Oceans '88 a partnership of marine interests : proceedings : Baltimore, Maryland, October 31-November 2, 1988

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OCEANS '88
CONFERENCE AND EXPOSITION PRESENTED BY MTS-OES-IEEE IN COOPERATION WITH THE PORT OF BALTIMORE
BALTIMORE CONVENTION CENTER, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND OCTOBER 31 -NOVEMBER 2, 1988
DONALD SCHAEFER, GOVERNOR OF MARYLAND. HONORARY CHAIRMAN
ADMIRALPAUL A. YOST, COMMANDANT UNITED STATES COAST GUARD, GENERAL CHAIRMAN

Property of CSC Library

OCEANS 88

A Partnership Of Marine Interests

Property of CSC Library

PROCEEDINGS

Conference Sponsored by
Marine Technology Society
IEEE

Baltimore, Maryland
October 31-November 2, 1988

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413

IEEE Catalog Number 88-CH2585-8

Oceans '88 Proceedings

Volume 1: Pages I to 2 74
Volume 2: Pages 2 75 to 718
Volume 3: Pages 719 to 1086
Volume 4: Pages 1087 to 1732

Copies of the Oceans '88 Proceedings are available from:
The IEEE Service Center
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ. 08854

and
The Marine Technology Society
2000 Florida Avenue, N.W., Suite 500
Washington, D.C. 20006

Copyright and Reprint Permissions: Abstracting is permitted with credit to the source. Libraries
are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S. copyright law for private use of patrons
those articles in this collection that carry a code at the bottom of the first page, provided
the per-copy fee indicated in the code is paid through the Copyright Clearance Center,
29 Congress Street, Salem, Mass. 01970. Instructors are permitted to photocopy isolated articles
for noncommercial classroom use without fee. For other copying, reprint or re-publication
permission, write to Director, Publishing Services, IEEE, 345 E. 47th Street, New York,
NY 10017.

IEEE Catalog Number 88-CH2585-8

OCEANS '88

Proceedings

Volume One

VOW
A Message from the Chairman

It is with great pleasure that I extend to you a cordial welcome to the OCEANS '88 Conference
and Exhibition. This year's theme, "A Partnership of Marine Interests," is designed to recognize
the broad range of interests and institutions which now address marine technological issues,
as well as the 'myriad national and global needs which are supported by marine technology and
ocean engineering.
During the remainder of this millennium, the United States, as well as other seafaring nations,
will advance their focus on the coastal regions and oceans in order to satisfy emerging economic
and recreational needs, meet national defense requirements and, concurrently, plan for the signifi-
cant socio-environmental concerns associated with accelerated ocean resource and ocean space
development.
Given the complexity of the managerial challenges ahead-and the reality that budgetary
resources must be utilized prudently-our perspective is that a new "Partnership of Marine
Interests," acknowledging the diverse Federal interagency participants, the state governments,
the range of comprehensive intergovernmental groups and the relevant international interests,
should be pursued. Cooperation and coordination provide the cornerstones for resolving the
conflict-use which may emanate from the competing claimants for oceanic resources, as well
as constitute the threshold for effective public policy formulation and implementation.
OCEANS '88 provides a timely forum for open discussion of the domestic and global issues
related to the role of marine technology in satisfying the specific energy, transportation, fisheries,
seabed resource development, law enforcement, safety, environmental, national security and
other ocean policy needs and issues. It is an opportunity to discuss how marine technology
can be more effectively applied and advanced toward the attainment of both national and
international objectives.
This year's conference features an extensive exhibit area to review the latest state of the art
in marine technology products, services, systems and publications. Also the conference serves
as an arena where industrial representatives, national, state and local governmental officials,
academic representatives, public and special interest groups with marine interests, and members
of the international community can meet and exchange views in both formal and informal settings.
A number of special events have been planned, including a "Vessel Visit and Orientation" in
Baltimore's Inner Harbor, and several specialized topical workshops. In order to provide a closer
commonality between the program of more than 400 policy and technical papers presented
and the marketing needs of the exhibitors, a "Marine Commercial Development" workshop high-
lights opportunities for coastal and oceanic oriented businesses in both domestic commerce
and international trade.
I thank you all for your participation and support of OCEANS '88.

Paul A. Yost
Admiral, U.S. Coast Guard
Commandant
General Chairman, OCEANS '88

iv.

CONFERENCE AND EXHMMON STAFF

Co-Sponsors: -

The Marine Technology Society

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers
Oceanic Engineering Society

Conference Staff:
Chairman Mr. Ian Sutherland
ADM Paul A. Yost J. Spargo & Associates, Inc.
Commandant
U.S. Coast Guard Technical Program s:
CAPT Randall D. Peterson
Vice Chairman U.S. Coast Guard
RADM Marshall E. Gilbert
Resource Director and Comptroller Mr. Dane Konop
U.S. Coast Guard National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
Mr. Werner Signs
Executive Committee: U.S. Coast Guard
Mr. Edward W. Cannon
Governmental Affairs Staff National Sea Grant Program Committee:
U.S. Coast Guard Mr. Robert Shepard
Executive Director National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
Mrs. Sadie E. Barnes Mr. Victor Omelczenko
Governmental Affairs Staff National Oceanic & Atmospheric. Administration
U. S. Coast Guard
Executive Secretary Finance Committee:
CDR J. Russell Cherry, USCGR
Program Committee: Commandant (G-TG)
Mr. Samuel F. Powel
Coast Guard Research & Development Center Hospitality Committee:
RADM Wesley V. Hull Ms. Louise A. Berney
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration Commandant (G-TG) USCG
Dr. Joseph Czika Vessel Operations:
TASC Ms. Lisa McKinney
Dr. Suzanne Bolton National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration CDR William Lounsbery
Publications Committee: National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
Mr. Scott E. Drummond CAPT James Parent
Seaco,lnc. U.S. Coast Guard
Ms. Marion D. Johnson COL Bernard Stallman
US Army Corps of Engineers
Marketing Committee: Mr. James Bruce
Mr. Clifford E. McLain National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
Marine Development Associates CDR Eric Waal
Conference Management: Embassy of Canada
Ms. Susan Novak
J. Spargo & Associates, Inc.

Exhibitors

Aanderaa Instruments, Inc. Ellis Associates, Inc.
Acoustic Transducers, Inc. Endeco, Inc.
Adcour, Inc. Engineering Service Associates, Inc.
AGE Instruments, Inc. Flotation Technologies Corp.
AluPower, Inc. (formerly Flotation Products Co.)
American Geophysical Union Focal Technologies, Inc..
Amphibico, Inc. Fryling Technology Services Company
Amron International Diving Supply, Inc. Gans & Pugh Associates, Inc.
AMVER-Automated Mutual-Assistance Vessel General Instrument Company
Rescue System General Oceanics Inc.
Applied Microsystems, Ltd. Gilman Corporation
Arctec Offshore Corporation Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
Atlantic Airways Limited Department of Development and Tourism
ATS Cases, Inc. Greenhorne and O'Mara, Inc.
Automatic Power, Inc. Hawaii Ocean Science & Technology
Barringer Research Ltd. Honeywell Marine Systems Division
Bathymetrics Ltd. The Hydrographic Society of America
Battelle Memorial Institute IEEE, Oceanic Engineering Society
Benthos,lnc. Innovative Technology, Inc.
Birns, Inc. International Industries, Inc.
Bridon Fibres Ltd. International Transducer Corporation
C&M Technology, Inc. Interocean Systems, Inc.
C-CORE Klein Associates, Inc.
Cambridge Scientific Abstracts Life Ball International
Cameron Offshore Engineering Life Technologies Inc.
Canadian Embassy MacLaren Plansearch Ltd.
Canflex Manufacturing, Inc. Magnavox Advanced Products
Joan Carol Design & Exhibit Group Maloney Precision Products Co.
CBI Research Corporation EnviroCon Division
Centre for Earth Resources Research Marex Technology Limited
Chelsea Instruments Ltd. Marine Safety Laboratories
Coastal Climate Company Marine Technology Society
Cochrane Subsea Acoustics, Inc. Marquest Group, Inc.
Conference Book Service Colmek Systems Engineering
Cortland Cable Co., Inc. Marine Imaging Systems
Cytrigen International, Inc. Marine Telepresence
Datasonics, Inc. Stewart Global Engineering
Deep Ocean Engineering, Inc. Martin Marietta Corporation
Deep Sea Power and Light, Inc. Mar-Vel Underwater Equipment, Inc.
Defense Mapping Agency Maryland Department of Natural Resources
Del Norte Technology, Inc. Measurement Devices Limited
Department of Energy, Ocean Energy Program METOCEAN Data Systems Ltd.
Diving Unlimited international Minerals Management Service
Dowty Maritime Systems, Ltd. Naval Oceanography Command
Dunbar Manufacturing, Inc. Naval Ocean R&D Activity
Eastport International, Inc. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Ecolyte Atlantic, Inc. (NOAA)
EFCOM Subsea Technology Charting and Geodetic Services
EG&G Marine Instrument Division Estuarine Programs Office
EG&G Marine Products National Ocean Service (OMO)
Electrochern Industries NOS/Office of Marine Operations,

vi.

Exhibitors
(continued)

"The NOAA Fleet" Sonatech, Inc.
Office of Legislative Affairs Southwest Research Institute
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment Sparton of Canada
NBA Environmental Systems Ltd. Swath Ocean Systems, Inc.
NewTech Instruments Ltd. Syntech Materials, Inc.
NORDCO Limited Taylor & Francis, New York
North American Fire Guardian Technology, Inc. David Taylor Research Center
Nova Scotia Research Foundation Corp. Tension Member Technology
D. G. O'Brien, Inc. Tetra Tech, Inc., Data Systems Operations
Ocean Engineering Research Group (MUN) Tracor Marine, Inc.
Ocean Sciences Centre TYDAC Technologies Corp.
Ocean Studies Task Force, Ultra Poly, Inc.,
Memorial University of Newfoundland Manufacturers of ULTRA FEND
OCEANS '89 U.S. Bureau of Mines
Oceans Systems Engineering U.S. Coast Guard
Oceanus Magazine U.S. Coast Guard R&D Center
Office of Strategic and International Minerals (OSIM) U.S. Geological Survey
Minerals Management Service, U.S. Navy Oceanography Command
U.S. Dept. of the Interior Vemco Limited
Office of the Chief of Naval Research (OCNR) Video Medcare
Orcatron Manufacturing Ltd. Whitehill Manufacturing Corporation
Osprey Electronics, Inc. The Women's Aquatic Network
Perry Technologies Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution/
PM1 Industries Inc. Oceanus Magazine
Qubit North America, Inc. Yale Cordage, Inc.
Radio Systems, Inc. R. M. Young Company
RD Instruments
RET Corporation
The Rochester Corporation
ROMOR Equipment Ltd.
Ross Laboratories, Inc.
ROV, Ltd.
SAFT America Inc.,
Advanced Battery Systems Division
S.E.A.
Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc.
Sea Cam Ltd.
SEA CON/Brantner & Associates, Inc.
Sea Data, Inc.
Sea Grant Association
Sea-Mac Marine Products
Seastar Instruments Ltd.
SEA TECHNOLOGY Magazine
SEIMAC Group
Service Argos, Inc.
Simrad Inc.
Sippican, Inc.
Solar Components Corporation

vii.

Welcome to Baltimore
and the
OCEANS '88 Conference and Exposition
Baltimore Convention Center
October 31-November 2, 1988

On behalf of the sponsors of OCEANS '88, the Marine Administration; the HMCS Cormorant, a Canadian
Technology Society (MTS) and the Oceanic Engineering research ship; a remotely operated vehicle (ROV);
Society (OES), our General Chairman, Admiral Paul A. Maryland's historic replica, the Dove; and other vessels
Yost, Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, and our federal with interesting state-of-the-art, naval and engineering
interagency and intergovernmental advisory board and designs and systems.
conference staff, we extend a cordial welcome to you to 9 Emory Kristof, from the National Geographic Socie-
the inaugural of the Oceans conference in the port of ty, offering a hands-on tutorial workshop in the use and
Baltimore. application of underwater stereographic video. Applicants
OCEANS'88 is now an international as well as national will be accepted on a first come, first served basis to this
symposium, co-sponsored by the MTS and OES in coop- workshop.
eration with a number of other marine oriented organiza- 0 A special workshop organized by the Environmental
tions. This year's three-day event involves more than Protection Agency on the timely subject of "Medical
2,000 conferees presenting more than 400 technical and Waste: Protecting Our Shores,"
policy papers, and a display of 175 exhibits featuring the
latest development in marine technology and products, An Ocean Policy Forum, organized by the Center for
services and information systems. Thus, OCEANS '88 is Ocean Management Studies of the University of Rhode
of professional interest to: Island on "A Deepest Ocean Presence: The Economic,
� Marine industrial officials Political, Scientific and Technical Considerations in the
� Oceaniclaw of the sea and marine-oriented academic National Interest."
faculty 9 An Ocean Policy Roundtable on "U.S. Ocean Policy:
� Independent researchers and professional assoc iations Agenda for the 1990s," organized by Dr. Bilianca Cicin-
� Federal, marine agency, policy and program officials Sain and Mr. Robert Knecht of the Ocean and Coastal
� State and territorial marine agency personnel Policy Center of the University of California at Santa
Coastal, oceanic and marine agency personnel Barbara.
Marine trade media 9 A workshop on the Future of Passenger Vessels, a
International ocean community representatives small but emerging growth industry within the larger
In addition to the formal program and exhibits, OCEANS maritime commercial complex.
'88 will feature: 0 An "Oceans Evening" reception at the National
* A Chesapeake Crabcake Reception to welcome all Aquarium to commemorate the Silver Anniversary of the
conferees. Marine Technology Society and honor its past presidents.
0 A Plenary Session, introduced by Honorary Chairman * An Oceans '88 Film Festival, introduced by Mr.
Governor William Donald Schaefer of Maryland, and Charles Sachs, nationally known passenger vessel
featuring several nationally-known federal and inter- historian, and Mr. Ralph White, renowned marine
governmental officials commenting on the "Partnership photographer.
of Marine Interests" theme. The entire proceedings of OCEANS '88 have been
0 A two-day Ocean Enterprise Workshop designed to recognized by the U.S. Senate and House of Represen-
examine commercial opportunities for marine-oriented tatives in joint Resolutions designating the period of
firms and complement both the technical program and October 30 to November 5 as National Marine Technology
the exhibitors' comprehensive range of products and Week. This initiative is the result of the efforts of Senators
services. Lowell Weicker, Ted Stevens, Ernest Hollings, Daniel
0 A Vessel Orientation in Baltimore's inner harbor to Inouye, John Kerry, Frank Lautenberg, Claybourne Pell,
provide conference registrants with visits to a U.S. Coast and Representative Walter Jones and other members of
Guard multi-mission, medium endurance cutter; a hydro- Congress.
graphic vessel from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

viii.

Table of Contents

PLASTICS IN OUR OCEANS: WHAT ARE WE DOING MESOCOSMS AS TOOLS FOR COASTAL AND ESTUARINE
ABOUTIT? ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH-I

Chairman: Chairman:
B. Griswold G. F. Mayer
OAR, National Oceanic and Atmospheric National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Administration
E. Klos 1529
J. M. Coe and A. R. Bunn 1 An Experimental Estuarine Salinity Gradient
Marine Debris and the Solid Waste Disposal Crisis
S. W. Nixon and S. W. Granger 1604
D. Cottingharn 6 Development of Experimental Ecosystems for the
Federal Programs and Plastics in the Oceans Study of Coastal Lagoons

X. Augerot 1711 J. G. Sanders and G. F. Riedel 23
Sea Grant Faces Oceans of Plastic The Use of Enclosed Ecosystems for the Study of
Cycling and Impact of Trace Elements
K. J. O'Hara 12
Education and Awareness: Keys to Solving the Marine S. J. Cibik, J. G. Sanders and C. F. D'Elia 29
Debris Problem Interictions Between Insolation and Nutrient Loading
and the Response of Estuarine Phytoplankton
J. R. Whitehead 1507
Reducing Plastic Pollution in the Marine Environment: MESOCOSMS AS TOOLS FOR COASTAL AND ESTUARINE
The U.S. Coast Guardand Implementation of Annex V ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH-H
of MARPOL 73/78

Chairman:
CONTINENTAL SHELF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH R. E. Turner
Center for Wetlands Resources,
Chairman: Louisiana State University
W. W. Schroeder
University of Alabama A. G. Chalmers 1652
Experimental Manipulations of Drainage in a Georgia
R. Rezak and D. W. McGrail 1602 Saltmarsh: Lessons Learned
Geology and Hydrology of Reefs and Banks Offshore
Texas and Louisiana M. R. DeVoe, M. E. Tompkins and J. M. Dean 35
South Carolina's Coistal Wetland Impoundment
W. W. Schroeder, M. R. Dardeau, J. J. Dindo, P. Project (CWIP): Relationship of Large-Scale Research
Fleischer, K. L. Heck, Jr. and A. W. Schultz 17 to Policy and Management
Geological and Biological Aspects of Hardbottom
Environments on the L'MAFLA Shelf, Northern Gulf of R. E. Turner 41
Mexico Experimental Marsh Management Systems in Louisiana

W. W. Schroeder, R. Rezak and T. J. Bright 22 A. G. van der Valk, B. D. J. Batt, H. R. Murkin, P. J.
Video Documentation of Hardbottom Environments Caldwell and J. A. Kadlec 46
The Marsh Ecology Research Program (MERP): The
Organization and Administration of a Long-Term
Mesocosm Study

ix.

TECHNICAL ADVANCES IN SEAFOOD TECHNOLOGY AND WATER REUSE ON ONSHORE MARICULTURE AND
SAFETY PROCESSING FACILITIES

Chairman: Chairman:
D. Attaway R. Becker
Sea Grant, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Louisiana State University
Administration
J. M. Fox and A. L. Chauvin 1536
R. R. Colwell 106 Depuration of Oysters in 2 Closed Recirculating
New Approaches for IndiceslMonitoring Microbial System
Pathogens in Seafood
M. P. Thomasson, D. G. Burden and R. F. Malone 70
Liston 52 Micro-Computer Based Design of Recirculating
Microorganisms as a Cause of Economic Loss to the Systems for the, Production of Soft-shell Blue Crabs
Seafood Industry (Callinectes sapidus)

G. J. Flick, Jr. 56 G. E. Kaiser and F. W. Wheaton 76
Sea Grant Advances in Seafood Science and Computerized Rapid Measurement of Ammonia
Technology Concentration in Aquaculture Systems

S. Garrett and M. Meyburn K. Rausch, W. H. Zachritz II, T. C. T. Y-Hsieh and
Development of New Approaches to Seafood R. F. Malone 84
Inspection Use of Automated Holding Systems for Initial Off-
Flavor Purging of the Rangia Clam, Rangia cuneata
TECHNICAL ADVANCES IN SEAFOOD TECHNOLOGY AND
SAFETY GULF OF MEXICO CHEMO@SYNTHETIC PETROLEUM SEEP
COMMUNITIES
Chairman:
G. J. Flick, Jr. Chairman:
Virginia Polytechnic Institute R. Carney
Louisiana State University
R. C. Lindsay 61
Flavor Chemistry and Seafood Qu2lity Factors I. MacDonald, R. Carney and D. Wilkinson 90
Gulf of Mexico Chemosynthetic Communities at Oil
H. 0. Hultin 66 Seeps: Estimating Total Density
Technical Problems and Opportunities Related to
Utilization of Our Seafood Resources R. S. Carney 96
Emerging Issues of Environmental Impact to Deep-Sea
J. P. Zikakis 1608 Chemosynthetic Petroleum Seep Communities
A Bio technological System for the Utilization of Waste
Products of the Seafood and Cheese Manufacturing H. H. Roberts, R. Sassen and P. Aharon 101
Industries Petroleum-Derived Authigenic Carbonates of the
Louisiana Continental Slope
A. P. Bimbo 1513
The Production of Menhaden Surimi

UNDERSEA VEHICLES AND PLATFORMS FOR SCIENCE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRIES CONFLICT
APPLICATIONS
Chairmen:
Chairman: R. W. Middleton
A. N. Kalvaitis Minerals Management Service
National Undersea Research Program, M. Holliday
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service
G. A. Smith and R. S. Rounds 106 J. Brashier 136
Scientific, Technological and Social Impact of NOAA's Coexistence of Fishing and Oil and Gas Industries in
Mobile Undersea Research Habitat the Gulf of Mexico
P. J. Auster, L. L. Stewart and H. Sprunk 1286 B. R. Clark 143
Scientific Imaging Problems and Solutions for ROVs Potential Conflicts Between Oil and Gas Industry
L. L. Stewart and P. J. Auster 1610 Activities and Commercial Fishing
Low Cost ROVs for Science R. M. Meyer 146
R. A. Cooper and I. G. Babb 112 Information on Fisheries Risk Assessment in the Alaska
Manned Submersibles Support a Wide Range of OCS Region
Underwater Research in New England and the Great R. C. Wingert 150
Lakes Geophysical Survey and Commercial Fishing Conflicts,
R. 1. Wicklund and B. L. Olla '119 Environmental Studies and Conflict Mitigation in the
Minerals Management Service Pacific OCS Region
Field Research Programs at the Caribbean Marine
Research Center-Nitional Undersea Research Program A. S. Knaster 156
The Use of Alternative Dispute Resolution in
OCS FISHERIES AND RESOURCES Resolving Outer Continental Shelf Disputes

Chairmen: CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE OIL AND
R. W. Middleton GAS LEASING PROGRAM-[
Minerals Management Service
M. Holliday Chairmen:
National Marine Fisheries S&vice J. Goll
Minerals Management Service
R. W. Middleton 123 J. M. Teal
Oil and Gas Industry Conflicts on the Outer Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Continental Shelf
D. Christensen 1624 D. V. Aurand 161
Outer Continental Shelf Fisheries and Resources in the The Future of the Department of the Interior OCS
Northeast Region Studies Program
R. J. Essig 127 T. Chico 166
Outer Continental Shelf Fishery Resources of the Air Qu2lity Issues, Environmental Studies, and
South Atlantic Cumulative Impacts in the Pacific OCS Region
B. G. Thompson 1613 R. E. Miller 172
Outer Continental Shelf Fisheries and Resources in the Georges Bank Monitoring Program: A Summary
Gulf of Mexico
J. M. Teal 177
S. Ko lin 132 The Role of the Scientific Advisory Committee, Outer
p Continental Shelf Program of Minerals Management
The Outer Continental Shelf Fishery Resources of the Service
Pacific Coast

xi.

CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE OIL AND OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION-11
GAS LEASING PROGRAM-H
Chairmen:
Chairmen: J. R. Pearcy
J. Goll Minerals Management Service
.Minerals Management Service C. Welling
J. M. Teal Ocean Minerals Co.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
C. A. Dunkel 208
R. M. Rogers 953 A Qualitative Assessment of the Hydrocarbon Potential
Factors Contributing to Wetland Loss in the Coastal of the Washington and Oregon Continental Shelf
Central Gulf of Mexico
J. M. Galloway and M. R. Brickey 1611
S. D. Treacy 180 The Hydrocarbon Potential of the Federal OCS,
The Minerals Management Service Bowhead Whale Offshore Northern California
Monitoring Program and Its Applications
J. Kennedy and C. Grant 213
R. B. Clark 184 Impact of the Oil-bearing Monterey Formation on
Impact of Offshore Oil Operations in the North Sea Undiscovered Resources of Offshore C21ifomia

J. P. Zippin 1615 S. Sorenson, C. Alonzo and M. Ibrahim 1612
Cumulative Environmental Effects of the Department Wilson Rock Field: A Case History
of the Interior's Offshore Oil and Gas Program: 1987
Report to Congress OIL AND GAS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

OIL AND GAS EXPLORNTION-1 Chairmen:
R. V. Amato
Chairman: Minerals Management Service
J. R. Pearcy C. Welling
Minerals Management Service Ocean Minerals Co.
F. R. Keer 188 G. M. Edson 219
Geologic Characteristics of an Atlantic OCS Gas The Ancient Atlantic Reef Trend
Discovery and Its Implications
P. K. Ray 193 B. J. Bascle 223
Hydrocarbon Potential of the Deepwater (600 Feet) The Effect of Exploration on Resource Estimates for
Gulf of Mexico the Alaska Outer Continental Shelf
W. E. Sweet and J. C. Reed 202 D. Mayerson 229
Correlation of Cenozoic Sediments-Gulf of Mexico Pre-lease Geophysical Permitting for the Pacific OCS:
Procedures, Problems, and Solutions
Outer Continental Shelf
D. A. Steffy 235
Post-Lease Sale Exploration of the Navarin Basin,
Bering Sea, Alaska

xii.

OFFSHORE DRILLING-ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS-11

Chairman: Chairman:
D. Cottingham A. I. Eller
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Science Applications International Corp.

D. K. Fran&s 241 L. C. Haines, W. W. Renner and A. 1. Eller 295
Environmental Studies and Impact Assessment on the Prediction System for Acoustic Returns from Ocean
Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Bathymetry

R. B. Krahl and C. E. Smith 250 G. P. Vellemarette 298
Developing Technologies for Offshore Oil and Gas Programmable Subsurface Acoustic Recording System
Structures in Frontier and Hazardous Areas
D. F. McCammon 304
OCEAN LEASING AND DEVELOPMENT The Relationship Between Acoustic Bottom Loss and
the Geoacoustic Properties of the Sediment

Chairman:
G. Pettrazzulo ACOUSTICS-NOISE
Technical Resources Inc.
Chairmen:
S. Ashmore 259 D. J. Ramsdale
Offshore Leasing Boundaries Along the Receding Naval Ocean R&D Activity
Alaskan Coastline N. Miller
T. J. Mac Gillvray 262 West Sound Association
Development and Analysis of DCF Computer Mode IIs W. S. Hodgkiss 310
for EEZ Marine Mining Source Ship Contamination Removal in a Broadband
M. E. Dunaway and P. Schroeder 268 Vertical Array Experiment
Minimizing Anchoring Impacts During Construction of R. J. Lataitis, G. B. Crawford and S. F. Clifford 315
Offshore Oil and Gas Facilities
A New Acoustic Technique for Remote Measurement
of the Temporal Ocean Wave Spectrum
ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS-1
ACOUSTICS-PROPAGATION
Chairman:
A. 1. Eller Chairman:
Science Applications International Corp. D. G. Browning
Naval Underwater System Center
W. Hill, G. Chaplin and D. Nergaard 275
Deep-Ocean Tests of an Acoustic Modem Insensitive D. G. Browning, P. M. Schiefele and R. H. Mellen 318
to Multipath Distortion Attenuation of Low Frequency Sound in Ocean
Surface Ducts: Implications for Surface Loss Values
A. Novick 1617
A Shallow Water Sonar Performance Prediction W. J. Vetter 1540
System On Ray Trajectories and Pathtimes for Acoustic
Propagation in a Medium with Velocity Gradients
R. L. Spooner 283
Signal Processing Using Spreadsheet Software D. K. Roderick 1619
An Introduction to the Physics of Underwater Sound
J. M. Tattersall, J. A. Mingrone and P. C. King 1618 and Their Application to Passive Anti-Submarine
A VCR Based Digital Data Recorder for Underwater Warfare
Acoustics Multipith Measurements

L. Wu and A. Zielinski 287
Multipath Rejection Using Narrow Beam Acoustic Link

xiii.

