5) The gradation of specific locality. This paper analyzes the temperatures from north to south is regular, relationship between climate and long-term increasing with decreasing latitude. Another recreational development along the Southeast coast. interesting variation is the general modification Then, using 1986 as the study year, the paper of the ocean. and coastal temperatures on each assesses short-term weather impacts on recreational other. Along the coast the sheltered land weather usage and related development in the Southeast stations typically record warmer summer coast zone. temperatures and cooler winter temperatures than do stations located on exposed points.(6) , Figure 1 presents normal monthly mean air Introduction go- The four Atlantic coastal states of the Southeast U.S. are enjoying population growth rates above the national average. In the period 1980-86 Florida population grew by 19.8 percent, Georgia by 11.7 percent, South Carolina by 8.2 percent, and W North Carolina by 7.6 percent. The average U.S. Z W 70- percent change was 6.4 percent. While a variety of X economic factors have stimulated growth in the Southeast, a benign climate which supports both business activities and recreational lifestyles is W W frequently cited one of the strongest factors in W the expansion.(I) The growth of the Southeast is predicted to continue into the 21st century.(2) Madam% NC 50. 8 Charleston= Coastal areas, including the recreational Daytona,FL areas around estuaries, have become popular l1ftml. Fl. vacation spots and are a particular source of climate-related growth in the Southeast. Beaches 40 and an ocean setting draw people to the coasts. J. Fab Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep O@ N;, Beaches have been cited by Florida visitors as the MONTH number one reason they travel to the state. (3) Figure 1. Normal monthly air temperatures (OF), Coastal recreational parks with beaches typically 1951-80, selected Southeastern coastal draw more visitors in a given period than those stations. Data from National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. WW... NC .SC 93.7 United States Government work not prote cted by copyright 300- HATMW (NC) SWER (Sr) 250- PULASki (GA) CANAVERAL (FL) 0 1985 200- ct 1986 0 0 150- 4 D 100- 2 50- W. PM STAIE PM 90KTM CRUEB ACTMN 0 Jan Fab Mar Apr W4 Jn L 4 4 O@ N@, D;. Figure 3. Leading recreational indicators, South- MONTH eastern coastal area, 1985 and 1986. Data from National Park Service; NC, SC, Figure 4. Monthly attendance at selected national GA, and FL Parks Departments; U.S. Coast parks along the Southeastern coast, Guard; and Port of Miami, FL. 1986. Data from National Park Service. was 5.4 million visitors compared with 4.6 million State Rarks. The slightly warmer, drier visitors in 1985, The strong rise over 1985 in weather in coastal areas in 1986 had a positive visitor attendance at coastal national parks effect on state park visits in three of the four sampled for this study was led by Wright Brothers Southeastern states (Table 1). Florida's Atlantic National Memorial (41 percent increase), which is located near Cape Hatteras National Seashore (25 percent increase), and Canaveral National Seashore Table 1. Annual visits, selected Southeastern (22 percent). coastal state parks, 1985 and 1986. Four national parks in the Southeastern region Data from NC, SC, CA, and FL Parks were selected to examine seasonal patterns of Departments. attendance at various locations the coast. In Attendance general, these seasonal patterns are the same from State 1985 1986 year to year, although weather or important events in any location may alter them somewhat. At three of the four selected locations in 1986 these North Carolina 1,609,694 1,748,151 patterns were maintained. Cape Hatteras National South Carolina 3,336,616 2,804,724 Seashore, the northernmost of the parks selected, Georgia 330,311 370,502 experienced modestly rising attendance in March and Florida 4,258,173 4,838,738 April which accelerated to a peak in July. By October attendance had dropped back by a third Total 9,534,794 9,762,115 before dropping sharply in the winter months. Canaveral National Seashore, located midway on the Atlantic coast of Florida, had some of its lowest attendance of the year in the cooler months of January and February. Visits to the seashore rose coast parks experienced a 14 percent rise in visits sharply in March and reached a peak in April, the in 1986 over those in 1985. The increase in height of the Easter vacation season. Attendance Georgia in state park attendance was 12 percent and then dropped slightly in May and remained at about in North Carolina it was 9 percent. Only in South the same level over the summer months until Carolina, where the adverse effects of the drought dropping over the fall and winter months. This that began in early spring and lasted through the pattern was somewhat different from other years fall were felt strongly, did state park visits when high attendance was achieved in the summer actually decline. Here the drop in 1986 visits rather than the spring. This change of pattern may from 1985 was 16 percent. Myrtle Beach State Park, be attributed to increased attendance at the which is by far the South Carolina state park with Kennedy Space Center, which is near Canaveral the largest volume of annual attendance, also had Seashore, due to expanded interest in the space the largest decline from 1985--23 percent. Park program following the Challenger space shuttle officials believe that the decrease in state park disaster of January. Fort Sumter near Charleston, attendance was due not only to drought conditions SC, and Fort Pulaski in Georgia, both of which are in the state but also to publicity about the event. located in the mid-temperature range of the Media stories about the drought carried to other Southeast coast, experienced high attendance months areas from which the Myrtle Beach area draws from April through August (Figure 4). tourists. Worries about the availability of water 938 temperatures for four selected coastal stations in population growth in Carteret and Brunswick the Southeast. The range of air temperatures Counties between April 1, 1980 and July 1, 1986 was suggests that even in the area of the northernmost up 23.8 and 32.6 percent, respectively, far station of Cape Hatteras, NC, outdoor recreational exceeding the state average population growth of activity is possible from March on and certainly on 7.7 percent for the period. Both of these counties the warmer days in January and February. The are popular beach and fishing areas. In South strong relation between the moderate climate of the Carolina the figures for coastal-county growth in Southeast coastal zone and recreational usage has the same period show a similar increase. The been pointed out in climatologies of the four coastal counties of Beaufort, Berkely, Dorchester, states.(7) and Horry experienced 27.1, 30.6, 28.1, and 28.8 percent growth rates, respectively, while the Water temperatures of about 650F can support average state growth rate was 8.2 percent. some recreational swimming activity for brief Beaufort County is the location of Hilton Head periods while temperatures of 70OF will be found Island, a vast leisure-retirement -recreational more comfortable by most swimmers.(8) Figure 2 complex, and Horry is the location of the popular Myrtle Beach. recreation area. Horry and Beaufort Counties were among the three top gainers in population in the state, each with an increase of 29,000 persons for the period. Florida continued to have strong growth along the coasts and in the interior. The state's growth even in the interior is strongly tied to climate and recreational development along the coasts. In 1986 Palm Beach W County on the Atlantic coast had the largest Z w 70- numerical gain in population in the state, 178,000 X persons, and a growth rate of 31 percent compared Z: to a state rate of 19.4 percent.(10) W W: Weather Impacts on Recreation in 1986 Impacts on Participation Hattwv% NC 504 awdestw,sc In 1986 the Southeast experienced the worst DWtow.FL drought since precipitation records began in 1876.(11) The drought started in December 1985 and kdaml, FL intensified through the first five months of 1986. 40 Overall, the Southeastern states had a warmer-than- F;b U@, A@ M4 L J.1 Sep Oct MW DOC normal year, although for Florida the increase was MONTH not as great as that for other states. Air Figure 2. Monthly surface water temperatures temperatures during 1986 averaged from less than (OF), 1974-81, selected Southeastern VF above normal at several stations in coastal coastal stations. Data from National Florida to nearly 30F above normal in Charleston, Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA. SC, and Savannah, GA. Coastal areas did not experience drought to the same degree as inland depicts monthly surface water temperature profiles areas. Negative rainfall departures from normal for four beach locations in the Southeast, the same were significantly greater for longer periods of areas used in the air temperature profiles. The time for inland weather stations than for those surface water temperatures south of Cape Hatteras along the coast.(12) are directly dependent upon seasonal air temperatures as is indicated in the correspondence Leading recreational indicators for the of the two sets of profiles. During winter surface Southeast region (Figure 3) show expansion in water temperatures decrease from the relatively recreational activities in 1986 despite the warm Gulf Stream toward the shelf. In spring the drought. Indeed the warm, dry weather may have gradient weakens until summer when it largely been a factor in the this expansion. The only disappears.(9) Because of the influence of the measured negative impacts on coastal recreation Gulf Stream, beaches along much of Florida's noted related to the drought were in South Atlantic coast are suitable for recreational Carolina. National park visits rose by about 20 swimming most of the year. But at any location percent for the region from 1985 to 1986. State along the Southeast coast, when the water is not park visits rose throughout the region by 2 percent warm enough for short swims, a walk along the despite a large decline in South Carolina beach or a visit to a beachside park may utilize attributable to the drought conditions beginning in the ocean setting. the spring. A January freeze in northern Florida had minor impacts on recreational usage. Population Growth in Coastal Counties Boating registration rose a strong 9 percent. Number of cruise passengers carried from/to Port of Population growth in coastal counties Miami rose 6 percent. continued in 1986 and an analysis of this growth is an indicator of the significance of recreation in National parks. At ten Atlantic coast the development picture. In North Carolina national parks in the Southeast attendance in 1986 aNC\ .SC 939 might have been a concern of potential tourists. possibility of flooding of low-lying areas, The 1986 decline in South Carolina park attendance particularly if a @torm were to develop in this marks a departure from a long period of strong situation. A storm did develop in the Gulf of growth in their use, Mexico late on December 31 and subsequently moved up the Southeast coast bringing heavy destruction Boatin . A long boating season brought about to beach property in South Carolina, particularly by the moderate coastal temperatures, relatively near Myrtle Beach, and moving farther north into calm seas much of the year south of Cape Hatteras, Pender, Onslow, and Brunswick Counties in North and the lure of good fishing enhance the Carolina. The estimated losses from this storm to attractiveness of this recreation in the region. beachfront property in South Carolina were about The weather of 1986 was no impediment to this $13 million, not considering the erosion itself. growth since there were few coastal storms during This storm followed by only a month a December I the boating season in any Southeastern coastal coastal storm whose damage to structures and state. The growth of boating in the Southeast for bulkheads in the Myrtle Beach area was estimated at the period 1976 to 1986 was 44 percent, or 1.5 about $3 million. This storm also moved on to times the national growth rate of 29 percent. North Carolina doing additional damage. Newspapers Population growth and recreational development in reported that in some areas of Myrtle Beach homes the coastal zone contribute to this increase. after these two storms were left 50 feet closer to Florida, one of the fastest-growing boating states the water than they had been in November.(13) No in the nation, has almost half the registered boats other storms affecting the coast during 1986 were in the Southeast coastal region. In 1986 boating regarded as having had significant erosion effect. registration in the region grew 9 percent over that of 1985. This was three times the national Hurricanes. Hurricanes can have devastating rate, but Florida boat registration grew 14 effects on beach areas and on residential and percent. commercial building. Sometimes rebuilding and restoration from such damage may take several Recreational cruising.' Recreational cruising years. Such was the case with the impacts of involves the enjoyment of the marine environment Hurricane Hazel in 1954 which leveled Myrtle Beach, aboard ships that might be called floating resorts. SC. Miami, FL is the number one cruise port in the world. Miami's location near the Caribbean and In 1986 the tropical storm season passed the Gulf of Mexico, its year-round warm climate, quietly in the Southeast. Hurricane Charley made and its proximity to other recreational areas have landfall in mid-August. It had minimal strength made it an attractive port for vacationers. The and was the only tropical storm to be classified as nunber of cruise passengers carried in 1986 was a hurricane during the season. The storm crossed over 2.5 million (a round-trip passenger is counted the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 17. once at embarkation and once at debarkation), which While Charley carried beneficial rains to some was an increase of about 6 percent over the number areas, wind damage and flooding resulted in 1985 passengers. Port Everglades and Port property and crop loss damage of about $15 million Canaveral also have substantial cruise businesses. and the storm was responsible for five deaths. over a half million passengers passed through each Some of this damage was inland rather than in port in 1986. Cruising from Southeastern ports is coastal areas. Recreational usage and property an all-year recreation with the peak interest along the coast were only slightly impacted by during the spring and summer. The fall months of Charley. September and October, which traditionally have the highest incidence of tropical storms in the region, Conclusions are the months of lowest interest in cruising. In 1986 tropical cyclone activity which might affect 1. The trend toward expansion of recreational these cruises did not develop. usage and development in the coastal zone of the Southeast is climate related and is likely to Impacts on Beacbes and continue since population growth in the Southeast region is predicted to continue and the demand for Coastal storms. Beach erosion is one of the outdoor recreation is expanding. most critical environmental problems along the Southeast coast. Erosion threatens the foundations 2. The drought, which was the major weather of both residential and commercial property and event of 1986 in the Southeast, did not wipes out beach areas for recreation. Coastal significantly impact recreational activity along storms and hurricanes add significantly to this the coast. This was because the drought was not as erosion problem. Tides, storm surge, and waves severe in the coastal zone and becau e the warm, combine their effects when a large storm moves dry weather may have supported increased outdoor ashore, the elevated water levels permitting the recreation. waves to dissipate their energies high on shore. Along the Southeast coast winter storms can be very 3. Where impacts on recreational usage from damaging. the drought were felt in the coastal zone, mainly in South Carolina, they came, according to At the end of 1986 an alignment of the sun, officials, from a secondary cause, media accounts moon, and earth occurred at that time which is about the event. This suggests that recreational termed a "syzygy.11 The syzygy was predicted to usage is sensitive to publicity about environmental result in higher-than-normal tides and the events. This conclusion is significant in 940 understanding the impacts pollution may have on 12, Dowgiallo, Michael J., Isobel C. Sheifer, Fred recreational usage along the coasts. G. Everdale, Karl B. Pechmann, Martin C. Predoehl, 4. A one-year study of the impact of weather and Thomas W. Waltz, Marine Environmental Assessment, Southeastern U.S., 1986 Annual Summaa on recreational usage along the Southeast coast is (U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, September not sufficient to draw reliable conclusions about 1987), pp. 19-28. the significance of weather events that may span several years. This is true of the drought of 1986 13. Columbia (SC) Record, January 2, 1987; The since drought in the Southeast has occurred in the State (Columbia, SQ, January 3, 1987. two succeeding years. Therefore, a useful future study would be to investigate the entire period from 1986 through 1988 to see whether repeated incidences of drought have had major impacts, either positive or negative, for recreational expansion in the coastal zone of the Southeast. REFERENCES 1. Kasarda, John D, Michael D. Irwin, and Holly L. Hughes, untitled article, Southeast Economic Information, 1987 Edition (First Wachovia, Winston- Salem, undated), pp. 11-15. Article reprinted from American Demographic (June 1986). 2. U.S. Department of Commerce, 1985 OBERS BEA Regional Projections (U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, 1985). 3. Florida Department of Commerce, Florida Visitor Stj& 1985 (Florida Department of Commerce, Tallahassee, 1986), p. 23. 4. MacNeil, R.D, M.L. Teague, F.A. McGuire, and J.T. O'Leary, "Aging and Leisure: A Literature Synthesis," A Literature Review (President's Commission on Americans Outdoors, Washington, 1986) pp. Special 103-113. 5. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Climatoloizies of the States, Vol. I, Eastern States plus Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Water Information Center, Inc.; Ft. Washington, NY; 1974), pass . 6. Bureau of Land Management, Final Environmental Imi)act Statement, Proposed 1978 Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Cas Lease Sale, South Atlantic OCS Sale No. 43, Vol. 1 (U.S. Department of the Interior, New Orleans, undated), p, 11-84. 7. National Oceanic and Atmoshperic Administra- tion, oR. cit., pass 8. National Oceanographic Data Center, "NODC's Water Temperature Guide to Atlantic Beaches" (U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, January 1984). 9. Bureau of Land Management, 2R. cit_ 11-45. 10. Bureau of the Census, Local Population Estimates, Provisional Estimates of the Populati of Counties: July 1. 1986 (U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, August 1987). 11. U.S. Department of Commerce and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Weekly Weather and Cro Bullet , Vol. 73, No. 31 (August 1986), p. 8. 941 AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF LARGE OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA SETS WITH PRE-PROCESSING AND POST-PROCESSING OF AN ECOSYSTEM MODEL OF THE NEW YORK BIGHT Andrew Stoddard Creative Enterprises, Hamilton, VA 22068 ABSTRACT In contrast to data sets generated from monitoring programs, data sets generated with simulation models are Using an unambigous coordinate description of a data typically not organized for post-processing with the same record in time, space and depth and the concept of data base management system and data file structure used simulation model output as "high frequency, synoptic" data to reduce the observed historical data base for model sets, an innovative approach for the reduction of large calibration and verification (2). Reduction of model data sets generated with simulation models has been output for calibration, verification and interpretation of designed for the verification of a coupled hydrodynamic the model then becomes a significant task requiring and ecosystem model of the New York Bight. A synthesis separate post-processing software since the model output of observed data from a large oceanographic data base files are usually organized with an arbitrary coordinate with model data from the New York Bight ecosystem system (e.g. segment number, depth layer) that is different model is applied to an analysis of the large-scale 1976 than the unambiguous coordinates used for the observed anoxic event in the New York Bight. data base (e.g. river kilometer, latitude, longitude, sample and bottom depth). Using an unambiguous description of data record coordinates in time, space and depth as a common link 1.0 INTRODUCTION between observed data sets and the output of simulation models, an innovative approach has been developed for a The increasing scientific complexity and cost coupled hydrodynamic and ecosystem model of the New implications of marine resource management issues York Bight. Published and unpublished data from related to waste disposal practices in estuarine and coastal analyses of eutrophication and anoxia (3,4) is presented ecosystems requires the use of large data sets and to document the application of this methodology for sophisticated methods for credible scientific evaluations of pre-processing, model development and post-processing public policy options. The recent Governor's Agreement of the New York Bight ecosystem model. 'ne method is that established 40% reduction of nutrient inputs to illustrated with: (1) observed distributions of pycnocline Chesapeake Bay as a goal for the year 2000, for example, depth and vertical stratification; (2) observed and is based, in part, on the results of a complex hydrodynamic simulated distributions of dissolved oxygen and and eutrophication model and an extensive analysis of the chlorophyll; and (3) model distributions of the sources historical data base (1). With funding from EPA, NOAA, and sinks of oxygen and chlorophyll. USGS, the US Army Corps of Engineers and State agencies, large estuarine and marine environmental data 2.011ACKGROUND sets are becoming available from a number of platforms including conventional shipboard water column sampling; Over the past 10-20 years, a number of water quality in situ biological and hydrographic instrumentation; CZCS and aquatic ecosystem models have been developed for satellite imagery; and simulation models of hydrodynamic streams and rivers (5), lakes and impoundments (6), and ecological processes. estuaries (7,8) and coastal environments (9). These Although the spatial and temporal frequency of models range from relatively simple steady-state, observations of such diverse data sources can be quite one-dimensional analyses (e.g. BOD-oxygen in a river) to different, there is a common need for data base complex, two and tbree dimensional, time dependent management software that can be applied for data hydrodynamic, eutrophication and toxic chemical analyses compilation, reduction and generation of data products in large lakes, estuaries and coastal oceans (2,10,11). that are typically organized by criteria of time, space and The typical approach in the development of a water depth ranges. A number of generic commercial (e.g. quality model is to average one or more dimensions in System 1032, Software House, Cambridge, MA; System space or time to simplify the analysis of contaminant fate Analysis Software, SAS Institute, Cary, NQ and and transport (e.g. steady-state, laterally averaged, depth proprietary (e.g. "CHESSIE", EPA Chesapeake Bay averaged etc.). Although there are many differences in the Program, Annapolis, MD; "ODES",EPA 301(h) Program, choice of state variables and the dimensionality of the Washington, DC) data base management systems have model used to represent the prototype and the specific been applied to generate data products for a variety of water quality problem, every water quality model is based marine and estuarine monitoring programs over the past on the reduction of the inherent variability of a natural decade. system by averaging over incremental ranges of the spatial, CH2585-8/88/0000- 942 $1 @1988 IEEE temporal or depth domains. Historical data is aggregated simulation problem being investigated with arbitrary and averaged to develop parameter values, model model coordinate systems of segment and layer indexes functions, initial conditions, boundary conditions and and relative time. forcing functions for model input data. For calibration and . Long-term flexibility in the model development verification, model output should also be averaged over process can be achieved with an approach based on the the same time, space and depth domains as the observed consideration of numerical models as "high frequency, data. synoptic data sets" where the model results are A significant (and often underestimated) component transformed to unambiguous coordinates of space, depth of the level-of-effort required for the development of and time consistent with the coordinates of the observed complex simulation models of aquatic ecosystems is the data base. Commercial or proprietary software developed compilation and reduction of large data sets for: (1) for the aggregation and averaging of an observed data pre-processing of model input data to describe exogenous base (i.e. pre-processing) can thus be readily used for the forcing functions (e.g. temperature), initial conditions and post-processing tasks required to reduce the large data boundary conditions; and (2) post-processing of model sets generated with simulation models. output for comparision to observed data sets for calibration, verification and interpretation of the model 3.0 METHODS (i.e. hypothesis testing). Model development, in fact, is typically not a linear, but rather an iterative process All water quality data obtained from either monitoring between pre-processing and post-processing with any. programs or simulation models can be uniquely described particular set of summary statistics of observedand model in a data file with coordinates of time (date and 24 hr data more dependent on the "learning curve" of the clock time), space (latitude, longitude, river kilometer) research team (12) than on the proposed approach. for and depth (sample and bottom depth). A consistent verification of a simulation model. framework for the pre-processing and post-processing Although observed data sets and model data sets are tasks of the model development process is the use of data intended to represent the same physical prototype, data base management software designed for a standard data sets generated with a model are often viewed as inherently file structure based on unambiguous coordinates of time, "different" from observed data in relation to the task of space and depth. A key concept in this approach is that a post-processing model output for verification and single software package, designed for the retrieval, interpretation of a model. Simulation data sets can, aggregation and calculation of summary statistics however, be thought of as "high frequency, synoptic according to time, space and depth increment criteria, sampling" where the source of the data is a numerical operates identically on both an observed data base and model rather than an oceanographic monitoring platform. output files generated with a water quality model. The development of any water quality model then can Since historical water quality data bases are generally be based on the same data management process for both compiled from a large number of different data formats observed data and data sets generated with a simulation into a consistent file structure prior to aggregation and model. Since there is such a wide diversity of spatial and averaging with commercial or proprietary software temporal dimensionalities used in water quality models, systems, the primary task required to achieve flexibility in there remains a need for computer techniques designed to the model development process is the revision of model standardize the synthesis of observed data sets with model computer code so that the model output files are written output during the pre-processing and post-processing with a data record structure consistent with the observed stages of model development. data base. Using this innovative approach, a single, Commercial or proprietary data base management well-designed data base management system can be used packages are often used for the aggregation and averaging for all stages of the model development process including: of model input data files related to the observed data base. By contrast, model output files are frequently designed for 9 reduction of historical data to define forcing post-processing according to an arbitrary coordinate functions, initial and boundary conditions for model system of relative time, spatial segment and depth layer input; numbering where the coordinate system is meaningful * reduction of historical data for model calibration only for the internal model computations. The output files and verification; of many water quality models, for example, are typically * reduction of the often enormous amounts of model designed for the dimensionality of the specific model (e.g. output for model calibration and verification; c(x); one-dimensional, steady state) rather than 'the more * reduction of computed statistical test scores for skill general dimensionality of the observed data from the assessment of the model prototype (e.g. c(x,yz,t); space, depth and time). Separate computer programs, usually requiring substantial effort to Figure 1 illustrates a conceptual flow diagram of the develop and apply, are then needed for each individual data management approach used for the verification of an water quality model to aggregate and average model ecosystem model of the New York Bight (3). In the output for comparison to observed data. development of the New York Bight model, an extensive The inherent iterative nature of the model historical data base was compiled (4) with key data record development process requires flexibility in the approaches descriptors of: data source, cruise and station used for structuring the broad range of problems identification, date, time, latitude, longitude, bottom and investigated by a water quality analyst over a period of sample depth. Model state variables, computed variables years. Such flexibility is not readily available with models and mass flux components of the model state equations that are "hard-wired" for the specific dimensionality of the were written to multiple output files designed with the 943 In specifying a data product, increments of time(t), NY 8GHT DATA BASE space (x,y) and depth (z) can be defined as uniform or non-uniform intervals with summary statistics calculated OSS DATA as either arithmetic or geometric statistics. The data file is SUMMARY searched in space according to one, or more, station PLOTS SOR 5 SUMMARY PRO SS SUM ARY identifiers or latitude and longitude ranges. In retrieving STATISTICS f Uy . 1) STATISTICS records based on sample date, time can be defined as within year or cross-year for either calendar date or julian MODEL NY BIGHT day. Pycnocline depth can be calculated from density data INPUT NY MODEL and data records can be selected for a discrete interval BIGHT 1C OUTPUT sc MODEL above the bottom (e.g. 5 in above bottom). Vertical FF - -CNY., 1) averaging can be based on depth integration or averaging FLOW DIAGRAM FOR MODEL VERIFICATION Figure 1 - Conceptual flow diagram of data management for within a depth layer. (e.g. 10-20 in). pre-processing and post-processing of the New York Bight ecosystem 4.0 APPLICATIONS model. The New York Bight data base management system same data record coordinate system as the observed data has been applied to evaluations of nutrient enrichment base. The internal model coordinates of time and phytoplankton production (13,14) and oxygen and segment number were transformed to unambiguous depletion (3,4,15). In this paper, I present summary coordinates of date and 24 hr clock time, latitude, analyses generated with the New York Bight data base longitude, and bottom depth of the model "station". The management system related to pre-processing of model center of the model depth layer was transformed to depth input; development of model functions and parameter of the model "sample". Model segment number was values; and post-processing of model results and observed defined as the "station" for the data file and model run data sets for verification and interpretation of the model. identifiers were defined as "data source" and "cruise" A detailed description of the theory, data sources and labels for the model data set. results of the New York Bight model is presented in (3). Data product options available in the New York Bight 4.1 Interannual Variation of Pycnocline Depth data base management system are presented in Table 1. and Vertical Mixing: 1975-1976 Table 1 The pycnocline field, an input parameter to the Data Products of the New York Bight diagnostic model of shelf circulation, is also a forcing Data Base Management System function for the analysis of oxygen depletion in the New York Bight. With a pycnocline depth of about 30 in in Averaging 1976 in contrast to a much shallower depth of about 12-15 Notation Data Product Increment m in 1975, interannual variation in the depth of the pycnocline was a significant factor in the onset of the 1976 anoxic event (18) (Figure 2a). c(t) time series (X,Y,Z) Stratification of the water column is parameterized c(z) vertical profile (X,Y,t) with a linear representation of the seasonal variation in CXY) contour distribution (zIt) the density gradient from the surface to 30 m. The data c(x) depth averaged transect (Y,Z,t) base of density observations for the New Jersey midshelf, CXZ) depth dependent transect (y1t) used to determine the dates of onset and erosion of the c (Z,t) time series at a point Xy) seasonal pycnocline for 1975 and 1976, was applied to the cl vs c2 phase plane plots (X,Y,Z,t) development of a model function for calculation of the time varying vertical mixing coefficient. As is evident from the density data, stratification of the water column was initiated about one month earlier in 1976 (Figure 2c) (A) TEMPORAL COMPA ISON OF PYCNOCLINE (B) than in 1975 (Figure 2b). DEPTH FOR 1975 AND *76 a 1975 . . . . . . . . . . .. 10- !f,5 ------ 4.2 Seasonal Distribution of Chlorophyll 2 a and Dissolved Oxygen: 1976 .6 0 a 2 .3 3o o.2 41 IOS.EL1 AS 0 N 0 The dramatic increase of calculated sub-pycnocline 19T5 J F M A M J J o netplankton chlorophyll over the New Jersey midshelf 30-60. B76 during June-July, 1976 (Figure 3a) results from the (C) dominant lateral advective and diffusive mass fluxes As @97@ . . . . Figure 2 - Seasonal comparison of T5 'ok coupled with Ceratium sinking out of the water column the (a) pycnocline depth (in) in 4 (Figure 3b). The model results for Ceratium, clearly 1975 and 1976 and vertical densi demonstrating the influence of the flow field reversal on ty 0,46 stratification (0-30 m) in (b) 1975 the accumulation of particulates (including Ceratium), are and (c) 1976 within the New Jersey g. I M A J J A S 0 N D al consistent with the hypothesis of subsurface onshore midshelf region. 944 transport as a mechanism accounting for the anomalously 4.3 Bottom Hypoxia in the Middle Atlantic Bight: high abundance of this large dinofiagellate in June 1976 1976-1985 (17). The most striking feature in the computation of Evaluations of a number of data sets have clearly Ceratium dynamics is that respiratory losses exceeded the indicated systematic differences in summer bottom water overall growth rate with maximum losses occurring from oxygen depletion between the New Jersey shelf and the mid-June through mid-July when maximum abundances Long Island shelf that appear to be related to shelf width were observed off the New Jersey coast. The substantial and the volume of sub-pycnocline water as well as organic increase in Ceratium abundance resulted from loading of the New Jersey shelf from the Hudson-Raritan accumulation from physical transport from the large scale estuary (18). Historical data sets describing winds, reversal (upcoast, NE) of typical circulation patterns of circulation processes, phytoplankton production and the New York Bight (downcoast, SW). Concurrent with oxygen depletion were applied to retrospective analyses of accumulation by transport processes, physiological eutrophicaton and oxygen depletion as part of an processes contributed to the decline of Ceratium in the investigation of the "Green Tide" blooms of 1984-1985 off model (Figure 3b). The agreement between the sparse the southern coast of New Jersy (19). observed data and the model calculations for Ceratium is Hydrographic data sets for the New York Bight were good, particularly with respect to the observed decline of compiled (20) to generate composite bottom 5 m oxygen Ceratium and a shift to nanoplankton as the dominant distributions averaged over July-September from phytoplankton group by September 1976 (Figure 3a). 1977-1985 (Figure 5a). Ile distribution of the minimum The Ceratium bloom resulted in a ten-fold increase of values of bottom oxygen clearly documents recurrent particulate organic carbon (POC) from ca. 10 g C m-2 hypoxic conditions within the nearshore New Jersey coast. (1969-1980) to ca. 80-130 g C m-2 during June 1976 (4). Hypoxic areas are associated with the Hudson plume and Using an initial condition of 4-5 mi ri for the May oxygen the area of the 1984-1985 "Green Tide" blooms from Cape 2 May to Atlantic City, New Jersey. The similarity in the concentration and 25-100 g C in for the May-June POC distributions of nearshore hypoxia and the "Green Tide" content below the pycnocline, decay of the anomalous blooms, as well as the documented high rates of primary POC pool in the water column (K = 0.013 d-1, 10 Q during production within the nearshore New Jersey coast (14), the summer (75 days) of 1976 accounted for the observed strongly suggests common physical processes as a 2 mechanism accounting for these observed features. rate of oxygen consumption (1614 ml m- d) and bottom Periodic reversals of the circulation field off New oxygen levels ranging from 0-3 ml r 1within the New Jersey (i.e. upcoast, NE) of varying magnitude and Jersey midshelf (Figure 4a, 5b). Analysis of the model duration, shown to result from relatively persistent oxygen budget for the New Jersey midshelf (Figure 4b) southwesterly wind forcing (16, 21), would be demonstrated that, although sewage loading contributed characterized by variable flushing times over the nearshore New Jersey coast. The onset of water quality to localized nearshore oxygen consumption, respiration problems such as algal blooms and intermittent hypoxic and decay of the Ceratium bloom was the key factor in the events are related to urban carbon and nitrogen loading onset and persistence of anoxic conditions during 1976. and the respective time scales for biological and chemical reaction rates in relation to the flushing rate of the nearshore region. (A) CHLOROPHYLL (B) COMPONENT SOURCE/SINKS OF "T IMPQ5 (A) (B) cCWFCN,N,souFC,/SINKSOFDISWL@D OXYGEN BEI-OW PYCHOCL BELOW PYCNOCLINE !!I o.1 MIGS.ELF IOURCE NJ MIDSHELF ABOVE PYCNOCLINE SOURCES COMPARISON OF MODEL RESULTS TO OBSERIED DATA 'Do DISSOLVED 01YGEN - 4 3o-6a. j OBSERVED MEAN CHL 12, 3o.60. + OBSERVED NET CHL -1 @BOVE PICN.CLINE so 8.0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Do 3 MODEL NET. NANO CHL - - - - - - 12' "'=y""N_ MODE L NET CHL 9,C 6.0 A 12 12-1@n 4 6.0 DI. 2 so- 4.0 @Rj@ 4.0 To 4 30-60. o Do BELOW PYCNOCLINE ,o.o 0 4 BELOW FYCNOCLINE _S G -4.0 so LINKS 8 SINK$ 9 -Do- 0 1. =- CI- 4.D - -so 1. 2--11m,, Ck; `2 ` - I..- I @@ 2.0 OBSERVED MEAN 2, -&C .9 D=d" NJ MIDSHELF M ODE L MEAN o .-So. . ---MO.EL SAT@URATION 0.0 MAY JUN JUL AUG SE V MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP C@T _Ioo MIT JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV MAY JUN @UL AUG SEP OCT NOV 1976 IS. 1.76 1976 Figure 3 - Seasonal comparison of model results to observed data Figure 4 - Seasonal comparison of model results to observed data @N (mean _+ 2SE) for (a) chlorophyll (@Lg 1") in New Jersey midshelf (mean _+ 2SE) for (a) dissolved oxygen (mi r1) in New Jersey midshelf (30-60 m) region, May-November, 1976 and (b) seasonal variation of (30-60 m) region, May-November, 1976 and (b) seasonal variation of chlorophyll mass flux components (mg chl m -2@d-') of the model in oxygen mass flux components (In 102 M-2 d") of the model in New New Jersey midshelf (30-60 m) region. Jersey midshelf (30-60 m) region. 945 (A) (B) 7.0 REFERENCES ED 4111 1. HydroQual, Inc. 1987. A Steady State Coupled Hydrodynamic/Water Quality Model of the Eutrophication and r,; Anoxia Process in Chesapeake Bay. Prepared under contract to Battelle Ocean Sciences, Duxbury, MA for US Environmental Protection Agency, Chespeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD. 2. Di Toro, D.M., J.J. Fitzpatrick and R.V. Thomann. 1983. Documentation for Water Quality Analysis Simulation 3r - Program (WASP) and Model Verification Program (MVP). EPA-600/3-81-044, US Environmental Protection Agency, 74' 173. 7-2- 71. Environmental Research Laboratory, Duluth, MN. 3. Stoddard, A. 1983. Mathematical model of oxygen depletion in Figure 5 - Spatial distribution of (a) minimum bottom 5 in dissolved the New York Bight: an analysis of physical, biological and oxygen (ml I "), July-September, 1977-1985 and (b) mean bottom 5 m chemical factors in 1975 and 1976. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. dissolved oxygen (ml I September, 1976. Washington, Seattle, 359 pp. 4. Stoddard,A., J.E. O'Reilly, T.E. Whitledge, T.C. Malone and J.F. Hebard.1986. The application and development of a compatible historical data base for the analysis of water quality The remarkable similarity in the spatial extent of management issues in the New York Bight. In: IEEE hypoxia demonstrated with the composite 1977-1985 data OCEANS'86 Conference Proceedings, Monitoring Strategies set with the distribution of anoxia during the 1976 fishkill Symposium, Vol 3:1030-1036. 5. Driscoll, E.D., J.L. Mancini and P.A. Mangarella. 1983. event (Figure 5b) strongly suggests that wind forcing, shelf Technical Guidance Manual for Performing Waste Load circulation processes and shelf bathymetry are critical Allocations, Book 11 Streams and Rivers, Chap.2, factors reflected in the interannual variability of the Nutrient/Eutrophication Impacts. Office of Water Regulations duration and extent of bottom water hypoxic episodes and Standards, Monitoring and Data Support Division, within the nearshore New Jersey coast.. T'he interaction of Monitoring Branch, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. natural and anthropogenic carbon and nitrogen loading 6. Mancini J.L. et al. 1983. Technical Guidance Manual for with variable physical flushing of the nearshore shelf Performing Waste Load Allocations, Book IV Lakes and results in intermittent episodes of bottom hypoxia and Impoundments, Chap.2, Nutrient/Eutrophication Impacts. phytoplankton blooms that appear to persist over time Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Monitoring and scales related to the variability in summer wind forcing. Data Support Division, Monitoring Branch, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 7. JRB Associates. 1984. Technical Guidance Manual for 5.0 SUMMARY Estuarine Waste Load Allocation Modeling. Draft Final Report. Prepared for Office of Water Regulations and Using the pre-processing and post-processing Standards, Monitoring and Data Support Division, Monitoring approach based on a single data base management system Branch, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, described herein to provide a common link between DC. 8. Walton, R, T.S. George and L.A. Roesner.1984. Selecting monitoring data and simulation results, retrospective data Estuarine Models. Draft Final Report. Prepared by Camp, analyses can provide valuable insight for the assessment of Dresser and McKee for Office of Water Regulations and public policy issues related to waste disposal options. Standards, Monitoring and Data Support Division, Monitoring Application of this technique to the New York Bight has Branch, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, demonstrated the utility of the approach with an DC. 9. Reed, M. and V.J. Bierman. 1983. Proceedings of a Workshop ecosystems analysis that integrated a historical data base for the Development of a Scientific Protocol for Ocean Dump with output from a complex simulation model. The Site Determination. Prepared for Office of Water Regulations approach can be readily applied to the analysis of similar and Standards, Criteria and Standards Division, US large-scale coupled hydrodynamic and water quality Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. models being developed as part of the EPA National 10. Bowie, G.L. et al. 1995. Rates, Constants and Kinetic Formulations in Surface Water Quality Modeling (Second Estuary Program for Long Island Sound, the New York Edition). EPA/600/3-85/040. Environmental Research Bight, Pamlico/Albemarle Sound and Chesapeake Bay. Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA. 11. Mills et al. 1985. Water Quality Assessment: A Screening 6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Procedure for Toxic and Conventional Pollutants in Surface and Ground Water-Part I and Part 11 (Revised -1985). Partial financial support for this research was provided EPA/600/6-85/002a and EPA/600/6-85/002b. Environmental by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, (NOAA) MESA New York Bight Project under Contract Athens, GA. 12. Cheng, R.T. 1988. Numerical Modeling in San Francisco Bay, No. 80RAG-02206; NOAA Northeast Monitoring California. In: Proc.of Workshop 3: Hydrodynamic and Water Program (NEMP) of the Ocean Assessments Division, Quality Model Interfacing and Workshop 4: Long Term National Ocean Service; Office of Health and Modeling of Chesapeake Bay, January 11, 12 and 13, 1998. Envirom-nental Research, Department of Energy under Workshop sponsored by: US Army Corps of Engineers, Contract No. DEAC02-76CH00016; and the US Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS and Baltimore District, Baltimore, MD. pp.141-142. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Marine and 13. Malone, T.C., T.S. Hopkins, P.G. Falkowski, and T.E. Estuarine Protection. Financial support for preparation of Whitledge. 1983. Production and transport of phytoplankton this manuscript was provided by Creative Enterprises. biomass over the continental shelf of the New York Bight. Cont. Shelf Res., 1:305-337. 946 14. O'Reilly, J.E., C. Evans-Zetlin, and D.A. Busch.1987.Primary Production. In: Georges Bank.R.Backus(ed.),MIT Press. 15. Stoddard, A. and J.J. Walsh, (in press). Modeling Oxygen Depletion in the New York Bight: The Water Quality Impact of a Potential Increase of Waste Inputs. In:Wolfe, D.A. (ed.). Oceanic Processes in Marine Pollution, Vol. 5: Urban Wastes Coastal Marine Environments, Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Malabar, FL. 16. Falkowski, P.G., T.S.Hopkins, and J.J. Walsh.1980.An analysis of factors affecting oxygen depletion in the New York Bight. J.Mar. Res. 38(3):479-506. 17. Malone, T.C., W.E. Esaias, and P.G. Falkowski.1979.Chapter 9. Plankton Dynamics and Nutrient Cycling, Part I. Water column processes. In:Oxygen Depletion and Associated Benthic Mortalities in New York Bight, 1976. R.L. Swanson and C.J. Sindermann (eds.). NOAA Prof.Pap. No. 11, US Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 18. Armstrong, R.R. 1979 Chapter 6. Bottom oxygen and stratification in 1976 and previous years. In:Oxygen Depletion and Associated Benthic Mortalities in New York Bight, 1976. R.L. Swanson and C.J. Sindermann (eds.). NOAA Prof.Pap. No.11, US Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 19. Science Applications International Corporation.1986. An Environmental Inventory of the New Jersey Coast/New York Bight Relevant to Green Tide Occurrence. Prepared under contract to Battelle Memorial Institute, Ocean Science and Technology Department, Duxbury, MA for the US Environmental Protection Agency, Region II, New York, NY. 20. Composite 1977-1985 bottom oxygen data was compiled by Dr. J.D. O'Reilly, NOAA, NMFS, Sandy Hook, NJ. 21. Hopkins, T.S. and D.A. Dieterle. 1983. A Three-Dimensional Baroclinic Circulation Model of the New York Bight. Cont. Shelf Res. 2:49-73. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES: REMOVAL OF PARTICULATE MATTER BY FILTER FEEDERS Jeroen Gerritsen Versar, Inc. 9200 Rumsey Road Columbia, Maryland 21045 ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION OF MODEL Benthic filter feeders remove substantial num- The rationale of the model is to predict the bers of particles from the water column, and it entrainment of water by filter feeders with has been proposed that they can clear the cumulativ e probabilities of encounter and cap- entire water column of an estuary in a short ture of water. Parcels of water move about time, improving water quality. We developed a randomly in the water column, occasionally simple probabilistic model of filter feeding by coming into contact with the bottom and occa- bivalves to predict the fraction of-a body of sionally being swept out of the estuary. These water filtered by the benthos. Inputs to the processes can be described by Poisson probabili- model include vertical and horizontal dispersion ties, and are quantified by the vertical disper- coefficients, weight-specific filtering rates, sion coefficient, the horizontal dispersion and abundance and size of bivalves. In summer, coefficient, and the residence time of the Chesapeake Bay bivalves can clear 80-100% of water in the estuary. The vertical mixing the water column of littoral areas (< 9-m depth) coefficient varies throughout the water column, per day, but filter feeding below a pycnocline being high in the surface mixed layer (SML), is negligible. Daily clearance of the total near zero at a pycnocline, and low below a volume of the estuary and its tributaries is pycnocline. Entrainment and capture of water 28% of the main stem Chesapeake Bay, 43-44% of parcels by feeding currents of the benthos the Patuxent and Potomac rivers, and 97% of the is also a random Poisson process, with the water shallow upper Bay. available for filtration being that fraction of the water column in contact with the bottom dur- ing an appropriate time interval (e.g., I day). INTRODUCTION Assumptions of the model are as follows: all transport processes are from random, turbulent Benthic filter feeders are abundant in estuaries, mixing, both vertical and horizontal, including and their aggregate filtering capacity has led tidal currents. Mixing across an established to suggestions that they are responsible for pycnocline is negligible. Horizontal mixing has substantial transport of material and energy longitudinal and lateral components; in drowned from pelagic to benthic systems (1, 2) and that river valleys such as the Chesapeake Bay and its they may improve the clarity of the water column tributaries, the longitudinal component can be by filtering and removing particulate material ignored because it parallels depth contours and (2, 3, 4). Several estimates of the aggregate does not transport water to shallow regions. filtering capacity of benthic suspension feeders The model is normalized to daily rates, because have been made, but filtering capacity alone phytoplankton production is tied to diurnal does not estimate the fraction of an esutarine cycles. The model does not consider sedimenta- water column actually filtered by the benthos. tion or resuspension of sediments, but effects Shallow, well-miAed estuaries can be completely of these can easily be incorporated into the filtered by benthic filter feeders (3), but filter feeding model. benthic filtration may be limited in deeper estuaries. In this paper, we develop a Residence time of water in the estuary is given probabilistic model to predict the expected by tr (days); renewal rate is then 1/tr (day-1). fraction of an estuarine water column that will The probability of a parcel of water remaining be filtered by an assemblage of benthic filter in the system (i.e., the probability of not being feeders. The model is applied to the Chesapeake renewed) is then Bay and several of its tributaries to assess whether benthic filter feeders can have an Pr = exp (-1/tr) - effect on water quality in these estuaries. CH258s-8/8a/oooo- 948 $1 Q1988 IEEE In general, if the probability of retention, Pr) Mixing is continuous and net flow is 0, so an is greater than 95% (tr > 20 days), then the equal volume of the littoral water mixes into effect is considered negligible. For the the pelagic SML. In one day, the "new" water Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, tr > 20 days. from the pelagic SML that approaches the bottom Thus, retention will not be considered further of the littoral zone is given by here. PHv = PH 0 exp(-T/tv)dT) The vertical and horizontal dispersion coeffi- fo cients, K, are entirely analogous to a diffusion = PH (1-t,(l - exp(-l/tv))) coefficient. The mean time for a random parcel of water to come into contact with the bottom An equal volume of littoral water flows to the is given by pelagic SML and has an equal probability of ap- proaching the bottom before it leaves the tv = Z2/3Kv littoral zone. The total volume approaching the littoral bottom is now given by where z is the depth from the surface or from the pycnocline to the bottom and Kv is the Vb @ Vs PH (2PHv - Pv) + VL Pv vertical dispersion coefficient (5). Kv is typically expressed in cm2/s, and must be where V s is the volume of the pelagic SML and VL multiplied by 8.64 to obtain m2/d. The vertical is the volume of the littoral zone. We assume mixing rate is then 1/t v (day-'), and the here that the new water is distributed throughout probability of a parcel of water being at the the littoral zone. Due to mixing,and influx, the bottom at least once during a day is total volume available for filtering during a day may be greater than the resident volume. Pv - 1 - exp(-1/tv) Benthic filter feeders process a volume of water where Pv is equivalent to the fraction of the given by their aggregate filtering.capacity (see water column at the bottom, which is therefore below). The water volume available for filtra- available for filtration. tion may be more or less than the filtering capacity, and individual parcels of water may For the model, an estuary is divided into three be processed more than once in the random Poisson compartments (Figure I)- a littoral zone of process of capture. Given that it is on the water depths shallower than the formation of bottom, the probability that a parcel of water typical pycnoclines, a pelagic surface mixed will be filtered at least once is layer zone, and a profundal zone below the SML. During summer stratification, mixing across the PF = I - exP(-C/Vb) pycnocline is negligible, but horizontal mixing between the pelagic SML and the littoral zone may where C is the aggregate filtering capacity of be significant. Mean time to mixing into the the benthos and Vb is the total volume approach- littoral zone for water in the pelagic SML is ing the bottom. The volume filtered by the tH = W2/12KH benthos is now PF Vb- Clearance rates have been most widely measured in where w is the width of the pelagic SML and KH economically important bivalves such as edible is the lateral dispersion coefficient (5). The clams, oysters, and mussels (3, 6), but little probability of pelagic SML water mixing into has been done with other taxa that may be eco- the littoral zone per day is then logically more important in the benthos. For- unately, there is remarkable unity of allometric PH = I - exp(-l/tH) regressions of physiological rates within major groupings of animals, such as poikilothermic PH is also the expected fraction of SML water metazoans UY. We have chosen an equation of mixing into the littoral zone. C = 120 WO.75 to be representative of published regressions for bivalves (2, 3, 8, 9, 10), where Littoral Zone Pelagic SML Littoral Zone C is the clearance rate Wanimal * day) and W I is dry body mass (g). For this model, we assume VL V, VL that all filter feeding bivalves fall on the 9 M same regression line, but we recognize that Profundal Zone rycnuckne future work may refine the regressions for dif- ferent groups. VP Filtering capacity was calculated from the allo- metric clearance equation using the mean indi- vidual dry weight of each taxon within each depth Figure 1. Compartments of the benthic filter interval, multiplied by the mean density of ani- feeding model. The littoral zone is treated as mals/m2 and summed for all taxa found in a a single compartment in the calculations. habitat. The model was iterated from 0-25 m at 949 0.1-m intervals, and the probability of water-in this shallow arm of the Bay, which has an abun- the water column being filtered was calculated' dant population of Rangia acuneata. In summer, for each depth interval. Probability of filtra- benthic bivalves can filter most of the water tion is also the expected proportion of the water column each day, but in winter only a small frac-. column that is filtered at least once, and the tion of the water column is filtered due to low expected volume of the Bay filtered per day was activity rates at low.winter temperatures. then estimated from the total water volume in Filter feeding in winter is negligible, and for each bottom depth interval. the rest of this discussion we will consider only summer activity. We have restricted this model application to bivalves, as most other benthic filter feeding a. Summer organisms are passive or facultative filter 1.2, feeders. Densities and biomass of bivalves were obtained from Holland et al. (11) for the year July 1985-June 1986 in the Maryland portion of Chesapeake Bay. Taxa included and their 0.8- mean summer densities and body weight are shown in Table 1. Mixing coefficients, K, were obtained from the hydrodynamic model of the Chesapeake Bay by Hydroqual (12). Depth, 0.4- volume, and area estimates were from Cronin C E (13) and Cronin and Pritchard (14). Calcula- tions were carried out for the Maryland portion 0.0-, of the Bay (Potomac to Patapsco rivers -- miles 60 to 135) (14) and for three tributaries: the 0 2 4 6 10 Upper Bay (Patapsco to Susquehanna Rivers miles 135 to 155), the Patuxent River, and the b. Winter Potomac River (Figure 1). 1.2- Table 1. Densities and dry weights of Chesapeake Bay bivalves (11) LL 0.8- Individual Filtered Species Density(a) dry wt Vicinity (no./m2) (mg) 0.4 Rangia cuneata 4783 3.0 Mulinia lateralis 2393 0.72 0.0 Macoma balthica 1337 10.5 Gemma gemma 442 0.19 0 2 4 6 8 10 Mya arenaria 423 20.7 Depth (m) Corbicula fluminea 255 135 Macoma mitchelli 190 4.9 Figure 2. Benthic filtration in the upper Ensis directus 67 200 Chesapeake Bay.. "Vicinity" (crosses) is the Tellina agilis 45 5.0 fraction of the water encountered on the bottom; Lyonsia hyalina 30 0.2 "Filtered" (squares) is the fraction processed Parvilucina multilineata 13 0.2 by benthic bivalves. The fraction filtered may Tagelus plebeius 12 205 be greater than I due to mixing with pelagic Crassostrea virginica(b) 0.15 3000 water. The main stem of the Bay has lower densities of (a)Mean summer density and dry weights in bivalves than the upper Bay, but has enough bi- habitats with highest densities. valves to filter up to 80% of the littoral water (b)From (15); mean density in 0-9 m. column each day (Figure 3). Due to summer strat- ification, benthic filtration below 10 m is negligible. The increase in filtration from RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2-7 m is due to higher benthic abundance in that range. It has been suggested that historic Filtration by benthos is dependent on the filter- oyster densities (Crassostrea virginica) could ing capacity of the constituent organisms, modi- have been responsible for substantial filtration fied by ambient temperature, and the water supply of the entire Bay (4). We ran a simulation using to the bottom due to mixing. Figure 2 shows Newell's (4) estimated oyster densities for 1870, benthic filtration due to bivalves in the Upper which were approximately 120.5 x 109 kg dry Bay. Mixing generally extends to the bottom of weight in the Maryland Bay. This results in an 950 r? -V rO &- @h 4-' rT ftNGQ CL N '-I '-JV V0 "d Fraction of Water Column Filter Capacity 000W H.- lj'0 It M0 P@ P-- 0I-h k@ (D rt rtI@-A0M ZI M PO0 OQ r? 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CL OQ Ea M M 0 0001009) CL 0 0(D rtI Pat " 0 a,,,M(D 03 03M M0 rt Ca"0M(D 0(DM 0 UI 0) M CD 03 M F1 ID rt 0) 0rrFM "M @-, -0 MP,)M 0 11 0 e rt ,b Ma@" @f (D '-4- CL (D MM 0 93 0rt 9L -rt CL" M CL @-4 0 0) M0)M>4 ID (D Or 0 @-A00 MM 0ri,vM0@ 0 0 w 0 " 10 1-@ 14 a, r?Mr? @O 0 rr09)," 0@0 @P, (DPWg;J" Gq 03 rrM 0 1-' 11 @h CL 0 P @D r@c ", @-6-1-M0, 9: 10 0 0w @r 3CM -0 @h rt rt Oq GQ0 0rt 0 0rt (D rt M PO pi @4 '1 11 1.4 0 00 M00 M 14 @rv M M0 " " ::r (D 03 o- ::r w 0 0 rt (D4M r) w 1@ 0@D0'1 @-h P- 03 M0rr0 0" (D Cr rt 0) rr rt M ID O-h rt (D It 3& CL CO0 F@ F@ (D (DIMOq 0V n 0rtM" 00) 00 F@ Vn -- (D rL " 0 MH0rt0 0 Cr 0< U)0 0 r? @h Cr rtHM El0 r- n MID 0 11 00 0 9 1Mri rt r) (D P" () (D (D )100 Ia, (D0F-A M M00 a rt 0. -M (D CLI (D -H (D0W. ;3 0 :3 tjM m rt 03 (D " CL (D 0, E3"0 0MCD 0 Mrt-MIa.M 0 00 M0 0 M 11 P M F@ (D 10 :3Pn ft go r- C 0.7r 9) (D0cr t-h :3 @-4 r, (b v (D rt Ib 4 H "(D0rt M 0 @j 00 nCL E3 "0 10 0 "01M(D oo 4m ;3 cL a cD 0 "rt rt (D F@ It rt CL0 rt r-0go "0 0cr VM(DM"0 V)MM H.w rT "s M H. 003vr: D) r_r 0 1-- 11 on PI 0M @P,w@h (D @:r"I M:71 v 0 M 0 r@ go rt <31 11 ca. :3 (D 11 @3 r- F@ 0t- r?. rt CL F1 044.aI-h tI A) (D< 0M0 0 0z U, aq I ea0(DP'.3 rt 0 M0 W. I-A (D F@003 @-h GQ rt F@ 0 1 "M ('D M.1r, 814M11 10-E3 003 MOQ crn 10 (D &"nV4 @-A rt M;C -T, 0 17A (D 0 rr M 0--(DM(D CU o. M 0) CD "=* I., r? 950F@ M M4) 0 03 w M (D W 110r, tr rr ia, CO CC=(D "0) 2C aqzrt 34< 0 0) F@ r, (D 0 M 0) M M1@ (D0 0 M 1-10 PI rtT ft 03 01 r-h QQ<(D-(DP N@MM F1 03 r, 00 @-6 14 ".4M P F-M (D :r @4 rT 00MPi -1 rt F. 0) Mib 03Ma, M n14 M 0OD ;C 03 rt 9) rt :1 ri M @03 ID < 03 =$ 0,00" 0 M 0o.0-(D rtV :Z0M (D I.-, M CL rt 0 0 14 is0r?M rr 1-4 Ct @3 CO r,M0 1-r [email protected], J-h F, Ch 0 '1 rt (D N- 0. rt v 0 00 9 M00 M0 F F@ 01 CO M CD ::r M r, r? go0 CL0 0310 41 r- M PI-- r, 1p, 00) F@ r, rt :5 rT El I OQ iM. ri, r? ib I rt @-h rt 0 --r4 0 09L0 M V n 0 M CL 0 M occur when a large fraction (> 60%) of the water 5. Berg, H.C. 1983. Random walks in biology. column is filtered per day. Princeton Univ. Press. The three tributaries modeled here currently sup- 6. Doering, P.H., C.A. Oviatt, and J.R. Kelly. port high densities of filter feeders that can 1986. The effects of the filter-feeding filter a large fraction of the total volume per clam Mercenaria mercenaria on carbon day in summer. During spring and summer bloom cycling in experimental marine mesocosms. conditions, phytoplankton doubling times are on J. Mar. Res. 44:839-861. the order of 1 day; therefore, filtration in excess of 50% of the water column per day could 7. Peters, R.H. 1983. The ecological result in food limitation. Benthic densities implications of body size. Cambridge for the model were averaged over the whole Univ. Press. tributary; highest densities and benthic second- ary production occur at the upper ends of the 8. Doering, P.H., and C.A. Oviatt. 1986. tributaries which receive freshwater input. Application of filtration rate models to The dense filter feeding communities at the upper field population of bivalves: An assessment ends of the tributaries thus may be supported using experimental mesocosms. Mar. Ecol. by freshwater inputs of organic matter in Prog. Ser. 31:265-275. addition to in situ primary production, since the high filtration rates could deplete phyto- 9. Winter, J.E. 1978. A review of the plankton faster than its growth rate. knowledge of suspension feeding in lamellibranchiate bivalves, with special The main stem of the Chesapeake Bay is less reference to artificial aquaculture systems. affected by benthic filter feeders due to its Aquaculture. 13:1-33. larger volume, to the restriction of abundant filter feeders within the littoral zone,and to 10. Wright, R.T., R.B. Coffin, C. Persing, and limited water exchange between the pelagic SML D. Pearson. 1982. Field and laboratory and the littoral zone (approximately 17%/day). measurements of bivalve filtration of The main stem of the Bay does not appear able natural marine bacterio-plankton. Limnol. to support oyster densities of the 19th century Oceanogr. 27:91-98. (4) in addition to present-day filter feeders. Benthic filter feeders in the Chesapeake Bay may 11. Holland, A.F., A.T. Shaughnessy, L.C. Scott) have replaced historic oyster populations in func- V.A. Dickens, J.A. Ranasinghe, and J.K. tion and density, filtering Bay waters to as full Summers. 1988. Progress Report: Long-term an extent as was done by historic oyster popula- benthic monitoring and assessment programs tions. for the Maryland portion of Chesapeake Bay (July 1986-October 1987). Maryland Power ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Plant Research Program. PPRP-LTB/EST-88-1. I am grateful to A.F. Holland for suggesting this 12. Hydroqual, Inc. 1987. A steady-state topic, to R.I.E. Newell for his historic oyster coupled hydrodynamic/water quality model data and for fruitful discussion, and to V.A. of the eutrophication and anoxia process Dickens for reassembling data. This research was in the Chesapeake Bay. Prepared for U.S. funded by the Maryland Power Plant Research Environmental Protection Agency, Chesapeake Program, Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Bay Program. REFERENCES 13. Cronin, W.B. 1971. Volumetric, areal, and tidal statistics of the Chesapeake Bay 1. Dame, R., R. Zingmark, H. Stevenson, and estuary and its tributaries. Chesapeake D. Nelson. 1980. Filter feeder coupling Bay Institute, Special Report 20, The between the estuarine water column and Johns Hopkins University. benthic subsystems. In: Estuarine Perspectives, 521-5267. V.S. Kennedy, ed. 14. Cronin, W.B., and D.W. Pritchard. 1975. Academic Press. Additional statistics on the dimensions of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries: 2. Cloern, J.E. 1982. Does benthos control Cross-section widths and segment volumes phytoplankton biomass in South San Francisco per meter depth. Chesapeake Bay Institute, Bay? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 9:191-202. Special Report 42, The Johns Hopkins University. 3. Officer, C.B., T.J. Smayda, and R. Mann. 1982. Benthic filter feeding: A natural 15. Braefield, A.E., and G.E. Newell. 1961. eutrophication control. Mar. Ecol. Prog. The behavior of Macoma balthica L. J. Ser. 9:203-210. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 41:81-87. 4. Newell, R.I.E. In press. Anoxia and sea nettles in the Chesapeake Bay: Are they 952 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO WETLAND LOSS IN THE COASTAL CENTRAL GULF OF ME)aCO Robert M. Rogers Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region ABSTRACT Management Service (MMS) for a number of years. In the light of a declining economy from oil- and gas-related In response to the dramatic alteration of coastal wetland activities and accelerated wetlands loss affecting the habitat habitats in Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi, the Minerals of valuable biological resources, many unsubstantiated claims Management Service has initiated a number of environmental were being made on who was responsible for the loss and who studies addressing this problem. The first of this series was a should be addressing the problem. In this emotional 2-year comprehensive study of factors contributing to atmosphere, study planning was initiated in 1984 to wetlands loss. Investigators looked at the direct impacts of, investigate what factors contribute to wetlands loss and canals and pipelines on wetlands as well as the balance specifically what percentage of this loss is due to OCS between saltwater and freshwater in maintaining a healthy pipelines, navigation canals, and support facilities located in marsh. The role of sedimentation in balancing subsidence wetland areas. and accretion was also investigated. Landscape patterns were studied using remotely sensed data to conduct computer In September 1985, MMS contracted with the Center for analyses of landloss patterns. This study was completed in Wetland Resources of Louisiana State University (LSU) to early 1988 and has proved effective in describing the complex conduct a comprehensive study entitled "OCS Development processes at work in the coastal wetlands. and Potential Coastal Habitat Alteration." This study was completed in early 1988 and has gone a long way toward Another investigation was initiated to look at the impacts of describing the complex processes and interactions at work in selected Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) activities on sensitive the wetlands. Definitive partitioning of causes of wetland coastal habitats such as barrier islands and barrier beaches losses was effectively accomplished and a groundwork laid for with their associated wetlands and to predict the effects of further testing hypotheses and facing the problem of future impacts in the region. An important aspect of the accelerated wetlands loss. project was a reconnaissance-level assessment of the impacts of OCS-produced water discharges in coastal wetlands. The In October 1986, MMS contracted with Coastal study has recently been completed with final report Environments, Inc., to conduct a two-part study to determine distribution scheduled for October 1988. the impacts of selected OCS activities on sensitive coastal habitats. The first part of this study was designed to research Recently a cooperative investigation with the Louisiana the impacts of Federal OCS pipelines and associated facilities Department of Natural Resources has been initiated to and navigation channels on barrier beaches and barrier determine the most efficient marsh management techniques islands along the Gulf of Mexico from Cameron County, in light of a wide array of environmental conditions that may Texas, to Bay County, Florida, and on coastal wetlands within exist at a given site. A study of the overall coastal marsh this region, except those areas addressed in the environment in Louisiana and an examination of specific sites aforementioned wetlands loss study. The study was in a variety of physiographic settings will be carried out over formulated to generate information for predicting impacts of a 2-year period. This analysis of wetland mitigation is an future OCS activities in the region and for documenting effort to better understand how marsh management is used to measures that have been successful in mitigating impacts to reduce the loss of wetlands, to preserve existing productive specific habitats and under particular environmental marsh, and to improve prospects for future marsh growth. conditions. The second part of the study was a reconnaissance-level assessment of the impacts of OCS-produced water discharges in coastal wetlands, INTRODUCTION primarily Louisiana wetlands. This aspect of the study carried out by the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium The impacts of Federal Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil (LUMCON) and LSU Institute for Environmental Studies and gas activities related to onshore alterations in the coastal was designed to extend, update, and improve the existing central Gulf of Mexico have been a concern of the Minerals record inventory and to provide a field assessment of existing 953 United States Government work not protected by copyright conditions at OCS-produced water discharge sites. This study 1982). Ile cultural heritage of the region will be diluted and is nearing completion with distribution of a final report the economic resources devastated. scheduled for October 1988. This vast area of wetlands is not homogeneous, but zoned into A third study recently initiated by MMS to address the transitional areas dominated by characteristic plant species. concern of wetlands loss has been "A Study of Wetlands Their distributions are determined by their tolerance to Mitigation: Marsh Management." The primary focus of this salinity, soil types, drainage characteristics, and elevation study, being carried out by cooperative agreement with the (Chabreck, Joanen, and Palmisano, 1968). Figure 1 Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, is to determine illustrates the distribution of these vegetation types. the most efficient marsh management techniques in light of a wide array of environmental conditions that may exist at a given site. This determination will be accomplished by a study of the overall coastal marsh environment in Louisiana and an examination of specific sites in a variety of physiographic settings within the study area. The study effort will extend for L.k. P..h.d- two years with completion scheduled for April 1990. BACKGROUND As early as 1970, estimates of wetland loss indicated that valuable Gulf coastal wetlands were being converted to open water at a rate of 16.5 square miles per year (Gagliano and Van Beek, 1970). More recently, in a study sponsored by MMS (or what was then the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Outer Continental Shelf office) and carried out VEGETATION TYPES: through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, this landloss rate -FRESH MARSHES -BRACKISH MARSHES - INTERMEDIATE -SALINE MARSHES between 1955 and 1978 in the Mississippi Deltaic Plain was MARSHES NON-MARSH AREAS calculated to be 39 square miles per year (Wicker, 1980) and in the Chenier Plain to be 11 square miles per year (Gosselink, Cordes, and Parsons, 1979). More recent total landloss rate Figure 1. Vegetation zones in the Mississippi River Delta estimates have been as high as 60 square miles per year. marshes (Chabreck and Linscombe, 1978). The issue of wetland loss is a crisis of dramatic proportions. Wetland loss directly affects the environmental, economic, At the upland extent of coastal wetlands are swamp forests social, and geopolitical values of coastal states and the Nation. dominated by bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and water The wetlands of Louisiana alone, consisting of 2.6 million tupelo (Nyssa aquatica). These trees are very intolerant to hectares (ha) (6.5 million acres), constitute over 40 percent saltwater intrusion. of all United States coastal wetlands (Gosselink, 1980). Adjacent to these swamps are freshwater marshes generally 'ne bountiful harvest of renewable resources from Louisiana forming the northernmost extent of the coastal marsh. It is wetlands is estimated to exceed $1 billion annually. Over 40 estimated that there are 1.2 million acres of fresh marsh in percent of the Nation7s fur harvest and 30 percent of its Louisiana (Chabreck, 1972). Freshwater marshes are commercial fisheries harvest are dependent upon these dominated by such plants as maidencane (Pant .cum wetlands. Shrimp, oysters, crab, and menhaden worth hemitomon), bull tongue (Sagittaria spp.), common reed hundreds of millions of dollars annually use the coastal (Phragmites communis), and alligator weed (Alternanthera marshes for nursery grounds. philoxeroides). The waterfowl that crowd Gulf coast marshes during the As freshwater outflow mingles with marine tidal influences, winter create a hunter's paradise. Migratory waterfowl more salt-tolerant plants such as saltmeadow cordgrass readily use this important habitat. It is estimated that four (Spartina patens), bull tongue (Sagittafia spp.), and sawgrass million ducks overwinter there annually. (Cladium jamaicense) are encountered. This intermediate marsh is a little saltier than the freshwater marsh, generally In addition there are the socioeconomic implications of ranging from 0.5 to 5.0 ppt (Cowardin et al., 1979). The wetlands loss. The marshes are a natural defense against intermediate marsh is often defined as a transitional zone hurricane-induced storm surge. They also provide substrate between brackish and fresh marsh. for the multibillion dollar infrastructure associated with the petroleum industry. Wetlands enhance water quality and The brackish marsh provides a buffer zone between the saline provide a living for over a million people in the Gulf coastal marsh and the intermediate marsh. The major plants are area. The unique lifestyles could obviously be altered or lost saltmeadow cordgrass (Sparfina patens), threecorner grass resulting in the demise of centuries-old traditions (Davis, (Scirpus olneyi), and saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus). 