ACOUSTICS-SIDE SCAN SEA BOTTOM PROPERTIES

Chairman: Chairman:
R. Walker M. Cruckshank
USCG R&D Center University of Hawaii

A. St. C. Wright 323 R. B. Perry 366
The Wide Swath, Deep Towed SeaMARC Mappin .g the Slopes of Expanding Continental Margins

R. G. Asplin and C. G. Christensson 329 C. de Moustier, T. Hylas and J. C. Phillips 372
A New Generation Side Scan Sonar Modifications and Improvements to the Sea Beam
System On Board RIV Thomas Washington
E. Kristof, A. Chandler and D. Schomette 335
Using a Sector-Scan Sonar to Hunt for Shipwrecks D. E. Pryor 379
Through Ice Theory and Test of Bathymetric Side Scan Sonar

J. W. Nicholson and J. S. Jaffe 338 S. M. Smith, J. S. Charters and J. M. Moore 385
Side Scan Sonar Acoustic Variability Processing and Management of Underway Marine
Geophysical Data at Scripps
R. Gandy and S. Paulet 1620
Realtime Side Scan Sonar Target Analysis R. L. Cloet 1636
Implications of Using a Wide SWATH Sounding
W. R. Abrams 344 System
A Practical High Tech Advance in Side Scan Sonar
Target Positioning and Analysis SEDIMENT STUDIES-1

ACOUSTIC DOPPLER CURRENT PROFILING Chairman:
A. G. Young
Chairman: FUGRO-McClelland
H. R. Frey
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, S. K. Breeding and D. Lavoie 391
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Duomorph Sensing for Laboratory Measurement of
Shear Modulus
G. F. Appell, J. Gast, G. Williams and P. D. Bass 346
Calibration of Acoustic Doppler Current Profflers D. Lavoie, E. Mozley, R' Corwin, D. Lambert and
P. Valent 397
Y. Kuroda, G. Kai and K. Okuno 353 The Use ofa Towed, Direct-Current, Electrical
Development of a Shipboard Acoustic Doppler Resistivity Array for the Classification of Marine
Current Profiler Sediments

D. Wilson, D. Bitterman and C. Roffer 359 P. F. Wainwright, B. Humphrey and G. Stewart 405
The Acoustic Doppler Current Profiling System at Sediment Contamination by Heavy Metals and
AOML Hydrocarbons

xiv.

SEDIMENT STUDIES-H SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

Chairman: Chairmen:
H. G. Herrmann III D. E. Weissman
Naval Facilities Engineering Command Hofstra University
A. E. Hay, L. Huang, E. B. Colbourne, J. Sheng and J. Gallagher
A. J. Bowen 413 Naval Underwater Systems Center
A High Speed Multi-Channel Data Acquisition System M. R. Willard 1625
for Remote Acoustic Sediment Transport Studies
Ocean Sensing Capabilities on Landsat 6
D. G. Hazen, A. E. Hay and A. J. Bowen 419 S. W. McCandless, Jr. and J. Curlander 479
Design Considerations for RASTRAN-System 2 The Influence of Picking Technologies on
A. G. Young, L. V. Babb and R. L. Boggess 423 Environmental Application of Space-Based Synthe tic
Mini-Probes: A New Dimension in Offshore In Situ Aperture Radar
Testing J. R. Benada, D. T. Cuddy and B. H. jai 473
K. L. Williams and L. J. Satkowiak 428 Adapting the NSCAT Data System to Changing
Bounded Beam Transmission Across a Water/Sand Requirements
Interface, Experiment and Theory
W. B. Campbell and M. L. Weaks 1626
L. J. Satkowiak 433 An Inexpensive Interactive Processing System for
Remote Sea Bottom Classification Utilizing the NOAA Satellite Images
Ulvertech Bottom Profiler Parametric Source D. S. Bryant, A. M. Ponsford and S. K. Srivastava 485
A Computer Package for the Parameter Optimization
THE GREAT LAKES AS AN OCEANIC MICROCOSM of Groundwave Radar

Chairman:
L. Pittman
Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee,
U.S. Congress

J. R. Krezoski 437
Particle Reworking in Great Lakes Sediments: In-Situ
Tracer Studies Using Rare Earth Elements
J. R. Krezoski 442
In-Situ Tracer Studies of Surflcial Sediment Transport
in the Great Lakes Using a Manned Submersible

L. F. Boyer 443
Video-Sediment-Profile Camera Imagery in Marine and
Freshwater Benthic Environments

L. F. Boyer, R. J. Diaz and J. D. Hedrick 448
Computer Image-Analysis Techniques and Video-
Sediment-Profile Camera Enhancements Provide a
Unique and Quantitative View of Life at or Beneath
the Sediment-Waterface Interface

xv.

OCEAN APPLICATIONS OF REMOTELY SENSED MICROWAVE WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS-1
TECHNIQUES
Chairmen:
Chairmen: R. S. Mesecar
D. E. Weissman Oregon State University
Hofstra University T. M. Dauphinee
J. Gallagher National Research Council, Canada
Naval Underwater Systems Center
W. Kroebel 491
C. Bostater and V. Klemas 462 Results of Exact Investigations About the
Remote Sensing of Physical and Biological Properties Characteristics of the Extremely Fast and Accurately
of Estuaries Measuring Kiel Multisonde and Representations About
Its Newest Performance
D. E. Weissman 1546
The Dependence of the Microwave Radar Cross K.-H. Mahrt and C. Waldmann 497
Section on Ocean Surface Variables During the Field Proven High Speed Micro Optical Density
Fasinex Experiment Profller Sampling 1000 Times Per Second with 10-6
Precision
W.-M. Boerner, A. B. Kostinski, B. D. James and
M. Walther 454 R. Mesecar and C. Moser 505
Application of the Polarimetric Matched Image Filter Multi-Sample Particle Flux Collector
(PM1F) Technique to Clutter Removal in POL-SAR
Images of the Ocean Environment J. M. Moore, C. de Moustier and J. S. Charters 509
Multi-Sensor Re2l-Time Data Acquisition and
D. L. Murphy 467 Preprocessing at Sea
Radar Detection of Oceanic Fronts
L. S. Fedor and E. J. Walsh 1697 WATER COLUMN MEASUREMENTS-II
Interpretation of SEASAT Radar Altimeter Returns Chairmen:
from an Overflight of Ice in the Beaufort Sea J.Jaeger
L. S. Fedor, G. S. Hayne and E. J. Walsh 1704 Honeywell Hydro Products
Airborne Pulse-Limited Radar Altimeter Return K. Hill
Waveforin Characteristics over Ice in the Beaufort Sea Honeywell Hydro Products

J. Wagner and R. Mesecar 518
A Common XBTIPerson2l Computer interface

D. I. Nebert, H. Saklad and G. Mimken 1627
CTD Data Acquisition P2ck2ge

H. Tremblay 522
Hydroball-A New Expendable: Uses and Issues

xvi

COMMUNICATIONS OCEAN ENGINEERING-1

Chairman: Chairmen:
R. A. Buddenberg, USCG C. A. Kohler
Office of Command and Control USCG R&D Center
R. A. Buddenberg and A. Givens 526 R. Geminder
Shipboard Tactical Computer: The Coast Guard's Mechanic Research Inc.
Combat Information Center Modernization R. L. Benedict 577
R. L. Moe 532 Destruction of Offshore Platforms by Accelerated
Networking and Ship-to-Shore Ship-to-Ship Galvanic Corrosion
Communication C. A. Kohler 582
S. C. Hall 537 Corrosive-Wear of Buoy Chain
The Defense Mapping Agency's Navigation J. Larsen-Basse, B. E. Liebert, K. M. Htun and
Information Network A. Tadjvar 1628
Long-Term Abrasion and Corrosion Damage to the
COLD REGIONS OPERATIONS Hawaii Deep Water Power Cable

Chairmen: M. Briere, K. C. Baldwin and M. R. Swift 588
S. Smith Collision Tolerant Pile Structures: Design Analysis
U.S. Coast Guard Software
E. Early T. Dowd 595
University of Washington United States Naval Experience with Antifouling P2ints
J. D. Crowley 543
Cold Weather Effects upon Marine Operations OCEAN ENGINEERING-11

S. M. Smith and D. Strahl 549 Chairmen:
Articulated Lights in Ice J. R. Vadus
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments,
M. Gorveatt and M. C. Yee 555 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Arctic Ice Island Coring Facility K. Okamura
Special Assistant to the Minister of Science and
COLD REGIONS MEASUREMENTS Technology, Japan

Chairmen: A. Bertaux 598
S. R. Osmer Tapered Interface in Harsh Environment Connectors
USCG International Ice Patrol
W. E. Hanson J. F. Legrand, A. Echardour, L. Floury, H. Floch, J.
USCG International Ice Patrol Kerdoncuff, T. Le Moign, G. Loaec and Y. Raer 602
Nadia: Wireline Re-Entry in Deep Sea Boreholes
W. E. Hanson 561 P. K. Sullivan and B. E. Liebert 606
Operational Iceberg Forecasting Concerns Impedance Measurements of Biofouling in Seawater
G. Steeves and S. Grant 567 Condensers: An Update
An Autonomous Atmospheric Pressure Recorder for E. A. Fisher and H. P. Hackett 607
Establishing Polar Sea Surface Height World's First Rigid Free-Standing Production Riser
T. K. Newbury and A. J. Adams 573 F. EI-Hawary 291
Estimated Ice-Gouge Rates on a Manmade Shoal in the Compensation of Vertical Displacement Components
Beaufort Sea in Marine Seismic Applications Using the Coupled
Heave and Pitch Model

xvii.

INFORMATION SYSTEMS-[ INFORMATION SYSTEMS-III

Chairmen: Chairmen:
J. A. Smith C. D. Kearse
USCG R&D Center Office of Marine Operations,
G. Williams National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Texas A&M University D. White
General Instrument Corp.
H. Bhargava and S. 0. Kimbrough 1554
Oona: An Intelligent Decision Support System for the G. Samuels 648
U.S. Coast Guard A Shipboard Data Acquisition, Logging and Display
T. F. Pfeiffer 612 System
A Single Board Computer Based Sail Controller C. V. Baker and W. T. Whelan 650
Offshore Oceanographic Applications for Battery-
M. R. Nayak 615 Powered, High-End Microprocessors
On the Knowledge-Based Expert System for Marine
Instrumentation R. Findley 655
CIDS-A Shipboard Centralized Integrated Data
R. J. Smith 618 System
OPDIN-One Way the Ocean Community Informs
M. Reynolds, R. Hendershot, M. jungck and
INFORMATION SYSTEMS-II B. Reid 1560
The Zeno Alliance Network: A Dual-Loop Fiber Optic
Chairman: Instrumentation Network for Ships
P. Topoly
Systems Planning NESDIS, MOORING
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Chairmen:
D. Stamulis and M. P. Shevenell 623 K. R. Bitting
The Use of WORM Optical Disks in Ocean Systems USCG R&D Center
W. B. Wilson 629 R. Swenson
A Method for Optimizing Environmental Observing Neptune Ocean Engineering
Networks J. D. Babb 66o
W. C. Sutherland 632 Validation of Computer Model Predictions of the
A User-Friendly Multi-Functional CTD Software Large-Scale Transient Dynamic Towing Response of
Package Flexible Cables
D. Hamilton and J. Ward 637 H. 0. Berteaux, D. E. Frye, P. R. Clay and
On-line Access to NODC Information Services E. C. Mellinger 670
Surface Telemetry Engineering Mooring (STEM)
E. Voudouri and L. Kurz 641 D. R. May 681
Robust Sequential m-Interval Approximation Detectors New Technologies and Developments in NDBC Buoy
with Q-Dependent Sampling
and Mooring Design

xviii.

OPERATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR EXPLORATION OF THE SEA

Chairman: Chairmen:
S. R. Osmer J. B. Pearce
USCG International Ice Patrol ICES Marine Environment Quality Committee
J. N. Moore
S. R. Osmer and D. L. Murphy 687 Center Ocean Law and Policy,
International Ice Patrol Applied Oceanography University of Virginia
R. L. Tuxhorn 691 J. F. Pawlak 719
Oceanography on EAGLE Australia '88 Cruise A Review of the Origins, Responsibilities, Composition
J. A. McNitt 696 and Main Activities of the International Council for
United States Navy Operational Oceanography: the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)
Fighting Smart with Oceanography Intelligence S. A. Murawski 726
An Evaluation of Shellfish Research in the
OCEANOGRAPHY-MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

Chairman: J. B. Pearce 732
W. D. Scherer The ICES Marine Environmental Quality Committee
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, (MEQC): Its History and Activities
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
F. P. Thurberg 736
P. Clemente-Colon and J. Zaitzeff 1629 The ICES Working Group on Biological Effects of
Upwelling Monitoring Off Western, Sahara Contaminants: A Case Study

K, Monkelien and T. L. Murrell .699 SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL AND MONITORING
Windrose, PC Software for Wind Data Analysis
Chairmen:
M. Enomoto, T. Kawanishi and W. Kato 703 C. Dougherty
Measurement of Luminance Distribution on the Sea Environmental Protection Agency
Surface for Comfortable Living Space G. Lotzic
UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY New York City Department of Environmental
Protection
Chairman: J. C. Swanson and K. Jayko 740
E. Kristof Modeling the Impacts of CSO Treatment Alternatives
National Geographic Society on Narragansett Bay
E. Kristof, J. Stancampiano and A. Chandler 709 H. M. Stanford and D. R. Young 7415
Use, of a Macro-Hybrid Camera at National Geographic Pollutant Loadings to the New York Bight Apex
E. Kristof, A. Chandler and W. Hamner 713 S. E. McDowell, C. S. Albro, W. R. Trulli,
3-D as an Underwater Too] W. G. Steinhauer and F. G. Csulak 1630
Optimum Techniques for Tracking Plumes in the
,Ocean: A Case Study of Sludge Plume Dispersion at
the 106-Mile Site

C. E. Werme, P. D. Boehm, W. G. Steinhauer and
F. G. Csulak 1631
A Monitoring Plan for Disposal of Sewage Sludge at
the 106-Mile Site

C. D. Hunt, W. G. Steinhauer, C. E. Werme, P. D.
Boehm and F. G. Csulak 1632
Monitoring Water Quality Characteristics During
Dispoasl of Sewage Sludge at the 106-Mile Site

xix.

MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES PROBLEMS IN OUR BAYS AND ESTUARIES

Chairman: Chairman:
B. Haynes V. K. Tippie
Environmental Protection Agency Estuarine Program Office,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
R. J. Greenwald and H. F. Hennigar, Jr. 752
Designation of an Ocean Mining Stable Reference Area E. M. Burreson and J. D. Andrews 799
Unusual Intensification of-Chesapeake Bay Oyster
R. M. Mink. B. L. Bearden and E. A. Mancini 762 Diseases During Recent Drought Conditions
Regional Geologic Framework of the Norphlet
Formation of the Onshore and Offshore Mississippi, C. F, D'Elia and P. R. Taylor 803
Alabama, and Florida Area Disturbances in Coral Reefs: Lessons from Diadema
Mass Mortality and Coral Bleaching
T. J. Rowland 768
Availability of Minerals Offshore Virginia P. A. Tester, P. K. Fowler and R. P. Stumpf 808
Red Tide, the First Occurrence in North Carolina
C. E. McLain 777 Waters: An Overview
Ocean Mining: An Opportunity for Public-Private
Partnership B. L. Welsh 1633
Hypoxia in Long Island Sound (LIS), Summer of 1987
R. V. Amato 783
Recent Nonenergy Mineral Activity in the Atlantic P. Molinari 1609
Outer Continental Shelf EPA's Response to the Flotables Incidents of the
Summer of 1987

TRASH ALONG THE COAST
THE DOLPHIN DIE-OFF
Chairman:
L. Swanson Chairman:
State University of New York N. M. Foster
National Marine Fisheries Service
J. B. Pearce 786
Events of the Summer of '87 D. R. Cassidy, A. J. Davis. A. L. jenny and
D. A. Saari 812
L. Schmidt 790 Pathology of the Diseased Dolphins
Impacts and Implications of the Summer of 1987,
Newjersey Flotable Incidents J. Geraci 1634
Epidemiology of Bottlenose Dolphin Disease-U.S.
R. E. Dennis, R. P. Stumpf and M. C. Predoehl 1569 Atlantic Coast, 1987-1988
Environmental Conditions in New York Bight, July-
August, 1987 J. G. Meade, C. W. Potter and W. A. McLellan 815
Statistical Characteristics of the 1987 Bottlenose
R. L. Swanson, R. Zimmer and C. A. Parker 794 Dolphin Die-Off in Virginia
Meteorological Conditions Leading to the 1987
Washup of Floatable Wastes on New Jersey Beaches W. Medway 818
and Comparison of These Conditions with the Results of the Dolphin Epidemic Investigation as the
Historical Record Disease was Presented in Newjersey Specimens of
Bottlenose Dolphins in 1987

G. P. Scott, D. M. Burn and L. J. Hansen 819
The Dolphin Dieoff. Long-Term Effects and Recovery
of the Population

xx.

SHIPWRECK ARCHEOLOGY OIL SPILL MOVEMENT

Chairmen: Chairman:
W. C. Phoel D. F. Paskausky
NMFS, Sandy Hook Laboratory, USCG R&D Center
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
J. Bondareff I. M. Lissauer 842
House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee A Verified Model for Oil Spill Movement, Beaufort
Sea, Alaska
J. D. Broadwater 824 M. Reed and E. R. Gundlach 847
Historic Shipwrecks: Resources Worth Protecting Hindcast of the Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill
A. G. Giesecke 827 E. J. Tennyson and H. Whittaker 853
The Abandoned Shipwreck Act: A Context The 1987 Newfoundland Oil Spill Experiment: An
Overview
P. J. A. Waddell 833
Reburial of a 16th Century Galleon E. J. Tennyson 857
J. D. Broadwater 837 Shipboard Navigational Radar as an Oil Spill Tracking
Supporting Underwater Archaeology with Ocean Too]: A Preliminary Assessment
Technology C. M. Anderson and R. P. LaBelle 1673
R. W. Lawrence 1627 Update of Occurrence Rites for Accidental Oil Spills
Consequences of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act: The on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf
North Carolina Example
DRIFT MEASUREMENT
J. Fullmer 1677
Myth and Minagement-The Shipwreck Management Chairmen:
Act L M. Lissauer
USCG R&D Center
ART R. Q. Robe
USCG R&D Center
Chairman:
H. B. Stewart, Jr. A. A. Allen and C. B. Billing 860
Old Dominion University Spatial Objective Analysis of Small Numbers of
Lagrangian Drifters
C. Olsen 1576
Art and Technology on 20th-Century Vessels M. J. Lewandowski 865
A Minicomputer Application to Graphically Display
H. B. Stewart, Jr. 840 Tidal Current Drift
Artists on Oceanographic Expeditions: A Neglected
Partnership E. A. Meindl 871
Drifting Buoy Data Quality and Performance
Assessment at the National Data Buoy Center

P. J. Hendricks 1635
Drift Current Measurements from a Submarine

Xxi.

ECONOMICS OF MARINE OPERATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

Chairmen: Chairmen:
F. Olson S. Bolton
Environmental Consultant Office of Legislative Affairs,
D. M. King National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
ICF Inc. R. Dye
House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee
M. D. Aspinwall 876
Commercial Vessel Operations in the Exclusive R. W. Zeller 905
Economic Zone: Will the Jones Act Keep Up? Resolving the Environmental Decisionmakingand
Research Dilemma
M. W. Clark, Jr., D. P. Robinson and L. G. Antle 1690
Economic Impacts from Coal Exports: Through the C. A. Crampton and R. C. Helland 910
Port of Baltimore and the Port of Norfolk A Strategy for Program Implementation

C. D. MacDonald and H. E. Deese 880 J. N. Leonard 914
Opportunities for Development: A Growth Scenario Updating the Stratton Commission: A Proposal for the
and Situation Analysis of Hawaii's Ocean Industries U.S. Coast Guard Ocean Survey Corps

D. L. Soden, J. D. Reighard and W. H. Hester 891 H. E. Schultz 920
Outside Influence on Port Operations: The Insider's National Response Mechanism
Perspectives
J. S. Hawkins 925
M. G. Johnson 896 Satellite Ocean Monitoring at Ten Years: Perceptions
Use of Systems Analysis Techniques in Ocean and Realities
Resources Development
P. Stang and E. Turner 1616
EDUCATION AND TRAINING Legal and Policy Issues at Stake in the Current 5-Year
Program
Chairmen:
Richard Asaro, USCG ESTUARINE STUDIES-I
Office of Marine Safety, Security and
Environmental Protection Chairman:
Thoyer Shafer D. J. Basta
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments,
J. Morton 899 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Marine Field Projects: Teaching is the Easy Part S. E. McCoy 930
S. Teel 1582 Monitoring the Estuary
Maritime Training and Ocean Education I. C. Sheifer 937
H. F. Trutneff 902 Climate, Weather, and Coastal Recreational Growth in
The Impact of Marine Technology on Education and the Southeast U.S. in 1986
Training in Marine Transportation A. Stoddard 942
An Innovative Approach for the Synthesis of Large
Oceanographic Data Sets with Pre-Processing and
Post-Processing of an Ecosystem Model of the New
York Bight

J. Gerritsen 948
Biological Control of Water Quality in Estuaries:
Removal of Particulate Matter by Filter Feeders

Xxii.

ESTUARINE STUDIES-11 OCEAN POLICY-A MATRIX OF FEDERAL, STATE AND
INTERNATIONAL ISSUES
Chairmen:
S. E. McCoy Chairmen:
Estuarine Program Office, E. W. Cannon
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration USCG Governmental Affairs Staff
D. Ashe K. U. Wolniakowski
House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee State of Oregon

Oral only E. W. Cannon 1717
The USCG: A Prototype for National and International
FISHERIES AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENTS Ocean Policy Implementation
Chairman: L. A. Berney
R. Smolowitz The Unspoken Yet Vital Partnership Between the
National Marine Fisheries, USCG Reserve and the Civilian Communityat Large
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration C. R. Corbett 992
F. L. Ames 961 International Oil Spill Liability and Compensation
Improved U.S. Strate gy for Fisheries Law Enforcement E. Hout, R. Bailey and K. U. Wolniakowski 994
G. Reetz 966 Ocean Resource Management in Oregon: Pushing
California Sea Otter: Impact Assessment and Mitigation Open the Window of Opportunity
D. Luo 972 J. S. S. Lakshminarayana 1000
Theoretical Analysis of Fish School Density Overview and Analysis of Coastal Zone Management
in the Atlantic Provinces, Canada
R. J. Smolowitz and F. M. Serchuk 975 D. C. Slade 1006
Marine Fisheries Technology in the United States: Coastal States and Marine Reso rce Devel ent
Status, Trends and Future Directions u opm
Within the United States Exclusive Economic Zone

B. F. Beal 980
Public Aquaculture in Downeast Maine: The Soft-Shell OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM
Clam Story
Chairman:
P. H. Averill 1637 J. H. Clotworthy
Development of Separator Trawl Technology Consultant

FISHERIES-IMPACT STUDIES P. Brown, K. Lighty, R. Merrill and
P. D. Rabinowitz 1012
Chairman: Collection and Quality Control of Marine Geological
J. Chambers Data by the Ocean -Drilling Program
National Marine Fisheries Service D. Graham, B. Hamlin, B. julson, W. Mills, A. Meyer,
H. A. Carr R. Olivas, P. D. Rabinowitz, D. Bontempo and
Long Term Assessment of a Derelict Gillnet Found in J. Tauxe 1018
the Gulf of Maine Shipboard Laboratory Support: Ocean Drilling
Program
A. E. Pinkney, L. L. Matteson and D. A. Wright 987 P. Weiss, G. Bode, C. Mato, R. Merrill, P. D.
Effects of Tributyltin on Survival, Growth, Rabinowitz, M. Angell, J. Miller, P. Myre, S. Prinz,
Morphometry and RNA-DNA Ratio of Larval Striped
Bass, Morone saxatilis D. Quoidbach and R. Wilcox 1025
Core Curation: Ocean Drilling Program

xxiii.

OCEAN ENERGY-[ MARINE MAMMALS RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT

Chairman: Chairman:
D. Cotter D. Swanson
CBI Industries National Marine Fisheries Service,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
P. Vauthier 1029
The Underwater Electric Kite: East River Deployment H. H. Armstrong and K. R. Banks 1073
Modern Eskimo Whaling in the Alaskan Arctic
D. E. Lennard and F. A. Johnson 1034
British OTEC Programmes-10MW Floating and G. H. Allen 1079
0,5MW Land Based Observations on the 1987 Subsistence Harvest of
Northern Fur Seals on St. Paul Island, Pribilof Islands,
R. K. Jensen 1039 Alaska
Hydro Power from the Ocean
R. T. Bennett 1083
A. Thomas and D. Hillis 1045 Endangered Species and Marine Mammal Protection
First Production of Potable Water by OTEC and Its During Offshore Structure Removals in the Gulf of
Potential Applications Mexico

OCEAN ENERGY-11 SHIP DESIGN AND REPAIR

Chairman: Chairmen:
L. Lewis M. S. Canavan
Department of Energy USCG Office of Engineering and Development
D. C. Hicks, C. M. Pleass and G. R. Mitcheson 1049 T. Colton
DELBUOY. WRve-Powered Seawater Desalination Colton Company
System M. S. Canavan and M. D. Noll 1087
K. P. Melvin 1055 U.S. Coast Guard's New Polar Icebreaker Design
A Wave Energy Engine and Proposals for its
Development and Usage D. W. Yu and J. H. DevIetian 1098
Electroslag Surfacing for Construction, Restoration,
L. Claeson 1638 and Repair of Ship Structures
Recent Wave Energy Research in Sweden
RESEARCH VESSELS
K. Kudo, T. Tsuzuku, K. Imai and Y. Akiyama 1061
Wave Focusing by a Submerged Plate Chairman:
W. Barbee
Y. Masuda, M. E. McCormick, T. Yamazaki and University-National Oceanographic Laboratory
Y. Outa 1067 System
The Backward Bent Duct Buoy-An Improved
Floating Type Wave Power Device J. A. Chance 1107
Conversion of Surplus Oilfleld Supply Vessels to
Research Vessels

C. Hamlin 1111
Research Vessels: A Systems Engineering Approach

B. L. Hutchison and S. Jagannathan 1117
Monohull Research Vessel Seakeeping and Criteria

R. J. Wilber, C. E. Lea and S. E. Humphris 1639
The SSV Corwith Cramer: Sea Education Association's
New Sailing Research Vessel

xxiv.

SALVAGE AND TOWING SWATH SHIPS-1

Chairman: Chairman:
J. H. Boyd R. Dinsmore
Booz, Allen & Hamilton, Inc. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

J. K. Edgar 1640 G. R. Lamb 1131
Hazardous Materials in Marine Salvage Operations Relationship Between Seakeeping Requirements and
SWATH Ship Geometry
C. M. Kalro 1603
Launch and Retrieval of 2 1,000 Ton Barge Shaped M. Rice, E. Craig, S. Drummond and
Vessel from a Conventional Tanker C. junemann 1144
Conceptual Design of an Intermediate Size
J. Strandquist 1124 Oceanographic Research Ship for the University-
Removal of the Wreck of the Ex-USS TORTUGA National Oceanographic Laboratory System

THE SMALL PASSENGER VESSEL INDUSTRY-1 R. D. Gaul, A. C. McClure and F. E. Shumaker 1149
Design of a Semisubmerged SWATH Research and
Chairmen: Survey Ship
E. G. Sharf C. Kennell 1157
National Association of Passenger Vessels Tankage Arrangement for SWATH Ships
H. Parker
National Association of Passenger Vessels SWATH SHIPS-11
W. B. Hamner 1641 Chairman:
The Future of the Tourist Submarine Industry K. W. Kaulum
Oral only Office of Naval .Research
T. G. Lang, C. B. Bishop and W. J. Sturgeon 1163
THE SMALL PASSENGER VESSEL INDUSTRY-H SWATH Ship Designs for Oceanographic Research

Chairman: E. Craig and S. E. Drummond 1169
E. G. Scharf SWATH CHARWIN-Range Support Ship
National Association of Passenger Vessels
A. Galerne 1573
T. MacRae 1125 Development of Deep Water Technology as It Relates
The Realities of Bareboat Chartering to Future Salvage

Oral only E. Craig
Real World Experience with SWATH Design

Xxv.

SHIPBOARD TECHNICAL SUPPORT AN INTERIM STATUS REPORT ON ORGANOTINS-11

Chairman: Chairmen:
H. L. Clark P. F. Seligman
National Science Foundation Naval Ocean Systems Center
H. L. Clark 1644 M. A. Champ
Shipboard Technician Program of the National Science National Science Foundation
Foundation K. W. M. Siu 1716
J. D. Guffy, M. A. Spears and D. C. Biggs 1173 Analytical Chemistry of Butyltins
Automated Analyses of Nutrients in Seawater with the T. L. Wade, B. Garcia-Romero and J. M. Brooks 1198
Technicon TrAAcs-800 Autoanalyzer System Tributyltin Analyses in Association with NOAA's
D. J. Murphy, E. Wilson and E. Powell 1178 National Status and Trends Mussel Watch Program
An Application of a Low Flow Current Meter to Broad C. M. Adema, W. M. Thomas, Jr., and
Temperature Range Estuarine Current Measurements S. R. Mangum 1656
M. Maccio and C. Langdon 1181 Butyltin Releases to Harbor Water from Ship Painting
Description of Conversion of an EG&G VMCM into a in a Dry Dock
MVMS (Multi-Variable Moored Sensor) B. Cool
Summary and Status Report of EPA's Special Review
AN INTERIM STATUS REPORT ON ORGANOTINS-I (PD14)

Chairmen: WAVE MOTION
P. F. Seligman
Naval Ocean Systems Center Chairman:
M. A. Champ R. H. Canada
National Science Foundation National Data Buoy Center,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
P. F. Seligman, J. G. Grouhoug and C. M. Adema
Field Monitoring of TBT Concentrations in Pearl L. J. Ladner, W. B. Wilson and P. J. Kies 1202
Harbor Correlated with Model Simulation Studies Lake Superior Winter Weather Station

R. S. Henderson 1645 N. Lang
Chronic Exposure Effects of Tributyltin on Pearl The Linear Properties of Spectra from a PitchlRoll
Harbor Organisms Buoy

M. H. Salazar and S. M. Salazar 1188 E. D. Michelena and R. Dagnall
Tributyltin and Mussel Growth in San Diego Bay A Computer Controlled Signal Simulator for Buoy
Motion Sensors
M. H. Salazar and M. A. Champ 1497
Tributyltin and Water Quality: A Question of D. Smith and F. Remond
Environmental Significance 3-Meter Directional PitchlRoll Buoy

W. R. Blair, G. J. Olson, T. K. Trout, K. L. Jewett
and F. E. Brinckman 1668
Accumulation and Fate of Tributyltin Species in
Microbial Biofllms

xxvi.

WAVE MEASUREMENTS UNDERWATER VEHICLES

Chairman: Chairman:
L. Baer R. Blidberg
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, University of New Hampshire
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
M. Higgins and R. Whyte 1646
H. Brown 1205 Controlled Depressor Towed Sensor Platform-The
Infrared Laser Wave Height Sensor U.S. Navy's Mk28 Search System

G. Kontopiclis and G. Bowers 1207 M. Higgins, B. Lawson and B. Field 1647
WavePro: An Autonomous Wave Processor with Long- Development and Testing of a Heavy-Duty Work ROV
Range Telemetry for 10,000 Foot Service

F. Ziemer, H. GOnther and E. Stockdreher 1212 H. Momma, K. Ohtsuka and H. Hotta 1253
Measured Transfer Functions for Shipmotions in JAMSTECIDeep Tow System
Natural Se2ways
J. jalbert, M. Shevenell, S. Chappel, R. Welsh and
D. W. Farrell 1587 R. Blidberg 1259
The Next Generation Water Level Measurement EAVE III Untethered AUV Submersible
System: The Next Step in Real-Time Data for
Navigation M. E. Cooke, S. Gittings, J. M. Brooks and
D. C. Biggs
WAVE ACTION ON SEA SHORES Texas A&M University Remotely Operated
Oceanographic Vehicle (TAMU-ROOV)

Chairman:
M. Earle UNDERWATER VEHICLE SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
MEC Systems Corp.
Chairmen:
M. J. Briggs and P. J. Grace 1218 S. B. Cable
Influence of Frequency and Directional Spreading on Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
Wave Transformation in the Nearshore Region R. Wernli
D. D. McGehee and J. P. McKinney 1224 Naval Ocean Systems Center
Tidal Circulation Data from the Los AngeleslLong F. Dougherty, T. Sherman, G. Woolweaver and
Beach Harbors G. Lovell 1265
S. L. Da Costa and J. L. Scott 1231 An Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Flight
Wave Impact Forces on the Jones Island East Dock, Control System Using Sliding Mode Control
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
M. L. Nuckols, J. Kreider and W. Feild 1271
Thermal Modelling of Electro-Mechanical Cables for
J.Rosati III and G. L. Howell 1239 ROV Applications
A Hierarchical Multiprocessor Data Acquisition System
for Field Measurement of Structural Response in M. P. Shevenell and C. Millett 1276
Breakwater Concrete Armor Units A LISP Environment for Real-Time Ocean Systems
J. P. Ahrens and E. T. Fulford 1244 S. B. Cable 1280
Wave Energy Dissipation by Reef Breakwaters A Guideline System for the Navy's Submarine Rescue
E. H. Harlow 1250 Ship (ASR) Class
Why Breakwaters Break W. J. Herr 1290
AUV Technology: Development and Demonstration
Program

Xxvii.

MANNED SUBMERSIBLES HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT

Chairman: Chairmen:
R. W. Cook L. H. Gibson
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute USCG Central Oil Identification Laboratory
Oral only E. F. Batutis
Phasesep Corp.

DIVING OPERATIONS AND SYSTEMS W. R. Cunningham 1321
NOAA Fleet Hazardous Materials and Hazardous Waste
Chairmen: Management
W. C. Phoel
National Marine Fisheries Service, L. H. Gibson and M. S. He ndrick 1326
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S. Coast Guard Oil Identification System
J. M. Wells T. J. Haas, J. J. Kichner and T. J. Chuba 1332
Office of Marine Operations, Course in Hazardous Materials
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

J. K. Jeffries BUOY-BASED METEOROLOGY
Standards and Procedures for Dry Suit Divi .ng
Education Chairman:
R. Canada
J. K. Jeffries National Buoy Center
Thermal Guidelines for Diving Operations S. P. Burke and D. G. Martinson 1335
R. 1. Wicklund 1614 An ARGOS Meteorological Oceanographic Spar Buoy
An Inexpensive Mobile Self-Contained Habitat'System for Antarctic Deployments
for Marine Research
D. B. Gilhousen 1341
J. W. Blackwell and C. D. Newell 1300 Methods of Obtaining Weather Data in Real Time
Diving in Hazardous and Polluted Waters
E. D. Michelena 1649
J. M. Wells 1305 The Measurement of Precipitation at National Data
The Use of Nitrogen-Oxygen Mixtures as Diver's Buoy Center Stations
Breathing Gas
R. R. Miller and R. Canada 1650
J. P. Fish and H. A. Carr 1309 Mini-Drifter Test Deployment Data-Guff of Mexico
Integrated Remote Sensing of Dive Sites Spring 1988

S. L. Merry, S. L. Sendlein and A, P. Jenkin 1315 P. M. Friday, J. S. Lynch and F. S. Long 1344
Human Power Generation in an Underwater Interactive Marine Analysis and Forecast System
Environment (IMAFS): The Oceanographic Workstation of the
Future

D. A. Storey and W. E. Woodward 1348
The Global Ocean Platform Inventory

VESSELS OF THE 80s AND BEYOND

Chairmen:
E. K. Pentimonti
American President Lines, Ltd.

P. Mentz
Advanced Ship Operations, MARAD

Oral only

xxvill.

FACILITIES IN SUPPORT OF MARINE FREIGHT NAVIGATION CHARTING
TRANSPORTATION
Chairmen:
Chairmen: R. Vorthman
M. J. Vickerman, Jr. USCG Operations Control Center, Atlantic Area
Vickerman, Zachary, Miller M. Kumar
R. Katims Defense Mapping Agency
Container Transport Technology
W. M. Maynard 1371
Oral only Cooperative Electronic Chart Development: The
GAADS Project
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS P. W. Mushkat and C. Lamson 1589
Chairmen: Electronic Chart Display Information Systems:
G. R. Perreault Operational, Policy and Legal Issues.
Office of Navigation, N. D. Smith 1374
U.S. Coast Guard Automated Nautical Data and Charting Development
J. Illgen
E. A. Soluri
A. F. E. Fuentes 1,651 Defense Mapping Agency's Navigational Information
A Survey of Radionavigation System Users System

L. Mehrkam 1352 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Leading Lines for the Nineties
G. R. Perreault 1356 Chairmen:
Contract Service of Federal Aids to Navigation C. D. 'Kearse
Office of Marine Operations,
R. J. Weaver and R. M. Piccioni 1362 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Marine Radionavigation of the Future P. Stutes
John E. Chance & Assoc. Inc.
L. V. Grant 1W
Federal Radionavigation Plan Overview J. L. Hammer III and W. R. Hoyle 1379
The Continuing Need for Accurate Positioning in
J. Hammer III and W. R. Hoyle 1684 Naval Tactics
The Continuing Need for Accurate Positioning in
Naval Tactics E. F. Carter and J. Lewkowicz 1594
A Computer Navigation System Using Kalmaro Filter
Smoothing

R. Gandy and S. Paulet 1648
Design and Applications of SEATRAC, an Integrated
Navigation and Data Management System

D. C. Slade
Solar Navigation

A. E. Shaw III and T. E. Bryan 1384
Oceanographic Applications of the ARGOS System

xxix.

AIDS TO NAVIGATION SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT SEARCH AND RESCUE-SURVEILLANCE EXPERIMENTS

Chairman: Chairman:
T. S. Winslow W. H. Reynolds
Office of Engineering, USCG R&D Center
U.S. Coast Guard
D. Finlayson, D. Bryant, B. R. Dawe and
T. S. Winslow, M. D. Dawe, K. R. Schroeder and A. J. Armstrong 1417
W. A. Fisher 1390 Results of an Experiment to Examine Certain Human
High-Voltage Solar-Powered Navigation Range Design Factors Relating to Searches Conducted with Marine
Radar
J. McCaffrey
An Alternative Hull Design for the U.S. Coast Guard D. Bryant, B. R. Dawe, D. Finlayson, W. Reynolds
Bell Buoy and M. J. Lewandowski 1422
Results of Canadian Shipborne Night Search
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM Experiments
Chairmen: B. R. Dawe, D. Finlayson and D. Bryant 1427
K. Nakamura Results of a Canadian Shipborne Radar Search and
Rescue Detection Experiment
Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense
R. S. Warren D. Finlayson, B. R. Dawe and D. Bryant 1433
TASC Results of a Canadian Visual Search and Rescue
Detection Experiment
L. D. Hottram
Relative GPS Kinemetric Surveyingand Applications F. Replogle, Jr. 1436
for Marine Positioning A New Coast Guard Search Technique
M. J. Mes 1395 SEARCH OPERATIONS
Accuracy of Satellite Survey Measurements on
Offshore Platforms for Monitoring Subsidence Chairmen:
E. M. Geyer and R. S. Warren R. Q. Robe
Mission Planning Issues and Answers for GPS Users USCG R&D Center
B. Dawe
SHIP OPERATIONS AND SCHEDULING Nordco Ltd.
Chairman: R. W. Berwin 1439
C. Pritchett Alaska SAR Facility Archive and Operations System
USCG R&D Center M. K. Kutzleb 1444
S. Cook, R. Benway, W. Krug, M. Nestlebush. A. The Search for South African Airways Flight 295
Picciolo, W. Richardson, P. Stevens and D. R. Paskausky, W. Reynolds, R. Gaines and
V. Zegowitz 1400 R. Q. Robe 1605
Volunteer Observing Ships and the U.S. Improving Search Success; Real-Time Collection and
Government-A Winning Partnership Transfer to User
L. C. Kingsley, K. S. Klesczewski, J. A. Smith and R. Q. Robe, D. F. Paskausky and G. L. Hover 1448
R. A. Walters 1405 Performance of Coast Guard Medium Range
Comparing the U.S. Coast Guard Buoy Tender Surveillance (MRS) Aircraft Radars in Search and
Performance Using Simulation Rescue (SAR) Missions
K. S. Klesczewski 1411 J. B. Brewster 1454
Using Spacefilling Curve to Generate the Feasible Sea Based Aerostits (SBA): Effective Surveillance for
Routes for the Set Partitioning Problem Maritime Interdiction
S. F. Roehrig 1643
Scheduling Patrols Using a Hybrid Integer
Pro,grimminal Rule-Based Svstem Approach

XXX.

PORT MANAGEMENT AND SECURITY

Chairmen:
T. Robinson
Port Safety and Security Division,
U.S. Coast Guard

D. Smith
House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee

D. J. Evans, R. W. Owen and P. R. Farragut 1457
Innovative Technology Applied to Maximize a Port's
Lifeline: A Case History for the Sea Lanes of the
Chesapeake Bay

N. A. Marziani 1463
The Multi-Agency MOU on Port Security: A Model for
Conflict Resolution

D. J. Sheehy and S. F. Vik 1470
Mitigation Planning for Port Development

J. J. Zagel, R. T. Kilgore and S. M. Stein 1642
Hydrodynamic and Mass Transport Modeling of Navy
Harbors

MARINE SAFETY

Chairmen:
C. L. Hervey
USCG R&D Center

S. Steele
House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee

F. H. Anderson 1598
Awakening the Consciousness of the Boating Public
Regarding Pollution, Intoxication, and Common Sense
Safety of the Nation's Waterways

A. Colihan 1476
Coast Guard Recreational Boating Product Assurance
Program

C. L. Hervey 1482
Determining Horsepower Limits on Recreational Boats

S. Johnson and J. Veentjer 1487
Regulation of Passenger Carrying Submersibles

G. L. Traub 1493
Recreational Boating Accidents in Ocean Waters

Manuscript unavailable for publication

Xxxi.

Authors List

Abrams, W. R ............... 344 Boehm, P. D ......... 1631, 1632 Clark, M. W., jr ............ 1688
Adams, A. j ............ .... 573 Boerner, W.-M .............. 454 Clark, R. B ................. 184
Adema, C. M ............... 1656 Boggess, R. L ............... 423 Clay, P. R .................. 670
Aharon, P .................. 101 Bonetempo, D ............. 1018 Clemente-Colon, P .......... 1629
Ahrens, J. P ................ 1244 Bostater, C ................. 462 Clifford, S. F ................ 315
Akiyama, Y ................ 1061 Bowen, A. j ............ 413, 419 Cloet, R. L ................ 1636
Albro, C. S ................ 1630 Bowers, G ................ 1207 Coe, J. M ..................... I
Allen, A. A ................. 860 Boyer, L. F ............. 443, 448 Colbourne, E. B ............. 413
Allen, G. H ................ 1079 Brashier, j .................. 136 Colihan, A ................ 1476
Alonzo, C ................. 1612 Breeding, S. K .............. 391 Colwell, R. R .............. 16o6
Amato, R. V ................ 783 Brewster, J. B .............. 1454 Cook, S ................... 1400
Ames, F. L .................. 961 Brickey, M. R .............. 1611 Cooper, R. A ................ 112
Anderson, C. M ............ 1673 Briere, M ................... 588 Corbett, C. R ............... 992
Anderson, F. H ............. 1598 Briggs, M. j ................ 1218 Corwin, R .................. 397
Andrews, J. D ............... 799 Bright, T. j .................. 22 Cottingham, D ................ 6
Angell, M ................. 1025 Brinckman, F. E ............ 1668 Craig, E ............. 1144, 1169
Antle, L. G ................ 1688 Broadwater, J. D ........ 824, 837 Crampton, C. A ............. 910
Appell, G. F ................ 346 Brooks, J. M ............... 1198 Crawford, G. B ..... ........ 315
Armstrong, A. j ............. 1417 Brown, H ................. 1205 Crowley, J. D ............... 543
Armstrong, H. H ............ 1073 Brown, P ................. 1012 Csulak, F. G ..... 1630, 1631, 1632
Ashmore, S ................. 259 Browning, D. G ............. 318 Cuddy, D. T ................ 473
Aspinwall, M. K ............. 876 Bryan, T. E ................ 1384 Cunningham, W. R .......... 1321
Asplin, R. G ................ 329 Bryant, D ........ 485, 1417, 1422, Curlander, j ................ 479
Augerot, X ................ 1711 1427, 1433 Da Costa, S. L .............. 1231
Aurand, D. V ............... 161 Buddenberg, R. A ............ 526 Dardeau, M. R ................ 17
Auster, P. j ........... 1286, 161o Bunn, A. R ................... I Davis, A. j .................. 812
Averill, P. H ............... 1637 Burden, D. G ................ 70 Dawe, B. R ........... 1417, 1422,
Babb, I. G.. @ ............... 112 Burke, S. P ................ 1335 1427, 1433
Babb, J. D .................. 66o Burn, D. M ................. 819 Dawe, M. D ............... 1390
Babb, L. V .................. 423 Burreson, E. M .............. 709 Dean, J. M ................... 35
Bailey, R ................... 994 Burroughs, R. H ............ 1607 Deese, H. E ................. 880
Baker, C. V ................. 650 Cable, S. B ................ 1280 D'Elia, C. F .............. 29, 803
Baldwin, K. C ............... 588 Caldwell, P. j ................ 46 de Moustier, C .......... 372, 509
Banks, K. R ................ 1073 Campbell, W. B ............ 1626 Dennis, R. E ............... 1569
Bascle, B. j ................. 223 Canada, R ................. 1650 Devletian, J. H ........... @ . 1098
Bass, P. D .................. 346 Canavan, M. S .............. 1087 DeVoe, M. R ................. 35
Batt, B. D. j ................. 46 Cannon, E. W .............. 1717 Diaz, R. J.. . . @ .............. 448
Beal, B. F .................. 980 Carney, R. S .............. 90, 96 Dindo, J. j ................... 17
Bearden, B. L ............... 762 Carr, H. A ............. 984, 1309 Dougherty, F .............. 1265
Benada, J. R ................ 473 Carter, E. F ............. ...1594 Dowd, T ................... 595
Benedict, R. L ............... 577 Cassidy, D. R ............... 812 Drummond, S ........ 1144, 1169
Bennett, R. T .............. 1083 Chalmers, A. G ............. 1605 Dunaway, M. E .............. 268
Benway, R ................ 1400 Champ, M. A .............. 1497 Dunkel, C. A ................ 208
Berney, A ................. 1725 Chance, J. A ............... 1107 Echardour, A ............... 602
Bertaux, A .................. 598 Chandler, A ........ 335,709,713 Edgar, J. K ................ 1640
Berteaux, H. 0 .............. 670 Chaplin, G ................. 275 Edson, G. M ....... ........ 219
Berwin, R. W .............. 1439 Chappel, S. 1259 El-Hawary, F ................ 291
Bhargava, H ............... 1554 Charters, J. S ........... 385, 509 Eller, A. I .................. 295
Biggs, D. C ................ 1173 Chauvin, A. L .............. 1536 Enomoto, M ................ 703
Billing, C. B ................ 860 Chico, T ................... 166 Essig, R. j .................. 127
Bimbo, A. P ............... 1513 Christensen, C. G ............ 329 Evans, D. j ................ 1457
Bishop, C. B ............... 1163 Christensen, D ............. 1624 Farragut, P. R .............. 1457
Bitterman, D ................ 359 Chuba, T. j ................ 1332 Farrell, D. W ............... 1587
Blackwell, J. W ............. 1300 Cibik, S. j ................... 29 Fedor, L. S ........... 1697, 1704
Blair, W. R ................ 1668 Claeson, L ................. 1638 Feild, W .................. 1271
Blidberg, R ................ 1259 Clark, B. R ................. 143 Field, B ................... 1647
Bode, G .................. 1025 Clark, H. L ................ 1644 Findley, R .................. 655

xxxii.

Finlayson, D .......... 1417, 1422, Hazen, D. G ................ 419 Kerdoncuff, J ............... 602
1427, 1433 Heck, K. L., Jr ............... 17 Kichner, J. J ............... 1332
Fish, J. P .................. 1309 Hedrick, J. D ............... 448 Kies, P. J .................. 1202
Fisher, E. A ................. 607 Helland, R. C ............... 910 Kilgore, R. T ............... 1642
Fisher, W. A ............... 1390 Hendershot, R ............. 1560 Kimbrough, S. 0 ........... 1554
Fleischer, P .................. 17 Henderson, R. S ............ 1645 King, P. C ................. 1618
Flick, G. J., Jr ................ 56 Hendrick, M. S ............. 1326 Kingsley, L. C .............. 1405
Floch, H ................... 602 Hendricks, P. J ............. 1635 Klemas, V .................. 462
Floury, L ................... 602 Hermigar, H. F., Jr ........... 752 Klesczewski, K ........ 1405, 1411
Fowler, P. K ................ 808 Herr, W. J ................. 1290 Klos, E ................... 1529
Fox, J. M .................. 1536 Hervey, C. L ............... 1482 Knaster, A. S ................ 156
Fran@ois, D. K .............. 241 Hester, W. H ................ 891 Kohler, C. A ................ 582
Friday, P. M ............... 1344 Hicks, D. C ................ 1049 Kontopidis, G .............. 1207
Frye, D. E .................. 670 Higgins, M ........... 1646, 1647 Koplin, S ................... 132
Fuentes, A. F. E ............ 1651 Hill, W .................... 275 Kostinski, A. B .............. 454
Fulford, E. T ............... 1244 Hillis, D .................. 1045 Krahl, R. B ................. 250
Fullmer, J ................. 1677 Hodgkiss, W. S .............. 310 Kreider, J ................. 1271
Gaines, R ................. 1605 Hotta, H .................. 1253 Krezoski, J. R ........... 437, 442
Galerne, A ................ 1573 Hout, E .................... 994 Kristof, E .......... 335,709,713
Galloway, J. M ............. 1611 Hover, G. L ............... 1448 Kroebel, W ................. 491
Gandy, R ............ 1620, 1648 Howell, G. L ............... 1239 Krug, W .................. 1400
Garcia-Romero, B ........... 1198 Hoyle, W. R .......... 1379, 1684 Kudo, K .................. 1061
Gast, J ..................... 346 Htun, K. M ................ 1628 Kuroda, Y .................. 353
Gaul, R. D ................. 1149 Huang, L ................... 413 Kurz, L .................... 641
Geraci, J .................. 1634 Hultin, H. 0 ................. 66 Kutzleb, M ................ 1444
Gerritsen, J ................. 948 Humphrey, B ............... 405 LaBelle, R. P ............... 1673
Gibson, L. H ............... 1326 Humphris, S. E ............. 1639 Ladner, L. J ................ 1202
Giesecke, A. G .............. 827 Hunt, C. D ................ 1632 Lakshminarayana, J. S. S. - - - . 1000
Gilhousen, D. B ............ 1341 Hutchison, B. L ............ 1117 Lamb, G. R ................ 1131
Givens, A .................. 526 Hylas, T ................... 372 Lambert, D ................. 397
Gorveatt, M ................ 555 Ibrahim, M ................ 1612 Lamson, C ................ 1589
Grace, P. j ................ 1218 Imai, K ................... 1061 Lang, T. G ................ 1163
Graham, D ................ 1018 Jaffe, J. S ................... 338 Langdon, C ................ 1181
Granger, S. W .............. 1604 Jagannathan, S ............. 1117 Larsen-Basse, J ............. 1628
Grant, C ................... 213 jai, B. H ................... 473 Lataitis, R. J ................. 315
Grant, L. V ...... ......... 1365 jalbert, J .................. 1259 Lavoie, D .............. 391, 397
Grant, S ................... 567 James, B. D ................. 454 Lawrence, R. W ............ 1627
Greenwald, R. J ............. 752 Jayko, K ................... 740 Lawson, B ................. 1647
Guffy, J. D ................ 1173 Jenkin, A. P ............... 1315 Lea, C. E .................. 1639
Gundlach, E. R .............. 847 jenny, A. L ................. 812 Legrand, J. F ................ 602
Gunther, H ................ 1212 Jensen, R. K ............... 1039 Le Moign, T ................ 602
Haas, T. J ................. 1332 Jewett, K. L ................ 1668 Lennard, D. E .............. 1034
Hackett, H. P ............... 607 Johnson, F. A .............. 1034 Leonard, J. N ............... 914
Haines, L. C ................ 295 Johnson, M. G .............. 896 Lewandowski, M. j ..... 865, 1422
Hall, S. C ................... 537 Johnson, S ................ 1487 Lewkowicz, J .............. 1594
Hamilton, D ................ 637 Julson, B .................. 1018 Liebert, B. E ........... 6o6, 1628
Hamlin, B .......... ... 1018 Junemann, C ............... 1144 Lighty, K ................... 1012
Hamlin, C ................. 1111 jungck, M ................. 1560 Lindsay, R. C ................ 61
Hammer, J. L., III ..... 1379, 1684 Kadlec, J. A .................. 46 Lissauer, M ................. 842
Hamner, W ................. 713 Kai, G ..................... 353 UsTon, J ..................... 52
Hamner, W. B ............. 164 1 Kaiser, G. E ................. 76 Loaec, G ................... 602
Hansen, L. J ................ 819 Kalro, C .................. 1603 Long, F. S ................. 1344
Hanson, W. E ............... 561 Kato, W ................... 703 Lovell, G .................. 1265
Harlow, E. H .............. 1250 Kawanishi, T ......... ..... 703 Luo, D .................... 972
Hawkins, J. S ............... 925 Keer, F. R .................. 188 Lynch, J. S ................ 1344
Hay, A. E .............. 413, 419 Kennedyj ................. 213 Maccio, M ................. 1181
Hayne, G. S ............... 1702 Kennell, C ................ 1157 MacDonald, C. D ............. 880

xxxiii.