954 The brackish marsh provides habitat for such wildlife as For 10,000 years the river has carried hundreds of millions of muskrat and geese and is of particularvalue to the larval forms tons of sediment and fresh nutrients annually into southern of such estuarine organsisms as shrimp, crabs, and menhaden. wetlands creating huge deltaic lobes. Approximately every Studies show that brackish marshes are deteriorating faster 1,000 years the main river course would switch to another than any of the other wetland habitats (Adams et al., 1976; route as the gradient became increasingly inefficient. As the Gagliano and Van Beek, 1970). new lobe began to grow, the abandoned lobe would begin to subside. This process continued with a net annual growth of The saline marsh is adjacent to the Gulf and is usually subject a few square miles. to tidal activity. Plants in this area are tolerant to high salinities and are dominated by saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina It is difficult to determine why the marsh-building processes alterniflora), black rush (Juncus roemerianus), saltgrass began to decline, but somewhere around the turn of the (Distichlis spicata), and glasswort (Salicornia sp.). The saline century, the net annual growth converted to landloss. It is not marsh is important as a nursery ground for numerous marine difficult to determine that the activities of man have more and estuarine organisms. A conceptual diagram of these delta recently greatly exacerbated the problem. First, the taming marshes and their relations to other ecosystems is illustrated of the river for flood control and navigation has limited its in figure 2. ability to drive marsh-building processes and has literally starved the wetlands of sediments, allowing for increased RIYER TO UPLANDS TO \ RCON'TINENTAL saltwater intrusion. Second, the coastal zone has become MARSH/ MARSHI INTE ESTUARY ESTUARY MARSH ZONE laced with numerous navigation channels and thousands of E MARSH ZONE miles of oil and gas production access canals and pipeline R1 F-h . - I i` I canals. This network has caused the direct loss of wetlands to a !h spoil banks and open water, as well as promoted saltwater MAR to 1WX1 intrusion and wave wash. Coupled with these factors is the EST ARY fty &R SHY ommou STUA s threat of sea level rise brought on by increasing TO GULF levels of carbon dioxide. Estimates of a rise in sea level as high as one meter in the next century would obviously be devastating to the maintenance of marshes. The MMS study entitled "OCS Development and Potential Coastal Habitat Alteration" was begun in 1985 to Figure 2. Conceptual diagram depicting the coupling of quantitatively partition the causes of wetland loss and marshes to other ecosystems (Gosselink, 1984). specifically to understand the contribution due to the onshore impacts of offshore oil and gas operations. A These marshes in Louisiana are further divided from east to multidisciplinary team of scientists was assembled to research west into the Mississippi Deltaic Plain and the Chenier Plain. and reach a consensus on what were the dominant factors The Deltaic Plain lies east of Vermilion Bay and covers contributing to this growing problem. This 2-year study was two-thirds of the coastal marsh. It has resulted from cyclical completed in December 1988 and a final technical report delta growth and decline and the resulting environmental entitled Causes of Wetland Loss in the Coastal Central Gulf of succession. These processes have generated this extensive Mexico released. coastal lowland characterized by a skeleton of natural levee The geographic focus of the study area was from East Bay, ridges along active and abandoned distributaries, an outer Texas, to Waveland, Mississippi (figure 3). Realizing the fringe of sandy barrier islands and Gulf beaches, and vast different geologic nature of the Louisiana wetlands, the study areas of interdistributary swamps, marshes, lakes, and bays regionwas investigated in three areas: 1) the Lafourche study (Gagliano et al., 1981). area located to the east of Bayou Lafourche, a water course The Chenier Plain lies west of Vermilion Bay and generally abandoned by the Mississippi River about 400 years ago; 2) has firmer marshland. It was formed from the deposition of the Terrebonne study area adjacent to the Atchafalaya River, silts and clays swept westward from the Mississippi River by the most recent Mississippi River water course that today Gulf currents. This area has not been affected by subsidence captures 30 percent of the system's flow; and 3) the Cameron as much as the Deltaic Plain, but it has been reworked study area located in the western part of the state outside the extensively by wave action. This reworking has resulted in major influence of the Mississippi River. separate shore-parallel to shore-oblique ridges of shell and The project was divided into two broad analyses: direct sand separated by progradational mud flats or mud flats that impacts and indirect impacts. Direct impacts were defined as are now open water. those cultural activities directly linked to the physical conversion of one habitat to another. The major human OCS DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIAL COASTAL activities involved in creating direct impacts are land drainage HABITAT ALTERATION and dredge-and-fill. The major onshore dredge-and-fill activities associated with OCS development are the The basic problem of wetland loss lies with the engine driving construction of pipelines and related support facilities and the the geological processes of the region--the Mississippi River. construction or enlargement of navigation channels. 955 Total direct impacts accounted for an estimated 25.6 percent landscape patterns working group used remotely sensed data of the total net wetland loss within the Louisiana study area to conduct computer analyses of landloss patterns. This was from 1956 to 1978. Direct impacts from OCS activities coupled with statistical analyses to determine relationships accounted for 4.0 to 4.7 percent of the total Louisiana wetland between wetland loss and manmade and geomorphic features loss. An important finding was that direct impacts from OCS across the whole coastal zone. In order to investigate the pipelines averaged 2.49 ha/km and totaled 12,012 ba. Direct degree and extent of saltwater intrusion, the saltwater impacts are variable and are related to construction working group conducted analyses of salinity records across technique, geologic region, habitat type, age and diameter of coastal zones, developed a computer model of the influence pipeline, and other factors that were not examined in this of OCS canals on saltwater intrusion, and observed which study. salinity changes were significant to typical wetland plants. The database on salinity trends was composed of 44 long-term (u'p to 49 years) tidal flow records collected by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. A general conclusion was that salinity actually decreased at certain stations. This decrease was obviously in contrast to the widely held belief that a coastwide increase in salinity is responsible for plant death and Wovelond,Ms subsequent wetland loss. However, interpretation of the data was difficult due to such factors as: 1) gauges usually Boytown,Tx ew Orleans,La measured near-surface salinities; 2) some records were only 5 years, some up to 49 years; and 3) the records were not long enough to determine inherent variability as opposed to Chenier Plain manmade impacts. i Deltaic Plain Another goal of the saltwater working group was to develop El Louisiana Coastal Zone EOMMS Study Areas a model for saltwater intrusion in coastal channels. This model described saltwater movement in relation to Figure 3. Study area for the investigation of wetlands loss in freshwater discharge and tidal exchange. Compared with the coastal central Gulf of Mexico. The three shaded areas undredged marshes, saltwater intrusion inland is more were primary study sites for field work (Turner and Cahoon, frequent and severe in manmade channels due to 1987). straightening and deepening from dredging activities. Navigation channels accounted for a minimum of 16,902 ha The next important question addressed by the saltwater of habitat change. Of this total change, 13,615 ha resulted working group was how the saltwater moves from the bayous from the loss of wetland and beach habitat. It appears that or canals into the marshes--by overland flooding or by OCS traffic comprises a relatively small percentage of the migration through interstitial waters. To look at this question, total commercial traffic using navigation channels; thus, the, intensive sampling was carried out on free-water salinities in allocation of navigation channel impacts due to OCS activities groundwater over a 3-day period and was followed by the is small. Direct impacts per unit length of navigation channel deployment of recording water level and salinity meters. averaged 20 times greater than pipelines. As a result of these data, it appeared that the major Indirect impacts were assessed by investigating how oil- and mechanism. for salt transfer into the marsh is occasional gas-related activities affect the natural processes controlling overbank flooding with slow return flow. Water in the marsh wetland loss and by quantifying wetland loss that is indirectly is also strongly influenced by precipitation and the result of these activities. These impacts were more evapotranspiration. The system is further complicated by the difficult to quantify. Wetlands are a robust habitat so that not presence of multiple pathways. Variations in wind strength, all changes or impacts occur coincidentally in time or space. direction, and spatial scale, as well as stream discharge, may For example, the effects of a spoil bank may take months to generate small-scale gradients within the open water. These years to interact with the hydrology of an area, whereas soil variations are added to the larger scale predictable gradients compaction may take hundreds of years. The indirect impacts associated with tidal flooding. The water level changes of analysis was divided into the following working groups: small spatial scale potentially are able to interact with the saltwater intrusion, sedimentation/subsidence, and landscape marsh topography to allow water to enter and flow within patterns. The saltwater working group research goals were to marsh channels by a variety of different paths. This means identify and quantify the degree and extent of saltwater that the source of overbank flooding within the marsh may be intrusionwith and without OCS-related canals that contribute locally or far-field driven. indirectly to wetlands loss. The sedimentation/subsidence working group was to examine accretion processes (e.g., The saltwater working group also addressed the question of sediment accumulation, peat formation, oxidation, how and to what extent increases in salinity would affect the submergence) as affected by man's alterations. The vegetation of the various marsh types. The effects of 956 increased salinity and submergence on the dominant plant sufficient to compensate for the reduced suspended load. species were investigated in each on the three marsh habitats This decrease, coupled with the loss of direct input of by simulation of saltwater intrusion and increased inundation sediments from overbank flooding, undoubtedly has under field and greenhouse conditions. Study results showed influenced marsh sedimentation rates. Sediment deprivation that the response of marsh vegetation to increases in salinity appears to limit marsh growth in several regions of the coast. is influenced by a number of factors including vegetation type; level, duration, and abruptness of exposure to salinity; and Canals and spoil banks influence marsh sediment level of inundation. Saltmarsh plant species were essentially distribution. On a local scale an annual 0-6 mm increase or unaffected by increased salinity and slightly affected by decrease in vertical accretion compared to natural waterways waterlogging. Brackish marsh plants were more sensitive to may occur. These differences are usually attributed to the waterlogging and increased salinity. Although fresh marsh influence of the spoil bank on marsh hydrology. plants were adversely affected by waterlogging and increased salinities, their response tends to vary according to species. Short-term accretion rates were essentially the same behind Thus, fresh marshes composed of more tolerant species might adjacent natural and mamnade waterways. This result does be able to survive salinity increases for short periods, but not preclude the possibility that a surface disparity could would probably quickly succumb to sudden increased develop behind spoil levees but not behind natural levees. salinities above 10 parts per thousand (ppt). Spoil levees can influence surface hydrology and therefore marsh water levels. Thus, a disparity between marsh Since the vertical accretion of marshes is dependent on the accretion and water level rise could develop near spoil levees accumulation of organic matter produced by marsh plants, but not near natural waterway sites, even though accretion any reduction in this source will slow the aggradation process. rates were the same at both sites. More data would be needed A sudden change that leads to a rapid biomass reduction or to confirm the existence of such disparities. elimination would reduce the potential for marsh accretion to keep up with subsidence and/or sea level rise. The stresses The landscape pattern analysis group used aerial imagery of associated with increase in flooding depth and duration could 1955/56 to 1978 habitats to analyze wetland changes that have ultimately cause plant demise in areas where marsh accretion occurred. Three projects were designed to examine the lags behind increasing water level. Saltwater intrusion, distribution and/or number of habitat changes with respect to whether natural or man-induced, may accelerate this process geology, distance, and density measures. Identified factors in all marsh types. associated with either wetland loss or landloss rates included 1) the age and thickness of previously deposited sediments, 2) The subsidence, water level rise, and sediments working the distance to sediment sources and freshwater, 3) indicators group looked at the question of sea level rise in relation to of hydrologic change, such as canals and spoil banks, and 4) subsidence and the ability of the marsh to compensate for it. various associated factors related to distance and density. Investigators looked at the ability of the Mississippi River to supply sediments, what portion of coastal submergence is due In general, loss rates are lower where sediment thickness is to sea level rise as opposed to subsidence, and the rates of thin and the sediments old, where spoil banks, canals, and the sedimentation using short-term to long-term marking seashore are far away, and where rivers are close. The reverse techniques. was also true: loss rates were highest where sediments are likely to consolidate the most, where new sediment sources Recent subsidence is the dominant geological process causing are in shortest supply, and where canals and spoil banks are wetland inundation, not sea level rise. Geological subsidence dense. However, the loss rates in specific areas may not rates of about 0.3 to 2.0 cm/yr seem constant over the last 40 always follow the general tendency. Because of the to 50 years. Based on modeling studies, fluid withdrawal from interactions between these factors, regions differ geologically, oil/gas reservoirs may be an important local but not regional biologically, and physically. In terms of loss rates and the influence on land sinking. relationship between these factors, the Chenier Plain was distinct from the Deltaic Plain. Similarly, the Deltaic Plain Sea level rise appears to have been relatively constant over could also be subdivided into smaller regions. the last 80 years, at a rate of about 2.3 mm/yr. Basin water level changes significantly influence marsh water levels and, In conclusion, investigators estimated the impacts of OCS together with climatic effects, have produced decade-long activities and the factors driving wetland losses in the study rises and lowerings of water levels at tide gage stations of as area. As previously noted of all direct impacts from 1955/56 much as 60 cm. Water level rise from climatic changes, to 1978, OCS development accounted for an estimated 14-16 subsidence, and sea level rise can often exceed additions of percent, or 4-5 percent of the total wetland loss. Of all sediments at the marsh surface, at least over short time indirect impacts, OCS development accounted for an periods, resulting in accretion falling behind water level rise. estimated 5-18 percent, or 4-13 percent of the total wetland loss. Combining the direct and indirect impacts, OCS Using available data bases related to sediment development accounted for 8-17 percent of all wetland loss. concentrations, investigators found that suspended sediment Altogether 43-72 percent of the causes of all wetland losses supply from the Mississippi River has decreased dramatically were identified. Some of the remaining 28-57 percent may in the last 100 years. Changes in bedload did not appear also be caused by OCS or non-OCS economic development, 957 agricultural and urban expansion, and oil and gas canals and the pipelines studied in Alabama were emplaced using a spoil banks, but are likely to involve more normianageable directional drilling technique that had no impact on the bay influences, particularly water level rise, geological factors, shore. and the decreased sediment content of the Mississippi River. Another aspect of this study was to document the IMPACTS OF OCS-RELATED ACTIVITIES ON environmental effects of discharges of formation waters SENSITIVE COASTAL HABITATS associated with oil and gas production into coastal environments. These produced waters often have elevated In order to further understand potential onshore impacts of concentrations of dissolved solids, higher concentrations of OCS activities, the MMS contracted with Coastal dissolved trace metals, little or no dissolved oxygen, high Environments, Inc., to investigate the impacts of OCS-related concentrations of sulfides, and varying concentrations of activities (pipelines, navigation canals, and produced waters) petroleum hydrocarbons. on sensitive coastal habitats of the Gulf Coast from South Texas to northwest Florida. The sensitive coastal habitats Because of the lack of comprehensive information on the included all barrier islands, beaches, and marshes except extent and location of produced water discharges in the those studied in the previously described investigation. The northwestern Gulf of Mexico, data were assembled from the main objective of this study was to document shoreline and files of state and federal regulatory agencies. This habitat changes related to pipeline emplacement techniques information included location, volume of discharges, and (e.g., push ditch, flotational canal, directional drilling). characteristics of receiving waters of reported discharges into the coastal and estuarine environments of Louisiana and A total of 154 federal pipelines were located in Texas and Texas. From summaries of these data, it appears that a total Louisiana. Of the 11 pipelines studied in Mississippi and of 3.6 million barrels per day of produced waters are Alabama, only 2 carried products directly from OCS waters. discharged into estuarine or offshore -waters. Of this, As would be expected, the impacts of these OCS pipelines approximately 1.8 million barrels per day are discharged into vary depending on the construction technique and the estuarine and nearshore waters of Louisiana and 0.8 million environmental processes active in the area. All pipeline sites barrels per day into similar waters of Texas. were analyzed for the type and degree of impact. Field Three areas receiving significant OCS-generated produced sampling of vegetative, hydrologic, and geologic parameters water discharges were selected for preliminary field at 11 pipelines in the 4 coastal systems provided additional assessments of the effects on water and sediment quality and data for explaining the impact process and magnitude. biota of the region. One of the sites assessed was Bayou The push-ditch method with trench backfilling was very Rigaud located behind Grand Isle, Louisiana. It received effective in reducing coastal impacts to a minimum. All approximately 145,000 barrels per day of produced waters pipelines in Texas were emplaced this way. In Louisiana from two major facilities, Based on salinity distribution, the approximately 9 of the 49 pipelines making landfall in the study data revealed that the effluents formed dense bottom Chenier Plain region were installed using a flotation canal plumes that were effectively dispersed within a few hundred that was dammed at the beach. The remainder appear to have meters by the large tidal flow through this channelized bayou. been installed using a push-ditch method, with most having been backfilled. In all cases, a dam was placed at the juncture Concentrations of benzene of up to 930 ng/ml were measured in water overlying the bottom within 100 in of the largest of the push-point canal slip dredged through the beach and discharge. Bottom sediments near the discharges had the push ditch. By 1988, beach material had plugged all of concentrations of total hydrocarbons up to 1,600 ug/g these cuts making shorelines at the pipeline right-of-way appear the same as the adjacent shoreline. Shoreline retreat decreasing with distance from the discharge. Macrobenthic has left many bulkheads in the Gulf, but new bulkheads have organisms were essentially absent from the most heavily contaminated sediments. Their population densities and been constructed in several of the flotation canals. The species richness increased with distance from the discharges remainder of the canals have been plugged naturally by beach sand and shell. and with decreasing sediment hydrocarbon concentrations. The presence of the polychaete Capitella capitata at more Of the 89 OCS pipelines making landfall in the Louisiana distant stations suggested an intermediate field organic Deltaic Plain, only 39 cross barrier islands and beaches. Of enrichment effect. Sediments in Bayou Rigaud extending at these 39 lines, 5 appear to have been laid in water betwee least 1 kin in either direction from the discharges showed barrier islands. Of the 26 remaining lines in the Deltaic Plai evidence of hydrocarbon contamination and effects on 9 were in flotation canals that were dammed, 7 were in push benthic communities. ditches that appeared to have been backfilled, and 10 Although final analyses and interpretation of field data had pipelines had undetermined emplacement. not been completed at the time of drafting of this paper, it Of the 6 pipelines studied in Mississippi, 3 were emplaced in appears that this pattern of sediment contamination and a corridor using a push ditch, and 2 were in flotation canals benthic effects extending on the scale of I km from the dammed near the shoreline. All of these lines traversed discharge sites differs from others studies of the effects of marshes and none crossed barrier islands or beaches. All 5 of produced water discharges in the Gulf region indicating 958 contamination effects restricted to within 100 m of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in preparing a programmatic discharges. This is probably attributable to the much larger environmental impact statement dealing with marsh volume of the discharges studied here and the more enclosed management practices. nature of the receiving waters, which limits dilution and enhances the deposition of fine, contaminated sediments. SUMMARY WETLANDS MITIGATION: A STUDY OF MARSH Although the contributions from OCS activities to coastal MANAGEMENT wetlands loss are small, their effects are measurable and, indeed, can be significant in local areas. Many of these Faced with extensive wetland loss, a major question is what impacts can be avoided by wise environmental planning. The methods of land management and conservation are effective Gulf of Mexico has been and will continue to be, at least for in saving this valuable resource. To address this question, the the next 10 years, the site for the majority of offshore oil and MMS signed a cooperative agreement with the Louisiana gas development in the United States (Boesch and Rabalais, Department of Natural Resources for a 2-year study effort., 1985). Onshore impacts obviously will be an important Tlis study began in April 1988 and is in the early stages of consideration. information gathering. Wetlands loss is a continuing problem that can only effectively Traditional approaches to marsh management utilize levees be addressed by the cooperation of a number of federal and and water control structures to impound or partially impound state agencies sharing their resources. The cooperative wetlands, allowing control of water levels and salinity. These agreement between the MMS and State of Louisiana in approaches have made it possible to enhance the productivity addressing the effectiveness of marsh management plans of some wetlands, especially for waterfowl and furbearers. exemplifies such a constructive endeavor. A technical But these techniques have been questioned as ineffective or consensus is needed on the efficiency of many of the proposed actually contributing to wetland loss in some cases. There has mitigative approaches: backfilling canals, leveling spoil also been concern regarding interference with the disruption banks, levees, water control structures, locks on navigation of migratory patterns of commercial and recreational canals, and freshwater diversions. Results of this study will be fisheries species. The most important objective of this helpful to individual land owners and land managers in wetlands mitigation study is to provide an objective protecting their lands from wetlands loss while improving assessment of the suitability and feasibility of using marsh their value through resource management. management techniques to protect and enhance coastal wetlands and the renewable resources they produce. The impacts of coastal discharges of OCS-produced formation waters have been considered to be of significant The data acquisition phase will consist of three tasks. The first concern to warrant further investigation. Existing will identify the administrative procedures, legislation, and information relevant to produced waters will be assimilated regulations controlling wetland management in Louisiana. and integrated to evaluate components, especially total The second task will inventory management activities in the dissolved solids, oxygen-demanding wastes, trace metals, wetlands including public interest goals, data sources, aromatic hydrocarbons, and radionuclides. Information on engineering and construction techniques, and economic location of discharge sites, daily discharge rates at each site, considerations. It will also include mapping of the study area and the nature of the environment in each area will be needed and marsh management projects; characterization of to determine the extent of impacts. The findings of this study environmental conditions including habitat, hydrologic, and will be used to assess the magnitude of present and possible geologic conditions; and a review of management plans and future discharges of produced water, to assess the information on permitted sites. The third task will involve environmental consequences of these discharges, and to monitoring habitat changes resulting from marsh support development of mitigating measures, if warranted. management plan implementation. The monitoring program will include field studies of 24 sites. The second phase--data synthesis, analysis, and interpretation--consists of four tasks, each drawing upon the LITERATURE CITED data derived from the first phase. . The first analysis deals with engineering and economic concerns; the second with study Adams, R.D., B.B. Barrett, J.H. Blackmon, B.W. Gane, and area conditions including habitats, hydrologic and geologic W.G. McIntire. 1976. Barataria basin: geologic conditions, and management plans. The third task will processes and framework. Center for Wetland analyze the monitoring data and ecological factors. The Resources, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. Sea fourth task will assess the feasibility and suitability of marsh Grant Publ. LSU-T-76-006. management practices and will include maps portraying suitable and unsuitable areas. Boesch, D.F. and N.N. Rabalais, eds. 1985. The long-term effects of offshore oil and gas development: an A final report will synthesize all elements of the first two assessment and a research strategy. NOAA, National phases. Information from this study will also be used by the Marine Pollution Program Office. 738 pp. 959 Chabreck, R.H., T. Joanen, and A.W. Palmisano. 1968. Gagliano, S.M., K.J. Meyer-Arendt, and K.M. Wicker. 1981. Vegetative type map of Louisiana coastal marshes. Land loss in the Mississippi River deltaic plain. Trans. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission, New Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 31:295-300. Orleans. Gosselink, J.G., C.L. Cordes, and J.W. Parsons. 1979. An Chabreck, R.H. 1972. Vegetation, water and soil ecological characterization study of the Chenier Plain characteristics of the Louisiana coastal region. Agr. Exp. coastal ecosystem of Louisiana and Texas. U.S. Fish and Sta. Bull. 664. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-78/9 through 78/11. 3 vols. 72 pp. Gosselink, J.G. 1980. Tidal marshes--the boundary between Chabreck, R.H., and G. Linscombe. 1978. Vegetative type land and ocean. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. map of the Louisiana coastal marshes. Louisiana Dept. of FWS/OBS-80/15. 13 pp. Wildlife and Fisheries, New Orleans. Gosselink, J.G., 1984. The ecology of delta marshes of coastal Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Louisiana: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the Service. FWS/OBS-84/09. 134 pp. United States. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-79/3 1. Washington, D.C. 103 pp. Turner, R.E., and D.R. Cahoon, eds. 1987. Causes of wetlands loss in the coastal central Gulf of Mexico. Davis, D.W. 1982. Economic and cultural consequences of Volume 11: technical narrative. Final report submitted to land loss in Louisiana. Shore and Beach 51(4):30-39. Minerals Management Service, New Orleans. Contract No. 14-12-0001-30252. OCS Study/MMS 87-0120.440 pp. Gagliano, S.M., and J.L. Van Beek. 1970. Geologic and geomorphic aspects of deltaic processes, Mississippi delta Wicker, K.M. 1980. Mississippi deltaic plain region system. Hydrologic and geologic studies of coastal ecological characterization: a habitat mapping study. A Louisiana. Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana user's guide to the habitat maps. U.S. Fish and Wildlife State University, Baton Rouge. 140 pp. Service. FWS/OBS-79/07. 960 IMPROVED U.S. STRATEGY FOR FISHERIES LAW ENFORCEMENT Captain Fred L. Ames, USCG USCGC MORGEN M U (WHEC 722) FPO San Francisco, California 96672-3916 ABSTRACT CONTEXT The nature of the threat to the fisheries This is the environment within which the strategy resources of the United States has drastically must operate. These are the external factors changed in just the last few years. Enacting the that work upon the strategy and influence its 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1976 success or failure. attempted, among other things, to stimulate the U. S. domestic fishing industry and exclude Economic/Societal: Fishing ranks with agriculture foreign fishing. It has been so successful in as one of the earliest food producing endeavors these objectives that our fisheries resources are by man. As the world population growth explodes, still being endangered. The present U. S. law increasing world food supplies have not kept pace enforcement strategy, designed primarily for with escalating demand. Droughts and other foreign fishing vessels, is inadequate for the weather catastrophies, industrialization, present threat. Exacerbating this problem is a residential development, and soil erosion all period of finite government resources. An accentuate this shortage. In turn, this creates analysis of the current strategy and an improved severe competition for available food sources strategy is presented. frcra the sea. Living sea resources are a critical component of the diet in many Asian countries and a major part of their industry. Many developing nations have rising aspirations INTRODUCTION to share in the ocean resource wealth and see indigenous fishing industries as a means to The United States exercised fishing law increase both basic nutritional levels and GNP. enforcement from shortly after it emerged as a Meanwhile, new markets are developing for species nation. This effort, in particular that of the previously considered either uneconomical or U. S. Coast Guard and the National Marine unappetizing. U. S. fish consumption continues Fisheries Service (NMFS), has continued to grow to increase, most likely due to increasing health more complex with significantly increased consciousness. These factors increase the responsibilities added by the 200 mile Exclusive instances of resource exploitation. Overfishing Economic Zone (EEZ) . Radical changes in the of a particular region is not generally nature of these fisheries operations during the identified until the catch declines for a last few years call for improvements in our sustained period. Severely decreasing yields are strategy. Emphasis is necessary on enforcement observed in many species. The economic incentive of domestic fisheries as U. S. industry continues is a powerful motivating force in the quest for to grow and replace foreign competitors in the living resources. Major capital investments can EEZ. lead to major profits if the right fish is economically harvested. Taken as a whole, the I intend to examine the current U. S. strategy economic/societal element encourages exploiting for fisheries management (in particular law for profit. enforcement in Alaska) by applying a framework for the analysis of military strategy. The Technological: The drive for economy in fishing framework is based around that of Captain George is best exemplified in the explosion of fishing Edmund Thibault, USN, previous Chairman of the technology. Larger and more efficient ships Department of Military Strategy at the National appear with improved methods of fish forecasting, War College, Washington, D.C. In particular, locating, capture, and processing. These sensors each of five major groups of elements common to coupled with advanced communications and all strategies will be assessed: context, navigation equipment have outpaced improved capabilities, assumptions, objectives,. and costs methods of surveillance (detection, location, and (benefits and risks). This systematic approach identification) available to law enforcement will enable me to recommend changes to our agencies. Diversity of fishing vessel types, current strategy. The analysis is not concerned sizes, methods, and gear add to the complexity. with specific tactics, such as employing ships on patrol in covert/overt modes. CH2585-8/8810000- 961 $1 @1988 IEEE Political-Domestic: The U. S. Congress enacted enforcement leverage on FFV's. Differing Public Law 9-T-7265-to prevent overfishing of U. S. objectives of the U. S. State Department and fishing resources, rebuild 'overfished stocks, and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) have develop the U. S. domestic fishing industry. The compounded this problem, the former concerned "Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act with the larger national security interests and of 197611 (MFC14A) established an exclusive the latter with protection and development of fisheries conservation and management zone valuable national resources. extending 200 nautical miles seaward of the U. S., effectively encompassing 20% o 'f the world I s Physical Environment: The Alaskan region fisheries resources. The U. S. Coast Guard and provides the most complex and diversified law National Marine Fisheries Service were given enforcement problem. Consider the major aspects: enforcement and management responsibilities 6554 miles of coastline (54% of total U. S.) , respectively under this act. This unilateral vast foreign and domestic interests, and numerous action was in response to, a failure of the stocks of important fish (salmon, halibut, king existing international fishery agreements to crab, tanner crab, plus other species such as effectively prevent or terminate overfishing by pollock, -ooean perch, turbot, sablefish). This foreign fishing vessels in our coastal seas. creates a complex set of requirements: closed Because much of U. S. growth and commerce is tied areas/varied seasons, fishing gear restrictions, to the coastal sea area, the U. S. public shows dif ferent governments, disparate species, little tolerance of foreign infringements in this dissimilar fishing fleets and methods, high area. The U. S'. commercial fishing Andustry, a density of fishing vessels, and numerous and special culture all its own in many areas, complex laws and international agreements. spawned powerful political interest groups that Severe weather conditions year round including continue to strive for noninterference from frigid sea and air temperatures makes for one of federal regulation and general freedom of the harshest 'seagoing operating environments in operatio *n. This is an especially important force the world. considering the extraordinary resurgence of the U. S. commercial fishing fleet in recent years. ASSUMPHONS Overlapping this atmosphere : is increasing competition for scarce 'government funding which Each assumption must be explicitly stated because has major consequences for , federal law each identifies a risk or concern that will form enforcement needs: manpower, new technologies, the basis for the strategy. These are my and air and sea enforcement' vehicles. Recent assumptions: congressional budget problems for the Coast Guard caused' an immediate 54% reduction in cutter days Fish resources are scarce enough and demand for and a 55% reduction in aircraft flight hours in fish products high enough to conclude that Alaska. Especially considering the ever foreign and domestic fishermen can justify the increasing emphasis on drug interdiction, the risk of violating existing regulatio 'ns and the U. political winds are, notin favor of increasing S. can justify some level of effort and expense funding of Coast Guard fisheries'law enforcement. of enforcing them. Another highly., charged political area involves animal rights activists who are striv -ing to Foreign governments are not helpful in deterring curtail incidental killing of marine mammals. violations by their fishing fleets without some This is likely to have a severe impact on economic quid pro quo for their fishing industry. existing or, proposed international fishing agreements. State Department decisions will override Coast Guard enforcement decisions -due to foreign policy Political-International: This is an extremely or diplomatic implications. complex area with tensions heightened by: lack of consensus on nLrnerous fishing issues, It is' imperative to gain cooperation of the j ur i s,d ic t ion al' disputes between nations, foreign governments to effectively enforce resentment between developed' and . developing fishing regulations. nations, and trade relations problems. The,rapid move towards Americanization or "full There ' is inadequate scientific data to develop utilization" of the Alaskan groundfish fisheries effective fisheries management plans which in in the FEZ has moved the U. S. to curtail turn direct enforcement requirements. directed foreign fishing in the Bering Sea and Accentuating the problem is a lack of RMFS Gulf of Alaska. Gradually, foreign processors on scientific data observers on fishing vessels joint ventures will also be fo 'roed out. In 1986, within the FEZ (none on domestic vessels). U. S. fishermen caught 80". of the 6.7 billion pounds of fish taken from U. S. waters. This There does not exist, nor is there likely to be trend coupled with such recent activities as developed in the near term, an effective model to "Japan bashing" and trade balanoe,problems is not make cost-benefit estimates . of alternative making the internatioha 11 environment conducive enforcement -strategies, i.e. mix of sensors, for coooerative'law enforcement. . Exclusion of vehicles, and personnel. foreign fishing vessdls (FFV) from @the EEZ and either lack of or inadequate agreements with other, countries result i n. little or no 962 Coast Guard resources available for fisheries law Intensive political action is necessary for an enforcement will remain severely limited due to effective fisheries management program. budget constraints and the priority of drug Concentrated lobbying efforts are expected' in enforcement. response to any tightening of requirements and .increasing law enforcement activities on domestic Current efforts are not adequate to d eter fishermen. violations. With the Americanization of Alaskan fisheries, Cooperation from Department of Defense agencies dcmestic fishermen pose the major problem to long on surveillance/monitoring of fisheries is range conservation of groundfish. extremely limited, The general U. S. public is concerned with ,Fisheries will remain regulated, not prohibited. ecological problems of the oceans and can be counted upon to express indignation at failures Most effective law enforcement method is to deter in this area. by (1) presence and (2) detection. CAPABILITIES Random detection techniques are inadequate, systematic methods are needed. This entails just what are our law enforcement forces and what are the "forces" which oppose Strict on-site enforcement is needed to monitor them (Alaskan area). harvest quantities, resolve conflicts among fishermen (domestic and foreign), and apply the Government Capabilities (based on CY 19,87 myriad specific regulation requirements (type of figures). gear, net mesh size, prohibited species, size of fish, licensing, etc.). Detection and The U. S. Coast Guard, Department of identification alone do not constitute Transportation, is the agency with major enforcement. statutory authority for maritime law enforcement in areas of U. S. jurisdiction. The Coast Guard To obtain data for scientific analysis in support expends approximately $105 million (6% of its of fisheries management plans, 94FS observers are annual budget) on fisheries law enforcement needed in sufficient nLynbers on board fishing (East, West, and Gulf Coasts included). vessels throughout the EEZ. Two medium endurance cutters dedicated to While there exists some possibility that NMFS fisheries law enforcement (30-45 day observers may be bribed, harmed, or deceived, patrols) , eight multi-mission high endurance their value for scientific and law enforcement cutters part-@time dedicated (45-60 day (deterrence) functions far exceeds these possible patrols), and miscellaneous smaller vessels drawbacks. on occasional patrols for a total of approximately 600 cutter patrol days per Alaskan environment is not suitable for "high year. A total of three . short range tech" vehicles, such as hydrofoils or surface helicopters are available for deployment on effect ships. the high endurance cutters. Aircraft remain the cost effective surveillance Six long range surveillance aircraft for a vehicles providing primarily detection and minor total of approximately 1500 patrol hours per deterrence functions effective over large areas. year. Space based satellite surveillance/monitoring Land based, command, control, communications systems are not realistic options (besides and intell igance operations in Juneau, prohibitive cost, severely limited in ability to Alaska. Logistics and communications support make specific identification and determine provided by the Coast Guard centers at activity in sufficient detail to make, law Kodiak, Alaska. enforcement decisions). With the exception of some of the dedicated Surface ships are the primary law enforcement resources, Coast Guard personnel on the vehicles capable of identifying, determining multi-mission cutters engaged part-time in activity, boarding, and inspecting in detail. Alaskan waters are minimally trained and Ships are not effective in detecting nor often inex per ienc ed in fisheries law deterring alone because their functions are enforcement. confined to very local areas. However , they establish the credibility of the aircraft The National Marine Fisheries Service, Department detection and other "presenc&I law enforcement of Commerce, is the agency tasked with primary functions. Ships are extremely hampered in law management and scientific responsibilities of U. enforcement activities without a helicopter S. resources in the sea. It shares the assigned. enforcement function with the Coast Guard. NMFS forces consist of experienced enforcement agents and trained "observers." The former work closely 963 with the Coast Guard and State officials in law agencies to secure the objectives of national enforcement while the latter, stationed aboard policy by the application of force or the threat FFV's under permit in U. S. waters, primarily of force. perform scientific data collection with some assistance in detecting violations. Currently Our current objectives: the only vessels which have observers assigned are foreign processors involved in joint ventures National (Political Policy) Obje(Itives working with domestic catcher boats. Long range conservation and management of Fore ign/Domest ic Fishing Capabilities (based on fishing resources. Cy 19b7 figures). Stimulation of the economic well-being of the Approximately 8000 vessels identified from seven domestic fishing industry. (7) countries including the U. S. (75% are domestic) . Protection of the resources for the exclusive use of U. S. fishermen (control foreign Hundreds of foreign vessels operate outside the fishing). EEZ with potential to poach U. S. resources by covertly fishing within the EEZ. There is no Promote the use of non-traditional U.S. enforcement jurisdiction unless they are (underutilized) species. caught in the act. Fisheries Law Enforcement Objectives Sophisticated communications capabilities to warn of Coast Guard law enforcement presence, Enforce the federal fisheries statutes. exploiting probably other intelligence methods to avoid detection of violations. Enforce international fisheries treaties and agreements. Lack of explicit fish catch/transfer log keeping requirements on joint venture and domestic Conduct surveillance in support of enforcement vessels provides significant latitude for activities and other agencies for fisheries violation nullifying law enforcement actions. conservation purposes. Technically sophisticated fishing fleets using The first observation that we can make is that the latest methods to detect, harvest, and there are really conflicting political process fish. objectives. For instance, eventually conservation of fisheries will run headlong into Numerous fishing techniques and complex economic concerns of the domestic fishing regulations, often with lax enforcement industry. Also, how does exclusive use by U. S. requirements, increases the capacity to violate fishermen mesh with national security objectives with decreased risk of detection. of promoting. a well-functioning international economic system and ensuring U. S. access to Balance of "forces" based on CY 1987 figures of foreign markets? Besides these conflicts, the total fishing vessels in Alaskan waters: law enforcement objectives do not relate directly to the political objectives nor are they measures % vessels siEhted (FFV's only): 30% of success. There is no way of knowing when the objectives have been met. The major "measure of % vessels boarded: 6-7% effectiveness" used by the Coast Guard is patrol effort, i.e. expended cutter days and aircraft % boardings resulting in incidents: 9% hours. In Alaska, the Coast Guard has attempted to define a goal of boarding all FFV's that have It should be apparent that the "numbers" balance been on the fishing grounds for a specific period greatly favors the side of the foreign and of time. domestic fishing industry. AN IMPROVED STRATEGY OBJECTIVE First, given the context (environment), what is A clear and precise objective serves two the current "threat," i.e. problem to be solved? purposes. It describes what the strategy is Going back to one of the original intents of the designed to achieve and is a measure of success, MFCMA, it can be simply stated as "to prevent an i.e. determines when the objective is achieved. overfishing of U. S. fishery resources, rebuild It should be considered a grade sheet (measure of overfished stocks, and insure conservation to merit) and assessed ag ainst the problem it is provide optimum yields on a continuing basis." designed to solve. The military objective (in Given my assumptions, what should be the this case the law enforcement objective) must objective? I believe the best objective would be carry out national policy. It should flow to "deter overfishing of U. S. fisheries directly from the political objective. In resources by law enforcement presence supported particular, maritime law enforcement strategy is with collection and processing of scientific data the art and science of employing enforcement to maintain optimum fishery yields." Note that 964 it concentrates on "deterrence" to prohibit How should this be funded? Costs are generally violations fran ever happening in the first place small with the exception of the 100% observer rather than 11 en fore ement" of regulations. program. Based on 1987 NMFS data, the program Further, we will know when the objective has been cost would be on the order of met by sustaining "optimum fisheries yields." On $6200/observer/month. I would suggest all or the surface, the overwhelming opposition forces most of the costs be born by the fishing industry (fishing vessels) fac ing our limited law as has been the practice with the FFV's. One enforcement produce an apparent dilemma. means could be prorating costs by vessel tonnage. However, the true law enforcenent balance lies Special compensation could be made for 11small" not in equality of forces alone, but in the inefficient catchers. Given some of the net combination of force and strategy. profits available, it does not appear that this would be unreasonable to help us achieve the goal COSTS (BENEFITS AND RISKS) of maintaining optimLxn fisheries yields. In the long haul, this would sustain a level of catches What are the additional means that must be with maximum economic gain, avoiding the boom and employed to achieve this end and the bust cycle of depleted fisheries. corresponding costs, benefits, and risks? We should: The risks are self-evident. Politically there is much exposure in combating a powerful domestic Make sweeping changes to the current domestic fishing group that shuns federal regulation. The fishing regulations to simplify, close up other alternative is equally as clear, but with "loopholes," tighten log keeping requirements, an increased hazard. Failure will result in and increase penalties. depleting species to the point where their survival is threatened and. the entire fishing Institute a 100% observer program for all industry suffers, domestic and international. major fishing vessels in the EEZ, domestic as Furthermore, significant continued reduction of well as foreign. This will provide for fisheries could have unimaginable affects on the significantly increased deterrence along with world ecological balahce. It is time to Embrace the presently missing scientific data a new strategy. collection. Commence an education progran for all dcmestic fishermen to stress the importance and means of fisheries conservation and awareness of applicable laws, including penalties. The intent is to enhance the Coast Guard and NMFS images and improve relations with this important political group. Insure some percentage of the annual fisheries yield is allocated to foreign fishing industries. This should provide some leverage against, violations by "poachers" and fit better with other national security objectives. Enhanced cooperation of foreign governments and the State Department is necessary in our law enforcement efforts. Undertake a canpaign to better inform the public on fisheries conservation problems. Pressure on legislators is necessary to insure success on any of these means. These additional actions coupled with the current Coast Guard and NMFS efforts will provide the essential elements of a "classic" effective law enforcement mission: Education progran to inform those affected. Compliance through patrol and surveillance. Deterrence by presence, penalty provisions, and punitive measures. 965 CALIFORNIA SEA OTTER: IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION Gordon Reetz Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region Minerals Management Service Los Angeles, California The California sea otter's range extends from Aflo Nuevo, about 65 km south of San Francisco, to Point Sal, about 50 km north of Santa Barbara. ABSTRACT Sea otters are more often seen in waters 60 m or less. In 1987 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service This paper examines oil containment equipment (FWS) moved 60 animals from the above range to San effectiveness and some of its limiting factors in Nicolas Island, located about 80 km west of Los the California sea otter range. Some critics of Angeles. This is the first installment of a total OCS oil and gas activities have tended to entirely of 250 animals that FWS plans to translocate to discount the usefulness of oil spill cleanup and San Nicolas Island in their attempt to expedite @ontainment equipment as mitigation for potential the species recovery. impacts of OCS accidents upon sea otters, thereby overstating potential oil spill impacts. This The sea otter population has remained relatively paper cites oil spill-occurrence probability from stable until just the last few years when an OCS activities; examines the types of equipment increase in the population was noted. This available within 24 hours to points within the increase coincided with a 1985 State law (Senate California sea otter range; and, using data Bill No. 89) restricting the gill-net fisheries to compiled in a new Minerals Management Service depths greater than 15 fathoms (18 m) in areas of study, provides an estimate on the percent of time sea otter occupation. The Marine Mammal this equipment could be deployed and effectively Commission in their 1985 annual report [3] used under sea and weather conditions typical to estimated gill-net related mortality between the the sea otter range. years of 1973 and 1983 to be about 105 animals per year. The FWS recently estimated the gill-net mortality caused a 6% annual reduction of the sea otter population over a 10-year period [2]. The 1. INTRODUCTION restrictions on gill-net fisheries have reduced The Department of the Interior's -Minerals this,source of sea otter mortality. Management Service (MMS).has been involved in the The MMS Environmental Studies Program has been regulation of exploration, development, and extensively involved in sea otter research. The production of oil and gas resources on the Federal MMS funded one of the first studies to document Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) since 1953 Ill. the effects of oil on sea otter fur [4]. Since The MMS Environmental Studies Program was started 1983, MMS has continually funded studies on the in 1974 to provide environmental information and biology and behavior of this species. analysis of marine and coastal ecosystems. The California sea otter, Enhydra lutris, is an 2. EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF OIL SPILL important study topic of this program. CONTAINMENT WITHIN CALIFORNIA SEA OTTER HABITAT The sea otter inhabits the northern Pacific coast A. Potential Oil Spill Sources intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, with populations in the Soviet Union, Alaska, Canada The potential oil spill sources associated with (British Columbia), Washington, and California. offshore oil activities include platforms, pipe- lines, and tankering. The spill rates for plat- The California sea otter population, estimated in forms, pipelines, and tankers are respectively 1988 at about 1600 animals, is considered a 1.0, 1.6, and 1.3 spills of over 1,000 barrels "threatened" species under the Endangered Species (bbl) per billion barrels produced, or transported Act [2]. This designation, made in 1977, was based [5]. These estimates are based on the amount of on the small population size, limited range, and oil spilled divided by the amount of oil produced the risk of oil from a major tanker spill or transported. contacting and killing a large number of California sea otters [2]. Unlike most other Oil spills originating from offshore exploratory marine mammals, sea otters lack an- insulating rigs or production platforms are extremely rare. subcutaneous fat layer (blubber), Instead, they Since 1963, over 950 wells, either for exploration depend upon air trapped within their dense fur for or development, have been drilled on the Pacific insulation. OCS [6], with the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, CH2585-8/88/0000- 966 $1 @1988 IEEE estimated at 10,000 bbl [7], being the only Mr. Clean 11 and the Clean Bay vessels are capable significant accident. of reaching Point Lobos, Monterey County, within 12 h [10] (assuming a I h mobilization time and The most probable spills are small and associated average speed of 8 kn). with routine platform operations and are anticipated to be less than 100 bbl (8]. Oil spill containment booms, skimmers, absorbent materials, and vessels used to deploy this Woodward-Clyde [91 developed a model to' estimate equipment and pick up the oil are the basic tools oil slick size 24 h after a spill, as a function used in oil spill containment and cleanup. of oil spill volume. ARCO [8] also developed a model using different oil viscosities and Booms are used to actively capture and contain oil instantaneous oil spill volumes to determine by boats pulling the boom around a slick, or used spill radii. ARCO's and Woodward-Clyde's models passively to divert or exclude oil from an area. show a 10,000 bbl spill having a radius of about Booms range in size from 30 cm to over 2 m in 1.6 km and 2.9 km, respectively. The large height and up to 600 m in length. Texaco [10] discrepancy in these models is expected. Slick listed over 21 km of offshore booms capable of size is highly variable and dependent on many being deployed in the sea otter range. factors such as wind and wave conditions and oil type. For a large, quickly debouching spill, such as a tanker spill' heading towards Is,hore, booms would B. Equipment probably.be depl 'oyed in overlapping.lengths of up to 600 m along the leading edge(,s) of the moving Oil spill containment equipment from OCS spill to attempt to contain the , oi I For operators, government agencies, , and private continuing spills (e.g., ' platform blowouts) sources is available for emergency deployment in semipermanent,booms may be deployed, '.if feasible sea otter habitat. Containment booms, skimmers, to contain the oil. Advancing mode skimmers and work boats, and other specialized *equipment are stationary. skimmers would pick up the oil. maintained on or at OCS platforms,'at the site of Dispersants 'may have to be used in the,offshore exploratory operations, and at shore-based support environment for-the' larger spills where other facilities. This equipment is available for methods are. not. working. Dispersant use would immediate deployment., require Stateand Federal Government approval. For spills larger than 10 bbl, shore-based Booms have been testedbffshore, but these tests equipment is deployed. This equipment is have not usually i.nvol.ved.Actual oil slicks. An maintained and used by spill response offshore boom was tested by the U. S. Coast Guard cooperatives. Two major cooperatives are located in significant wave heights of 2.4-4.3 m. No near the ends of the sea otter range: Clean Bay, structural failures occurred, although there was Inc., which operates in the vicinity of San some minor boom damage. Occasionally splash-over Francisco Bay; and Clean Seas,'Cooperative, which was observed. The Coast Guard also deployed a is located near Santa Barbara, California. self-inflating boom in waves up to 2.1 m. The boom experienced no mechanical fa *ilures, but Clean Seas equipment can be deployed to areas of splash-over. and drainage failure could have current OCS oil and gas operations in less than 4 occurred if oil-had been used during the test h. The area of existing OCS 'operations extends [ill. from just north of Point Concepti'on, offshore of Santa Barbara County, s'outh to offshore of Orange A test using crude oil, perfo@me'd off Newfoundland County. Additional equipment is also available in in 1987, was conducte d by the Canadian Coast Long Beach at the Clean -Coastal Waters Guard, Environment Canada, and Minerals Management Cooperative, in San Francisco at the U.S. Coast Service. About 475 6bl of crude olilwas spilled Guard Pacific Strike Team, and the U.S. Navy..in in waves ranging from I.B to 2.0 m and winds up.to Stockton. In addition, numerous emergency 30 kn. Recovery of oil was successful when the response contractors are located in the southern containment booms were being towed downwind [12]. California and San Francisco Bay regions. Response times from these locations to points within the. Skimmers are used to recover spilled oil and sea otter range are estimated at 24-48 h. transport it to vessels or to shore. Waves affect skimmer performance because high seas move the oil collection mechanism away from the surface. Three open ocean vessels are the dedicated Currents can affect the performance by allowing response vessels for the Clean Seas Cooperative, oil to escape under the collection mechanism. each with operating speeds of 8 - 12 kn. Mr. Some skimmers can effectively work in 3.1 m waves Clean I is a 42-m vessel based in Santa Barbara; and currents up to 1.5 kn [13]. Walosep-type Mr. Clean II is a 40-m vessel based in Av 'ila Bay, skim'mers'(W3' and W4) have been documented in field San Luis Obispo County; and Mr. Clean III is a tests by the Norwegian government as performing 55-m vessel based at sea, northwest of Point well in 2-8 m sea: conditions and winds in the Conception at Platform Harvest. Before the end of 15-25 kn range t14]. The oil spill cooperatives 1988 Clean Bay will purchase a 42- to 50-m vessel have this type of skimmer and others, in their similar in design and function to the Clean Seas inventories. vessels. These cooperatives also have many smaller vessels. 967 C. Environmental Limitations -3V The California sea otter range includes a variety of shoreline types. Protected bays, sandy beaches and exposed rocky shores with steep cliffs and offshore chimneys, stacks and shores are some MIn" -'rancisco examples. The rocky, steep cliff coastline found 25 km between Morro and Monterey Bays presents serious limitations to deployment of shore-based oil spill containment and cleanup equipment. Deployment of 9 equipment can be accomplished by air or by vessel 46012. ARo Nuevo from ports adjacent to these areas. Travel time and other factors such as weather condition, visibility, and time of day may limit 30120 effectiveness of the equipment deployment. -37 30130 30140 Winds along the central California coast within 30290 0 00 the sea otter habitat are from the northwest during most of the year. The summer is dominated by northwest winds; the winter winds are variable. onterey Winds in excess of 33 kn (winds high enough to 10 generate surface currents in excess of 1 kn and CALIFORNIA thus limit the effectiveness of the containment equipment) occur about 3 percent of the time [15]. Pt. Sur Because fog and darkness have been a limitation in finding a spill and in deploying containment equipment, the Newfoundland test (16] examined the -360 use of shipboard radar as an oil tracking tool. They found that existing ship's radar proved ..c:ape San Martin effective in tracking oil slicks in Beaufort sea 46028 states of 1-5, provided that heavy swells were not also present. Procedures for using this technique 0 include adjusting interference filters to locate 4.. areas of reduced sea return, which indicate slicks. B a y Wave height and period of wave energy are critical 302 factors for deployment of oil spill containment equipment. Data compiled for the MMS Coastal Wave Statistical Data Base Study [17] are used in this 35* report. In addition to wave height and wave 46 11 6int period, Earle and Eckard also examined the wave S I direction. These data are exclusively high M3 quality observations of waves gathered by Sea Otter Range 30270 instruments over a 10-year period. Figure 1 shows the 12 locations that were used to describe 30 0 the nearshore and offshore waves in and near the 1220 1210 sea otter range. The water depths of the six I J offshore locations range from 70 to 1138 m (Table 1). The six nearshore sites ranged in water depth Figure 1. Sea Otter Range and Wave Measurement from 5 to 23 m. Site Locations. Tables 2 and 3 show the average winter and annual wave height and peak wave periods for the total waves that could limit the effectiveness of the sea otter range and its nearshore and offshore oil spill containment equipment. components. The tables also show the percent of waves less than 2 m and less than 3 m in height Average annual wave height and wave period for the and wave periods greater than six seconds for the total range, nearshore area, and offshore area same time and areas. A 2 m wave height is are,respectively, 1.5 m and 11.7 s, 0.8 m and considered by some critics as the upper 13.2 s, and 2.0 m and 10.5 s. The winter operational limit of containment equipment [18]. averages, for the period from December to March, The other parameter that influences containment were, respectively, 1.8 m and 12.9 s, 1.0 m and effectiveness is "period of maximum wave energy." 13.7 s, and 2.4 m and 12.5 s. This is the period of the waves with the most energy and is proportional to wave height squared. The annual frequency of waves 2 m in height or It is also the time interval between the observed less were 62%, 96%, and 57% for the total range, larger waves. Periods of wave energy of less than nearshore area and offshore area. For the winter, six seconds are associated with short, choppy the figures were 46%, 91%, and 380%. 968 Table 1. Table 3. Wave Measurement Sites Wi-thin Sea Otter Range Significant Wave Height Offshore Locations Average Wave Height Offshore Nearshore Total (meters) ID SITE NAME LAT. LONG. DEPTH (m)- Annual 2.0 0.8 1.5 30270 Point Arguello Buoy 34.50 120.73 201 Winter .4 1.0 1.8 30290 N Monterey Bay Buoy 36.86 122.15 - 99 30300 Santa Cruz Buoy 36.89 122.07 70 Frequency 46011 Santa Maria 34.90 120.90 200 46012 Santa Cruz 37.40 122.70 82 Less than 2 meters 46028 Cape San Martin 35.80 121.70 -1138 Annual 57% 96% 62% Nearshore Locations Winter 380/. 91% 46% 30100 Pt. Arguello Harbor 34.57 120.63 6 30110 Monterey Harbor 36.60 121.89 14 Less than 3 meters 30120 Capitola 36.97 121.95 5 30130 Santa Cruz Harbor 36.96 122.01 13 Annual 86% 99% 88% 30140, Santa Cruz Pier 36.90 122.02 7 30280 Diablo Canyon Buoy 35.21 120.86 23 Winter 73% 98% 77% Table 2. Sea Otter Range Frequency Distribution of Periods of Maximum Wave Energy significantly when one considers other sea Average Period Offshore Nearshore Total conditions such as small waves with short periods (seconds) or large waves with long periods as summarized in Table 5. Annual 10.5 13.2 11.7 3. CONCLUSIONS Winter 12.5 13.7 12.9 A significant amount of oil spill containment and Frequency Of Waves cleanup equipment is available within and near the Greater Than 6 Seconds sea otter range and can be mobilized in all parts of this range within 12 h of notification. Annual 95% 90% 95% Woodward-Clyde's [81 and ARCO's [91 oil spill spreading models indicate that a spill as large as Winter 98% 94% 98%, 10,000 bbl could be contained by the booms readily available from the nearby oil spill response cooperatives. Based upon recent data [17], the seas in the sea otter range , should provide no apparent restrictions to the successful deployment of equipment and the recovery of a portion of the Earle and Eckard [17] also provided a spilled oil 57% of the time during the year. For two-dimensional presentation of the above the winter months the rate decreases to 44%. parameters. The significant wave height and maximum wave energy distributions which together represent the most likely environmental factors It should again be noted that these estimates are that could limit the effectiveness of the conservative. These numbers do not consider very containment equipment, were examined. These data small waves, less than 2.0 m, when the period is 6 were presented in a matrix from which the seconds or less and large gentle waves with a frequency, expressed as a percentage of occurrence period over 10 seconds. Recovery under these of waves less than 2.0 m in height and/or a period conditions has at times been successful, for of greater than six seconds, could be gleaned. example the 475 bbl off Newfoundland. Small The annual percentages total for the entire range waves, less than 1 m, with short wave periods and and offshore and nearshore areas were 57%, 52%, large, long period waves are believed to be within and 84% respectively. For the winter, the the deployment and operational limits of the corresponding percentages were 44%, 37%, and 70%. equipment. If these conditions are considered, The matrix for the total sea otter range wave data the percentage of time over the year, and also is shown in Table 4. The percentage of time during the winter, that this equipment could be containment equipment could be deployed increases deployed goes up to 85%. 969 This paper has shown that adequate equipment is Table 5. available to contain up to 10,000 bbl of spilled Sea Otter Range Wave Height and Period Percentages crude oil, that vessels are available to transport equipment to the site of the spill within 12 h, Wave and that sea conditions should allow deployment Period Condition* Total Offshore Nearshore and containment of oil spills a majority of the time. Winter In conclusion, oil spill containment can be an Both Height effective tool in reducing the impacts of oil in & Period 43.9 36.5 70.3 the marine environment and should be considered an important factor that mitigates the potential Height and impacts of OCS development upon sea otters. Annual /or Period 84.7 82.2 80.9 Both Height & Period 56.8 52.1 84.1 Height and /or Period 85.1 82.8 95.4 Wave Condition defines conditions when the wave height is less than two meters or the wave period is greater than six seconds or both. TABLE 4. Sea Otter Range - Wave Data Distribution (percentage in range) January-December PEAK UAVE PERIOD (MMS) 0.00- 4.00- 6.00- 8.00-10.00-12.00-14.00-16.00-18.00-20.00-22.DO-24.00- ROW TOTL 7.5- 8.0 0.0 0.0 W 7.0- 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 A v 6.5- 7.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 E 6.0- 6.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.`1 E 5.5- 6.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.3 1 G 5.0- 5.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.5 H 7 4.5- 5.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0'20.3 0.9 S 4.0- 4.5 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.7 3.5- 4.0 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.5 3.0 3.0- 3.5 0.0 0.4 1 4 0 6 5.6 2.5- 3.0 0.0 1.1 2.8 9.9 2.0- 2.5 0.3 2.7 16.0 NI 1.5- 2.0 1 1 21.8 1.0- 1.5 0. 22.8 0.5- 1.0 12.0 0.0- 0.5 5.3 COL TOTAL 0.2 5.3 13.8 27.3 12.0 16.4 15.0 6.8 1.6 1.5 0.0 0.1 100.0 W a W:v a 2 meters or Less and with peak "e periods greater than 6 seconds. \\ XX W:Yes 2 meters or Less and/or with peak w Ve periods greater than 6 seconds. 970 4. REFERENCES [9]. Woodward-Clyde Consultants. 1985. Oil Spill Cleanup Manual for Clean Seas. [1]. U. S. Department of the Interior. 1978. Final Report. Prepared for Clean Seas, Study Design for Resource Management Santa Barbara, CA. Decisions. Washington, D.C. 101p. [101. Texaco Trading and Transportation Inc. (21. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. 1988. Evaluation of the Ability of Administration of the Marine Mammal Industry Groups and Government Agencies Protection Act of 1973, January 1, 1986 to Contain and Cleanup Oil Spills in the to December 31, 1986. Sea Otter Range with Available Washington, D.C. 29p. Resources. Santa Barbara, CA. 235p. [3]. Marine Mammal Commission. 1986. Annual [11]. Corpuz, P.R. and R.A. Griffiths. 1978. Report of the Marine Mammal Commission, Field Tests of Six Offshore Oil Calendar Year 1985, A Report to Containment Booms. Rpt. No. CG-D-78-78. Congress. Washington, D.C. 180p. USDOT, USCG. Washington, D.C. 68p. [4]. Costa, D.P. and G.L. Kooyman. 1981. [12]. Tennyson, E.J. and H. Wittaker. 1988. The Effects of Oil Contamination in the Sea 1987 Newfoundland Oil Spill Experiment - Otter, Enhydra 7utris. Environmental An Overview. Proceedings of the 11th Assessment of the Alaskan Continental Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, Shelf, Final Report, Biological Studies Technical Seminar. June 7-9, 1988. 10:65-107. Vancouver, British Columbia. pp [5]. Lanfear, K.J. and D.E. Amstutz. 1983. A 221-228. Reexamination of Occurrence Rates for [13]. Schulze, R. 1986. World Catalog of Oil Accidental Spills in the U.S. Outer Spill Response Products. Port City Continental Shelf. In: Proceedings of Press, Baltimore, MD. the 1983 Oil Spill Conference. San [14]. SFT (Statens Forurensningstilsyn; the Nor- Antonio, TX. American Petroleum wegian Governmental Oil Pollution Institute, Washington, D.C. pp 355-359. Control Organization). 1980. Annual (6]., Minerals Management Service. 1988. Pacific test results. Olso, Norway. Outer Continental Shelf Region Periodic [15]. U.S. Navy Weather Service Command. 1976. Spill Report. Summary of Synoptic Meteorological [7]. Minerals Management Service. 1988. Observations. North American Coastal Exploratory Wells Drilled in the Marine Area - Revised. Pacific Coast. Pacific Outer Continental Shelf - Vol. 5. National Climatic Center, September 30, 1963 to December 31, 1987. Asheville, NC. Minerals Management Service. 1986. [16]. Tennyson, E.J. 1988. Shipborne RADAR as an Development Wells Drilled in the Pacific Oil-Spill Tracking Tool. Proceedings of Outer Continental Shelf - April 4, 1968 the 11th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill to December 31, 1985. Program, Technical Seminar. June 7-9, [8]. ARCO Oil and Gas Company. 1986. Oil Spill 1988. Vancouver, British Columbia. pp Contingency Plan for Operations on the 385-390. California OCS. Hooks, McCloskey and [17]. Earle, M.D. and J.D. Eckard, Jr. 1988. Associates, Radnor, PA. Coastal Wave Statistical Data Base. Vol. 2. Description, Application, and User's Guide. Minerals Management Service, Los Angeles, CA. 88p. [18]. California Coastal Commission. 