MacDonald, I ................ 90 Moser, C ................... 505 Reetz, G ................... 966
Mac Gillvray, T. j ...... ..... 262 Mozley, E .................. 397 Reid, B ................... 1560
MacRae, T ................. 1125 Murawski, S. A .............. 726 Reighard, J. D ............... 891
Mahrt, K.-H ................. 497 Murkin, H. R ................. 46 Renner, W. W ............... 295
Malone, R. F .............. 70, 84 Murphy, D. j ............... 1178 Replogle, F., jr ............. 1436
Mancini, E. A ............... 762 Murphy, D. L ........... 467,687 Reynolds, M ............... 1560
Mangum, S. R .............. 1656 Murrell, T. L ................ 699 Reynolds, W ......... 1422, 1605
Martinson, D. G ............ 1335 Mushkat, P. W ............. 1589 Rezak, R ............... 22, 1602
Marziani, N. A .............. 1463 Myre, P ........... ....... 1025 Rice, M ................... 1144
Masuda, Y ................. 1067 Nayak, M. R ................ 615 Richardson, W ............. 1400
Mato, C ................... 1025 Nebert, D. L ............... 1627 Riedel, G. F ................. 23
Matteson, L. L ............... 987 Nergaard, D ................ 275 Robe, R. Q ........... 1448, 1605
May, D. R .................. 681 Nestlebush, M .............. 1400 Roberts, H. H ............... 101
Mayerson, D ................ 229 Newbury, T ................ 573 Robinson, D. P ............. 1688
Maynard, W. M ............. 1371 Newell, C. D ............... 1300 Roderick, D. K ............. 1619
McCammon, D. F ............ 304 Nicholson, J. W ............. 338 Roehrig, S. F ............... 1643
McCandless, S. W., jr ......... 479 Nixon, S. W ............... 1604 Roffer, C ................... 359
McClure, A. C .............. 1149 Noll, M. D ................. 1087 Rogers, R. M ................ 953
McCormick, A E ........... 1067 Novick, A ................. 1617 Rosati, J., III .............. 1239
McCoy, S. E ................ 930 Nuckols, M. L .............. 1271 Rounds,R.S ................ 106
McDowell, S. E ............. 1630 O'Hara, K. j ................. 12 Rowland, T. j ............... 768
McGehee, D. D ............. 1224 Ohtsuka, K ................ 1253 Rusch, K .................... 84
McGrail, D. W ............. 1602 Okuno, K.. @ ............... 353 Saari, D. A .................. 812
McKinney, J. P ....I........ 1224 Olivas, R .................. 1018 Saklad, H ................. 1627
McLain, C. E ................ 777 Olla, B. L .................. 119 Salazar, M. H ......... 1188, 1497
McLellan, W. A .............. 815 Olsen, C .................. 1576 Salazar, S. M ............... 1188
McNitt, J. A ................. 696 Olson, G. j ... ............ 1668 Samuels, G ................. 648
Meade, J. G ................. 815 Osmer, S. R ................ 687 Sanders, J. G ............. 23, 29
Medway, W ................ 818 Outa, Y ................... 1067 Sassen,, R ................... 101
Mehrkam, L. @ ............. 1352 Owen, R. W@ .............. 1457 Satkowjak, L. j .......... 428, 433
Meindl, E. A ............ 629, 871 Parker, C. A ................ 794 Schiefele, P. M .............. 318
Mellen, R. H ................ 318 Paskausky, D. F ....... 1448, 1605 Schmidt, L ................. 790
Mellinger, E. C .............. 670 Paulet, S ............. 1620, 1648 Schomette, D ............... 335
Melvin, K. P ............... 1055 Pawlak, J. F ................. 719 Schroeder, K. R ............ 1390
Merrill, R ............ 1012, 1025 Pearce, J. B ............. 732, 786 Schroeder,P ................ 268
Merry, S. L ................ 1315 Perreault, G. R ............. 1356 Schroeder, W. W .......... 17,22
Mes, M. J ................... 1395 Perry, R. B ................. 366 Schultz, A. W ................ 17
Mesecar, R ............. 505, 518 Pfeiffer, T. F ................ 612 Schultz, H. E ................ 920
Meyer, A .................. 1018 Phillips, J. C ................ 372 Scott, G. P ................. 819
Meyer, R. M ................ 146 Picciolo, A ................ 1400 Scott, J. L ................. 1231
Michelena, E. D ............ 1649 Piccioni, R. M .............. 1362 Sendlein, S. L .............. 1315
Middleton, R. W ............. 123 Pinkney, A. E .............. 987 Serchuk, F. M ............... 975
Miller, j ................... 1025 Pleass, C. M ............... 1049 Shaw, A. R., III ............ 1384
Miller, R, E ................. 172 Ponsford, A. M .............. 485 Sheehy, D. j ..... -- ...... 1470
Miller, R. R ................ 1650 Potter, C. W ................ 815 Sheifer, L C ................ 937
Millett, C .................. 1276 Powell, E ................. 1178 Shengj ................... 413
Mills, W .................. 1018 Predoehl, M. C ........ .... 1569 Sherman, T ................ 1265
Mimken, G ................ 1627 Prinz, S ................... 1025 Shevenell, A P. . . 623, 1259, 1276
Mingrone, J. A ............. 1618 Pryor, D. E ................. 379 Shumaker, F. E ............. 1149
Mink, R. M ................. 762 Quoidbach, D .............. 1025 Siu, K. W. M ............... 1716
Mitcheson, G. R ..... ...... 1049 Rabinowitz, P. D ........... 1012, Slade, D. C ................ 1006
Moe, R. L .................. 532 1018, 1025 Smith, C. E ................. 250
Molinari, P ................ 1609 Raer, Y .................... 6.02 Smith, G. A ................. 106
Momma, H ................ 1253 Rausch, K ......... ......... 84 Smith, J. A ................ 1405
Monkelien, K ............... 699 Ray, P. K ................... 193 Smith, N, D ................ 1374
Moore, J. M ............ 385,509 Reed, J. C .................. 202 Smith, R. j ................. 618
Morton, j ............:..... 899 Reed, M ................... 847 Smith, S. M ............. 385,549

xxxiv.

Smolowitz, R. j .............. 975 Valent, P ................... 397 Zaitzeff, J................. 1629
Soden, D. L ................ 891 van der Valk, A. G............ 46 Zegowitz, V ............... 1400
Sorenson, S ............... 1612 Vauthier, P ................ 1029 Zeller, R. W ................ 905
Spears, A A ............... 1173 Veentjer, j ................. 1487 Zielinski, A ................. 287
Spooner, R. L ............... 283 Vetter, W. J ................ 1540 Ziemer, F ................. 1212
Sprunk, H ................. 1286 Vik, S. F .............I .... 1470 Zikakis, J. P ................ 1608
Srivastava, S. K .............. 485 Villemarette, G. P ............ 298 Zimmer, R ................. 794
Stamulis, D ................. 623 Voudouri, E ................ 641 Zippin, J. P ................ 1615
Stancampiano, j ............. 709 Waddell, P. J. A ............. 833
Stanford, H. M .............. 745 Wade, T. L ................ 1198
Stang, P. R ................. 1616 Wagner, j .................. 518
Steeves, G .................. 567 Wainwright, P. F ............ 405
Steffy, D. A ................. 235 Waldmann, C ............... 497
Stein, S. M ................ 1642 Walsh, E. j ........... 1697, 1704
Steinhauer, W. G ........... 1630, Walters, R. A ............... 1405
1631, 1632 Walther, M .................. 454
Stevens, P ................. 1400 Ward, j .................... 637
Stewart, G ................. 405 Weaks, M. L ............... 1626
Stewart, H. B., jr ............ 840 Weaver, R. j ............... 1362
Stewart, L. L ........... 1286, 1610 Weiss, P .................. 1025
Stockdreher, E ............. 1212 Weissman, D. E ............ 1546
Stoddard, A ................ 942 Wells, J. M ................ 1305
Storey, D. A .............. 11348 Welsh, B. L ................ 1633
Strahl, D ................... 549 Welsh, R .................. 1259
Strandquist, j .............. 1124 Werme, C. E .......... 1631, 1632
Stumpf, R. P ........... 808, 1569 Wheaton, F. W ................ 76
Sturgeon, W. j ............. 1163 Whelan, W. T ............... 650
Sullivan, P. K ............... 606 Whitehead, J. R ............ 1507
Sutherland, W. C ............ 632 Whittaker, H ................ 853
Swanson, J. C ............... 740 Whyte, R .................. 1646
Swanson, R. L ............... 794 Wicklund, R. I ......... 119, 1614
Sweet, W. E ................ 202 Wilber, R. j ................ 1639
Swift, A R ................. 588 Wilcox, R ................. 1025
Tadjvar, A ................. 1628 Wilkinson, D ................ go
Tattersall, J. M ............. 1618 Willard, M. R ............... 1625
Tauxe, j .................. 1018 Williams, K. L ................ 428
Taylor, P. R ................ 803 Williams, R. G .............. 346
Teal, J. M .................. 177 Wilson, B ................. 1202
Teel, S ..................... 1582 Wilson, D .................. 359
Tennyson, E. j .......... 853, 857 Wilson, E ................. 1178
Tester, P. A ................. 808 Wilson, W. B ................ 629
Thomas, A ................ 1045 Wingert, R. C ............... 150
Thomas, W. M., jr .......... 1656 Winslow, T. S .............. 1390
Thomasson, M. P ............. 70 Wolniakowski, K.'U .......... 994
Thompson, B. G ........... 1613 Woodward, W. E ........... 1348
Thurberg, F. P .............. 736 Woolweaver, G ............ 1265
Tompkins, M. E .............. 35 Wright, A. St. C .............. 323
Traub, G. L ................ 1493 Wright, D. A ................ 987
Treacy, S. D ................ 18o Wu, L ..................... 287
Tremblay, H .................. 522 Yamazaki, T ............... 1067
Trout, T. K ................ 1668 Yee, A C .................. 555
Trulli, W. R ................ 1630 Y-Hsieh, T: C. T ............. 84
Trutneff, H. F ............... 902 Young, A. G ................ 423
Tsuzuku, T ................ 1061 Young, D. R ................ 745
Turner, E ................. 1616 Yu, D. W ................. 1098
Turner, R. E ................. 41 Zachritz, W. H., II ............ 84
Tuxhorn, R. L ............... 691 Zagel, J. j ................. 1642

xxxv.

MARINE DEBRIS AND THE SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL CRISIS

'James M. Coe and Alan R. Bunn

NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
7600 Sand Point Way N.E.
Seattle, WA 98115

ABSTRACT being transported by natural forces to debris
.sinks" such as the sea or freshwater lakes.
Persistent wastes from ocean and land sources Upon -reaching the aquatic environment either
damage wildlife, impede maritime commerce and indirectly from the land or directly through
foul our beaches. Solutions to the marine ocean discharge, the floating materials are
debris problem include eliminating both land and transported in the two dimensional surface
sea sources. The MARPOL model is widely environment by winds and currents. These forces
supported and may well control ship-source serve to concentrate floating debris in
persistent debris. Land source marine debris convergence zones, along drift lines, and on the
control, however, will necessitate innovative ocean margins. Persistent materials that are
solutions to the much broader solid waste non-buoyant reach the sea floor in the vicinity
disposal crisis in the U.S. In order to of their discharge, accumulating in patterns
motivate, support, and lead this effort, the mirroring the activities which generated them.
"ocean ethos" in the U.S. society must be Further, persistence guarantees that these
invoked. The marine debris issue may have the accumulations become larger and larger.
broad appeal necessary to bring public sentiment Currently, this is a one-way system which can
to bear directly on the solid waste disposal only result in ever-more serious impacts.
problem. The early development of a national
solid waste agenda and the identification of a At issue here is the need to control, reduce
single responsible Federal entity will be key and/or eliminate the flow of persistent wastes
early milestones in the ultimate solution of the into the aquatic environment. To actually solve
marine debris problem. the marine debris problem, all input must be
eliminated and the current (for all practical
purposes, permanent) standing stock of debris
1. INTRODUCTION must be cleaned up and destroyed or re-
utilized. We know that at current levels,
Population growth, burgeoning technology and debris in the marine environment causes
unbridled consumption in the developed world problems. This debris will not go away through
have combined to create an immense solid waste elimination of further supply, so it also must
problem. The United States, with the highest, be removed. Similarly, even small amounts of
per capita solid waste generation rate in the continued input will increase the levels of
world, is just beginning to develop a realistic impacts now recognized. For these reasons,
'appreciation of the urgency of this problem. elimination of this problem must encompass both
That its proportions are reaching critical the ocean sources and the land-based sources.
levels is evidenced in the recent reports of the While these goals are similar, their
impacts of inert, persistent wastes on ocean accomplishment will surely be vastly different.
resources. These wastes are now so prevalent in
the environment that ocean and coastal 2. THE OCEAN SOURCE S016UTION
accumulations from land-based sources and from
ships are killing marine life, interfering with Sh'P7source ocean pollution has been recognized
maritime commerce and detracting from enjoyment as an international problem since offshore oil
of our natural heritage (1, 2, 3, & 4). platforms and supertankers began leaking,
blowing-out and going aground (Torrey Canyon,
A significant factor in the marine debris Amoco Cadiz, Santa Barbara, etc.). To establish
problem is the persistence of modern synthetic international standards and mechanisms for
materials. They are generally not destroyed or controlling discharges of oil and other
significantly degraded by natural forces in time polluting cargos into the oceans, the
scales relevant to their transport to, residence International Convention for the Prevention of
time in, and impacts upon aquatic environments Pollution from Ships was formed in 1973 (6)
(5). By virtue of this persistence, materials under the International Maritime Consultative
discarded or otherwise released into the Organization (now the International Maritime
environment on land have some probability of Organization, IMO). The Convention was modified

Unites States Government work not protected by copyright

in 1978 to create five optional annexes, each education, enforcement and research programs.
addressing a separate type of ship source In order to gauge progress in solving the ocean-
pollutant. This step was necessary to permit source persistent marine debris problem, a
nations to ratify the Convention and the oil general set of milestones should be established,
discharge provisions (Annex I) without being including:
bound by the terms of Annexes II through V which
address noxious liquid substances carried in 1. Cooperative enforcement agreements in
bulk, harmful substances in packaged forms, place between State and Federal Agencies
sewage, and garbage, respectively. The and foreign governments by December 31,
Convention is referred to as "MARPOL (73/78)". 19891

For centuries customary international law has 2. Systematic marine debris monitoring
permitted ships operating outside the systems covering each region of the U.S. by
territorial seas of any nation to discharge January, 1989;
their garbage overboard. This will be changed
on December 31, 1988 when Annex V, the 3. Guidelines to States for establishing
"Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by marine debris task forces through which
Garbage from Ships," enters into force for the, State agencies may rationalize their
thirty one ratifying nations representing over' actions to address marine debris sources of
50 percent of-the world's shipping tonnage. The particular interest to their citizens by
Annex specifically applies to all manner of October 1, 1988;
ships, including fishing and recreational
vessels, cargo ships, fixed or floating 4. Issuance of certificates of adequacy
platforms and submersible craft. Annex V and for garbage reception facilities in all
the IMO "Draft Guidelines for the Implementation major ports in the U.S. by January, 1990;
of MARPOL Annex V, Regulations for the
Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships" 5. The production and broadcasting of
provide the authority and model by which nations national public service television
may eliminate the ocean sources of persistent announcements on the marine debris issue by
marine debris. June 1989;

The United States has ratified Annex V and is 6. The establishment and advertising of
tailoring implementing regulations for U.S. marine debris information and education
citizens, ships, and ports based on the materials outlets for broad public use by
Guidelines. In drafting the U.S. implementing January, 1989;
legislation, entitled the "Marine Plastic
Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987" 7. Official recognition of the IMO
(MPPRCA), Congress recognized that full guidelines for the implementation of Annex
realization of the intent of Anne)e V requires a V, . concurrent with IMO official adoption
fundamental change in maritime attitudes and (September, 1988), including a continuing
behavior towards garbage (7). In response to commitment to improve them;
this, the MPPRCA mandates the establishment of
education and public awareness programs. it 8. U.S. commitment to the development of
also sets up penalty schedules that will prevent Annex VI to MARPOL (73/78) to specifically
discharge violations from becoming part of the address the control of discharges of solid
cost of doing business. A "snitch clause" is cargos transported in bulk;
included which allows up . to one-half of any
fines levied against violators to be paid to 9. Diplomatic initiatives to promote
persons providing information leading to ratification and implementation of Annex V
successful prosecution. The current approach to by all maritime nations as standing
regulations under the MPPRCA will preserve ship Department of State policy, by December 31,
operators' options for provisioning and 1988, and
shipboard waste handling while educating them on
the reasons for, and methods to comply. 10. Research and monitoring programs to
assess the effects of persistent marine
If one takes the long term approach to this debris on depleted, threatened, and
problem (as one should in instituting changes in endangered species, continuous (8).
longstanding individual and industrial behavior)
there is reason for optimism that ocean-source That is the easy part. The other component of
persistent debris will be virtually this problem, its land-based sources, will not
eliminated. The problem has received be so easily solved.
institutional attention and the preliminary
solution strategies are in place (3). 4. THE IJ%ND-BASED SOURCE SOLUTION

The degree to which these strategies succeed We do not know how much solid waste is illegally
will depend on the leadership, vigor, and dumped or accidently lost each year in the
balance Federal and State agencies bring to the U.S.. There are statistics on what is collected

and disposed of legally. Municipal wastes pollutants. These types of pollutants are
generated in the U.S. amounted to 158 million generally similar to persistent debris in that
tons in 1986 according to EPA testimony before many are stable (persistent), they originate on
Congress July 26, 1988 (9). Ten million tons of land, they are transported by water, they
that was plastic, six million tons of which was accumulate, they are difficult to remove from
plastic packaging materials. By the year 2000, the environment, and they can only be
EPA expects a 60% increase in plastic waste by effectively controlled at their sources.
weight. The total municipal wastes generated in
2000 is expected to reach 193 million tons, It is tempting to model measures for controlling
increasing in volume by 22 percent. The U.S. land-source debris after the methods in use to
plastics industry produced over 53 billion control toxic pollutants. Such methods include
pounds of new plastics in 1987 (10), about one prohibitions on manufacture, cradle-to-grave
quarter of the world production. About 25 record keeping, elaborate waste handling and
percent of the U.S. production each year goes to destruction systems and permitting systems with
plastic packaging. varying justification and liability
requirements. Such measures could certainly
EPA further testified that in the U.S., 80% of work, however, there are three fundamental
municipal waste is landfilled and that one-third differences between toxic pollutants and inert
of the nations landfills will reach capacity by debris that lead one away from these types of
1992. It is certain that disposal costs will stringent regulatory methods:
soar in the near future. These increases will
motivate industries and the public in two 1. Virtually everyone is a potential
distinct directions. contributor to the persistent debris
problem;
First, rising disposal costs will cause
individuals and industries to seriously explore 2. The weight and volume of inert,
means to reduce the amounts of wastes they persistent wastes exceeds toxic pollutants
generate. Re-utilization, recycling, packaging by many orders of magnitude, and
alternatives, composting, home incineration,
etc. are all action areas likely to be 3. Land-source persistent wastes pose
explored. Second, they will be much more likely little direct human health hazard and few
to take advantage of low risk opportunities to known population-level threats for
illegally dump their garbage, exacerbating the wildlife.
litter problem. The balance of public choice in
this dilemma will seriously impact the flow of In view of number three, it is unlikely that the
persistent debris into aquatic environs. To populace will accept being burdened with onerous
achieve the long-term solution of the marine handling and record keeping requirements for the
debris problem, the public must face the persistent components of their trash.
municipal solid waste crisis armed with accurate
information about the consequences of their If stringent regulation is not justified, and
choices. As the designated steward of natural current anti-litter and waste management
resources in the public trust, particularly for statutes are inadequate, what is to be done?
the long-term, it is essential that the Federal Clearly, the long-term health of the coastal
Government provide direction in this issue. oceans is in some mounting jeopardy due to
That direction and leadership is overdue. accumulating persistent wastes, just as it is
from accumulating toxic pollutants, bio-
When considering the range of actions the pollutants, and habitat loss. Just as clearly,
government may take in addresssing the solid protection of ocean life and productivity, is
waste problem, the first step should be to going to necessitate a fundamental revision of
review existing models of public process that waste management and disposal policies, politics
may be applicable. For example, there are and behavior; right down to the individual
regulatory mechanisms in place to control land- citizens.
source persistent debris but, they have not
prevented littering and other careless acts that The gravity of this situation is not in the
release trash into the environment. A drive in marine debris problem; it is in the solution to
the country or a visit to your favorite fishing the broader, incredibly more urgent solid waste
hole provides ample evidence that present anti- management problem. While the solution to the
litter laws simply have not worked. There is solid waste disposal problem in the developed
little reason to suspect that they will become world will largely solve the marine debris
more effective if pressures for illegal dumping problem, the reverse is certainly not true. A
increase. paradox of sorts arises here in that society
(and for the most part government), in the
More stringent regulatory systems may be worthy United States appears to be highly concerned
of consideration for eliminating land-source with the marine debris problem and much less
debris. For example, throughout the 70's and motivated by the national solid waste crisis.
80's, significant public attention and The foundation of this incongruity lies in the
government regulation have been focused on toxic emergence of a national, deep-seated "ocean

ethos" through the 1960's and 1970's (11). resources to insure maximum effectiveness
Blatant evidence of this preoccupation with of existing authorities;
ocean issues can be seen in the labyrinth of
federal agencies, commissions, committees and 8. Developing of methods and a program to
institutions with authorities or jurisdictions monitor the flow of land-source persistent
over marine affairs. A recent compilation wastes into the aquatic environment;
counted 54 marine oriented federal agencies and
entities, 86 federal statutes addressing marine 9. Initiation of a thorough technical and
affairs, and 51 congressional subcommittees (32 economic evaluation of incineration and
House, 19 Senate) with ocean jurisdiction of heat recovery incineration options for
some sort (12). destruction of solid wastes, both land-
based and offshore;
While it is exceedingly difficult to see how
this massive ocean bureaucracy could provide the 10. Evaluation of the options for ocean
leadership needed to address the solid waste disposal of certain categories of inert
crisis, public concern and support suggests that solid wastes, and
an effective start could be made here. Is it
appropriate to use the marine debris problem's 11. Evaluation of the uses for
current appeal to the public and to government intermediate products or by-products of
entities to lead them into facing the national waste destruction such as ashes and slag,
solid waste disposal problem? Nothing else mixed plastic blocks, chemicals and heat,
seems to have generated as much concern to date etc.
or have as much potential to motivate the legal,
technological and behavioral evolution required 5. CONCLUSIONS
to solve the solid waste, hence, the marine
debris problem. In order to facilitate the solution to the
marine debris problem, these actions should be
In recognizing the linkages between solid waste undertaken immediately. The ocean community
management on land and the pollution of the must recognize their critical role in initiating
oceans, the ocean bureaucracy must organize and maintaining the drive toward effective
itself to develop, or initiate and support the solutions for the national solid waste
development of, a national solid waste management crisis.
management agenda. Some signposts of progress
in this endeavor would include: 6. laWERENCES

1. Preparation and publication of a (1) Shomura, R.S. and H.O. Yoshida.
national policy and goals statement Proceedings of the workshop on the Fate
regarding solid waste disposal issues; and Impact of Marine Debris, NOAA
Technical Memorandum - NMFS-SWFC-54, July
2. Designation of a single agency or other 1985.
Federal entity to carry out these policies
and be responsible for meeting the goals (2) O'Hara, K.J. and S. Iudicello. Plastics
set out in the national agenda; in the Ocean: More than a Litter Problem,
Report to E.P.A. by Center for
3. Identification of recycling, especially Environmental Education under contract No.
plastics, as a primary national goal, .68-02-4228, February 1987.
consolidating all related Federal
authorities that promote recycling under a (3) Cottingham, D. (Editor). Report of the
single act and agency; Interagency Task Force on Persistent
Marine Debris. NOAA Report for the White
4. Establishment of required solid waste House Domestic Policy Council, May 1988.
education curricula for elementary and
secondary schools nationwide; (4) Wolfe, D.A. (Editor). "Plastics in the
Sea," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 18,
5. Establishment of a long-term national No.6B, pp. 303-361, June 1987.
public awareness campaign focusing on
national needs for solid waste disposal (5) Andrady, A.L. Research on the use of
efficiency; degradable Fishing Gear and Packaging
Materials. Contract report to NOAA, NMFS,
6. Review and revision of any statutes NWAFt-, Processed Report 87-08, 45 pp.
providing incentives to create solid waste January 1987.
or disincentives to recycling, re-
utilization or other efficient waste (6) International Maritime Organization (IMO-
management processes as may be developed; 1973/1978). International Convention for
the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
7. Review and revision of existing solid (MARPOL) , 12 I.L.M. 1319. London,
waste disposal. enforcement policies and November 2, 1973.

(7) United States Public Law 100-220 (101
Stat. 1458) Title II - "Marine Plastic
Pollution Research and Control Act Of
1987" (MPPRCA). December 29, 1987.

(8) Coe, J.M. and A.R. Bunn. "Description and
Status of Tasks in the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration's Marine
Entanglement Research Program for Fiscal
Years 1985-1987,-' NOALA, NMFS-NWAFC
Processed Report 87-15, 39 pp. July 1987.

(9) Lowrance, S.K. Testimony of Director,
Office of Solid Waste, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, before the Subcommittee
on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation and
the Environment of the Committee on
Merchant Marine and Fisheries - U.S. House
of Representatives. July 26, 1988.

(10) Modern Plastics. "Materials 188: A year
of Decision." A McGraw-Hill Publication,
Vol. 65, No. 1, January 1988.

(11) Orbach, M.K. U.S. Ocean Policy and the
Ocean Ethos, Marine Technology Society
Journal, Vol. 16, 4:41-48, 1982.

(12) Miller, M.L. and C.F. Broches. "Marine
Affairs and the Federal Government,"
unpublished manuscript. Institute for
Marine Studies, University of Washington,
August 4, 1988.

FEDERAL PROGRAMS AND PLASTICS IN THE OCEANS

David Cottingham

NOAA, office of the Chief Scientist
Ecology and Environmental Conservation Office
Washington, D.C. 20230

ABSTRACT - Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast
In response to increasing concern over plastic pol- Guard
lution in the oceans, the Administration formed - Councilon Environmental Quality
the Interagency Task Force on Persistent Marine - Environmental Protection Agency
Debris. Eleven Federal agencies participated on - Marine Mam m al Com mission
the Task Force, which the National oceanic and - Office of Management and Budget
Atmospheric Adminstration (NOAA) led. The Task - White House Office of Policy Development
Force assessed existing information and
programs, and reco m mended additional activities to The Task Force reviewed available data on sources and
reduce problems caused by marine debris. effects of persistent marine debris and developed a
series of recommendations to reduce the problems.
Marine debris causes three types of problems: 1)
it affects fish and wildlife by entangling them One of the major foci of the report was to determine
and they ingest it; 2) it litters beaches, and the extent of ongoing programs in the Federal, state,
can create hum an health problems if it has stored and local governments, and the private sector. Were
toxic or infectious substances; and 3) it clogs these efforts coordinated or complimentary? W ere
vessel intake ports and propellors. Federal agencies pursuing sLmilar goals through
research, education, and/or mitigation activites?
The Task Force recommended that Federal agencies What were the appropriate roles for various levels of
expand public awareness campaigns, continue research government, interaction with the environmental
on effects plastic debris causes, and support local community, and private sector?
activities to remove debris. Th December 1987r the
President signed a law which wM prohibit disposal of In this paper, I sum m arize two parts of The Report of
plastic materials in oceans prior to January 1, 1989. the Domestic Policy Council Interagency Task Force
on Persistent Marine Debris (hereafter cited as
ITF P M D, 1988)-the recom m endations and who is doing
L INTRODUCTION what to alleviate problems caused by marine debris.
For comprehensive discussions of the problems,
During 1987r the White House Domestic Policy Council sources of debris, and legal issues, I suggest readers go
(DPC) formed the Interagency Task Force on to the Report (1), several excellent references
Persistent Marine Debris, which the National Oceanic cited therein, including Center for Environmental
and Atmospheric Adm inistration (N OAA), chaired, to: Education (2), Heneman (3), Laist (4), and Fowler (5
"assess the problem and the need for research, and 6), other papers presented during this panel, and
identify potential reduction measures, and others at this conference.
consider alternative actions to address the
problem of plastic marine pollution." 2. RECOMMENDATIONS
Representatives of seven Departments, four
independent agencies and the White House participated The DPC endorsed all of the general and specific
on the Task Force: recommendations that the Task Force made-five
- Department of Agriculture, Animal and general recommendations and 23 more specific
Plant Health Inspection Service reco m m endations.
- Department of Com m erce, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration These recommendations are aimed at reorienting the
- Departmentof Defense, U.S. Navy priorities of the Federal government to address
- Department of Health and Human Service, appropriately the problems of persistent marine debris
Food and Drug Administration (pmd). These recommendations direct agencies to
- Department of the Interior increase effort and provide technical as well as
- Department of State educational materials to state and local governments,
private citizens, and industry.

6 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Recom mendation L Federal Leadership: cooperatively support a major public awareness
campaign_ by providing seed m oney and
Federal. agencies should provide leadership and encouraging funding by the private sector.
continue formal and inhormal coordination activities
related to m adne debris with international Recommendation 2B; The U.S. Coast Guard,
organizations, state and local governments, private U.S. Navy, and other Federal agencies should
industry and environmental groups. Federal agencies include materials relative to persistent marine
acknowledge that an ef6ective program is only possible debris problems in all educational materials for
with strong state and local involvement. employees and candidates for licenses.

Recommendation IA: Federal agencies should Recommendation 2C: Federal agencies should
cease disposal of plastic materials into the ocean use all appropriate media to explain both
from all Federal vessels as soon as poscib] problems marine debris causes and proper
disposal methods. Federal agencies should
Recommendation IB: Federal agencies should support formation of an interagency information
review their procurement and concession policies exchange for available educational materials.
in coastal facilities to reduce the amount of
plastic packaging, containers, and other products Recommendation 2D: 7he U.S. Coast Guard
that are improperly disposed of and become should begin a public education campaign on the
persistent marine debris. requirements of the Marine Plastic Pollution
Research and Control Act as soon as possible to
Recommendation 1C: Federal agencies should assure that owners and operators of all vessels,
continue to participate actively in international ports, and the boating public are aware of
forums to reduce persistent m arine debris. requirements prior to their entering into force.