1987. March 11, 1987 letter report to Mr. P. Langland, ARCO. San Francisco, CA. 63p. 971 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF FISH SCHOOL DENSITY Dawei Luo Dept of Marine Fisheries Dalian Fisheries College Dalian. Liao-Ning, China ABSTRACT These reasonable approximation of the target strengths of an individual fish or prawn is In marine fisheries, the correct evaluation of the essential for the design or utilization of such fish school density has the practical value of fisheries 'sonars (active-sonar systems). reference for the increase of the fish catches. This paper only discusses how to utilize these T@ Based on the technical datum of a fisheries sonar, to estimate fish school density that a fish-finding and the relation between the sonar function and the sonar (downward-looking sonar) may detect from target strength of an individual fish measured theoretical analysis. (E.G. the greater croaker of Cnina), and then through yhe medium of theoretical analysis, the 2. SONAR PARAMETERS AND EQUATIONS fish school density is calculated of the quantity of the fish catches is made possible. A fish boat equipped with a fish-finding sonar (sonar is refered for short in the below text). The By the same methed, we can also obtain the similar major technical datum of this sonar as following: results for any other fish or pralOn etc.. These work frequency (acoustic frequency) f=200khz or results have the universal significance as wavelength @,=c/f=0-75cm, where the sound speed in reference for fisheries workers. water c=1500m/s; transmitting electrical power (output power) W=1000wt; transmitting pulse length 'Co=lms; transmitting area of the transducer 1. INTRODUCTION (Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate --- ADP) A= '50-26CM2, where it is the plane circular piston and diameter Fish target strength is a pivotal quantity in the o=8cm; electricity-sound efficiency of the acoustic assessment of fish abundance. Many people transducer yi=80%; all bandwidths of the receiver have measured the target strength or acoustic W--4.5khz; survey fish depth H=500m; the speed of scattering cross sections of fish. The target fishing boat v=10.5knots. strength is relating to the detection frequency of fisheries sonar M, the fish length (1) and It is well known, the active-sonar equation species etc.. For example, in China, the dorsal- consists of two parts, the echo level on the left- aspect target strength of divers individual fish hand side and the noise-marking background level and prawn (TSI) is shown in Table 1. on the right, i.e. SL-2TL+TS=NL-DI+DT (1) where TS --- target strength of fish school (dB), Table I SL --- transmitting source level (dB), TL --- transmission loss (dB)t f(khz) NL --- noise level (dB), Dl---receiving directivity index (dB), DT --- detection threshold (dB). Name 30 50 200 The greater croaker 1 45 -30 -28 From this equation, we can obtain the target strength of fish school and it is The greater croaker 30 -35 -33 -27 TS=NL+2TL+DT-SL-DI (2) Hairtail 100 -40 -38 -32 these parsmeters can be calculated from the above technical datum od the sonar, they are Prawn 20 -43 -'41 -35 DI=10Log(47A)/A2=30-5 dB, SL=70.8+10Log(W*1J)+DI=133-2 dB, DT=10 dB (from experience), TL=2OLogH+ aH=89-77 dB (where, the absorption coefficient4a=71.6 dB/km), CH2585-8/88/0000- 972 $1 @1988 IEEE NL=N, L+10Log co -Dl=-38-26 dB Nhere, N,L=- Here, the directional angle in -3dB can be 36+20Log(50/f)+1-5(v-8)=-44-29 dB. While calculated as following: as the transducer is the considering the receiver bandwidth(O , then the plane circular piston source, its directional noise power received is the wtimes larger than I hz function is bandwidth. IN the same time, as a result of DI, the P /PO=2Jl(X VX (5) DI dB will be reduced when isotropic noise is 19 & 6P received by the transducerl. where P,9 --- pressure of sound in angle Po---pressure of sound in angle axis, Thus, the target strength of fish school is J, (X 8) --- the first-order Bessel function, TS=-38.26+(2*89-77)+10-133.2-30.5 and JJ(X R (X61 2 ) - (X09 / 2 ) 3 / (12 * 2+ =-12.42 dB. (X8/2)5/(J2*22*3)_ (6) where )@9=2 a(sine 0( sin (7) 3. EMPIRICAL EQUATION OF TS . _3dd/X=7t '9-3dB)/A a --- radius of circular piston-(transducer), People used to utilize the empirical equation of TS A --- wavelength, and X=0.75cm. as following TS=TSf+10LogN-10Log(_Ce/Z7.) (3) Let P#/Pv=1/V'2_=0.707 (in -3dB) (8) as X is very small, third and succeeding term of where TS, --- target strength of an individual fish, the formula (6) can be deleted, and from the N --- number of fish school, formula (5), (6) and (8), we obtain -q---received pulse length, Tp_@2_C. under normal conditions. As the pulse of fish P,9/P0=2J1(X,9)/X, school's 9 echo is expended, the target strength of fish =V(Xj9/2)-(X,9/2)3/(12*2))/X19 school is reduced. =0.707, Now, we choose TS, =-22 dB from the Table I (the therefore, X& 2=2.344, greater croaker under f=200khz), and then by the formula (3), we have or X0=1-531 (9) 10 LogN=12.58, and then, from the formula (7) and (9), we have or N=18.11 (twiy). X,9=7[0(sin dl@,=l .531, 6P-3d, sin 19 3dB= (1-531*,\)Zo=0-04568, 4. FISH SCHOOL DENSITY hemce 19-3dB=2.618? Based on the half power directional angle of sound beam is transmitted by the plane circular piston Let 'L9-3dB=2-70, then when H=500 m, we obtain transducer, the fish number (N) is surveyed L=2H(tg C30@=47-15 m, see Fig. 1, N=M*B*S (4) thus S--VL/2)2=3-1416*(47-15/2)2 where M --- density of fish school (tWig/M3),@ =1746-68 m2, B--- the length is surveyed by a pulse action in the water (distance, m) and B=c*A /2=0.75m, at last, the formula (4) then becomes S --- the area is surveyed by the angle of M=N/(S*B)=18-11/(1746-68*0-75) sound beam in depth H, see Fig. I. =0.01382 (twig/m3). Transduser For the above equation (2), (3) and (4), the corresponding values of M, N and TS can be calculated in Table 2. And then, from the diagram relating to the fish school density (M) and target strength (TS) is H drawm in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 (common logarithm). Here, special mention chould be made of the use of I yd or I m as the reference distance for target strength. This arbitrary reference often causes many underwater objects to have positive values of target strength. Such positive values should not be interpreted as meaning that more sound is coming L back from the target than is incident upon it; rather, they should be regarded as a consequence of the arbitrary reference distance. If, instead of 1 Fig. I yd (or I m)9 I kyd (or I km) were used, all 973 customary target would have a negative target strength. 30 Table 2 T 111111111Hill 0 0.000824 1.001 -24.M25 0.014909 18.109 1 -12.42104 -10 0.100000 121.464 -4.15553 -20 0100000 242.928 -1.14523 03HOOO 364.392 0.61569 0.500000 607.320 233418 10 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 1011 0.700000 850.240 4295A M HOW 1093.176 5.38690 1.000000 1214.640 5.M Fig. 3 3.000000 3643-920 10.61569 Obviously, when M is increased to a certain number, 5.0000 6073.200 12.83418 the increase of TS has not been very obvious, or 7.01MON M.461 14.29546 when the technical datum of the fish-finding sonar 9.0000 10931.760 15.38689 were determined, then the variation of TS is very 10.000000 1214E400 1104448 small - 50.000000 607320 2233418 Applying the above principle, the corresponding I ROOM 121464000 25.8444 curve (M-TS) will be drawn for the different fisheries sonars and the different fish or prawn. If the practical TS can be indicated in time, then look up the M in the curve and this will sive a greater convenience to the fisheries workers. 30 20 5. REFERENCES I. R. J. Urick, "Principles Of Underwater Sound'For 10 Engineers", Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, 1967. 2. T. F. Heter & H. R. Bott, "Sonics", John Wily & ll@_ o Sons, Inc., New York London, 1962. 3. Xuenan Yu, "Echo Fish-Finder", Agriculture -10 Publishing House, China, 1982. 4. Yuquan Wang, "Underwater Acoustcs Equipment", -20 National Defence Industrial Publishing House", China, 1985. 5. Xia Qiao & Dawei Luo, "The Apparatus For Fishing -30 - and Navigation", Agriculture Publishing House, 0 20 40 60 so 100 120 China, 1985. M Fig. 2 From Fig. 2, we know: TS is an increase along with the increase of M. and when M is increased from 0 to 1, TS is the steep increase, the rate of increase is 25.4 dB/one unit M; when M from I to 10 is increased, TS is the faster increase, the rate of increase is 1.13 dB/one unit M; when M from 10 to 50 is increased, TS is the slower increaseq the rate of increase is 0.28 dB/one unit M; when M from 50 to 100 is increased, TS is the very slow increase, the rate of increase is 0..06 one unit M. 974 MARINE FISHERIES TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES: STATUS, TRENDS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Ronald J. SmolowitzI and Fredric M. Serchuk2 1NOAA Corps 2Northeast Fisheries Center National Marine Fisheries Service National Marine Fisheries Service Gloucester, Massachusetts 01930 Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 ABSTRACT The accompanying increases in fishery employment In 1969, the Stratton Commission on Marine and fleet size have equally been striking Science, Engineering, and Resource Development (Table 1). Advances in harvesting and processing issued a comprehensive report reviewing the technology during this period generated status of marine science and technology in the remarkable gains in fishing performance, United States. Since publication of the Stratton harvesting potential, and landings. As demand Commission Report, unprecedented and unimagined for seafood has grown due to the heightened advances in marine fisheries technology have popularity of fish products for dietary and occurred revolutionizing fishing practices, health reasons, fisheries technology has expanded enhancing fishery performance, and transforming to address this demand. the scope and focus of fisheries management. These technological developments are reviewed, However, the technological thrust to maximize with respect to resource utilization and fishery domestic harvesting efficiency has not been a expansion, and the role of fishery technology in panacea for USA fishery problems. New addressing both unfulfilled needs and problems technologies, many not envisioned in 1969 by the envisaged in the future. The concept of resource Stratton Commission, were quickly developed and enhancement is also examined since significant@ rapidly applied in harvesting both traditional opportunities exist for applying marine fisheries and non-traditional fishery resources. Over- technology to augment natural production. exploitation soon became a central problem for Management implications of current and management authorities and the fishing industry anticipated technological advances are identified alike. Fishery regulatory schemes were, and and discussed. continue to be, enacted to constrain rather than promote harvesting efficiency to attain resource conservation goals. Now, more than ever, INTRODUCTION technol-ogical aspects of fisheries are being scrutinized and, in many instances, regulated. Since the moment that man first used a hook Did the Stratton Commission's call for and line rather than his hands to capture fish, improvements in fishing efficiency succeed 'all technology has been applied to improve fishing too well'? Have technological advancements efficiency and fishery yields. The Report of the been "Pyrrhic victories"? Can present and future USA Stratton Commission on Marine Science, technology be guided to promote the sound Engineering, and Resource Development issued in utilization and enhancement of fishery resources? 1969, millennia after the use of that first fish hook, advocated that "fishing technology should HARVESTING be directed toward maximum utilization of food resources and development of efficient means of Since the mid-1960's, the harvesting sector exploiting them ... focus[ing] on maximizing trends identified in the Stratton Report have efficiency in catching fish." At the time the continued but at an accelerated pace. Fishing report was issued, the potential for technology vessels are generally larger, possess greater to engender rapid depletions in fish stocks was speed and fishing power, and are equipped with not considered a major danger. As a result, the more efficient fishing gear and navigation Commission's recommendations were heeded all to equipment than ever before. Trawls are now well, mostly by people who never read the Report. designed with the aid of computers with performance pre-tested using scale models in tow Indeed, growth of the USA fishing industry tanks. New materials, such as strong synthetic during the past 20 years has been impressive. fibers, are used in net construction allowing for Between 1967 and 1987, the commercial catch of gear designs previously not thought possible the United States increased by 70 percent, from (ie., large mesh - low drag). Underwater 4.1 to 6.9 billion pounds. Ex-vessel revenues vehicles fitted with video cameras have provided increased seven-fold, from $440 million to $3.1 new insight into fish behavior relative to trawl billion, while the value of processed fishery performance characteristics, facilitating major products rose from $1.2 billion to $5.5 billion. design and operating improvements. 975 United States Government work not protected by copyright The changes wrought in vessel and gear and even counted as they enter the trawl. characteristics by these technological advances Integrated computer-based systems are also are staggering. Twenty year ago, large domestic becoming more commonplace in determining fishing trawlers were towing nets with headropes of tactics. For example, in purse seine fisheries, 100 feet in length opening vertically to a height computer systems monitor the speed, direction, of 15 feet off bottom. At the time, such a trawl and locations of fish schools and calculate the cost about $3000. Today, the larger Alaskan proper vessel and gear positions to entrap the trawlers use nets having headropes approaching catch. 500 feet in length with vertical openings of In addition to improving harvesting hundreds of feet. The trawls are valued over efficiency, electronics have significantly $25,000 and a top earning boat can gross enhanced fisheries navigation, communication, and $50,000 per day. safety. Integrated -posi tioni ng-systems that Trawl openings are now larger for a given combine steering, main propulsion, and thrusters horsepower than in the past. A modern 2700 Hp along with the navigation suite are becoming vessel can tow a net with a vertical opening of standard equipment on many vessels. Navigation 270 feet, while a smaller 300 Hp vessel can tow a is now accomplished using LORAN or Sat-Nav sets trawl opening 100 feet in both horizontal and equipped with track plotters and video displays vertical directions. Vessels now have the indicating vessel position and path. Some systems even have pre-recorded electronic charts ability to trade off net size against towing to which a fisherman can add position data on the speed to improve catch efficiency on certain locations of rocks, wrecks, and other species. These developments are even more obstructions. imposing when one realizes that overall horsepower of the USA fleet has increased Although communications capability has always markedly over the past two decades. Twenty years been important to fishermen, communications ago, the larger trawlers ranged between 600-1000 systems, even in the recent past, were often in horsepower; today, it is not uncommon for limited in range and reliability. Today, while large trawlers to exceed 2000 Hp. In fact, some most distant ranging vessels carry Sat-Coms, most factory trawlers are now in excess of 5000 Hp. large trawlers are equipped with single side Although the size of fishing vessels has band, all-frequency transceivers and/or multi- become larger since 1969, vessel sizes have not crystal sets, two or more VHF sets, and high powered CB radios which can automatically scan increased proportional to horsepower. This is hundreds of channels for traffic. This latter because horsepower is now provided by a new feature is often used for 'intelligence' generation of turbo-charged f uel ef f i ci ent gathering to reduce searching time involved with diesels. These are light-weight, smooth-running finding fish. To protect this information, many engines of high Hp to weight ratios compared to vessels are now equipped with voice scramblers to their ancestors of the 1960' s - Overall encode catch data, arrival times, price propulsive efficiency has also been improved by information, etc. As a result, Radio Direction use of controllable pitch propellers and Kort nozzles. Finders (RDF), which have primarily been used for navigation, are now being used to locate the Advances and refinements in hydraulics position of a vessel communicating fishing engineering and hydraulic equipment have information, particularly when messages are mechanized fishing operations almost beyond encrypted. RDF's also serve operationally to belief. Larger gear can now be handled by locate fishing gear possessing transponders such smaller vessels with fewer men. The net reel is as surface-set drift longlines and gillnets. a major example of this improvement. Techniques such as pair trawling, which allows two smaller Weatherfax machines onboard vessels allow for vessels working in tandem to tow one large net, the receipt of many different types of weather is but one application where fishing power and and oceanographic maps. Satellite images of harvesting efficiency have effectively been oceanographic features (warm-core rings, eddies, increased due to improvements in hydraulics temperature and current boundaries, etc.) are technology. evaluated to determine prime fishing areas. As an example, satellite pictures of the Gulf Electronic innovations have revolutionized the Stream, depicting temperature boundaries and process of locating, tracking, and identifying eddies, are routinely used by fishermen in fish concentrations. Computer-enhanced fish locating swordfish and other large pelagics. finders/depth sounders, which can now identify Technological advances have also occurred in bottom type, species of fish and the position other types of fishing apart from trawling. In and density of fish schools in the water column, the 1960's, longlining or "tub-trawling" was much have virtually el'iminated trial-and-error fishing the same as it was one hundred years before. patterns. Off-the-shelf sensors such as net- Fishermen manually cut bait and baited hooks; mounted scanning sonar, doppler speed logs, hauling and setting was performed manually with tensionmeters, and pressure transducers are now limited mechanical assistance. Today, many available to monitor gear performance on a real- longline vessels have machines that automatically time basis. With this equipment, fish can be cut bait, bait the hooks, replace lost hooks, and observed in relation to the net as it is towed, mechanically set and haul the gear with minimum 976 involvement of labor. In these operation!@, handling. Other vessels have holds filled with handling 40,000 hooks per day is not uncommon. slush ice and speed the chilling process by Hook configurations have also changed (ie., pumping cold air through the hold. Where ice is circle hooks) resulting in marked increases in difficult to acquire or maintain, refrigerated catch per hook. salt water systems are used. Even the small vessel pot fishery has come of An innovation to check quality dockside during age. Twenty years ago, a typical pot fishermen offloading is a freshness grading machine. This would set 100 wooden traps within sight of land machine measures changes in resistance and using no electronics. Today, the same fisherman dielectric properties of fish flesh that differ can fish upwards of 1000 plastic or plastic depending on product quality. In the process of coated wire traps using electronic navigation and evaluating product freshness with this machine, sounding equipment to precisely place his gear on fish are also weighed, measured, and graded. the fishing grounds. As a consequence of this capability, catch rates have doubled in some Computers onboard vessels today are used to fisheries. Equally, radar and LORAN have allowed archive information such as catch, time, place, fishing to proceed in fog, at night, and further bottom conditions, weather, gear used, and offshore than before. Good positioning processed product data. The latest advances in equipment has also facilitated the recovery of computer data storage and memory capacity are lost gear, while hydraulic and electric pot demonstrated at nearly all commercial fisheries haulers now enable more gear to be fished at trade shows as computers and computerized deeper depths. Today, it is common for offshore equipment have quickly become indispensible in strings, with hundreds of traps, to stretch for commercial fishing operations. miles in water depths exceeding 200 fathoms. Vessel safety has also improved due to Jigging (one of the oldest forms of fishing) technological achievements. Emergency beacons was, until quite recently, conducted in the (EPIRBS) that transmit vessel location data via traditional fashion by manually lowering a line satellite search and rescue frequencies are now with hooks and a sinker over the side. Auto- becoming standard safety equipment. Engine and jiggers today automatically lower the line to the bridge alarm systems are almost universally in bottom or to a pre-set depth, jig up and down place. Failing all else, the modern survival over a pre-set range, and haul back when a suit has proved to be a lifesaver. selected weight of fish is hooked. Some squid jigging machines bring the catch over the rail, Over the past 20 years, technology has shake it loose and automatically reset the gear. "solved" most of the harvesting "problems" identified in the Stratton Report. However, One of the newest commercial fisheries, different problems remain today. Rather than whale-watching is "non-consumptive". Whale enhancing harvesting efficiency, harvesting watching is esiimated to be worth $35 million to technology now needs to be directed towards the USA economy. Even whale-watchers depend on maximizing utilization of the resource base. scanning sonar to follow whales as they swim This entails: underwater. Unlike consumptive fisheries, the whale-watch fishery is vitally dependent on open 0 designing gear from a conservation communications between vessels. basis (improving size/species selectivity; reducing non-catch Onboard processing in another area where mortal,ity; minimizing habitat marine technology has contributed to the destruction); development of the domestic fleet in recent years. Today, an advanced system on a 0 developing harvesting techniques trawler/processor has fish coming aboard and which enhance product quality and being dumped from the cod end into a below-deck enable full utilization of the holdi-ng tank. Fish are then conveyed to computer catch; and operated machines that automatically sort by species and grade by size, enabling small crews 0 reducing energy consumption and to handle large catches. From the various production costs. outflows, the fish are processed, weighed, and boxed; electronic scales send the data to the Harvesting technology must be kept in vessel's central computer. Once boxed, fish go perspective if the major goal of management is to a plate freezer and then into frozen storage expansion of domestic industries. Fisheries aboard ship. In operations requiring filleting, resources, albeit renewable, are finite in time automatic machines do the work and allow smaller and space. Harvests are rapidly approaching the sizes of fish to be processed than would have limits of natural production. been economically feasible in the past. Quality is now a major concern, and for RESOURCE ENHANCEMENT vessels that do not process at sea many advanced storage techniques are employed. On many smal I The Stratton Report recognized the potential vessels, fish are packed on ice. in plastic fish to augment natural production through boxes to prevent compression and minimize aquacultural activities, and incisively 977 i dent if i ed the necessary sci enti f i c and technological advances for fostering its growth. Armed with an understanding of haddock life Although aquaculture production has rapidly history based on new and evolving knowledge, it i nc reased world-wide in the past 20 years, is exciting to speculate on future possibilities. mariculture in the USA still remains in a Data from satellites monitoring oceanographic fledgling stage. The open-ocean applications of conditions could be used to determine propitious aquaculture, particularly the enhancement of environmental circumstances promoting survival of natural populations (through stocking) and the larval and juvenile haddock. During this time, enhancement of the environment (man-made reefs, the release of millions of hatchery reared fry artificially-induced upwelling; 'fertilization' might have a significant impact on year class with organic wastes, etc), have significant strength. While this can only be considered a potential in augmenting oceanic production. For science fiction scenario now, the prospect of example, worl dwi de production of pen-reared producing a successful year class of haddock salmon was 6,880 metric tons (mt) in 1980; in where none would otherwise have existed would be 1986, it was 20,000 mt. By 1990, worldwide worth hundreds of millions of dollars to the projections call for 223,000 mt. Projected USA economy' This may be one form that open-ocean production, however, is only 1,000 to 5,000 mt mariculture will take in the future. despite the fact that the USA has excellent potential for this type of activity. USA MANAGEMENT progress in these areas remains'limited due to the interrelated fiscal -legal -regulatory Guiding technology to promote maximum resource impediments that beset nascent enterprises. Upon utilization is the greatest challenge that removal of these barriers, the economic viability management faces in the future. The current of resource enhancement will hinge on scientific picture is one of "high-tech" fisheries and "low- research and technological advances. tech" management. Presently, management's norm is to restrict and allocate fishery production One example may serve to illustrate the (ie., cutting and serving the resource "pie"); relationship of science and technology to future little, if any, attention is directed toward advances in aquaculture. More than 100 years increasing fish production (ie, baking a larger ago, scientists believed that the natural I.Piell) . In a competitive world, a growth- production of the oceans could be augmented by oriented approach is a prerequisite for economic releasing hatchery-reared fish into the wild. survival. The success of fisheries technology in While hatcheries producing salmonids are now increasing harvesting efficiency should not be commonplace, those built to release fry of true treated in a negative fashion. The imposing oceanic species are a rarity. During the early capabilities that stimulated this achievement part of this century, billions of cod and need to be channeled towards expanding the flounder fry were released into the ocean but the resource base and utilizing present harvests more available evidence indicated these programs were efficiently. "High-tech" management's role in not successful. directing this technology will be through leadership in eliminating legal/regulatory Today, it is well-appreciated that constraints hindering innovation, promoting environmental conditions play a significant role ecosystem-oriented research to gain better during the first year of life of a cohort of fish understanding of the behavior and limits of and that blindly releasing fry into the ocean fishery systems, and providing encouragement to has little chance of success. Recent laboratory government/ industry to tackle the technological experiments, for example, indicate that survival challenges ahead. and growth of haddock fry depends on encountering dense concentrations of prey. Traditional field CONCLUSIONS sampling techniques, however, seldom found such co@centrations of prey in the ocean. With the Experience with the application of fisheries introduction of electronically-controlled, technology has shown that technological multiple opening and closing sampling devices, development cannot be evaluated in isolation, but plankton and juvenile fish have been collected must be viewed in an ecosystem perspective. from discrete and identifiable parts of the water Tomorrow's fisheries will be more dependent than column. These sampling data indicate that ever on a successful amalgam of science and haddock fry and their prey are concentrated near technology. the thermocline. When storm events disrupt the thermocline, both haddock fry and their food disperse. Afterward, when the thermocline is reformed, prey aggregations reappear but the haddock fry are either missing (presumably suffering high mortality from either starvation or increased predation due to reduced growth), or re-appear in poor condition. Although the factors affecting year class strength in haddock (or most fish stocks, for that matter) are not well known, these observations suggest that environmental processes may be quite important. 978 Table 1. Key indicators of the growth of the USA fishing industry (from Fisheries of the United States). 1967 1987 Catch 440 million 3.1 billion Catch (lbs) 4.1 billion 6.9 billion Processed Value 1.2 billion 5.5 billion 1966 1986 Employment Fishermen 136,000 247,000 Processing/ Wholesaling 89,000 100,000 Total: 225,000 347,000 Fleet Size -Vessels over 5 tons 12,700 38,200 Motor Boats 66,900 88,400 Other Boats 2,500 1,600 Total: 82,100 128,200 979 PUBLIC AQUACULTURE IN DOWNEAST MAINE: THE SOFT-SHEIT CLAM STORY Brian F. Beal University of Maine at Machias 9 O'Brien Avenue Machias, Maine 04654 ABSTRACT for example, 40% of the 3,791 licensed clam har- vesters in the state were located in Washington The soft-shell clam, Mva arenaria L., is vital- County -- the easternmost and least populated. ly important to the economy and culture of the Maine coast. Annually, clamming is a $10 million Maine's coastal communities with clamming hab- industry to harvesters alone and historically ranks itat have the right to exercise some control over second in economic importance of all Maine's marine their resource. Approximately 60% of these towns resources behind lobsters. directly manage their clam flats through a state- approved ordinance scheme that 1) restricts the num- During the past four years, clam landings have ber of local (town resident) licenses, 2) regulates declined by 53% due to several biotic and abiotic which clam flats should, or should not, be harvest- factors. This dramatic reduction in existing ed, 3) allows transplanting local clams from re- stocks prompted six Downeast coastal conuunities gions where growth rates are slow to areas where to form, in 1987, the first-ever regional shell- growth is faster, and 4) mandates that the ordinance fish management program based on stock enhancement be lawfully upheld. Those communities not opting using hatchery-reared juveniles of the soft-shell for local management of their clamming resource clam. have no ordinance system and permit anyone with a valid state license to dig clams anytime in any This paper will'trace the development of the area opened for shellfishing. Townsend (2) ' hatchery program, present first year survivorship reported that yield,per unit effort was higher data, and discuss the mechanism that has permit- in the managed portion of the fishery by 15%. ted ten Downeast towns to participate during 1988. The significant decreases in standing stock of soft-shell clams in Maine can be attributed to at INTRODUCTION least three interdependent factors: continual poor natural recruitment and/or post-settlement mortal- In Maine, the soft-shell clam is a commercial- ity, increased predation rates on juvenile popula- ly important and ubiquitous bivalve that is manual- tions by green crabs, fish, gulls, moonsnails and ly harvested from soft-sediments during periods of other infaunal carnivores, and over-harvesting. In low tide. Harvesters, using conventional garden addition, a 1984 law establishing a 2-inch size hoes modified with shortened handles, bend over to limit also reduced the number of marketable clams. dig or excavate individual legal-size clams (> 2 Various attempts since then to increase the number inches from anterior to posterior shell margin) of clams within a variety of flats along the coast that are positioned in the substrate to depths by both town officials and state biologists have between 8 and 16 inches. After working three to not resulted in consistent or improved enhancement. four hours per tide, clam diggers sell their catch by volume or by weight to shellfish dealers. These unsuccessful attempts to increase clam Dealers sell whole clams (steamers) or a processed harvests in Maine have made harvesters, dealers, product (shucked and shipped in gallon containers) and town officials very cynical about trying any- to retail distributors such as restaurants, fish thing else that is purported to significantly en- .markets, or grocery stores. hance existing, but dwindling, stocks. One method that some Downeasters are willing to try is aqua- over the past four years, dockside revenues for culture. Recently, private aquaculture has invaded this bivalve have fluctuated between $11.6 million the Maine coast which has seen a boom of successful in 1984 and $8.3 million in 1987. Average price mussel, oyster, salmon and trout aquaculture per bushel has increased 40% from $33.00 in 1984 to leases. During the mid-1970's, the Maine/New $46.00 in 1987 while landings have decreased 53% Hampshire Sea Grant Program supported several pilot from 5.2 million pounds to 2.7 million pounds projects focusing on soft-shell clam aquaculture. during that same time interval (1).'Land- The principal investigator and aquaculture special- ings are not uniform along the coast, however, as ist at the University of Maine's Darling marine the two eastern counties usually account for be- Center, Samuel Chapman, led the research that tween 45% and 55% of the yearly catch. In 1986, CH2585-8/88/0000. 980 $1 @1988 IEEE resulted in efficient mass spawning, culture, and and attached 42-foot X 20-foot building. The rearing methods using Mya arenaria. building has served many functions during its 60- year history including general store, depot for This earl y, experimental work caught the atten- island residents waiting to be ferried across tion of scme coastal communities who began to think Moosabec Reach to the mainland community of that clam flat enhancement, using juveniles that Jonesport, and, most recently, the site of a soft- had been reared in a hatchery, might be a valid shell clam shucking and processing plant. It had, management tool. During the summer of 1981, 3 however, been abandoned by Carver in 1984 when he million juvenile "seed" clams were produced at the decided to relocate his shellfish business else- Darling Marine Center and were divided amongst where on Beals Island. eight coastal ccmTrunities. Unfortunately, no mech- anism was established to either 1) determine how Carver decided, on the same day he was asked, these hatchery-reared individuals grew or survived to donate the use of the building and wharf to a or 2) continue the program. As a result, no defin- @hatchery project if funding could be leveraged. itive information was collected and the hatchery The next step was to contact a nuirber of towns in effort was curtailed. and around the Beals Island area. After discussion with University of Maine at Machias President, Two summers later, in 1983, a Cooperative Frederic Reynolds, the number was arbitrarily set Extension agent in the Washington County office at six towns. The areally contiguous towns of contacted Chapman and together they began work on a Addison, Jonesport, Beals, Jonesboro, Roque Bluffs, small-scale hatchery project for a handful of 4-H and Machiasport were contacted and after meetings youth in Jonesboro. The town donated the use of in August 1986,with each town's Shellfish Com-nittee the basement of the run-down, unused elementary (a group of between 5 and 10 residents who are school for the project. Using mainly jury-rigged charged with the shellfish management decisions for equipment and an occasional tank, tubing, and the town), all agreed to 1) contribute $500 to the fittings fr(xn the University's hatchery, Chapman project in the event that the proposal was funded demonstrated to the 4-Hlers the how's and why's of ($500 is not much, however, in sane cases it soft-shell clam aquaculture. As with many youth- represents half of what is raised annually at Town oriented projects there was a concomitant carry- Meeting for shellfish management), 2) join together over effect that simarly excited the adult to form a Hatchery Ccamittee that amng other population of Jonesboro, a town of 500 residents things would oversee the hatchery progress, and 3) and 100 licensed clam diggers. organize a crew of workers to help transplant the hatchery-reared seed clams to the clam flats during Approximately 200,000 clams were reared that November 1987. In addition, Albert Carver, Vice summer. The clams were held over the winter and President of Carver's Shellfish, contacted eleven seeded onto Jonesboro's flats the following local shellfish dealers and two banks that resulted spring. In situ growth and survival rates were in another $1,600 commitment for the project. monitored during 1984 and the 4-H*hatchery experience was replicated for a second year. On 13 October 1986, the Board of Governors of Although the program was discontinued due to the NCRI agreed to fund the project, "The Hatchery, funding considerations, the amount of support and Nursery, and Growout Phases of the Ccnmercially goodwill demonstrated by the town and surrounding Iniportant Soft-Shell Clam (Mya arenaria) in coastal areas was notable. Indeed, this small Washington County, Maine," at the level of $37,300. project in which children spawned, reared, and In January 1987 a Hatchery Manager and Assistant seeded soft-shell clams provided the impetus three manager were hired to begin renovation of the years later for the beginning of a larger-scale and former clam shop. Forty-eight 25-gallon fiberglass first-ever regional soft-shell clam hatchery in the algae-rearing tubes, two 750-gallon fiberglass Jonesboro area. tanks for rea ing clam larvae, two 80-gallon/minute seawater pumps, an air pump, water and air filters, hot water heater for both seawater and freshwater, DISCUSSION graded series of nylon screening, material for 200 floating window screen-lined wooden trays, many In August 1986 1 received a copy of a call for feet of PVC piping, PVC and brass needle valves, pre-proposals from the National Coastal Resources fittings, lights, electrical wiring, lumber, and Research and Development Institute (NCRI) located nails comprised the list of major items. In addi- in Newport, Oregon. This federally-funded organ- tion, another local businessman, Fred Kneeland, ization within the Department of Commerce seeks to donated four 750-gallon rectangular tanks formerly fund marine-oriented projects that are designed to used for grading lobsters. "prcmote the efficient and responsible development of ocean and coastal resources...(including) stud- By the end of May 1987, the clam shop had been ies on the economic diversification and environmen- transformed into a modern, hatchery/laboratory fac- tal protection of the nation's coastal areas." ility.. A separate 12-foot X 20-foot greenhouse room was built and used as both a flask culture After discussing the potential of a hatchery- room and for housing half of the fiberglass algae based project with NCRI's Assistant Director Earle tubes. The remaining tubes were keprt in a small Buckley, I contacted Beals Island, Maine, business- portable greenhouse of similar dimensions built and man, Richard Carver. Carver, President of Carver's situated adjacent to the larger hatchery building. Shellfish, is owner of a 200-foot ccmmercial wharf The algae species used throughout the first produc- 981 tion year was ILc?phrysis galbana. four edges of the strip approximately six inches into the iTud. On 6 June 1987, adult clams were spawned for the first time at the Beals Island Regional Shell- Three "planting treatments" were employed at fish Hatchery. Previous attempts, beginning in each site. Transplanting (20 clams/ft ) occurred late May, failed because clams were not reproduc- during low water and took place in the mid to low tively mature. 'Soft-shell clams in eastern Maine tidal zone at each mud flat. 24,000 clam were can be stimulated to spawn via standard thermal each seeded into four 12-foot by 100-foot plots shockinq techniques through the month of Auqust. that received a single thickness of plastic netting Clam larvae were reared at 200C and fed at while 12,000 were each placed under four 12-foot by 30,000 algal cells/ml for two and a half weeks. 50-foot plots that received a double thickness of Approximately 8 million clam were successfully netting (a large strip folded in half). The re- . cultured. These were fed daily through the months maining clam were broadcast into 10 to 12 50-ft of June and July. During the first week of August uncovered plots. and continuing through the first week of September approximately four million clams measuring 1.7 rim Overwinter survival at each site was assessed were placed in floating trays and taken to a shel- during April 1988. Areas where hatchery-reared Itered cove on Beals Island (mud Hole Cove) where clam had been seeded were sampled using a benthic they remained until November. Also during August, coring device. Samples were sieved using a I mm another one million juvenile clams were added to an wash. Three saiTpling comparisons were made upwelling unit inside the hatchery facility. The between: 1) seeded and unseeded areas, 2) arrangement was designed to pump ambient seawater protected and unprotected, and 3) single mesh through 24 individual units holding 40,000 clams protection and double mesh protection. At all six each. The remaining three million juvenile clams sites, there was between 20 to 40 times the number were held in the rectangular-shaped 750-gallon of clams in the seeded area versus the "control" or tanks and fed cultured algae through November. unseeded areas. Survivorship within the seeded areas ranged from 15% to 50% depending on site. No Clams placed in the window screen-lined float- new shell growth had occurred between November 1987 ing trays in mud Hole Cove during the first three and the April 1988 sampling as water temperatures weeks of August attained a size of 12 rim by I during that time are less than 4'C which is the November. Clams added to floating trays after this critical feeding temperature for this species (3). period had an average shell length of 8 m by the fall whereas individuals held in the upwelling At four of the six sites, the protective mesh system at the hatchery averaged 6 = in length. netting was missing due to ice formation on the Cultured Mva residing in large tanks and fed rea ed mesh surface and subsequent lifting of the mesh algae attained an average size of 3 rnm by 1 from the mud flat. Mesh removal occurred between November. the middle of January and the first two weeks of February as air temperatures during that time were Beginning during the second week of November bitter for periods of 8 to 12 days. Mesh was and continuing until 27 November hatchery-reared missing from sites where claim had been seeded seed clams were transplanted to mud flats in each between mid and low tide level. Mesh remained at of the six towns. The original goal had been to two sites where claim were seeded at the lowest produce 1 million clams per.town. That goal had tidal levels. That meant that at those two sites, been realized, however, I did not feel that the exposure to air was minimized and ice build-up on three million clams that had only reached 3 mm the mesh surface was significantly reduced. would escape predation so it was decided to overwinter them at the Darling Marine Center. The At the four sites where mesh had been physi- remaining 5 million clams were divided equally cally removed by ice, clam survivorship was sig- among the six towns. November was chosen as the nificantly higher than in control areas where no time of year to transplant seed clams to Washington mesh had been placed. Apparently, scm mortality County flats because results from the 1983-1984 agentswere active during the period when mesh was Jonesboro 4-H project suggested that optimal survi- covering the claim and that the mesh was, albiet val (>60%) to at least one inch could be realized. for a short time, somewhat effective. In places where the mesh remained the entire winter, survival In October 1987 a technical assistance grant rates were five to ten times higher than in control for $15,000 from another Department of Ccmmerce areas. There was no significant difference in sur- agency, the Econcmic Development Administration, vivorship between plots which received double was received. Funds frcm this grant were used, rather than single mesh protection. among other things, to purchase enough 1/6" plastic mesh netting to cover approximately 1/6 of the It was apparent after the first year of opera- clam on each of the six mud flats. The mesh net- tion that there were at least two limiting factors ting, used to deter predators such as seagulls, which seriously affected juvenile clam production. ducks, green crabs, and benthic feeding fish, was The first was the timing of the adult spawning. added to the mudflat mcrmnts after the clams had The majority of juvenile clams produced from the been seeded at a density of 20/ft@z. Netting was early June 1987 spawning did not reach window cut into 12*feet wide by 100-feet long strips. screen-size (ca. 1.7 mm) until the middle of Strips were affixed to the mud flat surface by August. Those that had reached this critical size walking around the periphery of the netting. The before 20 August, and subsequently placed in weight of one person was enough to push each of the floating trays at the protected cove on Beals 982 Island, attained 12 mu by 1 November. Juvenile. though it is late in the 1980's many people still clams that did not grow rapidly under hatchery., believe that natural resources, especially those in conditions, and that were placed into floating the marine realm, are limitless. This perception trays later that 20 August, did not reach this is easily erased when resource scarcity occurs. half-inch size. Transplant size is perhaps the This isthe case of the soft-shell clam in Maine most important facit of thisstock enhancement today., Landings.have been declining and fewer and program. The larger the size of the juvenile clam fewer shellfish harvesters are able to make an which is transplanted to the mud flat during annual income from the mud flats alone. Five or November, the better the chance of its survival. ten years ago.th.e idea of an aquaculture program Therefore, if claim could be "conditioned" to spawn foculsing on transplanting small, hatchery-reared earlier than they normally do, the season could be juvenile soft-shell clams to mud flats to enhance expanded with the ultimate goal of producing larger existing stocks would have been met with serious transplantable hatchery-reared seed. The second opposition. The same idea beginning in 1987 and limiting factor was the ability to produce enough continuing through 1988 has gained serious algae for the number of clams that could be attention.'hope and encouragement from both.the reared. More algae could mean 1) enough food to industry and the layman. produce,faster growth to the 1.7 mm (window scree,n) size, and, more importantly, 2) the potential for, A hatchery-based stock enhancement program will raising more clams which would mean that additional not be the cure-allfor what threatens the clamming towns could be invited to join the hatchery industry in Maine, but it is a beginning towards a program. more carrplete,management scheme. It is anticipated @that it will take a Iminimum of five years of In February 1988 a third hatchery grant producing clams in the hatchery and transplanting ($32,000), "'Development of a Hatchery-Based Shell- thein to local@flats to unambiguously assess the fish Management Program for Downeast Coastal Com-, efficacy of this type of stock enhancement effort. munities," was received from the Maine Science and If successful, the,dlamming industry--the ultimate Technology Board (MSTB). The grant, awarded for beneficiary--must make the final decision about the physical expansion of the hatchery facility, was, fate of this hatchery-based program. used to construct a 51-foot by 22-foot greenhouse,, to provide additional space for raising more algae (approximately 3.5 times the,level for 1987) and REFERENCES more tanks for post-settled clams. The greenhouse is situated on land donated by Richard Carver and is adjacent to the 200-foot wharf and hatchery 1) NMFS. Fisheries statistics for the state of building. Maine for 1987, Portland, Maine. 1,988. The same six towns that participated in the, 2) Townsend, R.E. An econorrLic evaluation of , re- stock enhancement management effort during 1987.are stricted entry Iin Maine's soft-shell clam in- again active during 1988. With the new MSTB fund- dustry. North American Journal of Fisheries ing, four more towns were encouraged to participate Management. 5:-57-64. 1985. in the project. Cutler, Whiting, Steuben, and the Mount Desert Island-wide shellfish council each ac- 3) Stickney, A.P. Feeding and growth of juvenile cepted the invitation. Each of the 10 towns con- soft@shell clams, Mya arenaria. Fish. Bull. tributed $1,000 to the program. Production goals, 63: 635@642. 1964. per town (1 million) are the same for the 1988 season. Clams were spawned in May 1988, one month earlier than the first spawning in 1987. During the second week of February 1988, clams dug from Beals Island mud flats were transported to the Darling Marine Center. This research facility, operated by the University of Maine, has the ability to purp seawater year-round. The 300 to 400 two- to three-inch clams were placed in 30-gallon plastic boxes containing beach sand. Clams experienced a I'C rise in water temperature (above ambient conditions) every two weeks. By the first week of may, clams were "conditioned" or ac- climated to temperatures normally encountered around the second week of June in eastern Maine waters. Clams were returned to the Beals Island Hatchery on 5 May and successful spawning,took place the next day. This hatchery or stock enhancement effort marks a significant shift of attitudes and ways of think- ing about managing Maine's marine resources. Al- 983 Long Term Assessment of a Derelict Gillnet found in the Gulf of Maine H. Arnold Carr Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries 18 Route 6A, Sandwich, M 02563 A commercial, demersal gillnet, first found existed that these ghost gillnets continue in 1984 was surveyed by submersible in June to catch fish and crustaceans for years 1984,1985,1986 and by ROV in March 1988. (Way, 1977) . The primary concern of the We recorded our observations on a variety NEFMC was the impact on important of parameters including vertical profile, groundfish species, cod, Gadus morhua, epibenthic growth, and catch of marine life pollock, Polachius virens, and haddock, in the net. The most recent survey of a Melanogrammus aeglefinus. section of the net by ROV is highlighted because this is the period that groundfish, The demersal gillnet fishery uses a series particularly cod, are present. we under- of bottom-tending nets that are marked by took four ROV dives and surveyed a 300 floats at each end. The net body is made foot section of net during day, dusk, night of monofilament webbing that usually has a and dawn. Extensive video recordings of vertical profile between the floatline and the net characteristics and behavior of cod leadline of 1.8 m and a mesh size of 15.2 near the net were taken and are included in cm (6 in) . Each net is 91 m long (50 the presentation. fathoms). In the Gulf of Maine, demersal gillnets, are usually set in a continuous string of 10 to 12 nets that total 914 to 1,097 m (500 to 600 fathoms). A single vessel sets between five to six strings. The three year study estimated the number of ghost gillnets on Jeffries Ledge and INTRODUCTION Stellwagen Bank, two important commercial gillnet grounds, and determined that the impact of these derelict gillnets during these observations was probably minimal on cod, haddock and pollock (1) . No gadid In 1986, a three year study to determine fish were caught in the derelict gillnets the abundance and likely impact of lost nor did we find indentifiable skeletal (ghost) demersal gillnets on two important remains of that family on the bottom near fishing grounds in the Gulf of Maine was the nets. The observations during this concluded by the National Marine Fisheries study were restricted to June of each year Service, the National Undersea Research when the principal observational vehicle of Program at the University of Connecticut the study, submersibles,, were available. (NURP-UCAP), and the Massachusetts Division During the remaining months, no observa- of Marine Fisheries (1). This study. tions were made. Unfortunately, the cooler resulted from the concern by recreational months are when the more important and commercial fishermen and the New commercial species, such as cod, are most England Fishery Management Council (NEFMC) likely to be in the vicinity of the net. that many derelict demersal gillnets Although the lack of skeletal material near existed in the Gulf of Maine from a gillnet the net suggests that little impact to the fishery that began in the 1970's and peaked gadids occurred for several months prior to in effort between 1979-81. , The number of the June observations, we believed direct gillnet vessels along the northern observations were needed to substantiate Massachusetts coast, New Hampshire, and this. southern Maine coast increased from 23 in 1970 to 170 in 1979. This escalation in The purpose of this investigation was to effort and introduction into the fishery by determine the impact of a derelict gillnet many who were not skilled in commercial in March when cod and other members of the gillnetting led to the belief that many gadid family would normally be present. nets were being lost. Some evidence also This effort was facilitated by the recent CH2585-8/88/0000. 984 $1 @1988 IEEE availability of a Remote Operated Vehicle Some of the fish observations are described (ROV). as sightings. A sighting is def ined as a separate visual encounter with a fish. The net we investigated was first found with the Submersible Johnson-S ea -Link II, The estimated size of the cod is based on a during the f irst year of the three year visual comparison of the total length of study mentioned above. The net was the f ish to known sizes of certain parts surveyed again by submersible in 1985 and of the gillnet. 1986. A previous attempt to complete a series of ROV dives on this site in July 1987 was thwarted because of our inability to achieve a stable three point moor. The depth was 52 m and substratum hard, consisting of cobble and scattered 0.5- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1.0 m boulders. We established a three point moor on the morning of 17 March, the fourth day of the expedition. Weather precluded any earlier METHODS AND MATERIALS operation. The derelict net previously surveyed during the 1984-86 study was found The March 14-18, 1988 survey of the within four hours of establishing the three derelict gillnet was accomplished using the point moor. The R/V Gloria Michelle was 65 foot NOAA R\V GLORIA MICHELLE and the repositioned only once. NURP-UCAP ROV Mini Rover II. A three point moor was established over the Four ROV dives were made on a portion of site. Each leg of the anchoring system the derelict gillnet during 17-18 March. consisted of two 68 kg. Northill-type We conducted these dives at dusk, night, anchors separated by 9 m of 1/2 inch chain. predawn and daylight. Survey time for each A second 9 m length of chain connected one dive averaged about two hours. Water depth of the anchors to 3/8 in wire that was at the site was 52-55 m. During the connected to the research vessel. Two 45.4 daytime dive, ambient light allowed us to kg lead weights were attached one to the view the net without artificial lights.. point where the chain met the wire and another on the wire, 183 m from the The surveys concentrated on a 80 m portion anchors. The anchor scope was 10:1. Each of the lost net. The vertical profile of of the legs was attached to a deck winch to the net varied from 0.1-2.0 m off the facilitate repositioning of the vessel by bottom. The leadline and floatline were modifying wire length. We placed 61 m of frequently twisted around each other and line and a tuna buoy on the end of each tightly stretched between boulders. Where wire when that leg had to be released f rom the net was not taut, it displayed some the vessel. buoyancy. The floatline was less than 0.7 m off the bottom except for one un- A Loran C receiver was the primary restrained section that rose to 2.0 m. The navigational device. We placed a reference webbing was often torn or fouled with a buoy in the most probable site and short, but heavy, unidentified, filamentous positioned the research vessel close to the growth. This growth made the webbing more visible. buoy. The Mini Rover II was operated off a small The vertical profile of the net (0.1-2.0 m) oceanographic winch. The ROV's umbilical was consistent with the profile seen in was attached to a down weight wire. We previous surveys, except for the piece of terminated the attachment about three net that reached a height of 2. 0 m. In meters above the down weight and gave the 1984, the profile was <0.2 to 1.0 m; in ROV about 50 m of free tether. The 1985 and 1986, <0.2 to 0.7 m. We believe initial ROV search for the gillnet was that the higher prof ile of one piece of biased to north-south transects because the netting resulted from an anchor catching net stretched in an east-west direction. the net and bringing it to its full vertical profile. On the 1987 expedition weather influenced the frequency and number the R/V Gloria Michelle snagged the net on of ROV surveys of the gillnet. We its anchor several times and we have been preferred to conduct surveys with repli- informed that this also occurs with party cates at daytime, dusk, nighttime, and boats that fish the area. dawn. observations included the vertical profile of the net, fouling, catch, and presence and behavior of mobile marine The only catch in the net was f ive Cancer species. All observations were recorded on crabs, Cancer borealis irroratus. We saw 1/2 in VHS video tape. no vertebrate skeletal remains and. little 985 exoskeletal debris around or in the net. We The negative impact of this derelict net on believe what exoskeletal debris was sighted cod appears minimal. We saw no cod was that of Cancer crabs. entangled in the net, nor any evidence of recent entanglement in this net. This conclusion is important since cod were We observed cod, pollock, sculpin, around the net in numbers and sizes that Myoxocephalus octodecems9inosus, redfish, would become entangled. Sebastes marinus, and wolffish, Anarhichas lupis, in decreasing abundance, near the The quantity and size of cod in the net. Pollock were seen briefly as they vicinity was also substantiated by the brief ly as they swam by the ROV camera on presence of a commercial gillnetter who one dive. only one or two sculpin were fished so close to our site that we had to observed on the bottom near the net. No exercise care in deploying and retrieving finfish were caught in the gillnet. one of our moorings. He had successfully fished this location for about one month. Cod were observed on each ROV dive. These For the week of our investigation, he fish were all within 10 feet of the net. landed 1475 kg (3256 lbs) of cod of which We saw three cod on the dusk and daylight 56% were large cod, approximately 81 cm (32 dives. Fourteen sightings occurred in the in) or more in total length; 40% were predawn dive. Cod were most numerous on market cod 50-81 cm (20-32 in); and 4% were the night dive and were particularly found less than 50 cm (20 in) (Capt. F/V Maureen near one end of the net, the section with Jane, personal communication). the highest vertical profile. we posi- tioned the ROV on the bottom so that we Because our observations were limited to a could observe the high profile piece of 80 m piece of the 470 m long derelict net netting and the behavior of the cod near and restricted to a period of less than one it. day, more ROV observations would be helpful to confirm our conclusion that this We observed 5-7 cod in a 36 minute period. derelict net has a minimal negative impact They were between 30-64 cm (12-25 in) long. to the gadid fishes. Cod swam casually except when they fed on the euphausiids. The cod did not appear to directly react to the lights. During this period of observation, arrowworms (Chaetognatha) and euphausiids were frequently seen. Whether these inver- ACKNOWLEDGE14ENTS tebrates were attracted to the artificial lights is uncertain but probable. Cod reacted to the net as if it was part of The success of this survey was dependent on the bottom. Larger cod turned when detailed planning and teamwork. This team approaching the net and would swim around consisted of NMFS Fisheries Engineering the net or under the leadline where the Group, who operated the R/V GlORIA leadline was raised off the bottom. MICHELLE; and the National Undersea Smaller cod, 30-41 cm (12-16 in) in Research Program at the University I of length, swam through the mesh. Upon Connecticut especially Helga Sprunk, NURP's encountering the net and just prior to ROV operator.. touching it, these fish would stop, then alter their course enabling them to swim through the mesh. one larger fish, about 45 cm in length, swam through one mesh and, in altering its course upward to feed, caught its dorsal fin on the webbing. it continued swimming with no unusual REFERENCES reactions observed. We believe the cod were attracted by the 1. Carr, H.A. and R.A. Cooper. 1987. artificial lights and remained to feed on Manned Submersible and ROV assessment of the euphausiids. This hypothesis is based Ghost Gillnets in the Gulf of Maine. on two series of observations that were Proceeding of MTS OCEANS 87 p. 622-624. made when we extinguished the lights for one and two minutes respectively. Cod were 2. Way, E.W. 1977. Lost gillnet (ghost almost always in view prior to extinguish- ing the lights. When the lights were net) retrieval project. 1976 Industrial illuminated cod were not observed for 0.5- Development Branch, Newfoundland Region, 1.0 minutes. Canada 986 EFFECTS OF TRIBUTYLTIN ON SURVIVAL, GROWTH, MORPHOMETRY AND RNA-DNA RATIO OF LARVAL STRIPED BASS, Morone.saxatilis Alfred E. Pinkney, Lisa L. Matteson, and David A. Wright The University of Maryland, Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory Solomons, MD 20688 U.S.A. ABSTRACT the control group. Bushong et al. (6) exposed 17-19 day old inland silverside (Menidia The effects of tributyltin (TBT) on beryllina) larvae to 0, 93, or 490 ng TBT/L for survival, growth. morphometry. and RNA-DNA ratio 28 days. There were significant decreases were assessed in larval striped bass, Morone (20.6-21.6%) in wet weight of exposed larvae saxatilis. A concentration of 2.284 Vg TBT/L relative to controls. No differences were killed all 13 day old larvae in 5 days. while found, however, in measurements of notochord 1.498 Vg/L killed all 16 day old larvae in 6 length, head length. eye diameter, head depth. days. In 13 day old larvae exposed for 6 days, or body depth. Ward et ral. (7) reported no survival, head length. body depth. and dry changes in the lengtb7'o weight of adult weight were reduced at 0.766 VS/L. Body depth sheepshead minnow (Cyprinidon variegatus) decreased at 0.067 pg/L. No changes occurred in exposed to 0.18-1.0 Vg TBTO/L for 167 days. these parameters in 16 day larvae exposed to 0. Newton et al. (8) exposed fertilized California 0.052 or 0.444 pg/L for 7 days. Maximum TBT grunion (Leuresthes tenuis) eggs to 0-2.00 pg concentrations reported in Chesapeake Bay TBT/L until hatch (10 days). Neither hatch marinas would be likely to cause increased success nor notochord length at hatch was larval mortality. Longer-term exposures are affected by TBT exposure. recommended for the assessment of effects at <0.050 jig TBT/L, which may be more The objectives of the present study were to representative of habitat conditions. assess the effects of short-term exposures to TBT on the survival and growth of larval striped bass (Morone saxatilis). Norberg & Mount (9) have found that the growth of larval fish is one of the most sensitive indicators of toxicant- induced stress. Morpbometry, condition factor. and RNA-DNA ratio were used as indicators of the INTRODUCTION growth and condition of the larvae. TBT concentrations were selected to represent the Tributyltin (TBT) compounds are introduced range of values reported in the Chesapeake Bay into the aquatic environment through their use and its tributaries. which are important in antifouling paints on boats and ships and in habitats for young striped bass. coatings on fish farming nets. TBT compounds are the subject of international concern because MATERIALS AND METHODS of their toxicity to non-target organisms at low and sub-part per billion concentrations (1). Two batches of striped bass (Morone TBT has been detected in the edible tissues of saxatilis) larvae were obtained from the chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and Cedarville. MD hatchery. Larvae were maintained Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) raised in treated at the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory in 1000 net pens and mort@_Iities have been reported when L tanks under flowing water. Holding water was fish were transferred to newly treated nets (2. a mixture of well water and 5 @= filtered 3). Several U.S. states have restricted the use Chesapeake Bay water. Data on the age of the of TBT and federal regulations are now pending larvae and the water quality parameters for the (4). holding and experimental periods are given in Table 1. Larvae over the age of 4 days were fed There are few data on the effects of TBT on newly hatched Artemia nauplii (2000 nauplii/L) the growth of fish. Seinen et al. (5) reported three times a day. significant decreases in growth in rainbow trout (Salmo Rairdneri) exposed to sublethal. nominal Aged tributyltin methacrylate painted concentrations of 0.2 and 1 pg TBT chloride/L panels were installed in a flow-througb toxicity for 110 days beginning at the yolk sac fry testing apparatus (10). Glass aquaria (37.8 L) stage. Mean body weights of these respective were lined with 0.254 mm polycarbonate film groups were 74.5% and 50.9% of the weights of (applied with silicone sealant) to minimize CH2585-8/88/0000- 987 $1 @1988 IEEE adsorption. Larvae were exposed in 335 pm were placed in scintillation vials in 5% formalin nylon-screened 8 L polycarbonate trays which buffered with CaC03 for one week and then stored were suspended in the aquaria such that 4.5 L of in 2.5% CaC03-buffered formalin for morphometry water was contained. The system was allowed to and dry weight (DW) determinations. RNA and DNA run for two weeks in order to stabilize TBT determinations were performed on aqueous concentrations. homogenates of two larvae from Experiment I and of single larvae from Experiment II, according to Two experiments were performed. In methods described in Wright & Martin (12). Experiment 1. 13 day old larvae were exposed to TBT for 6 days. In Experiment 11. 16 day old larvae were exposed to TBT for 7 days. The + and DBT++ concentrations experiments were initiated by placing 25 larvae Table 2. Measured TBT in each of four replicate aquaria at three (mean + standard deviation and mortality data for Experiments I and Il. Table 1. Water quality data. Experi- TBT+ DBT++ Mean % ment (pg/L) (pg/L) Survival Sali- Experi- Temp. nity D.O. NH4-N Is <0.030 0.015+0.005 81.8 (A)b ment (00 (Ppt) (mg/L) PH (mg/L) (n=7) (n=7) 1 0.067+0.026 0.023+0.008 64.2 (A) Holdings 17.0- 0.5- 6.6- 7.74 (n=7) (n=7) 19.0 1.5 7.9 0.766+0.220 0.158+0.085 59.8 (B) Exposure 18.0- 1.1 8.3- 7.81- 0.085- (n=6) (n=6) 20.0 3.0 9.3 8.47 0.107 11 2.284 0.295 Oc (C) Holdingb 17.0- 0.5- 7.0- -- - (n=l) (n=l) 19.0 1.5 8.1 IId <0.030 0.018+0.010 98.1 (A) Exposure 18.5- 1.9- 6.0- 8.19- 0.047- (n=8) (n=8) 19.5 3.0 8.9 8.33 0.085 0.052+0.019 0.025+0.025 92.2 (A) (n=8) (n=8) aLarvae obtained from hatchery at one day of age; held at CBL for 12 days. 0.444+0.077 0.080+0.021 98.5 (A) (n=9) (n=7) bLarvae obtained from hatchery at 12 days of age; held at CBL for 4 days. 1.498+0.252 0.219+0.086 Oe (B) (n=7) (n=5) concentrations of TBT plus a control. Dilution aSamples collected on days 0 and 4 except for water was a mixture of well water and 5 pm the highest concentration (day 0 only). filtered Chesapeake Bay water. Newly hatched Artemis nauplii (2000 nauplii/L) were added to bDuncan grouping. groups with different letters the tanks three times daily. Survival was are significantly different (p<0.05). assessed daily while the tanks were being cleaned of dead fish and debris. cAll larvae died by day 5. Water samples were collected from tanks at dSamples collected on days 0, 4, and 7. each concentration on days 0 and 4 for Experiment I. and on days 0. 4. and 7 for eAll larvae died by day 6. Experiment II. Di- and tributyltin concentrations (Table 2) were determined according to the atomic absorption hydride derivatization method of Valkirs et al. (11). A The morphometry procedures of Martin & Perkin-Elmer 403 spectrometer eqU-3'PpTd with an Malloy (13) were followed. Preserved fish were electrodeless discharge lamp 0=286.3 nm) was measured for: 1) notochord length (NL). 2) bead used. length (HL), 3) eye diameter (ED), 4) head depth (HD). 5) body depth at the base of the pectoral At the end of the experiments, half of the fin (BbP). and 6) body depth at anus (BDA). fish from each tank were stored at -700C for RNA Mess'urements were made on 16 fish/group with a and DNA determinations. Four fish from each tank dissecting microscope and ocular micrometer at 988 7 X. Afterwards, the fish were dried in a 60*C At concentrations >0.766 Vg TBT/L. larval oven for five days and weighed to the nearest gg survival was significantly reduced. Hall et 'al. on a Cahn electrobalance. The condition factor (18) reported maximum water column concentra- (CF) was determined by the formula CF=(DW/NL4) X tions of 1.801 and 1.171 pg TBT/L in Chesapeake 105 [based on data of Houde & Lubbers. (14)]. Bay marinas in June samples. The laboratory mortality data of this study indicate that expo- The arc sin transformation was used for the sure of striped bass larvae to those marina analysis of survival data. Data were analyzed concentrations would be likely to result in as randomized block designs with replicate tanks increased mortality. as blocks. Significance testing was performed by one way ANOVA followed by Duncan's Multiple Several morphometric parameters and larval Range Test (15, 16). For the morphometry, dry weight were reduced in 13 day old larvae weight. condition factor and RNA-DNA data, ANOVA exposed to 0.766 pg TBT/L in Experiment I. was performed with tanks nested within each These data should be viewed with caution. how- concentration (15). Duncan's Multiple Range ever. since there was a significant decrease in Test was performed to analyze for differences survival at this concentration. The lack of between groups (16). For all procedures. the p growth in these fish may therefore be a prelude value of 0.05 was used for significance testing. to the imminent death of the larvae. Bushong 2t al. (6) reported a decrease in wet weight RESULTS T20.6%) of larval Menidia beryllina exposed to 0.490 pg/L for 28 days. These data suggest that Survival data are shown in Table 2. In TBT concentrations in the 0.5-0.8 Vg/L range, Experiment I. there were significant (p<0.05) which have been reported in marinas of the reductions in survival for larvae exposed at Chesapeake (18). may be detrimental to the sur- 0.766 Vg TBT/L (59.8%) and 2.284 pg TBT/L (all vival and growth of larval fish. larvae dead by day 5). In Experiment IT, larval survival was significantly decreased at the 1.498 jig TBT/L concentration (all larvae dead by Table 3. Mean + standard error of morphometry. day 6). In Experiments I and IT. there were few dry weight, con'jition factor and RNA/DMA date deaths over the first 48 hours of exposure. The for Experiment I.a sequence of behavioral toxic signs was similar in the fish that died in the highest concentra- TBT+ (pg/L) tion tanks in Experiments I and II. The first sign was slowed swimming. Later. larvae lost Parameter <0.030 0.067 0.766 equilibrium and remained motionless on the bottom. If prodded. such larvae would swim NL (mm) 13.66+0.16 13.39+0.22 13.05+0.28 erratically. sometimes in spirals. and then fall to the bottom again. Fish often remained HL (mm) . 3.42+0.06 3.26+0.09 3.08+0.09 motionless on the bottom for up to 24 hours (A)b- (B) before dying. No signs of toxicity were observed in the larvae exposed to 0.766 pg TBT/L ED (mm) 1.08+0.01 1.07+0.06 0.99+0.02 in Experiment I. HD (mm) 2.62+0.03 2.61+0.08 2.43+0.05 Morphometry. dry weight. condition factor. and RNA-DNA data for Experiment I are given in BDP (mm) 2.74+0.04 2.61+0.07 2.44+0.06 Table 3. At the 0.067 Vg TBT/L concentration. (A) (B) (C) there were significant decreases in the two body depth measurements. BDP decreased by 4.8% while BDA (mm) 2.45+0.05 2.24+0.08 2.05+0.08 BDA decreased by 8.6%. Significant decreases in (A.) (B) (C) BDP (-11.0%). BDA (-16.3%). HL (-10.0%) and DW (-20.7%) occurred in the larvae exposed to DW (mg) 0.82+0.04 0.76+0.05 0.65+0.04 0.766 pg TBT/L. No significant differences were (A) (A) (B) found in morphometry. dry weight. condition factor. and RNA-DNA data in control vs. exposed CF 2.33+0.05 2.32+0.05 2.23+0.10 larvae in Experiment IT (Table 4). RNA/DN .A 2.30+0.12c 2.29+0.lgd 2.15+0.07d DISCUSSION aNested ANOVA based on 4 larvae/tank. 4 tanks/- Concentrations >1.498 pg TBT/L caused 100% concentration. lethality in larval striped bass in 5-6 days. bDuncan grouping; groups with different letters Striped bass appear to be in the same range of sensitivity to TBT as other larval fish. are significantly different (p<0.05). Ninety-six-hour LC50s of 2 pg TBTO/L (nominal concentration) for sole (Solea solea) (17) and cBased on 2-4 larvae/tank; 4 tanks/concen- 3.0 p& TBT/L for inland sIlverside (Menidia tration. beryllina) (6) have been reported. dBased on 1-4 larvae/tank; 4 tanks/concen- tration. 989 Table 4. Mean + standard error of morphometry. 1.0 pg TBT chloride/L. Long-term exposures of dry weight. condition factor and RNA/DNA data larval fish should be performed at measured for Experiment II.a concentrations of (0.050 Vg TBT/L. which may be representative of habitat concentrations. TBT+ (Vg/L) Survival, growth, and morphometry are suitable endpoints. Mechanistic studies should focus on Parameter (0.030 0.052 0.444 possible effects on the nervous system, energy metabolism, liver histology, and hematology. NL (mm) 14.72+0.21 14.96+0.16 14.98+0.20 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS HL (mm) 3.76+0.08 3.74+0.06 3.65+0.09 This research was funded by the State of ED (mm) 1.13+0.02 1.16+0.02 1.15+0.02 Maryland. Department of Natural Resources. We thank Elgin Perry for his advice on statistics HD (mm) 2.87+0.05 2.86+0.05 2.93+0.05 and Lenwood Hall for his review of the manuscript. Contribution No. 1918 of The BDP (mm) 2.97+0.05 2.87+0.06 2.96+0.06 University of Maryland, Center for Environmental & Estuarine Studies. BDA (mm) 2.88+0.08 2.85+0.10 2.81+0.08 REFERENCES DW (mg) 1.12+0.06 1.12+0.05 1.09+0.08 (1) Hall, L.W.. Jr. & Pinkney, A.E. (1985). CF 2.34+0.40 2.22+0.05 2.13+0.13 Acute and sublethal effects of organotin compounds on aquatic biota: an interpretative RNA/DNA 2.21+0.10b 2.24+0.08 2.40+0.llc literature evaluation. CRC Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 14. 159-209. (2) Short. J.F. & Thrower, F.P. (1986). Accumu- aNested ANOVA based on 4 larvae/tank; 4 tanks/- lation of butyltins in muscle tissue of chinook concentration. salmon, reared in sea pens treated with tri-n- butyltin. In Oceans 186 OrRanotin Symposium (M. bBased on 4-7 larvae/tank; 3 tanks/concen- Champ. Chairman). pp.1177-1181. Washington. DC: tration. Marine Technology Society. cBased on 3-5 larvae/tank; 4 tanks/concen- (3) Davies, I.M. & McKie. J.C. (1987). Accumu- tration. lation of total tin and tributyltin in muscle tissue of farmed Atlantic salmon. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18. 405-407. The decreases in the body depth parameters (BDA and BDP) in 13 day old larvae exposed to (4) Champ. M.A. & Pugh, W.L. (1987). Tributyl- 0.067 pg TBT/L in Experiment I may be indicative tin antifouling paints: introduction and over- of sublethal growth effects. although there were view. In Oceans 187 International Organotin no significant changes in dry weight. These Symposium (M. Cham-p. Chairman). pp. 1296-1308. results are comparable with those of Bushong @t Washington. DC: Marine Technology Society. al. (6) who reported decreased wet weight in Tarval M. beryllina exposed to 0.093 pg TBT/L (5) Seinen. W.. Helder, T., Vernij, H., for 28 days but no changes in any morphometry Penninks. A., & Leeuwaugh. P. (1981). Short parameters. However. the decreases observed in term toxicity of tri-n-butyltin chloride in @3 day old larvae in Experiment I were not rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson) yolk observed in 16 day larvae exposed to similar sac fry. Sci. Total Environ. 19, 15.5-166. concentrations in Experiment II. These contrasting results may reflect differences in (6) Bushong. S.J., Hall, L.W., Jr., Johnson, the sensitivities of the different batches of W.E.. Hall. W.S.. and Ziegenfuss, M.C. (1987). larvae or an increased sensitivity of the Acute and chronic toxiciy of tributyltin to younger larvae. selected Chesapeake Bay fish and invertebrates. Final Report. Shady Side. MD: Johns Hopkins TBT can be a slow-acting toxicant. either University, Applied Physics Laboratory. as a neurotoxic agent or by interfering with energy metabolism (19. ZO). There are few data (7) Ward, G.S., Cramm. G.C Parrish. P.R., on the sublethal effects of TBT on larval fish. Trachman, H.. & Slesinger. A. (1981). In addition to decreased growth, Seinen et al. Bioaccumulation and chronic toxicity of (5) also reported liver hyperplasia. decTea-sed bia(tributyltin) oxide (TBTO): tests with a liver glycogen content. decreased hemoglobin saltwater fish. In Aquatic Toxicology and content. and a diminished erythrocyte count Hazard Assessment: Fourth Conference (D.R. after chronic exposure of yolk sac fry rainbow Branson & K.L. Dickson, Eds.), pp. 183-200. trout at nominal concentrations of 0.2 and ASTM STP 737. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials. 990 (8) Newton, F.. Thum. A.. Davidson. B.. Valkirs. (20) Aldridge, W.N. (1976). The influence of A., & Seligman, P. (1985). Effects on the organotin compounds on mitochondrial function. growth and survival of eggs and embryos of the In Organotin Compounds: New Chemistry and California grunion (Leuresthes tenuis.) exposed Applications. Advances hem. Series 157 to trace levels of tributyltin. Technical Rep. (J.J. Zuckerman, Ed.). pp. 186-196. Washington. 1040. San Diego. CA: Naval Oceans Systems DC: American Chemical Society. Center. (9) Norberg, T.J. & Mount, D.I. (1985). A new subchronic fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) toxicity test. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 4. 711- 718. (10) Pinkney. A.E.. Klauda, R.J.. & Wright. D.A. (1987). Manual for design and operation of a solenoid-based delivery system for aquatic toxicity testing. Environ. Technol. Lett. 8. 153-158. (11) Valkirs, A.O., Seligman, F.F.. Stang. P.M., Homer. V.. Lieberman, S.H.. Vafa, G., & Dooley, C.A. (1986). Measurement of butyltin compounds in San Diego Bay. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 17, 319- 324. (12) Wright, D.A. & Martin, F.D. (1985). 'The effect of starvation on RNA:DNA ratios and growth of larval striped bass. Morone saxatilis. J. Fish Biol. 27. 479-485. (13) Martin. F.D. & Malloy, R. (1980). Histologic and morphometric criteria for assessing nutritional state in larval striped bass, Morone saxatilis. In Proc. 4th Annual Larval Fish Worksh2k (L. Fuiman. Ed.). pp. 157- 161. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-80/43. (14) Houde, E.D. & Lubbers, L. 111 (1986). Survival and growth of striped bass. Morone saxatilis. and Morone hybrid larvae: laboratory and pond enclosure experiments. Fish. Bull. 84. 905-914. (15) Sokal. R.R. & Rohlf. F.J. (1981). Biometry. 2nd edition. pp. 321-371. New -York.: W.H. Freeman. (16) SAS Institute. Inc. (1985). SAS User's Guide: Statistics, Version 5 Edition. SAS Institute. Inc., Cary. NC 958-p. (17) Thain. J.E. (1983). The acute toxicity of bis (tributyl tin) oxide to the adults and larvae of some marine organisms. CM 1983/E:13. Copenhagen: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. (18) Hall. L.W.. Jr., Bushong, S.J.. Johnson, W.E.. & Hall. W.S. (in press). Spatial and temporal distribution of butyltin compounds in a northern Chesapeake Bay marina and receiving system. Environ. Monit. Assess. (19) Laughlin. R.B.. Jr. & Linden. 0. (1985). Fate and effects of organotin compounds. Ambio 14, 88-95. 991 INTERNATIONAL OIL SPILL LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION Charles R. Corbett Maritime Group, Temple Barker & Sloane, Inc. 33 Hayden Avenue, Lexington Massachusetts 02173 THE PROTOCOLS ABSTRACT United States ratification of two international With respect to seagoing tankers, the 1984 treaties relating to liability and compensation from Protocols to the international conventions on civil seagoing tanker oil spills is long overdue. These liability for oil pollution damage (CLQ and the international instruments are the 1994 Protocols to establishment of an international fund for The International Convention on Civil Liability for compensation for oil pollution damge (FUND) offer Oil Pollution Damage of 1969 and The International just such a regime. Convention on the Establishment of an A clear, internationally recognized standard of high International Fund for Compensation for Oil liability for tanker owners, mandatory insurance Pollution Damage of 197 1. Until the U.S. ratifies and an oil industry supported back-up fund are these Protocols its citizens will likely be deprived embodied in this system which would provide our of speed, certainty and adequacy of payment for citizens with speedy and certain compensation for damages resulting from tanker oil spills.. damages caused by oil spills from tankers. Gone INTRODUCTION would be the days of searching half way around the world for a tanker owner only to find that he Oil spills, which foul our beaches, kill our wildlife, has no resources, no insurance and the courts in his disrupt both recreational and commercial activities, jurisdiction are not willing to honor United States and have the potential for seriously damaging out judgments. natural resources are events which our citizens The geographic scope of the Protocols includes not should not have to endure. But as long as we are an only the territory and territorial sea of a oil consuming nation and import by tanker such contracting state but extends to its exclusive vast quantities of oil, it is inevitable that these economic zone as well. Also, both laden and dirty and emotional events will continue to occur. unladen tankers are covered unless, in the case of It is vital, then, that we plan for and properly the latter, it is proved that no residues of bulk oil respond to these accidents when they happen. carriage are aboard. Response means not only quickly and effectively Unfortunately, Ithe definition of oil within the removing the oil from the environment, but Protocols does not include fighter oils such as providing an effective mechanism which gasoline. Rather, damage caused by "persistent" oil compensats those who suffer damage and is covered. However, the domestic regime, reinstates natural resources when that can be considered by many to be an essential companion done. to the Protocols to cover sources other than tankers, would most certainly fill this gap. The definition of "pollution damage" is best left to the precise words of the Protocols, "(a) loss or damage caused outside the ship by contamination resulting from the escape or discharge of oil from the ship, wherever such escape or discharge may CH2585-8/88/0000. 992 $1 @1988 IEEE occur, provided that compensation for impairment And what would this cost us? Following the of the environment other than loss of profit from diplomatic conference that developed the Protocols, such impairment shall be limited to costs of Temple, Barker and Sloane, Inc. concluded that reasonable measures of reinstatement actually adoption of the Protocols would cost only one tenth undertaken or to be undertaken; (b) the costs or of one cent per barrel of seaborne oil received at preventive measures and furthur loss of damage our ports and terminals. TBS has also concluded caused by preventive measures." This definition that the insurance coverage offered by the will protect the international fund from claims Protocols is a real bargain. For instance, figures based on abstract quantifications while providing developed In 1987 show that if the U. S. compensation for loss or profit experienced by such experienced only one major oil spill ($150 million) persons as hotel owners, even though the spilled in 17 years, a net economic benefit to the U. S. oil may not have directly impacted the property of would have occurred from Protocol ratification. the hotel. The President, on 5 November 1985, transmitted STATE PREEMPTION the treaty instruments to the Senate Some argue that preemption of state oil spill recommending that it "give early and favorable liability law (required by U. S. ratification) and consideration to the 1984 Protocols ..... and give its which in many cases is unlimited, is a feature of advice and consent to ratification." However, advice the international regime which demands and consent has not been forthcoming, the evaluation. That is true. However, the Protocols Protocols are not yet ratified by the United States, offer a number of advantages not afforded by state and implementing legislation advanced by the courts and would preempt state (and Federal) law House of Representatives has not survived. only to the extent that certain claim actions are barred under the Protocols. State oil spill funds THE NEED would not, as some have thought, be preempted. The fact is that tanker accidents continue to occur. OUTLOOK Since March 1984, seven large tanker spills have dumped about three and a half million gallons of The outlook for adoption of the 1984 Protocols to oil into U. S. waters. The potential damage was CLC and FUND is not clear. Two bills before the even greater. Spills occurred in the Columbia and Congress as of this writing (July 1988), S. 1802 and Delaware rivers, and near Savannah, Georgia. The H. R. 1632, would implement the Protocols when Texas/Louisiana beaches were fouled, the logging ratified. Another, S. 2643, would not do so with the industry in Washingon disrupted, and the salmon question of state oil spill liability law preemption a catches in Alaska seriously threatened. Wildlife major concern. and natural resources were damaged and threatened, livelihoods were placed in jeopardy, The Senate Foreign Relations Committee is not and personal and real property damaged. likely to hold hearings until both the Senate and House have given clear signals that the Protocols BENEFITS AND COSTS can become a reality for the United States. How would the Protocols provide relief from these However, the nations governors recently events? First and foremost, the Protocols would recommended that "Congress should approve establish tanker owner liability at $78 million for legislation establishing a comprehensive oil spill cleanup costs, third party damages and natural liability and compensation system ..... and Senate resource reinstatement, and back this up with a consent to ratification of the 1984 International fund to a per incident limit of $260 million (at July Protocols on oil spill liability and compensation". It 1988 exchange rates). The costs of preventive would appear that the governors have in mind the measures would be covered, insurance would be practical advantages of the Protocols over the mandatory and, just as important as the high theoretical rewards of unlimited liability, and this monetary values, the Iirotocols would provide for might indeed influence the Congress to proceed speed and certainty of recovery and jurisdiction in with ratification as part of a domestic package to U. S. courts. Our judgments would have to be cover spills not addressed by the Protocols. enforced by the tanker owner's flag state. NOTE: The author will provide a legislative update during Oceans 88. 993 OCEAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN OREGON: PUSHING OPEN THE WINDOW OF OPPORTUNITY Eldon Hout(l), Robert Bailey (1), and Krystyna U. Wolniakowski (2) (1) Oregon Department.of Land (2) Oregon Department of Conservation and Development Environmental Quality Portland, Oregon 97204 Portland, Oregon 97204 ABSTRA,CT The Pacific Ocean permeates the economy and The Oregon Ocean Resources Management Program is social'fabric of the Oregon Coast and indeed much an unprecedented effort,by a state to protect the of Oregon. Traditional uses of the ocean and its long-term values and benefits of renewable ocean resources such as fishing, transportation, resources and activities. The Program extends recreation, and national defense are so obvious the state's coastal management program seaward to and accepted that it is sometimes hard to realize provide a coordinated, comprehensive management just how critically dependent they are on frammiork for state and federal agencies. Its existing ocean conditions. Expectations for a objective is to produce a framework for decisions high quality environment and existing economic that recognizes both the environmental links values of the ocean, coupled with the unknown between coastal and ocean resources and the dynamics of the ocean, call for caution and care economic inportance of ocean uses to coastal in the management of these resources. communities. Both private sector interest in nearshore marine Oregon's initiative atteapts to redefine the mineral development and inclusion of the relationship between the federal and the state Oregon-Washington Planning Area in Interior's governments with respect to resource management 1987-1992 Five Year OCS Oil and Gas Leasing within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. The Program make it clear that in order to keep Oregon program asserts the state's right and Oregon Oregon in and beyond the 1980s, Oregonians responsibility to plan for and jointly manage the mist address the use of its broad range of ocean resources and uses which affect the state. The resources. However, the intricate balance of the first part of this paper discusses the environmental, economic, and social forces that state/federal partnership development process, provide Oregonians with a way of life, must be and the second part focusses, an regional understood and considered. coordination efforts. I. BUILDING A STATE/FEDERAL PARINERSHIP SEIZING THE INITIATIVE INTRODUCTION Fbecht, Cicin-Sain and Archer, in their paper Oregon has not yet placed its ocean resource "National Ocean Policy: A Window of Opportunity" planning and management house in good order. (Ocean Development and International law, Vol.II, Oregonians set themselves apart from other pp.113-142, 1988), believe a "window of states, however, with their tendency to feel opportunity" for duinges in ocean policy opens guilt over such organizational disorder. In the when developments in the "problem!', "politics", grip of this guilt, they will set in motion an and "policy" stream converge. such convergence atonement process to redeem themselves by occurred in Oregon in 1987 when both an establishing order, openness, and predictability. overwhelming majority of the Oregon legislature In short, they seek procedural salvation. The and Governor Goldscl7midt reaffirmed and extended present catalyst for Oregonians' redemption is Oregon's historic commitment to conservation and the management and use of its offshore resources. development of its natural resources by enacting The Oregon Ocean Resources Management Act (SB 630). The Act itself establishes an Ocean Despite the current en#iasis nationally on job Resources Management Program for Oregon- creation in the the field of electronics and - related industries, Oregonians never cuffpletely Oregon's program is an attempt to open "the forget that they live in a natural resource-based window of opportunity" before federal government economy. Oregon's long-term econotimc health or industry initiatives cmTpel Oregon's natural requires conservation, management, and wise resource agencies to utilize scarce resources in utilization of forests, agricultural lands, response to ocean development proposals. The water, fisheries, tourism, and recreation program's first target audience must necessarily resources. In short, the goal is to keep Oregon be Oregonians themselves. Unless Oregon's Oregon, as the late Governor Tom McCall used to citizenry, legislature, and agencies have a clear say- idea of how agency programs interrelate, it will CH2585-8/88/0000. 994 $1 @1988 IEEE be nearly impossible to link them together into a F smocthly@functioning team to accomplish the state's ocean resource management objectives. The Act's findings give a "real world" context for the state's development of an ocean A comprehensive and coordinated ocean resources management program. Among the findings are: management plan and program nay appear to establish a new policy framework for ocean 0 The recognition of the fluid, dynamic governance. To Oregonians, however, the approach nature of the ocean and the migration is a logical extension of the state's of its living resources; comprehensive land use planning program created in 1973. A preliminary analysis of the existing 0 The absence of a comprehensive state ocean management regime was completed July 1, manacfement system in Oregon; 1988; it suggests that there are several shortcomings in the status quo. The next phase 0 Existing federal laws already give of Oregon's ocean planning experiment will be to states a role in ocean resource construct adaptive management systems that management; establish priorities and resolve conflicts among both ocean users and govenrient agencies at all 0 Additional scientific understanding of levels by developing alternatives to expensive 'the offshore environment is needed. lawsuits and moratoria. The plan will also serve to guide the efficient use of scarce agency Policies resources. The Act includes policies to guide planning for management of ocean resources. Those policies: 0 Give priority to the use of renewable marine resources. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PFDGPM 0 Encourage environmentally sound, Oregon's ocean resources management program is economically beneficial ocean significant for two reasons. First, it is an development. unprecedented attempt by a state to develop a comprehensive management program for ocean 0 Incorporate the ocean management resources within its jurisdiction. marry states, JALV9.LCULL into Oregon's Coastal pursuant to the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act, Management Program- have coastal management programs for shorelines, estuaries, and other coastal resources, but none o Assert Oregon's interests as a partner has extended their programs to ocean resources in in ocean management within the U.S:. any comprehensive manner. Second, Oregon's Exclusive Economic Zone. initiative is a clear step by a coastal state toward redefining the relationship between the 0 Priomote marine research and scientific federal and state governments with respect to understanding. managing ocean resources within the U.S. Exclusive Eboncmic Zone. Naturally, Oregon 0 Encourage marine ted-inology research. neither claims ownership of the seabed nor legal jurisdiction aver resources beyond three miles. The means to accomplish these objectives and However, it does assert its,right and policies are discussed below. responsibility to plan for Joint management of resources and uses of the ocean which affect the state and its citizens. Oregon Is program is designed to encourage local gaverrmrxits, state agencies, ocean users, and MANAGEMENT PLANS citizens to do their homework regarding ocean resource allocation in advance of important Implementation of SB 630 will result in a two develcpTent decisions, and to insist that federal plans to guide state and federal authorities and agencies do the same. decisions concerning offshore activities. THE ORBOON OCEAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ACT PLAN 1: The gr6gori ocean Resources Management Plan The Oregon Ocean Resources Management Act is more An overall management plan for ocean resources and than a mere legislative directive to take some uses within the 200-mile U.S. Exclusive Economic action. It sets the stage for a future program by zone, including the Oregon Territorial Sea, must be clearly stating the Legislature's policies on completed by June 199o, and approved by Oregon's ocean resource management. In addition, the bill Land conservation and Develiopuent Commission loy establishes clear priorities among potentially December 1990. The Oregon ocean Resources competing ocean uses and activities. Management Plan will have four major elements: 995 1. An analysis of state and federal laws, includes seven natural resource agency directors; programs, and regulations affecting ocean resources one representative from each of five private sector within the planning area, including gaps, overlaps ocean user groups: recreational fisheries, and conflicts. commercial fisheries, oil and gas development, marine mineral development, and ocean navigation; 2. A study of present and future ocean uses off two coastal local government representatives; and Oregon, and an analysis of the state's management three citizens at-large. regime for such uses. The Task Force has been substantially supported in its work by a Scientific and Technical Advisory 3. Maps and other information about ocean Committee. Staff from several state and federal conditions, uses, and resources, computerized so as agencies that have ocean resource management to provide a basis for plan decisions. interests and authorities, local government planners, Indian tribal representatives, 4. Recommendations to develop or improve state oceanographers, biologists, geologists, economists, agency programs for managing ocean resources. ocean law experts, representatives from Recommendations are to address: environmental groups, and Oregon citizens constitute the advisory committee. o Oil and gas development, including exclusion areas, pipelines, onshore The Task Force formed six subcommittees (Ocean facilities, and its relationship to local Mangagement Systems, Special Management Areas, comprehensive plans. Research Needs, User Conflicts, Onshore Impacts, and Coastal Economics) to assist in the o Oil spill response, damage assessment, investigation of various offshore resource and compensation. development issues. The subcommittees prepared reports and recommendations to the Task Force which o Marine water quality, including ocean provide the basis for work on several ocean outfalls, chemical runoff, water quality resources plan elements. standards, and monitoring programs. The Task Force met nine times from fall 1987 o Air quality impacts from offshore through summer 1988. During the meetings, reports development. from subcommittees and staff briefings were presented. The Task Force also heard presentations o Nonenergy hard mineral exploration and from ocean users and neighboring states either development. formally as part of the agenda, or informally during the Public Forum period at each meeting. o Environmental studies and other research. Based on information presented during the Task Force meetings, an interim report was prepared and o Ocean technology research. submitted to the state legislature in July 1988. o Private investment in ocean resources. WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED o Alternative methods of dispute resolution. Certain themes have emerged from the first year of effort. The following is a summary of those o A permanent management structure and themes: process to keep the plan up to date. 1. Reserves of known resources and the promise of This list results from a preliminary assessment of resources yet to be discovered lie within Oregon's the states ability to manage activities that are Territorial Sea and the adjacent EEZ. Development expected to occur in Oregon's offshore area in the of the full economic and social benefit of these near future. These elements, and the issues with resources requires an appropriate management which they are concerned, will be developed further scheme which builds on existing regimes that manage in an open, public forum. oil, gas, marine minerals, and fisheries, and which builds toward a process of co-management with federal agencies. PLAN 2: The Territorial Sea Management Plan 2. Sound planning will help bring an optimal A more detailed plan for managing resources in economic return to Oregon's ocean resources by Oregon's Territorial Sea, building on the Oregon ensuring a collaborative, efficient, and balanced Ocean Management Plan, will be completed and decision-making process. Resource allocation adopted by the State Land Board by July 1991. decisions are best made in advance of development decisions. Confrontational and litigative decision PLANNING PARTICIPANTS making is properly the technique of last resort. Preparation of the Ocean Resources Management Plan 3. The private sector is often the prime mover in is the responsibility of an 18-member Task Force, ocean resource development. What does or does not chaired by the Governor's Assistant for Natural happen offshore and at what pace usually depends on Resources. Membership on the Task Force presently market conditions and the judgement of ocean users. 996 4. New offshore uses may represent economic 6. Oregonians will continue to assert their right trade-offs that diminish existing ocean uses rather to participate in ocean resource allocation than simply adding to existing levels of income now decisions which inpact their way of life, coastal derived from ocean resources. communities and economy, both within the territorial sea and the EEZ. 5. Oregon is willing to experiment in a creative 7. Sound management of Oregon's ocean resources federalism, which is a true local-state-federal in state waters, and effective coordination with partnership, allowing close coordination with federal agencies in federal waters, requires a new indian tribes, adjacent states (see "Associated state/local budget strategy with a commitment of Efforts", below), and the private sector. resources coamensurate with the state's ocean management responsibilities. N @9 b -P U1 U) ............. li'l io.a. C SCADI M Tilla -37 L4UJ ........... BASIN CM V-g 0 J@ IN k @,'z @J PC 10RDA Oregon's Ocean Planning Area 997 II. ASSOCIA!TED EFFORTS: A REGIONAL APPROACH in 1985, action to establish it was deferred by the Secretary of the Interior. In late summer 1986, A glance at a imp of the coastline and continental Oregon and Washington OCS staffs met with the shelf of the Pacific Northwest shows that Oregon Director and the Pacific Regional Manager of and Washington share a common biogeographic Minerals Management Service to discuss the idea of region. - From Cape Flattery, at the tip of a Pacific Northwest Regional Technical Working Washington's Olympic Peninsula, to Cape Blanco on Group. This time there was interest.in a reviewing the southern Oregon coast, the coastline sweeps a state proposal. along a single continuous arc. The Columbia River estuary breaks, but does not interrupt, this By mid-1987, state staff had agreed on the basics single arc, and the fresh water discharge of this of such a state-federal group. In rep-tug with river strongly influences ocean conditions for MMS Pacific Region staff to discuss these concepts, miles both north and south of the estuary, them appeared to be general agreement by NMS that depending on the season. the state's proposed structure and focus was constructive. However, it was not clear that MMS Me Columbia River is only a political boundary staff fully appreciated the political significance between the states of Oregon and Washington. As of an Oregon-Washington group. The state's well as an oceanographic setting, the two states proposal will be the first time a state has taken share many social and political values. If these the initiative to restructure the framework within factors don't provide sufficient rationale, the which discussions and decisions concerning offshore trans-boundary dynamics of ocean resources compels resources take place. The states continued to the two states- cooperation and consultation in the remind HMS of the importance of the issue through management of their ocean resources. their Congressional delegation's actions on the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. For years, the Department of the Interior has designated a sugle planning area for Oregon and In October 1987, the recently-appointed Deputy Washington. Because the two states are treated as Director of MM met with Oregon and Washington one area by Interior, staff from the two states staff meni:ers to discuss the caq)osition and scope have collaborated at informal levels. Their of work of a Pacific Ndrdm@ group. Discussions collaboration is now growing toward a more formal included the role of nort1uest treaty Indian tribes mechanism for regional co-management with federal In the working cj=4:). Following this meeting, the agencies. states drafted a Cooperative Agreement, obtained their respective Governors' approval, orchestrated The coastal management agencies of both states have a letter to the Secretary of the Interior from the developed considerable ability to participate in Governors of Oregon and Washington, and prepared a the Department of the Interior's OCS program. press release concerning the proposal. In February Oregon's coastal management agency is the 1988, the proposal was submitted to the Department Department of Land Conservation and Development of the Interior. (DLCD), and Washington's is the Shorelands Division As proposed, the Northwest Regional Task Force is of the Department of Ecology (DOE). Although the two states' agency and program structures are very intended to "facilitate efforts to reach consensus different, their collaboration at the staff level regarding issues related to the OCS program ...... has continued aver the past six years. The Task Force's work would result in coordinated program and policy recomTendations to submit to the Collaboration and coordination has grown, secretary of the Interior. Initially, the Task particularly with respect to the Minerals Force would-focus on environmental studies and Management Service's (MMS) Environmental Studies analysis required in advance of proposed Lease Sale Program. Discussions now involve staff from other #132. affected state agencies, expertise from the states' universities, and staff from other federal As proposed by the states, the Task Force would be agencies. In fall 1987, an ad hoc Environmental composed of two committees. A Steering Committee Studies Technical Advisory Committee convened to would be ccurprised of policy specialists from the review and camyent on MMS's FY 89 Envirormerital states, the Department of the -Interior, and treaty Studies Program. The Committee, which continued to Tribes, and a Technical Committee would be meet through spring 1988, has attenpted to appointed to provide expertise to the Steering establish what long-term studies are needed in the committee. Pacific Northwest, and those which should be conducted prior to OCS lea iM off Washington and it is now late October 198s. The last of several Oregon.' volleys and return shots concerning the Agreement may be over soon; a Pacific Northwest OCS Task On a related but separate track, the states have Force may, in fact, became a reality. When that long argued that the OCS lease sale planning occurs, Oregon and Washington will have a much process for Oregon and Washington should be better opportunity to influence the OCS process. separated from the issues and emotions surrounding in fact, a new opportunity for regional California ocs leasing. They have also maintained co-management of a wide variety of ocean resources that lease sale planning in the Pacific Northwest may eventually devolve from this new requires a special state-federal effort for state-federal-tribal structure. legitimacy. So although a Pacific Northwest planning group was suggested by Oregon's Governor 998 CONCLUSION When the Ocean Resources Management Plan is completed, Oregon will have a strategy and a plan of action to use in advance of important development decisions. The plan will be based on sound accessible information that ocean users need, agencies require, and the public expects. The plan will be implemented through a coordinated network linking local, state and federal agencies. It is highly likely that no new agency will be needed for its ongoing implementation, although new coordination mechanisms may be recommended. The Task Force is committed to establishing an effective joint participatory process with the federal government that recognizes the legitimate interests of Oregon and its citizens. Oregon's example can help open the ocean policy "window of opportunity" at the national level by constructing an integrated regime for ocean resource management. Like its land use planning process, Oregon's ocean planning process is open to all, comprehensive in scope, and characteristically highly ambitious. 999 OVERVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF COASTAL ZONE, MANAGEMENT IN THE ATLANTIC PROVINCES, CANADA J.S.S. Lakshminarayana DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, UNIVERSITE DE MONCTON MONCTON, N.B., CANADA EIA 3E9 ABSTRACT marshes, bays, barrier islands, mark this important coastal zone. Many current systems and This paper is an attempt to examine all of the upwellings are found on the shelf and in the coastal resources of the Atlantic Provinces in a estuaries. comprehensive fashion on the basis of readily available information. The resources are Maritimers enjoy continental to maritime climate. identified in order to facilitate in establishing The northern N.B. exhibit characteristics of a priorities for future investigation and to aid in modified continental climate. In the coastal the design of policies and procedures for making areas, the climate is influenced by the ocean. resource use decisions for the varied types of Precipitation is the highest in winter and the situations encountered along the coastline. shore areas receive increased precipitation and they are mostly foggy in late spring and early The coastline with its complex environement often summer. The yearly coastal invasion of ice makes governed by a varied body of laws and regulations the fishing and fish-processing operations limited which are administered by local, provincial and to the open-water seasons. In winter the wave federal agencies. With the onset of urbanization, energy, along the Canadian Atlantic coast and over concentration, exploitation of resources and the continental shelf, was five to six times inherent uses and abuses of the coastal zone, the greater than during the summer and the energy role of the local bodies has increased for proper concentration on the Grand Banks and Labrador was understanding in the development of management three to four times that over the Scotian strategies of the coastal resources. This work Shelf(I). envisages the importance of developing suitable evaluation information for different policy issues The early inhabitants have depended upon the land and implementing tasks basing on research for growing crops. Their forest woodlots provided programmes. fuel and often a small cash income from lumber and pulp wood. Man of the Atlantic Provinces drew Socio-economic and administrative structure has a support for his livelihood traditionally from the great responsibility in determining the future for coastal waters which are used for power the "harvest of coastal riches". This study generation, shipping and trade, transportation, presents some examples of socio-economic conflicts manufacturing and other industries, for municipal and interests of the Atlantic Coastal Zone to requirements, commercial and sports fishing, impress the importance for the development of wildlife and recreation and in the disposal of alternate strategies, residential, commercial and industrial wastes. There is an increasing trend towards the 1. INTRODUCTION exploitation of this natural resource. This creates a challenge to plan for the future uses of The coastline of Canada is a valuable national the resources of the Coastal Zone (C.Z.) area. asset. A large portion of this (nearly 40,000 km The continued use of C.Z. created problems like long) is along the Atlantic Seaboard, extending pollution of estuaries, loss of marshlands, from the Arctic to the Gulf of Maine, the Canada- deterioration of recreation areas, loss of soil U.S. border. The continental shelf of the aggregates, siltation, sediment displacement Canadian Atlantic Coast is about 200 km wide off followed by competing and conflicting interests. Nova Scotia, reaches out 500 km on the Grand Banks southeast of Newfoundland, and then narrows to Generally the coastal zone (C.Z.) brings into less than 100 km along the coast of Labrador. The focus the interface between land and water depths, in general, are less than 200 m, with the resources. C.Z. may coincide with high-tide exception of the Laurentian channel, which coastline in a rocky cliff coastline, which has no connects with the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Hudson backshore or the boundary may be a mile from the Strait. The coastal zone supports over 2.285000 high-water line because the backshore consists of people of Newfoundland-Labrador (Nfld. & Labd.), a broad plain or an extensive marsh-meadow Nova Scotia (N. S.), New Brunswick (N. B.) and shorescape or they could be frequently shifting Prince Edward Island (P.E.I.). Many estuaries, (river meander progression, foredune storm CH2585-8/88/0000- J()00 $1 @1988 IEEE ablation, sand-split growth or bluff recession). Air Quality, climate, noise, radiation, The foreshore and the backshore of the riverine, microclimate lacustrine, estuarine and marine waters are affected by the prevailing geohydraulic system. Water Quality and urban runoff This region is called as the coastal zone or the shore-process corridor and these could cover vast Biological aspect: areas as in the case of broad plains and marshes or very limited and narr w regions near rocky and Plants Forests, grasslands, bottomlands mountainous The broad plains shorelines shift from time to time depending upon Animals Wildlife, fish, micro-biota the geohydraulic. and other environmental influences. Erosion and accretion play an Social and cultural apse important part in the maintenance of the shore- process corridor. This is influenced by the Population Urban and rural , employment, qual ity of water received from the surrounding demography land, sea, the ground water and the atmosphere(3). Land use Urban, agriculture, rangeland, The estuarine and C.Z. environment is intimately forestry, water, wetland, integrated with the nutrient inputs and outputs barren land, along with the changes in water levels and their Recreation - (sports, fishing, quality. Man is responsible for the imbalance in skiing, nature the natural shore-process systems by use and abuse study) without proper understanding of the principles of Transport coastal or shore management. It is time, though Conservation - (parks, r a r e & not late, to understand these dynamic zones and s c e n i c a r e a s systems to respect and maintain the integrity of wildlife) this heritage resource. Establishement of priorities and preferences of the use of coastal Economic aspect: Agriculture, aquaculture, resources with a view to protect and control the fishery, mining, forestry, e c o I o g i c a I , environmental a n d o t h e r construction, recreation & characteristics of the coastal zone in tourism, manufacture, consultation with the local users and planners of utilities, finance and trade, the region along with government authorities u r b a n i z a t i o n , public concerned will help to preserve this natural administration, energy, heritage to posterity. Orderly understanding, resource development, participation and co-ordination lead to the conservation & preservation, logical and impartial management policies in the transport. interest of public. These will result in laws, guide-lines and other protective measures for the 3. COASTAL ZONE USE AND ABUSE management of the coastal resources for the benifit of man. The resources should be used Canadian exports of fish and fish products equitably for the functional recreational, amounted to about $2.2 billion in 1987. Coastal economic and aesthetic values. C.Z. management fishery usually fall into three categories, namely implies development and utilization of all Fresh-water, Estuarine and Immediate Coastal resources in a way that is compatible with one Waters. Anadromous (spawn in the fresh-water and another and with the environment. This article move to the sea for adult life - eg. Atlantic tries to present a general classification of the Salmon, Speckled Trout, Rainbow Trout, Brown coastal resources, their representative areas, Trout, Shad, Smelt, Striped Bass) catadromous evaluation of the alternate use of the resources (spawn in the sea and move to fresh-water for and of the existing institutional arrangements. adult life American Eel) and resident (live in fresh-water landlocked Atlantic Salmon, Trout, 2. COASTAL ZONE RESOURCES CLASSIFICATION Alewife, Landlocked Smelt) are the three types that could be distinguished, although the same The h i s t o r i c shorel ine uses(4) were for types are present in Estuarine waters also. settlement, agriculture, trade, transport and Tomcod is one of the anadromous estuarine fishes defence. The current uses increased urbanization, of Atlantic Coastal Estuaries. The important industrialization, harbour developments, dredging, resident estuarine molluscan species are Oysters, energy exploitation, reclamation of marshes and soft-shell Clams, Quahaug, Whelks, Periwinkles, tidal flats for city developments, recreation and and Blue Mussel. Immediate and important coastal transport. The environment is being used in fishes include Atlantic herring, Bluefin tuna, various aspects by man: Mackerel, Lobster and Crab for domestic consumption in the Atlantic Provinces and the Physical and chemical aspect: dependency of fishing industry has become multi- species oriented. This economic dependency on Coastal land: capability, type, geology, erosion, water has lead to several conflicts and ultimately use and misuse, urban growth. contributed to the deterioration of water quality by pollution, eutrophication, contamination of the 1001 shallow and protected estuarine waters of the in 1976 in the Ba@ of Fundy was linked to Southern Gulf, for example Miramichi Bay, Malpeque dinoflagellate toxii- 12). The mortality probably Bay and Caraquet Bay, where proper coastal resulted through a series of planktonic food chain conditions for oysters naturally e x i t s . events. This raises the question of the extent of Deterioration of water quality has already, the consequences to fish of Gonyaulax toxins in directly or indirectly affected the people, their the plankton community and the planktonic food interests in commercial and sports fishing, chains could affect year-class strenghts of recreation, tourism and water related industries certain fishes. The PSP problem is increasing like fish-processing(5). world-wide and the C.Z. of the Atlantic Region is no exception. The recent major toxic element Some of the C.Z. areas are heavily exposed to present in P.E.I. mussels early last winter was pollution and have become dumping grounds for domoic acid and the diatom, Nitzschia seriata was domestic and industrial effluents and solid the prime suspect. A beFt-erknoA 'Tedge and wastes. Rivers discharge contaminants to the understanding of the phytoplankton populations of estuaries and between 1978 and 1983 alone there the coastal and marine waters is essential for were 637 significant oil and petroleum product the development of control and management spills from ships and other sources(6). Major strategies for the hazardous phytoplankton blooms. hazards to canadian fisheries are the disposable sites, diffuse sources of contamination, pesticide The habitat destruction is frequent in the C.Z. of contamination, recycling of chemicals already the Atlantic Provinces. Dams, impoundments have present in the environment, o i I s p i 11 s , contributed in rapid erosion of the shorelines. deficiencies in technology and scientific Many wetlands were lost due to encroachment of understanding of chemical contaminants, regulatory urban development and extension of highways. and administrative deficiencies and ineffective Peatlands of Nfld., N. B. and N. S. are endorcement of regulations and public perceptions continuously being depleted. Sand mining and regarding contaminated f i s h and toxic coastal erosion is very common. Drift of sand at chemicals(7). Contaminated dredge spoils (Baie the harbours' mouth is a frequent entrance Comeau, Gasp6, Chandler, Cap-aux-Meules), mercury problem for inshore fishermen. Dredging of the in Saguenay, Mirex in eels, pulp mill discharges coastal channels, often a necessity, results in (Exploits River), mining (Belledune), pesticide fish habitat destruction. spraying of forests, PAH contamination at Sydney, N.S., coal wash plant discharges at Cape Breton Barrier islands, long and sandy, with beautiful Island, Hydrocarbon exploitation (Scotian Shelf, beaches, are common in the northern Gulf of St. Georges Bank, Hibernia) , Potash mining, Lawrence, like the north shore of P.E.I. which are Pesticides use in agriculture), aquaculture the popular recreational areas. The best examples developments, acid rain, organochemicals are some are Tabusintac, Tracadie, Pokemouche and Point of the Atlantic C.Z. regional problems(8,9). The Escuminac. These are long barriers or sand biological and chemical factors are difficult to reefs backed by lagoons and estuaries dominating interpret a n d o f t e n add compl exity to the shorl ine. There are also more detached jurisdiction@l and regulatory measures for fishery fragments of sand reefs, like Portage and Fox management(7j. Islands, at the mouth of the Miramichi. Even before these are discovered by the general The protection of coastal waters from fecal public, they are faced with increased erosion due coliform pollution is mandatory as it has intense sand dredging to maintain navigable significant impact on the economy and health of routes for small crafts. The common recreational the people. C6td et al.(10) stated that there are activities ares swimming, boating, sport fishing, nearly 310 bays anTestuaries in the Maritime cottaging and camping, or space for more passive Provinces which are contaminated by fecal coliform appreciation of aesthitic, scientific and bacteria and in recent years contamination of ecological values, water-skiing, hunting fish, shellfish growing areas are in great increase due waterfowl, sight-seeing, picnic, and walking or to point and non-point sources of pollution(11). hiking. Sport fishing (tuna and salmon or trout), The uncontrollable dumping of shellfish and fish boating and hunting are a major source of revenue. wastes on private lands in some coastal areas of N.B. resulted in the contamination ' of waters, Aquaculture, growing salmon, mussels and oysters, creation of odour and vermin problems. is an expanding industry. Often the ideal sites are located near fishing ports which require East coast blooms, occuring during summer and periodic dredging and this has led to conflicts .t. fal 1 , are caused by Gonyaulax excavata between the sil,)ng of aquaculture and oceans (tamarensis) and appear . in the Southern Bay of disposal si tes( Fundy and in the area of the St. Lawrence River Estuary. Red-tides are known to occur frequently Renewed interest in Hibernia oil development, with increased eutrophication. The consequences building a fixed crossing between P.E.I. and N. B. of these blooms to Canadian Fisheries Resources is and Fundy Tidal Power plant have once again connected with the problem of paralytic shellfish generated the question of impact on the C.Z. and poisoning (PSP), caused by accumulation of the environment. Often topics like synergestic paralytic, dinoflagellate toxins by benthic effects amongst multiple inputs on the C.Z., filter-feeding molluscs. However, a herring kill cumulative effects on marine organisms due to 1002 hazardous chemicals or ecotoxicological effects on Atlantic Provinces (Fig. 2) . This envisages fish and other biota, and influnce of sediments on phytoplankton and microalgal benthic production of examination and evaluation of decision processes the dredged channels and surrounding areas remains for each representative area, basing on the untouched. The strategic roles of ecotoxicology recommendations of the scientific advisory bodies in protecting marine environmenal quality from for each resource. The respective governments land-based pollutants was discussed in detail by will implement the decisions. There must be Wells et al.(14). constant collaboration from Public, Industrial, Private, University, Provincial and Federal 4. RESOURCES AND CONFLICTS OF THE COASTAL ZONE Government Organizations. A variety of existing resource use conflicts The present federal-provincial split in resource require mediations of a comprehensive management management does not permit the recognition of the plan. Some examples are: importance of the coastal zone from the functional point of view. The most important - navigation or recreational boating vs. fishing thing is to recongnize the coastal zones as the activities (nets, buoys, rafts); foundation for offshore and land developments. - beach mining vs. recreational use; This can be carried out by declaring coastal zone - water oriented recreational activities vs. as a national protected area. - environmental capacity of the National Parks; Several improvements to the management of C.Z. are commercial development vs. aesthetic uses; needed. We do require sufficient allocation of - public access vs. aquaculture; - public access vs. cottagers privacy; funds to foster and promote research on freshwater - d i s p o s a 1 of domestic wastes by shore and coastal marine ecosystems. A basic under- populations or boats vs. shellfish harvesting; standing of these is required, particularly the - shoreline protection vs. cottage developers; primary producers and their interplay with the - increased siltation due to road construction, secondary production. For example emerging issues land clearing, agricultural practices vs. like dioxins in marine sediments; Phytoplankton estuary ageing and production of desirable distruction, blooms and their metabolism; species; ecotoxicological studies in relation to chemical - input of nutrients vs. stability of estuarine hazards to fish and fisheries deserve immediate communities and aesthetic or recreational use; attention. Improvements in the areas of - runoff of pesticides and other contaminants vs. information systems, research, monitoring and evaluation, and institutional coordination as existence of some components in the estuarine web; suggested by Morgan et al(15) for the marine - bacteriological contamination from agricultural environmental quality (@T` m-anagement in British runoff vs. s h e I I f i s h harvesting and Columbia are also equally applicable to the C.Z. recreational uses; of the Atlantic Provinces. - energy production vs. quality of environment REFERENCES (water, air & land); and, - disposal of pulp mill and other industrial 1. NEU, H.A. 1971. "Wave climate of the wastes vs. water quality, fishery conservation Canadian Atlantic Coast and Continental Shelf and protection. - 1970. Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory, Interactions in the C.Z. environment commonly met Bedford Institue, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, in the Atlantic Provinces are shown in Fig. 1. An Canada, Report 1971-10, 1-28. evaluation of the existing C.Z. demands by man 2. BAUER, W., 1978. "The geohydraulic system as and interaction between the demands in the C.Z. a basis for shore management". Proc. Shore for proper environmental impact assessments is Management Symp., CCREM, Oct. 4th and 5th, very difficult. 1978, Victoria, B.C., 18-38. 3. MacKAY, A.A., 1977. "Experiment using solar 5. COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT NEEDS heat in Aquaculutre" . Department of F i s h e r i e s , Fredericton, New Brunswick, At present there are about forty Federal and reference NBF76-2, 1-54. Provincial Acts administered in the coastal 4. DAY, J.C. and J.G.M. PARKES, 1978. "Canadian Provinces of Atlantic Region. Mixed jurisdiction, fresh-water lake - and marine - Shore areas, limited legislation and ineffective enforcement uses and management". Proc. Shore Management have prevented from direct action on a variety of Symp., CCREM, Oct. 4 and 5, 1978, 56-130. chemical contamination incidients which havE 5. SIMPSON-LEWIS, Wendy. 1973. "Gulf of St. affected the canadian fisheries(7). Legislatior Lawrence: Water u s e s a n d rel ated must be amended or developed to increase thE activities." Geographical paper NO. 53, EN collaboration among agencies and between levels of 36-506/53, Lands Directorate Publications, government. Social , economic, institutional and Environment Canada. legal considerations must receive(lyeater 6. WELLS, P.G. , L. HARDING, J. KARAU and G. attention to protect the coastal waters ). it @ACKMAN. 1978. "Marine Environment Quality is desirable to create a central organizational in canada." In Proceedings of Oceans '87, body with Intra-Jurisdicational Powers for thE Vol. 5, 1633-1636. 1003 JECONOMIC ASPECTS: AND CULTURAL ASPECTS: p URS DEVELOPMENT JAGRICULTURE POPAN ULATION INDU TRY ECONOMY SOCIO OF DEMOGRAPHY LAW ADMINISTRATION, ETCF DRAINAGE S ENVIRONMENT SOLID WASTES LAND AND WATER I- -------- EWAGE (LIQUID WASTES) FIEH PROCESS PLANTS SC IENTIFIc RESEARCH ON: SEWAGE RESOURCES: ANIMAL WAST S I BIOLOGY SPRAY" OFEFORESTS 'I CHEM STRY -41 FERTILIGZER PHYSICS GO M.NlT POLICIES: PESTICIDES ENGINEERING L CAL AUTOMOBILES a 0 GEOL GY PROVINCIAL INDUSTRY FEDERAL P BLIC INDUSTRY H.1p H.1 ADVI H.1 Su ision VAL CrI 'i eS.ure E A- ObserVi@ h. t. d-d. CONTROL Help PRESSUR6S Fig. 1: Interacti.- i@ the JIKPLEKENTING POLICIES: [email protected] RESOURCE 0 ERNMEITS; L 1-1-NT- DCA NCIAL S CIOLOGICAL P I jG ECONOMIC FEDERAL INDUSTRIAL PARTICIPATION METHOD OF CO-ORDINATEDI INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT PUBLIC PARTICIPATION JORGAN IIATION AID DIRECTION CENTRAL ORGANIZATION OF EACH JURIS@j [email protected], [LIAISON IN DIFFERENT (Int-j-i.di t@ 1 IINTRA,[email protected]@ COASTAL ACTIVITIES Ad T tT SCIENTIFIO ADVISORY ... -S PROTECTION OF ECCGIST ECONO' ST SOCICLOGI@l INVII.4'IMEUT MANAGER _----LPU5LlC RIGHTS -1 14FOR-TION SYSTEMS 1 PRODUCTION RDUCIIOM 111LI1 ,1111111 'T' LITY PARTICIPATION L'DEO.AND OTHER AlOlS Fig. 2: [email protected] ... 1 --t- f- c- @l .-g--t 1004 7. ADAM, M., W.D. McKONE and H. SHEAR. 1987. "Report from a Workshop on Chemical Hazards to Fish and Fisheries." Can. Tech. Rep., Fish. Aquat. Sci., 1525: 105 pp. 8. SCARRATT, D. J. 1987. "Atlantic Fisheries Resources Zonal Overview." In "Report from a Workshop on Chemical Hazards to Fish and Fisheries" ed. Adam, M., W.D. McKone, and H. Shear. Can. Tech. Rep., Fish. Aquat., Sci., 1525: 26-35. 9. WALDICHUK, M. 1988. "The Nature and Extent of Marine Contamination Caused by Land-based Sources in Canada. In Proceedings on Canadian Conference on Marine Environmental Quality, Feb. 29 - March 3, 1988, Halifax, N. S. (under publication). 10. COTE, R.P., D. VANDERZAAG and I. TOWNSEND GAULT. 1988. "Institutional Economic, Social and Other Considerations in the Management of Land-based Sources of Marine Pollution." In Proceedings on Canadian Conference on Marine Environmental Quality, Feb. 29 - March 3, 1988, Halifax, N.S. (under publication). 11. EATON, P.B. , L.P. HILDEBRAND and A.A. d'ENTREMONT. 1985. "Environmental Quality in the Atlantic Region." Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service, Atlantic Region. 241 pp. 12. WHITE, A.W. 1977. "Dinoflagellate toxins as probable cause of an Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) kill, and pteropods as apparent vFc_t_o_r_7_ J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 2421-2424. 13. ENVIRONMENT CANADA. 1987. "Keeping the Ocean Clean - Ocean Dumping Control Act 1985/86 Annual Report, pp. 27. 14. WELLS, P. G. , R. P. COTE, D. KELLY and A. McIVER. 1988. "Protecting M a r i n e Environmental Quality from Land-based Pollutants - The Role of Frameworks, Strategies and Marine Ecotoxicology." Background papers for the Canadian Conference on Marine Environmental Quality. 1, 51-72. 15. BRUCE MORGAN, ion O'RIORDAN, R.W. LANGFORD, and Lee HARDING. 1988. "Marine Environmental Quality Management in British Columbia." In Proceedings . on Canadian Conference on Marine Environmental Quality, Feb. 29 - March 3, 1988, Halifax, N.S. (under publication). 1005 COASTAL STATES AND MARINE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT within the UNITED STATES EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE David C. Slade General Counsel Coastal States Organization Collectively, the world's EEZS cover one third Abstract of the total ocean surface -- an area that Was historically considered "high seas." Eighty five in 1983 the United states established a 200 to 95 percent of the worlds commercial marine nautical mile Exclusive Economic zone (U.S. fishing, all of the worlds offshore oil and gas EEZ). The U.S. EEZ is the newest, and perhaps production, and most marine research occurs in last, playing field for a tug-of-war the states these EEZs. But more is at stake in this new and the federal government have been playing zone than resource management. since the Constitution was ratified -- Federal- ism. In terms of managing the resources within Federalism and the U.S. EEZ the U-.S. EEZ, the coastal States define "federal- ism" as being "full partnersw with the federal The U.S. EEZ is the newest, and perhaps last, government. It is stateside where there must be playing field for a tug-of-war the states and the port, processing, transport, and housing facili- federal government have been playing since the ties to accomodate ocean resource development, Constitution was ratified -- Federalism. Indeed, and where the air, water, land or visual environ- the coastal States are aggresively pursuing a mental affects are felt. States will have to much greater role in ocean resource management, generate increased revenues to pay for the new that of being a "full partner" with the federal demands on their social infrastructures. Thus, government. it is only just that the states be 'full part- ners" with the federal government in managing The Coastal States Organization, representing ocean resource development. only changing the the Governors of the 35 coastal States, Territor- existing legal status quo will make this possi- ies and Commonwealths, and several other organi- ble, a step that must be carefully weighed and zations, has adopted a proclamation asserting won considered before executing. The best way to do behalf of their citizens, direct and inherent this is to establish a National Ocean Policy Com- rights and responsibilities pertaining to the mission. protection, conservation, and development of the living and nonliving resourcesw in the U.S. EEZ. Introduction Further, in recognition of these rights and re- sponsibilities, the coastal States have resolved The oceans, long viewed as the great commons to be "full partners in the management of U.S. of the world, must now be seen in a fundamentally Exclusive Economic zone resources and share in an different light. Over 60 nations have proclaimed equitable division of benefits derived from their 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zones off of development.w their shores. Within these zones, coastal nations have sweeping powers, including "sover- In terms of managing thes e ocean resources, the eign rights for the purpose of exploring and coastal states define "federalism" as being "full exploiting, conserving and managing the natural partners" with the federal government. The U.S. resources, whether living or nonliving, of the EEZ, however, is a fundamentally different play- seabed and the subsoil, and the superjacent, waters, with regard to other activities for the I ing field than the terrestrial United States. It economic exploitation of the zone, such as the is an "extraterritorial" region of the Nation, or production of energy from the water, currents and wterritories" of the U.S, or even the 3-mile belt winds,"l as well as jurisdiction with regard to of State ocean waters. The EEZ itself is not artificial islands, marine research and environ- wownedu by the United States. Rather, the United mental protection. In 1983, the United States States only has exclusive management authority established, by presidential proclamation, the over the resources in the U.S. EEZ. Internation- United States Exclusive Economic Zone (U.S. al uses, such as navigation, overflight, the lay- EEz). within this maritime zone the United ing of pipelines and cablesr and other high seas States has internationally recognized authority freedorts, must not be infringed upon by the to control its domestic resource management, and United States. U.S. duty and customs laws do not to regulate, or prohibit outright, foreign acti- apply throughout the EEZ. vities, such as fishing, oil and gas development, Given the broad scope of the "Commerce Power' mining ocean minerals, or doing any other necono- vested in the federal government by the Constitu- .mic" activity. tion, it is arguable that the federal government CH2585-8/88/0000- 1006 $1 @1988 IEEE would be constitutionally sanctioned to exert Proclamation was crafted in amazingly strict con- full and complete resource management authority formance with the LOS Articles on Exclusive Eco- in the EEZ, allowing no participation by the nomic Zones, it squared up the United States' coastal States in the exercise of this international ocean policy in a time when much of authority. But the coastal States do have clear the world was deploring our refusal to sign the and direct responsibilities in how these resourc- 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the es are managed. it is stateside where there must Sea (LOS Convention). The Proclamation, however, be port, processing, transport, and housing faci- added little to domestic authority or lities to accomodate the resource development. jurisdiction. The Proclamation, in essence, put Environmental affects, whether they be air, an internation- ally recognized legal frame water, land or visual, will burden the states. around the existing body of U.S. law pertaining States may have to generate increased revenues to this 200 mile ocean zone. (raise taxes) to pay for the new demands on social infrastructures: roads, police and fire A Sea Change for the Coastal States departments, hospitals, etc. Of great potential importance for the coastal Obviously, some form of partnership is required States, however, is that the Proclamation funda- between the states and the federal government. mentally altered the legal character of the 200 But whenever any two entities cooperate, it is mile zone around the United States. Prior to the the stronger member of the combination that, Proclamation, the body of U.S. law pertaining to usually calls the shots. Because the national this zone, while asserting exclusive U.S. manage- government has always been of superior fiscal ment jurisdiction in piecemeal fashion over se- size, to the extent of dwarfing any individual lect resources, continued to operate in the in- state, "federalism" is generally "a short expres- ternationally recognized regime of "high seas." sion for a constantly increasing concentration of After the Proclamation, however, it became inter- power at Washington in the stimulation and super- nationally recognized that the United States has vision of local policies.u2 exclusive jurisdiciton over not only fish, oil,- or *marine mammals, but "sovereign rights" to Nonetheless, the assertion of "full partner- manage all living and non-living resources within ship" federalism in the U.S. EEZ by the states the U.S. EEZ, and to protect and preserve the comes at a time of opportunity and challenge. marine environment. The opportunity exists because constitutional barriers no longer bar full state partnership In other words, prior to the Proclamation the participation. The challenge, however, is that a United States asserted certain rights over select sizable body of federal ocean resource management resources in the high seas. After the Proclama- law is in place that does not allow the states to tion the United States now has sovereign rights be "full partners." over management of all resources (except tuna) in an area no longer characterized, in terms of The U.S. EEZ Proclamation international resource management law, as high A Frame Around Fhe -Picture seas. Although the pure concept of high seas had eroded bit-by-bit within 200 miles of this coun- Much adieu has been made over the establishment try, and others, the status of all resources in of the 200 nautical mile U.S. EEZ. But in terms this zone did not unequivocably change to some- of providing a future source of natural resources thing other than high seas resources until the for the country, the United States already had a issuance of the Proclamation. wide array of statutes asserting exclusive juris- diction and control for the exploration, exploi- Now that the United States has sovereign rights tation, conservation and management of living and over the living and non-living resources in the non-living resources in the waters that are now U.S. EEZF how to exercise them is clearly a within the EEZ, as well as a host of other statu- sovereign, i.e. domestic, question. In terms of tues affecting U.S. activities in the 200 mile international law, this is a fundamental change zone. Indeed, with the possible exception of with a potentially profound domestic affect. minerals within the FEZ that exist in deep ocean waters not traditionally recognized as the conti- For decades the U.S. Supreme Court has consis- nental shelf3, it may be fair to say that the tently ruled that the federal government posses- United States could have continued what it was sed full and paramount authority to manage the doing in our 200 mile zone forever without the natural resources outside of the three mile ter- Proclamation. And it is arguable that the United ritorial sea. In fact, until Congress passed the States actually did possess resource jurisdiction Submerged Lands Act in 1953, the Court ruled that over these minerals prior to the Proclamation4, even within the three miles the federal govern- although industry has not been willing to invest ment had full and paramount natural resource vast sums of money on such shakey legal ground, management authority.5 or seabed, as the case may be. In part, the present relationship for ocean The Proclamation spoke more to the internation- resource management between the federal govern- al community of nations than it did to the coun- ment and the States stems from the 1945 Truman try itself. In fact, the Proclamation is silent Proclamation on the wNatural Resources of the as to what role the States are to play in this Subsoil and Sea Bed of the Continental Shelf." new domestic ocean area. But because the EEZ President Truman declared that the United States 1007 had wjurisdiction and control" over the natural shores, and the like. In external affairs resources of the continental shelf nappertaining the United States became the sole and exclu- to the United States.* It was expressly noted sive spokesman for the nation.111 that the character of the waters above the U.S. Continental Shelf remained "high seas."6 Congress reacted to this series of Supreme Court cases by enacting the Submerged Lands Act Two years later, in United States v. Califor- of 1953, granting the States title to the seabed nia, the Supreme Court ruled against Californiars of the marginal sea. Later that same year Con- .claim that it had "dominion" over the submerged gress passed a companion act, the Outer Continen- lands within the three English mile zone of state tal Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA), establishing exclu- waters, and thus "owned" the natural resources sive federal jurisdiction over the continental therein. In rejecting California's arguments, shelf seaward of the territorial limit of the the Court relied upon the rational that: States. The OCSLA expressly recognizes the nature of the superjacent waters as high whatever any nation does in the open sea, seas.12 As for the submerged lands, however, which detracts from its common usefulness to the OCSLA clearly provides that, on the continen- the nations, or which another nation may tal shelf beyond State waters, the federal gov- charge detracts from it, is a question for ernment has "exclusive jurisdiction and control consideration among nations as such and not over the seabed and subsoil of all submerged their separate governmental units.wy lands ... which appertain to the United States and are subject to its jurisdiction.,113 As a result, the Court ruled that the "Federal Government rather than the State has paramount Nonetheless, in 1969, thirteen Atlantic States rights in and power over that belt, an incident challenged the federal government's paramount to which is full dominion over the resources of rights over the submerged lands beyond State the soil under that water area.08 waters. The States claimed that they had ac- quired, as successors to the Crown of England (or Three years later, in 1950, the Supreme Court the Crown of Holland in the case of New York), ruled in United States v. Louisiana that: exclusive dominion and control over the seabed beyond the three mile State, waters. The Supreme The [three mile] marginal sea is a national, Court, in rejecting this argument, reaffirmed the not a State, concern. National interests, holdings in the California, Louisiana and Texas national responsibilities, national concerns cases, holding t6at -although Congress had vested are involved. The problems of commerce, full title and authority in the three mile zone national defense, relations with other to the States, the federal government retained powers, war and peace focus there. National full dominion over the seabed of the Atlantic rights must therefore be paramount in the Ocean beyond the three mile line, as set forth in area.9 the OCSLA. Looking beyond the three mile marginal sea, the These Supreme Court rulings, whether before or Court was even more adamant that the federal after the Submerged Lands Act and the OCSLA, were government had paramount authority. Having ruled based on the view that, because the ocean area the the 'three-mile belt is in the domain of the beyond territory clearly vested to the States was nation rather than that of the separate States' international in character, resource management the Court went on to say that: decisions could affect foreign affairs. Because the U.S Constitution expressly _grants to the ... it follows a fortiori that the ocean federal government all powers to conduct foreign beyond that limiF--alsois. The ocean sea- affairs, the States had no role to play in marine ward of the marginal belt is perhaps even resource management decisions. more directly related to the national de- fense, the conduct of foreign affairs, and This has changed. With the U.S. EEZ Proclama- world commerce than is the marginal sea. tion, resource management within the EEZ is no Certainly it is not less so.10 longer international in character, but rather is a purely domestic matter. The basis of the Cali- In the same year Texas challenged the supremacy fornia case -- that 'whatever any nation does in of the Federal Government over the marginal sea * the open sea, which detracts from its common use- Texas argued that because it was an independent fulness to the nations, or which another nation Republic prior to admission to the Union it exer- may charge detracts from it, is a question for cised both Dominion (ownership) and Imperium consideration among nations as such, and not (governmental powe-r-Fover the marginal sea, which their separate governmental unitsm -- simply no in the case of Texas extends nine nautical longer applies. miles. The Court held, however, that upon enter- ing the Union Texas was placed on an "equal foot- First of all, the EEZ is no longer an "open ing" with all the other States. As a result, sea." Second, no other nation can charge that a Texas relinquished some of her sovereignty and resource management decision by the United States detracts from the "common usefulnessw of this "ftlhe United States then took her place as zone. This is precisely what changed by force respects foreign commerce, the waging of and effect of the EEZ Proclamation. The resourc- war, the making of treaties, defense of the es of the U. S. EEZ are not to be managed for 1008 their international "common usefulnessw, but of members, ranging from 7 (Carribean Council) to rather for the domestic usefulness of the United 19 (Mid-Atlantic Council). In each council, a States. No other nation can now claim otherwise. majority of the members are appointed by the Sec- retary of Commerce from lists prepared by the In terms of national defense, foreign affairs, governors of that Council's representative and world commerce, the Supreme Court's reasoning states. The remaining members are chosen solely -- beyond the three mile line the ocean area wis by the governors, with the exception that the perhaps even more directly related to the nation- regional director of the National Marine Fisher- al defense, the conduct of foreign affairs, and ies Service for the geographic area concerned is world commerce than is the marginal sea -- re- -a member of that area's council. mains sound even after the Proclamation. But domestic resource management is not the conduct The FCMA does allow a State to regulate fishery of foreign affairs, nor, after the Proclamation, resources beyond its territorial waters, even if does marine resource management pertain to there exists a federal fishery management plan. national defense or world commerce any more than However ' the FCMA limits this regulatory author- does the management of natural resources on land. ity by providing that wA state may not directly or indirectly regulate any fishing vessel outside Likewise, in the Texas case, he Court held that its boundaries, unless the vessel is registered "[iln external affilErs the United States became under the law of that State.-14 the sole and exclusive spokesman for the nation." But again, domestic resource management The FCMA has actually been found to encourage is not an wexternal affair.w Thus, the federal State regulation of fishing by its citizens in government need not be the "sole and exclusive adjacent waters, if the regulation is not in con- spokesman for the nationw on how the EEZ re- flict with federal law, and there exists a legi- sources should be managed. timate and demonstrable State interest served by the State regulation.15 In fact, when no Given the clear stateside impacts of offshore federal regulations exist, State regulations development, it is only logical that the domestic should be assumed not to be preempted; a finding management of the resources in the U.S. EEZ is of preemption absent federal regulation ' would now a legitimate question for consideration of defeat the purpose of the FCMA, i.e. the conser- the "separate governmental units," i.e. the coas- vation of fishery resources.16 tal States. The limitations to State regulatory authority CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES are apparent, however, whether or. not a 'federal FCR STATE EEZ RESOURCE REGULATORY AUTHORITY Fishery Management Plan is in effect: The EEZ Proclamation did not grant any author- o State authority can be asserted only over ity to the States, but it did remove the consti- vessels registered in its State, or over tutional barriers to full State participation in its citizens; U.S. EEZ resource management. However, legisla- tive barriers remain to be overcome. The chal- o State authority can be asserted only where lenge for the States, is how to become wfull there is a legitimate and demonstrable partners' in light of the existing federal legis- State interest served by the regulation; lation managing these resources. o State regulations cannot conflict with any options Available Within the Legal Status Quo federal law or regulation. 1. State Assertion of Regulatory Authority Non-living resources: The OCSLA is the central federaf-statute pertaining to the submerged lands Under the OCSLA and the FCMA, regulations have beyond state territorial waters, asserting U.S. been enacted for the exploitation of oil, gas, "jurisdiction, control, and power of disposi- sulphur, and some commercial fishery stocks. tion"17 over the seabed of the continental However, regulations have not been enacted for shelf. The OCSLA recognizes that wexploration, any other marine mineral, or for all of the com- development, and production of the minerals of mercial stocks of fish, let alone for wall forms the outer Continental Shelf will have significant of marine plant and animal life." Thus many EEZ impacts on coastal and non-coastal areas of the resources remain unregulated. of course, these coastal States.018 In view of these impacts, unregulated resources are the less commercially wsuch States [and] ... affected local governments attractive ones. are entitled to an opportunity to participate, to the extent consistent with the national interes7t-, Living resources: The FCMA is the principle fed- in the policy and planning decisions made by the eral law governing the management of commercial Federal Government relating to the exploration and recreational fishing in waters beyond state' for, and development and production of, minerals territory out to 200 nautical miles. Under this of the outer Continental Shelf.'19 act, the United States asserts "exclusive fishery management authorityu throughout the U.S. EEZ. Thus, a partnership role for the coastal states is envisioned in the OCSLA. But it is not a The FCMA establishes eight Regional Fishery "full partnership,w nor can this role any longer Management Councils, composed of varying numbers be considered appropriate in view of recent 1009 federal judicial rulings. The OCSIA provides for This category of hard minerals is potentially a a relationship of "coordination and consulta- subject for State assertion of regulatory author- tion." That is, a Governor of an "affected State ity., However, unilateral assertion of State j.. Pay submit recommendations to the Secretary regulatory authority over these minerals easily of the Interior) regarding the size, timing, or result in litigation. location of a proposed lease sale or with respect to a proposed development and production If the assertion of State regulatory authority plan.n20 If the Secretary determines that the included the selling of leases or the collection Governors recommendations "provide for a reason- of rents or royalties, the State would also have able balance between the national. interest and Ito overcome challenges based on the California the well-being of the citizens of the affected decision that the States do not have do_:F`1@nium State" then the Secretary "shall" adopt them.21 (ownership) over these resources and therefor have no authority to lease, rent or tax them. one can easily conclude from these provisions that the Governor's role is quite a contolling b. options by Changing the Legal Status Quo one. But because of the great flexibility given the Secretary by this statutory language, the Amend Existing Statutes result over the years is that the Secretary is anything but mandated to defer to a Governor's on an individual basis statutes such as the recommendations. OCSIA could be amended to provide a greater role for the coastal States in EEZ resource manage- First, the Secretary, not the Governor, deter- rent. Such amendments could go far to resolve mines what is "the well-being of the citizens of the inadequacy of the statutory role provided for the affected State.0 That is, the, Secretary the States. NonetheleSsr the resource by re- determines the weight to be given to the "nation- source approach taken by federal legislation does al interest" and the "well-being of the affected not lend itself to resolution of multi-use con- State." Further, the Secretary's : determination flicts over ocean resources. will stand unless it is found to be "arbitrary 11 and capricious' -- a legal standard next. to im- To address both the role of the States in EEZ possible to overcome. resource management, and the worsening problem of multi-use conflicts over these resources, an second, federal court rulings have judicially umbrella-type law would be needed. An "EEZ gutted this provision of the OCSIA by ruling that Resource 'Management Act" that would not repeal no deference to the Governor by the Secretary is other marine resource acts outright, but rather required. The Secretary need not evaluate the only select provisions in those laws, could range of "reasonable balances or of whether the implement a new role for the States, provide a Secretary, beyond merely explaining an alterna- mechanism' for resolving conflicts in lieu of tive balance, had shown the governor's balance to litigation, and establish the national policies be outside such a range. It [is],enough that the and priorities for managing the resources of. the Secretary touch on the relevant factors in set- U.S. EEZ. ting forth his own, differing view. of 'the state and national interests.a22 Conclusion Thust the Governor has littler if any, leverage Clearly the coastal States do not have a great to alter the course of federal oil and gas leas- deal of leverage for becoming 'full partners" ing, no matter how reasonable the Governor's re- with the federal government for U.S. EEZ resource commendations are. In other words, the word management under the current legal status quo. "shall" ---as-in "the Secretary- shall adopt" -- Narrow channels exist for the states to exercise has been judicially contorted into really meaning regulatory control. But for the most part the "may.* States must react to the federal government's resource development plans, rather than Further, the OCSTA grants the Federal Govern- participate at an equal level in the planning and ment exclusive rights to sell leases and collect conduct of any EEZ resource development. rents and royalties from OCS mineral develop- rent. Without authority to sell leases., or col- The EEZ Proclamation did act to clear the path lect rents and royalties, and with an advisory towards "full partnershipw with the federal role that has been relegated by the courts to government, but it was not self-effecting in nearly the same level as the public-at-large, granting the States any additional authority or states, under the OCSIA and federal agency inter- control over ocean resource management. The only pretations of the OCSLA, have very little regula- real route for the States to become "full tory authority or control over non-living re- partners" is through amending the existing source management on the OCS within the U.S. EEZ. framework of ocean resource legislation. This would involve amending a whole realm of federal Non-,OCS lands within the En are another mat- laws. Such a step cannot simply or lightly be ter, however. : Contrary , to * legal assertions taken. A great deal of consideration, balancing Interior Department, vast areas of'the U.S. EEZ and research must be done to effectively are geographically not continental 'shelf. Strong implement a *full partnership" for the coastal arguments can be made that in these deepwater States. In order to do this job correctly and areas of the U.S. EEZ, the OCSLA does not apply. completely, an oceans policy commission, or 1010 something equivalent, seems mandatory. F0 OTN OTES The U.S. House of Representatives has passed a 1. U.N Convention on the Law of the Sea, bill that would establish a National Ocean Policy Article 56. Commission charged with reviewing the body of U.S Ocean law and policy, the respective roles of the 2. the Constitution of the United States, pg. federal, State and local governments in ocean xxi. Library of Congress publication, resource management, and developing 1972. recommendations to the Congress and the President on domestic ocean laws that will need revision. 3. See, EEZ Proclamation, March 10, 1983. With the issuance of the EEZ Proclamation, a 4. See, Opinion of the Solicitor,@ Dept. of Proclamation that has not yet been legislatively Me- Interior, M-36952, May 30, 1985. implemented, the need for such a Commission is justifiable. In the event of any other major 5. See, United States v. California, 332 U.S. ocean iniative, either by the President or the Congress, such as extending the U.S. Territorial Sea f rom 3 to 12 nautical miles, the need for a 6. Proclamation 2667, Sept. 28, 1945. National Ocean Policy Commission becomes much stronger. 7. 332 U.S. 19, 35. Given that is stateside where there must be 8. id. port, processing, transport, and housing faci- lities to accomodate ocean resource development, 9. U.S. v. Lou Iisiana, 339 U.S. 669, 704 and that it is stateside where the environmental (1950). affects, whether they be air, water, land or visual, are felt, and given that States will have 10. Id. at 705. to generate increased revenues to pay for the new demands on social infrastructures, such as roads, 11. U.S. v. Texas, 339 U.S. 707, 718 (1950). police and fire departments, and hospitals, due to ocean resource development, it is only just 12. See, 43 U.S.C. 1332(2). that the states be 'full partners' with the federal government in managing ocean resource 13. Id., at 1331(a). development. The only feasible way for the states to attain wfull partnership" is to change 14. 16 U.S.C. 1856(a). the existing legal status quo, a step that must be carefully weighed and considered before executing. The best way to do this is to 15. People v. Weeren, 607 P.2d 1279; 163 Cal. establish a blue ribbon reviewing panel, such as Rptr. 255 (Ca. 1980). See also, Fidell, a National Ocean Policy Commission. Enforcement of the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976: The Policeman's Lot (1 977) 52 Wash.L.Rev. 13, 593-597, anU- fn. 467; cf. Northwest Trollers Ass'n v. Moors, 89 Wash. 2d 1, F 568 P.2d 793, 795 M-M. 16. See Anderson Seafoods, Inc. v. Grahm 529 F.Supp 512 (N.D.Fla. 1982) Tp-ho-1-d-iring-state statute prohibiting use of purse seine within or without the waters of the state as applied to fishermen with vessels registered in the state operating beyond state territorial boundary. 17. 43 U.S.C. 1332(l). 18. 43 U.S.C. 1332(4). 19. 43 U.S.C. 1332 (4)(B). (Eviphasis added). 20. 43 U.S.C. 1345(a) 21. 43 U.S.C. 1345(c). 22. The Tribal Village of Akutan, et al. v. R63el et al. (D.C. AK, 1988 F see also, California v. Watt, 683 F. 2d 12-53 -Trth Zir-r-. 1982), rev1d in E@rt on other (1984). grounds, 464 U. 312 ioll COLLECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL OF MARINE GEOLOGICAL DATA BY THE OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM Patricia Brown, Kathe Lighty, Russell Merrill and Philip D. Rabinowitz Ocean Drilling Program Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77840 ABSTRACT (the VAX 11/750 is a trademark of Digital Equipment Corporation) computers onboard assist A computerized database is being used within with scientific bookkeeping, routine clerical the Ocean Drilling Program to archive geological work, data collection and data retrieval. IBM data generated from shipboard and shorebased personal computers (pc's) and pc clones are analyses of core samples from beneath the sea located throughout the labs for stand alo Te floor. These data include geophysical, capability and to act as terminals to the VAX . geochemical, paleontologic, paleomagnetic, For an overview of the drilling program, petrologic and physical properties including science plans, drilling vessel, determinations. shipboard laboratories, engineering development, Data collection on paper forms are often logging, etc., the reader is referre @2tg) the incomplete, illegible, and incorrectly filled Proceedings of the Oceans '85 Conference - . out. To overcome these problems, standardized The ODP Database Group is responsible for data collection procedures are being archiving the data generated from core samples implemented. Computerized data entry forms with curated by the ODP. This includes data standard error checks have been designed for collected onboard the ship and data generated shipboard data collection. Error checks include from ODP core samples by investigators working restrictions on values, checks on missing in their home laboratories. Computerized data values, and sample identification. from the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), which Computerization onboard the drillship JOIDES operated from 1968-1983, are also incorporated Resolution, the organization of the database, in the ODP database. and the benefits of the system to the scientific Three important concerns of the Database community as they apply to shipboard and shore- Group are the subject of this.paper: 1) the based studies are discussed. organization of the ODP database which facilitates the storage and retrieval of the INTRODUCTION data; 2) the computerization of shipboard data collection which improves the quality of the The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) is a basic data; and 3) the services we are able to provide research program primarily directed at exploring to the international scientific community. Both the earth's history by retrieving and analyzing the organization of the databases and success of core samples from beneath the floors of the the shipboard collection scheme affect the ODP world's ocean basins. The sediment and hard Database Group's responsiveness to the data rock samples are collected during cruises aboard users. the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution (Figure 1). The retrieved core samples are described and analyzed by the shipboard scientific party ODP DATABASE ORGANIZATION in the laboratories listed below. Samples are further distributed for shore based The ODP database is stored in System 1032 or measurements. S1032 (System 1032 is a trademark of Each cruise of -the JOIDES Resolution, CompuServe), a relational, general-purpose approximately 2 months in duration, departs with database management system that runs on the VAX a multi-national scientific crew and technical computer family. The organization of the data support staff 50 persons. A 12,000 sq. ft., in S1032 reflects the analyses that are being seven-story shipboard laboratory contains conducted in the labs on the ship. For example, state-of-the-art scientific equipment. The smearslide descriptions are stored in one laboratories (Figure 2) include sedimentology, datafile, while calcium carbonate data are in paleomagnetics, physical properties, petrology, another. A standardized sample identifier is thin section, paleontology, chemistry, X-Ray part of each record in the database facilitating diffraction and fluorescence, downhole logging searches and retrievals. A datafile can be and underway geophysics, as well as modern searched individually or all the files can be facilities for photography, electronics, and cross referenced to allow reports containing refrigerated core storage. Two DEC VAX 11/750 information from more than one file. Figure 3 CH2585-9/8810000- 4012 $1 @1988 IEEE Figure 1. The JOIDES RESOLUTION (registered name SEDCO/BP 471) during Leg 105 in Baffin Bay ODP DRILLING VESSEL a. Downhole Instruments, Logging C b. Downhole Instruments, Logging c. Magnetics Lab d. Core Splitting Lab a. Chemistry Lab e f f. Petrology stations h 9. Thin Section h. Palec, Stations i. Paleo Prep Lab j. Computer k. Science Lounge k n 1. Computer User m. Yeoperson's Office n. Co-Chief's Office o. Electronic Shop p. Photo Darkroom q. Photo Finish Room r. Fan Room 11 Core Storage Reefer , Cold Storage u. 2nd Look Lab v. Core Storage Reefer I w. Freezer jt3nI x. Storage ---------- Y. U/W Geophysics z. Library ----------- - ----------- Figure 2. Scientific work spaces onboard D/V JOIDES RESOLUTION. 1013 DATAFILE DESCRIPTION 1 LITHOLOGIC AND STRATIGRAPHIC DATA Visual Core Descriptions Core c lor, sedimentary structures, disturbance, large minerals and fossils Smearslide Descriptions Nature and abundance of sediment components Thin Section Descriptions Nature and abundance of hard rock thin section components Paleontology Abundance, preservation and location of fossils 2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES G.R.A.P.E. (gamma ray attenuation Whole core density measurements porosity valuation) Index Properties Water content, porosity, bulk density and grain density Thermal conductivity Shear Strength Measurement Liquid and Plastic Limits Velocity Measurements P-wave Logger Downhole Tool Measurements Pressure and temperature insitu 3. SEDIMENT CHEMICAL ANALYSES Carbonate % by weight of calcium carbonate content of a sample Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen % by weight of a sample Interstitial Water ion measurements on pore water samples squeezed from the sediments Gas Chromatography Hydrocarbon levels in core gases Rock Evaluation Hydrocarbon content of a sample 4. HARDROCK CHEMICAL ANALYSIS X-ray Fluorescence Major and minor mineral components 5. PALEOMAGNETICS Discrete SampleAnalyses By the Spinner or Cryogenic Magnetometer Whole Round Continuous Analyses By the Cryogenic Magnetometer 6. SPECIAL REFERENCE F ILES Leg, Site and Hole Summaries Information on general leg, site and hole characteristics (ex. location, water depth, sediment nature, drilling statistics, etc.) Corelog Depth of each core for determination of the depth of a particular sample 7. UNDERWAY GEOPHYSICAL DATA __T -Includes bathymetry, magnetics, navigation, and seismics Figure 3. The organization and content of the ODP Database outlines the organization of the database with a One of the major activities of the Database brief description of the contents. Group and the ODP Computer Services Group has been to reduce the use of paper forms, as much COMPUTERIZATION OF DATA COLLECTION ONBOARD SHIP as possible, because of . their many disadvantages, including: Currently onboard JOIDES Resolution, data are a. Inability of shore personnel to read the collected by three methods, with overlap between handwriting of the scientists and technicians. these methods: 1) scientists and technicians b. Forms are often incorrectly or incompletely record the data on pre-printed, multi-part NCR filled out. paper forms; 2) computerized data entry screens C. Mistakes can be made during key entry are utilized to enter data directly into the onshore, such as a misplaced decimal point, appropriate S1032 datafile, and; 3) data are incorrect spelling, etc. The long lag time captured directly by the computer from a machine before entry of the data usually precludes conducting an analysis. All data are returned recovery from such errors. to the Database Group after the cruise. d. Extra time and personnel are required onshore Computerized data are easily reviewed and merged to edit and enter the data. with preexisting computerized data. Data on e. The availability of the database is delayed paper forms must be reviewed, edited and then while key entry onshore is being performed. key entered into the computer. Collecting data using computerized data entry 1014 f orms or di rect data capture greatly improves C A C 0 3 C A R B 0 N the qual i ty of the data by removing the ISAM CODE LEG S SITE HOLE CORE T SECTION TOP BOTTOM disadvantages listed above. While entering data -M JQJ 621 A 4 R Q.1 im _U into the computer on the ship, -queries on possible errors can be made immediately after % INORGANIC CARBON 33.3 % CaCO3 computerized cross-checks. The scientist is immediately able to take advantage of other % TOTAL CARBON % ORGANIC CARBON software packages on the VAX computer. He is Able to produce important charts and graphs for C CaC03 Method (C/B) I I BOMB Pressure (psi) I data interpretation. He is able to compare data I I from different datafiles in real time, in order COMMENTS to better understand the geological environment. Shipboard computeri zati on is a challenge ERROR: Bottom interval must be greater than or equal to top interval because each two month cruise includes a new group of scientists from around the world, who must learn to use the ODP computer system Figure 4. Example of a computer entry form with quickly. Computerized data entry must be an error message. simple, even for someone unfamiliar with computers or with the English language, as are tables are provided for forms used to collect many of the shipboard scientists. Computerized descriptive data. This standardizes. the entry forms must be carefully designed to datafile and helps the scientists, with their capture all data pertinent to the database yet varied backgrounds and expertise, to include all allow scientists to include their own personal data pertinent to the datafile. Comment fields comments. The success of computerized data are present to enter items of a personal collection systems already implemented onboard interest to the scientist or help clarify the ship has encouraged us to continue our efforts. data. A printer cbnnected to the computer The following is a discussion of the terminal -generates a paper copy of each entry, computerized shipboard data entry methods used thus providing a backup record of the data in on the ship. The two methods described are the case of computer failure. use of computerized data entry screens for key Once the data have been entered into the entry of data and the capture of data from a S1032 -datafile 'on the VAX, the 'scientists are. computer-driven analytical device. Both speed immediately. able to access the data..' up data collection and help to maintain quality Standardized print menus are built into the data control over the data. entry system so that scientists can-easily display the data. For more sophisticated users,, Computerized Data Entry Screens for the software packages on the VAX are available.. Key Entry Onboard Ship Also, the other datafiles in S1032 can be accessed for comparison. Computerized data entry screens are currently The sediment smearslide description shipboard being used with 11 of the 25 ODP datafiles, application will serve as an example of data including both analytical and descriptive data. ent ry screens for key entry. Smearslide The screen forms are very simple in design, descriptions are descriptions of small amounts easing the task of teaching their use to the of recovered sediments examined under a constantly changing personnel. Edit checks are microscope to derive information about the, built into the screen forms to verify data nature and abundance of the sediment components. quality while the scientist is still at the A trained scientist indicates the abundances of terminal. Routine checks include: the various components he or she is able to a. All data required by the datafile must be 'identify using percentages which should sum to entered before the record is accepted into the 100. Before the computerized application was datafile. installed on the ship, the scientist recorded b. Data which are outside a predefined range and the data on paper forms. He or she was able to field for a particular data parameter are not record anything, everything, or nothing, with no accepted by the form and an error message control over whether percentages summed to 100. results. The computerized application allows the c. Data parameters that are coded are matched scientist to enter what he or she feels is against valid codes listed in a table. Error important, yet requires that the information for messages indicate an invalid entry. the datafile be entered correctly. A large d. Each sample identifier is checked to be sure comments field is available for the scientist to it is from a valid core section. If not an enter pertinent descriptive information. The error message results. edit checks listed earlier are performed before e. Built-in cross checks among data parameters each record can be added to the datafile. result in error messages or warnings for Checks specific to the smearslide application incorrect form entries (Figure 4). are also performed. For example, the data entry Online "help" menus are available to screen form supplies an error message if the supplement the user error messages and to total abundance' of the components is greater explain what the permissible ranges and fields than 100%. The componL-nt'names are stored as are for a particular data parameter. "Key word" codes in the datafile. An@@ online 11st of 1015 component names and codes is available. The identifier and sub-bottom depth, a data request component codes entered by the scientist are can include information from more than one file. automatically compared against the code list in Documentation is provided for each datafile. the computer to ensure correctly spelled, valid The documents designed to accompany the data components. collected by DSDP are available as ODP Technical The success of the smearslide application is Note #9, "Deep Sea Drilling Project Data File its ability to meet the needs of the shipboard Documents". Data can be provided as hard scientists and the requirements of the Database copies, on tape or diskettes, or through the Group. The scientist is able to directly enter various computer networks. To obtain data, his or her data into a computer datafile without contact the Data Librarian at ODP. As more of having to fill out a paper form. He or she is the data are entered into the computer on the then able to display the data immediately using ship, the Database Group will continue to spend the standardized report formats built into the less time editing and keying the data onshore. application. The data returned to the Database This will allow more time for designing guides Group are already entered into the computer with and references to the database, thus making the all the appropriate edit checks. Thus the data ODP database more useful to the public. need only be quickly reviewed and merged with The responsiveness of the Database Group to the rest of the ODP database. the shipboard scientific party has greatly improved as a result of computerized shipboard Data Captured Directly from Computer-Driven data collection. As already mentioned, Analytical Devices scientists are able to create plots, graphs, and charts while onboard to help with the geological Data are currently being captured directly interpretation of an area. They are able to from 5 different computer-driven analytical leave with these materials in hand to complete devices on the ship. The resulting datafiles their interpretations for later publication. contain the sample identifier for each record Currently all the computerized DSDP data are and the data generated by the device. The available on the ship. Eventually, any data scientist or technician must key enter the collected at sites similar to or near the site sample identifier which is merged with the being studied will be available on the ship. analytical results. For several of these This can be a very important tool to the applications the computer queries the scientist shipboard scientists as they try to understand or technician to enter that part of the sample the structure and history of a region. identifier common to all the samples being run at one time. The computer then generates the CONCLUSIONS rest of the identifier based on the depth within the core that the analysis was performed. For The Ocean Drilling Program database is the rest of these applications, screen forms are generated from both shipboard and shorebased utilized to key enter the entire sample analyses of samples retrieved by the Ocean identifier which is then merged with the Drilling Program and the Deep Sea Drilling analytical results. Project. The database is computerized in System Direct capture is the ideal data collection 1032 which operates on a VAX computer. The method for data generated from computer-driven organization of the datafiles is based on the analytical devices. It eliminates all the analyses that are conducted on the ship. disadvantages of using paper forms mentioned Computerized shipboard data collection earlier. It frees the scientist and technicians includes direct data capture from from the chore of rewriting computer generated computer-driven analytical devices and the use data onto a paper form or typing them onto a of computerized data entry screens for key computerized entry screen. Again the scientist entry. Edit checks built into computerized is able to retrieve the data easily, print the forms prevent capturing incorrect or incomplete data, and produce plots and graphs. data. Computerization eliminates the need for paper data collection and the many disadvantages SERVICES PROVIDED TO THE INTERNATIONAL associated with it. Also, it helps to insure SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY data quality, consistency and accuracy. The computerized data collection applications One of the most important functions of the are designed to be simple in order to facilitate ODP Database Group is to answer data requests their use by the international shipboard from the international scientific community in a scientific party. Comment fields are included complete and timely fashion. The use of S1032 to help the scientist provide extra information. to organize and store the data on the computer Graphs and plots can be produced while still on and the computerization of data collection on the ship. Less time is spent recording numbers, the ship facilitates this task. Requestors are providing more time for the scientist to able to receive data from Leg 1 through the most complete his or her work. current ODP Leg. (A one year moratorium The ODP Database Group is able to respond following the end of a Leg is placed on all quickly to the scientific community due to the data.) One or more data parameters in a organization of the database and the datafile can be searched quickly, and since all computerization of data entry onboard the ship. the datafiles are linked by the sample As more data are computerized on the ship, the 1016 burden of extensive editing and key entry of the 6 Moos, D., R.N. Anderson, C. Broglia, D. data onshore is lessened. This makes it Goldberg, C.F. Williams, and M.D. Zoback. The possible for us to concentrate on individual Ocean Drilling Program V: Logging for the requests as well as preparing guides to the data Ocean Drilling Program--Results of the First for the international community. Two Cruises, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS pp. 160-169. Scientific advice and direction are given to the Ocean Drilling Program by the Joint Oceanogrpahic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES), an international group of scientists. The Ocean Drilling Program is funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), an independent federal agency, through the Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc. (JOI, Inc.). JOI, Inc. is a not-for-profit consortium of the ten U.S. oceanographic institutions that comprise JOIDES. NSF receives contributions from the non-U.S. members (Canada, the European Science Foundation Consortium for the Ocean Drilling Program, France, Japan, Federal Republic of Germany, and United Kingdom) of JOIDES. The contributions of vast numbers of scientists, engineers, technicians, and administrators at TAMU, NSF, JOI, JOIDES and Underseas Drilling, Inc. are greatly appreciated. REFERENCES 1 Meyer, W.M. ODP Scientist Get Boost from Computers, Geotimes, vol. 30, no. 10, October 1985, pp. 13 1 2 Rabinowitz, P.D., L. Garrison, B. Harding, S. Herrig, R. Kidd, W.J. Merrell, R. Merrill, and R. Olivas. The Ocean Drilling Program I: Overview and Science Plans, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 113-119. 3 Foss, G.N. The Ocean Drilling Program II: JOIDES RESOLUTION, Scientific Drillship of the 80's, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 4120-132. Kidd, R.B., P.D. Rabinowitz, L. Garrison, A. Meyer, A. Adamson, C. Auroux, J. Baldauf, B. Clement, A. Palmer, E. Taylor, and A. Graham. The Ocean Drilling Program III: Shipboard Laboratories on JOIDES RESOLUTION, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 133-145. 5 Huey, D.P. and M.A. Storms. The Ocean Drilling Program IV: Deep Water Coring Technology, Past, Present, and Future, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, 'pp. 146-159. 1017 SHIPBOARD LABORATORY SUPPORT: OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM Dennis Graham, Burney Hamlin, Brad Julson, William Mills, Audrey Meyer, Robert Olivas, Philip 0. Rabinowitz, Daniel Bontempo and John Tauxe Ocean Drilling Program Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77840 ABSTRACT floor in a thirty foot long by two and a half inch diameter cylindrical plastic liner. This The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) is liner is cut into five foot sections using a dedicated to providing a state-of-the-art specially designed stainless steel cutter. This research environment for the study of deep ocean cutter clamps around the liner and cuts the marine geology. JOIDES Resolution, the liner with an exacto-type razor blade as the scientific drillship _o_f-_'U1DP,__Eo-nta1ns over cutter circumscribes the liner. The core 12,000 sq. ft. of laboratory space in a extruder 'is an hydraulic ram with a piston head seven-story modular structure designed to meet that is used to remove compacted sediment in the the needs of modern marine geological research. core catcher, the lowermost section of the steel This laboratory complex allows for investigation core barrel. Once inside the core lab, each of sedimentology, physical properties, five foot core section is inscribed using a high paleomagnetics, chemistry, petrography, and speed rotary drill with a grinding bit (much paleontology through the examination and like a dentist's drill). analysis of core material recovered from the The core splitting room is isolated from ocean bottom. This floating laboratory the rest of the core lab due to the noise and supports a team of about 25 international contamination produced during the longitudinal research scientists on each two month cruise. A splitting of the core sections. The core group of 17 technicians operates, maintains, and splitter was designed to split core in two ways. trains scientists in the use of the scientific If the sediment is unconsolidated the section is equipment aboard the JOIDES Resolution. This split by cutting only the plastic liner with two paper discusses the e7q-uipmen-t-, _`pu__r5_ased and razor blades mounted opposite each other on a built, that supports the above investigations. block with the core section in the middle. The block is equipped with ball bushings that glide on two hardened stainless steel rails the length INTRODUCTION of the section. A rope is attached to the block and the block is. moved with the help of an The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) is a long electrically driven capstan winch. The core term basic research program primarily directed material is cut with a piano wire that follows to studying the evolution of the solid earth and the block as the plastic liner is cut. If the its environment through the recovery of samples core material is consolidated sediment (for from beneath the floors of the world's oceans example limestone) a specially designed rock (1-4). These samples are described and analyzed cutting saw is employed. The rock saw is at sea in the laboratory space (Figure 1) aboard mounted on a block which, like the razor blades, the research drillship JOIDES Resolution (a.k.a. glides over hardened stainless rails. A ten SEDCO/BP 471) (5-6). We list--Fe-low, the inch diamond-tooth blade is used to cut both the laboratory spaces and describe the liner and core material simultaneously. Basalt state-of-the-art equipment used for shipboard and other basement rocks are hand cut on a analyses of the cores. Felker rock saw to preserve the orientation of rock material from piece to piece. Chert is not CORE LABORATORY cut with a rock saw; because of its extreme hardness it is split using a hammer and chisel. The core lab is a core entry lab, core The sedimentology lab contains separate splitting room, sampling area, and description description and photography tables, as well as area (sedimentology lab). bench space and microscope stations. Smear The core entry lab is divided into an slides are prepared using ovens and hot plates outside core receiving area and an interior core under benchtop fume adsorbers. Most standard holding area. The equipment used in the core chemicals and lab equipment are available, as entry lab includes core liner cutters, a core well as stains, dyes, and mounting media. The extruder, a core inscriber, a core-logging optical equipment in the sedimentology lab computer with a core label printer, end basic includes two Zeiss standard WL microscopes and hand tools. The core is received from the rig two Zeiss SR stereomicroscopes. Oculars, CH2585-8/88/0000- 1018 $1 @1988 IEEE 8. Downhole Instruments, Logging M7- DOWNHOLE LOGGING b. Downhole Instruments, Logging C. Magnetics Lab d. Care Splitting Lab 0 _k' 3. UPPER'TWEEN 0. Chemistry Lab f. XRD/XRF Preparation Lab c aa 6. BRIDGE DECK P - q Z@DECK g. Thin Section bb cc dd h. Paleo Sections 1 -u -7.\ 2. LOWER'TWEEN L Paleo Prop Lab 7 \ t!:@ DECK j. Computer Machine Room and Office ee, f 9 k. Science Lounge a 5. FOC'SLE DECK 1. Computer User Area ff h W m. Curatorial Representatives Office v HOLD DECK n. Yeoperson's Office 0. Electronic Shop p. Photo Darkroom q. Photo Finish Room It rn n r. Fan Room S. Core Storage Reefer 4. NEW MAIN DECK t. (Cold Storage) Chemical LIBRARY U. 2nd Look Lab V. Core Storage Reefer UNDERWAY W. Freezer GEOPHYSICS X. Storage y. U/W Geophysics Z. Library as. Physical Properties Lab bb. Sampling CC. Core Description 7 dd. Core Photography @6 so. XRD/XRF Lab ff. SEM/Petrology Lab gg. Elevator Control Room 3 hh. Conference Room ----------- ------ Figure 1. Laboratory spaces aboard the JOIDES Resolution. objectives, micrometers, and filters for these may be AF-demagnetized using in-line microscopes are inter-changeable among all the demagnetization coils built into the cryogenic Zeiss microscopes on board. Each microscope is magnetometer. Cores may be geographically supported by a vibration isolation system. oriented as they are taken, using a Multishot Grain size is measured with an optical particle core orientation tool. The results of these size analyzer. An area is set up to photograph analyses are thus available for immediate the archive halves of each core. This table is integration with other shipboard data. equipped with a 4x5 overhead-mounted view camera Shipboard measurements help to reduce the for black-and-white and color sheet film. The effects on data of alterations such as table is mounted on a scissor-lift table that oxidation, mechanical disturbances, and exposure facilitates core handling. There is also an MP4 to high magnetic fields that occur between copystand with 45 and 35mm cameras for core coring and shorebased sampling. closeups. The Molspin Minispin spinner magnetometer Core sampling equipment includes Felker is a basic field unit interfaced with a PRO-350 radial arm saws, a drill press with diamond computer for control and data acquisition. The coring bits and minicorer, heat guns, and heat BASIC program for the Minispin executes spin sealers. Computer terminals are conveniently sequences and, using the data from each spin, located for direct input of sampling data and to calculates declination, inclination, and print sample labels. intensity in mA/m corrected for sample volum@@. A series of measurements is made on each sample PALEOMAGNETICS LABORATORY as it is run through a demagnetization sequence. The Minispin can measure both rock and sediment The shipboard paleomagnetics lab is located samples up to 2.54 cm (1") cubed in size, with at the aft end of the core lab. This lab is intensities ranging from 0.05 to 105 mA/m. equipped for measurement of magnetic remanence Ordinarily, six separate spin orientations are (using spinner and cryogenic magnetometers) and required to produce an accurate measurement. In volume magnetic susceptibility of whole (or general, the processing rate varies with NRM split) cores of sediment and discrete samples of intensity and response to demagnetization of the sediment and rock. Discrete samples may be samples from a particular lithologic unit. demagnetized using alternating magnetic field A Schonstedt alternating field demagnetizer (AF) or thermal demagnetizers. Split sections is used for demagnetization of discrete samples 6. Rtb!b@@ Ndd INRY, 1019 of rock or sediment. The user can select a lithologies derived from distinct geologic range of peak fields from 0-999 Oe and a decay settings. rate of 1-50 mOe/half cycle. A number of physical property tests require A Schonstedt thermal demagnetizer is used whole-round lengths of core sections and for thermal demagnetization of dry rock samples therefore must be performed prior to having the with a temperature range of O-8OO'C. core sections split. These tests include A Schonstedt portable fluxgate magnetometer whole-section logging for density, porosity, and is available to measure ambient fields, with a velocity, thermal conductivity, and vane shear range of +2000 milligauss and a sensitivity of measurements made perpendicular to bedding. 0.01 milli_@auss (1 gamma). The sensor is small Density, porosity, velocity, and magnetic enough (1.3 X 7 cm cylinder) to fit into small susceptibility of a core section are measured on spaces such as the sample access tube of the a recently designed "multi-sensor track". A cryogenic magnetometer. computer controlled stepping motor drives a The shipboard Bartington magnetic fiberglass core boat through the sensing susceptibility meter has two sensors: one for devices. Bulk density and porosity are discrete samples and a loop for whole core determined by measuring the attenuation of a pass-through measurements. The meter has two gamma beam through the sample. Compressional- measurement modes for dif gerent sensitivities. wave (P-wave) velocity is measured while the An accuracy of 1.0 x 10- cgs can be obtained core section passes between two 500-kHz with a 1-sgcond measurement cycle and accuracy transducers. Magnetic susceptibility is of 0.1 x 10- cgs with the 10-second cycle using measured as the core stops in a sensing loop. either sensor. An automated core conveyor and. The multi-sensor track was designed to data acquisition system for the susceptibility accommodate up to eight sensors, each controlled meter is being developed to facilitate whole by its own microcomputer. A master core pass-through measurements. This new system microcomputer controls track movement and will use a new 80mm dual frequency loop (0.47 coordinates data acquisition of the individual and 4.70 kHz.) sensor computers and data transfer to the main The 2G 760-R superconducting (cryogenic) shipboard Vax computer complex. Thermal magnetometer is used primarily for whole core conductivity measurements, necessary for studies continuous NRM measurements on half sections of of heat flow through the oceanic crust, are made cores, though these cores may be uniformly by drilling a small hole in the plastic liner of demagnetized (up to 90 Oe) inside the mumetal a whole-round core section and inserting a shielding of the cryomag and subsequently needle probe connected to a heater current. The measured by the magnetometer. It is calibrated resistance data obtained can be reduced to in units of Tagnetic flux (phi ) and measures in values of thermal conductivity. units of 10- emu. The cryomaq may also be used In addition, other physical property tests to measure and demagnetize (to a level of 90 Oe) are performed after the core sections are split. discrete samples; a control program facilitates These tests include compressional velocities, these measurements. index properties (bulk density, water content, The best-shielded instrument is the grain density, porosity, and void ratio), vane cryogenic . magnetometer, which resides inside shear strength and other conventional tests such three concentric mumetal cylinders. Its AF coil as Atterburg limits. The shipboard laboratory assembly is also contained within these shields. is equipped with a Hamilton frame velocimeter to A superconducting lead shield surrounds the measure velocities parallel and perpendicular to sensing region and maintains an absolutely bedding. A dual-blade trim saw is used for stable field within. The cryogenic magnetometer cutting parallel faces of firm to hard rocks. has a liquid helium capacity of 100 liters which All index measurements are made by noting lasts approximately six months. gravimetric-volumetric relationships on wet and .Using an Eastman multishot core orientation dry samples using a computer controlled tool, cores may be oriented in situ with respect electronic balance that automatically to the downhole ambient f-ieT-d. This tool compensates for the ship's motion, automatic requires a special nonmagnetic drill collar as Quantachrome Pentapycnometer (volume), and part of the drill string. freeze-drier. Wet samples are weighed and measured for volume as quickly as possible to PHYSICAL PROPERTIES LABORATORY prevent desiccation. Then the samples are freeze-dried, re-weighed, and the volume The shipboard physical properties program determined. All index properties are calculated is aimed at monitoring variations and values of from these raw data. A Wykeham-Farrance physical and mechanical properties of recovered spring-type device and a torque transducer/X-Y lithologies. Since the properties of sediments plotter system are the two motorized vane-shear change with time after they are recovered, a strength apparatuses available on board. complete shipboard physical properties program Hand-held torvanes are also available for vane represents the best opportunity to obtain shear strength determinations. .reliable physical properties data from the cores. Results from this lab are valuable for CHEMISTRY LABORATORY correlating drilled sequences to seismic reflection and refraction profiles and downhole The chemistry lab is equipped for both logging results, and for defining the nature of organic and inorganic geochemical measurements. 1020 The primary function of the organic lab is 190 to 950 nm, analyses can be made of ionic hydrocarbon monitoring. Elemental analysis of concentrations of nitrate, silica, ammonia, sediment and interstitial water is the primary nitrite, phosphate, bromide, and other common function of the inorganic lab. pore-water constituents. The spectrophotometer Gas monitoring equipment in the chemistry can accommodate a variety of cell types and lab includes two Hewlett Packard 5890 Gas sizes, facilitating precise analysis of small Chromatographs and a Carle model 101 GC. The (microliter) sample volumes. Carle is used for rapid analysis (less than 5 A Varian Atomic Absorbtion Spectrometer minutes) of methane/ethane ratios. One of the (AA) will be added to the chemistry lab in the 5890s is configured as a natural gas analyzer near future. The AA will be supplied initially with three chromatographic columns which enable with lamps for analysis of calcium, iron, hydrocarbon separations as well as analyzing potassium, magnesium, strontium, sodium, elemental gases. These gases include oxygen, manganese, and lithium. nitrogen, carbon dioxide hydrogen sulfide, and A Dionex Ion Chromatograph (IC) produces hydrocarbons through C14. The second 5890 is sulfate and potassium data with the possibility fitted with a split/splitless 50-m fused quartz of automated calcium and magnesium in the small-bore capillary column. This gas future. The IC uses the patented Dionex system chromatograph is used primarily for hydrocarbon of two-column chemical suppression. It is analysis of liquid extractions. Both 5890s are microprocessor-controlled and is coupled to the equipped with a thermal conductivity detector LAS. Its autosampler can hold 56 samples. and a flame ionization detector in series, and Two balance systems are available in the the Carle has an FID. The GC's are connected to chemistry lab. A Cahn 29 balance mounted on a a Lab Automation System (LAS) via an HPIB loop. gimbaled table is used to measure small sample The LAS stores, converts, and integrates data sizes (from micrograms to 1250 mg). Twin output, and generates a customized report for Scientech balances are available for measuring each analysis. Three HP3393 Integrators are used larger size samples (1 mg to 40 g). By to integrate each analysis. The LAS is an HP1000 employing a method of differential minicomputer and consists of a 600+ CPU and a counterbalancing with computer averaging these 28-megabyte Winchester disk. balance systems compensate for all but the The Delsi Nermag Rock-Eval II Plus TOC is a roughest sea state. microprocessor-based instrument for whole-rock A Labconco 39-port freeze drier is pyrolysis, used to evaluate type and maturity of available for removing water from sediment organic carbon, calculate petroleum potential, samples. 15 can hold 39 individual samples of and detect oil shows. It has a printing recorder up to 15 cm each, one at each port, or larger and an automatic sampler that holds 24 samples. samples in the central manifold. Two Coulometrics analyzers are available The ship's potable water is further which produce accurate colorimetric measurements purified by passing through a Barnstead of total carbon and carbonate constituents in ultra-pure water purifier, to produce both lab sediments. The inorganic coulometer uses and reagent grade waters by osmotic pressure and hydrochloric acid to convert carbonate to carbon filtration. There is a 100-liter reservoir. dioxide which is then back-titrated to a Electric agate mortar/grinders and hardened colorimetric endpoint. In the total carbon steel ball Spex mill grinders for homogenizing analysis, sample is heated to about 10000C and dried sediment samples and a shatterbox for the resulting CO is back-titrated to a pulverizing basalt or hard-rock samples are all colorimetric endpoini * available. Various drying and ashing ovens are Interstitial water core samples are scraped available, as are refrigerators and freezers. of contamination and placed in a Manheim There are three fume hoods: one is for solvents, squeezer apparatus. The squeezer is then placed the other two for chemical reactions. in one of two Carver hydraulic presses that are There are two hydrogen generators in the capable of 25 tons constant pressure, and chemistry lab, which supply the GC FIDs. squeezed until a sufficient quantity of water is Bottled helium (GC carrier gas) and oxygen are extracted usually 30ml from a 500 cubic kept aboard the ship. The ship's pressurized centimeter sample. The resultant pore water is air system is available throughout the lab filtered into a syringe and prepared for structure and is appropriately filtered. analysis. The chemistry lab contains a complete set First, the water is titrated for a of standard lab chemicals: acids, bases, PH/alkalinity determination. This analysis is solvents, etc. An ample supply of laboratory automated by interfacing a Metrohm 655 Dosimat, glassware and support equipment is maintained a Metrohm 605 PH meter, and an HP86B aboard ship for use during the cruise. microprocessor. Titrations of calcium, magnesium, and PALEONTOLOGY PREPARATION AND MICROSCOPE LAB chlorinity are performed using a Metrohm 655 Dosimat, which is capable of dispensing titrant There are separate rooms for sample in microliter amounts. preparation (paleo prep lab) and microscope Colorimetric measurements of ionic study (microscope lab). The paleo prep lab concentrations in pore water samples are contains equipment and supplies needed to conducted on a Bausch & Lomb Model 1001 process micropaleontological samples and make Spectrophotometer. With a wavelength range from slides. This equipment includes fume hoods, hot 1021 plates, sonic bath and probe, centrifuge, ovens, A Philips ADP 3520 is used for X-ray microsplitter, sieves, chemicals, stains, dyes, diffraction analysis. The diffraction pattern and mounting media. The microscope lab is detected as an X-ray enters a sediment sample equipped with research quality Zeiss stereo, identifies mineral composition. It is fully binocular, and photo microscopes and accessories microprocessor-controlled with auto sample for the study of paleontological and loading, and is configured with a Cu X-ray tube petrographic preparations. The binocular and and monochromator. A second DEC Micro-11 photo microscopes can be used for either computer with 28-megabyte Winchester disk drive transmitted or reflected light microscopy. Two supports this system. Software support includes video TV cameras are available that can be quantitative, qualitative, search-match of JCPDS adapted to any of the Zeiss microscopes. and user data bases, line profile analysis, and Connected to the cameras are video printers that statistical analysis programs. produce immediate hardcopies of microscopic images. A shipboard paleontology library is SHIPBOARD COMPUTER SYSTEM kept in the microscope lab. This collection of important texts, journals, and reprints is JOIDES Resolution is equipped with a cataloged in a separate paleontology library resea-rc-F--orie6-tedcomputer system designed to catalog and cross-indexed in the main,shipboard perform routine clerical and arithmetical tasks science library catalog. in order to free scientists and technicians for more creative research activities. THIN SECTION LAB The central computer system assists in performing such diverse functions as core-log The thin section laboratory has been entry, core sampling, data analysis, drill outfitted to make thin sections by traditional string engineering, presentation graphics, methods as well as to provide quantity output. microscopy, chemistry, inventory control, office When only one or two thin sections are required, automation, and manuscript preparation. This is they are made "by hand" using a Buehler accomplished through conveniently located Petro-Thin thin-sectioning system and microcomputer workstations arranged in a thin-section grinder. When large batches of thin distributed processing architecture. A central sections are requested, the Logitech LP-30 theme in the design of the,shipboard system was lapping machine can be used to produce the offloading of common tasks onto workstations approximately 200 high-quality thin sections in for more efficient use of the central system. a 40-hour week, in batches of 40 at a time. The This type of computer system architecture sections are polished on a Logitech WG-2 minimizes the possibility that shipboard polishing system. Special support equipment in operations would ever be delayed by a central the thin section lab includes a Logitech CS-10 system failure. All major system components are thin section cut-off saw and IU-20 impregnation backed up with redundant twins or a complete unit used to impregnate porous or friable complement of spare parts. The result of this specimens with synthetic resins. Delicate or approach is a system which fails gently, with a critical samples are cut on a Leco VC-50 gradual degradation of performance when Vari-speed diamond saw. A Zeiss standard WL individual components fail, in contrast to a binocular microscope is available in this lab system where the demise of any one piece of for monitoring slide preparation. equipment creates a catastrophic failure. The central VAX system is equipped with XRF AND XRD LABORATORY four million bytes of random access memory (RAM) and provides high-speed computational power for In the interests of safety and to minimize arithmetic processing. The system also offers sample contamination, a separate lab was archival storage of shipboard data on one designed for geochemical determinations by X-ray gigabyte (about 1.6 million typed pages) of analysis. high-speed mass storage and three magnetic tape An Applied Research Laboratory 8400 hybrid drives that function at 800 or 1600 bpi. spectrometer is used for X-ray fluorescence A networked satellite communications analysis. This instrument is fully capability allows the shipboard host computer microprocessor- controlled with auto-sample system to access a similar VAX system at ODP loading. It has an end-window Rhodium X-ray headquarters in College Station, Texas. This tube, a 60 kV generator, and two independent communications link operates at 2400 bits per goniometers with scintillation, flow second through the Marisat satellite proportional (P-10), and sealed Kr detectors. communications system. Capabilities of the The following analytical crystals are available: system include access to scientific data from LiF 200, LiF 220, LiF 420, PET, TLAP, GE and a past cruises, shipboard inventory control, and multi-layered crystal that optimizes for sodium electronic mail. and magnesium. A DEC Micro-11 computer with a The major components of the shipboard 28-megabyte Winchester disk drive supports the computer system include two VAX 11/750 super- ARL-8400. Software includes quantitative, minicomputers, 50 microcomputers (a combination qualitative, statistical - analysis, - and of Lucky IBM-clones, DEC Pro350s, and an Apple fundamental parameters (XRF-11) programs. The Macintosh), laser printers, high speed printer system is calibrated for both major and trace plotters, and a 36 inch drum plotter. In the element analyses of sediment and rock. near future the VAX 11/750 computer will be 1022 clustered with a VAX 3500. This will opens, allowing pore water to enter a pressure considerably speed the system response time and chamber at sea level ambient pressure. A allow for expansion as the system grows. thermistor accurately detects sediment temperature and a pair of pressure transducers SCIENCE LIBRARY measures the differential between hydrostatic and overburden pressures. A collection of more than five hundred Another type of temperature recorder is volumes contains basic reference works, ODP used during piston coring operations. This Proceedings volumes, a set of DSDP Initial self-contained unit (5 x 2 x .5 inch) fits into Reports, geologic and bathymetric maps, and the wall of the coring shoe at the lower end of selected mono-graphs covering various aspects of a piston core. Temperature data are recorded geology and oceanography. In addition, at the throughout the core run including a five to ten beginning of each cruise, collected reprints minute record after the core barrel is shot into relating to cruise objectives are added to the the sediment. On recovery the data is library. These materials are intended to provide downloaded to the VAX system and plotted to show the necessary resources for shipboard analysis accurate in situ temperatures verses depth. of drilling results. The science lounge and library share a collection of paperback books UNDERWAY GEOPHYSICS LABORATORY and magazines for popular reading. Other library facilities include ten study, Shipboard personnel use this laboratory to carrels, a large map/chart table, microfiche and collect navigational and positional data, microfilm readers, a computer terminal, a collect and display bathymetric data (12-kHz and copying machine, and a portable light table. 3.5-kHz echo sounder data), collect and display magnetic data, collect, process and display in PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY real time both single channel digital and unprocessed analog seismic data, and to produce The primary function of the shipboard standard (SEG-Y) format seismic data tapes for photographic lab is to document the cores while further processing and post-cruise archiving. , they are fresh. In addition, the Photographic A'Magnavox 1107-GPS combination'Transit and Technician is responsible for core closeups Global Positioning Satellite Navigator, equipped meant for ODP publications, seismic profile with a Rubidium frequency standard, allows copywork, documentation of equipment, and public navigation during selected time intervals using relations photography. The processing of only two GPS satellites. A Magnavox MX 4400 GPS photomicrographs, X-radiographs, and cruise- receiver is on the ship's bridge. Other related personal copywork is accomplished on a navigational equipment on the bridge includes a time-available basis. Magnavox MX702A Transit Receiver, and Decca and The darkroom has facilities for Loran C positioning systems. black-and-white developing and printing (both For collecting bathymetric data, both manually and with the Kreonite Print Processor) 3.5-KHz and 12-KHz Precision Depth Recorder and for E-6 Ektachrome color film developing (PDR) systems are available aboard ship. A using a Wing-Lynch Film Processor. There is an Raytheon PTRI05B transceiver and 12 Raytheon MP4 copystand for seismic profile and document transducers are used to gather 3.5-kHz data; copying. Public relations photographs and other- another PTR105B transceiver and an EDO 323B special photographic projects are performed with transducer are used to gather 12-kHz data. Two still camera systems and a video camera. Raytheon LSR1807M recorders are used for display. The 3.5-kHz and 12-kHz systems normally ELECTRONICS SHOP operate with CESP-III Correlators that give approximately a 20 db signal-to-noise The electronics shop is operated by-ODP improvement. over the standard system. Due to Electronics Technicians who are responsible for difficulties in obtaining a good bathymetric maintaining and repairing all shipboard. ODP signal at speeds greater than eight knots, a electrical equipment. The shop is equipped with sonar dome will be attached to the ship's hull. a comprehensive list of electronic test- The sonar dome will contain two 12-KHz equipment to enable test and repair of both transducers and an array of 12 3.5-KHz digital and analog instruments. transducer bottles. It is hoped that the sonar dome will extend far enough below the ship's DOWNHOLE TOOLS LAB hull to escape the noise created by air bubbles along the hull/seawater interface. An in situ pore water sampler and Magnetic data at a density of one reading temperatur7epressure measurement instrument is per seismic shot are recorded in the header of used to collect pore water samples from sediment seismic tapes. These data are collected using a in the bore hole as well as temperature and Geometrics 801 proton precession magnetometer pressure data. The tool is a battery operated and displayed on a strip chart recorder. device employing remote electronic timers and The standard seismic, sources used aboard recorders. It is lowered down the bore hole.and JOIDES Resolution are two 80 cubic inch Seismic pushed into the sediment. The tool decouples '@y-stems,7-ncwaterguns. One 400 cubic inch SSI from the drill string to minimize motion watergun and the following airguns are also disturbance. At a pre-selected time a valve available: one Bolt 1500-C with chambers of 120 1023 .or 300 cubic. inches and three Bolt 600-A with the Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc. (JOI, -f.i.ring -chambers that can be varied from 5 to 80 Inc.). JOI, Inc. is a not-for-profit consortium cubic inches. of the ten U.S. oceanographic institutions that Two Teledyne streamers are mounted on comprise JOIDES. NSF receives contributions winches on the fantail. They each contain sixty from the non-U.S. members (Canada, the European hydrophones, are 330 feet long and can be towed Science Foundation Consortium for the Ocean up to 1600 feet behind the ship; the towing Drilling Program, France, Japan, Federal depth can be maintained by external depth Republic of Germany, and United Kingdom) of depressors (birds). Streamer output is JOIDES. The contributions of vast numbers of transformer coupled to the ship via the tow scientists, engineers, technicians, and cable. The hydrophone elements are combined to administrators at TAMU, NSF, JOI, JOIDES and produce a single signal. A 10-Hz low cut filter Underseas Drilling, Inc. are greatly is inserted between the streamer and the rest of appreciated. the electronics to reduce high-amplitude low-frequency noise which might overload the REFERENCES amplifier. I The seismic system operates independently Rabinowitz, P.D., L. Garrison, B. Harding, from the main computer system (VAX), using a S. Herrig, R. Kidd, W.J. Merrell, R. Merrill, Masscomp 561 super-micro computer as the central and R. Olivas. The Ocean Drilling Program I: unit to record, process, and display data. Data Overview and Science Plans, MTS/IEEE Oceans are displayed in real time on a 15-inch wide '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, .Printronix high resolution graphic printer (160 San Diego, CA, pp. 113-119. dots per inch). The raw data are recorded on 2 tape; processed data can also be displayed on a Foss, G.N. The Ocean Drilling Program 11: 22-inch wide Versatec plotter that gives a JOIDES RESOLUTION, Scientific Drillship of the higher resolution display (200 dots per inch). 80's, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, Raw seismic data are also displayed in real November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. time in analog format on and Khron-Hite filter. 120-132. This analog mode would be the primary recording 3 mode should irreparable equipment failure Huey, D.P. and M.A. Storms. The Ocean preclude digitizing. Drilling Program IV: Deep Water Coring Technology, Past, Present, and Future, CONCLUSION MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. Although much of the equipment purchased 146-159. for JOIDES Resolution's science laboratory was 4 off-tT@e@-self, in many instances technicians Moos, D., R.N. Anderson, C. Broglia, D. modified the equipment to meet the unusual Goldberg, C.F. Williams, and M.D. Zoback. The demands of an ocean environment. Ship's motion, Ocean Drilling Program V: Logging for the vibration, salt air, and electrical power Ocean Drilling Program--Results of the First irregularities are major considerations when Two Cruises, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference purchasing and installing shipboard equipment. Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, Equipment must also be rugged enough to survive pp. 160-169. multiple users. Shipboard inventories of 5 supplies and spare parts are carefully Kidd, R.B., P.D. Rabinowitz, L. Garrison, A. maintained to ensure minimal down time. If a Meyer, A. Adamson, C. Auroux, J. Baldauf, B. piece of equipment is returned for repair, it is Clement, A. Palmer, E. Taylor, and A. Graham. possible the equipment will be off the ship for The Ocean Drilling Program III: Shipboard four months or longer considering repair time Laboratories on JOIDES RESOLUTION, MTS/IEEE and shipping schedules. Critical equipment is Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, duplicated to avoid unnecessary loss of science. 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 133-145. The technical staff of the Ocean Drilling 6 Program pride themselves on an excellent record Rabinowitz, P.D. Scientific Ocean Drilling, of equipment operation. This excellent record Ocean Science and Engineering, V. 10, No. 30, is achieved through rigorous safety practices, 1985-86'p p. 353-384. frequent routine maintenance, and a professional staff of highly trained and experienced technicians. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Scientific advice and direction are given to the Ocean Drilling Program by the Joint Oceanogrpahic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES), an international group of scientists. The Ocean Drilling Program is funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), an independent federal agency, through 1024 CORE CURATION: OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM Paula Weiss, Gerald R. Bode, Christine Y. Mato, Russell Merrill, Philip D. Rabinowitz, Michael Angell, John Miller, Peggy Myre, Steven Prinz and Daniel Quoidbach Ocean Drilling Program Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77840 ABSTRACT SHIPBOARD CURATORIAL ENVIRONMENT Cores are stored for future scientific The Curator staffs the JOIDES Resolution investigation at three sites: the East Coast with a curatorial representative who maintains Repository at Lamont-Doherty Geological accurate sampling records. The shipboard Observatory, the Gulf Coast Repository at Texas curator is responsible for guiding the A&M University (TAMU), and the West Coast scientific and technical staff in the Repository at Scripps Institution of preferred method of core handling and Oceanography. sampling. He/she also gives advice to the Aboard our drilling vessel, the JOIDES Co-Chief Scientists regarding the NSF/JOIDES/ODP Resolution, the cores are described, analyzed sampling policies (6). and sampled by an international shipboard The bulk of shipboard curatorial work takes scientific and technical staff of -50 persons, place in the core lab. Stringent shipboard which changes with each two month cruise. The procedures insure the scientific integrity of cores are kept in refrigerated storage at all ODP cores. Following these procedures, the times (aboard the vessel, in transit and in cores are split lengthwise into halves: the the repositories). sampling half ("work" half) and the This paper describes the cores' description half ("archive" half). shipboard and shorebased environments, the Once the cores are described, sampling procedures, and curatorial policies, as photographed and sampled they are placed in well as innovative studies monitoring long labeled tubes and boxed in waxed cardboard term changes in the conditions of cores cartons. The "work" and "archive" halves are resulting from storage. boxed separately and stored in different areas. Once the sections are split, the two halves INTRODUCTION are rarely handled together again. Care is taken not to sample or otherwise alter the How does glaciation affect ocean current archive half. circulation? Do worldwide anoxic events really In port, the cores are carefully occur? What factors contributed to the offloaded and shipped in refrigerated ocean extinction of the dinosaurs? What is the freight containers to minimize the evaporative nature of new oceanic crust? effect of heat. If the cores must be shipped Nineteen years, 445,000 nautical miles and over land, refrigerated air cushion vans are 119 voyages ago, a converted oil rig sailed from used. Hoboken, New Jersey to drill into the Earth's ocean floor so that marine scientists SHOREBASED CURATORIAL ENVIRONMENT might better address these and other far reaching questions. This voyage, Leg 1 of the ODP cores are stored at three locations in drillship Glomar Challenger, initiated an the United States. The ODP repository system has era of scientific drilling in the deep oceans a combined storage capacity of over 16,500 (1-5) and marked the start of the most elaborate square feet and holds approximately 84 miles deep sea core curation program ever. of core. Cores drilled by the JOIDES Resolution The Curator's Office of the Ocean Drilling from the Pacific and Indian Oceans and the Red Program (OOP), as inheritor of the Deep Sea Sea are housed at the Gulf Coast Repository of Drilling Project (DSDP) cores drilled by the Texas A&M University in College Station, Glomar Challenger and repository of cores Texas. Pacific and Indian Oceans and Red Sea recovered by ODP's one-of-a-kind drillship, cores drilled during DSDP are located in the JOIDES Resolution, has devoted much effort San Diego, California at the West Coast not only to expedite sample requests submitted Repository on the campus of Scripps by members of the worldwide marine science Institution of Oceanography. The East community but to the preservation of its most Coast Repository is located at Columbia valuable asset, the cores. University's Lamont-Doherty Geological CH2585-8/88/0000- 1025 $1 @1988 IEEE Observatory in Palisades, New York. It of storage. houses all DSDP/ODP cores from the Atlantic and Core archiving policies of science and Southern Oceans, and from the Caribbean, industry have contributed to other innovative Mediterranean and Black Seas. storage methods used by ODP. Cores requiring Each repository provides an efficient work special storage conditions are removed from environment for visitors from the international the general collection. scientific community (Figure 1). Scientist may ODP archives three special collections: request samples to study or may gain halite/anhydrite cores, organic geochemistry permission to visit a repository through the core sections and sulfide-rich material. ODP/TAMU curator. Every effort is made to Halite/anhydrite cores are best stored in process sample requests within 8 to 10 unrefrigerated dehumidified chambers to prevent weeks of receipt. dissolution of the salts. Sampling must be done with kerosene-cooled rock saws. Drilling in the Mediterranean Sea has resulted in recovery of cores of this type. The largest special collection maintained by the program is the k___r organic geochemistry collection of core KIP sections. The samples are taken aboard the ship without the use of organic solvents, and are immediately frozen in order to slow chemical reactions. Although the concept is not yet fully implemented, ODP plans to maintain a collection of sul fide-ri ch cores in oxygen-free storage. The sulfide-rich cores were recently recovered as the result of 4_@ newly-developed bare-rock drilling technology in areas of hydrothermal activity along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. In an effort to conserve sample material and to encourage cooperative efforts among scientific contributors, the Curator requires the return of unused portions of samples Figure 1. Visitors sampling cores at Gulf requested by investigators, and instructs each Coast Repository, Texas A&M University repository to incorporate the returned samples into a refrigerated residue collection. Repository libraries contain full sets of ODP Before approving requests for core samples, the Proceedings and DSDP Initial Reports, reprints Curator searches the residue inventory to of articles resulting from analyses of ODP core determine whether appropriate materials are material, photos and slides of cores and all available for distribution. thin sections and smear slides made onboa-rd the drillships or in the repositories. The shore INVENTORY labs house microscopes, thin sectioning machines, close-up photography tables, and Information regarding ODP's general core standard laboratory equipment to assist in collection, special core collection, residues, choosing samples. thin sections and smear slides is recorded on core history/inventory forms. The ARCHIVING curatorial staff is in the process of transferring this information to a The initial methods of DSDP core storage were computerized database which, when accessed, will modeled on those used by various oceanographic yield information on initial conditions of institutions with long-standing piston core recovery, core storage environment and collections. However, several differences were location, nature of special or critical established from the outset. Whereas piston intervals, and the state of preservation of cores taken prior to 1969 were often cores. In addition, all critical boundary archived in unrefrigerated and uncovered cores and rare or unusual layers are given metal trays, all DSDP cores were refrigerated color-coded labels for easy identification by and stored in sealed opaque plastic tubes. repository personnel and visiting Originally designed as fluorescent light investigators. fixture covers, the tubes inhibit water loss, The rules governing distribution of do not chemically react with the sediment and samples taken from ODP cores are determined cut down on contamination from airborne by various scientific advisory committees particulates. A moistened sponge is placed and by the Curator. From the central office inside each tube to provide further protection at TAMU, the Curator accesses a sample from water loss. The use of the sealed tubes, investigation database for up-to-date sponges and refrigeration is perhaps the information on the status of sample drilling program's most significant contribution requests, publications resulting from work to the battle against degenerative processes done on ODP samples, sample identities and that attack deep ocean cores during years availability of returned samples. The Curator 1026 then makes decisions on the distribution of gaps are filled with foam inserts. Curation samples. may also entail scraping mold and crystal growth from the cut face of core SAMPLING sections. The ODP repositories receive a combined GERIATRIC STUDY average of six visiting scientists and technicians a month. Repository personnel Currently the curatorial staff is help investigators with sampling, description, conducting a systematic investigation of photography and X-raying of cores. When not changes in physical and chemical properties of assisting visitors, repository staff process cores with time. The objective of this project requests for samples. is to refine our understanding of curatorial ODP cores vary greatly in mineral procedures and techniques as they affect the composition, geochemistry, grain size, fossil scientific integrity of cores during content and degree of lithification. Core shipment and long-term storage. Cores taken variability has given rise to a diversity of during early DSDP legs, which now have been in sampling techniques, which may be as simple as storage for more than nineteen years, are inserting a plastic tube into soft, moist still generating sample requests. An sediment to obtain microfossils for an understanding of the scientific significance of ecostratigraphic synthesis, or as involved as changes which occur subsequent to core recovery cutting an oriented cube from a well-compacted is essential to the accurate interpretation of limestone for a magnetostratigraphic study. data resulting from analyses performed on Sampling tools include: toothpicks used samples taken from the repositories. to make smear slides for identification of A two-fold approach has been designed: mineral composition; pre-measured plastic tubes 1) to re-examine samples and residues in the and cubes for use in soft mud; hammers and existing core collection, looking for changes chisels for use on lithified sediment; and which have occurred since they were first slow cutting diamond coated saws and drills for described, and 2) to monitor a set of fresh sampling hard igneous rock. cores from the time they reach the ship's deck Sample data are collected in real-time at through shipment and subsequent years computer workstations located adjacent to of repository storage. Concurrently, all sampling tables. The data are then loaded repositories will be monitoring temperature and into a database stored on a mainframe humidity conditions in refrigerated and computer located at ODP headquarters in Texas. unrefrigerated storage areas. Loaded sample data is corrected and samples In February 1988, the curatorial are assigned values corresponding to depth staff began processing and distributing below the sea floor. Sample location samples from the first set of cores taken inventories and depth listings are included solely for the Geriatric Study. These with sample shipments to scientific newly-recovered cores are being monitored for investigators. pH, water content, physical properties, magnetic properties, organic and inorganic CURATION geochemistry, mineral composition, and the condition of microfossils. ODP Staff In an effort to minimize the effects of Scientists and other interested scientists are aging on the cores, the repositories are engaged being encouraged to contribute in their in an active maintenance and restoration fields of expertise. Additional Geriatric program, referred to as the Curation Program. Study cores have been requested from upcoming The handling of the cores over the years legs. has taken its toll. Despite refrigeration, a By doing such a study, the Ocean Drilling certain amount of drying has occurred, and Program hopes to understand how the cores age continued sampling has caused the core under the existing storage conditions. When material to become displaced in spots. The the study is complete, the scientific Curator has established a policy of repairing community will be notified of the nature and cores whenever they are sampled, even if this degree of these changes, if any. may cause a delay in completing a sample request. In order to return the cores as PUBLIC EDUCATION nearly as possible to their original condition, the "work" half of the core The repositories serve an important is compared to its corresponding and educational role for students and local unsampled "archive" half and to original groups who tour the facilities. The core, descriptions and photographs. Special repository staff uses photographs, slide stabilizing baffles are installed when core shows, videotapes, core displays and material begins to shift from its original demonstrations of drilling equipment to position. expand visitors' awareness of the environment, Sponges, which are stored inside the the geologic past and scientific methods of tubes, are periodically re-wetted. When studying the oceanic crust. sampling of a core results in a void, the 1027 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Scientific advice and direction are given to the Ocean Drilling Program by the Joint Oceanogrpahic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES), an international group of scientists. The Ocean Drilling Program is funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), an independent federal agency, through the Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc. (JOI, Inc.). JOI, Inc. is a not-for-profit consortium of the ten U.S. oceanographic institutions that comprise JOIDES. NSF receives contributions from the non-U.S. members (Canada, the European Science Foundation Consortium for the Ocean Drilling Program, France, Japan, Federal Republic of Germany, and United Kingdom) of JOIDES. The contributions of vast numbers of scientists, engineers, technicians, and administrators at TAMU, NSF, JOI, JOIDES and Underseas Drilling, Inc. are greatly appreciated. REFERENCES I Meyer, W.M. ODP Scientist Get Boost from Computers, Geotimes, vol. 30, no. 10, October 1985, pp. 13-IT.