Recommendation ID: Federal agencies should Recommendation 3: Vigorously implement All Laws
encourage plastic waste recycling by: 1) Related to Marine Debris:
providing separate receptacles for different
types of trash at coastal facilities; 2) purchasing The Department of Transportation, EPA, NOAA, and
and using recyclable products and materials Navy should vigorously implement the Marine Plastic
whenever possible; and 3) providing technical Pollution Research and Control Act and other laws to
support to state and local agencies and industry reduce plastic pollution in the marine environment.
on recycling.
Recommendation 3A: Each agency should make
Recommendation 1E* NOAA should coordinate compliance with requirements of the marine
and disseminate information related to persistent Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act a
marine debris. NOAA should call at least two high priority.
meetings of appropriate Federal agencies each
year to discuss each agency's education, Recom m endation 3B: The Coast Guard and other
regulatory, and research programs, as well as to Federal enforcement agencies should make
ensure that a contined coordinated effort is enforcement of regulatory requirements of the
made to maximize the effect of existing Federal Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control
programs. Act a high priority.

Recommendation 1F: NOAA should continue.to Recommendation 3C: NOAA should encourage
sponsor the informal Marine Debris Roundtable. regional fishery management councils to include
requirements that fish and shellfish traps and
Recom m endation IG: The Ad m inistration should pots have degradable panels or latches.
support the NOAA/Marine Entangle m ent
Research Program by including it in the Recom m aidation 4: Research and Monitoring:
Ad m inistration's F Y 1990 budget and for at least
five years thereafter. Federal agencies should ca y out research bo:
a) identify and quantify deleterious ef6ects that
Recommendation 1H: Persistent marine debris marine debris causes for fish and wildlife,
should be included as an element in the 5-Year coastal com m unities, and vessels;
Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, b) determine 3,and-based sources of marine
Development, and Monitoring. debris; and
c) assew potential uses for, by-Troducts of, and
Recom mendation 2-. Public AwarenesVEducation effects of by-products of degradable placAl
Program: products.

Concerned Federal agencies should wcrk with each Recommendation 4A: N 0 A A, the Fish and
other, state and local governments, private industry, Wildlife Service, the marine Mammal
and environmental groups to develop comprehensive Commission and other agencies should expand
educational materials on pvolilems caused by marine research and monitoring activities to determine
debris and ways to save them. more precisely impacts of persistent marine
debris on fish and wildlife populations,
Recommendation 2A: Federal agencies should

particularly endangered, threatened, and Of the eleven Federal agencies participating on the
depleted species. Interagency Task Force,eight are directly involved:
NOAA, EPA, the Navy, the Coast Guard, the
Recom mendation 4B: Federal agencies should Department of State, the Fish and Wildlife Service,
work with state and local governments, Minerals Management Service, and Natioanl Park
universities, merchant vessel owners and Service within the Department of the interior, the
operators, com m ercial and recreational Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and the
fishermen, and local communities to quantify marine Mammal Commission. Each has a different
economic impacts caused by persistent marine role and accordingly, diverse programs to address the
debris. breadth of the problem. Table 1 briefly summarizes
roles and ongoing programs of Federal agencies.
Recommendation 4C: EPA, NOAA, Coast Guard,
and other agencies should carry out research to Almost none of the work conducted on persistent
determine contributions of land-based and vessel marine debris is identified as such in official
sources of plastic refuse to the overall problems, government budgets or program documentation. For
as well as ways to reduce plastic debris from all instance, debris removal from national wildli refuges
sources. and seashores comes under the official heading of
"Operations and maintenance" and video tapes
Recommendation 4D: NOAA should work with produced by Sea Grant universities are funded through
fishermen and equipment manufacturers to the com m unications department at schools.
develop pragmatic ways to: Therefore, determining precisely how m uch
1) reduce loss of fishing equipment, government agencies are spending on various aspects
particularly traps, trawl nets, and gill nets; of marine debris is difficult. Table 2 sho ws
2) improve ways to recover lost fishing traps approximate Federal agency expenditures (FY 1987
and nets; and dollars) on persistent marine debris.
3) recycle used fishing nets and net fragments.
Department of Commerce, NOAA. The only Federal
Recommendation 4E: The National Bureau of program on marine debris directly budgeted is the
Standards should work with the ASTM (formerly NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service Marine
known as American Society for Testing Entanglement Research Program (MERP). Congress
Materials) and other industry associations to has funded MERP at approximately $750,000 since FY
develop standards and criteria for what 1985. MERP supports a variety of research by Federal
constitutes "bio-degradable" and -photo- and university scientists (mostly biologically oriented),
degradable". educational programs for fishermen and the general
public, and mitigation. MERP established the Marine
Recommendation 4F: EPA, FDA and NOAA Debris Roundtable as a way for Federal agencies to
should work with plastic manufacturers to coordinate their activities with environmental groLips,
examine how degradable plastics react in the state agencies, and private industry groups.
environment, including potential environmental
effects as the plastic degrades. Departmentof the interior
Minerals Management Service (M M S). The M M S in the
Reoom m endation 5.- Beach Clean-up and Monitoring: Gulf of Mexico region has taken an active role in local
efforts to increase awareness of persistent marine
Federal agencies should work cooperatively among debris within the oil and gas industry and citizens
themselves, as well as with state agencies, private there. M M. S organized the Take Pride in the Gulf Task
industry, and environmental groups to remove marine Force to bring together interested parties.
debris from beaches and other parts of the marine
environment. Federal agencies should encourage MMS regulates activities on oil and gas platforms in
coordination with state and local auftwities to Federal waters. M M S regulations prohibit disposal of
conduct systematic monitor3ng of mar3ne debris solid wastes, including plastics, from offshore
accumulation and impacts bc) assess compliance with platforms and supply vessels.
regulations prohibiting dmFosal of plastics and
controlling other solid waste discharges into U.S. National Park Service (NPS). r1be NPS manages
water& national parks, national seashores, and waterways
throughout the country. As part of its educational
Recommendation 5A: Federal agencies which programs for visitors, NPS includes information on
manage coastal properties should step up actions beach debris and litter control. The N P S maintains the
to remove persistent m arine debris. property it manages, including removal of refuse.
Officials at Gateway National Seashore in New York
Recommendation 5B: Federal agencies should Harbor estimate that they spend approximately $1.7
support local volunteer beach clean-up efforts as million per year removing debris from beaches. in a
well as the collection and interpretation of data survey of costs associated with cleaning beaches
on what the volunteers remove. Federal managed by the NPS, officials estimate that they
managers should encourage employees to spent approxim ately $950,000 from operational
participate in volunteer clean-ups. budgets to clean beaches, in addition to over 50,000
man-hours of vdLunteer labor which picked up and
3. FEDERAL PROGRAMS removed debris from beaches.

The Ta ke Pride in A m erica ca m paign foc uses on care damaging marine pollution, and the plastic component
and stewardship of public lands. Local parks and of that overall problem, affects lives of all citizens of
groups use the Take Pride banner to organize beach the Nation. Citizens are beginning to demand action
clean ups and gain media access. to improve the situation. The Report of the ITFPM D
lays out a logical strategy for addressing the
Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). The FWS manages problem. We do not need a plethora of ne w la ws and
coastal wildlife refuges, from which it removes debris, regulations. We need to:
and monitors debris affecting wildlife, particularly sea implement the MARPOL Annex V
birds. regulations quickly;
find effective ways of enforcing existing
Department of Defense, U.S. Navy. The Navy is pollution and litter la ws;
developing shipboard compactors, pulpers, and thermal begin a major public education campaign to
processors for plastics. As new equipment becomes gain cooperation of all U.S. citizens and
available, the Navy will test it aboard ship. The Navy others who use our coastal ocean;
is altering its procurement practices to reduce plastic continue research and monitoring activities
packaging brought aboard ship. to understand sources of marine debris, fate
of plastics in ,the ocean and impacts on
Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast Guard. The living marine resources.
Coast Guard is currently preparing regulations to
implement Public Law 100-220, effectively Annex V of Gathering the background information for the ITFPM D
MARPOL, which will take effect on December 31, Report demonstrated, once again, the difficulties one
1988. The regulations will prohibit discharge of plastic encounteres due to the multiple overlapping Federal
materials from U.S. ships worldwide and from all ships interests in marine issues. To be sure, the research,
within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. The Coast education, regulatory activities to address persistent
Guard leads the U.S. delegation at the International marine debris could be expanded with additional
Maritime Organization, where the U.S. has raised a monies and people. However, most agencies are
nu m ber of marine pollution issues including Annex V. addressing ways to resolve the problems within their
areas of responsibility.
Dej@aEtment of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (A PHIS) 5. REFERENCES

APHIS regulates garbage on ships which arrive in U.S. 1. interagency Task Force on Persistent marine
ports and have previously visited ports other than Debris, Report of the. 1988. Available from
continental U.S. and Canadian ports. Garbage NOAA, Office of Chief Scientist, Office of
regulated by APHIS includes food and any wrapping or Ecology and Conservation, HCHB 6222,
preparation equipment which has contacted food. Washington, D.C. 20230.
A PHIS requires all food-associated garbage from those
vessels to be incinerated or cooked prior to disposal in 2. Center for Environmental Education. 1987.
landfills, Plastics in the Ocean: More than a Litter
Probl,_ m. 1725 DeSales Street, N W,
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Through Washington DC 20036.
regulations iTl@gm`enting the Clean Water Act and
Ocean Du m ping Act, E P A prohibits discharges of solid 3. Heneman, Burr. 1987. Persistent Marine Debris
wastes, including plastics, from waste water treatment in the North Sea, Northwest Atlantic Ocean
plants and point sources on land. EPA conducts Wider -Caribbean Area, and the West Coast of
research to determine types and sources of plastic Yaja -California, Draft Report to the Marine
material which becomes marine debris. EPA funded Mammal Commission and the National Ocean
the Center for Environmental Education to produce Pollution Program Office. Contract
oceans of Plastic: More Than a Litter Problem (CEE, M M 3309598-5.
1987).
4. Laist, D. L. 1987, Overview of the Biological
Marine Mammal Commissison (MMC). The MMC Effects of Lost and Discarded Plastic Debris in
supports research to determine exteRE of problems the Marine Environment. Mar. Poll. Bull.
caused by persistent marine debris, particularly ghost 18(6B), pp. 319-326.
fishing nets. M M C jointly sponsored, with NO A A, the
First International Workshop on Fate and Impact of 5. Fowler, C. W. 1987. Marine Debris and Northern
Marine Debris, in 1984, and has actively supported Fur Seals: A Case Study. Mar. PclL BulL
research and educational programs on the effect of 18(6B), pp. 326-335.
debris on m arine m a m m als and other wildlife.
6. Fowler, C. W. 1985. An Evaluation of the Role of
4. CONCLUSION Entanglement in the Population Dynamics of
Northern Fur Seals on the Pribilof Idands. In
The medical wastes which washed ashore along the Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and
New York and New Jersey coasts during the summers Impactof Marine Debris, Nov. 1984, Honolulu,
of 1987 and 1988 probably did more to get the Nation's R. S. Shomura and H. 0. Yashida, eds. NOAA
attention than all the previous events or scientific Tech. Memo. NMFS-SWFC-54.
papers co m bined. The media, national and state
legislatures, and local administrators now realize how

Tahle I FEDERAL PROGRAMS TO ADDRESS PLASTIC MARINE POLLUTION Source: ITFPMD, 1988

EDUCATION RESEA RC H MITIGATION

Departmentof Commerce 0 Develops educational o Conducts research on o Supports photodegra-
NOAA m aterials for fisher- impacts of pmd on dable plastic research
men, plastics industry fish, m arine m a m m als,
boaters sea turtles o Requires fishing pots
and traps to have de-
o Funded Newport, OR, gradable parts
port project o Requires NOAA vessels
o Supports nationwide to bring all plastics
beach cleanups ashore

Departmentof the Interior 0 Developed, with opera- o Supports research in o Prohibits disposal of
MMS tors, video and print Gulf of Mexico to de- salid materials from
m ater3al for platfor m term ine sources and oil and gas platforms
and supply vessel quantities of beach
workers debris

NPS o Volunteer beach clean o Systematic debris ac- o Beach maintenance
ups at national sea- cumulation surveys at
shores selected sites

o Education campaign in
conjunction with Take
Pride

FWS o Displays at coastal o Research on effects of o Beach maintenance
refuges pmd on wildli , eg.,
seabirds
o Educational material on
effects of pmd on wildlife

Departmentof Transportation o Infor m ation disse m ina- o Assesses equipment to o Regulates discharge
Coast Guard tion through CG Aux- handle wastes aboard from vessels
Mary vessels

o Evaluates waste stream
from ships

Environmental Protection o Supports nationwide o Supports and conducts o Regulates effluent
Agency beach clean up research on alternative discharges from
means of waste dis- point sources on
posal and degradable land, ocean du m ping
technology and solid waste
disposal

Department of Defense o Developing compactors, o Reducing purchase of
Navy grinders, and ther m al certain plastic pro-
devices to handle ducts, eg., &-pack
wastes aboard ship rings

Department of Agriculture o Requires garbage
APHIS from foreign ves-
sels to be cooked
prior to disposal

Department of State o Leads international
delegations to IM 0,
UNEP, etc.

Marine Mammal Commission o Supports conferences 0 Supports assessments
and symposia for of impacts of pmd
scientists and public on marine mammals

Table 2. Federal Expenditures Related bo Persistent Mrine Debris. Source, ITFMD
(FY 87, thousands of dollars)

Education Research mitigation

DOC/NQAA 302 435 140

DOI 80-150 78 950

DOT/CG 250

EPA 40 500

DOD/Navy 500

EDUCATION AND AWARENESS: KEYS TO SOLVING THE MARINE DEBRIS PROBLEM

Kathryn J. O'Hara

Center for Environmental Education
1725 DeSales Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036

ABSTRACT areas. Plastics generated from land-based sources
include sewage -associated wastes such as plastic
The Center for Environmental Education (CEE), a tampon applicators and disposable diapers. other
non-profit marine conservation organization, is sources include the plastics manufacturing and
conducting a national education campaign on the processing plants which produce and transport
problems caused by plastic debris in the marine plastic resin pellets.
environment. Sponsored in part by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Marine Several important initiatives prior to 1988
Entanglement Research Program and The Society of documented what is presently known about the
the Plastics Industry, the campaign includes the plastic debris problem, In 1984. at the request
development and distribution of educational mat- of the U.S. Marine Mammal Commission, the National
erials on this problem to the commercial fishing, Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminsitration's, National
merchant shipping. and plastics industries, as Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) organized an
well as to recreational fishermen, pleasure international workshop to identify the scientific
boaters, and the general public. CEE has recently and technical aspects of the debris problem and
established a National Marine Debris Clearinghouse its impacts on marine species. Later that year.
for dissemination of educational materials and a Congress appropriated $1 million to NMFS to
National Marine Debris Data Base that will provide develop a comprehensive research and management
a means to monitor the effectiveness of educa- program addressing the issue. Over the past three
tional efforts and new legislation directed at years, the NMFS Marine Entanglement Research
solving the marine debris problem. Program has added increasing documentation on the
extent the problem. A major component of this
program has been the development and distribution
of educational materials for sources of marine
INTRODUCTION debris.

Manmade debris in the marine environment, once In 1986, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
considered to be merely an aesthetic problem, is commissioned the Center for Environmental
now the focus of national attention. During 1987, Education to prepare a report on the plastic
a Presidential task force, a federal workshop, debris problem in the marine and Great Lakes
federal and international laws, several nationa?l - waters of the United States. The study helped to
and international conferences, and more than a redirect attention from general 'marine debris' to
quarter of a million citizens across the nation those problems caused specifically by plastic
all focused, on a relatively new marine pollution Items. The study showed that plastic debris is a
issue: plastic debris and its impacts. nationwide problem for marine wildlife. It also
identified the major ocean and land-based sources
A major reason for this heightened concern is that of plastic debris, but indicated that the total
plastic debris is causing widespread mortality of amount of debris generated by these sources is
marine mammals, turtles, fish and birds. Recent unknown. Finally the study noted the absence of
studies in Alaska indicate that as many as 30,000 appropriate laws to address the plastic debris
northern fur seals become entangled In plastic problem (CEE 1987a).
debris, primarily fishing nets and strapping
bands, and die each year. For other species, such Recognizing that exisiting pollution control
as marine mammals, sea turtles, seabirds and fish, authorities are inadequate, legislators have
there is increasing worldwide documentation of introduced bills at the local, state, and federal
ingestion of plastic debris. levels to address the plastic debris problem, In
1987, the U.S. ratified an international treaty,
Sources of plastic debris include both vessels Annex V of the Convention for the Prevention of
that follow a centuries-old practice of dumping Pollution from Ships, or MARPOL Treaty, which
garbage at sea, and several land-based sources would prohibit the disposal of garbage, and
which discharge plastic materials via storm and plastic items in particular, by all ships at sea
sewer drains and other avenues. Plastic fishing effective December 31, 1988.
gear, cargo sheeting, and galley wastes from ships
are becoming increasingly prevalent in marine

CH2585-8/8810000-12 $1 @1988 IEEE

But what about the groups that have been
identified as sources of ma'rine debris? How will
these groups respond to increasing public pressure
and new laws that will make a centuries old
practice of of tossing trash over the rail
illegal? More importantly, it is forseeable that
that a law which governs ocean-based activity in
an area that covers over two-thirds of the earth's J
surface may have major enforcement, problems.
Therefore, solutions to the marine debris problem
will largely rely on voluntary compliance.
All

In order for those engaged in ocean activities to
understand the importance of complying with these
new laws, they must be made aware of the extent of
the marine debris problem. They must first A
understand that plastics are a different kind of isdi@mrded net is done fishing.
K N"
trash causing the majority of problems in the 'Butit@'n done killing.
marine environment. They must also be informed
A, N
@ k "' whenworn s ingnetsor Overi0o,owtons; f Lastic
that the accumulation of plastic trash in the kT'@ t`%otherowshcgerisdurciped fishingig r mWnco
ea are o)j
oceans has a negative impact on ocean user groups *r1ostinchewatersomething, owoci@ns every yearThis
ei@epapptens!animatsdje@ critical issue isclestided to
in terms of economics, safety due to vessel
"i it - - sea or g@rin nets and
a
ehendiving orW aid gowmmerrtscruttnyifwe Fail
disablements caused by plastics, and reputation. 4 MW11.0therchanneanimals-, to takdaCtiOn to 501W it-
1 - -b&@ameerdanged in them Sopdease, alen youirdock
Moreover, they must accept the fact that while no ."t - `_'@2, - - , @ --, , ' -orsthatyouilneedtiash
one group is responsible for all the plastic trash A- Discarded demand traps faciffirles,becaus-1you're
@ -@C m pt@ re wit h yo tr; by saviintig yourplastic trash and
in the ocean, solutions to this problem will
Iycatthlngantl@ WOMOUtgoaTorproper
atsposworitardAhatsnot
'@,alilycObe&-Wing
require cooperation among all groups that are now ity
[I 7bketrhowyouwnhe@pt
dumping plastics at sea. Education programs which In dkjo., piasdc-@asviis
explain these and other aspects of the marine
ritakes.,auslin8costly N, W. Sitrie 50a Wuhrriglon
debris problem could lead to solutions,

CEE'S MARINE DEBRIS EDUCATION PROGRAM Figure 1. CEE/NOAA/SPI public service advertisement
developed for the commerical fishing industry.
Recognizing the importance of education and
awareness in soving the problems caused by marine
debris, the Center for Environmental Education has
developed an extensive education program for
marine industries and other groups. In 1987 and
1988, under contract to the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Adminis tra ti on's (NOAA) NMFS Marine
Entanglement Research Program, CEE began to
develop and distribute marine debris education C
materials. Based on the types, quantities, Arid
problems caused by plastic debris in U.S. coastal
areas, six major groups were identified for
educational efforts: the commercial fishing,
U
merchant shipping, and
-plastics industries,
recreational boaters and fishermen, and the
general public. As part of this project, CEE also
began working with The Society of the Plastics
industry (SPI) on a national campaign to promote
the proper disposal of plastics. Subsequently
CEE, NOAA, and SPI launched a national education
campaign. Following is a description of some This plas ctrash bag may costly and pmenuaay haZard-
a
materials developed as part of this campaign. not look like"jellylish to you, ous delays to shippingwhen it
But toa hungry sea turne. it fouls propeiiersorclogs intake
might And when the turtle puns,
Marine Industry and Recreational Groups swallows an empty bag, the it's a critical issue, destined
mistake becomes fatal, roattract public and govem-
The problem is more than meri scrutiny lfwc fail to take
bags Plastic six-pack holders action to solve it.
in 1987, CEE/NOAA/SPI completed the first phase of so@cfimcsbecomeiodV So f.Aeas,, sic. your trash,
is,
the educational campaign which consisted of public around the necks and bi Is of anclatenyour5hipPingterml-
pelicansand omcr@birds. nal5 that you will neecl proper
service adverstisements and brochures developed ly rangi ar"t", dispc-.31 01) land A'eaturtle
for each of the following groups: commercial u'nm s' ng ll@ may notknowany bCtLcrBut
,hg,he- 0'rep
_,_ h g"n, now@ Yet, do!
ent " _- rit cau 7b team howyou can heip.
de., g'e- ..h -1 'nifronmental
fisheries, merchant shippers arid' the plastics h,.Il ds-'se. write: Center/brL
industry (Figures 1-3). To date these ads have whales. dolphins and other Education I 251)eSalesSrree@
marine main mals every year N.W,,%it,5001 WashiVion.
appeared in fifteen major trade journals, in Plastic dbrisalso causes D@ C 20036
addition to several regional and local Figure 2. CEE/NOAA/SPI pu6l ic service advertisement
publications. CEE has also distributed developed for the merchant shipping industry.
approximately 30.000 brochures developed for these
three groups.

T",

C-;
A seabird codd mistake
-V @Oef Rl
f, 4
this resin pellet for a fish egg.'And die -ri er, - "'I", @- "
A
()nell ttle ]let maybe cansulferthe7sandefate,
insignIfierim t@eyaurplastirs Avingfimblernaf
processingoper-ation, But The grx ean�
"tas"'25"t"i""":
ic thousands ofwabiid@, it llhniati@nsnnorln., wildlife.
couldlead toalataterror Thiscritical issue is Idestined
Pei
These lem in many winviteintmasi biblie in@J@
n9p
shapes and sizm canbe governmentscrunnytinfesa 'W'.
washed down drains as waste we taRe aaran u) SDN* %
orrejectmaerial,orspilledid So pleaw- see,that resin
21
I'
thecourseotnorn-4 hand peAtusarere@1aimed(itZ,',14 tt@ 1
posecioffrruperlylf, "'S

%1 -@@1
;L"-- "can

Figure 3. CEE/NOAA/SPI public service advertisement Figure 5. CEE/NOAA/SPI public service advertisement
developed for the plastics industry. developed for recreational boaters.

in 1988, phase 11 of the CEE/NOAA/SPI campaign
commenced with the development of public service General Public
advertisements and brochures developed for
recreational fishermen (Figure 4), and for Perhaps one of CEE's most successful efforts has
recreational boaters (Figure 5). Major journals been our citizen beach cleanups in Texas where in
for these groups are now being contacted to secure 1986 and 1987 CEE organized the largest beach
placement of these ads. Using these educational cleanups in the history of the nation. In 1986,
ads, CEE plans to develop posters for placement in over 2,700 volunteers collected 125 tons of debris
marinas and bait and tackle shops. on 122 miles of beach. In 1987, more than 7,000
volunteers collected 309 tons of debris on 167
miles of beach. The Texas Coastal Cleanup
Campaign has not only increased awareness among
the general public, but helped to initiate efforts
on the part of the Texas General Land Office in
formulating a statewide "Adopt- A-Beach" program.
f
One of the most important aspects of the Texas
cleanups has been the use of a system for
collecting, recording, and analyzing data on the
types of debris collected. From this data, CEE
".-,:.This discardedline, is d6ne fishng.', has been able to determine that more than 65
BUt its not done killi percent of all debris items recorded in 1986 and
J
@z, 3 1987 was comprised of plastics. In 1987, this
j@ Carelessly discarded pl@sik injury, intestiml blackar- Included more than 31,000 plastic bags, 30,000
i6n, Ek rds are
V f1sh6q1jne'CanWepw0d,hr9 ardeaht7ysilarva
foriftafter yodre dWe with it@ km,n '5 -pack
plastic bottles, and 15,000 plastic six
wt@oing aid$, Wals. sea sniail 09t. pr@ceit6 pi4s`& 4@1
rings, in addition to numerous items indicative of
an mq1W and
Afidbka6si plastic fifte is @Plasfitiicbripalsa, ,10 V@::
'JaengArld dUrdW- WS nearly boavo@*lers ind" ocean sources such as more than 4,900 plastic
J -hicWthesear
free, The nes dari u, strapping bands, 7,460 plastic milk jugs, and
b@aak y straW dTcwn,
and
=Sl 4,170 plastic light sticks used by fisheries
ff, @line'ln theirnests, crtr@fing N)earki otier plastic (Table 1). Based on these data findings, CEE has
published two reports on the debris problem In
Texas which contain documentation on the sources
of debris, and recommendations for federal, state
and local governments, industry, and other groups
to reduce the marine debris problem (CEE 1987b,
R 5@

Figure 4. CEE/NOAA/SPI public service advertisement CEE 1988).
developed for recreational fishermen.

Table 1. Results of data collected from the Center for Environmental Education's
1987 Texas Coastal Cleanup.

DEBRIS TIPE NUMBER OF DEBRIS ITEMS DEBRIS TYPE NumBER OF DEBRIS ITEMS

Plastic Metal

bags 31773 beverage cans 20580
bottles 30295 pull tabs 8925
caps, lids 28540 bottle caps 8273
pieces 21619 other cans 4469
rope 18878 pieces 3658
6-pack holders 15631 wire 2807
cups, utensils 12486 large containers 1105
milk jugs 7460 drums-rusty 268
strapping bands 4933 drums-new 225
sheeting, 1rg. 4817
fishing line 4225 Total Metal 50310
light sticks 4179
toys 2820
straws 2639 Paper
disposable lighters 2429
"write protection" rings 2337 bags 4428
vegetable sacks 2023 cartons 4073
diapers 1914 cups 4511
shoes 1750 newspaper 1415
fishing net 1719 pieces 12292
buckets 1708
tampon applicators 1040 Total Paper 26719
syringes 930
hardhats 225
Wood
Total Plastic 206370
pieces 9306
pallets 605
Styrofoam crates 292

pieces 22609 Total Wood 10203
cups 14998
egg cartons 3417
buoys 1048 Rubber

Total Styrofoam 42072 gloves 4127
tires 546

Glass Total Rubber 4673

pieces 21214
bottles 17902 TOTAL 382878
light bulbs 2327
fluorescent light tubes 1088

Total Glass 42531

In 1988, CEE established a National Marine Debris
Data Base for beach cleanups conducted during
COASTWEEKS '88 (September 17-October 10) so that
standardized information can be obtained
nationwide. Sponsored by Lite O.S. Environmnetal
Protection Agency, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, and the U.S. Coast
Guard, the data base will provide essential
information not only for understanding specific
debris problems in different parts of the country,
but also for evaluating the effectiveness of Annex
* and other measures implemented to reduce debris.
* final national report containing information
from all statewide cleanups will be produced by
CEE in 1989.

In addition to the the National Marine Debris Data
Base, CEE has established a National Clearinghouse
on Marine Debris and Entanglement. Created in
response to a growing number of requests for
information on the marine debris problem, the
Clearinghouse functions to disseminate CEE's
educational materials and other information ort
marine debris to federal and state government
agencies, industry groups, educators, the press
and media, and the general public. This includes
the distribution of 50,000 copies of CEE's
A Citizen's Guide to Plastics In the Ocean, a
guide intended to inforin citizens of the growing
problem of plastics in the ocean and provide
suggestions on how citizens can become involved in
solving this problem.

REFERENCES

1. Center for Environmental Education. 1987a.
Plastics in the Ocean: More Than a Litter
Problem. Washington, DC. 128 pp.

2. Center for Environmental Education. 1987b.
1986 Texas Coastal Cleanup Report.
Washington, DC. 52 pp.

3. Center for Environmental Education. 1988.
1987 Texas Coastal Cleanup Report.
Washington, DC. In preparation.

GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF HARDBOTTOM ENVIRONMENTS ON THE L'WLA SHELF,
NORTHERN GULF OF MEXICO

W.. W. Schroederl, M. R. Dardeau2, J. J. Dind02 Fleischer3,
K. L. Heck, Jr.4' and A. W. Shult;5p'

IMarine Science Program, The University of Alabama, Dauphin Island, Al 36528
2Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Dauphin Island, Al 36528
3Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity, NSTL, MS 39529
4University of South Alabama, Dauphin Island, AL 36528
5Department of Geology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487

ABSTRACT snappers, groupers, amberjacks and many tropical
and subtropical species were present. Most of
Side-scan sonar, underwater video, manned these sites have been less well studied than the
submersibles, and conventional surface vessel and major offshore reefs in deeper water such as the
scientific SCUBA diving operations have been Florida Middle Grounds (Smith et al. 1975; Grimm
@ombined in an interdisciplinary, multi- and Hopkins 1977; Hopkins et al. 1981; Clarke
institutional investigation of hardbottom 1986) or the Flower Garden Banks in the
environments on the L'MAFLA (Louisiana-Mississippi northwestern Gulf of Mexico (Parker and Curray
-Alabama and Florida) shelf in the northern Gulf 1956; Bright and Pequegnat 1974; Bright 1983;
of Mexico. The hardbottom environments consist of: Rezak and Bright 1983). Nevertheless, hardbottom
(1) moderately sloping ridges of rock rubble (e.g. areas in depths of 20-200 meters support
nodular sideritic sandstone and mudstone) and extraordinary numbers of invertebrates and fishes,
shell hash (including bored and abraded oyster and serve as focal points for commercial and
shell) to low-relief outcrops (e.g. dolomitic recreational fishing activity. For example, it
sandstone) on the inner-sh6lf (21 to 32 m); (2) has been estimated that in South Carolina waters
mound-like features of bioclastic limestone on the nearly 7U% of recreational bottom fishing activity
mid-shelf (30 to 40 m); (3) calcareous reef-like was expended on hardbottoms, even though
pinnacles (largely. composed of Lithothamnion) on hardbottom constituted only about 8% of the total
the shelf break (72 to 100 m); and (4) quaFtose bottom area (Buchanan 1973).
sandstone and pebble conglomerate at the head of
the De Soto Canyon. Epifaunal communities on the Historically, offshore areas along the north-
inner-shelf are dominated by octocorals central Gulf of Mexico coast have been typified by
(Leptogorgia virgulata and Lophogorgia hebes). expanses of muddy to sandy substrates (Curray
eper hardbottom environments include solitary 1960; Ludwick 1964) with little or no vertical
corals and antipatharians, as well as deep* water relief (Parker et al. 1983). Parker et al. (1983)
species of octocorals. state that from Pensacola, Florida to Pass
Cavallo, Texas, reefs of all types make up only
1. INTRODUCTION 3.2% (2,571 acres) of the bottom between depths
of 10 and 91 meters and only 5U% of the 2,571
Numerous hardbottoml areas have been observed acres has relief in excess of 1 m. In the north-
along the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the central Gulf of Mexico, east of the Mississippi
United States (Buchanan 1973; Huntsman 1976; River Delta (Figure 1), there is no published
Huntsman and Manooch 1978; Shipp and Hopkins 1978;
Felder and Chaney 1979; Grimes et al. 1982; Wenner W
et al. 1983; Chester et al. 1984; Parker and Ross
1986; Mearns 1986). Most recently, Putt et al.
(1986) have reported on the presence of
Study Area
hardbottoms in shallow waters offshore of
Louisiana (29ON; 930W), and have described the
fauna of these areas. Thick growths of bryozoans,
sponges, and gorgonians cover the substrate, and
lHardbottom is defined as: A generic term that
describes a y seafloor feature or deposit with a
hard or indurated surface. Therefore, there are
no qualifications or restrictions placed on the
origin (lithogenous, biogenous, or hydrogenous), X
size (shell hash and gravel to boulders to
outcrops and reefs) or morphology (debris fields,
platforms, ridges, banks or pinnacles) of
hardbottom substrates (Schroeder et al. 1988). FIGURE 3. Th@ GUIF 0 K-i-

CH2585-8/88/0000-@7 $1 @19881EEE

evidence that hardbottoms are a conspicuous reefs should consider placing these structures
feature of this continental shelf margin, nor were adjacent to existing hardbottom communities which
exposed hard substrates expected to occur in an contain a ready source of colonists (Stone et al.
area that receives such large amounts of sediment 1979; Grimes et al. 1982; Stone 1986).
from adjacent river systems and estuaries (Shepard
1956; Ludwick 1964; Ryan 1969; Boone 1973) and 2. METHODOLOGY
that is reported to be covered by sediments with a
high percentage of fine grain (silt and clay) Physiographic description and classification of
material (Shepard 1956; Ludwick 1964; Upshaw et hardbottom study sites are based on a combination
al. 1966; Ryan 1969; USACOE 1982). The one report of side-scan sonograph image maps, subbottom
of hardbottom environments on this shelf is by seismic profiles, bathymetric information from
Ludwick and Walton (1957). They conducted a fathometer records and ground truthing (u/w TV-
general survey of topographic high features near video, SCUBA diving, manned submersible dives and
the shelf break, between 70-100 m, and their grab and dredge sampling). Side-scan sonograph
associated sediment and faunas. A detailed study images are plane-view graphic records of
was made of a 13 V section commonly known as the electronic signals that are directly proportional
Pinnacles (see Figure 2). to acoustic energy that is backscattered from the
seafloor (Fleming 1976). Backscattered energy is
09-00' 86-30' 08-00' 07-30* 07-00' influenced (1) by the altitude and orientation of
30-30'
the seafloor surface (bathymetry) and (2) by
surface reflectivity, which is a function of
"'U'l SEA LAS 0
Hea Sot.e material density and surface roughness (sediment
or bottom texture). Thus, the image represents
Big Rock/ Cary
Try 1P
Southeast (Gro5l" the geological nature of the seafloor, and
Banks
30-00W provides a useful map base for surficial geologic
17 Fathom Hole data.

Map plots of sites sampled by grab and dredge
operations and observed by u/w TV video or during
manned submersible dives and SCUBA dives are
29-30' 40 Fathom Isobath currently being integrated with preci se
AUSSISSIPP, The Pir-les- bathymetric maps (constructed from digitized
DELTA fathometer records) and side-scan images to
compile and interpret the geology of each area.
R
too The classification of the hardbottom environments
I is focusing o n : (1) the nature of the
2-1
FIGURE 2. Locations of on-goinq and proposed study ar as,@solld lines) and rock/substrate features (e.g. oUtcrops, clasts or
al ternati ve and/or future study amas (&sh:d nes) slabs, mounds or ridges of loose shell or rock
rubble, hard pan, pinnacles or reef-like
Over the-period April 1984 to May 1988 scientists structures); (2) areal extent; (3) vertical
from the Dauphin Island Sea Lab have undertaken 43 relief; (4) relationship to adjacent unlithified
research cruises on the L'MAFLA shelf and sediments; and (5) the general composition of the
identified hardbottoms at several locations in the live cover.
depth range of 20-100 m (Figure 2). The most
comprehensive data has been collected over the Substrate samples have been collected during wet-
past two years and is currently being analyzed. In diving operations and manned submersible dives as
addition, Texas A&M University has just completed well as ship board grab and dredging operations.
Year-1 of a three year research project, funded by The geological description of these hardbottom
Minerals Management Service (MMS), which includes substrates, based on a combination of analytical
an extensive investigation of a 1400 km2 area on methods (thin-section petrography, X-ray
the Mississippi-Alabama outer continental shelf. diffractometry, scanning electron microsopy,
stable-isotope ratios, and radiocarbon dating),
These areas support organisms including bryozoans, will form a basis for interpretation of their
hard and soft corals, and sponges, as well as origin and allow comparison with previously
snappers, groupers and other fish species, and are described materials of a similar nature elsewhere.
well known to local fisherman (although not to Unlithified sediments are being analyzed by sieve
scientists). The areal extent of these and hydrometer for particle size and by acid
hardbottoms is unmeasured and their contribution dissolution for determination of carbonate
to the recreational and commercial fishery is content.
unknown. Based on anecdotal information from
fishermen, the importance may be substantial and Dredging operations have verified the presence of
our preliminary data suggest that the existence of dense octocoral populations on the inner to middle
more previously uncharted and essentially unfished shelf hardbottoms. Because these species are
hardbottoms is quite likely. It is also quite sessile, their age structure integrates factors
possible that these hardbottom communities are which affect recruitment and mortality rates in a
staging areas for first or second year fish that particular habitat (Grigg 1975). Diving operations
could colonize newly established artificial reef to date have focused on tagging and measuring soft
habitats. Thus, siting plans for new artificial corals to evaluate the age structure of

populations at three sites; Southeast Banks, between 30 to 35 m. The first site is known as
Southwest Rock and 17 Fathom Hole (Figure 2). We "Big Rock" and consists of -a large mound-like
are in the process of sectioning corals collected feature with approximately 5 m of relief. The
from these three sites and examining growth rings substrate collected to date is a light gray,
to determine age structure of the population porous bioclastic limestone upon which a moderate
(Grigg 1974). Future efforts will attempt to to heavy epifaunal growth occurs. The second site,
estimate densities and growth rates of soft corals the "Trysler Grounds", has similar rock on an
and evaluate productivity across the shelf. irregular hummocky bottom.
3. GEOLOGY Mississippi-Alabama Outer-shelf.
1) The Pinnacles: LocateZ-=m southsoutheast of
Alabama-Northwest Florida Inner-shelf. Mobile Bay and 120 km east of the Mississippi
1) Southeast Ta-nks7-rFe-S-ou-t-Fe-a-s-t-Tanks area is River Delta (Figure 2), in 100 to 180 m of water,
located approximately 28 km Southsoutheast of the these structures are perhaps the most unique
entrance to Mobile Bay (Figure 2), in water depths hardbottom features on this shelf. Ludwick and
of 21 to 26.5 m. Schroeder et al. (1988) have Walton (1957) state that a number of the pinnacles
characterized two sites within this area. The stand 12 to 15 m (average height is 8 m) above the
first is a rock rubble field on a moderately surrounding sea floor and are onlya few hundred
sloping bottom of shell hash and silty sand. Rocks meters across, measured above the basal talus
are irregularly shaped slabs of sandstone, up to slopes. Side slopes are steep and irregular; some
0.8 x 0.7 x 0.2 m, varying in color from buff to are vertical. Water depth to the top of the
dark gray. Most of the rocks have epifaunal pinnacles averages 99 m and ranges between 89 to
encrustations and many have pitted surfaces due to 168 m. Some of the conclusions Ludwick and Walton
Lithophaga borings. The second is a relatively came to are: (1) that these features are part of a
Tlat bottom of sand and rock rubble south and east more extensive carbonate zone found at the shelf
of Site I containing similar rock substrate. break in many other Gulf of Mexico locales; (2)
the pinnacles they studied had a reef origin at a
2) Southwest Rock: The Southwest Rock area lies lowered sea-level; and (3) at present, the reef is
approximately 17 km south of Dauphin Island not growing appreciably and is considered to be
(Figure 2), in 20 to 22 m of water. Two sites have dead. Calcareous algae (Lithothamnion), the chief
been described by Schroeder et al. (1988). Site 1 constituent of the reet rock and surrounding
is a rock outcrop, known as "Southwest Rock". It sediment, are no longer found living on or near
is 7 to 9 m across and rises 1 to 1.5 m above a the pinnacles.
relatively flat, muddy sand bottom. A second,
similar feature, approximately 1.5 to 3.5 m across 2) 40 Fathom Isobath: This well known fishing
is located 10 m to the southwest. Scattered rock banks complex is located 24 km northeast of the
rubble is present in the vicinity. The rock Pinnacles area (Figure 2). As the name states
material is a well-indurated, medium gray, shell- water depths are around 40 fm or approximately
bearing sandstone with irregular holes and pits 75 m. Fathometer records indicate that the
due to dissolution and boring. The outcrops are hardbottom environments associated with this area
coveredwith an encrusting epifauna. are often topographic features, with up to 9 m of
relief, that are either mound-, pinnacle- or
Site 2 encompasses a gently sloping ridge that ridge-like in form. Some of these features are
trends NNW-SSE and has 1 to 1.5 m of relief. Based included in the "New Areas" discussed below. At
on the sonograph records this ridge is a linear this time no substrate samples have been collected
featuremeasuring 1.5 km in length.The northeast from this area.
facing slope is covered with rock rubble and shell
hash. Rocks are ferruginous and rounded, with 3) "New Areas": These areas have recently been
complex nodular form and sparse to - moderate identified on side-scan sonograph records obtained
encrustation. Shell materials composed of fresh by Texas A&M University in conjunction with their
intact shells of neritic forms, as well as bored MMS-Mississippi/Alabama Marine Ecosystem Study.
and abraded fossil shells including estuarine These areas are scheduled to be investigated with
forms such as oysters. u/w TV video mounted on a Remotely-Ope rated-
Vehicle and conventional dredge and grab sampling
3) 17 Fathom Hole: This study site is located during the month of July. Some of the features to
approximately 37 km south of Mobile Bay be studied have distinctive or unusual signatures
(Figure 2), in an uncharted depression with depths on the sonograph records and have been
of 30 to 32 m. Two features are presently being preliminarily given names such as "Pox Field",
investigated. One is a large outcrop (reef-like) "Boulder Field", "Footprints", "Flat-tops" and
structure with dimensions on the order of 100 x 35 "Snake Ridge".
x 2 m and the other is a mound-like feature of
rock rubble covering an area of approximately Read of the De Soto Canyon.
300 m2 and with a vertical relief of up to 2 m. TR-s -!Ft-u-dy--ir-ea--Tl-es-o-n-t-he northwestern rim of
the Head of the De Soto Canyon approximately 40 km
4) Big Rock / Trysler Grounds: Schroeder et al. southeast of the mouth of Pensacola Bay (Figure
(1988) describe two sites from this area; which 2), in 50 to 60 m of water. The major isobaths in
lies approximately 46 km offshore the Alabama- this region trend southwest to northeast while
Florida state line (Figure 2), at water depths of the hardbottom feature appears to have a WSW-ENE

orientation. The hardbottom is a sheet-like 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
structure, up to 2 m thick, composed of coarse
quartose sandstone and pebble conglomerate, which This work is the result of research sponsored in
has undergone extensive orthogonal fractioning. part by NOAA Office of Sea Grant, Department of
The shallow, northwest side is nearly flat with a Commerce under-'Grant No. NA85AA-D-SGO05 (Projects
combination of exposed and partially exposed R/ER-19-PD and R/ER-19), the Mississippi-Alabama
surfaces mixed in with large areas of sand that Sea Grant Consortium, The University of Alabama,
are vary often covering hardbottom substrate. On the Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium of
the deeper, southeast side the rectangular blocks, Alabama, and the Naval Ocean Research and
formed as a result of the fracturing, are Development Activity, NSTL, Mississippi. Some of
separating and slumping or creeping down slope as the data for the outer continental shelf region
a result of undercutting of the unconsolidated was provided by Texas A&M University through their
sand layer below. Consequently, a zone of "Mississippi/Alabama Marine Ecosystem Study"
inclined blocks and rock rubble, with a relatively funded by the Minerals Management Service,
steep face, has been formed. Department of Commerce. Submersible time was made
available by NOAA's National Undersea Research
Shipp and Hopkins (1978) observed a feature Program at the University of North Carolina at
composed of one to three ridges (of rectangular Wilmington. We are grateful to J. Valentine and T.
blocks), up to 20 m wide, with intervening sand Hopkins for echinoderm identifications. This
zones. Relief of the ridges varied from barely publication is Contribution No. 112 from the
detectable to 10 m. In addition, fathometer Aquatic Biology Program, The University of Alabama
records they obtained suggested the presences of and Contribution No. 148 from the Marine
"spire-like" ledges up to 15 m in relief. Environmental Sciences Consortium of Alabama.

4. BIOLOGY 6. REFERENCES

Biological assemblages of the shallow, inner-shelf Boone, P. A. 1973. Depositional systems of the
hardbottom habitat are dominated by the soft Alabama, Mississippi, and western Florida
corals, Leptogorgia virgulata and Lopho2orgia coastal zone. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc.
hebes. Less obvious components include hydroids Trans. 23:266-277.
and 5ryozoans. Mobile invertebrates observed Bright, T. J., W. Jaap and C. Cashman. 1981.
include the urchins, Arbacia punctulata and Ecology and management of coral reefs and
Lytechinus variegatus, as-well as portunid crabs. organic banks. pp. 53-160 In: D. K. Atwood,
13-n-fFe -oute elf, deep water octocorals dominate Ed. Environmental research -Feeds in the Gulf
the epifaunal community, along with solitary of Mexico. Vol IIB. NOAA/ERL Atl. Oceanog.
corals and antipatharians. The hard coral, Oculina Meteorol. Lab. Miami, Fl.
diffusa, is the only epifaunal species obse-rv-e-d -to Bright, T. J. 1983. A summary of hard-bottom
occur across the entire shelf. biotic communities in the Gulf of Mexico. pp.
95-109 In: Reef s and banks of the
Growth rings have been identified in both species Northwe-sTern Gulf of Mexico: Their
of shal 1 ow, water sof t corals and we are in the geological, biological, & physical dynamics.
process of verifying the periodicity of the A report by Depart. of Oceanog., Texas A&M
banding. Initial field measurements indicate that Univ., for U.S. Depart. Interior, MMS, New
Lophogorgia are significantly smaller (x= Orleans, Contract No. AA851-CT1-55.
TT-J_c_mT`at our 20 m Southwest Rock station than Bright, T. J. and L. H. Pequegnat, (eds.). 104.
at Southeast Banks, our 25 m station (X = Biota of the West Flower Garden Bank. Gulf
46.7 cm). Too few measurements are available from Publ. Co., Houston, 435 p.
17 Fathom Hole (30-32 m station) for comparison. Buchanan, C. C. 1973. Effects of an artificial
habitat on the marine sport fishery and
economy of Murrells Inlet, South Carolina.
The Leptogorgia/Lophogorgia community has been Mar. Fish. Rev. 351:15-22.
reported as common on the inner- to middle- shelf Chester, A. J., G. R. Huntsman, P. A. Testor, and
off South Carolina (Wenner et al. 1983) as well as C. S. Manooch, 111. 1984. South Atlantic
off central western Florida (Bright et al. 1981) Bight reef fish communities as represented in
and there is evidence that year-to-year variation hook-and-line catches. Bull. Mar. Sci.
in the abundance of soft corals results from the 34(2):267-279.
seasonal fluctuations in temperature and light Clarke, D. G. 1986. Visual censuses of fish
characteristics of the continental shel f populations at the Florida Middle Ground.
environment (Peckol and Scarles 1984). Storm Northeast Gulf Sci. 8(l):65-81.
waves, current regimes and turbidity also Curray, J. R. 1960. Sediments and history of
undoubtedly play a role in mortality caused by Holecene trangression, continental shelf,
scour and shifting sediment (Grigg 1977; Farrant northwest Gulf of Mexico. pp.221-265 In F. P.
1987; Gotelli 1988). When complete, accurate Shepard, Ed. et al. Recent Sedi-m-ents,
estimates of age frequency distributions at our Northwest Gulf of Mexico. Amer. Assoc.
different study sites across the shelf are Petrol. Geol., Tulsa.
available they should yield valuable information Farrant, P. A. 1987. Population dynamics of the
on the chronology of colonization and extinction temperate Australian soft coral Capnella
events in hardbottom habitats; a form of gaboensis. Mar. Biol. 96:401-407.
environmental hindcasting.

Felder, D. L. and A. H. Chaney. 1979. Decapod Parker, R. 0., D. R. Colby, and T. D. Willis.
crustacean fauna of Seven and One-Half Fathom 1983. Estimated amount of reef habitat on a
Reef, Texas: Species composition, abundance, portion of the U.S. South Atlantic and Gulf
& species diversity. Cont. Mar. Sci. 22:1-29. of Mexico Continental Shelf. Bull. Mar. Sci.
Fleming, B. W. 1976. Side-scan sonar: a practical 33(4):935-940.
guide. Int. Hydrogr. Rev. 53(l):65-92. Peckol , P. and R. B. Searles. 1984. Temporal and
Gotelli, N.J. 1988. Determinants of recruitment, spatial patterns of growth and survival of
juvenile growth and spatial distribution of-a invertebrate and algal populations of a North
shallow-water gorgonian. Ecol. 69:157-166. Carolina continental shelf community.
Grigg, R. W. 1974. Growth rings: annual Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sci. 18:133-143.
periodicity in two gorgonian corals. Ecol. Putt, R. E., D. A. Gettleson and N. W. Phillips.
55:876-881. 1986. Fish assemblages and benthic biota
Grigg, R. W. 1975. Age structure of a longevous associated with natural hardbottom areas in
coral- relative index of habitat suitability the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Northeast
and stability. Am. Nat. 109:647-657. Gulf Sci. 8(l):51-63.
Grigg, R. W. 1977. Population dynamics of two Rezak, R. and T. J. Bright. 1983. Classification
gorgonian corals. Ecol. 58:278-290. and characterization of banks. pp.331-399 In:
Grimes, C. B., C. S. Manooch and G. R. Huntsman. Reefs and banks of the northwestern Gulf of
1982.Reef and rock outcropping fishes of the Mexico: Their geological, biological, and
outer continental shelf of North Carolina and physical dynamics. Depart. of Oceanog., Texas
South Carolina, and ecological notes on the A&M Univ.., for U.S. Depart. of Interior, MMS,
porgy and vermilion snappers. Bull. Mar. Sci. New Orleans, Contract No. AA851-CTI-55.
32(l):277-289. Ryan, J. J. 1969. A sedimentologic study of
Grimm, D. E. and T. S. Hopkins. 1977. Mobile Bay, Alabama. Florida State Univ.,
Preliminary characterization of the Dept. of Geology, Sedimentol. Res. Lab.
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the Florida Middle Ground. Proc. Third- Schroeder, W. W., A. W. Shultz and J. J. Dindo.
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FL. 1:135-141. northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Accepted for
Hopkins, T. S., W. Schroeder, T. Hilde, L. Doyle publication in the 1988 Transact. Gulf Coast
and J. Steinmetz. 1981. Northern Gulf of Assoc. Geol. Soc. and Soc. Ecom. Paleont. and
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U. S. Depart. of Interior, BLM, New Orleans, Mississippi Delta. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
Contract No. AA551-CT8-35. 150 p. Bull. 40 (11): 2587-2618.
Huntsman, G. R. 1976. Offshore headboat fishing Shipp, R. L. and T. S. Hopkins. 1978. Physical
in North Carolina and South Carolina. Mar. and biological observations of the northern
Fish. Rev. 38:13-23. rim of the De Soto Canyon made from a
Huntsman, G. R. and C. S. Manooch, 111. 1978. research submersible. Northeast Gulf Sci.
Coastal pelagic and reef fishes in the South 2:113-121.
Atlantic Bight. pp. 97-106 In H. Clepper, Ed. Smith, G. B., H. M. Austin, S. A. Bortone, R. W.
Marine Recreational Fisherf-es, No. 3. Proc. Hastings, and L. H. Ogren, 1975. Fishes of
Second Annual Mar. Recreational Fisheries the Florida Middle Ground with comments on
Symp. Mar. 29-30, 1978, Norfolk, VA., Sport ecology and zoogeography. Fla. Mar. Res.
Fishing Institute. Washington, DC. Publ. No. 9. 14 p
Ludwick, J. C. 1964. Sediments in northeastern Stone, R. B. 1986. @ national and regional
Gulf of Mexico: IN Miller, R. L. (ed.), overview of artificial reefs. pp. 9-13. In D.
Papers in Marine Geo-Togy, MacMillan Co., New Y. Aska, Ed. Artificial Reefs: ConfeFe-nce
York, p. 208-238. Proceed., Florida Sea Grant College. Rpt. 41.
Ludwick, J. C. and W. R. Walton. 1957. Shelf edge Stone, R. B. ' H. L. Pratt, R. 0. Parker, Jr., and
calcareous prominences in . the G. F. Davis. 1979. A comparison of fish
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Mearns, D. L. 1986. Continental shelf hardbottoms Review. September-1979 p. 1-11.
in Onslow Bay, North Carolina: Their Upshaw, C. F., W. B. Creath, and F. L. Brooks.
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Coastal and Shelf Sci. 17:143-158.

VIDEO DOCUMENTATION OF HARDBOTTOM ENVIRONMENTS

W. W. Schroederl, R. Rezak2 and T. J. Bright2

iMarine Science Program, University of Alabama, Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528
2Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843

ABSTRACT

Investigators will present underwater video
documentation of hardbottom environments along
the continental shelf of the northern Gulf of
Mexico. A variety of geological features and
biological habitats will be illustrated in support
of the discussions presented in the three previous
papers in the session by Rezak and McGrail, Bright
and Gittings, and Schroeder et al. Videos were
made from manned submersibles, ship-deployed
Remotely Operated Vehicles, and cameras tethered
to drifting vessels as well as during scientific
SCUBA diving operations.

Footage from the following areas will be shown:
(1) Texas-Louisiana outer continental shelf
(including the "Flower Garden Banks"); (2) the
"Pinnacles" of the L'MAFLA outer continental
shelf; (3) Alabama inner continental shelf
(including "Southeast Banks", "Southwest Rock",
and "17 Fathom Hole"); and (4) the "Head of the De
Soto Canyon".