- 2 Rabinowitz, P.D., L. Garrison, B. Harding, S. Herrig, R. Kidd, W.J. Merrell, R. Merrill, and R. Olivas. The Ocean Drilling Program I: Overview and Science Plans, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 113-119. 3 Foss, G.N. The Ocean Drilling Program II: JOIDES RESOLUTION, Scientific Drillship of the 80's, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 4 120-132. Kidd, R.B., P.D. Rabinowitz, L. Garrison, A. Meyer, A. Adamson, C. Auroux, J. Baldauf, B.. Clement, A. Palmer, E. Taylor, and A. Graham. The Ocean Drilling Program III: Shipboard Laboratories on JOIDES RESOLUTION, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 133-145. 5 Huey, D.P. and M.A. Storms. The Ocean Drilling Program IV: Deep Water Coring Technology, Past, Present, and Future, MTS/IEEE Oceans '85 Conference Record, November 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp. 146-159. 6 Ocean Drilling Program Sample Distribution Policy In Mascle, A., Moore, J.C. et al., 1988, Proc. ODP, Init. Repts., 110. Z`67T-ege T__(OF_ - -riTTi_n_g_V_rogram) . Station, X cean D 1028 THE UNDERWATER ELECTRIC KITE EAST RIVER DEPLOYMENT PHILIPPE VAUTHIER UEK CORPORATION P.O.BOX 3124 ANNAPOLIS MARYLAND 21403 ABSTRACT The UEK is an efficient Kinetic Hydro Energy Conversion System (KHECS) that utilizes river or tidal water current (Kw) 600 without need of impoundment behind dams. 500 In the UEK system an artificial head is actually created within the machine. A 400 very sophisticated "draw tube" arrangement 300 that utilizes the outside housing like a 200 venturi tube combined with the rotating 100 hollow blade of the first-stage turbine, 0 which acts like a centrifugal pump, are 1 2 3 4 5 6 (Knot) the heart of this innovation. The power Fig. 1. turbine, or second-stage turbine, is much smaller and directly drives a conventional Power output of a 20 ft/diameter UEK as a generator through the mechanical pitch function of current speed. (Diameter does control and small step-up gearing. If a not include skirt) variable speed isosynchronous generator is used, no pitch control is necessary. PROPOSED MOUNTING SUPPORT OPTION: THE CHOICE OF ENERGY OUTPUT FROM UEK'S Three sorts of support can be used depen- ding on the prime water current character- Electrical: istics and depth: 1. Alternative electrical power with fre- A. Rivers: On a tower, or suspended from quency accuracy at +/- 2% by a governed an existing fixed or floating structure, pitch or gate control at the power turbine stage. B. Tidal current: on a tower with a 180- degree controlled rotation, or suspen- 2. Alternative electricity delivered by a ded from a fixed or floating structure variable speed isosynchronous generator and activated by the current like a that perfectly matches the voltage and "wind sock." frequency of the grid to which it is connected. C. Ocean current: The UEK, tethered by an electromechanical cable to the bottom, 3. Electricity in a direct current mode can dive, search for the optimum cur- where it is used for surrounding indus- rent, or surface by microprocessor tries'needs. (For example, production program commands. (1.2-meter diameter of oxygen and hydrogen by electrolysis, model reached a 76-degree total lateral aluminum processing, smelting, drying sweep and perfectly performed dive and in mining operation and, to some ex- retrieval functions in a test executed tent, for lightening purposes). in Maryland in 1981). 4. Electricity in a HVDC mode, 1 conductor Operation of the UEK in any of the des- and return by the sea, followed up by cribed modes is dependent on the velocity thyristor/SCR controls situated in the of the water current as shown in Fig. 1. switchgear station on the shore. 1029 United States Government work not protected by copyright Water Head: External controls and instrumentation: 1. Irrigation from rivers by substituting the generator with a water pump. The UEK turbine is suspended by a frame 2. Filling up reservoir during tide time mounted on the deck of the supporting with water to be utilized on demand by vessel and can be lowered in the water a conventional "low head hydro-electric over the stern of the vessel. The deploy- system". ment of the device is operated with two electric winches (4,000 pound capacity) 3. Water source for transport of coal and and two back-up hand operated winches. Two other minerals in "slurry" trough pipe- 5/8 stainless steel cables are connected lines. to the end of the transversal arm of the supporting frame and meet together 50 feet Compressed Air: in front of "Wide Load" (below). A cable from the bow to the the same meeting point 1. Compressed air from UEK's devices used serves to some extent as a depth control through PVC piping scheme on the bottom means. Further, in front of this point, of a bay or river in order to supply the main anchorage line is connected to oxygen to anoxic water and therefore its anchor, if the test is conducted in a restore life-supporting quality in the river, or is attached to the towing tug if environment. the test is simulated. Usually we use 600 feet of 1.25 diameter nylon line to avoid 2. Compressed air to be used as a commodi- the propeller wash of the tug. In a river, ty for industries'needs. we may use the full 1,000 feet of line which provides not only an excellent hol- DEVICE & TESTING EQUIPMENT ding force with a relatively light anchor but also permits lateral drifting at will During 1986 a 12-foot UEK was built to in different current velocity. test the concept and serve as the basis for the final design to be implemented in our East River site in New York City. This UEK turbine is the largest model built to date and was tested during 1987 and 1988 under many different situations for theo- retical data confirmation of basic feature THE SUPPORT VESSELS and added improvements. Many small, three foot diameter UEKs were built to address "WIDE LOAD" specific questions concerning the blade design of the first stage turbine. "Wide Load" is a barge like platform boat 12'x 24' built in aluminum and designed To support the testing, two small vessels for the sole purpose of testing the UEK also were specially built to permit the turbine. A 240 hp Volvo engine can push deployment and retrieval of the test mo- the boat without the turbine at approxima- dels, while being towed behind a tug boat tely 18 knots. The vessel is equipped with in the Chesapeake Bay or set at anchor in a small forward cabin which contains three a fast flowing current. voltmeters, three ampmeters, one pitch control two way switch and position indi- The 12-foot diameter UEK turbine data are: cator, one 24 switch box (tripper fuses), one main power switch, hydraulic steering Overall diameter, augmentor ring 12 Ft. station with engine control and instru- Diameter of the first stage turbine 9 Ft. ments, depth finder and safety equipment, Three blades (fixed 14 degree pitch) oscilloscope station for monitoring RPM's Diameter second stage turbine 4611 of all rotating items etc. Five runner blades adjustable pitch Electric pitch control & remote control other equipment includes a load box com- General Electric Generator rated at 60 KW posed of many water heater elements of (Three phases-240 volt induction type) 4,500 watts and 1,500 watts respectively RPM sensors, first turbine & Generator to be lowered into the water at the stern Temperature & Vibration sensors of the boat , a small 5 kw gas generator Drag at 5 knots: over 5,000 pounds to activate the pitch actuator rod for the Dead weight 3,600 pounds second stage power turbine blades and Displacement apr. 3,450 pounds (- buoyant) three compressed cylinders of nitrogen Internal pressurization, Nitrogen at l4psi with regulator to pressurize the 60 kw Sumitomo speed increaser: 4/1 ratio generator housing. The boat is also equip- Fiberglass, first stage turbine ped with trim tanks, bow & stern, serviced Carbon fiber, power turbine & gen. housing by a transfer pump. 1030 "SPARKY" Many factors are considered when choosing a site. The water current availability, "Sparky" is a catamaran, 201 x 71 over-all the bottom quality for implementation.and dimension powered up to 8 knots by a 7.5 the close proximity of the end user are hp outboard engine. Between the hulls is a the principal site quality factors. Next, marine plywood working platform of 16'x 4' are the economic and political factors with a 40" diameter hole cut in it. which generally influence greatly the avoided cost rate offered, acceptance by A lever with a half inch stainless steel local utilities, understanding and quest shaft mounted at 90 degrees to its end can for clean, economical and renewable energy swing a three-foot diameter UEK model by the people and elected officials. through the platform hole into the water between the hulls. This system permits the The site chosen by UEK Corporation, which interchange of models and accessories was the closest to the criterion disclosed within minutes. Small power turbines are above, was the East River in New York City. tested with different first stage turbines at will. A shaft attached in front of the power turbine transmits the RPM and torque to a pony break installed at the front of NEW YORK CITY SITE the platform. We find it to be a good way PROJECT NO. 10331-000 to make a fast appraisal of our design. With "Sparky"s configuration, it is also According to our preliminary permit filed very practical to take flow readings near February 24, 1987 under the Federal Power the augmentor ring of the first stage Act. 16 U.S.C. 791 (a) - 825 (r), UEK turbine and throat entrance of the second Corporation and its agent Kinetic Hydro stage turbine with or without the runner Energy Corporation have conditional right installed. Those measurments are made with to a portion of the East River in New York the sensor of a battery operated knot City. Our site is limited by Roosewelt meter mounted at the end of * an 8 foot Island on the West side, by the borough of handle This method of data gathering is of Queens on the East side, the Queensboro course fast and economical if we take into Bridge on the South and Heli's Gate on the consideration the expenses of hiring a North. The depth is more than thirty feet* regular size tug boat. All of the promi- over most of its entirety and we have sing improvments are transposed on the 12- measured a current'speed of over 4.2 knot foot diameter model, tested and verified during our December 24, 1987 survey. When again. Any data scale-up changes are also all the preliminary measurement and data noted. This information is extremely im- collection are completed with the 12-foot portant to determine economic viability of diameter engineering model, we will pro- future sites. ceed with the implementation of full size turbines for this site. Testing of the three foot model under tow I has been conducted with "Wide Load" as the According to our.present permit, the 2.1- towing vessel. megawatt electric-generating equipment to SITE be installed consists of 7 (seven) doubl 'e- stage kinetic hydro-electric turbines that site-specific analyses are a natural step develop, through isosynchronous genera- for regional resource development. The tors, 300,000 volts-amperes.at 60 hertz small-scale low and very low head hydro- each. generator became attractive to us in the Seventies'petroleum energy crisis. Innova- The kinetic turbo-generators (UEKs) will tive turbine technologies were developed be mounted, for this application, on pede- to capture natural hydro resources which stals anchored to the river bed and will were untapped. Unfortunately, very low be activated by the natural flow of the head also means very high cost per kilo- tide running between Long Island Sound and watt, but without the civil work, pen- the Atlantic Ocean. stocks, dams, etc., the figures are bet- ter. The economic assessment for UEKs, is The UEK life expenctancy is twenty years therefore now very attractive. The time with two weeks off line for maintenance was right to take a good look at options each year. that could not even have been considered 10 years ago. Because the technology was new, nobody really had a proven concept.of UEK SPECIFICATIONS FOR THIS SITE how to install a free tidal turbine. How- ever, by identifying the needs and looking The overall diameter is 21 feet for the at other more widely known technologies ducted first-stage turbine. The operating and processes, especially ocean oil rigs, RPM is 18.78 to 31.00 (3-5 knots tidal one could develop and establish a general current). Inducted by pumping action, the guideline. artificial head is 1.813 to 5.036 feet. 1031 The second-stage turbine (power turbine, All fixed points of the grid pattern taken 73 inches in diameter) runs at 225 to 275 during the survey are located in terms of RPM and drives an isosynchronous generator coordination from preliminary navigational through a small speed increaser bolted on reference points or landmarks. the generator. The generator-speed increa- ser assembly is corrosion resistant, skin A series of depth sounding and side scan cooled and can operate in a two atmosphere sonar passes are run along the site and environment. overlapping passes are made to assure adequate coverage of all the channel bed The electricity generated at 23kv by each area. Once recorded, the data combined individual UEK turbine is delivered via with flow velocity information collected underwater, electric cable to the swit- by Endico type 110 current meter are as- ching, metering and protective circuitry sorted later by computer in a regular grid before reaching the client gride. (In this pattern, because at the time of the data case, Consolidated Edison Vernon Substa- aquisition it is almost impossible to tion in Queens, New York City). follow a perfect straight line across a four to five knot current with the work- Annual electric power for sale is calcu- boat. lated as follows: UEK generated kilowatt at average tide current velocity and run- ning time is 198.75 Kwh, multiplied by AUXILIARY ANCHORAGE yearly percent on line: 198.75 x 8,766 hours x 96% on line = 1,672,552.8 kilo- The efficiency of the UEK system is based watts per UEK. Therefore, the seven UEK on the capture of kinetic energy by very units on the site are expected to produce well known hydrodynamic laws which are a total of 11,708 megawatts annually. combined into a usefull device. The main consideration is the 4-5 knot current If everything is progressing well and the encountered in the site which resulting first seven turbines are performing accor- action on the setting of the supporting ding to plan, we intend to install more tower is comparable to the thrust of an units in this site. The implementation extremely efficient sea anchor. which would be the least controversial as we see it today is to use only twenty per Since the bottom of the East River was cut cent of the width of the channel and in the same rock as Manhattan is built, an space the rows of turbines by one hundred anchor such as sailors use is of no perma- feet each. nent value except to assist the deploy- ment, therefore other means must be used. This configuration implemented during a period of approximately five to seven The best and most economical holding de- years would yield a total of 426,500 Mw vice chosen for our needs is a simple pin annually when completed to New York City buried in the rock. Utility or perhaps the Subway system from only 255 UEK turbines. Clean renewable Hardware must be stable, easy to install energy, all year long with compounded and economical to build and maintain. reliability. Tests on a small scale show that it is possible, helped with the proper ancho- rage system, to guide the pedestal of the BOTTOM SURVEY OF THE SITE turbine from the surface to the bottom, The survey of the bottom of our channel the same as oil riggers do at sea. site is acomplished by using the following criteria: INSTALLATION OF TIDAL UEK A. Take bathymetric (depth) measurements The two characteristics of a tidal UEK in a grid pattern to allow development configuration support system are: of a bathymetric chart showing bottom contours. 1) The base of the tower pedestal is diamond-shaped and is of two UEK- B. Maintain continuous definition of bot- diameter width and five UEK-diameter tom morphology over the entire grid length. The supporting tower is loca- area via side scan sonar. ted in the center of the lozange. C. Indicate the collection of the bottom 2) The top of the pedestal has a pivot samples at the corners and center of to accommodate a controlled 180- the grid pattern. degree rotation. D. Look for irregularities which could be The pedestal supporting the UEK is a hol- used for submarine power cable instal- low conical shell composed of welded lation without burial (dead water) streamlined sections. This tower is closed 1032 on top by a hatch and has a guide rail 8) Divers go down inside the pedestal, section which will receive the fixed shaft secure the turbine and connect the of the UEK later and is surmounted by an power cable from the UEK to the prein- opened, streamlined, temporary extention stalled shore power cable reaching the tower section. Inside the tower is a lad- tower via the pre-anchorage cable. der from the top hatch to a bottom door (Connection of the electric and signal that is parallel to the electric power cable can be done in a small air-filled cable harness and a drilling tube guide. space in the tower for a perfectly dry splicing.) The streamlined tower is mounted on the center of the lozange shaped base cons- 9) The tower extension is then unlocked by tructed from pipe braced with other tubu- towing it away against.the current, (or lar structures to the main body. This at slack time) with the workboa't and assembly forms a semi-boyant pedestal that can be used again to install the next can be towed to the site with a small tug pedestal and UEK turbine. or workboat. In a multi-UEK site, the units are added Installation scenario: to each other in column and row to fit the site* and can be expanded from the first 1) The workboat carries an anchor confor- UEK turbine in any direction. ming to the characteristics of the bottom and sets it at the beginning of the site where the end of the shore power electrical cable is already in- stalled and marked by a buoy. 2) The same marker is attached to the end of the anchorage cable and the boat can now bring the tower pedestal and tow it to the site. OTHER SITES 3) The leading edge of the tower is atta- ched to the end of the anchorage cable, There are of course a multitude of sites the boat releases the cable tension, available to this technology. Many of and the current pulls the assembly in a which we already are exploring for future straight line downstream. uses in the continental U.S. and abroad. 4) The next step is to let air escape in a In January 1987, UEK Corporation prepared, controlled manner from the hollow tower at the demand of China Hua Yang Technology and let it slowly sink to the bottom. & Trade Corporation and The State Economic Commission Council, State Bureau of Ocea- nographics P.R.C. an informal guide line 5) Using the preinstalled drilling tube to implement UEK turbine to be used for guide, a cylindrical hole is drilled in electric power generation and/or irriga- the bed of the channel. Depending on tion. Follow-up is actively pursued on the quality of the bottom, this hole this matter. may be anywhere from two to ten feet in depth. In April 1988r sites were informally sur- veyed on the Island of Hainan, People's 6) A commercial expendable or explosive Republic of China. Near the city of Wen- anchorage pin is introduced in the hole chang in particular we have found a tidal by divers, and secure holding is accom- site for UEK turbines which may yield up plished. (This operation is possible in to two hundred megawatts of electric po- very stong currents because the divers wer. If the negotiations with the U.S. work inside the tower.) developer are successfully concluded, UEK Corporation will install fifteen megawatts 7) Now, again, the workboat retrieves the of electric power rated at 10,500 volts UEK turbine and the assembling crew and 50 hertz to be delivered into the grid introduces the supporting guiding slide of the Power Industry Company, Hainan from the main shaft of the generator- Administrative District, City of Haikou. turbine into the track rail from the trailing edge of the extension tower. Any sites can be procured with the proper The UEK slides downward to its opera- size UEK turbine to suit the depth and the tional position, passing the bottom of current velocity characteristics by intro- the extention tower, and rests on the ducing the site's data into the computer top of the pedestal. implementation program. 1033 BRITISH OTEC PROGRAMMES 1OMW FLOATING AND 0.5MW LAND BASED- D.E. Lennard* & F.A. Johnson" Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems Ltd., Orpington, Kent, BR6 OAY, UK. GEC-Marconi Research Centre, Great Baddow, Chelmsford, Essex, CM2 8HN, UK. The rate of growth of power demand in many of these ABSTRACT. developing countries is in turn dependent on the price of the power generated. The provision of a stable energy price is of the highestpriority among economic For a decade the UK OTEC effort has been directed objectives of those countries. OTEC, with only its at the development of a closed cycle, floating, OTEC operational and maintenance costs (no fuel costs), plant of IOMW size making use of 5MW power meets this requirement. modules. Electricity production was the sole objec- Potable water can be derived from the waste cold tive. Recently, a separate UK initiative has focussed water from an OTEC plant using one of a number of on a small 0.5MW land based design, with the object alternative processes. In the case of an open cycle of utilising the cold deep nutrient rich waters for OTEC plant, some of the flash evaporated warm water aquaculture and for the production of potable water. vapour can be condensed in a separate condenser to For both projects island locations are preferred. The paper reviews progress to date. produce potable water. The deep cold water, which is very rich in nutrients, can be the basis for a food change resulting in fish, molluscs or crustacea. Work in Hawaii has shown that a considerable range of aquaculture products can be 1. INTRODUCTION. grown in this nutrient rich cold water. An examination of the sites suitable for OTEC plants shows that a very large number are either short of OTEC has substantial potential to produce other drinking water or it is very expensive. Further, many outputs in addition to electricity. The association of of those sites would welcome the additional protein some or all of these additional outputs with an OTEC which fish production would bring. For a IOMW plant plant can improve the economics and increase the the potential for the production of fish in this way is usefulness of the overall process so as to extend the so large that it could support an export industry in geographical market for such composite plants. This addition to providing for local consumption. The paper concentrates particularly on electricity pro- potential application of a combined OTEC desalina- duction, aquaculture and, to a lesser extent, the pro- tion aquaculture (ODA) plant is therefore consider- duction of potable water. able and the economy of the combined system is at least equal to that of a simple OTEC plant, for certain Regardless of the thermal feasibility of OTEC gen- specified location parameters (Eg. a suitable sized erated electricity, there must be a demand for it if the lagoon adjacent to a land based OTEC plant). The economics are attractive. For an OTEC plant remaining development necessary to achieve satis- producing electricity alone the economics, we factory production of each of the products just men- believe, become attractive for plants of IOMW tioned is significant. OTEC technology is, at present, capacity or more. Some of the smaller islands cannot still in the demonstration stage. At this point be candidates for a 1OMW plant since their total therefore, there is much to commend separate devel- demand is well short of that. However, the majority opment for the different products to minimise risk and of island countries which do have an adequate demand this is essentially the British approach. Limitations on rely on imported oil for generating power and, further, paper length precludes detailed descriptions, but some are frequently paying very high prices for this salient aspects are described. imported oil. In the short term, it is these islands which provide the most likely market for OTEC electrical generating plants. CH2585-8/88/0000- 1034 $1 @1988 IEEE We- Ile onc 4@!t cold at.. Aquaculture Desalination Prod. La. of AL. bl-at .3 OL.till. La. Production Hydro"n Al.'a Synth-La of -.La P.... j - - - - - - : - - - - I - - - J P. Liq@ig' road 'ztl-114 Methanol Electricity Potable "I Hthea. A-L. hyftag.. Oyq.. ..t.r Figure 1. A range ofproducts from an ocean thermal energy plant 2. ELECTRICITY/FLOATING. mediate stand off buoy plus anchor or pile, among others. Specific solutions were optimised for The variant selected for electricity production after individual preferred sites (see below). rigourous review of market opportunities is closed Developments in tension leg technology are now cycle, floating, and tethered with catenary moors making this forinat very competitive to the catenary, shown diagrammatically in Figure 2. although the ability readily to locate a catenary A controversial decision was that to go for a floating moored plant makes this attractive for the early plant design, rather than a land based one. In the view development demonstration phase. As noted in the of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems Ltd. abstract the power modules are 5MW for the 1OMW (OTECS), whilst the problems are very different on unit, and in the first plant 3 power pods are proposed, balance the floating variant where electricity is the the third being for development work. only product has problems which are more tractable Estimated capital and generating cost for this type of than the land based option and the Conference pres- plant are US$5300/kW and 12.7 cents/kWh these entation will develop this point. figures being calculated for the eighth production unit. Evaluation of mooring options for the floating variant The values are plotted on Figures 3 and 4 respectively included thrusters (with a dynamic positioning sys- which show the extreme values for all OTEC plants tem), hydrodynamic forces (making use of fluid flow designed for electricity production since 1970. past the OTEC plant) and tethers. Tethers were the Independent Japanese calculations have resulted in preferred solution at this time, and single point, virtually identical limit values. multi-point and tension leg options were evaluated. Of the preferred multi-point moor for the spar design of plant chosen, seabed terminations examined included piled, clump weight with anchor, inter- Fu - --u 1, @-- KI 134 1035 The preferred sites for this 1OMW floating OTEC are: i. in the Caribbean: St. Lucia or Jamaica; ii. in the Pacific: Fiji or Papua New Guinea; iii. the Indian Ocean: the Seychelles or the Mal- dives. The location for the quoted value in Figures 3 and 4 -L,g 1i... to be achieved is the "best site" found by OTECS, the evaluation taking note of the temperature difference available, distance from shore, economics of alter- native power generation techniques, potential for funding, etc. It will be noted that all are island locations, with cold deep water close to shore. 10 Figure 2. A catenary moor with stabilisationfor the cold water pipe Cost of electricity it capital cost generated (cents/kWh) WO 001kW) U. is OTEC plant size (MW) 10 100 1000 Figure 4. Range of costlkWhfor all known OTEC 10 schemes 3. A SMALL LAND BASED PLANT. GEC, England, has been considering the possibilities 5 for a small 0.5MW (gross) closed cycle land based OTEC plant for the last three years. As a major producer of electrical generating equipment, covering a power range of some 8 orders of magnitude, we naturally keep a watching brief on all new possibi- OTEC plant size (MW) lities. In our view the most impressive demonstration of OTEC technology to date was the plant built by the 0. Tokyo Electric Power Services Company on the 1 10 100 island of Naru. This plant produced a gross output of Figure 3. Range of capital costlkWfor all known 120 KW and a nett output of some 31KW. Over a OTEC schemes period of 9 months, during 1980, this plant was operational and achieved a maximum continuous I -at of electricity ate gen d (oent./kft) period of operation of 10 days. However, to make an economic OTEC plant one would need to increase this 1036 nettpower to 1OMW or more, increase the availability ocean water, a local grid system willing to buy all to about 80% or better and operate the plant for about surplus electricity, a growing aquaculture industry 25 years or more. While this is a feasible objective it based on pumped deep ocean water but also all the is a very large extrapolation from proven technology infra-structure needed for installing and maintaining and consequently there is a high risk of meeting the plant. unforeseen problems which can prove to be very The design work falls into two distinct parts. The costly. initial work is concerned with studying the various From a technical point of view what is needed, we parameters such as flow rates, pipe sizes, heat believe, is a more modest scaling up of the previous, exchanger types, working fluids, fabrication tech- Japanese work. What we had in mind was a closed niques etc. with aviewto establishing aminimumcost cycle land based plant with a gross output of about option. This will then be followed by the detailed 500 KW connected to a distribution grid and operating design of this chosen option. In the course of this for a minimum of 5 years with a high availability. detailed design there may well be some further Such a plant should provide a very thorough test of changes in the key parameters as specific details are the whole OTEC concept. The sea water pipes would investigated in more detail. need to be reliable, the sea water pumps would need The largest single expense in such a small land based some redundancy, control systems would need to be OTEC plant is the sea water pipelines and the sea installed to match the output to the distribution grid, water pumps. Preliminary estimates indicate that we maintenance cycles would need to be planned and, in would probably need pipes of about 36 to 40 inches addition, the plant would need a monitoring package in diameter to cope with the flow rates without the to check the correct working of all the key compo- need for excessive pumping power. We sub-con- nents. Such a demonstration would provide a sound tracted this part of the work to Makai Ocean Engin- basis on which to plan, design and finance larger eering, Inc. at Kailua, Oahu, Hawaii. They have installations. designed three sea water pipelines of 12, 18 and 40 However, one consequence of the second law of inches that have been installed at Keahole Point. All thermodynamics, is that a plant of this type would be of these pipelines use polyethylene as the pipe doing well to produce an annual return on capital of material. The preliminary work indicates that we shall 1%, scarcely enough to pay the staff and not the sort need a cold water pipeline of some 2300 to 2500 of proposition to appeal to managing directors or to meters in length to reach down to a depth of 640 venture capitalists. Thus our view was that, until such meters. The warm water pipeline will be about 300 to a demonstration became economically viable, OTEt 380 meters long to reach an intake depth of 30 meters would remain as just another interesting concept. at a point some 10 meters above the bottom - this is to minimise bio-fouling problems. There can be This view was considerably modified by the work problems with disposing of the discarded sea water done at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii. This from both the OTEC plant and the aquaculture facility. had measured consistently high levels of nitrates and Here we are considering mixing these two outputs and phosphates in sea water pumped up from the deep discharging them through a sea water pipeline at a ocean around Hawaii. Further this deep sea water depth just below the mixing layer, ie at a depth of proved to be remarkably free from pathogens so was about 100 meters. To do this will require a third ideal for aquaculture. Subsequent work at this lab- pipeline of approximately 850 to 900 meters in length. oratory has demonstrated the value of this deep ocean The greatest part of the cost of these sea water sea water resource for aquaculture and two pipelines is the transition section from the shore to a commercial enterprises have already started there. In point sufficiently deep to be free of surface wave my view this work demonstrated that the greatest loading. resource in the oceans is the water itself The combination of aquaculture with a small scale OTEC We plan to site the sea water pumps off shore at a plant can dramatically alter the economics of such a depth of about 10 meters. Following Makai's rec- combined operation. ommendations we also plan to use three pumps for each pipeline, two operating in parallel and the third This view was arrived at, quite independently, by as a standby. Stainless steel pumps are preferred but ALCAN International, in particular by Nigel Fitzpa- they are considerably more expensive than cast iron trick. As a result of a number of discussions ALCAN pumps. However, they have a considerably longer asked us if we would design such an OTEC plant for life. These sea water pumps will consume about 70% them and this we are now doing. The main team of the gross power output. Further, as the exhaust cold during this work is based at our Engineering Research water is to be delivered to an adjacent aquaculture site Centre. The design aim is a plant that could provide one cannot use a siphon to reduce the pumping power a minimum of 13,000 US gallons of deep ocean sea needed. At Keahole Point the land is about 4 to 5 water per minute for aquaculture and provide a nett meters abovernean sea level so this is a significant output of 150KW of electricity into a local electricity factor. Another cons'ideration is that the cold water supply grid. Our preferred site is close to the Natural Energy Laboratory at Keahole Point on the Big Island of Hawaii. This not only has excellent access to deep 1037 supply to the aquaculture facility will need to be of the heat exchangers. This is just another example maintained during any plant shut-down for mainten- of the highly interactive nature of all the differing ance so suitable by-pass circuits need to be provided. considerations - in fact OTEC is all about compro- A crucially important input to the design work comes mises. from ALCAN. They have been carrying out a long Considerable care will be needed in the design of the series of corrosion tests on a number of aluminium safety and protection equipment and procedures will alloys in both deep and surface sea water - the need to be established for the start-up and shut-down chemistry is quite different in the two cases. In surface of the plant. For example the cold water pipeline will sea water the corrosion is uniform and regular but in contain some 2000 tonnes of sea water which will deep sea water pitting corrosion is the primary result need to be accelerated to 1 meter per second during and this needs more care if one is to have a satisfactory the start-up process - not something that can happen life for the heat exchangers. ALCAN are currently in a few seconds. carrying out a series of corrosion tests on various types Another important aspect of this design will be the of joined sections to test the suitability of various provision of a reasonably comprehensive instru- fabrication techniques. mentation package. This is important since we will be Another important input from ALCAN has been their accumulating a great deal of new data about the actual work on bio-fouling. In surface sea water regular operation of a closed cycle OTEC plant. It will be small doses of chlorine produced by electrolysis can important to measure not only the initial performance prevent the build up of bio-fouling. If the electrolysers in order to compare it with the designed values but malfunction, bio-fouling builds up quickly. After also to detect any slow drift in this performance away maintenance to the electrolyses the bio-fouling from the initial values and make an early assessment largely disappears but the thermal resistance falls to of the cause. avalue 10% higher than before the malfunction. Itcan There is one additional item we are proposing to only be reduced to its original value by mechanical demonstrate namely the generation of potable water. cleaning so this will be an important aspect for both Any shore based OTEC site will have a virtually the design and maintenance of the warm water heat unlimited supply of warm air with a dew point well exchangers. Further, it had been generally assumed above the exhaust temperature of the cold water that bio-fouling would not be a problem for the cold discharge from the OTEC plant. Allowing for the water heat exchangers. ALCAN have found that this latent heat of water vapour and assuming a 30% is not the case. Bio-fouling can occur in the cold water efficiency for an air condenser, one should be able to circuits but its build up is much slower. ALCAN is condense potable water at a rate of 0.043% of the cold currently trying to establish a minimum chlorination water flow rate for each l'C increase in the cold water regime for the cold water heat exchangers. temperature. This may sound very small but OTEC is The heat exchangers will be fabricated from alu- all about exploiting small efficiencies. In our case we miniurn and the designs will incorporate a 10% margin could increase the cold water,exhaust temperatures by against accidental bio-fouling. They will be modular 5'C and still deliver cold water at a temperature of so that individual sections can be replaced, if 14'C to the aquaculture facility. This would suggest necessary, without needing to shut down the whole that we could condense potable water at a rate of about plant. This is not only a precaution against a defective 1700 US gallons per hour. We are currently planning component but also a means whereby we can inspect a small scale test facility to produce somewhere in the a component and check its actual corrosion rate - it region of 100 gallons per hour and this part of the work will also make it easier to transport and erect the heat has, been subcontracted to Dr P F Monaghan of the exchangers at the site. The heat exchangers will be Department of Mechanical Engineering, University designed for simple mechanical cleaning and for College, Galway, Republic of Ireland. He has been minimum cost. A number of different fabrication doing much design and testing work on external air techniques are being studied. There is advantage in heat exchangers for use with heat pumps. using components that enhance the transfer of heat The plan is to complete the detailed design work by between the sea water and the aluminium. but this has the end of 1988 and then proceed with the installation to be balanced against any increase in cost. One of the sea water pipes and pumps and finally with the particularly simple construction technique would be construction, commissioning and operation of the roll-bonding but a final decision has not been reached. plant during 1989 and 1990. If all goes well we should We will probably be using a Rotoflow turbine, gear- then begin to see an OTEC plant demonstrating, in a box and generator with all the regulation and power very realistic way, its overall capability. conditioning being done on the electrical side rather than by regulating the input pressure to the turbine. The actual form of the turbines and gearboxes varies considerably with the working fluid used. Ammonia produces much higher pressures that butane but either could produce the required electrical power. Lower pressures also ease the requirements on the strength 1038 HYDRO POWER FROM THE OCEAN Robert K. Jensen 14990 Echo Drive Golden, Colorado 80401 PATENT ABSTRACT U.S. PATENT # 4,703,626 NOV. 3,1987 An apparatus is disclosed to generate electricity using 4 __11 ocean thermal and salinity gradients. An elongated I - I chamber extends vertically downward from the surface of the ocean. Warm, high-salinity water from the ocean surface flowing by gravity down the apparatus is used 2-- A -2 to drive a turbine and electrical generator. Air bubbles are introduced Into the flow at the upper opening of the apparatus. This air is subject to hydraulic compression as the water falls. The flow of sea water and air passes through a cooling tube near the bottom of the appara- tus where it is cooled to the temperature of ambient sea water at that depth. The flow then enters a chamber where the air and water are allowed to separate. . Because of its greater density than the ambient sea 6- water at that depth, the water in the chamber tends to flow out exhaust ports located at the bottom of the chamber. Excess air pressure held in the chamber can be used to exhaust water from the separation chamber 10 _J I @12 or be returned to the atmosphere. INTRODUCTION 13 The new patented Hydro Well Invention falls into the classification of an Open Cycle - Ocean Thermo Energy Conversion (OTEC) device. All such devices use solar heat stored in the Ocean surface in contrast with the 14 cold depth sump to create power from that temperature difference. The Hydro Well also uses this differential but adds gravity, salinity gradient. hydraulic air compres- sion, osmosis. vacuum, weight and depth pressure to is 15 work force. The apparatus drops warm salt water entrained with air down a penstock to drive a Hydro Electric Turbine Generator. The salt water is cooled by the ocean sump and becomes heavier than the ambient water. The air is hydraulically compressed and Is separated to create a second work force. The forces, together with salinity, work to exhaust the water. There is no commercial operating OTEC in the world. 16 However, The Department of Energy (DOE) estimates a 17 mechanism of 2 MWE can be built at a cost of $7,200 per KWE. FIG. I Using the same cost basis, a 2 MWE Hydro Well could be built for $1,345 per KWE because it is only 1/3 as The Basic Mechanism deep and handles 1/8 the amount of water. Hydro Wells can be built now with off the shelf equipment while An 8 ft. diameter 1000 ft. deep Hydro Well will produce electricity for DOE-OTEC must still develop larger turbines and cold 3200 people. water pipes. CH2585-8/88/0000- 1039 $1 @1988 IEEE WORLD ENERGY AND POLLUTION SOLUTIONS LIE IN THE OCEAN Pollution now th reatens our life style as we know it. Hopefully, there is an answer. Heat from different kinds of fuel is not the only source of power available to us, although it is the most convenient to use. It is also our main cause of pollution. I believe that the answer lies in Th, Vo- add, 11, 1 the oceans of the world through renewable energy. a 11,d d-tChU, b, sah at,, Mh P Hyd. W.11L Man has looked to the sea for power since the first recorded Ocean Energy Device in 188 1, with many dif- ferent attempts to harness wind, wave, tide, heat. salt and water power. However. each attempt to date has used only one single force. Yet the complex ocean con- J- M, b,b- bln tham - ,,g tl ,hm t tains many different power sources and phenomena ;@'t'tl'h ,d b, that have energy potential. I believe that if we are to tap this vast power, inventions must become as complex as Z the ocean. The ocean is a balanced wonder with off-set- ting pressures and many unknowns. One is its ability to correct itself when disturbed. The device upsets that balance and utilizes the ocean's power as it corrects itself. This writer believes future off-shore stations will sup- ply electricity, hydrogen, fresh water and food for the Hydi, T-im, & G- -0' Ellc%`" 'a c.bl.d 1. 0, world without pollution or changing the natural bal- hall, ances of the ocean by combining the many available forces together. The Hydro Well may be the first step toward this goal, h."Z`"@h7,t."ai' @b .1d -11 in that it generates electricity from ocean phenomena. Fi , i , , , a lp a."'I There is enough power available from the oceans of the t=' world to supply all our energy needs without pollution, FIG. 3 at less cost nowl Grouping wells together for, strength makes mass production possible. The Hydro Well starts below the surface where the highest salt content and temper- ature exists. This depth varies from site to site as do currents, tides, and storm frequency. 'a Z@ A y k@ FIG. 2 A U, "I"N'"V F A group of wells could furnish M a town while 13 groups could supply :1- !*x4s IN "W Each Group of wells a city of 500,000 people. This is equal covers 11 acres. to the power of Hoover Dam. 1040 BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION the surface or out against the ocean's pressure at any depth. In most oceanic locations around the world the water at Study also revealed that SERI located two miles from depths greater than 130 meters is relatively fresh, dark, my home in Golden, Co., was the lead agency for our and cold in comparison with the surface water, which is governments' DOE doing research into OTEC. This was warmer. and has a greater salinity, due to surface evap- better than a Colorado oceanl SERI was very helpful oration. Various OTEC inventions have been devised in with information, the use of their library and scientific the past to exploit these temperature and salinity gradi- advice. Government engineers are working to perfect ents between the surface and the deep ocean acting as The Claude Cycle OTEC a 1932 invention that pulls a sump to produce power, or to create an upwelling of steam from the ocean's warm water and uses the cold nutrient-rich deep water to the ocean surface for mari- deep water as the sump. Many countries have worked culture. For example, one simple method involves place- on OTEC over the last fifty-five years, yet no one has a ment of a long vertical cold water pipe into the ocean in commercial model. There must be a better way. such a manner that the bottom of the pipe is exposed to Further research turned up some unusual phenome- cold, relatively fresh water, while the top of the pipe is na that reminded me of my World War II machinist in warm saline water. A continuous flow of water up or mate days on the U.S.S. Mississippi. where evaporators down the pipe results, after the fountain is primed. due were not large enough to produce fresh water for both to an exchange of heat, but not salinity, with the ambl- the crew and boilers. When they operated In tropical ent ocean. H. Stomel, A. B. Arons, and D. Blanchard, waters the crew showered and washed their clothes in "An Oceanographical Curiosity; The Perpetual Salt salt water. Near the Equator more water evaporates Fountain," Deep Sea Research, Vol. 3 (1955). pp. 152- from the ocean then returns by rain, leaving the upper 155. A similar system for surface water-deep water ocean layer saltier. Why doesn't that saltier water sink? counterflow is disclosed by Johnson of SERI "Salinity- See salinity density verse latitude chart (fig. 4). Salinity Driven Oceanographic Upwelling," U.S. Patent No. exceeds density between 400 N and 400 S latitudes. 4,597,360, issued July 1, 1986. A basic system for gen- eration of power is disclosed by Claude, et al, "Method 30- And Apparatus For Obtaining Power From Sea Water," ------ U.S. Patent No. 2,006,985, Issued July 2, 1935. ,,,TEMPERATURE -37 OTEC systems of this type have considerable appeal 2.0- in that approximately sixty percent of the world's largest 28- 56 cities and two-thirds of the world's population live with- in 80 kilometers of the sea. However, existing systems 10- 35@ have either been inefficient or not cost-effective due to a - 26 - number of problems, such as, the length of the large N F 0- \,DENSITY cold water pipe required; the size of heat exchangers, SALINITY -U- 24 - -34 turbines, evaporators, biofouling, corrosion, creation of to salt water gases, and the difllculty of transmitting elec- _10- Z. tricity under water. 22 - -53 In contrast, in the present invention, hydraulic com- pression of the entrained air is one of the methods used to assist in exhausting water at the bottom of the appa- 20, 32 S 60. 40' 20* 0. 20* 40' 60. 80' N ratus thus increasing the flow through the confIgura- LATITUDE tion. The present mechanism does not require extreme Average Surfac,e Temperature, Salinily, and Density Variation with Latitude for .11 Oceans temperature differences, and therefore can be located close to shorelines near most major cities. This serves to FIG. 4 minimize the length of electrical transmission lines. The present invention does not involve cold water pipes, Salt water weighs 64 lbs. per cubic feet. Fresh water evaporator, condensers, or steam turbines. The heat weighs 62.428 lbs. per cubic feet. Both weights are at exchanger is an inexpensive cooling tube which serves maximum density W C = 392 F). A similar difference to limit biofouling and corrosion. exists between the surface salinity and the salinity at a 1000 foot depth in the ocean. The three parts per thou- sand average difference is enough to change the ocean's balance of weight and pressure for a small area above HOW DID IT START and below the exhaust level without affecting the sur- face temperature or salinity content. (See Temp. vs. The most often asked question of the inventor is Weight charts Fig. 5 and 6.) "Colorado doesn't have an ocean; how did you get the idea?" The device should have no effect on the environment. In 1982, while fishing in Alaska, and after watching a Some fish may seek a different level or may move away new Hydro Electric Plant come on line, it dawned on me from the exhaust effected area. Persistent digging found that if an empty tube were sunk vertically in the ocean. the perpetual salt fountain. However, science labeled it water would fall toward the center of the earth and a oceanographical curiosity because no one could figure could generate electricity. All I had to do was figure out how to benefit from its oozing slow flow. The Hydro Well how to get rid of the water as fast as it fell. A sixth sub- had found its first tools, heat salini1y and densily as conscious mechanical sense told me there was a way. additional forces that would help to overcome the losses Research revealed that this "hole in the ocean" had in the system. thus helping to exhaust part of the water. been used by professors teaching physics and engineer- Another lost discovery. dates back to the early 1900 ing to illustrate the first and second laws of thermody- when Hydraulic Air Compression (HAC) was invented namics. Due to friction loss the falling water can't gen- and used to run mining equipment. Falling fresh water erate enough power to pump that same water back to entrained with air bubbles compressed the air so that 1041 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION G4, 3 i-DEMSITV OTEC 3.2-9 2=DENSITY H.O.PUB. 607 A generally cylindrical casing (6) housing the apparatus 64.2 2 _,___-2 extends vertically from the surface down into the ocean. A depth of 1000 feet may be used as an average length E for the apparatus based on other hydro electric plants. 164.1 1H The apparatus may be held in place by moorings T attached to the ocean bottom. Past research suggests L SB 64 that concrete or polyvinyl chloride may be the most cost-effective materials for the apparatus. A cone- C .-S 5@L shaped top extends from the upper end of the cylindri- F cal casing. above the high tide and wave limits, to afford T __1 ------ easy access to the equipment located inside the casing -------- for servicing. Open-grate platforms located inside the casing add strength and support equipment where 63.7@__, needed. The optimal diameter of the cylindrical casing 21 5 13.7 11.5 9.2 7.7 6.4 t@,_85.3, TEMPERATURE DEGREES C. - 7/21/881 and the water intakes (2) are determined by tide. cur- rent, and wave conditions. In particular, the'screened FIG. 5 water intake (2) must not allow warm surface water to enter faster than is available. Fig. 5 shows heat loss effect of.salinity anddensity d .ue to deletion 1 Prior to commencing operation of the apparatus, the compared to penstock confined water 2. separation chamber (15) must be pressurized with air before water Is allowed to enter the water intake (2). ----- TEMPERATURE VS SALINITY VS DENSITY COMPUTATIONS ------ Operation of the apparatus is commenced by allowing water to enter the water intake (2). The water is then REV. 1 5/30/86 drawn by gravity through the penstock (5) to drive the --NOTE--DATA FOR TEMP. VS SALINITY FROM OTEC B-4F NEW ORLEANS reaction type turbine (9) and electrical generator (8). DATA FOR TEMP. VS DENSITY FROM H. 0. PUB. 607 Air flows through the air intakes (1), and is added to DEG DEG SALINITY SALINITY [email protected] SALINITY [email protected] DELTA the flow of surface water in the form of small bubbles by C F NO DENSITY DENSITY WEIGHT WEIGHT WEIGHT the venturi effect at the air induction vortex (3). The 30.5 P6.s 36.36 1.0236 1.02'@ 63.9027 63.8652 -.0375 screened amount of air entering the vortex is regulated 27 81 36.3 1.023S 1.0238 63.89G4 63.9152 .0166 25 77 36.3 1.0235 1.0244 63.9S64 63.9526 .0562 to equal the amount of air being exhausted from the 22.5 72.5 3 .3 1.0-35 V-51 63.$964 63 9963 .0999 6 1235 1 appara 20 68 36. @, 1:0259 63.8964 64:0463 .1499 tus. Only as much air is entrained as necessary 17.5 63.S 365.24 1.023S 1.0265 63.8964 64.0837 1873 to stabilize the water level in the separation chamber Is 59 35.99 1.9232 1.0272 63.8777 64.1274 :2497 12 .5 S4.5 35.6 1.0227 1.0277 633.$465 64..IS86 .3121 (15). When the jet of air bubbles is activated the air I I 0 50 35.2 0-23 .0284 63.a2lS 64.2023 .3909 7.5 45.5 35 1. 022 102 6 63 8028 64.2146 .412 induction vortex allows the maximum amount of air to 5 41 3A .68 @.0217 1:0298 63:7B4 64.2398 .4559 be entrained. The air trapped in the falling water is NOTE WEIGHT IS IN LOS/CFT compressed as it is pulled downward by gravity through FIG. 6 the penstock, as the air bubbles are isothermally com- pressed they become smaller and colder helping to cool Fig. 6 shows the delta difference between ocean and Hydro Well the penstock water from the inside. The penstock below water at varied degrees. the turbine has an increased diameter to avoid back pressure in the turbine. The flow of water and air then when separated at the bottom of a shaft the air could enters the cooling tube R 1) which spirals down and power pneumatic tools. Would salt water compress air around the outside of the separation chamber (15). Heat the same as fresh water? More tools, ZmM vacuum flows from the warmer water and air in the cooling tube and air. I consider the air chamber as the source of still to the ambient ocean water, and to the water flowing another force capable of lifting some of the water from - @ upward through the upwelling tube (14) located between the reservoir at the base of the Hydro Well through the the cooling tube and the outside surface of the separa- air lift princiMl. tion chamber (15). The flow of water and air then enters Ocean pressure decreases as you rise. However a ver- the separation chamber (15) over a separation cone (16). tical pressurized tank (the air chamber) has the same The compressed air in this flow then separates. rises, pressure at the top as at the bottom. The simple differ- and pressurizes the separation chamber (15). This cold ence between air and water pressure is that air bubbles dry air has been compressed to the same pressure as released from the tank could pull water up through the the ocean depth pressure opposite the separating cone upper exhaust. Another tool, pressure and buQyangy. (16), less any unintentional losses. Yet another phenomena that has been known since The water in the separation chamber is essentially at before Christ that is when fresh water and salt water the same temperature as the ocean at that depth, only are separated by a membrane the fresh water (lighter denser because of its higher salt content. A density dif- density) flows through the membrane, raising the salt ference exists. The upper portion is continuously mov- water. Another tool osmosis. ing and releasing trapped air that didn't separate over Why does cold water move toward warmer water when the cone. This air rises to the surface while the water the heat is moving in the opposite direction? Another flows out of the lower exhaust manifold R 7) because it tool thermo syphon. . , j . I is denser than the ambient sea water at that depth. Still solar heat is the main tool for all OTFC'ss'The The upwelling tube (14) is also used to remove water Hydro Well should be no differentl If the device could be, from the separation chamber. When the salinity and designed to use all of the tools mentioned, would a hole temperature gradients are sufficiently large, most of the in the ocean still violate the laws of thermodynamics? I water in the separation chamber will flow out the lower doubt it. 1042 exhaust ports (17) with only a minimal flow through the FUTURE HYDRO WELL OPTIONS upwelling tube, drawing from the top area of the air chamber. Due to heat exchange between the cooling The potential OTEC market consists partly of tropical tube (11) and the upwelling tube (14). the flow of water islands that have no natural fuel or fresh water. After upward through the upwelling tube is gradually the first Hydro Well prototype is perfected, research and warmed, resulting in a thermo syphon effect. The flow development R. & D. will be concentrated on producing through the upwelling tube can be accelerated by fresh water as a by product. Heated surface water is releasing a jet of air bubbles through orifices (13) into already falling to a cold water sump. With the addition the upwelling tube, using a portion of the compressed of a vacuum evaporator to extract steam and a con- air In the separatf on chamber. Air Is always moving denser to convert the steam to fresh water. That water upward through the separation chamber at a constant can then be pumped ashore. the engineering problems pressure, but it is only near the top portion where it are believed solvable. Another potential market is for exceeds the water pressure in the upwelling tube. Vary- cold water and the nutrients present in the ocean bot- ing the rate of flow in the upwelling tube provides tom water for both fish and aqua culture. The Hydro another means of controlling the air pressure and water Well upwelling exhaust system can be extended to the level in the separation chamber. This exhaust system surface where the cold nutrient rich water would be would not be used during normal operating conditions. pumped ashore. Osmotic power (another ocean phe- However, should the flow through the lower exhaust nomenon) that has not been used in the basic Hydro ports (17) or the upwelling tube (14) slow, the water Well, would be used to mix the bottom water with sur- level would rise within the separating chamber (15). face water through osmosis. Again engineering problems triggering activation of the valves controlling the jet of appear to be solvable. air bubbles in the upwelling tube. Air not exhausted by A third potential is the recovery of minerals from the air jet orifices, as well as any excess compressed air ocean water. A continuous flow of water opens the pos- vented from the separation chamber is released to the sibility that useable mineral can be trapped or extract- atmosphere through the air exhaust tube (4). ed. The Hydro Well will explore all reasonable possibili- It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that ties through continuous R. & D. many variations and modifications of the present inven- tion may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Legal claims have been omitted. HYDROGEN Hydrogen often called the perfect fuel can be produced from the ocean using electricity. It is thought that POWER future offshore stations would include hydrogen making machinery to utilize the off-peak electricity available. Horse-power is created by falling water. Volume X Head X Density. Chart (fig. 7) shows Power vs. Head. Given the power required, salinity, temperature, and ocean depth our computer model will size the Hydro EQUATIONS Well or a group of wells for a location. Research scientists, physicists, oceanographers. mechanical-electrical-hydrology and thermodynamic engineers have all written equations for the invention. About 50% are favorable. The one thing they all have in common is that none of them are conclusivel For this al KOVNO FT 2@"EIID-511" FT 3 =HE.0=5S. FT reason they have been omitted. Established methods of 14151 4=HEAD=600 FT evaluating an energy device do not seem to fit the Hydro Well. Z2380 L0458 ANALYSIS 8608 6758 It is going to take a team of engineers with varied expertise, using computer modeling techniques, to prove 4900 the concept. After which conceptual design, prototype and deployment in the ocean will be the ultimate test. 3050 VELOCITY 30 FT/S 1286 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2* 75 3 SUBUIARY PENSTOCK DIAMETER IN FT. 7/28/881 The invention consumes no fossil fuel, does not pol- FIG. 7 lute and has the potential to furnish most of the Worlds' electric needs without subjecting people to radiation. Fig. 7 shows Horse-power vs. Penstock size. Breaking the barrier of tradition with a invention is diffi- cult. The Hydro Well will have to do just that to gain acceptance. Because traditionally heat is used to create power. The Hydro Well creates power through the cool- 1043 ing of salt water (an opposite of the accepted science). CREDITS AND REFERENCES The turbine and generator are the only moving parts in a Hydro Welll The inventor used basic common The inventor wishes to acknowledge and express knowledge that: (1) Gravity starts at the center of the his gratitude and appreciation, without their help earth; (2) Heat moves one way toward cold; (3) Salt the Hydro Well would not exist today. water is heavier than fresh water; (4) Air changes tem- perature faster than water; (5) Ocean pressure increases with depth; (6) A pressurized air tank is constant. Dale F. Baird, P.E. The Hydro Well is the first. invention to receive U.S. Dr. James Guo, P.E. Patent Offtce approval using sun. gravity, water, air and K. C. Wright, P.E. salt to produce electricity without disturbing natural Mother Nature balances or confidences. King Neptune The 1978 Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act assures cogeneration power producers a market for U.S. Patents their electricity to the public utility companies. This Act #2006985 Claude changed the electric power Industryl Private industry is #4278405 Angle now furnishing most of the growth required. #4311012 Finley The 1980 OTEC Act allows developers of OTEC plants up to 87 1/2% government loan guarantees along with #435513 Girden an accelerated approval system. To date no one has #4597360 Johnson used itl U.S. The Merchant Marine Act 1936 The 1986 Tax Reform Act established a 10% to 15% U.S. Ocean Thermo Energy Conversion Act 1980 business tax credit for renewable energy cogeneration U.S. (OTEC) Senate Report 1980 investors. With rates already set by utility commissions, U.S. (OTEC) House Report 1980 no fuel or ground cost and the tax credit, investors U.S. Tax Reform Act 1986 should do well. Oceanus Salt Power, vol. 22, #4 1979-80 Deep Sea Research, vol. 5, Gordon W. Groves, "Flow Estimates For The Perpetual Salt Fountain", 1959 "Market Potential For OTEC In Developing CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Nations", Lyle E. Dunbar presented 8th Ocean The inventor believes he has found a better wayl The Energy Conference Washington, D.C. 1981 - Hydro Well produces its electricity below the surface of "Experimental Investigation of (HAC)", American the ocean with only 10% of the water required for (OQ Society of Mechanical Engineers, Nov. 1982 OTEC at a cost of less than 20%, but with all of the ben- (SERI) Thermoeconomic Optimization of (OC) efits associated with this renewable energy source. As a OTEC, Electricity and Water Production Plants, one-man force without the benefit of laboratory or ocean May 1985 test site, the inventor recognizes the amount of work (SERI) A 165KW (OC) OTEC Experiment, Benjamin that will be required to confirm his concept and design, Shelpuk, June 1985 to bring the Hydro Well to model. prototype, and pro- (DOE) Federal Ocean Energy Technology Program, duction. he believes the rewards are there and as every fy85-89, Dec. 1985 inventor dreams, the Hydro Well will make the world a (SERI) Environmental Impacts of OTEC, April 1985 better place to live. He is seeking the right U.S. compa- (SERI) Energy Transfer Using Natural Convection ny to model, design and test the prototype and market Boundary Layers, Ren S. Anderson, April 1986 the Hydro Well world-wide. (SERI) Potential of Proposed (OC) OTEC Experiment to Achieve Net Power, Harold F. IAnk, Brian K. Parsons, June 1986 Scientific America, "Power of the Sea!', Terry R. Penny and Desikan Bharathan Jan. 1987, vol. 255 - #1 American Society of Mechanical Engineers Current Practices and New Technology in Ocean Engineering, Feb. 1987 (SERI) Heat Transfer Research For OTEC, Frank Kreith, Desikan Bharathan, March 1987 1044 FIRST PRODUCTION OF POTABLE WATER BY OTEC AND ITS POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS* Anthony Thomas and David L. Hillis Argonne National Laboratory Argonnev Illinois 60439 ABSTRACT Interest in OTEC revived in the early 1970s as renewable sources of energy were more closely An experiment -- the Heat and Mass Transfer examined as a possible means for offsetting future Scoping Test Apparatus -- was built to obtain energy shortages or increasing cost of energy from design data for a larger test that will assess the fossil and nuclear fuels. The technical feasi- technical feasibility of the open-cycle OTEC bility of the OTEC principle was demonstrated in process. (The closed-cycle concept was success- 1979 by a consortium that included the State of fully demonstrated in 1979.) The DOE-funded Hawaii, Lockheed, and others.(I)'k* The experi- project is a joint effort between Argonne National ment, installed in a converted navy barge anchored Laboratory (ANQ and the Solar Energy Research two miles off the west (Kona) coast of the island Institute (SERI). The appparatus was erected at of Hawaii; produced 53 kW gross and 15-18 kW net the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii and became with a closed-cycle system using ammonia as the operational in the summer of 1987. It is used by working fluid. both ANL and SERI to conduct open-cycle OTEC experiments. After initial debugging, it produced OTEC CYCLE OPTIONS 350 gallons per hour of potable water having a salinity of 86 ppm, one-fifth that of local tap Closed-cycle OTEC plants operate according to water available at the test site. the same principle as conventional nuclear or fossil-fueled power plants. Tropical ocean water is used to evaporate a working fluid such as ammonia,*** just as nuclear fuel or coal is used BACKGROUND to produce steam in a conventional steam boiler. The vaporized ammonia drives a turbine-generator Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a to produce electrical power as shown in Fig. 1. process for converting solar energy collected in The low-pressure ammonia discharged from the ocean water into electricity by utilizing the tem- turbine is condensed in a surface condenser using perature difference between the warm upper layer cold water drawn from a depth of 600-1000 meters of tropical oceans and the cold ocean depths. below the surface. The condensed ammonia is then Three forms of OTEC have been studied by the U.S. pumped back to the evaporator to begin the cycle Department of Energy (DOE): closed cycle, open again. This continued cycle of boiling and con- cycle, and hybrid cycle. Of these, the latter two densing a contained working fluid to produce power (open cycle and hybrid cycle) are capable of is commonly called a Rankine cycle. This cycle producing fresh water as a by-product. cannot directly produce fresh water. In 1881, the French scientist J.A. d'Arsonval The open cycle is the one that Claude tried in proposed the idea of tapping the thermal energy of Cuba and is shown schematically in Fig. 2. In the oceans. In 1926, the French engineer Georges open-cycle OTEC, warm seawater is flash-evaporated Claudep well-known for his invention of the neon into low-density steam in a vacuum chamber. The light and his pioneering work in cryogenics, began steam passes through a large-diameter, low- devoting his efforts to making OTEC a reality. In pressure turbine to produce electrical power. To 1930, he succeeded in producing 22 kW of elec- tricity in an open-cycle plant built on the Cuban coast. Because of the technological limitations of the day, his equipment consumed more power than **Numbers in parentheses refer to references it producedt and the project was abandoned. cited at the end of the paper. ***The temperature range for OTEC is comparable to that for many refrigeration systems. Thus, *Work supported by U.S. Department of Energy, refrigerants such as ammonia and the Freons are Assistant Secretary for Conservation and used with closed-cycle OTEC because their Renewable Energy, Wind/Ocean Technologies physical properties are suited to thermodynamic Division, under Contract W-31-109-Eng-38. cycles operating at these temperatures. CH2585-8/88/0000. 1045 $1 @1988 IEEE DISCHARGE AMMONIA TURBINE/GENERATOR WARM WATER IN WATER TO SEA TURSOCIENERATOR + AMMONIA VAPOR NH3 NH3 VACULIM FLASH PORATOR E APOR VAPOR _N AM CONDENSER EVAPORATOR AMMON CONDENS t AMMONIA LIQUID DISCHARGE COLD WARM WATER WATER TO SEA WATER IN @-I- NH 3 AMMONIA VAPOR PRESSURIZER VENT CONDENSER (Boiler Feed Pump) A ONIA LIQUID NH LIOLTID NH3 MULTFSTAGE COMPRESSORI- 3 CONDENSATE DESAILINATED WATER -La- Fig. I Schematic for Closed-Cycle OTEC WARM WATER PIPE COLD WATER PIPE Li Fig. 3 Schematic for Hybrid-Cycle OTEC POWER o A commercially available ammonia turbine can be used to produce electrical power. The VAPOR open cycle requires a large-diameter low- fVAPORN pressure turbine, which has yet to be developed and remains a major unknown. o Condensation takes place at a higher COLD COLD SEAWA ER SEAWATER pressure, increasing the fraction of thermal IN OUT energy that can be recovered and also WARM WARM VACUUM PUMP NO - reducing the parasitic-power requirements SEAWATER SEAWATER CONDENSABLES for removing noncondensable gases. OUT IN o The power/water ratio can be adjusted to meet local requirements. DESALINATED WATER The hybrid cycle has an advantage over the closed cycle in that it is capable of producing fresh Fig. 2 Schematic for Open-Cycle OTEC water. SITE REQUIREMENTS complete the cycle, cold seawater condenses the steam either through direct mixing (the method Although earlier U.S. studies were based on used by Claude), or by condensation of the steam large (250-400 MW) plants located on floating on a heat-exchanger surface (as indicated i ' n platforms that might be miles out to sea, recent Fig. 2). The surface-condenser option can have design studies (3) have concentrated on smaller the added benefit of producing fresh water as a (10 MW) shore-based plants suitable for small, by-product of electrical power generation, as the island markets. There are some very specific condensed working fluid is essentially distilled requirements for a shore-based OTEC plant, some of seawater. This fresh-water option may be which are listed below. especially attractive in the small island markets where OTEC may first be commercialized. The major o A source of warm, nonpolluted surface emphasis of the Department of Energy's OTEC seawater relatively close to shore. The program is currently on the open-cycle system, mean annual water temperature should be at which has yet to be proven in principle by a least 25'C. This temperature is typical of successful generation of net electrical power. tropical locations. A third concept, which is now in the design- o A steep offshore slope that reaches depths study phase, is called the hybrid cycle (2) and of 600-1000 meters within a few kilometers combines desirable features of both closed-cycle of shore. Since water temperatures at these and open-cycle OTEC. It produces fresh water as depths are the same worldwide (about 5*C), in the open cycle and power as in the closed the temperature difference will be about cycle. It is shown schematically in Fig. 3. The 20*C, the minimum considered necessary for hybrid cycle has several important advantages over OTEC. the pure open cycle: AMMONIA VA OR 3 H P@ A 0. t P Jr. 0@1:. A @1. R E; AM:ON_ PQRAIOR Lio. AMM.N] $@MO MULNIA @AORC.Mp QN.AV,P U_ ,_.,A.. @0- 1046 � An onshore site close to the water that is needed for -the design of a planned systems suitable for major construction activities, experiment -- one that will produce 165 kW gross including excavation. It is also necessary electrical power and establish the technical that the elevation of an OTEC plant, be as feasibility of the open-cycle process to produce close to sea level as possible to minimize more electrical power than it consumes. The pumping-power requirements. project is under the direction of the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) of Golden, Colorado. � An offshore topography that is suitable for The HMTSTA itself was designed, built, assembled, deploying the cold-water pipe. The current and first operated by Argonne National Laboratory thinking envisions a buoyant plastic pipe on the basis of criteria furnished by SERI. anchored off the bottom by weights. (In Although fresh water has long been produced from contrast, Claude had to use corrugated-steel seawater by the application of an external energy pipe sections, flanged and bolted together.) source, this was the first time the energy source has come from the seawater - itself. Although an An unpublished 1982 study commissioned by external source of electrical power is used to run Argonne National Laboratory identified Len island the pumps in this experiment, an actual OTEC plant markets where OTEC is technically feasible and would produce more than enough power with its own where other conditions appear favorable. The turbogenerator. islands identified by this study were: The figures provide more details on the � Hawaii HMTSTA. Figure 4 is a pictoral drawing showing � Puerto Rico the major components of the apparatus, and Figs. 5 � Guam and 6 are photographs taken during construction. � Jamaica The three heat' exchangers (evaporator, main � U.S. Virgin Islands condenser, and Vent condenser) were originally � Phillipines tested at ' Argonne for the closed-cycle OTEC � Fiji program and modified for this experiment. � American Samoa � Barbados As now assembled, the HMTSTA incorporates a � Dominician Republic surface condenser. This is necessary when it is desired to prod 'uce fresh water as a by-product. Other studies (4,5) have considered the water If electrical power only is desired, it may be option and assessed the technical and economic more economical to use a direct-contact condenser, viability of OTEC at many sites world-wide. These which mixes the distilled water vapor directly studies have concluded that there is a large with cold seawater, the process used by Claude. potential market for the simultaneous production Argonne has built and is now installing in Hawaii of water and power in those locations where both a direct-contact condenser using equipment are in short supply. On many tropical islands, transferred from another DOE program. After fresh water has a high market value -- $1.21 to completion of the experimental program with the, $11.36 per 1000 gallons in one of the referenced currently installed surface condenser, the direct- studies. The price for OTEC electrical power contact condenser will be tested. becomes competitive with fossil-produced power when water is -also produced and sold at these Although the reworked surface condenser now prices. Even when electrical power is not installed in the HMTSTA is adequate for testing desired, open-cycle (or hybrid-cycle) OTEC appears open-cycle evaporators and for gathering data attractive for the production of water alone. It needed for the design of open-cycle surface has been estimated (4) that the cost of :fresh condensers, it is not optimized for this water produced by OTEC is about one-third the cost purpose. Argonne is now designing a surface- of fresh water produced by the standard multi- condenser system specifically for open-cycle stage, flash-evaporation process using fossil conditions. . A test unit is budgeted for energy as a heat source. construction in FY 1989. CURRENT RESEARCH Large-scale experimental research on OTEC REFERENCES materials and fouling issues has, since 1981, been carried out at the Natural Energy Laboratory of 1. Owensp W.L. and L.C. Tremble, "Mini-OTEC Hawaiio located near Kailua-Kona on the island of Operational Results." Journal of Solar Energy Hawaii (the Big Island).(6) The open-cycle Engineering, Vol 103p pp. 233-240 (August experiment that produced fresh water at the rate 1981). of 350 gallons per hour was built there in .1987 and is called the Heat and Mass Transfer Scoping 2. Panchal, C.B., and K.J. Bell, "Simultaneous Test Apparatus (HMTSTA). The purpose of the Production of Desalinated Water and Power experiment is to collect data on the performance Using a Hybrid-Cycle -OTEC Plant." Journal of of evaporators and condensers operating under Solar Energy Engineering, Vol 109, pp. 156-160 open-cycle OTEC conditions. This information is (May 1987). 1047 SURFACE CONDENSER EVAPORATOR COMPRESSOR VENT CONDENSER WARM SEAWATER SUMP VACUUM PUMP Fig. 4 HMTSTA Pictoral Drawing J d 016-1 1 Fig. 6 HMTSTA Elevation Showing Tower 5. Dunbar, Lyle E., "Potential for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion in Developing Nations," Fig. 5 HMTSTA Side View Proc. United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi, Kenya (August 1981). 3. Stevens, H.C., L. Genens, and C. Panchal, "Conceptual Design of a 10 MW Shore-Based OTEC 6. Panchal, C.B. et al., "OTEC Biofouling-Control Plant, It Proc. ASME 1984 Winter Annual Meeting, and Corrosion-Protection Study at the Seacoast New Orleanst La. (December 1984). Test Facility: 1981-1983," ANL/OTEC-TM-5 (July 1985). Available from NTISp U.S. Dept. of 4. "Thermoeconomic Optimization of OC-OTEC Commerce. Electricity and Water Production Plants," SERI/STR-251-2603 DE85012129 (May 1985). Available from NTIS, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1048 DELBUDY: WAVE-POWERED SEAWATER DESALINATION SYSTEM Dr. Douglas C. Hicks ISTI Delaware, Inc. 135 Second Street Lewes, Delaware 19958 Dr. Charles M. Pleass Mr. George R. Mitcheson College of Marine Studies Departamento de Ciencias Marinas University of Delaware Universidad de Puerto Rico Newark. Delaware 19716 Recinto Universiteric de Mayaguez Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708 ABSTRACT An ocean wave energy system designed to operational system, producing a steady deselinate seawater, rather than produce supply of fresh water, was deployed in electricity, has been under development 1982. Since 1985, when the patent rights since 1976. The device, referred to as to the technology were acquired, ISTI DELBUDY, utilizes no motors or electronics Delaware, Inc. has been working to value and makes extensive use of engineering engineer the design, generate statistical data for system performance and working polymers for constructing major system lifetimes by means of a series of system components. The research and development see trials, and set up for commercial of the system, initially performed at the production. The first limited production University of Delaware and more recently by run of the system was completed in early ISTI Delaware, Inc., has encompassed wave 1988, with negotiations presently underway tank testing, mathematical modelling, for the first two commercial installations materials testing, component engineering, in the fall of 1988. and extensive sea trials of full-scale prototypes. This paper describes the OPERATING PRINCIPLE system's design and operating principles, the results from both the modelling and sea The system is extremely simple in concept trials, the economics of direct wave- and, being modular in nature, the number of powered deselination, and plans for DELBUDY units deployed can be matched to commercialization of the DELBUOY system. site specific water requirements. A single DELBUOY unit is illustrated in Figure 1, with the preferred six unit array shown in NOMENCLATURE Figure 2. The system comprises a light weight, shallow draft cylindrical buoy a - buoy radius driving a submerged, single-acting positive A - system capture width displacement pump tethered to the seafloor. k - wave number The wave- induced heave and away motions of P - pump damping force the float open the pump for the pressure S - buoyant spring constant for buoy stroke, with energy stored in the natural - average wave amplitude rubber return springs used to refill the system. Clean seawater is drawn into the INTRODUCTION pump through prefilters to remove particulate matter. The flow of A new and innovative approach to the pressurized seawater from the pump is problem of providing potable water to rectified using check valves, with pressure islands and arid coastal regions is the surges damped by hydraulic accumulation. DELBUOY vave-powered seawater deselination The pump output is then passed through the system 11,23. The DELBUOY was conceived in reverse osmosis filter, with approximately 1976 at the University of Delaware where it 80% of the flow returning to the sea as was under development for nine years. concentrated brine and the remaining 20% of During that time, the system underwent four freshwater being pumped to shore through a years of extensive laboratory and computer low pressure plastic pipeline. The large model testing and initial sea trial ratio of buoy to pump piston area enables (supported by HOAA through the National Sea the system to amplify the wave-induced Grant College Program). This was followed dynamic pressure up to the 5500 kPa (800 by five years of research and development P93i) pressure required for the reverse based on feedback from seven full-scale osmosis desalination process. prototype tests conducted at the Dept. of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico As with most point absorber wave energy (sponsored by USAID). The first fully systems, the DELBUOY is omni-directional in CH2585-8/88/0000- 1049 $1 (@)1988 IEEE float and pump. In the event of an extreme storm, a shear pin in the buoy terminations will part before the wave forces approach the operating limi to of the system. This sacrifices the buoy and allows the "expensive" components to remain in safety BUOY on the seafloor. REVERSE OSMOSIS Reverse osmosis (hereafter, RD) may be regarded as a filtering process carried out at the molecular level, in which pure water is forced through the pores of a specially PUMP engineered membrane which will not allow the Passage of ions such as sodium or chloride. The process is more energy efficient than the more familiar demalination techniques of distillation which require a tremendous amount of energy to initiate the phase change from water to vapor. ANCHOR RD differs from conventional filtration in that it Is not a mechanical screening of particulate matter from the process stream. R!V 9__J FILTERS In addition, not all of the feed-water passes through the membrane. A fraction of the water is recovered as fresh (5-50% POTABLE depending on the particular system and -wate WATER feed r), with the remainder passing out FEED of the membrane pressure vessel as a LINE REVERSE'5i@ Sl concentrated brine. As a result, the unit AND ACCUMULATOR is continually flushed and if operated UNITS properly can be run continuously for Patent Nos. 4,512.886; 4A21 A61; 4,326,840, 4,221,550. several years without cleaning This drawing is the property of ISTI Delaware, Inc. and on not be used, copied, (manufacturer warranties of up to 3 years or reproduced without the expressent or written permission of ISTI Delaware, are available). The particle content of Inc. the seawater entering the system is an Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the DELBUOY important factor influencing performance. system. its response to incident waves. It differs from the majority of point absorbers ,YP (6) PLCE described to date in the literature in its use of non-linear damping for the power oS a take-off and its broad band, non-resonant FRESH response. Although attractive in principle, the practical limitations of operating a resonant point absorber system at sea are substantial. For this and other reasons the DELBUDY was designed to be non- resonant. As a result the system can Pun viEw operate efficiently over a wide range of PmPs A" ANcHms m.. saw. .."s wave conditions. Intended primarily for use in the Trade Wind zones the system has been designed to operate efficiently in waves of 0.6-1.5 meters and 3-6 seconds. Two other design features distinguish the DELBUOY system from most other wave energy conversion systems. The first is the placement of the "expensive" component" Buch as the pump, valves and filters well below the air-Be& interface. This reduces the amount of system capital at risk in the high energy surface wave field. This risk Figure 2. Plan view of the preferred is further reduced by the inclusion of a deployment configuration of DELBUOY sacrificial connecting linkage between the systems. 1050 Since the membrane bundle forms a scale models in wave tanks at both the relatively fine mesh mechanical filter University of Delaware and the U.S. Naval which can be clogged quickly by colloidal Academy. To ensure inclusion of all the particles prefiltration is an essential system's nonlinear damping terms, detail component of every system. scale models were fabricated complete with hydraulic cylinder, valves, hoses, and Seawater RO has recently become cost- return springs. Although the physical effective, thanks to substantial progress models were tested with heave only and with in membrane research 13,43. As a result, both heave and away, the mathematical model the conventional (electric and diesel treated only the system's dominant mode of powered) RO industry has expanded rapidly energy extraction, heave. System response over the last decade. Approximately 2,000 curves for both monochromatic and random major RO installations are currently in wave conditions were developed. In operation worldwide, with a combined conjunction with the physical models, a capacity of 560 million gallons per day time-domain computer simulation of the (gpd) E53. Since large area RO membranes DELBUOY was developed. Once validated by can now be conveniently packaged In Small hindcasting the physical model data, the cylindrical pressure vessels the process is mathematical model was used to predict modular, with systems ranging in size from system performance at full-scale. 102 to >106 gpd. The essential system elements are a prefilter, a high pressure A portion of the results have been plotted pump capable of producing seawater at 5500 in Figures 3 and 4. In Figure 3, time kPa (800 psi), and the membrane package. series are presented for both models at two levels of relative damping under PHYSICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELLING monochromatic wave conditions. The mathematical model's accuracy in simulating In parallel with the engineering of the the system's nonlinearities Is evident. DELBUOY prototypes, laboratory and Figure 4 shows a comparison of the model mathematical models were developed to results under two types of random wave investigate the system's performance spectra. AS can be Been from the data, characteriatice,and efficiency over a range except for the highest level of relative of operating conditions [6,73. Due to the damping the computer simulation was able to nonlinearities associated with the one-way hindcast the results from the wave tank damping force exerted by the single acting tests to within a few percent. pump., linear theory cannot be used to describe the system. As a result, the To assure accurate predictions of system majority of the work described in the efficiency at full-scale the friction and literature for point absorber systems was VISCOUS lose terms in the model were not applicable. adjusted to represent the proportionately smaller values Been in the prototypes. A series of tests were performed on 1/10 Model predictions for the DELBUOY's capture width (the ratio of the effective length of ka -21 wave crest from which energy is extracted by the system divided by the buoy diameter) as a function of the relative damping (the M pump force divided by the average wave force exerted on the buoy) has been plotted in Figure 5 for two types of wave spectra. P/Srl - 0.65 P/SrJ 1.00 As can be seen in the figure the System has a relatively broad band response, enabling the DELBUOY to operate efficiently over a wide range of wave conditions. SYSTEM ENGINEERING V V Although simple in concept, the execution of the design required a substantial amount of engineering. The goal was to design a low cost system able to operate with only annual maintenance for a period of five <1 years. Due to the complex nature of friction, wear, and fatigue an empirical > V_V V approach seemed preferable. A combination 7.00-8.00 9.00 ib.w A-.w co TIMEESEC) of laboratory experimentation under simulated operating conditions . and Figure 3. Time series records from wave- component testing during prototype System tank (- ) and mathematical models sea trials was used. Over the course of showing incident waves, buoy displacements, the project a large body of information was and pump damping forces. generated on the tribology of water 1051 CAPTURE WIDTH VS. RELATIVE DAMPING -Hydraulic cylinder 2 -Large capacity (10 liter) accumulator -Check valves BRETSCHNEIDER -Pipeline (system to shore) -Buoy -Sacrificial linkage assembly -Sand filled dead-weight anchor WHITE NotsE -Cable, pump, buoy, anchor, and return spring terminations The hydraulic cylinder which pumps the seawater through the RO membrane proved to CABLE TO BUOY PISTON ROD SWIVEL 316 SS A PISTON ROD 0 P/Sj ACWTAL GLAND WITH Y 1C SEALS System capture width data fro AND SZMINGS Figure 4. TO POLYMERIC I m INLET AND OUTLET I CHECX VALVES the wave-tank (solid symbols) and (open symbols) models in two mathematical -0- RUBBER RETURN types of wave spectra. SPRINGS - PVC LIUHD EP"Y/GLASS lubricated seals and bearings as well an PUMP BODY the fatigue resistance of both polymeric ACHT"PISTCHI -Fir WITH ELASTOKEHIC and metallic materials in seawater. SEALS Whenever possible commercially available components were used in the DELBUDY system. ETU Spa NG Unfortunately, many were found to be either SHEAVE EW too expensive or unable to withstand the fatigue and corrosive effects of long term operation at sea. As a result, the following components had to be designed r ACIXTAI, PVC, TZ7LON specifically for the DELBUOY system.: AM== FRP TERMINATION CAPTURE WIDTH VS. RELATIVE DAMPING TETHER TO ANCHOR Figure 6. Schematic of the DELBUOY high .2 pressure seawater pump. SRETSCHNEIDER be the most difficult component to engineer. For the sake of brevity it will WHITE NOME be the only component described in detail (see Figure 6). The initial pump specifications were a long stroke (>2 m) to accommodate storm waves and tides, small piston area (13 cm") to amplify the wave induced pressures on the float to the 5500 kPa required for the RO process, and to operate for a period of one year (equivalent to 8 million cycles) without maintenance. The design process progressed slowly in an iterative fashion over a period of six years. 0 A 1.2 To evaluate the wear rates and frictional characteristics of the seawater lubricated P/Sl\ pump seals and bearings, pin-on-disk tests Figure 5. Mathematical model prediction of were performed on a wide range of polymeric the capture width for a full-scale DELBUOY and metallic materials 183. To generate @@SR W. under two types of wave spectra. data representative of an actual operating 1052 PUMP, a seawater lubricated pin-on-disk cable and a swivel incorporated into the test apparatus was developed for the test acetal piston rod cap were designed into sequence. To date the system has logged the system. For the lower termination, a over 5000 hrB. Of the numerous materials cleviB roller was designed using PVC, tested, the combinations of Torlon" acetal, teflon, FRP, and copper-nickel. (polyamide-imide) bearings and carboxylated nitrile seals running against 316 stainless A similar design approach was employed to steel (316 SS) and polyurethane seals on develop the other system components. In PVC where found to be the most general, the use of polymeric materials for satisfactory. Both were found to operate sealing, bearing and structural components for hundreds of hours at the loads and has proven very successful. For the few speeds encountered in the DELBUOY pump with metallic components used in the system, very low friction (<.05) and rates of wear plastic jacketing and minimizing crevices (<.S mm/year). in the design has eliminated corrosion problems. Several designs for the pump body were evaluated; including plastic coated/clad SYSTEM PERFORMANCE steel and aluminum, rigid PVC, and lined fiberglass/epoxy composites (FRP). Of To confirm laboratory results and evaluate these, the FRP was found to have the best the performance Of System components under combination strength-to-weight, rigidity, actual operating conditions, a series of ease of fabrication, and corrosion full-scale prototypes were tested. Over resistance. The high strength and modulus the past eight years nine prototypes have of the glass fibers enabled the FRP to undergone sea trials off the southwest withstand the hoop-stress from the internal Puerto Rico. These trials have permitted pressure, as well as the axial and buckling the accumulation of several years of loads from the pumping and refill strokes. operating and wear data on the individual The plastic liner was installed to reduce components which together form the present the friction and wear rates of the piston system. From this data set accurate seals. Although the two types tested, PVC predictions of both maintenance and neat epoxy resin, were found to give requirements and component lifetimes have comparable results the PVC proved to be been made. easier to fabricate. The moot recent trials of the first The operating conditions for the piston rod production design show that for the and pump body are comparable, however the majority of the components the goal of smaller diameter of the rod required that maintenance-free operation for a period of the material of construction have a very one year has been achieved. Data allow us high flexural modulus. With the exception to predict with confidence a system working of the more exotic composites, FRP was not lifetime of the order of five years. Fresh sufficiently stiff to carry the buckling water production figures collected during loads exerted by the return springs during the last two trials indicate that the the refill stroke. As a result, only metal preferred six pump system will produce in and coated metal rods were considered. excess of 1500 gpd in the design wave Several types of piston rods were tested; field. In addition, the system capture including steel and aluminum with either widths observed at sea have ranged from 0.1 epoxy or PVC coatings, copper-nickel, and to 0.2; this corresponds well with values 316 SS. Of these, the 316 SS proved to be predicted by the mathematical model. the lightest and least expensive. For the piston head, gland and pump ECONOMIC ANALYSIS fittings, acetal was found to afford a better combination of cost, ease of The amount of energy required to desalt a fabrication, dimensional stability, and unit volume of seawater using the reverse fatigue resistance than alternatlves.such osmotic process depends on the type of as PVC, 316 SS, and FRP. Terminating the membrane used, the system size, and the piston rod and pump to the float and amount of energy which is allowed to go to anchor, respectively, proved to be more waste in the high pressure brine returned difficult than anticipated. After a series to the sea. For systems in the 2000 to of sea trials, the most reliable technique 20000 gallon per day (gpd) range using was found to be to pass the cable spiral wound type RD membranes, the completely through the piston rod to the requirement is approximately 40 kwh/1000 back side of the piston head. This gallons [9]. The energy is 'free" in the approach served to keep the entire rod DELBUDY system since all the power assembly in compression and lessened the requirements are supplied by the wave stress concentration and crack propagation driven pump. Therefore, 1000 gallons of experienced by tensile members. To fresh water from DELBUDY will always cost eliminate twisting and kinking of the less than the same volume supplied by a cable, a combination of torque-balanced conventional system by an amount equal to 1053 at least 40 x (local power cost in kwh) The market potential for the DELBUOY is given that other costs are comparable. clear. Although the global need for potable water has become somewhat of a In Figure 7 a comparison has been made journalistic cliche, the world-wide between water costs for the DELBUOY and shortage is well documented 1113. Based on conventional RO systems for a range of conservative estimates, the market power costs representative of Caribbean potential for desalinated drinking water Island communities and system sizes. As exceeds 4.8 billion gpd. In the Caribbean can be seen in the figure, DkLBUOY is cost alone, where 50% of the 32.4 million effective for small installations (< 8000 residents do not have a dependable supply gpd) when the power costs exceed of water 1123, this equates to a potential $.15(U.S.)/kwh. For larger systems the market of >$ 2 billion per year. break even point is at $.20/kwh. In locations where conventional RO systems are CONCLUSIONS driven by diesel the power costs will be 25% higher, making the DELBUOY system more Wave powered desalination can be achieved economically attractive. Having purposely by means of a relatively simple designed the DELBUOY to produce fresh water buoy/pump/anchor system coupled to a rather than electricity leads to major standard reverse osmosis filter. By advantages in both transmission and engineering the system from appropriate storage, as well as the higher market value materials and component designs, the device of an end use product (water) over an is capable of operating with only annual intermediary such as electricity. Other maintenance for a period of up to five advantages of the DELBUOY system are its years. As a result, the device is now modular design and relatively small size. economically viable for use in areas such The number of units deployed can be as the Caribbean. adjusted to specific site requirements. Because the individual units are only 2.1 m REFERENCES In diameter, the fabrication and deployment costs are low, with no special techniques I-Pleass, C.M. 1978. 'The Use of Wave required. It should be noted that these Powered Systems for DeBalination." Proc. advantages have enabled us to test nine Int.Symp.on Waves and Energy, Canterbury. full-scale prototypes at sea during the 2-PleaeB, C.M. 1982. wSeawave Powered last eight years. Most other wave energy Desalination". Proceedings A.S.M.E. Off- devices require large economies of scale to Share Mechanics/Deepsea Systems Symp;@ be cost effective. As a result, only a few 3-Hatauura, T. and S. Surirajan, 1985. groups such as the Norwegians 1103 have "Fundamentals of Reverse Osmosis". The- constructed and tested full-scale systems. ory and Practice of R 0, IDA, No.l. As a consequence most groups have yet to 4-Surirajan, S. 1977. "Reverse Osmosis encounter the real-world limitations and Synthetic Membranesw. National. Res. imposed on their technologies. Council of Canada Publ.No. 15627. 5-Desalting Plants Inventory, 1984. IDA, Cost of 1,000 Gallons of Desalinated Water. Topefield, MA, No. S. Conventional Reverse Osmosis VS. DELBUOY 6-Hicks, D. C. and C. M. Pleass, 1985. *Phy- 36 36 sical and Mathematical Modelling of a Point Absorber Wave Energy Conversion 34 .34 System with Nonlinear Damping," Hydro- 3 dynamics of Ocean.Wave-Energy Utili- M 2 zation, IUTAM Symposium, Lisbon. 30 30 7-Hicks, D.C. 1985. "Physical and Mathe- .J 28 28 matical Modelling of a Point Absorber u "s 0 26 Wave Power Device with Nonlinear Damp- '26 ..24 ing". PhD dissertation, Univof Del. 24 8-Hicks, D.C. and C.M. Pleas8, 1988. "De- 22 velopment and Testing of Composite Plae- 22 7" tic High Pressure Seawater Pump". Proc. 20 0 Nat.Conf, Fluid Power (in print). .18 9-Buras, 0. K. , 1980. "The USAID Desal- -16 16 ination Manualw. USAID, Wash. , DC. -"Harbor Boost for Oscillating Column" 14 .14 10 and "Tapchan Set for Year-End Start-Up". 12 2. 2 6 10 14 Is 20 World Water, Vol.8, No. 2, March 1985. SIZE 11-wWorld Health Statistics". World Health Thousands of Gallons Per Day Organization, Geneva, 1985. Figure 7. A cost comparison between 12-wPlroject Development and Financing in DELBUOY and conventional electric reverse the Water and Sanitation Sector in the osmosis systems; conservative data for Caribbean". Proc. Seminar, PAHO and CDB, shipping, installation, and maintenance Kingston, Jamaica, June 1983. costs for Caribbean sites have been used. 1054 h WAVE ENERGY ENGINE AND PROPOSALS FOR ITS DEVELOPHENT AND USAGE Kenneth P. Melvin 934 Park Street Alameda, CA 94501 USA Ocean wave energy is one renewable source of ABSTRACT energy. Though generally dispersed, it exists in abundance, proximate to populations and/or The Engine is introduced and the scale model test applications where its capture costs are briefly reviewed. Then, a proposal for building a competitive with non-renewable sources at today's prototype for test and evaluation is presented. prices. This is an unfair comparison, of course, Finally, a proposal, including an economic because the prices for oil, coal, gas, etc. analysis thereof, is offered for a small power include neither the costs for replacing them nor station in a remote coastal location. those for undoing the damage to the environment. Like so many others, I find the sea both fascinating and inspiring. When given to thought of the waves' energy, I have often conceived ideas INTRODUCTION for the capture thereof and I usually pursued each to realization of conceptual or technical flaws. Present and future societies' survival, world From its conception, I have known that the Engine economic cycles, nations' economies, third world that I shall introduce herein would work, and development and world health are explicably linked scale model tests along with other work to date to the supply of energy. As we use up our non- bear this out. I am convinced that the Engine is renewable sources of energy at ever increasing significant, that it merits further tests and rates, the need for development of renewable development, and that after such, could be sources becomes increasingly urgent. Now is the economically competitive for providing power to time and it is this society's task to find those island nations, other nations, and remote renewable sources of energy for use 50 years, 500 marine facilities where wave energy abounds and years, and 1,000 years from now. fuel costs are high. FIG 1 CH2585-8/88/0000- 1055 $1 @1988 IEEE THE ENGINE RIGID The need for a reference against which wave motion COUPLING can do work occurs to anyone considering capturing FRAMEMEADER ocean wave energy. An ideal reference would be \ - unaffected by tides, wave direction and wave U-12 height. In the absence of such we usually seek to NON OPERATIVE control the variables through siting and by OPERATIVE MEMBER optimization of design and construction. MY STROKE MEMBER Engine provides its own reference, can accept and extract wave energy from all directions, and is effective through a large range of wave heights and lengths. FLOAT The Engine floats. An array of flotation devices are each connected to an associated energy converter and these in turn are each connected to a common frame (see figures 1, 2, & 3). Wave RIGI action within the field of the array subjects FRAME/ individual floats to successively rising and header COUPLING falling water surface levels as referenced to the draft of the Engine. Thus, the buoyancy forces of approximately one-half the floats support the Engine. The Engine's draft is a function of the FLOAT/ENERGY CONVERTER average wave height within the array. Likewise, the plane of the Engine, as defined by the frame, FIG 3 is a function of this average wave height and with a large array would be nearly parallel to the sea's level surface. The floats are attached to the operating member of their associated energy. converter and transfer the forces of buoyancy thereto. The non-operative member of each energy converter is affixed to the common frame. The energy converters could be: pumps pumping air, water or other fluids for driving an electric generator; pumps supplying seawater to an 0 Cell- based desalination system; or they could be of yet ENG 'NES other forms for producing electricity more directly, reducing gases, etc. When operating @J ___ai 89 8 close to shore the Engine doubles as a breakwater. SHO SERIES OF UNITS AS A BREAKWATER FIG 4 Almost any.wave motion of whatever form within the area of the array causes motion of the floats and thus capture of wave energy. The Engine's operation is not affected by tides and a given Engine could be effective through a large range of wave heights and lengths. It can be constructed to accept and extract energy from waves from all directions. Other than as is required for moori-ng, its operation is not dependent on the shore or seabed, so it can operate in the open ocean. FRAME/CONVERTER SCHEME D When the Engine is constructed as in figures 1, 2 FIG 2 & 3, individual float/energy converter units can be removed and replaced during operation and'as required. 1056 SCALE MODEL TEST Stroke: At 2 gpm we were seeing some 20 inches of stroke and a model, which I shall introduce The scale model was meant as an approximation of a shortly, would predict as much as 21.6 inches of section of a full scale model to 1/8 scale. The stroke. Therefore, stroke was 92% of expected. overall dimensions are 72 inches long by 48 inches wide by 16 inches high. The frame of 3/4 inch Pressure: Iattributed the low pressures to copper tube also served as the suction and several factors. We needed some additional 25-30 discharge headers. For energy converters, I used pounds of ballast. The model needed to be longer. twelve 3/4 inch, double acting, double rod end Better pressure control was needed. The valves, cylinders valved as pumps. The fluid pumped was their reaction time, and the relative sizes of the fresh water. The ellipsoidal floats are of closed cylinders, lines, etc. were factors. Also, the cell foam having R = 4.5 inches and r = 1.5 coupling between the valves and the cylinders was inches. They were bored to receive and bonded to less than desirable. For run No. 19, we moved the the cylinder walls. model to a location nearer the wave generating apparatus and deliberately produced a choppy Testing was at U.C. Berkeley's Naval Architecture surface. Although no measurements were taken, the Towing Basin. The prime objective was to output was obviously higher than with the other establish functionality of the concept and of the runs. Here, of course, the effect of the model's scale model. The model was not instrumented to length was less. any extent. Pressure measurement was by test gauge and its control was by manual throttle Now, for the mathematical model alluded to valve. Flow measurement was by collection and earlier. using a stop watch. Ideal output/converter = stroke x force/period We made a total of nineteen runs. The first seven where: stroke = wave hgt - reset. were for the purpose of setup, i.e., rough trimming, coordination of test personnel's duties, For the model: and acquainting myself with the basin's operation. For runs No. 8 through 18, we observed and took Ideal Output = 1.35 in x 4.0 lb/l sec measurements of the model's operation while @ conv. =5.4 in-lb/sec experiencing waves having amplitudes from .15 feet to .30 feet with periods ranging from .8 second to x 16 conv. =86.4 in-lb/sec 1.765 seconds. For these waves and with the =9.7 watts pressure "controlled" at 1.5 psig, the range of outputs was 1.5 gpm to 2.3 gpm. The output's (Measured output was 1.3 watts or 13% of ideal. curves for 1.25 and 1.5 second period waves are Output pressure would ideally have been 11.25 shown below. psig.) Extending this model to a full scale Engine with .30 - floats having 600 lbs net displacement each, on 1 meter centers and in a sea having waves 2 meters high with a 6 second period: .25 - Ideal output = 60 in x 600 lb/6 sec (per conv.) = 6000 in-lb/sec -.20 - =680 watts Such an Engine in these seas would remove 180 kw/km in the first row. An Engine ten rows deep w.15 - with each succeeding row removing 80% would remove 3,035 kw/km. lo- PROPOSAL rOR A PROTOTYPE .05 - There are, as I see it, two plausible ways of proceeding with the Engine's development. One is 0 to do extensive scale model testing. The other is 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 to design and build a full scale prototype. Both would involve developing and testing full scale GPM float and energy converter components at dockside. Herewith is a brief evaluation of the test I am much a proponent of the prototype results: development. The concept works and I think that the efficiency problems could be solved by drawing Output: As one would expect, output was directly on technology, mathematics and even invention. proportional to wave amplitude and inversely so to The questions of component -and material period. suitability may not lend themselves well to 1057 solution with scale model testing. Further, th ere existing utilities.' I have rearranged it to what is a question regarding the transferability of I believe to be a more easily understood form. information -and technology 'from scale model testing to a full scale unit operating at sea. The final figures used for comparison, i.e., Finally, beyond the question of return, I believe Capacity Cost, Fuel Cost and Energy Cost, come out that funding sources would be more impressed by an the same. at-sea demonstration with obvious output. The calculations are based upon energy converter My proposed prototype would consist of a float units of this description: sectionable frame and energy converters. . Fluid power output (without conversi.on, to electrical) Distance between centers = 2.00 m would be measured at this phase.' Float diameter = 1.80 m Float height .66 m The frame is to be constructed in six connectible Cylinder length = 2.30 m sections. Each section isto be 24 ft by,12,ft by Rod length = 4.60 m 4 ft, 'to be constructe .d. -of 3 in by 3 tn tubular Net displacement = 3,300 lbs steel-serving doubl,y. . as suction and discharge Operative member weight 260 lbs headers and 'provide connections for eighteen Total converter weight 500 lbs energy converters on .4 'ft, ce.nte@rs.. Regarding the average wave height and period and There',are to be se7v.enty-two operative energy their effect on the "Plant Factor" used in the conve 'rters of test-proven design and,thi rty-Awo. analysis, I want to specify site conditions as dummy converters for: 'maintaining tri,m and for follows: flexi,bil :ity of config iuration. Waves/period Days/year ESTIMATE OF COST: 3-5 m/6.6-8 sec 91 I. Engineering & Development 2-3 m/6-6.6 sec 91 1-2m/ 4-6 sec 91 Salary & IExpens es '$78,000 <1,m/ <4 sec 92 Machine Shop Do6kside Testing 5,000 The energy output profile of a column 10 rows deep, $ 880000 for these waves listed using the model, output stroke x force/period, would look like this: II. Fabrication & Assembly .! I First Quarter = [(90 in x 3300 lbs)/7.3 sec]/4M2 Frame $75,000 Energy Converters: = 10,171 in-lbs/sec/M2 72 @ $500 36,000 32 @ $150 4,800 = 1.149 KW/m 115,800 Column O.utput/m = 10* x 1.149 KW/m III. Sea Test = 11.49 KW/m Tugs: 2 @ $700/hr x 48 33,000 Second Qtr = [(78 in x 3300 lbs)/6.3 sec]/4M2 Dynamometer 5,000 Video Recorder 2,000 = 1.154 KW/m 40,600 Column Output/m = 6.5* x 1. .154 KW/m Total: $244,600 = 7.50 KW/m PROPOSAL FOR 1 NW POWER STATION WITH AN ECONONIC ANALYSIS Third Quarter = [(40 in x 3300 lbs)/5,.O sec]/4M2 The Engine would be 340 m x 20 m with 1,700 = .746 KW/m operative energy converters and be situated in an Column Output/m = 3.35* x .746 KW/m area with waves from 1 to 3 m high nine months of the year. = 2.5 KW/m The size and configuration of an actual Engine Fourth Qtr 0 would, of course, be factors of site choice and of the information gathered from prototype operation. The format used for the economic analysis is based Energy absorbed per row varies with wave height. on an accounting method developed,by the Federal I Economics of Wave Energy Conversions, Energy Regulatory Commission for comparing the Utilization of Ocean Waves--Wave to Energy costs of alternate energy sources with those of Conversion, McCormick & Kim, Ed., ASCE, 1987. 1058 Average output/col/m = Capacity Costs: 1st Qtr + 2nd Qtr + 3rd Qtr + 4th Qtr Fixed Charges $ 669,900 4 Operaring Costs 544 '850 $1,214,750 11.49 + 7.5 + 7.46 +0 4 Capacity Costs/KW: $1,215 6.61 KW/col/m Capacity Costs/KW net: $1,215 with allowance for 10% failure Fuel Costs: $000 .90 x 6.61 KW/col/m 5.949 KW/col/m Energy Costs: $1 '215/KW 8760 hr/yr 139 mills/KWh Number of columns for 1 MW = 1 x 103 KW/MW 5.949 KW/col Lo the might sea! Or, survivability of the Engine = 168.1 in storms. There are sites where storms are so furious, construction cost might prohibit = 170 consideration. Having said that, construction cost would and should be evaluated when seas don't ,Therefore: Length = 340 m approach such majestic levels of ferocity, I know Width = 20 m of some things which could improve survivability, under these extreme conditions. When a unit spans one or more wavelengths the mooring forces-are Capacity Costs Fixed Charges + Operating Costs reduced. The upwards shock, in the main, is absorbed in the energy converters (pumps), and the Fixed Charges Investment x Capital Costs/Exp frame in aggregate can flex. The unit operates at overall neutral buoyancy, so ballast and trim Investment: tanks could be used to produce total or partial submersion during violent storms. Winching down Frame $2,400,000 of smaller * units merits evaluation. Such Energy Converters: approaches should be compared to "Hell for Stout" 1700 @ $600 1,020,000 construction. The unit has a low profile Turbine & Generator .500,000 (navigational marking is requisite) and its wind Mooring 480,000 loading factor would be less than that of a Cable 1,20,000, comparable sized loaded barge. Cable Laying 100,000 $4,620,000 Capital Costs/Expenses: Cost of Money 10.50% Depreciation 1.00 Insurance .50 Taxes 2.50 14.50% Fixed Charges: $4,620,000 x .145 = $669,900 Operating Costs = Operation & Maintenance.+ Administration Operation & Maintenance Costs: Energy Converters: 1700 @ $150 $255,000 Frame 120,000 Cable 12,000 Mooring 24,000 $411,000 Administration & General Expenses: $411,000 x .35 = $143,850 Operating Costs: Oper & Main Costs $411,000 Admin & Genl Exp 143,850 $544,850 1059 SrAys ROL -9rOA 'r @.MH a yj ip"A 5 (Pumps ENGINE AS ORIGINALLY CONCEIVED FIG 5 1060 WAVE FOCUSING BY A SUBMERGED PLATE liviaki Kudo*, Tatsunosuke Tsuzuku* lanji lsai** , Yoshinobu Akiyama*' Japan Marine Science and Technology Center Natsushina-cho 2-15, Yokosuka, Kanagava, Japan Kajiva Institute of Construction Technology Tobitakyu 2-19-1. Chofu, Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT JAMSTEC is also engaged in the R& D of construction technology for marine control structures using electric Some fundamental research results are presented for current generated from this wave power and the resulting the wave focusing phenomenon by a submerged plate electrodeposit [11 placed horizontally in a natural sea environment. Two types of horizontal plates,which are termed as a convex A horizontally submerged thin plate is conceived as and a crescent ones in the present paper,are investiga- a new type of structure for controlling the natural ted both theoretically and experimentally. A Green wave field. The plate is assumed to be located at a Function Method using the Doublet Distribution -is first certain.depth from sea,, surface,in deep water. Its explained based on the assumption of a thinness of the shape is defined similarity to the cross section plates in order to interpret the wave pattern around of an optical focusing lens(Fig'.1). the plates. Next,a simple, shape design method that can attain maximun efficiency in focusing waves is propo"d This paper concerns with hydraulic model experiments based on the simple wave-ray theory. A shape of plate on wave focusing phenomenon by the submerged thin determined by the present design method ( a crescent plate. The comparison between experment and type of plate ) is investigated experimentally on theoretical calculation is shown. whether it indeed has a predicted capability of wave concentration or not. Succeedingly, how the change of incident wave angle influences the wave concentration phenomenon is briefly discussed. Sea Viewing @Tower INTRODUCTION Yacht Harbour- About 74% of the Japanese coastline faces the open sea or has bays opening out,to it. The utilization of those coastlines is restricted due to high waves, _Utili ation of. i sh Nursing' drifting sand and the strong diffusion phenomenon, Facility all of which cause coastal erosion. Utilization of P,g Calm Sea Sg The utilization of these areas serves to greatly improve Marine Leisuret" Fac i I i ty"- our marine productivity and technologies to control the high waves, to use its energy efficiently, and to coli- p fy, E Wave n N"W struct inexpensive, safe marine control structures are q* 0. Absorber required. Japan Marine Science and Technology Center(JAMSTEC) is Coral Ocean Structure Wave Focusing engaged in the R& D of wave control technology by Device installing underwater structures through which wave (Submerged Plate) energy can be concentrated and absorbed to economically create wide, calm ocean areas. Fig.l. Conceptual drawing of marine control CH2585-8/88/0000- 1061 $1 @1988 IEEE ANALYSIS can be obtained. Prior to explaining the design procedure on the shape a (Q) (-L G (P; Q) ) d SQ (P) of plate, a general analysis method is herein intro- ff, Oz Oz duced to clarify the wave focusing phenomenon. By The Green function which appears in eq. (6) must satisfy assuming that the thickness of plate is infinitely the remaining relations from (1) to (4) and thus can be thin, the Doublet Distribution Method [21 is introduced. written by A set of governing equations can be written for the G(x, y, z; x1, y', z1) present problem defined in Fig. 2 [3] Z-Z' K Z+Z' Plan + + 1K2,K(z+zl) HO(KR)+Yo(KR) 4 ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . +fKlz + 4'l 0 ev dvj IV 2 + (KR) i 1 2 K(z+zl)jo IL +i 2 K e (KR) (8) al where Wove' (x,y,Z) = coordinate of P point (outside of the Side View z plate) Wave (x',Y',z') =coordinate of Q point (on the plate) U y Submerged pioi e R =distance between points P and Q 1 8 1 . . R = / (@_- _x':@i+ -(y- y) I Fig.2. TheoreticalModel and Coordinate system r =V/(X_X1)2+_(y_y1)2+(Z_j7)2 V'Od=O (in Q) 409Z _K,@d=O (on rt) (2) In addition, the functions Jo, Yo and Ho in eq. (8) are aodlaz-o (asz- - oo) (3) the Bessel Functions of its first and second kinds and the Sturve Function, respectively. In order to solve the IR integral equation (7) for the unknown strength 6(Q), v ?(OOd18R+iKOd)-O (as R- oo) , (4) 6q5d/8Z=-69511/8Z (on rs) (5) a conventional collocation method,i.e., division of (R 2+yl) model plane into many small segments and evaluation of the unknown source strength at the centroid of the where all notations appeared in the equations (1) to segment, is employed. Note that in the evalucation of the (5) are defined as follows. Green function and its first derivative, when P = Q, a usual singularity problem occurs so that a special d= diffracted wave potential measure has to be taken to avoid the singularity problem. k = wave number See ref. [41 for the detailed discussion. In any event, R = TX2 -+y2 since the unknown strength of the doublet can be i = imaginary unit determind by solving the simultaneous equations resulting 0 w= incident wave potential from eq. (7) after descretization, the diffracted wave Q = fluid domain potential can be recovered from the descretized form to r t= sea surface eq. (6). It is now all obvious that all the necessary r @= surface of a submerged plate physical quantities like wave height distribution and/or pressure distribution can be obtained by using suitable The unknown diffracted wave potential is assumed to be expressions for them that are related to the total expressed as the following integral form. potential of the wave, i. e. , 0 =Od +Ow. Od (P) A 8(Q)G(P;Q)dSQ (6) Note that all the numerical results obtained from the where afore-mentioned procedure have been on the following assumptions: (5(P) unknown strength of doublet G(P.Q)= Green function (doublet) (a) wave amplitudes are small dSQ surface element of the plate (b) water depth is infinite and (c) plate thickness can be disregarded. By substituting the expression (6) into one of the boundary conditions (5), a following integral equation The validity of all these assumption should be acertained 1062 through comparing the numerical results with the actual notations r and Bo are the distances from the coordinate phenomenon. This would be done in later section. origin to the focal point and the width of plate along y coordinate respectively. A DESIGN PROCEDURE Now, in order to determine the front curve of the plate, In this section, a design procedure for the'shape of let us consider the required time for a representative plate to concentrate waves will be discussed. Of course, wave ray to reach the focal point. Select two repre- a trial and error design method to determine a final and sentative wave rays passing the points 0', A', B', and near optimal shape of plate would be possible by using F in Fig.3. and 0,9,.F in the same figure. Both wave rays rigorous analysis method such as described in the must have the same interval of time to reach the focal previous section. However, such trial-and-error method point at the same time. This condition can be written by is generally quite inconvenient, so that a simple method the following expression. is herein proposed based on the wave refraction theory 01A1 AIB' BIF B0 Y-Bo (wave-ray theory) [5] -+-+-=-+-= Const. (10) CO C Co C Co According to the theory, the wave rays are deflected where Co and C are respectively,wave velocities in water twice,i.e. at the front and rear edges of plate. When and on the plate. By substituting the relation the wave ray is deflected at the rear edge, it is B'F = r - Be into eq. (12), it c.an be simplified to observed that there arises some refracted waves at the 01A1 AIF r edge and disturbs the wave field behind. Therefore, a - +-- -_ Const. plate design problem is herein simplified as follows. CO C C This condition must hold for an arbitrary point A to be a (a) The rear edge of plate is assumed circular. This general point on the front curve of plate. The equation assumption has been' considered not to cause the (11) gives the following general solution. unnecessary refracted waves at the edge. In other X2 Y-rco/(co+ C) I I words,a wave once deflected at the front edge is _F_ - JrCo1(C,+C))1 (12) allowed to pass the rear edge without any alteration rV-( c@r(_co+c) 1 2 on wave direction. Note that the final expression (12) represents the (b) Based on the assumption in (a), determine the shape elliptical curve with its.one of the centroid at the of the front edge so as to focus the wave energy at specified focal point (O,r). It is now theoretically a remote and predetermined focal point once all of concluded that in order to concentrate wave rays at a the incident wave*conditions are givin (see ]7ii.3). focal point, the front and-rear edge shapes of plate must be elliptical and CiTcu.lar respectively. The y obtained shape is qui te simi Iar to t he one of crescent moon so that it is called as a crescent plate in the present investigation. As shown in this section, a simple Lee Side and analytic design formula has been obtained for the F(Foccl Point) shape of submerged plate. Hoiever, note that the derivation is primarily based on the assumption that the 4.0- influence of the diffracted waves can be neglected in Wave Rcy concentrating wave rays.' This of course should be verified through performing laboratory test's. Circle 210- EXPERIMENTS AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS _T I In order to confirm the afore-mentioned analysis and Ell d 11 iPSI design procedure, some hydraulic tests were performed 01 i X -2.0 0.01 @20 in a large wave tank (length 60m, width 20m and depth Sea S- 1.5m) in Kajima Institute of Construction Technology. Two types of representative plates were selected as test Fig.3. Shape determination by the wave models. One is a convex type and the other is a crescent refraction theory type (see Figs. 4 and 5). First of all, let us assume the rear edge curve as In Figs. 4 and 5. the mesh layouts for the present follows. numerical collocation method are dipicted together with the model dimension. The design conditions for the X' + Q-fl' = (r-Bo)' (9) crescent plate is summerized in Table I and the coordinate systems to interpret the experimental @e:sults are shown This expression is an analytical form for a circle with in Fig. 6. its center (o,r) and its radius r-B0 with respect to the coordinate system shown in Fig.3. In eq. (9); the 1P63 Y Number of Elements = 85 Table 2 Experimental and computational con .ditions Number of Nodes =204 Mr,elged Wo ve period Wave height InlidIrl dr@l II B/Xi Case @o te,l depth T H d `1 i (secl i (nn) X d1911el E 1 O@2 -0 5.0 0 0.801 2 0.2 :.2 5.0 0 0.561 X M - - - - - - 3 0.2 1.4 5.0 0 0421 4 0.2 1.2 3.0 0 0 561 5 0.2 1.2 7.0 0 0.561 L= 1.5m 0.2 1.2 5.0 1 80 0.561 0.2 1.2 5.0 1 0 0.561 0.2 1.2 50 20 0,561 Fig.4. Dimension and mesh layout for the submerged 0.15 1@2 5.0 C) _0 561 convex-shaped plate Since all experimental results can not be presented in Number of Elements 78 the present paper, only a few representative cases will YN=ber of Nodes 194 be shown. an The photo 1 demonstrates a typical wave focusing pheno- an I menon when a convex-shaped plate is considered. Waves come from the upper part of the picture and concentrate unit:mm I X on the middle of plate, breaking near the rear edge of 4012 plate. On the other hand, the phote 2 shows the wave Fig.5. Dimension and mesh layout for the crescent- focusing phenomenon by the crescent-shaped plate. shaped plate WAV E C=:> L 0 Y z H photo I Photograph demonstrating wave d Y T, Sub ged Plate th breaking phenomena Column (a submerged convex-shaped plate) Fig.6. Coordinate system and notation 'Ar Table 1 Design conditions for the crescent shaped submerged plate Wave period Ti (sec 1.2 Wove length Xi I m 2.23 Submerged 0.2 water depth In I m 1.0 Water depth Width of B a (m) 1.25 Submerged plate Focol length r lm) 5.0 photo 2 Photograghs demonstrating wave focusing phenomenon un-, %MmI E19. me 7 (a submerged crescent-shaped plate) All experments were performed by changing a submerged depth of plate and the conditions are summerized in Table 2. 1064 In this case, a clear focal point can be identified as In Fig.9, the case in which the incident wave direction the original design procedure has been intended. Wave has an angle of attack 20* is shown together with the height distributions were measured for both shaped and corresponding theoretical prediction. This case was were compared with the corresponding theoretical values investigated on whether the capabillity of wave focusing Predicted by the Doublet source method explained in the still exists or not when wave direction is varied. In Previous section. Fig.7 is for the convex shape case this case too, a distinctive focal zone can still be and Fig.8 for the crescent plate case. In both cases, identified, although its position is somewhat displaced qualitatively speaking, the present analysis method can from the center line of the plate (compara the results predict pretty well the wave height distribution on and in Fig.8). around the plate, regardless of the extremely simpli- fied assumptions involved in the present numerical Expermeri (a = 2o-i Y -3.0 00 5a 100 procedure. In the crescent plate case (Fig.8), note 4.0 14@ '0 that the incident wave height is amplified about 2.8 141 times at a specified focal zone. In any event, it would X be quite obvious that the proposed simple design 2 procedure for the submarged plate. is reasonable in a L4 20 0.0 sense that it can really concentrate waves. 6 4 1.4 12 0 0. Experiment 0 Calculation .1o. @6'06 icy j=1-4 Ml -4.0 H/Hi 60 COIC00tion' (a - 20') Y (m) 1.0 H/Hi 0.8 -30 00 50 100 4.0- 1.0 1.0 1.4 0 1.2 1.8 X p: :: .......... L4 80 D X (c 04 04 0.6 -40 Wave Fig.7. Wave height distribution around Fig, 9. Wave height distribution around a submerged crescent-shaped plate a submerged convex-shaped plate for various incident wave angle (T = 1.2sec, d 0.1m) (T = 1. 2sec, a = 20. 0 a ) -30 Experiment 00 ( 00') 50 Y (m 110.0 A detailed design procedure for the crescent submerged 0.0 A 20 H/Hi-18 plate is now under investigation, too. A design example is shown in Fig.10 It consists of six indipendent x 2 a-/ precast concrete plate members and is supported with -30 many piles. The construction method is also studied Ccicuiwion (a =0') 100 now, and we are hoping to actually construct it at some 30 00 . 50 coastal place in Japan to further verify its function 2 -i=1 4- 08 121 1.2 in site. .0 'a OB 01 06 0 0 08 -30 Fig-8. Wave height distribution around MM a submerged crescent-shaped plate (T 1. 2 see, d 0. 2m, a 0.0' Fig.10. A design example for the submerged plate 1065 CONCLUSION [51 K.Kudo, T.Tsuzuku, K.Imai, Y.Akiyama and T.Ikeda: Study on Wave Focusing by a Horizontally Submerged In the present investigation, a namerical and a design Plate (2nd Report), Journal of the Society of procedures have been proposed to understand the wave Naval Architects of Japan, Yol.162, Dec.1987, focusing phenomenon and to determine an appropriate pp.267-275. shape of plate suitable for wave concentration. Both procedures have been verified through performing some hydraulic experiments with large scales. As the result, the following conclusions were obtained. (1) The two proposed shapes of submerged plate are proved to have a capability of controlling waves. Particularly they possess a capability of wave concentration. (2) A convex-shape plate can concentrate waves on the rear edge of plate. However, it is found that this type of plate always accompanies the wave breaking phenomenon. (3) A crescent-shape plate designed by the proposed procedure can concentrate waves at the specified focal point without any wave breaking@ The incident wave height is increased 2.8 times at a focal point, when all design conditions are satisfied. (4) The present numerical procedure to analyze the wave focusing phenomenon can pretty well predict the wave height distribution around the plate. However, when the incident wave period becomes large, there arises some wave non-linearity such as wave breaking. If this happenes, the numerical procedure can give only a poor prediction. Our research efforts still continue to (a) measuring wave pressure distribution on the plate and (b) developing some efficient energy absorption devisce placed at the focal zone to extract wave energy with maximum efficiency. REFERENCES [1] T.Tsuzuku, K.Kudo, T.Yasuda, M.Honda and T.Ohnishi: Utilization of Electrodeposition from Wave power, Technical Reports of Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 19, 1988, pplll-121. [21 C.J. Garrison: Hydrodynamic Loading on Large Offshore Structures, Three-Dimensional Source Distribution Methods, Numerical Methods in Offshore Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Chapter 3, pp. 87-140. [3] K.Kudo, T.Tsuzuku, K.Imai and Y.Akiyama: Study on Wave Focusing by a Horizontally Submerged Plate, Journal of the Society of Navel Architects of Japan, Vol.160, Dec. 1986, pp.35-43. 14] K. Kudo, T.Tsuzuku, K.Imai and Y.Akiyaina: Study on Wave Focusing phenomenon by a Thin Submerged platejechnical Reports of Japan Marine Science and Technology Center 19, 1988, pp.123-143. -1066 The Backward'Bent Duct Buoy - an Improved Floating Type Wave Power Device Yoshio Masuda. Michael E. McCormick. Tetuo Yamazaki. in conjunction with Yoshiyuki Outs. Ryokuseisha Corporation. 9-11,Narita Naval Systems Engineering Department Nishi 3 Chome,Suginami-Ku US Naval Academy. Tokyo,Japan. Annapolis,Marryland 21401.USA. Abstract turbine were tested on KAIMEI.These were impulse turbines supplied by Japan and the UK, the For the past 20 years,or so, the wave power McCormick counter-rotating turbine supplied by the electric generator has been used in the naviga- United States and Wells turbine supplied by Japan. tion tail-tube buoy; however,application of the The KAIMEI was tested in the sea of Japan near generator to the other buoy shapes was restrict- Yura. Yura is located on the coast on the ed because of difficulty in fitting an air northern part of the sea of Japan. The sea is chamber in the buoy. quite calm in the summer, but strong west or The Backward Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB) configurat- nor'thwest winds are present in the winter. ion solved this problem. Furthermore,the design The system was moored in 40 m of water. has significantly increased the wave power The moorings consisted of 4 chains at the bow and conversion efficiency over the tail-tube buoy. 1 slack chain at the stern. This mooring configu- The BBDB is applicable to navigation aids ( ration allowed KAIMEI to adjust to changes in wave including light buoys,lightships), telemetering and wind directions. In addition, a soft power buoys, military warning buoys, and other utility cable line was connected to land through buoys. It can 'also be used as offshore underwater cable. station-keeping buoys,with or without moorings. By up-scaling the BBDB, floating wave power gene The KAIMEI project extended approximatly ten -rators are created that can supply power to years from the time of construction to the end of both island and coastal communities. The energy the sea test. The hull was found to be in excelleftt costs of such systems is estimated to be about condition after the ten year study. Thinning of 38 yen/KWh for islands in the subtropic zone and the hull plating was small except for some pinhole about 15 yen/KWh in high wave power zone such corrosion. The moorings and power cable to shore as the coastal waters of the United Kingdom, all remained intact. The turbines and generators Ireland and western Australa. experienced only minor problems. From these facts, it was concluded that a floating-type wave power device is feasible, but conversion efficiency from 1. Introduction. wave to air output of KAIMEI was not good. A small wave power generator for navigation Hence, a new wave power device is now proposed as aids was developed as a result of a study undert a floating type wave power power system. -aken between 1964 and 1965. In fact, 700 of these wave energy generators have been used in Japan, while 500 have been sold to, the'other 2. The Backward.Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB). countries including 20 in the United States. (a) Background of BBDB. Experiences with these turbines have given conf For a small air turbine system, such as a navigat -dence for both a long life of the wave power generators and a possible up-scaling of air -ional buoy, the shape of the float is limited by turbine for other application. the center pipe as illustrated in Fig 1. 11KAIMEI" was constructed in 1976 by the Japan The center pipe buoy has good stability in waves, Marine Science Technology Center (JAMSTEC), as any spar-type buoy does, but it does not have and its test was conducted as an international good stability in high currents. project by International Energy Agency (IEA). The other buoy shapes, such as catamarans and The KAIMEI is a ship-shaped 11 attenuator" disks,are not compatible with air turbine generat6r a system aligned to the wave direction.) since there is no room for air chamber in buoys' For ship-type attenuator, matching of ship with these shapes. length and wave length is required. The Backward Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB), sketched in The hull of KAIMEI is 80 m in length,12 m Fig 2, is an air chamber bent backward from in breadth and 5.5 m in height (dry) and the wave direction. displaces approximatly 820 Long tons. There are 13 air chambers and 4 buoyancy rooms on the Frontward facing ducts were first studied with no hull, the ch ers-having a total water -plane plans to test a backward facing duct. Since there is no vertical center-pipe the duct can be deployed area of 50 m Four different kinds of air CH2585-8/88/0000- 1067 $1 @1988 IEEE in waters of any depth greater than the draft of mm in width. The middle buoy is a single-hull BBDB the host buoy. In addition, the duct opening does which is 2422 mm and 600 mm in width, and the buoy not face any currents since the buoy 11 keeps on the right is a short tail-tube buoy with under course" because of its design. This means that, water plate. water tank of Comparatively speaking, the BBDB has a low-drag These models were tested in a wave ol'the Japan design. The application of all types of air turbine Ship Research Institute. We will discuss the test turbines to BBDB is possible. The result of BBDB result of the twin -hull BBDB in this report. tests in a water tank are now presented. GENERATOR In the pipe-type model, we tested both a single.- hull and twin-hull . Naturaly, there are TURBINE differences in the performances of BBDB and front facing duct due to orientation. FLOAT Fig I Center pipe When the opening of the horizontal duct is facing wave pouer buoy. backward, maximum air pressure ratios of about 0.5 (for box-type) and 0.6 ( for pipe -type) are obtained. The nozzle throttle ratio for these tests was 1/100. The pressure ratio for front -CENTER PIPE facing duct was only 0.25 maximum. The pressure ratio KAIMEI was only in the range of 0.1 to 0.3, and the air pressure ratio range for center-pipe navigational buoy was about 0.3. BBDB can be GENERATOR expected to have much greater output than the WAVE DIRECTION TURBINE center-pipe buoy or KAIMEI. BUOYANCY The result in Fig 4 shows conversion efficiency from wave power to air output. Fig 2 Backward The wave power is power in pipe's width (1.2 m in Bent Duct Buoy. this case). 100 5 0 .................... .............. ..... . (b) Water Tank Tests. C) Wave tank tests of BBDB were conducted in Japan and Ireland. We shall discuss the Japanese study only. In Fig 3, a photograph of three /* Ld models is presented. 0 ......... 1 1. 5 2 2.5 3 3. 5 4 Have per i o d T ( s e c Fig 4 Conversion efficiency of the twin-hull wk @, @_Sr _7 - BBDB model in the water tank test. 2 oc The solid line in Fig4 shows is for 2.4 m long V@ ek, 'Alp" twin -hull BBDB, and the peak efficiency is about 100 % at 2.3 seconds. @4@ @v Furthermor6, it can be used in short period waves of from 1.5 seconds - 3.5 seconds, but it .................... 7; cannot be used in waves of high periods. Hence, it is necessary to scale up in order to use the BBDB in higher period waves. The dotted line in Fig 4 shows results of up-scaling by a factor of 2 ( 4.8 m in length and 4 m in width which is showen in Fig9). In addition, the water tank test indicated a -M, smaller drag force against current and wave. If the BBDB is adopted for wave power conversion, we can expect not only a good conversion efficiency but also a significantly smaller mooring force. Fig 3 Water tank models of three kinds. 3. The Sea Test. Refering to Figure 3, the buoy on the left ia a We used two buoys for the first at-sea test twin-hull BBDB which is 2412 mm in 1-ength and 1990 The first model was a single hull BBDB with an out- rigger and with no underwater weight. 1068 The second model was a twin hull BBDB of 2412 mm These tests,however, did not give us confidence length,1990 mm width, and the distance between for continued high output of the BBDB; therefore, the two horizontal pipe dvets was 900 mm. a second sea test on an island sea was planned. Both buoys were moored in 20 m of water by The test site selected is near Tahara-chou of 3 small anchors for each. The deployment was on Mikawa-Bay, located on the Pacific side of Japan 20 April 1987. and near Nagoya, sketched in Fig.6. Two days after, both BBDB were overturned by high Nagoya waves(Max-6.5 m) due to a shortage of stability. The reason for overturning was that the center of gravity of the buoy was higher than the center of Ishe-B y 'ka wa-Bay Toyohashi floatation. Additional stability of buoys was then supplied by outriggers for the single hull and by increasing the width of two-floats for the N 6XY P rl twin-hulls. 2S-i Km Km After both buoys were recovered, they were reconstructed to change stability by adding weight T to the lower position of the buoy in order to make the center of gravity below the center of Pacific Ocean. floatation. Fig 6 Test site of the second sea test. Sea test started again on 21 May 1987 and . continued until 17 September 1987. During these The fetch for this tpst site is about 25 Km to the 4 months of sea tests, the two BBDB systems northwest and about 16 Km to the north and opearated as navigational light buoys for a northeast. station&ry net of the salmon fishery. The twin-hull The resulting wave period was expected to be from BBDB of 2.4 m length is showen on site in Fig.5. 2.3 second to 3 seconds, a range most suitable for a BBDB of 2.4 m in length. Two buoy types were * tested: 'The first buoy is a twin-hull BBDB which is showen in Fig.5. The second buoy is a short- length center -pipe buoy with an under water plate. Both buoys for heav ng control were moore on 10 March 1988, and tests started on 12 March 1988. 4 months of data were obtained. During this sea test, we found that we missunderstood the reason for the small electric output. That is, it was not due to the mis-matching of wave period, but was due to the miss-selection of air turbine. In the 4 months test,- period of the first sea test and for half of a month of the second sea test, a Savonius turbine generator was on the twin -hull BBDB.)Buoy. Since the Savonius -valve turbine turbine is one of the simplest non which rotates in the same direction by alternative air flow, it was adopted for our BBDB test. Fig.5. Twin-hull BBDB is opearating on sea. Unfortunatly, the capacity of the turbine was poor, so it was replaced by a mono-valve impulse turbine At the beginning of September, a typhoon passed for the last half-month of the second sea test. the test site and a maximum wave height of 9 m was The electric output increased by about a factor recorded. There were no problems due to these of 3 by this replacement, and reached our expected high waves, and , the system endured high current level. The second sea test finished at begining of (3 Knot max),However. One problem was encountered. July,1988. We now discuss one example of test data. during test, wave period of the test site. Since the test site, Yura, is located in an open sea area, wave period was longer than the expect&d 4. Measured Values. wave period. In Yura test, wave properties were measured using an Ultrasonic type wave probe by The electric output was measured by an amp-hour another organization. The electric output of the meter on the buoy. It recorded 20.4 amp-hours for BBDB was measured by an electric amp-meter on the about 2 days. There was no wave meter during the buoy and was checked in intervals of several days. second test, so we got wind data from the meteoro- For one example, a typical small wave of 0.6 m gical observatory near the test site. The wave data height and 4.5 second period caused the twin hull was calculated from wind data from a local BBDB to produce 2.5 amp-hours per day and L.3-Watt.. meteorological observatory by the Darbyshire method. Table 1 contains the significant wave height H 1/3 High electric output of BBDB in short wave periods Significant wave period , T142, and wave power (2-3 seconds) was obtained during t first tests. per meter (Watt/m) determin by the wind speed. 1069 The wave power per meter is 35.6 Watts/m. Table 1. Estimation of wave by wind speed The buoy which is 1.2 m and the conversion on the test site. efficiency from wave to air is 0.512 as calculated in table 2. The conversion efficiency from air to Fetch 16 Km electric power is assumed to be 0.24 ( turbine 0.6, Wind speed H T Wave power electric generator 0.4) and the generated power 1/3 1/3 is 5.2 Watts. Repeating the same calculation using fetch and wind speed, we obtain an electric power showen in 5 m/s 0. 115 m 2.25s 15.7 w/M Fig.8 for 2.4 m BBDB. 6 m/s 0.17 2.47 35.6 8 M/s 0.301 2.85 129.1 10 M/s 0.471 3.18 354 Fetch 30 Km 20 ... .. ............... T Wave power Wind speed 1/3 1/3 :3 0 0 10 ... ...... 5 M/s 0.17 m 3.26 s 47. 1w/m L 6 m/s 0.245 3.57 107 4J 0 8 M/s 0.436 4.12 391 10 M/s 0.681 4.62 1066 0 5 9, 10 Since wind waves are random, we must assume a Wind Speed (m/s) power spectrum. If the wave heights and wave length follow a Rayleigh distribution, then the Fig.8. Electric output by wind speed of 2 ..4m wave power distribution is showen in Fig.7. twin-hull BBDB on Mikawa-Bay. I 2 0 0 Using this output curve and wind speed data during each hour, the converted electric output was 0 0 calculated to be 220 Watt-hours (18.4 amp-hours,12V 15 for about 2 days. The measured output was 20.4 amp-hours which is 10 % higher than the calculated output. Therefore, we conclude that the output of 0 :3 10 ........ ....... ............ BBDB can be calculated by this method. Throughout these sea tests we gained confidence V L 0 0 to the high-power output of BBDB when a proper electric generator is coupled with a turbine. 5 0 0 In addition, we changed our opinion about the effect of fetch. The BBDB was found to opearate in seas of any fetch, and in random waves. 6 0 1 . . . 