CH2585-8/88/0000- 22 $1. @1.988 IEEE

THE USE OF ENCLOSED ECOSYSTEMS FOR THE STUDY OF CYCLING AND
IMPACT OF TRACE ELEMENTS

James G. Sanders and Gerhardt F. Riedel

The Academy of Natural Sciences, Benedict Estuarine
Research Laboratory, Benedict, MD 20612

Phytoplankton play an important role in the tant substances. Moreover, it is dif-
biogeochemistry of many trace elements, through ficult to assess the potential for impact
incorporation within the cell and direct or in- at a community, or worse, ecosystem
direct chemical transformation. We report on level. Individual species, particularly
studies carried out in large-volume, continuous species of varying trophic levels, may
cultures maintained outdoors under ambient condi- exhibit vastly differing sensitivity to
tions of light and temperature in which we ex- the same toxic compound (2-4). Thus,
amined the role natural phytoplankton populations populations and communities do not neces-
play in the availability and speciation of two sarily react in a similar fashion to
toxic trace elements. Silver was readily taken individuals. In addition, there are
up by phytoplankton, with uptake inversely pro- indirect effects of altered trophic rela-
portional to salinity. Uptake and incorporation tionships caused by the disappearance of
reduced silver availability to other estuarine sensitive species (5-7).
organisms. Arsenic is modified either by reduc '-
tion or methylation. These transformations re- To further complicate the process of
lieve toxicity to phytoplankton, but may serve to assessment, biological processes occur-
increase the toxicity of arsenic to estuarine ring within organisms can transform the
fauna. It is important that we understand how original compound into a new set of com-
physico-chemical controls of trace element pounds that may have quite different
speciation, algal incorporation, transformation chemical and biological properties and
and release are coupled in productive estuaries different relative toxicity (8).
before we can predict the impact of anthropogenic
inputs of trace elements. Over the past several years, we have
developed an experimental microcosm sys-
tem to attempt to address such problems
in impacted estuaries. We have largely
focused our attention on the cycling,
interaction, and impact of low-level
INTRODUCTION contamination on natural phytoplankton
assemblages. Phytoplankton have an im-
The transport.and impact of toxic sub- portant role, comprising the base of the
stances are matters of major concern to aquatic food web in most systems. They
management of coastal estuaries and lend themselves quite well to such stud-
oceans. Man's love for the coastline and ies because they can be followed at the
its attendant water bodies ensures that, community level and their rapid growth
as population and industrial growth con- makes apparent even subtle changes within
tinue, the loading of toxic substances a matter of days. They are active in the
into estuaries and the coastal ocean will uptake and transformation of a variety of
continue to increase. It is imperative, inorganic and organic compounds. From
therefore, that society address the po- this trophic level, further investiga-
tential toxic effect of anthropogenic tions can build, allowing an assessment
inputs to these areas. of potential impact of trophic relation-
ships within the system and some insight
There are several impediments to suc- into the transfer of contaminants.
cessfully addressing these concerns.
Society produces an overwhelming number This article summarizes our work with
of potential toxic substances. The large two, quite different inorganic contami-
number of toxic inorganic compounds and nants, silver (Ag) and arsenic (As).
the ever-increasing array of organic Silver is a cation in its biologically
compounds require initial, broad assess- active form and behaves in a manner simi-
ments of the compound's occurrence, con- lar to other cations such as cadmium and
centration, and toxicity (1) and allow copper. Arsenic, in its dominant chemi-
detailed study of only a few, most impor- cal form, arsenate, is a nutrient ana-

CH2585-8/88/0ooo,23 $1 @1988 IEEE

logue of phosphate and undergoes a vari- rather than single species or even clonal
ety of reduction and methylation reac- cultures, 2) environmental conditions
,tions and can be found in a number of under which experiments are performed are
chemical forms. Both are present in quite realistic, allowing most natural
elevated concentrations in estuaries and biogeoche@mical reactions to occur, and 3)
coastal systems such as the Chesapeake the inputs of continual, small amounts of
Bay. As such, the pair are good models contaminants more closely reproduce con-
for a wide variety of inorganic contami- ditions in a dynamic, natural ecosystem.
nants that may be present in a coastal
system. Other Experiments
In addition to these studies, numerous
experiments were performed in the labora-7
tory using unialgal cultures isolated
from the Chesapeake Bay and other coastal
MATERIALS AND METHODS systems. Also, a number of studies were
carried out on board ship on cruises
Location within the Chesapeake Bay.
. The studies were performed in the
Patuxent River, a subestuary of the
Chesapeake Bay, in Benedict MD. River Metal Analyses
flows within the Patuxent vary widely,. Silver in water samples was analyzed
with large inputs of fresh water in the according to Sanders and Abbe (13).
spring, and greatly reduced flows in the Samples were collected in rigorously
summer and early fall. This portion of cleaned polyethylene bottles (14), frozen
the estuary has an annual salinity range and analyzed using graphite furnace
of 10 O/oo, from approximately 5-15 O/oo, atomic absorption spectrophotometry
a pH range of 7.5-8.5, and annual water 0 (GFAAS) with appropriate standards and
temperature extremes from 0 to about 30 matrix modification, if necessary. Algal
C. Thus, this portion of the estuary is cells were collected on acid-washed glass
quite dynamic, and undergoes substantial, fiber filters and digested in redistilled
seasonal variability. concentrated HN03 in teflon vials (15).
Residues were redissolved in 1% HN03 (re-
distilled) and analyzed by GFAAS.
Culture Svstem
A system of large-volume, outdoor Arsenic was measured within water
tanks was utilized for these studies. samples using techniques modified from
Natural phytoplankton from the Patuxent, Braman et al. (16). This technique al-
River were cultured in 500 1 cylindrical lows measurement of a variety of chemical
fiberglass tanks, submerged in a raceway forms of arsenic, including arsenate,
to maintain water temperatures to within arsenite, and methylated arsenicals.
10 C of ambient river temperatures. The Samples were collected as above for sil-
objective was to operate the tanks as ver, fast frozen, and analyzed with no
continuous, flow-through phytoplankton further modification. Tissue samples
cultures using the mesohaline river water were digested as above for silver, then
without nutrient enrichment as the dil- analyzed as above for total arsenic.
uent. The 12 tanks were initially filled
with Patuxent River water containing the
natural phytoplankton assemblage after
passage through 35 Am nylon mesh to re- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
move large herbivores. This initial
screening did not remove a significant Silver
fraction of the phytoplankton. After Silver is readily taken up by phyto-
filling, the tanks were operated as con- plankton. Within 24 h, cellular contents
tinuous cultures, diluted with fine- of Ag have increased from control levels
filtered (I Am) river water. Contami- of approximately 0.03 ug g-1 to 44 Ag g-1
nants were also metered continuously to when grown in silver concentrations of 2-
maintain pace with dilution water. Fur- 7 Ag 11 (6,13). The uptake of Ag is
ther details on design and maintenance species specific, to some extent, with
can be found elsewhere (9-12). The num- smaller species such as Skeletonema cos-
ber of tanks allows several different. tatum and Isochrysis galbana incorporat-
contaminants, or several levels of the ing 2-3 times the cellular content of
same contaminant to be studied simultane- larger species such as Prorocentrum
ously in replicate systems. The system mariae-lebouriae (17). Silver uptake is
is quite adaptable and particularly suit- proportional to Ag concentrations within
able for studies of the cycling and im- the water column, which suggests passive
pact of toxic substances because 1) it uptake mechanisms predominate (13,18).
utilizes whole plankton communities

Silver uptake is also salinity dependent, species that flourished in Ag-dosed as-
with uptake inversely proportional to semblages were "desireable" ones, mainly
salinity (13). Silver is heavily com- centric diatoms (6) possibly as a result
plexed by chloride in saline systems; the of inhibiting less "desirable" species,
reduction in uptake and incorporation is such as cyanobacteria. Laboratory,stud-,
consistent with the reduction in free ies have also shown that diatoms are more
silver ion as salinity increases (17, 19, resistant to silver than either flagel-
20). However, there are indications that lates or dinoflagellates (17). There-
the uncharged ion, AgC10, may also be fore, even though the effect on phyto-
available for algal uptake (17, 20). plankton species composition may be
large, probable effects to the ecosystem
Silver levels of 2 to 7 jAg 1-1 have as a whole may not be significant (6).
measureable impacts upon the community
structure of phytoplankton (Figure 1). Perhaps the most important consequence
We have noted the loss of some species of silver uptake by phytoplankton is the
and attendant increased success of reduction of silver availability to high-
others; however, in our experiments the er trophic levels. Although phytoplank-
ton do not transform silver to a differ-
200- ent chemical form, they do actively par7
EM centric diatoms tition it between the dissolved and par-
A pennote diatoms ticulate phase. Studies with silver and
160- RM cyanophytes a dominant filter feeder in Chesapeake
SM other taxa Bay and other temperate estuaries, the
oyster, Crassostrea virginica, have con-
120- clusively demonstrated that silver as-
sociated with algal cells is not incor-
porated by the oyster after ingestion and
that oyster uptake and incorporation of
80- silver is solely via uptake of dissolved
silver (Abbe and Sanders, unpublished
(a data). Therefore, algal uptake and in-
1 40-
0 corporation of silver effectively removes
silver from association with higher tro-
phic levels and reduces its potential for
T 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 impact.
-T Arsenic
0 Arsenic in,oxidized, aquatic systems
0 is present primarily as an inorganic ion,
200- arsenate (21, 22). Reduced arsenic
En (arsenite) and methylated arsenicals
z (methylarsonate, MMA, and dimethyl-
W
0 160- 8 arsinate, DMA) are also present occa-
_j sionally.
_j
W
120 The production of reduced and methy-
lated species is mediated by biological
processes (15, 21). The quantity and
chemical form of arsenic released, and
80- resulting concentrations of reduced and
methylated species, vary between ecosys-
tems. The variation in reduced arsenic
40- is well correlated with primary produc-
tivity (5). In addition, the presence of
specific chemical forms of arsenic, par-
0 ticularly methylated arsenicals, appears
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 to be correlated with particular dominant
phytoplankton species (23).

DAY OF EXPERIMENT The transformation of arsenic by phy-
toplankton is quite variable, however,
there is a general pattern to arsenic
Figure 1. Composition of phytoplankton speciation that can be'followed either
by taxonomic groups through time. A. during the development of a phytoplankton
Control assemblages. B. Ag-dosed bloom in enclosures such as ours, or in
(7 gg 1-1) assemblages. the field as one moves down estuary,
essentially moving forward in time.

Arsenate Iis quickly re .dIuced to I @ arsenite, Thalassiosira pseudonana. In a number of
which, through time, is reoxidized to different experiments conducted with
arsenate. Following the appearance of arsenic over several years in Chesapeake
arsenite are the methylated species, Bay, we have seen the same result: the
which tend to persist through time and decline of larger centric diatoms (Cera-
dilute down the estuary into the coastal taulina pelagica, Rhizosolenia fragilis-
ocean. An example of such a pattern is sima, Chaetoceros spp., Skeletonema cos-
illustrated in Figure 2, using both gen- tatum) and their replacement by the small
eralized curves and actual data from a Thalassiosira sp. and, on occasion, small
cruise in the Chesapeake Bay. similar flagellated species (4, 5, 6, 7, 10). As
data have been collected from our con- an example, Figure 3 illustrates the
trolled enclosure studies. changes in species composition through
time in one enclosure experiment. This
The proportion of reduced and methy- shift in dominant species is probably
lated arsenic species is of extreme im- caused by replacement of sensitive spe-
portance to the ecosystem as a whole. cies by those either resistant to arsenic
Arsenite and methylarsonic species have
been shown to be the most toxic arsenic
forms (24). Arsenite is unstable under 80- EM centric diatoms
oxidizing conditions and is rapidly re- A dinoflogellates
converted to arsenate (25). However,
both MMA and DNA are relatively stable in RM cryptophytes
marine systems, and may persist indefi- 60- RM other taxa
nitely (26). The production, release and
persistence of MMA in a coastal ecosystem
may be extremely important, not only 40-
because it relieves phytoplankton of the
inhibitory effects of arsenate but also
because it increases the toxic burden to
other organisms within the ecosystem.
(D 20-
Thus, other biota within the ecosystem I
may be inhibited by the change in chemi- 0 gn
cal form and resultant increased X
toxicity. 0 1 1 0 0 Mon
T 6 6 fo 1'5 20 25
Arsenic inputs (5-10 gg 1-1) to natu-
ral communities in general led to de-
clines in the growth rate of most species
of centric diatoms, with one exception, 80-

Z B
100-4 LU
9 arsenote
0 0 arsenite
_W _j 60-
x methyl spp. _j
80- Uj
0 U

v@ 60- 40-
Uj
U
X
CL 40- X
Z5 X X 20-
X X
9( 0 X X
2 20- 0 X
Ui 0
V) 0
W 00 - - - - - - - - Q_ -0
< 04 w 69 P a I . N IR 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25

SALINITY, O/oo
DAY OF EXPERIMENT

Figure 2. Progression of arsenic specia-
tion, either coincident with the develop- Figure 3. Composition of phytoplankton
ment of an algal bloom, or along an es- by taxonomic groups through time. A.
tuarine gradient. Shown are generalized Control assemblages. B. As-dosed
curves for each arsenic species and data (10 Mg 1-1) assemblages.
collected from Chesapeake Bay, taken from
(23).
0
arsen @te
.nite
@x methyl pp.
0.

or those less likely to take up large type of effect. In other instances,
quantities of arsenic (8). From an eco- selective partitioning, as with silver,
logical sense, the shift in species com- may also reduce toxicity. In each in-
position and overall size can lead to stance, however, the modivications medi-
significant impact to higher trophic ated by phytoplankton are of significance
levels which feed on phytoplankton. to the estuarine ecosystem. They must be
Dominant zooplankton in the Chesapeake considered when impact assessments are
Bay exhibited dramatically decreased made.
survival and fecundity when fed an ar-
senic-altered phytoplankton assemblage
(5,7). An arsenic-induced shift in
phytoplankton not only led to the reduc- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
tion in importance of copepods but also We thank S. Cibik and G. Abbe for
resulted in an increased abundance of their continued advice and collaboration,
small, noncrustacean grazers such as D. connell and L. Currence for technical
ciliates and rotifers (7), promoting assistance. Supported by the
greater importance of the so-called Environmental Protection Agency under
microbial loop (27,28). grants R810680-01 and X-003358-01,
Baltimore Gas and Electric Company, NOAA,
Although phytoplankton exposed to Maryland Sea Grant Program and the
elevated arsenic concentrations take up Maryland Department of Natural Resources,
arsenic, the quantities are not as large Power Plant Research Program.
as seen with other trace elements. For
example, natural assemblages exposed to
10 ug 1 1 (approximately 10-20 times am- REFERENCES
bient) increased their arsenic content
approximately 50%, from 4.2 ug -1 to 6.2 1. Wood, J.M. 1974. Biological cycles
ug g-1 (6). thus, biological removal of for toxic elements in the environ-
arsenic from the water column is insig- ment. Science 183: 1049-1052.
nificant, unlike the response seen with
silver and other cations. 2. Menzel, D.W., J. Anderson and A.
Randke. 1970. Marine phytoplankton
vary in their response to chlorine
Summary hydrocarbons. Science 167: 1724-
There are many ways in which phyto- 1726.
plankton can alter the chemical form of
an inorganic contaminant, and not all 3. Biggs, D.C., R.G. Rowland, H.B.
algae appear to interact as we have dis- O'Connors, C.D. Powers and C.F.
cussed. Further study of the biological Wurster. 1978. A comparison of the
processes involved in controlling trace effects of chlordane and PCB on the
ion form, transport, and transformation growth, photosynthesis, and cell size
in coastal water bodies will be necessary of estuarine phytoplankton. Environ.
in future years. Although all inorganic Poll. 15: 253-263.
elements will not react in the same
manner as the two discussed here, similar 4. Sanders, J.G. and P.S. Vermersch.
geochemical and biological reactions will 1982. Response of marine phytoplank-
occur, leading to the same possible ton to low levels of arsenate. J.
ecological responses. Plankton Res. 4: 881-893.

We must understand how several 5. Sanders, J.G. 1986. Alteration of
processes are coupled in productive arsenic transport and reactivity in
estuaries before we can predict with` coastal marine systems due to bio-
confidence the impact of arsenic, silver, logical transformation. Rapp. P.-v.
or other toxic compounds within affected Reun. Cons. int. Explor. Mer 186:
estuaries and coastal oceans. In some 185-192.
instances the important effect of phyto-
plankton uptake may be the production of 6. Sanders, J.G. and S.J. Cibik. 1988.
toxic, methylated compounds, because of Response of Chesapeake Bay phyto-
thier persistence, stability, and plankton communites to low levels of
toxicity to organisms within the eco- toxic substances. Mar. Poll. Bull.,
system. Arsenic, and perhaps selenium, in press.
tin, mercury, antimony, and lead are
elements of this type. In other cases 7. Sanders, J.G., R.W. Osman and D.C.
phytoplankton may reduce the toxicity of Brownlee. 1988. Arsenic transport
elements by transforming them into less and impact in Chesapeake Bay food
toxic forms. Reduction of chromium and webs. Final report to EPA, Chesa-
copper, either directly or by photo- peake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
reduction or complexation (and detox-
ification) by DOC are examples of this

8. Sanders, J.G. and G.F. Riedel. 1987. 18. Fisher, N.S., M. Bohe and J.-L. Teys-
Control of trace element toxicity by sie. 1984. Accumulation and toxici-
phytoplankton. In: J. A. Saunders, ty of Cd, Zn, Ag, and Hg in four
L. Kosak-Channing, & E. E. Conn marine phytoplankters. Mar. Ecol.
(eds.), Recent advances in phytochem- Prog. Ser. 18: 201-213.
istry, vol. 21, Plenum Press, New
York, pp. 131-149. 19. Jenne, E.A., D.C. Girvin, J.W. Ball
and J.M. Burchard. 1978. Inorganic
9. Sanders, J.G., J.H. Ryther, and J.H. speciation of silver in natural
Batchelder. 1981. Effects of cop- waters--fresh to marine. In: D.A.
per, chlorine, and thermal addition Klein (ed.), Environmental Impacts of
on the species composition of marine Artificial Ice Nucleating Agents,
phytoplankton. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Strouds-
Ecol. 49: 81-102. burg, PA, pp. 41-61.

10. Sanders, J.G. and S.J. Cibik. 1985. 20. Engel, D.W., W.G. Sunda and B.A.
Adaptive behavior of eurybaline phy- Fowler. 1981. Factors affecting
toplankton communities to arsenic trace metal uptake and toxicity to
stress. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 22: estuarine organisms. I. Environmen-
199-205. tal parameters. In: W.B. Vernberg,
F.P. Thurberg, A. Calabrese and F.J.
11. D'Elia, C.F., J.G. Sanders and W.R. Vernberg (eds.), Biological Monitor-
Boynton. 1986. Nutrient enrichment ing of Marine Pollutants. Academic
studies in a coastal plain estuary: Press, NY, pp. 127-144.
phytoplankton growth in large-scale,
continuous cultures. Can. J. Fish. 21. Andreae, M.O. 1978. Distribution
Aquat. Sci. 43: 397-406. and speciation of arsenic in natural
waters and some marine algae. Deep-
12. Sanders, J.G., S.J. Cibik, C.F. Sea Res. 25: 391-402.
D'Elia, and W.R. Boynton. 1987.
Nutrient enrichment studies in a 22. Sanders, J.G. 1980. Arsenic cycling
coastal plain estuary: changes in in marine systems. Mar. Environ.
phytoplankton species composition. Res. 3: 257-266.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44: 83-90.
23. Sanders, J.G. 1985. Arsenic geo-
13. Sanders, J.G. and G.R. Abbe. 1987. chemistry in Chesapeake Bay: depen-
The role of suspended sediments and dence upon anthropogenic inputs and
phytoplankton in the partitioning and phytoplankton species composition.
transport of silver in estuaries. Mar. Chem. 17: 329-340.
Cont. Shelf Res. 7: 1357-1361.
24. Knowles, F.C. and A.A. Benson. 1983.
14. Boyle, E.A. and S. Huested. 1983. The biochemistry of arsenic. Trends
Aspects of the surface distributions Biochem. Sci. 8: 178-180.
of copper, nickel, and lead in the
North Atlantic and North Pacific. 25. Scudlark, J.R. and D.L. Johnson.
In: C.S. Wong, E. Boyle, K.W. Bru- 1982. Biological oxidation of ar-
land, J.D. Burton, and E.D. Goldberg senite in seawater. Est. Coast.
(eds.), Trace-Metals in Sea Water. Shelf Sci. 14: 693-706.
Plenum Press, NY, pp. 379-394.
26. Andreae, M.O. 1979. Arsenic specia-
15. Sanders, J.G. and H.L. Windom. 1980. tion in seawater and interstitial
The uptake and reduction of arsenic waters: the influence of biological-
species by marine algae. Est. Coast. chemical interactions on the chemis-
Mar. Sci. 10: 555-567. try of a trace element. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 24: 440-452.
16. Braman, R.S., D.L. Johnson, C.C.
Foreback, J.M. Ammons and J.L. Brick- 27. Pomeroy, L.R. 1974. The ocean's food
er. 1977. Separation and determina- web, a changing paradigm. Bioscience
tion of nanogram amounts of inorganic 24: 499-504.
arsenic and methylarsenic compounds.
Anal. Chem. 49: 621-625. 28. Ducklow, H., D.A. Purdie, P.J. Wil-
17. Sanders, J.G. and G.R. Abbe. 1988. liams and J.M. Davies. 1986. Bac-
Silver transport and impact in es- terioplankton: a sink for carbon in
tuarine and marine systems. In: G. a coastal marine plankton community.
Suter and M. Lewis (eds.), 11th Sym- Science 232: 865-867.
posium on-Aquatic Toxicology and
Hazard Assessment ASTM, Philadel-
phia, in press.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN INSOLATION AND NUTRIENT LOADING
-AND THE RESPONSE OF ESTUARINE PHYTOPLANKTON

Stephen J. Cibikl, James G. Sanders' and Christopher F. D'Elia'

IAcademy of Natural Sciences, Benedict Estuarine Research
Laboratory, Benedict, MD 20612; 2University of Maryland,
Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, MD 20688

The response of natural estuarine variations in nutrient loading and
phytoplankton communities to nutrient enrichment elemental standing stocks (and associated
was investigated using large-volume outdoor ratios) . In addition, a knowledge of the
continuous cultures. The five-year study in the nutrient requirements of dominant
Patuxent River, MD, revealed a strong enrichment phytoplankton and their potential
potential for nitrogen (N) during summer/fall, response to increased nutrient
often resulting in tenfold increases in biomass concentrations is essential. This
within 48 hr. Largely due to increased centric requirement is complicated by the
diatom growth rates, the resulting unstable complexity of estuarine systems, which
blooms rapidly declined, leading to successional contain a diverse group of phytoplankton
assemblages quite different in composition taxa ranging from freshwater to marine
relative to unenriched controls. Phosphorus forms, and are subject to seasonal
enrichment did not affect individual species variability and succession.
growth rates or produce changes in assemblage
composition, and produced only weak, delayed One technique employed to assess the
response during two winter experiments. response by phytoplankton to nutrient
Subsequent experiments to investigate the role of addition involves enrichment studies of
light intensity demonstrated a strong potential surface waters in outdoor continuous
for light limitation in the river during fall and cultures. These studies are based on the
winter, whether or not a nutrient response was premise that phytoplankton experiencing
present. some degree of nutrient limitation will
respond by increased growth when exposed
to additions of the limiting nutrient.
Replicate phytoplankton-cultures exposed
INTRODUCTION to the different elemental forms of N and
P can demonstrate which nutrient is
A major problem contributing to the limiting, as well as resolve the
decline in water quality in tributaries potential for preferential response to
of the Chesapeake Bay, one of the United nutrient form.
States' largest and most productive
estuaries, is increased nutrient loading. We utilized the above technique to
In addition to increasing non-point assess the "nutrient enrichment
sources, rapid urbanization of the Bay's potential" (operationally defined as
watershed results in increased sewage increase in biomass of nutrient-enriched
effluent, identifiable as a major source treatments over controls) of N and P on
of nutrients. When coupled with adequate natural assemblages of phytoplankton from
available light, the resultant increase the Chesapeake Bay, employing a system of
in phytoplankton productivity yields large-volume outdoor cultures.
biomass values which can be beyond the microcosms, in many different forms, have
assimilative capacity of the system. been employed in a number of studies (6,
This underutilized organic material is 7, 4, 5) to allow intensive investigation
eventually deposited to bottom sediments,. of natural systems in a controlled
where subsequent decomposition creates manner. The experimental system employed
oxygen stress in overlying waters. in this study was not, by definition, a
microcosm. Instead of attempting to
The principal nutrient elements replicate a specific ecosystem, we chose
requiring regulation in effluent are to simulate one portion of an aquatic
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). system. our objectives were to (a)
Attempts to control their inputs to determine experimentally the relationship
levels within the system's assimilative between nutrient inputs and algal
capacity require a knowledge of seasonal productivity, (b) identify by season

CH2585-8/8810000- 29 $1 @1988 IEEE

which element is most important in experimental variability. Controls
stimulating growth, (c) assess the effect consisted of assemblages diluted with
of nutrient loading on species filtered river water with no enrichment,
composition and community structure. We whereas enriched tanks were first spiked
conducted fifteen experiments over a four with the appropriate amount of nutrient
year period from 1983-1986. Three (P or N) to achieve desired experimental
subsequent experiments were carried out levels, then diluted with filtered river
in 1987 to assess the influence of light water plus nutrient stock to maintain
quality on the earlier findings. The additions at these levels. Enrichment
redundant nature of the study made it concentrations employed in the study were
possible to include both seasonal and additions of 10 AM P04 3, 50 AM NH4+, and
annual variability in parameters such as 50 AM No,-. These values were chosen to
phytoplankton composition, nutrient provide excess nutrient, at
chemistry, salinity, turbidity, and environmentally realistic concentrations.
insolation. The tanks were mixed by gentle aeration,
and maintained for a period of two weeks.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Delivery lines for filtered water,
nutrient stock, and air were of non-toxic
The study was conducted in the PVC tubing, which were replaced for each
salinity transition zone of the Patuxent experiment. Associated water delivery
River, a subestuary of the Chesapeake systems were entirely non-metallic.
Bay, at Benedict, Maryland. River flows Sampling was conducted daily at 1300
within the Patuxent exhibit considerable hours, and included surface samples for
seasonal variability. The annual in-vivo fluorescence (a real-time
salinity range of the study area is 10 indicator of biomass) (3, 2),
O/oo, from approximately 5 O/oo to 15 phytoplankton species composition,
O/oo, and water temperature ranges from 0 temperature, salinity, and ambient
to about 300 C. Nutrients also vary insolation. Samples for dissolved
seasonally, with nitrogen levels highest nutrient analysis were taken 2-3
in winter and spring, and lowest in times/week, filtered through Whatman GF/F
summer. Phosphorus concentrations show a glass fiber filters, and frozen until
distinct summer maximum. Consequently, analyzed by standard automated
DIN:DIP ratios vary widely, from low colorimetric procedures (11).
values (1:1) in late summer to very high Phytoplankton samples were analyzed using
values (100:1) in late winter/early the sedimentation technique described by
spring (2). Utermohl (12) and enumerated by inverted
We utilized an outdoor system of microscopy.
large-volume culture vessels. The
vessels were 0.5 M3 cylinders fabricated Experiments performed in 1987 to
from light-transmitting fiberglass and investigate the effect of different light
laminated into resin-sealed plywood regimes employed the use of fiberglass
bases. Twelve such tanks were submerged screening over the microcosms to
in a raceway through which river water manipulate insolation, and a slightly
was circulated to maintain culture altered design. Three experiments were
temperatures to within 1' C of ambient. run during the course of the year; in
Initially, tanks were filled with water July near the summer solstice (NH,+
pumped from the Patuxent River and enrichment only), in September during the
screened through 35 Am nylon mesh to fall equinox (NH4+ only), and again just
remove large herbivores. The tanks were prior to the winter solstice (P04' only).
then operated as continuous cultures Duplicate control and enriched tanks were
using 1 Am filtered river water as the subjected to three light levels. In the
diluent at a flow rate of 250 1,d-3, (50% highest light level the tanks were
turnover/day). This dilution rate was unscreened, as in earlier experiments;
employed as earlier studies (8, 2, 9) mid-light tanks were manipulated by
indicated that such a dilution rate would screening to approximate light
maintain algal densities comparable to penetration in the river throughout the
that of the nearby Patuxent River. experiment; the lowest light tanks were
Further details concerning the screened to achieve values approximately
experimental apparatus and design can be 30% of river levels, thus providing
found in the references cited above. levels approaching light limitation. All
other procedures were similar to that in
Tanks were designated for control and other studies.
enrichments, with each treatment usually
run in triplicate. The experiments
routinely achieved the close replication
within replicates necessary in these
studies to separate natural from

RESULTS 18-
A EM Response to N
Experiments conducted over the five- Response to P
year study period demonstrated definite 15-
seasonal patterns in the nutrient
enrichment potential of nitrogen and 12-
phosphorus in the salinity transition
zone of the Patuxent River. The river's
natural phytoplankton assemblages 9-
exhibited large, rapid increases in _j
productivity in response to N addition in 0
experiments conducted in the summer and 6-
early fall months, periods typified by
0
warm water temperatures and low river 0
flow. Nitrogen enrichment during other 0 3-
seasons yielded little or no response.
The potential for P limitation during Li 01 PAM PAM
winter months was demonstrated by a weak, > 1984 1985 1986 1987
delayed increase in biomass during'only F_
two experiments, one performed in WINTER EXPERIMENTS
November and one in February. Otherwise,
no response to P was observed. Results W
V)
of enrichment experiments during the Z 18-
study period are summarized in Fig. 1. 0
IL B
V)
Response to N enrichment was Ld 15-
immediate, frequently occurred within 24
hours, and typically resulted in biomass
levels an order of magnitude greater than 12-
associated controls or P-enriched tanks.
In every instance, the increase in 9-
productivity was caused by increased
growth rates of one or more centric
diatoms. The resulting unstable 6-
community of artificially high cell
densities persisted until limiting
conditions again developed (either due to 3-
depletion of available N or induced P
limitation). The treated assemblages ED D M
would then experience a precipitous 0
decline in numbers (i.e. a population 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
"crash"), often by the fourth day of the SUMMER EXPERIMENTS
experiment. The result would be an
underpopulated system with nutrient
levels being rapidly replenished, where Figure 1. Phytoplankton response
opportunistic species with different (average maximum biomass increase,
nutrient/ratio requirements were able to expressed as % of control (X10-2) to N
succeed and establish dominance. Control and P enrichment during summer and winter
assemblages underwent a more protracted experiments from 1983 to 1987.
competition for resources, with initial
dominants persisting well into the second
week of the experiment. The end result response reflects artificially-induced P
of the different successional patterns limitation caused by tank entrainment and
was radically different phytoplankton not an actual response to P limitation in
communities (Fig. 2). More detailed the Patuxent.
information can be found in D'Elia et al.
(2) and Sanders et al. (9). Influence of Light on Nutrient Enrichment

In contrast to the typical N response, A typical response to N enrichment
experiments demonstrating some response occurred, as in previous years, in July,
by the phytoplankton to P were 1987 (1), regardless of imposed light
characterized by a delayed increase in level. Again, N-enriched tanks attaine
biomass; for example, in the February biomass levels an order of magnitude
1984 study, a P effect was not seen until higher than controls, even in the lowest
day 12 of the study. In this instance, light treatment, despite a 60% reduction
biomass levels tripled those of controls in available light (relative to river
and N enrichments, weak in comparison to values). Maximum growth occurred in the
the 14-fold response to N in August of mid-light treatment, where light levels
that year. We believe that the delayed averaged 80% of river values; unscreened

150- influence was even more in evidence
A EM centrilc diatoms during the P experiment conducted in
= pennate diatoms December. Additions of P04-3 had no
120- EM cryptophytes effect on phytoplankton growth or species
SM cyanobacteric composition, but there was a pronounced
effect caused by a reduction in
90- other species insolation. This resulted in both
lowered biomass levels and a large shift
in community structure (Fig. 3).