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 Wave' p e r i o d r at i o. *TI/3 5. Various uses of BBDB. Fig.7.Assumption of wave power percent by wave (a) Navigation aids. period ratio ( in each 0.1 x T 1/3 Buoys used for navigation aids reqire power The air output from the 2.4 m BBDB is presented outputs from 5 watts to 40 watts. A wave power in Table 2 for 16 Km fetch and a wind speed of range of 50-100 watts is required for 5-10 watts 6m/s. demand. We are testing a twin-hull BBDB of 2.4 m length for this application. This 2.4 m size is suitable for inland seas only. Table 2. One example of calculation in Fetch 16 Km and 6 m/s of wind. We recomend up-scaling by a factor of 2 (5m x T T Power % Conversion efficiency converted percent length,) for navigational use on large inland seas 1/3 and partly open ocean areas. A diagram of the BBDB 1.5 3.7sec 1% 0.05 0 % is sh.-en in Fig 9. 1.4 3.43 5 0.1 0.5 7. This buoy is constructed of 6 mm steel plate, 1.3 3.19 8 0.2 1.6 and the total weight is about 8 tons which is 1.2 2.94 11 0.2 2.2 nearly the same as that of an ordinary'tail@tube 1.1 2.7 16 0.34 5.4 buoy based on the wave period distribution in Tokyo 1.0 2.45 19 0.8 15.2 0.9 2.2 16 0.95 15.2 Bay.the total-conversion efficiency from wave 0.8 1.96 11 0.75 8.3 power to air output is to be 38.3%, and the average 0.7 1.71 8 0.3 2.4 wave power intensity in Tokyo Bay is 0.231 KW/m. 0.6 1.47 5 0.08 0.4 The average electric power calculated is 41 watts Total converted percent 51.2% 1070 (b) Open sea buoy for telemetering, underwater warning,fish gathering and station keeping. Many kinds of buoys for weather telemetering have been developed. These include discu@lbuoy and ship- ------ shape buoys which are the main buoy shapes. The typical electric power demand for such buoys is 2 KW and is supplied by motors or batteries. Hence, wave power is most attractive for this application. If up-scaling the single hull BBDB is by a factor of 10, the buoy has dimensions of 24 m 1600 11 00 length,6 m width and 7 m draft. As showen in Fig 11, 24 m BBDB has a peak conversion efficiency at 7 seconds, and has good 6fficiency for waves in open sea having periods of from 5 seconds to 11 seconds. Therefore, the total Fig 9. 5 m twin-hull BBDB. conversion efficiency in open sea waves is expected to be about 40%, and efficiency of the turbine and This value is four-times higher that of the generator can be expected to be approximatly 12 KW common tail-tube navigation buoy with a wave power in the Sea of Japan. device. 100 In open ocean coastal areas, the total conversion efficiency drcreases due to longer wave periods (8.06% from 389A) , but the wave power intensity itself increases to 1.846 KW/m. The average electric output, therefore, it estimated as.follows 71 watts. c 50 ..................... ...... ........................ The electric output calculated by the same U method as for 2.4 m BBDBO for an ordinary Japanese L-1 navigational tail-tube buoy is showen in Fig.10 with that of a 5 m BBDB. The weight and volume of W, both buoys are almost the same, and the 5-m BBDB has a 6-times higher electrical output than the 0 ordinary L-1 navigational buoy. In adaitionl.'.the, 0 5 10 15 1 Wave period T(sec) drag force will be smaller in high currents and , I . . high waves. We conclude, then, that the BBDB will tu 2 1.9.8 improve the electrical capability of navigational aids by using a factor of 6. Fig 11. Conversion efficiency of L-24 BBDB. 200 For a 5-times up-scaled single-hull BBDB, the buoy 0/ has dimensions of 12 m length,3 m width and 3.5 m draft. The peak period of energy conversion shifts 150 ............................. ..... to 5 seconds, and the total conversion efficiency in open ocean waves is decreased to 19%. The resulting average electric output is estimated to be 2.6 kw. This output should be adequate for 0 100 .................................. each demand on the buoy.Open sea buoys of 12 m to L) 24 m length will be usefull for telemetering i%_- L weather and oceanographic information. The self- 0 power from waves and low drag against current and `e ... towing make the BBDB most desireable for this 50 . ....... ...... W application. -0 Turbine 0 5 6 7 8 9 Wind Speed (nn/s) Fig 10 Calculated electrical power for 5,m BBDB and L-1 tail-tube buoy against wind speed 11 in Tahara sea area inland sea)., Horizontal Duct Rudder 2 1600 @L7 2 @O ..... .............. P P rope I rope I r &motor Fig 12. Wave power propelling. 1071 Another application of an open sea BBDB buoy is The total energy conversion efficiency for these in underwater warning against submarines,i.e., intensities was calculated based on the box for defense purpose. In this application, the buoy -type tank data using wave power distribution data. is either moored, free drifting or -station- The results are as follows. keeping. 24 m in length --- 28.11% for the Hawaiian wave Fig 12 shows one example of a station-keeping condition. BBDB buoy which is from 12 to 24 m in length and 3 36 m in length---43.4% for the Hawaiian area, and to 6 m in width. 37.6% for UK area. The generated power is stored in the battery and Conversion efficiency from the air output to is used to propel the buoy while keeping position electriccal output is 60%. on the ocean with an energized rudder. If the drag Using these factors, the electrical output coefficient is 0.2 for the cross -sectional area averaged through the year) is estimated as of the hull, the average speed of 1.5 knot may be follows. possible by wave power generation. 24 m long buoy --- 131 KW in the Hawaiian area. A technical feature of this system will be a 36 m long buoy ---- 202 KW in the Hawaiian area and capability of propelling itself into the waves. 687 KW for the UK. When these military uses of the BBDB are adopted, Construction costs were estimated by IHI and other the best turbine to use is McCormick turbine, menbers of the KAIMEI study group. These because of the lower self-noise than that of construction costs are estimated as follows. other turbine. Ship hull: Still another open sea use is that of fish 24 m long type--295,000,000 yen gathering buoy. It is knowen that fish gather 36 m long type---383,500,000 yen around buoys, so the BBDB may be usefull for Turbine ------------- 80,000,000 yen. increasing the fish population when it is Electric Generator with control controlled properly. IOOOKW ------------ 100,'000,000 Yen 300OKW ------------ 300,000,000 Yen Miscellaneous ------------- 20,000,000 Yen (c) Large BBDB for Island or Coastal Power Mooring -------------------- 20,000,000 Yen Supply. table ----------------- 20,000,000 Yen Transportation from factory to'Site. The last target of this study is a large BBDB for ------- 40,000,000 Yen island or coastal power supply. One possible design for this purpose is the box Total construction costs shape, sketched in Fig 13. (1) 24 m long buoy --- 575,000,000 Yen The floating system is 24 m in length, 36 m in (2) 36 m long buoy width and 13 m in overall height. The displacement For Hawaii ---- 683,500,000 Yen is about 830 tons for 36 m length buoy, both For the U.K.--883,500,000 Yen having a steel plate thickness of 12 mm. The expenses per year are estimated at 10% of The buoyancy is about 2000 tons, which is more these costs. The generated output per year are than enough reserved buoyancy. (1) 24 m long buoy --- 1,147,560 KWh in Hawaii (2) 36 m long buoy --- 1,769,520 KWh in Hawaii and 6,018,120 KWh in the U.K. The energy cost are estimated to be (1) For Hawaii---18 Yen/KWh 6 M (2) For the U.K.---15 Yen/KWh These costs for the 36-meter buoy are much lower W FV;> than the KAIMEI (350 Yen/KWh); however, more efforts are needed to decrease the energy costs. We beleive that significant cost reduction is possible. 3 n 3 M n) 24 M o 3 __@ r 6m Fig.13. A large BBDB for island or coastal power supply. Wave data in Hawaii and U.K.( two candidate islands) have been studied, and average wave power intensity is 21.6 KW/m for Hawaii and 50.8 KWA for UK. 1072 MODERN ESKIMO WHALING IN THE ALASKAN ARCTIC Helen H. Armstrong and Kevin R. Banks Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region Leasing and Environment Office Anchorage, Alaska 99508-4302 ABSTRACT leen, and whale bone), a central element of ceremonial activities, and the center of many Since the 1960's, subsistence whaling in the religious beliefs (1). Alaskan Arctic has experienced a resurgence due to improved health conditions, population growth, This paper briefly discusses the history of 11cultural revitalization," and a growth in the bowhead whaling and some of the current features local economy. This resurgence has been accom- of whaling practices, technology, and organiza- panied by some material changes in subsistence tion. Subsistence whaling still plays an extreme- whaling. Recently, there has been growing ly important role in the society and culture of cooperation between the Inupiaq (Eskimo) whalers the Inupiaq and Yupik people. Though superficial- and the oil industry that has created further ly altered by the influence of outsiders, Inupiaq changes in the whale harvest. Some of the current and Yupik subsistence whaling has retained its features of whaling practices, whaling technology, cultural significance. The recent cooperative organization, and distribution are described; and program between Inupiaq whalers in the Beaufort the cultural importance of whaling to the Inupiaq Sea and the oil industry is described in this is discussed. It is apparent that, while today's paper as an example of the blend of technological subsistence whale hunting has changed over the adaptation and subsistence whaling. last 100 years, whaling has remained a deeply rooted cultural event. 2. HISTORY OF BOWHEAD WHALING IN THE ALASKAN ARCTIC 1. INTRODUCTION Archaeological evidence indicates that northwes- Native people in Alaska participate in subsistence tern Alaskan Eskimos have been hunting bowhead hunting and fishing activities which are central whales since approximately 500 AD (2). There is to their livelihood and their culture. Among the evidence that whaling probably developed about Inupiaq and Yupik of Arctic Alaska, there is no 1,000 years earlier on St. Lawrence Island (3) and subsistence activity which is more important than around 1700 BC. at Cape Krusenstern on the Chukchi the harvest of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysti- Sea (4). Bowhead whaling was not feasible until cetus).1 Pursuit of this animal has long been a village populations were large enough to sustain a focal point of their culture. Whaling has sufficient number of whaling crews necessary to provided a major food source, a means of achieving participate in a cooperative bowhead hunt (5). A status and prestige, and has created bonds and cooperative social system developed in whaling kinship ties within and between villages. The villages in these areas through the extension of bowhead has been a source of resources (oil, ba- kinship, hunting partnerships, adoption, and the karigi, or men's associations, and created a means of distributing such 1.arge quantities of food and raw materials (6). Forty to fifty tons of food 1The bowhead whale harvest continues today in and raw materials were shared when the bowhead was nine whaling villages. Gambell and Savoonga are caught. located on St. Lawrence Island; Wales is on the Seward Peninsula on the Bering Strait; Kivalina, A limited whaling culture developed during the Point Hope, and Wainwright lie on the Chukchi Sea early Thule tradition at the present-day whaling coast; and Barrow, Nuiqsut, and Kaktovik are on village sites on St. Lawrence Island, and at the Beaufort Sea coast. All of the whaling Wales, Point Hope, and Barrow. Wales, Point Hope villages are Inupiaq with the exception of Gambell and Point Barrow did not practice whaling exten- and Savoonga which are Yupik. The expression sively until climatic changes in the 16th century "Eskimo" is often used as a generic term for the brought an expansion of polar ice which had Native people of the Arctic. In order to be more retreated about four hundred years earlier. These specific, Inupiaq Ql. Inupiat) and Yupik are used changes created more favorable conditions for in the text of this paper where appropriate. whaling through the spring and fall (7). By the 1073 United States Government work not protected by copyright 18th century the culture of these villages had a conceivable that every adult male Inupiaq in these strong whaling tradition which was extremely well communities was very involved in the commercial adapted to Arctic conditions. whale harvest either directly as a crew member or indirectly by providing food and furs for the The historical period of the whaling villages whalers. begins with the written accounts of European explorers. In the more southerly regions, this The whaling station owners assumed their roles contact began as early as 1728 when Vitus Bering alongside the Inupiaq whaling captains. The visited St. Lawrence Island (8); in the northern whaling station owners retained the baleen and the regions, contact was as late as. the early to mid- Inupiat kept the maktak (whale blubber) and meat 19th century (9). In all of the villages, contact for their own use (15). Payment to the Inupiat with Europeans was only sporadic until the mid- for whaling was usually in the form of rifles, 19th c entury--gene rally considered the beginning cartridges, and other manufactured goods. Shore- of the "historical" period. Until this time,.the based whaling introduced Western goods to the Inupiaq and Yupik people co-existed with the Inupiat and created a demand for firearms, flour, bowhead in a presumably stable ecosystem (10 and other merchandise. Inupiat from other areas were drawn primarily to Point Hope (an Inupiaq In 1848, Captain Thomas Roys discovered the village) and Point Barrow by the promise of trade bowhead whaling grounds of the Bering Sea. The goods and whale meat. They came from as far as whales were oil rich, slow moving, and laden with Cape P rince of Wales and the upper Noatak River. baleen. A moderate-sized 'adult bowhead could Most Inupiat came months before the whaling season provide up to 100. barrels of oil .(one barrel. and whaling soon became a standard part of their equals 31.5 U.S. gallons) and 1,500 pounds of seasonal activity, especially with the decline in baleen. Roys' discovery led to an oil rush in the the caribou population in the late 19th century. Bering Strait region,; by 1852, more than 200 ships The influx of these Inupiat from other areas more had entered the Western Arctic In se4irch':of than tripled the number of Inupiaq whaling crews bowhead oil (11). in Point Hope (16). The bowhead whaling industry thrived until 1880 By the early 1900's the price of baleen had risen when the pric 'e of whale oil collapsed in the face' to more than $5.00 per pound, making an adult of competition with the new, up-and-coming bowhead worth more than $10,000 (nominal dollars). petroleum industry. This was the period of the The extraordinary profits from one large bowhead famed Yankee whalers and communities like New could nearly pay for the entire expense of sending Bedford, Nantucket, and Mystic were, among the a ship to the Arctic to pick up the baleen. By richest towns in 'the United States. The cost of 1908, however, the whaling industry had collapsed Arctic whaling was extremely high,shipwrecks were after the invention of the steel spring replaced common and, together with the near depletion of baleen (17). The heyday of Arctic commercial the bowhead population, Arctic whaling might have whaling came to an end and the whaling stations ended. However, the demand for baleen or "whale- closed. bone" used for buggy whips, corsets' s@tays, and skirt hoops drove up the price of baleen. The According to Bockstoce (18) and Marquette and skyrocketing price of baleen and the decrease in Bockstoce (19), the number of whaling crews fell the number of bowhead whales ultimately were the back to the aboriginal level after commercial factors which brought the, Inupiaq and. Yupik of whaling ended. The decrease of Inupiaq whaling northwestern Alaska into' constant contact with the was related to the collapse in the commercial white whalers (12). whaling industry as well as to. the concomitant decline in the Inupiaq population due to contact White whalers observed that .1nupiaq and Yupik. with white diseases. The entire population of the Aore-based whaling technology . was . perfectly Alaska In Arctic (from Kotzebue Sound north to suited to hunting the bowhead. As the whales Demarcation Point) fell from an estimated 10,000 moved north towards their summer feeding grounds, in 1850, to 3, 000 in 1900 (20) . In 1900 there was the Inupiaq and Yupik hunted them from the leads a measles and pneumonia epidemic that was followed in the ice with their skin-covered boats or umiags in 1918 by the worldwide influenza epidemic (21). and used seal-skin floats attached to a harpoon The population continued to decline until the line to retard the movement of the whale. In 1920's. order to inprove the efficiency of their own operations in the face of depleted stocks of The Inupiaq had never stopped whaling as a bowhead whales, the white whalers began to operate subsistence activity throughout the commercial year-round whaling stations along the northwest period. The meat and maktak were shared ceremoni- Alaska coast (13). ally with villagers as was done in precontact times. The only differences in shore-based In 1885, the first coastal whaling station was commercial whaling from subsistence whaling were established at Point Barrow. Within,the next 12,, the use of firearms, payment for baleen, and years, thirteen whaling stations were established payment for serving on the crew. Meat distribu- between Point Barrow and Cape Seppihg,�. The tion and the whale ceremonies continued in the stations were maintained by a skeleton staff of same fashion (22). After the collapse of commer- whites; the boat crews were made up of Inupiaq. cial whaling, the Inupiaq returned to a strictly At times, there were as many as 60 boat crews with subsistence harvest of the bowhead, although they around eight Inupiaq on each crew (14). It is had adopted the best whaling technologies of the 1074 commercial whalers combined with their own Better information collected in recent years on traditional techniques. Darting guns and bomb- the size of the bowhead population indicates an lance shoulder guns had been introduced to the increasing stock. This, together with studies Inupiaq and were a part of their equipment by the documenting the cultural necessity of bowhead early 1900's (23). The darting gun has a small, whaling, has led to a gradually increased quota of smooth bore attached to the end of the harpoon 42 landed and 45 struck for 1989. shaft. The instant the hunter harpoons the whale, the bore discharges a small bomb into the whale. As a result of the actions of the IWC to limit The bomb explodes a few seconds later, not always Inupiaq and Yupik subsistence whaling in 1977, the killing the whale, but the flight is greatly Alaskan whalers organized to argue their case in restricted. The shoulder gun,. usually made of the international political arena. They formed a brass, weighs about 35 pounds and fires a similar political organization, the Alaska Eskimo Whaling bomb through the air. The shoulder gun is Commission (AEWC), to negotiate the quota. accurate up to approximately 20 yards and enables Through a cooperative agreement with the Federal the hunter to shoot the whale from a distance government, the AEWC is responsible for the (24). Although there have been a few improvements management of the subsistence bowhead harvest. along the way, Inupiaq and Yupik whalers still use The AEWC is composed of one whaling captain from such equipment. each whaling village. In 1931 an international ban on commercial hunting of bowhead whales was instituted by the Convention 3. WHALING PRACTICES for the Regulation of Whaling. However, no limit was placed on the Alaskan subsistence harvest. Modern whaling has retained some of the charac- Subsequent conventions reaffirmed the ban on teristics of the old shore-based commercial commercial whaling but did not limit aboriginal, whaling of the 19th century, but exemplifies the subsistence harvests of the bowhead whale. adaptability of Inupiaq and Yup ik whalers to new Subsistence whaling continued unfettered through- techniques. Today's technology for the whale hunt out the 40's and 50's at more or less stable is based on the technology used during the shore- levels and saw a resurgence in the 60's. Stimu- based commercial whaling period at the turn of the lated by improved economic conditions (the result century. The shoulder gun, darting gun', and of the infusion of Federal transfer payments and harpoon, as 'mentioned earlier, continue to be employment), a general revitalization and interest used. In the 1980's, research was done to improve in their culture, and improved health conditions the efficiency of the hunt through a perfection of and population growth, Inupiaq and Yupik people the "bomb" used. Otherwise, this technology has fielded more and more whaling crews. State and remained virtually the same for almost a century. local government expenditures fueled a dramatic The Inupiaq and Yupik whalers have adopted new expansion of the whaling village economies through technologies such as CB radios to notify other the late 70's, which, in turn, contributed to even whalers when a whale has been struck or sighted, more crews. plastic floats are used instead of seal-skin floats, and they use snow machines to haul umiags As worldwide sightings of the bowhead became and gear onto the ice and to haul whale meiit_ and increasingly rare, an increased awareness in the maktak to shore. Tents and other camping equip- welfare of this species grew. Beginning in 1972, @@e_nt, "modern" clothing, etc. have replaced some the International Whaling Commission (IWC) of the more traditional types of gear, however, requested that the United States provide data white parka shells, mukluks (skin and fur boots), regarding Alaskan whaling and the Bering Sea and caribou furs (instead of blankets or sleeping bowhead stock. Moreover, increases in the number bags) are still found. of bowhead whales landed; killed but lost; and struck but lost by Inupiaq and Yupik during the Today's spring whaling occurs@ in all of the mid-1970's, led to a growing concern about the whaling villages except Nuiqsut and ; Kaktovik adverse impact of unregulated hunting on the during April, May, and sometimes early June. The endangered bowhead population. This concern led spring whale hunt occurs primarily in the ice to a decision by the IWC in June 1977 to ban the leads with camps located along the ice in antici- taking of bowhead whales for subsistence by all pation of the northward whale migration. Spring member nations' people including Alaska Inupiaq whaling from the ice is done in umiags, wooden and Yupik (25). boats covered with bearded seal skin. Skin boats are more advantageous in the spring because the The IWC moratorium on Alaska Inupiaq and Yupik leads are narrow, the boats are quieter (noise hunting of bowhead whales focused national and frightens the whales and sends them under the ice international attention on the issue. Many out of reach of the whalers) , easier to patch if organizations spoke out in favor of allowing a punctured, easier to move from the ice to the compromise and a limited subsistence bowhead hunt water, highly shock resistant, and easier to to continue. As a result, at a special meeting in paddle or sail than an aluminum skiff. Umiaq December 1977, the IWC modified the total ban in boats covered with plywood can also be found in recognition of the subsistence and cultural the village of Kivalina. Aluminum skiffs are dependence of Alaska Inupiaq and Yupik on bow- sometimes used later in the whaling season after heads, and established a limited quota for Alaskan the ice opens. In Nuiqsut and Kaktovik in the subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale. The Beaufort Sea, the ice leads are too distant in the quota in 1977 was set at 14 landed and 20 struck. spring to allow for a bowhead hunt, however, in 1075 the fall the whale migration occurs closer to the whaling crew strengthens these ties between kin. shore. Nuiqsut and Kaktovik whaling occurs in the Whaling captains are also respected men in the fall in open water from powered aluminum boats, villages, often leaders in formal political which provide the greater speed and range needed organizations, or respected elders in the village. to hunt bowheads in open water. There is also a limited fall harvest in Barrow if their quota has not been reached. 5. OIL/WHALERS WORKING GROUP Inupiaq and Yupik whalers have seized oppor- 4. CULTURAL IMPORTANCE OF BOWHEAD WHALING tunities to adapt to new whaling technologies. Historically, this adaptation is characteristic of One aspect of subsistence whaling that has not many hunting and gathering cultures. Relying on changed is its importance to the Inupiaq and Yupik food supplies which are subject to the vagaries of people. The Inupiaq and Yupik traditionally had a the environment, migration, and weather, the close relationship to the supernatural with hunters pursue strategies which are opportunistic specific beliefs in animal souls and beings who and flexible. The Yankee whalers adopted Inupiaq controlled the movements of animals. Bowhead shore-based whaling techniques and the use of whaling today remains at the center of Inupiaq and quiet and lightweight whale boats to expand their Yupik spiritual and emotional life; it embodies harvest; the Inupiaq and Yupik whalers, in their the values of sharing, association, leadership, turn, readily made use of Yankee shoulder guns and kinship, Arctic survival, and hunting prowess. darting guns. The whale hunt ties together these values with feasting, and food preferences, and symbolized Modern-day technological adaptation, however, is cultural integrity (26). constrained to an extent by tradition, but also, most visibly, by the self-regulation of the AEWC An important activity connected to bowhead whaling and the village whaling captain associations. In is the ritual sharing of meat and maktak through- part, the whalers are acceding to the influence of out the year. Unlike other species, there are the IWC and the Federal government, but they also special celebrations or ceremonies connected to are seeking to maintain the essentially communal bowhead whaling, as well as other feasts through- organization of the harvest. Ironically, it is out the year where bowhead whale meat and maktak the oil industry exploiting new resources which are shared. Traditionally there were a number of has introduced another opportunity for technologi- feasts and ceremonies which centered around the cal improvement to whaling. whale hunt (27). At the beginning of the whaling season the captain shared the remainder of the In the last 20 years, the petroleum industry has whale meat from the previous season (if there was explored the Beaufort Sea for new oil prospects. any left) with his crew and/or relatives. Special Even under the regime of depressed international feasts were held on the ice when the whale was oil prices, the industry remains keenly interested caught and later when the whale was butchered. in this area. Producible leases in the Beaufort The most important ceremonial feast was at the end Sea OCS have been discovered, and development of of the whale season when whaling villages held these tracts may begin in the next decade. The Nalukatag or Blanket Toss (in all villages except potential for conflict between oil exploration and for Gambell and Savoonga where a whale carnival whaling has long been recognized and concerns was held), a celebration to show gratitude and about it have led to increasing tensions between respect to the whale which had given itself to the the parties involved. To their credit, however, people. The whale meat and maktak were distri- the Beaufort Sea whalers and the oil industry have buted, prayers of thanks were offered, and dances successfully implemented a program which serves to were performed. These feasts and ceremonies mitigate some of these conflicts. Though wrapped continue today with the addition of whale meat and in the legal and corporate mantle of Western maktak sharing at Thanksgiving, Christmas and culture, it represents another example of the kind other special occasions. Sharing of all subsist- of adaptation to changing conditions which ence foods continues to link family members and characterizes traditional Inupiaq whaling. friends in the villages as well as serving as a link between villages. With whom one cooperates In 1986 a formal agreement was entered into by and shares is a major component of the definition several oil industry operators, the AEWC, and the of significant kin ties (28). Maktak and whale village whaling captains' associations from meat are shared primarily between villages close Nuiqsut and Kaktovik. The purpose of this to the whaling villages, but also with family and agreement was to allow oil and gas exploration friends in Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Seattle (29). activities to proceed without restricting or The structured sharing of the whale helps deter- interfering with Inupiaq whaling. Improved mine social relationships within and between communications was the key to achieve this goal. communities (30). A system of radios was installed and Inupiaq radio operators were hired to work on oil industry The ramifications of the whale hunt are more than vessels. Throughout the operating season, all emotional and spiritual. The organization of the participants were to call the base station in crews does much to delineate important social and Prudhoe Bay and report their plans and positions. kin ties within villages and to define community- In this way vessel traffic could be modified to leadership patterns as well. Whaling crews tend avoid interference with whalers. The oil industry to be composed of relatives. Participating on a operators also agreed to provide additional 1076 assistance to the whalers subject to certain to avoid spoilage, and caching emergency supplies restrictions. Specifically, the oil and gas (food, fuel, etc.) for use through the duration of companies agreed to obtain the equipment for a VHF the hunt. communication system to permit each of the operators of industry vessels to talk to each of The Nuiqsut and Kaktovik whalers are at a decided the whalers. Industry built a radio tower on the disadvantage when compared to their counterparts coast near Deadhorse and equipped a base station on the Chukchi Sea coast and in the Bering Strait. there. A "slave" radio tower also was built at Without the corralling influence of ice leads, the Kaktovik village and donated to the North Slope bowhead migrates westward across the Beaufort Sea Borough with the provision that industry had the restricted only by the vagaries of its food right to use it in perpetuity for its own communi- sources and its preference for certain water cations requirements. Each of the 16 whaling depths. The whalers of the fall hunt are forced captains (10 from Kaktovik and 6 from Nuiqsut) was to set out in their powered aluminum skiffs over given a radio for use from mid-August until the considerable distances. Every attempt is made to completion of whale hunting. At the season's end, harvest the whale close to the flensing site so the equipment was returned to the operators to be that it may be butchered before is spoils. repaired so that it might be used again the Despite the cold water, the whale is so large that following year. the meat can spoil very quickly in the thoroughly insulated carcass. With specific approval from The Deadhorse Communications System Coordination the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- Center was staffed by Inupiaq operators 24 hours a tion, that restricts when and how the industry may day under the supervision of Alaska Telecom Inc. help and requires special reporting and notifica- These operators were required to record the twice- tion, the oil and gas industry has provided daily reports from their Inupiaq counterparts invaluable help to the whalers (32). Nuiqsut aboard industry vessels and the reported positions whaling captains have been the beneficiaries of from the whaling captains (required every 6 hours this agreement on two occasions. In 1986 an after launching) . The radio operators then were industry work boat towed a harpooned whale to instructed to plot the locations and areas of Cross Island and subsequently transported the meat probable industry operations and make the determi- and maktak to Nuiqsut (via Hercules air tran- nation whether or not a conflict might arise. The sport). In 1987 a work boat servicing geophysical agreement placed the responsibility of avoiding operations towed a whale caught by a Nuiqsut conflict on industry: "...all industry vessels whaler to West Dock at Prudhoe Bay. and aircraft will use all reasonable efforts to avoid interfering with or restricting subsistence whaling" (31). Such efforts might include ceasing 6. CONCLUSION seismic operations, changing course or speed, or cancelling operations until a bad-weather day when Alaskan Inupiaq and Yupik whalers continue to hunt whaling could not occur. the bowhead whale just as their ancestors did for centuries before them. As with all cultural As per the agreement, the Inupiaq whalers had at traditions, changes have occurred as the whalers their disposal a communication system which was a have adapted to different conditions, particularly marked improvement over the CB radios they had in the realm of technology. Yet some of the used before. Instructions were given not to use technology created hundreds (and even thousands) the system to "scout" for bowhead whales or of years ago is perfectly suited to the bowhead otherwise report the location of whales to the whale hunt and remains in use today: the use of subsistence hunters. Another advantage the the toggle harpoon (adapted to the darting gun), Inupiaq saw in the communication system was in floats (now made of plastic), and skin boats. their requirement that the radio tower in Kaktovik More recently, new adaptations are occurring as have a red light on it--not only for planes, but the whalers join with the oil industry in attempts for their own guidance when they came back from to reduce interference with whaling. Industry has hunting trips in poor weather. supplied better communications technology and offered assistance in hauling whales. Just as the The 1986 Oil/Whalers Cooperative Program was a Inupiaq in the Chukchi Sea worked with the Yankee significant step to mitigate the potential whalers during the turn of the century and new conflict between offshore oil and gas operations technology was acquired, the Inupiaq in the and subsistence whaling.2 But where it demon- Beaufort Sea are acquiring new technology from the strated the "adaptability" of Inupiaq subsistence oil industry. Yet, the cultural importance of whalers best was in its subsidiary component, bowhead whaling--ceremonies, feasts, sharing, i.e., industry agreed to provide "certain kinds of strenghtening of kinship ties, status for whaling assistance" to the whalers. This included towing captains, religious beliefs, etc.--has not caught whales, transporting whale meat and maktak changed, despite the technological changes. Bowhead whaling continues to be the most important event in the lives of the Inupiaq and Yupik whalers in Alaska in the 1980's. Whaling contin- 2That the Cooperative Program was renegotiated ues to be their .way of life. in 1987, and expected to be renegotiated in 1988, suggests that this arrangement has been success- ful. 1077 7. REFERENCES 17. Marquette, William M. and John R. Bockstoce. 1980, op. cit. 1. Burch, Ernest S., Jr. 1975. Eskimo 18. Bockstoce, John R. 1977, op. cit. Kinsmen: Changing Family Relationship in Northwest 19. Bockstoce, John R. 1980, op. cit. Alaska. West Publishing Co. New York; Ellanna, 20. Rainey, Froelich G. 1947. op. cit. L. J. 1980. Bering-Norton Petroleum Development 21. Ray, Dorothy Jean. 1964. Nineteenth Scenarios Sociocultural Systems Analysis, Volumes. Century Settlement and Subsistence Patterns in I and II. Technical Report No. 54. USDOI, BLM, Bering Straint. Arctic Anthropology. Volume 2, Alaska OCS Office. Number 2, pp. 61-94. Murdoch, J. 1892. Ethnological Result of 22. Foote, Don and H.A. Williamson. @1966, op. the Point Barrow Expedition. Ninth Annual Report cit. of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, 1887-88. Murdoch, J. 1892, op. cit. Washington, D. C. U.S. Government Printing Brower, Charles D. 1942. op. cit. Office. 23. Brower, Charles D.. 1942. op. cit. Rainey, Froelich G. 1947. The Whale 24. Bockstoce, John R. 1977. op. cit. Hunters of Tigara. Anthropology Papers of the 25. Bockstoce, John R. 1977. op. cit. American Museum of Natural History. Volume 41, Evans, Charles D. and S.V. Cuccarese. Number 2. New York. 1980. The Bowhead Whale--Biological Basis for Spencer, Robert F. 1959. The North Decision. A Report to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Alaskan Eskimo: A Study in Ecology and Society. Commission. Arctic Environmental Information and Smithsonian Institution', Bureau of American Data Center. Anchorage, Alaska. Ethnology, Bulletin 171. 26. Bockstoce, J., M. Freeman, W. S. Laughlin, VanStone, James W. 1962. Point Hope: An R.K. Nelson, M. Orbach, R. Peterson, J. G. Taylor, Eskimo Village in Transition. University of and R. Worl. 1979. Report of the Panel to Washington Press. Seattle. Consider Cultural Aspects of Aboriginal Whaling in 2. Dumond, D.E. 1977. The Eskimos and North America. Meeting in Seattle, Washington, Aleuts. Thames and Hudson. London. February 5-9, 1979 under the auspices of the Larsen, Helge and Froelich Rainey. 1948. International Whaling Commission. Ipiutak and the Arctic Whale Hunting Culture. Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen Braund Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of and Associates. 1984. Subsistence Study of Natural History. Volume 42. New York. Alaska Eskimo Whaling Villages. Prepared for the 3. Marquette, William M. and John R. USDOI, MMS, Alaska OCS Region, Anchorage, Alaska. Bockstoce. 1980. Historical Shore-Based Catch of 27. Spencer, Robert F. 1959. op. cit. Bowhead Whales in the Bering, Chukchi and Beaufort 28. Heinrick, A.C. 1963. Eskimo Type Kinship Seas. Marine Fisheries Review. Volume 42, and Eskimo Kinship. Unpublished Ph.D. disserta- Numbers 9-10, pp. 5-20. tion. University of Washington. University 4. Giddings, J. Louis. 1967. Ancient Men of Microfilms. Ann Arbor, Michigan. the Arctic. Alfred A. Knopf. New York. 29. Alaska Consultants, Inc. and Stephen Braund 5. Bockstoce, John R. 1977. Steam Whaling and Associates. 1984. op. cit. in the Western Arctic. New Bedford Whaling 30. Worl, Rosita. 1979. Sociocultural Museum, Old Dartmouth Historical Society. Assessment of the Impact of the 1978 International 6. Spencer, Robert F. 1959. op. cit. Whaling Commission Quota on the Eskimo Communi- 7. Dumond, D.E. 1977. The Eskimos and ties. Arctic Environmental Information and Data Aleuts. Thames and Hudson. London. Center. Anchorage, Alaska. 8. Ibid. 31. Oil/Whalers Working Group. 1986. Coopera- 9. Burch, Ernest S., Jr. 1981. The Tradi- tive Programs for the Beaufort Sea. Produced by tional Eskimo Hunters of Point Hope, Alaska: Shell Western Exploration and Production, Inc., 1899-1875. North Slope Borough. Barrow, Alaska. Prudhoe Bay, Alaska and the Alaska Eskimo Whaling 10. Marquette, William M. and John R. Commission, Barrow, Alaska. Bockstoce. 1980. op. cit. 32. National Oceanic Atmospheric Administra- 11. Bockstoce, John R. 1980. Battle of the tion. 1986. Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) Bowheads. Natural History. between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Volume 89, Number 5, pp. 52-61. Administration and the Alaska Eskimo Whaling 12. Bockstoce, John R. 1978. History of Commission. In: Oil/Whalers Working Group. Commercial Whaling in Arctic Alaska. Alaska 1986. Cooperative Programs for the Beaufort Sea. Geographic. Volume 5, Number 4, pp. 17-25. Produced by Shell Western Exploration and Produc- 13. Ibid. pp.17-25. tion, Inc., Prudhoe Bay, Alaska and the Alaska Brower, Charles D. 1942. Fifty Years Eskimo Whaling Commission, Barrow, Alaska. Below Zero. Dodd, Mead, and Co. New York, New York. 14. Brower, Charles D. op. cit. Marquette, William M. and John R. Bockstoce. 1980, op. cit. 15. Brower, Charles D. op. cit. 16. Foote, Don and H.A. Williamson. 1966. A Human Geographical Study. In: Environment of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska. United States Atomic Energy Commission. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 1041-1107. 1078 OBSERVATIONS ON THE 1987 SUBSISTENCE HARVEST OF NORTHERN FUR SEALS ON ST. PAUL ISLAND, PRIBILOF ISLANDS, ALASKA@ George H. Allen Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region Leasing and Environment Office Anchorage, Alaska 99508-4302 ABSTRACT some aspects of the 1987 fur seal subsistence harvest on St. Paul Island. The author personally This paper provides background about the subsist- observed the 1987 subsistence harvest in order to ence harvest of northern fur seals and describes acquire first-hand sensitivity to associated some aspects of the 1987 fur seal subsistence issues and to bet 'ter carry out environmental harvest on St. Paul Island. The northern fur seal assessments for OCS lease sales in the Bering Sea. is important to the subsistence of Pribilof Because the Pribilof Islands are located strate- Islands Aleut residents because the species gically in the Bering Sea to service offshore OCS reappears annually for breeding purposes and has operations, potential effects from future explo- been used for local subsistence since Aleuts were ration, production and transportation operations brought to the islands by Russian fur merchants are assessed in environmental impact statements; more than 200 years ago. Residents of St. Paul and subsistence is one of the major issues Island have carried out a subsistence harvest of addressed in such documents in Alaska. northern fur seals since 1985, brought about by the termination of commercial sealing and the federal withdrawal of financial support for 2.' SETTING sealing operations on the island. The need to carry out the subsistence harvest with "experi- The northern fur seal derives its name from its enced sealers using the traditional harvesting geography of habitat and the luxurious fur that methods" has created contradictions that are yet maintains its body temperature. The fur has over unresolved and are compounded by the need to 300,000 hairs per square inch and is so imperme- create a new means of livelihood on the island to, able to water'that the skin remains dry even when replace commercial sealing. the seal rubs or scratches itself in the water (1). Geographically, the northern fur seal ranges widely within the North Pacific Ocean, migrating 1. INTRODUCTION as far south as the California Channel Islands and the Sea of Japan and as far north as the Pribilof St. Paul Island is located in the southern Bering Islands to breed. Unless sick or injured, these Sea, one of two inhabited islands of volcanic mammals rarely touch land from the time they leave origin that make up the Pribilof Islands.. their rookery (breeding area) islands in the fall Comprising 44 square miles, St. Paul Island is until they return the following year. Most fur approximately 770 miles from Anchorage and 320 seals of breeding age return to the rookery of miles from Cold Bay, the nearest major airport. their birth; the sequence of return is governed The community of St. Paul has a population of largely by age. approximately 470, the vast majority of whom are Alaskan Natives of Aleut descent. Large breeding males, the so-called "beach- masters," are the first to return in order to The northern fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus, has establish and defend territories within a given been an integral part of Pribilof Aleut life for rookery. There are 7 fur seal rookeries on St. more than 200 years--since the time, Russian fur Paul Island, which generally are gently-sloping, merchants transported Aleutian Islands Aleuts boulder-strewn areas adjacent to the sea. Females there to carry out a commercial harvest for fur returning to their rookery are intercepted by seal pelts in 1867. Today, approximately 75 beachmasters as they attempt to pass their percent of an estimated 2 million northern fur respective territories. The number of females seals breed on St. Paul and St. George Islands in persuaded to remain in a male's territory may vary the Pribilof Islands group. Although a commercial from 1 to 100, with the average being around 60 pelt harvest is no longer carried out, a subsist- (2). With the birth'of males and females being ence meat harvest now takes place annually on the approximately equal, this reproduction arrangement islands during the months of July and August. results in,a considerable surplus of nonbreeding, subadult male fur seals. This paper provides background about the subsist- ence harvest of northern fur seals and describes 1079 United States Government work not protected by copyright In contemporary times, commercial sealing to 4. EMERGENCY SUBSISTENCE REGULATIONS acquire fur seal pelts has been largely restricted to nonbreeding, subadult "bachelor" males. This The subsistence harvests of northern fur seals was not always the case, however, with harvest that began in 1985 were authorized by emergency excesses at sea (pelagic sealing) causing the rules promulgated by NMFS under the Marine Mammal United States, Great Britain, Japan, and Russia to Protection Act and the Fur Seal Act. The harvests conclude a Convention in 1911 for the protection are authorized to be carried out by Pribilof of the fur seals of the North Pacific. Commercial Islands Natives and required to be monitored and sealing was only to be carried out on land, thus reported on by NMFS personnel, with th@ provision reducing the excessive losses incurred through that Pribilof Aleuts also cooperate with federal pelagic sealing, with 30 percent of the pelts from fur seal research (which relies on tissue samples the Pribilof Islands seal harvest allocated from the harvest). Among other things, the rules between Canada and Japan. specify the timing, locations, and manner in which the harvest is to be carried out and place During the 30 years that the Convention of 1911 restrictions on the uses of harvest byproducts. remained in force, the U.S. Government--through The emergency final rules (9) specify the subsist- the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and ence harvest period to extend from June 30 to its predecessor organizations--managed the annual August 8 of each year and authorize an extension commercial harvest and financially maintained the of the harvest period if subsistence needs have Pribilof Aleuts on their islands (3). A similar not been met but specify limits for female seals interim Convention that was instituted in 1957 taken as a means of terminating the annual among Canada, Japan, the Union of Soviet Socialist harvest. The rules further list the rookeries on Republics, and the United States remained in force St. Paul Island to be used in the harvest and through 1984, when it expired in the absence of contain provisions for maximum subadult seal size U.S. Senate ratification of the Protocol needed to (124.5 centimeters) and the prohibition of taking extend the Convention (4). Consequently, a adult fur seals, pups, or subadult female fur commercial harvest for fur seal pelts could not be seals. The cutoff date of August 8 is used because carried out in 1985, resulting in the need to female seals begin to mingle with subadult draft emergency regulations to carry out a bachelor males beyond this date, and it is subsistence harvest to meet the dietary needs of virtually impossible to differentiate the sex of Pribilof Aleuts. these seals by simple observation. The manner of carrying out the harvest is specified as follows: 3. SUBSISTENCE "No fur seal may be taken except by experi- enced sealers using the traditional harvesting The term "subsistence" is used here in a dietary methods, including stunning followed immedi- sense, which falls far short of its social and ately by exsanguination. The harvest method cultural meaning among St. Paul Aleuts (5). Even shall' include organized drives of subadult in a dietary sense, however, St. Paul residents males to killing fields unless it is deter- use a variety of seasonally-available renewable mined by the NMFS representatives, in consul- resources for subsistence purposes in addition to tation with the Pribilovians conducting the the fur seal, including sea lions, other seals, harvest, that alternative methods will not halibut and cod, shellfish, birds and bird eggs, result in increased disturbance to the rookery reindeer, and terrestrial plants and berries. or the increased accidental take of female Although but one of many resources, the fur seal seals." (10) is the backbone of Pribilof Islands subsistence because of its availability and regularity of The regulations for the disposition of fur seal return to the islands. pelts and carcasses basically specify use only for noncommercial purposes, unless transformed into The last subsistence harvest of northern fur seals handicraft articles. In the past, however, the was carried out on St. Paul Island in 1916 (6), commercial orientation of the harvest allowed much beyond the recollection of most inhabitants. little opportunity for an extensive fur seal- People's dietary needs had heretofore been met as oriented crafts tradition to become established. a byproduct of the commercial pelt harvest, since Requests to use fur seal meat in the island far more fur seals (25,000 or so in recent times restaurant (which caters primarily to tourists), and a high point of 102,255 seals in 1961)(7) were for fishing bait, or as dog food (for sale killed than could possibly be used for human elsewhere, since the landing of dogs on the consumption. St. Paul residents obtained fur seal Pribilofs is prohibited by Federal regulation in parts (flippers, shoulders, hearts and livers, order to prevent molestation of fur seals) were ribs, etc.) directly from the commercial killing denied (11). A request by St. Paul's Tanadgusix grounds. Most of the remaining carcasses and (Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act village) byproducts from the pelt harvest were processed Corporation for permission to sell pelts and other and sold by the Government for a variety of harvest byproducts from the first 6,000 seals purposes, including fishing bait, dog food (8), taken on St. Paul as a means of funding "tradi- fertilizer, and mink food. tional harvest methods" also was denied (12). 1080 5. THE 1987 HARVEST crushed the thin skulls of the selected age-class seals and allowed the others in the now highly The 1987 subsistence harvest of northern fur seals excited pod to return to the rookery. Almost on St. Paul Island was organized and carried out immediately after being stunned, the seals were jointly by the Tanadgusix Corporation (TDX) and bled and lined up for skinning and butchering. the village IRA (Indian Reorganization Act) The process of dispatching small pods of seals was traditional,Council. The harvest took place over repeated until the prescribed number of seals was 4 weeks, Monday through Friday, plus one addi- taken, at which time the larger group of seals was tional day in September. Using a system developed released for return to the rookery. the previous year, IRA Council personnel solicited and received orders for the number of seals wanted During 1987, 1,710 fur seals were harvested for that day from families prior to each daily kill, subsistence on St. Paul Island. Of this number, whereas TDX personnel were responsible for some 1,600 seals were taken during the prescribed preparing the seals for butchering and disposing season. Another 211 seals had been requested to of the remains of the harvest. Family members be harvested on September 2, but the harvest was were responsible to be present where the sealing terminated after 110 seals had been taken--this took place in order to butcher the number of seals was because the number of female seals taken had ordered. Much of what went on prior to and after reached the maximum permissible number of 5. On the harvest was communicated over CB radio the whole, the harvest produced some 38,800 frequencies, so everyone in the community had a pounds of usable meat, which represented 22.7 chance to participate. pounds of usable meat per seal (based on field reports), or approximately 83 pounds of usable Each morning at around 8 a.m., a procession of meat per inhabitant of St. Paul. trucks, pickups, and cars moved out from the TDX staging area in town toward the rookery chosen for Compared with the two previous subsistence that day's harvest. When the NMFS person in harvests of northern f ur seals, the 1987 effort charge was informed by CB radio where the harvest used more seals than in 1986 (by 411 seals) but would take place and for how many seals, several f ar f ewer than were taken in 1985. Some 3,384 Government vehicles joined in at the tail of the seals were harvested in 1985, or about twice as procession. Generally among the contingent, in many as were taken in 1987. There are a number of addition to the NMFS observer, were researchers reasons for this, including the fact that the from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- harvest on St. Paul Island in 1985 was also to tration (NOAA) Marine Mammal Laboratory, other meet the needs of St. George residents. As the visiting scientists, a veterinarian, and a first subs istence-only harvest in generations, no scientist observer of the Japanese Government. systematic way had been developed to link actual family needs with harvest requirements, as was The "traditional harvest methods" used by St. Paul later worked out in 1986 and used again in 1987; residents in 1987 employed a total of about 20 families tended to behave as when the commercial people and were extremely efficient because of the harvests were being carried out, taking what they division of labor utilized. However, the harvest wanted from the product of the killing grounds; may have proceeded at a slower pace than during and there were problems with transporting and the commercial harvest era because of the emphasis storing large quantities of meat. on butchering and processing meat rather than simply accumulating seal pelts. At the entrance to the rookery, about a half-dozen young men would 6. ASSOCIATED ASPECTS begin driving the available subadult bachelor male seals--which congregate at the landward edge of Although the method by which to connect family the rookery--inland toward the grounds chosen for household needs with harvest requirements has been the . killing. This accomplished, the vehicle achieved through the order placement process, the caravan entered the rookery and the harvest crew difficult question of how to pay for the harvest prepared for the kill. year-after-year in order to carry it out as specified in the emergency final rules is not as The harvest crew at the killing grounds generally easily answered. One could argue that payment consisted of 14 people; about 6 others were should not be expected for a purely subsistence employed back in town to wash, scrape, brine, and effort when the entire community benefits. On the store the pelts (supposedly in hopes that one day other hand, however, legitimate costs are incurred they might be sold). Principal among the crew during the short harvest season (such as vehicle- were 3 stunners, I of whom was the crew boss. operation and material costs, among others). If Others among the crew were I chest cutter/sticker the season were lengthened to allow for a smaller- (to pierce the chest and bleed the seal), 3 scale "family orientation" to the sealing process, skinners, 3 skin pullers, 1 skin sorter, 1 dump then perhaps there would be a greater likelihood truck operator/seal driver, 1 crew truck oper- of increasing the take of female seals. The ator/seal driver, and 1 other seal driver. Ifexperienced sealers" that are required to be used heretofore have expected to be compensated in some When all was ready, several drivers cut out a pod way if drawn away from their normal jobs to carry of 6-8 seals from the larger group and herded them out the harvest, especially since the abilities to toward, the stunners. Using 8- to 10-foot-long carry out seal-harvest tasks are not evenly bats or clubs--in order to keep a safe distance distributed within the population of the island. from the sharp teeth of the seals--the stunnerS In 1986, this was accomplished by allowing needed 1081 employees of TDX, the IRA Council, and the City of 7. @ Ibid., unpaginated Tables 43A and 67A. The St. Paul time off with pay in order to carry out total consists of 67,169 male and 35,086 female the harvest. The harvests of 1985 and 1987 were fur seals taken on St. Paul Island. underwritten financially by TDX, perhaps with the 8. Veltre and Veltre, p. 17. expectation of eventually being able to sell the 9. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1986. Subsistence pelts. (An amendment to the Marine Mammal Taking of North Pacific Fur Seals. Action: Protection Act to this effect was recently Emergency final rule. USDOC, NOAA, NMFS. Federal proposed and rejected.) As of this writing, the Register 51(131):24828-24841 (Wednesday, 9 July dilemma has not been resolved for the 1988 1986). subsistence harvest. 10. Ibid., p. 24840. 11. Ibid., p. 24832. Although the subsistence harvest of northern fur 12. Ibid. seals presents contradictions and dilemmas that 13. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1986. North may take years to resolve, the context provided by Pacific Fur Seal--Pribilof Island Population; related actions magnifies social and economic Designation as Depleted. Action: Proposed rule; stress experienced on St. Paul Island and the notice of meeting. USDOC, NOAA, NMFS. Federal resulting interactions over subsistence proce- Register 51(249):47156-47161 (Tuesday, 30 December dures. U.S. termination of financial support for 1986). commercial sealing in 1984 left open the hope that local residents could continue to carry out commercial sealing as an important means of economic livelihood. Yet quickly following withdrawal and the negotiations carried out to substitute other means of economic livelihood, such as commercial fishing, came requests to declare the northern fur seal a depleted species under the provisions of the Marine Mammal Protec- tion Act (13). @ This designation, if brought about, could terminate that hope with a great deal of finality and put increased social stress on the quest for achieving a meaningful economic liveli- hood and means of subsistence on St. Paul Island. Although questions over the welfare and human use of fur seals remain to be resolved, one aspect of certainty remains: as long as there are f ur seals, they will return to the Pribilof Islands. 7. REFERENCES 1. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The Story of the Pribilof Fur Seals. Washington, D.C., 1977, p. 4. 2. Ibid., p. 8. 3. Those interested in the latter subject are referred to Jones, Dorothy Knee. A Century of Servitude: Pribilof Aleuts Under U.S. Rule. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc., 1980. 4. Zimmerman, Steven T. and James D. Letcher. The 1985 Subsistence Harvest of Northern Fur Seals, Callorhinus ursinus, on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Marine Fisheries Review 48(l), 1986, pp. 10-14. 5. Veltre, Douglas W. and Mary J. Veltre. The Northern Fur Seal: A Subsistence and Commercial Resource for Aleuts of the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Paper presented at the symposium MEGAFAUNA OF THE SEAS: LARGE SEA MAMMAL HUNTING AND USE AMONG NATIVE SOCIETIES at the XIth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Vancouver, Canada, 20-25 August 1983. 6. Engel, R. M. et al. 1980. Population Data, Collection Procedures, and Management of the Northern Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus, of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. National. Marine Mammal Laboratory, Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center, NMFS, NOAA, NWAFC Processed Report 80-11, p. 9. 1082 ENDANGERED SPECIES AND MARINE MAMMAL PROTECTION DURING OFFSHORE STRUCTURE REMOVALS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO Mr. Richard T. Bennett Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region INTRODUCTION endangered species, he sent a second letter to all lessees and operators requesting additional info 'rmation to facilitate The first oil and gas lease sale on Federal Outer Continental interagency consultations under Section 7 of the Endangered Shelf (OCS) lands in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) was held in Species Act, as amended. Each proposed explosive structure 1954. Since that historic sale, there have been 57 other oil and removal or group of explosive structure removals then gas lease sales in the GOM Region. Approximately 25,720 underwent Section 7 consultation procedures. wells have been drilled on these leases through 1987. From 1953 through 1986, approximately 3,890 oil- and gas-related Since 1986, the MMS has received - 180 applications for structures have been installed and 455 have been removed on structure removals (both explosive and nonexplosive the Federal OCS. The National Research Council (1985) methodologies). Eighty-one explosive removals and 47 projected that approximately 2,600 of the oil- and gas-related nonexplosive removal applications have.been approved as of structures in use today will be removed by the year 2000. (See July 22, 1988. the figure following the text.) REQUIREMENTS FOR REMOVALS Prior to 1986, explosive contractors had few requirements during structure removals; cost considerations determined In compliance with the 1958 Continental Shelf Convention, explosive methodologies. The most common practice was to the United States agreed to :completely remove any buy the cheapest explosive available, prepare a linear or installations (structures/platforms) that are abandoned or ring-shaped bulk charge, emplace, and detonate the charge. disused on the OCS. According to Section 22 of the current Since delays are very costly in salvage operations, oil and gas lease form [MMS-2005 (March 1986)], lessees are "overchargine'(using more explosives than necessary) was the required to remove all devices, works, and structures from the common practice to ensure successful severing of the lease block within a period of I year. after termination of the structure's pilings and well tubulars (DeMarsh, 1987). lease. In compliance with 30 CFR 250.112(i), all obstructions must be removed at least 15 feet below the mud line. The In April 1986, the Regional Director of the MMS Gulf of lessee must also verify that the site has been cleared of Mexico OCS Regional Office received a letter from the obstructions per one of the procedures, listed in 30 CFR Director of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 250.114. laboratory in Galveston, Texas, that expressed concern - regarding two major stranding events--one in the fall of 1985 ENDANGERED/THREATENED SPECIES AND and the second in the summer of 1986. Dead marine turtles PROTECTED MARINE MAMMALS IN THE GULF OF and other animals were associated with these stranding events MEXICO along the beaches of the upper Texas and southwestern Louisiana coasts. Coincidentally., a number of structures in Five species of sea turtles inhabit the GOM. Three State territorial waters had been removed. The NMFS species--Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), hawksbill suggested that a correlation may exist between the explosive (Eretmochelys imbricata), and leatherback (Dennochelys removal of structures and the stranding of sea turtles and cofiacea)--are listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and other animals. Wildlife Service. The loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia mydas) turtles are listed as threatened species in The Regional Director of the Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional 'the GOM. Studies by Fritts et a]. (1983) and Fuller and Office responded to these concerns and sent a letter to all Tappan (1986) as well as stranding data from'the Sea Turtle lessees and operators in August 1986 requesting that the Stranding and Salvage Network (Schroeder, 1988) indicate office be notified 30 days in advance of any plans to remove that sea turt*les may occur across the GOM. Raymond (1987) structures. Since the Regional Director determined that characterized sea turtle populations as low with generally explosive structure removals may affect threatened and wide distribution throughout the GOM. 1083 United States Government work not protected by copyright Aerial surveys conducted by Fritts et al. (1983) also examined 9 Qualified observer(s), as approved by NMFS, must GOM waters for the occurrence of marine mammals in two be used to monitor the area around the site before, large study subunits (each approximately 9,514 square miles during, and after detonation of the charges. in area). Results from these surveys indicate that the Surface observation must begin 48 hours before bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is by far the most removal of the structure. If sea turtles are likely marine mammal to be encountered. Other dolphins observed in the vicinity of the structure and are (Risso's spotted, striped, and spinner) were sighted less thought to be residents of the site, the waiver is frequently. Sperm whales (Physeter catodon), beaked whales canceled and divers must take surveys before and (Mesoplodon spp.), pygmy killer whales (Teresa attenuata), after the charges are detonated. and short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) were also occasionally sighted. Other marine mammals may 0 On the day of blasts, a 30-minute aerial survey must also inhabit the GOM. be conducted within 1 hour before and 1 hour after the detonation. A qualified observer must be used METHODS FOR STRUCTURE REMOVALS to check for the presence of turtles and, if possible, to identify species. If weather conditions (fog, Explosives excessive winds, etc.) make it impossible to conduct the aerial survey, the blast may be allowed The most popular and effective method of structure removal to proceed if approved by the designated NMFS, has been and continues to be the use of bulk explosives to and MMS onsite representative on site. sever the structure's pilings and well tubulars. However, lease operators and their explosive. contractors have modified their 9 If any sea turtles are observed in the vicinity of the methods of operations. The MMS has discouraged the use of structure (within 1,000 yards of the site) before low velocity explosives for structure removals. Explosive detonating charges, the blast will be delayed until contractors have responded, and now the three most steps are taken to remove them. The survey must commonly used explosives are Composition B, Composition be repeated before detonation. 4, and RDX (DeMarsh, 1987). These are all higher velocity explosives with detonation rates greater than 7,600 meters per e Detonation of explosives will occur no sooner than second. Current information indicates that higher velocity 1 hour following sunrise and no later than 1 hour explosives channel more of their energy into a shock wave, before sunset. However, if it is determined by the which is the primary shearing mechanism for severing a NMFS or MMS onsite representative that special structure's tubulars. Lower velocity explosives may expend as circumstances justify a modification of these time much as 40 percent of their energy upon detonation in the restrictions and modification is not likely to formation of a gas bubble with the remaining 60 percent of adversely impact listed species, the blast may be the energy forming the shock wave (DeMarsh, 1987). allowed to proceed. Obviously, a lower quantity of higher velocity explosives can be utilized to accomplish the desired objectives. The MMS is During all diving operations (working dives as continuing its investigations and evaluations of explosives and required in the course of the removal), divers will their impacts on the environment from structure removals. be instructed to scan the subsurface areas surrounding the structure site for turtles and Explosive contractors are also developing technologies to marine mammals. Any sightings must be reported "focus" the direction of explosive blasts. Charges with special to the NMFS or MMS onsite representative. containment plates above and below the explosives, Following the blast, divers must report and attempt true-shaped charges, and explosive tapes are examples of this to recover sighted injured or dead sea turtles or evolving technology. However, there are limitations to the marine mammals. utilization of these explosives. Obstructions in structure tubulars, centralization of the charges to maintain the 9 Charges must be staggered to minimize the effective special orientation of the explosives, and multiple cumulative effects of the blast. casing strings with grout in the annuli (for true-shaped charges) present difficulties in using these technologies. * A preliminary report summarizing the results of the removal and mitigation measures must be Mitigation for E%plosive Removals submitted to MMS and NMFS within 15 working days of the removal. Precautions required by the MMS and NMFS have been very effective in lowering the risk of injury or death to sea turtles Nonexplosives and marine mammals from explosive structure removals. Since the imposition of the following mitigative measures, Since early 1987, various types of nonexplosive techniques there has been no evidence to indicate that any of the have been designed, tested, and utilized to remove structures. explosive structure removals since the summer of 1987 have injured or killed a sea turtle or marine mammal. 1084 One such technique is the use of mechanical cutters, which a 5-pound charge down hole after the liquid nitrogen involves installing a "bird cage" device on the top of the piling embrittlement. The 5-pound charge proved to be inadequate, or caisson to be removed, lowering the cutting tool into the but a 10-pound charge for each of the piles cleanly shattered tubular to the desired depth, and then rotating the tool with the metal, and the structure was removed. Although this a hydraulic swivel. The cutting tool has stabilizers at each end, technique utilized explosives, the amounts detonated were which are designed to center the tool in the hole. As the tool very small, thereby reducing the potential impacts on the sea rotates, cutting arms with carbide steel tips are hydraulically turtles, marine mammals, and fish. extended and the cutting procedures begin. Though successful in some applications, difficulties may arise that Arc cutting with divers either from inside or outside of a limit this procedure. During a structure-removal operation tubular is by far the most time consuming and dangerous of with MMS and NMFS observers aboard, a mechanical cutter all nonexplosive removal techniques. Concerns for diver attempted to cut through a 42- by 1.25-in6 piling, 4 inches of safety include an unexpected shift of the tubular as it is cement grouting, and a 48- by 0.5-inch leg. The attempt was severed, sloughing of sediments into a space excavated unsuccessful for several reasons. The seas were rough around the outside of a tubular to facilitate diver operations, throughout the entire operation, and the men had problems and encountering gas while burning through the tubular. installing the equipment and putting the tool into the piling (one man was injured in the attempt). They could not effectively stabilize the tool in the hole (it wobbled badly while rotating, thus preventing an even cut). 'Me angle of the CONCLUSION leg and pile ( + 150) probably prevented stabilization. Finally, the tool's cutting diameter was not wide enough when fully In summary, structure removal technology is advancing extended to cut through the pile, grout, and leg. The structure dramatically. Emphasis has been and will continue to be on was ultimately removed by divers with arc-cutting tools. The lessening potential impacts to sea turtles and marine removal of large, complex structures will require mammals. Regulatory and economic consideration. will improvements in mechanical cutter tools. continue to play a major role in structure removal decisions. It is to be hoped that, in the near future, economical Rotating abrasive sand cutters have also been used techniques will be devised that will have no impacts on successfully on several occasions in the Gulf. This procedure endangered, threatened, and/or protected species. is similar to the techniques described with mechanical cutters, except abrasive material is pumped down hole with a carrier liquid. A nozzle directs the abrasive stream. As with the other cutters, centralizing the cutter head is essential to the REFERENCES procedure's success. Maintaining appropriate "stand-off' is critical. This procedure has proved to be a success in DeMarsh, P.L. 1987. General theory for the cutting of removing offshore structures. conductors and platform legs with bulk and shaped charges. In: Proceedings; Seventh annual Gulf of Mexico Another abrasive cutter device proposed to be used in 1988 information transfer meeting. OCS Study/MMS 87-0058. is a rotating torch-flame cutting tool. Its application is similar Contract No. 14-12-0001-30305. New Orleans, La.: U.S. to the rotating mechanical cutter but uses a burning gas Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf mixture to sever the structure's tubulars. of Mexico OCS Regional Office. pp. 177-178. A fourth nonexplosive technology involves a cryogenic Fritts, T.H., A.B. Irvine, R.D. Jennings, L.A. Collum, W. fracturing technique. The legs/pilings of the structure are Hoffman, and M.A. McGehee. 1983. Turtles, birds, and evacuated of all materials (mud, water, etc.) to the desired mammals in the northern Gulf of Mexico and nearby depth; liquid nitrogen is then pumped down to that area in Atlantic waters. FWS/OBS-82/65. Washington, DC: attempt to cryogenically embrittle the steel tubular. Once this U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Biological is accomplished, a shock is applied to the tubular with the Services. p. 455. intention of fracturing the embrittled metal. The technique has been tried on three separate occasions. The first attempt Fuller, D.A. and A.M. Tappan. 1986. The occurrence of sea involved striking the "frozen@' pile from above with a pile turtles in Louisiana coastal waters. Baton Rouge, La.: driver. It was concluded that the force of the impact was not Louisiana State University, Coastal Fisheries Institute, being effectively transferred to the "frozen" area of the pile. Center for Wetland Resources. The structure was eventually removed using explosives. For its second attempt, the operator fabricated a piston-driven National Research Council. 1985. Disposal of offshore impact tool, which was designed to strike the inside of the platforms. Committee on Disposition of Offshore embrittled pile, thereby shattering the metal. However, the Platforms. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. tool failed to produce the amount of force at its impact point p. 76. needed to fracture the metal, and again, explosives had to be used to complete the job. In early February 1988, cryogenic Raymond, P.W. 1987. An overview of marine turtles in the procedures were once again proposed with the detonation of Gulf of Mexico. In: Proceedings; Seventh annual Gulf of 1085 Mexico information transfer meeting. OCS Study/MMS Schroeder, B.A. 1988. 1988 first quarter report of the sea 87-0058. Contract No. 14-12-0001-30305. New Orleans, turtle stranding and salvage network: Atlantic and Gulf La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Coast of the United States, January-March 1988. Miami, Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office. pp. Fla.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries 170-171. Service, Southeast Fisheries Center. 300 6000 250 5000 Lu 0 Lu 0200 40000 Uj W > D 0 D cc ir to Lu 150 3000 NUMBER REMOVED YEAR LL 0 D Lu cc D W1100 2000 z LL 0 CUMULATIVE Lu ui < z 50 1000 2 0100 0 0 1970 1980 1984 1990 2000 2010 2020 YEARS Structures removed and to be removed--Gulf of Mexico. Source- Historical data from Minerals Management Service and industry sources; forcast developed by committee based on assumptions described in the text. -pill 1086 DATE DUE 160