60-
DISCUSSION

-6 30- Results from this study demonstrate
0 that increased N availability in the
C
0 mesohaline regions of the Patuxent River
0- (as well as in other tributaries of the
E 0 3 6 9 12 15 Chesapeake Bay and similar systems) can
profoundly stimulate phytoplankton growth
and biomass production. Through five
U) years of study, N loadings controlled
Z
Uj algal growth and species composition
150- during summer and fall experiments.
Phosphorus enrichment was a factor only
_j
Ld occasionally (if at all) during winter.
120- While regulation of P loading due to
sewage effluent may help limit
autochthonous organic production in the
90- freshwater reaches, the transport of
excessive N levels downriver into the
estuary can result in levels of organic
60- material beyond the assimilative capacity
of the system. The data further indicate
that a seasonal strategy of N control may
30- prove effective in many circumstances.

There are two aspects of the present
study that must be taken into
0-
0 6 9 12 15 consideration with respect to management
implications.

1. This study shows the response of
DAY OF EXPERIMENT an isolated component of the Patuxent
estuary ecosystem--the upper water
Figure 2. Composition of phytoplankton column, free of large grazers.
by taxonomic groups during an experiment Accordingly, if N added upriver is
performed in summer. A. Control and P- assimilated, denitrified or otherwise
enriched assemblages. B. N-enriched removed before it reaches downstream
assemblages. areas, it will not have an effect on
phytoplankton growth at times when
tanks r Iesponded in a manner similar to phytoplankton are susceptible to N
the lowest light tanks. enrichment.
In the fall experiment, N enrichment 2. By removing larger grazers (by
did not result in the large increase in screening with a 35-Am mesh) we are
biomass found in the July experiment. allowing the growth of phytoplankton in
During September 1987, unlike previous our cultures to be unchecked by large
years, ambient N03 concentrations in the herbivores. While this may be
Patuxent were unseasonally high, and were unrealistic under some conditions,
--utilized by control assemblages as an nuisance algal blooms form when
alternate N source. Demand for nutrients phytoplankton production and grazing are
was proportional to available light, uncoupled. Present evidence suggests I
regardless of N source. that zooplankton grazing does not control
phytoplankton production in the
While nutrient enrichment in the fall Chesapeake during much of the year (10).
experiment did not result in a large In any case, our assessment yields an
biomass increase typical of N additions, estimate of enrichment potential to
light levels did influence species nutrients, a critical consideration in
,composition and succession. This the management context.

3.2

8- reduce sediment loads to estuarine
,systems through improved land use
A practices may result in greater light
penetration and increased productivity
6- during fall and winter months,
necessitating further evaluation of
seasonal nutrient strategies.

4- The large-volume culture system
employed here is an excellent tool for
the investigation of complex ecological
questions. Such systems are well-suited
I_. 2- for studies at the community level on the
-9 effect and fate of a variety of
0
0 contaminants, and provide predictive data
r_ on the subtle effects of community
0 0 change. Increasingly, management
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 agencies are employing coupled numerical
E and hydrodynamic models to assess
?@ nutrient strategy and formulate policy.
V) The results of experiments such as those
z 8- described here can provide the realistic
LLJ
EM centric diatoms data base for such models, ultimately
B chlorophytes providing for better management of
estuaries and coastal oceans.
6- 00 cryptophytes
CM other species ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank W. Boynton, G. Mueller-
4- Parker, and F. Riedel for collaboration,
comment, and criticism, J. Bianchi and D.
Connell for technical assistance. This
research was funded by the Maryland
2- Department of the Environment, the
Maryland Sea Grant Program, Procter and
Gamble Company,_FMC Corporation, and the
Academy of Natural Sciences.
0 Z22
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 REFERENCES

1. Cibik, S.J., and J.G. Sanders.
DAY OF EXPERIMENT Unpublished data.
Figure 3. Composition of phytoplankton 2. D'Elia, C.F., J.G. Sanders and W.R.
by taxonomic groups during an experiment Boynton. 1986. Nutrient enrichment
@performed during winter and subjected to studies in a coastal plain estuary:
.modifications in insolation. A. phytoplankton growth in large-scale,
Unscreened control tanks. B. Screened continuous cultures. Can. J. Fish.
control tanks receiving 27-30% of total Aquat. Sci. 43: 397-406.
insolation. 3. Goldman, J.C. 1979. outdoor algal
In any case, our assessment yields an mass cultures - II. Photosynthetic
estimate of enrichment potential to yield limitations. Water Res. 13:119-
nutrients, a critical consideration in 136.
the management context.
4. Grice, G.D. and M.R. Reeve. 1982.
Another important factor demonstrated Marine Mesocosms. Springer-Verlag,
by this research is the strong control New York.
asserted by light availability on cell
growth during fall and winter in this 5. Nixon, S.W., M.E.Q. Pilson, C.A.
portion of the Patuxent River. The Oviatt, P. Donaghory, B. Sullivan, S.
indication is that light strongly limits Seitzinger, D. Rudnick and J.
productivity and influences species Frithsen. 1984. Eutrophication of a
composition. As insolation decreases in coastal marine ecosystem - an
the fall, light availability becomes more experiment study using the MERL
important and, along with N, may limit microcosms. In: M.J.R. Fasham (ed.),
phytoplankton productivity. During Flows of Energy and Materials in
winter, light appears to be the major Marine Ecosystems. Plenum Press, New
limiting factor. Therefore, efforts to York. pp. 105-135.

6. Oviatt, C.A., H. Walker, and M.E.Q.
Pilson. 1980. An exploratory
analysis of microcosm and ecosystem
behavior using multivariate
techniques. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
2:179-191.

7. Pilson, M.E.Q., C.A. Oviatt, and S.W.
Nixon. 1980. Annual nutrient cycles
in a marine microcosm. In: J.P.
Giesy (ed.), Microcosms in Ecological
Research. DOE Symposium Series, CONF
781101, NTIS. pp. 753-778.

8. Sanders, J.G. and S.J. Cibik. 1985.
Adaptive behavior of euryhaline
phytoplankton communities to arsenic
stress. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 22:
199-205.

9. Sanders, J.G., S.J. Cibik, C.F.
D'Elia, and W.R. Boynton. 1987.
Nutrient enrichment studies in a
coastal plain estuary: changes in
phytoplankton species composition.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44: 83-90.

10. Sellner, K.G., D.C. Brownlee, F.
Jacobs, W.R. Boynton, J.G. Garber and
W.M. Kemp. 1988. The fate of
phytoplankton production in
Chesapeake Bay. Unpublished MS.
prepared for the MD Department of the
Environment.

11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
1979. Methods for chemical analysis@
of water and waste. Publ. EPA-600/4-
79-020.

12. Utermohl. H. 1958. Zur
Vervollkommung der quantitativen
Phytoplankton Methodik. Mitt. Int.
Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. 9: 1-38.

SOUTH CAROLINA'S COASTAL WETLAND IMPOUNDMENT PROJECT (CWIP):
RELATIONSHIP OF LARGE-SCALE RESEARCH TO POLICY AND
MANAGEMENT

M. Richard DeVoel, Mark E. Tompkins2, and John Mark Dean3

1 S.C. Sea Grant Consortium, Charleston, South Carolina 29401
2 Government and International Studies, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208
3 Belle W. Baruch Institute, University of South Carolina, Columbia,
South Carolina 29208

ABSTRACT tidelands were granted by the King of
England (and later, the State) to individu-
Some 144,000 acres of South Carolina tide- als for rice culture. The conversion of
lands were impounded in the 1700's primar- tidal swamps to rice fields improved pro-
ily for rice cultivation. Today, more than ductivity, but required large initial
70,000 of the state's 504,000 acres of wet- investments (2) . The preparation of rice
lands remain impounded, managed for water- fields was difficult; swamps had to be
fowl and aquaculture. A controversy cleared' and a series of dikes, water con-
concerning the restoration and re-use of trol structures, water reservoirs, and
former rice fields emerged in the early interior beds had to be excavated and con-
1970's involving private impoundment owners structed. In a number of watersheds, the
and managers, regulators, scientists, and entire floodplain was modified; the fields
concerned citizens. A key ingredient miss- extended several miles in width and tens of
ing from the debate was an adequate base of miles along the river banks (3) . All of
information upon which arguments could. be this was accomplished by slave labor work-
tested. The Coastal Wetland Impoundment ing only with hand tools; it often took
Project (CWIP) was initiated to character- years to reclaim these areas.
ize wetland impoundment systems and compare
them ecologically to open, tidal wetlands. After the Civil War, South Carolina experi-
Field studies were undertaken on a series enced a major shift away from rice culture
of five small, brackish-water impoundments, (4). The loss of slave labor, several crop
located adjacent to open tidal wetlands. failures. coastal storms, and competition
Although results characterized the ecology from other industries and states led to the
of these systems, application of field data industry's ultimate demise by 1930.
to the resolution of policy and management However, the impoundment resource was not
questions has come more slowly. totally abandoned. Many of the rice field
plantations were sold to wealthy northern-
ers, who managed the impoundments for
INTRODUCTION waterfowl hunting and other pastimes. Still
others were purchased by timber companies
Coastal wetland impoundments are a distinct for their extensive forest resource (4).
feature of coastal South Carolina. Some
70,000 acres of impoundments are located Today, more than 75 percent of, intact
along the tidal reaches of the state's five impoundments are managed to attract water-
major drainage (river) basins: the Black- fowl for conservation and hunting purposes.
Waccamaw-PeeDee, North and South Santee, Others are used for aquaculture; signifi-
Wando-Cooper-Ashley, Ashepoo-Edisto-Comba- cant acreage has been converted to crawfish
hee, and Broad. Vestiges of old impound- culture. The ability to manipulate these
ments can be seen on more than 74,000 acres systems to meet specific management goals
which now have direct hydrological flow has increased their value, and resulted in
with adjacent wetlands and tidal waters. a serious ecological debate.

Interest. in the inherent productivity of DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION OF
these systems has waxed and waned during IMPOUNDMENTS
the past 300 years. Over the last three
decades, intense debate has occurred Coastal wetland impoundments are basically
regarding the disposition of thousands of managed to control the flow of tidal waters
acres of impounded and formerly impounded in and out of the system and the level of
tidelands. Many of the arguments are based water inside. Their success can be attrib-
on history and tradition. uted to a tidal range of 1.0 to 2.5 meters
found along the South Carolina coast. The
Coastal wetland impoundments can be traced manager's ability to control water movement
back to the early 1700's, when rice emerged depends on this and on the structural
as a profitable crop (1) . Huge plots of integrity of the impoundment.

CH2585-8/88/0000. 35 $1 @1988 IEEE

Impoundments consist of a series of earthen THE IMPOUNDMENT ISSUE
dikes equipped with several water control
structures. Wetlands and swamps were Over the last 30 years. owners and managers
impounded by the construction of dikes of impoundments have desired more acreage
built with hand labor, dragline dredges or for waterfowl hunting and conservation. The
hydraulic trackhoes (5). Dike material was conversion of formerly impounded wetlands
taken from a borrow pit located on the into aquaculture systems also seemed
inside perimeter of the impoundment (6). attractive. Recently, more than 25 applica-
tions were made to state and federal regu-
Modern dikes vary in dimension, depending latory agencies for re-impoundment and
on whether they will accomodate vehicular restoration activities. These applications
traffic. Those that allow it will have a triggered the controversy in which impound-
top width of 12 feet and a base width of 25 ment owners and managers, regulators, sci-
to 30 feet (5). A critical dimension is the entists, and interested citizens all
height of the earthen structures. Dikes are participated.
constructed at least 3 feet above mean high
water, enough to withstand all flooding DeVoe and Baughman (7) discuss the argu-
except from storm surges. ments made for and against these proposed
activities: many dealt with impacts on the
Water control structures, called "trunks," natural system. Opponents argued that
remain typical of those used during the impoundments reduce tidal exchange, limit
rice culture era: interestingly, the struc- access to nursery grounds by larval and
ture of these mechanical devices has not juvenile fish and shrimp, reduce overall
varied much in over 300 years. Although marsh productivity, diminish water quality,
they can be constructed from concrete, and concentrate and store nutrients. Also,
metal or wood, those built with pressure- they contended that permits to impound for-
treated wood appear to be the most durable merly impounded wetlands would affect navi-
in brackish and salt-water environments. gation, limit public access, and set
Trunks are designed with flap gates at both dangerous precedents. Proponents felt
ends, which can be raised to take in water impoundments to be very productive systems,
or lowered to release water at scheduled catering to, large populations of water-
intervals according to the tides. When man- birds, reptiles, and mammals (some threa-
agers need water, the flapgate outside the tened and endangered). They also argued
impoundment is raised and during high tide that tidelands may be conveyed through his-
the force of the water pushes open the torical land grants, and that inasmuch as
inside gate. As low tide approaches, the public entities are allowed to re-impound
pressure of the water inside the impound- areas, equity should permit private owners
ment causes the inside gate to close shut the same opportunity.
and water is retained. When drainage is
desired, the manager raises the outside As the debate sharpened, it became clear
gate and at low tide waters are released that there was a lack of sufficient data
(6). and information on impoundment ecology,
impoundment management techniques, and pol-
Today,most water control structures con- icies of the state and federal government,
tain a flashboard riser system used to con-
trol water levels inside the impoundment: THE COASTAL WETLAND IMPOUNDMENT
The riser consists of a rectangular trough, PROJECT (CWIP)
about five ft high, five ft wide and one ft
deep, built perpendicular to the inside lip This.apparent lack of information was the
of the trunk. The side of the trough facing impetus for the Coastal Wetland Impoundment
the pond is made of removable boards, Project, a multi -institutional, trans-
called flash-board risers, placed horizon- disciplinary study to characterize wetland
tally in grooves that run the height of the impoundment systems in South Carolina and
'riser'. With the inner gate shut, the compare results with those collected from
water level of the impoundment is regulated simultaneous studies of a nearby open marsh
by adding or removing boards (6). and tidal creek system (8) . The overall
goal of the CWIP was to obtain data useful
Water flow and levels are manipulated in for issue resolution and make it available
impoundments according to specified manage- to decision-makers, impoundment managers,
ment goals. Management schemes vary with and the informed public (9).
species of vegetation desired, salinity of
the waters, and soil characteristics. The Undertaken from 1981-1986, CWIP represents
management strategy employed at an impound- an initial stage of ecological and policy
ment site not only serves the manager's research on impoundment systems in South
goals, but also dictates how the system Carolina. Establishing the structure and
functions ecologically. These differences objectives of the study involved interac-
have shaped the controversies arising over tion with physical, biological, and social
impoundment restoration and use. scientists, landowners, public and private
managers, public interest groups, and oth-

ers. The thrust of the CWIP was also dic- impoundments were reflooded and the risers
tated by the characteristics of the study set to maintain from 10 to 20 cm of water
site . over the beds. From spring to early fall,
water levels were increased in 10 cm. incre-
CWIP Study Site ments to allow for Rup-pia growth. Water
levels were lowered throughout the fall to
The study site area is located on the Tom expose the widgeon grass to waterfowl. The
Yawkey Wildlife Center, Georgetown, South cycle is repeated annually.
Carolina. The adve@nt of the rice culture
industry in the early 1700's saw the area CWIP Study Objectives
converted from a pristine cypress swamp to
impounded rice fields. During the construc- The CWIP was structured into twelve tasks
tion of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway to address the following objectives:
(ca 1900)-, the area was used by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers as a spoil deposit (1) Determine stratigraphy, characterize
(10). In 1945, the area was converted from hydrology, and identify and compare the
a fresh to brackish environment with the major flora and faunal components of the
completion of the Santee-Cooper River study impoundments;
Diversion Project. In 1967, six impound-
ments were reconstructed from previously (2) Characterize the nutrient dynamics
impounded marsh by the S.C. Wildlife and and determine primary productivity of the
Marine Resources Department to examine the study impoundments and the adjacent open
effects of different water management prac- wetlands:
tices on vegetative succession (11). These
impoundments have been managed by the state (3) Determine and compare the recruit-
to attract waterfowl since 1970 (10). ment, growth rates, and standing crop bio-
mass of commercially and ecologically
The study site consists of five contiguous important species in impoundments with the
impoundments, 3.5 to 7.8 ha in size (Ponds adjacent system;
1-5); a 7.9 ha contiguous unmanaged tidal
impoundment (Pond 6); a 13.8 ha managed (4) Determine the flow of nutrients and
impoundment (Cooperfield); and open marsh biomass between the study impoundments and
located east of the impoundments. Imme- the tidal creek and wetlands; and
diately adjacent to the impoundment complex
dike is Chainey Creek, the major water (5) Determine the public policy issues
source for the impoundments (see Fig. 1). affecting impoundments: ownership, current
and proposed uses, management techniques,
CWIP Study Design and federal and state policies.

The initial design for the CWIP was to use Field studies were undertaken for a two-
the five contiguous impoundments as year period, beginning in Spring, 1983.
"replicate" systems, with two of the ponds
managed as controls 'and each of the others CWIP Study Results
under different water management regimes.
The intent was to not only characterize a The study area was found to be a very pro-
"typical" managed impoundment, but also to ductive and well-integrated system. Based
identify variations in systems managed upon the data collected, the impoundments
under alternative strategies. The study and tidal wetlands were different with
design was to take advantage of these natu- respect to the overall community structure
ral aquaria, as recently discussed (12). of many of their biological components,
but, not surprisingly, the basic ecological
However, preliminary field investigations processes occurring in each were similar.
demonstrated that the five systems could The critical variables that controlled
not be treated as replicates; natural (tem- observed differences between the two sys-
poral and spatial) and artificial (arti- tems were, in fact, a function of "transfer
facts in water management) variations effects."; due primarily to tidal
masked observed differences among manage- influences, water level patterns and the
ment schemes. And because of the pressure degree of water exchange between the sys-
to develop an information base quickly, tems (13).
time was not available to first document
these variations. The immediate resolution of the controver-
sies surrounding impoundments in South
Therefore, each study impoundment was Carolina did not turn on the immediate
manipulated under a typical waterfowl man- scientific questions, however.
agement scheme. Ponds were dewatered in the
spring to expose the impoundment beds and EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON THE IMPOUNDMENT
to encourage the germination of Rup"pia, CONTROVERSY
widgeon grass. After a quick flood and
drawdown to remove mosquito larvae, the The controversies over South Carolina's

impoundments proceeded in many arenas. The rice fields. The strong emergence of the
CWIP brought together a diverse community U.S. EPA in the impoundment issue was also
of scientists, whose efforts were focused felt, specifically regarding water quality
by a common study site and an integrative and wetlands impacts. The court decision
study agenda. The disputes over specific and continuing skepticism of regulatory
impoundments continued to unfold elsewhere. agencies sent a strong signal: applicants
would face a difficult regulatory process
Some private landowners pursued specific if they sought to re-impound rice field
claims to title and the right to manage sites. Not surprisingly, permit applica-
their sites as they wished. These contro- tions for major impoundment restoration
versies were pursued through the regulatory projects have subsided: from 1980 to 1983,
arena and involved-public agencies such as seven restoration projects were proposed to
the S.C. Coastal Council, the S.C. Attorney the S. C. Coastal Council, but from 1984 to
General, and the S.C. Department of Health the present only two were proposed. The
and Environmental Control, as well as pub- S.C. Coastal Council also received thirteen
lic interest groups such as the League of requests for permits to repair existing
Women Voters and the Sierra Club, who sites in the 1980 to 1983 period, but only
opposed the claimants. The controversies seven from 1984 to 1988. However, interest
were further complicated when the U.S. in sites further inland has increased, with
Environmental Protection Agency formally the S.C. Water Resources Commission, which
intervened in 1981 to raise additional eco- has permit authority outside S.C. Coastal
logical concerns. Council jurisdiction, receiving only nine
requests from 1980 to 1983, but seventeen
The considerable complexity of these pro- from 1984 to the present.
ceedings created a situation in which only
the most aggressive and well-funded propo- Whatever interest remains in changing state
nents of rice field restoration could pur- policy to encourage the restoration of old
sue their claim. Thus, public controversy rice fields has been overshadowed by other
focused on a few cases, One applicant events, In 1986, the state formed a Blue
reports that he spent over $200,000 in Ribbon Committee to examine the controver-
legal fees during the fifteen years that sial questions posed by beachfront develop-
his case lasted. ment. This effort resulted in 1988
legislation which established beachfront
The CWIP team maintained on-going communi- setback lines for construction and recon-
cation with these claimants. The CWIP struction along the coast. As reflected in
included a survey of all identifiable the policy making process more generally,
impoundment owners and claimants. Prior to state natural resources policy is made by
the beginning of intensive field studies, policy-makers whose time and attention is
the S.C. Sea Grant Consortium convened a limited (15). Since the beachfront manage-
day-long briefing for the CWIP scientific ment controversy involved many of the same
team, conducted by four of the most promi- legislative and regulatory policy-makers,
nent impoundment managers in the state. impoundment issues have been bumped off the
immediate agenda for public discussion.
As a result, diverse, sometimes incommensu-
rate perspectives on the impoundment IMPACT OF THE CWIP
resource were brought into continuing dis-
cussion's. Indeed, many environmental con- The CWIP has had only a modest impact. to
troversies manifest themselves in this way date. The impoundment debate was both
and create "failures of discourse" (15) . defused by the S.C. Supreme Court decisio-
With the impoundment controversy, these nand displaced by other controversies:
boundaries involved the divisions between actions that have constrained those who
those interested in aquatic species using would otherwise seek to reimpound old rice
coastal wetlands as nurseries and others fields. While CWIP results had little
interested in reptiles, birds, and mammals direct impact on these particular events,
using the impoundment sites for shelter and they have had other important consequences
feeding. The issues also involved fundamen- and have become an important base of infor-
tal conflicts over whether these wetland mation to be drawn on in the future.
sites represent common pool resources with
open access or private lands and therefore Sea Grant played an important role by
appropriable resources. focusing the effort on a common site (where
management schemes were consensually
Ultimately, the policy debate was halted by defined), providing a common focus, commit-
external events. In 1986, the S.C. Supreme ting it to a multi-year analysis strategy,
Court took up a critical impoundment case. and bringing members of the team together
In response to an appeal from the League of periodically to refine task directions.
Women Voters and the state's Attorney After the field work was done, study
General, the Court reversed a decision of results were assembled and integrated, and
the S.C. Coastal Council to permit the re- research team members presented their find-
impoundment of more than 660 acres of old ings at meetings such as the 1985 and 1987

Estuarine Research Federation Conferences. entists and their staffs, private owners
This process has produced improved communi- and managers, agency staff, and public
cation and understanding among members of interests. We thank Margaret A. Davidson
the research team. CWIP scientists now pro- and Mel Goodwin of the S.C. Sea Grant
vide the state with a diverse resource of Consortium for their assistance with the
experienced and knowledgable impoundment manuscript. Our appreciation also to
investigators. The research was relevant to Annette Wilson for word processing the
impoundment research in other settings as paper.
well; the states of Louisiana, Florida,
Georgia and Delaware have specifically Support for the CWIP was provided by the
invited CWIP investigators to participate National Sea Grant College Program, NOAA,
in conferences and meetings and have U.S. Department of Commerce, the S.C. Sea
requested copies of the CWIP report. Grant Consortium, and the State of South
Carolina.
The CWIP highlighted the complex issues
that the impoundment resource posed. It REFERENCES
became clear, as scientific studies were
defined, that multiple, but only partially (1) Ackerman, R. K. 1977. South Carolina
@incommensurate values were at stake. Better Colonial Land Policies. Univ. of S.C.
management of existing sites clearly had Press, Columbia.
the potential to improve productivity and
limit the impact of favored waterfowl man- (2) Heyward, D. C. 1937. Seed from Mada-
agement regimes on other valued aspects of gascar. The Univ. of. N.C. Press,
wetland ecology. As a result, participants Chapel Hill.
and observers realized that no simple, uni-
versally-compelling resolution of conflicts (3) Hilliard, S. B. 1975. The tidewater
between competing claimants could be rice plantation: an ingenious adapta-
reached, while no case for an under- tion to nature. Geoscience and Man,
investment in impounded sites could be XII: 57-66.
made. This emerging understanding attenu-
ated the force of arguments for immediate (4) Tompkins, M. T. 1986. Historical review
action on impoundment issues. of South Carolina's Impoundments. pp.
3-11 In: DeVoe, M. R. and D. S.
Recent discussions with state policy-makers Baughman, Eds. 1986. South Carolina
indicate that this controversy is now on Coastal Wetland Impoundments:
the "back burner." However, they all agree Ecological Characterization, Manage-
that the impoundment issue still has the ment, Status, and Use. Vol. II:
potential to re-emerge at any time in the Technical Synthesis. Pub. No. SC-SG-
future. But, few of them reported having TR-86-2. S.C. Sea Grant Consortium,
even read the overall study: most decision- Charleston.
makers have limited time and cannot be
expected to attend to detailed information (5) Williams, R. K. 1987. Dikes and water
unless it becomes relevant to them (16) . control structures: repairs, mainte-
More likely, when such controversies nance, and potential for mai@agement.
emerge, they will rely on key staff mem- In: Coastal Wetland Impoundments:
bers, bureaucrats, and lobbyists to synthe- Management Implications. Proc. of a
size and summarize materials for them. Workshop, Pinopolis, South Carolina,
March 1987. pg. 20-32.
When we turn to legislative and regulatory
staff, whose importance in the policy- (6) Morgan, P. H., A. S. Johnson, W. P.
making process is often underestimated, a Baldwin, and J. L. Landers. 1975.
different picture emerges. We interviewed Characteristics and management of tidal
staff people in nine regulatory and public impoundments for wildlife in a South
interest agencies and found that most are Carolina estuary. Proc. 29th Ann.
familiar with the overall project and had, Conf. S.E. Assoc. of Game and Fish
in fact, read the CWIP report. While they, Commissioners, St. Louis, Missouri,
too, view the controversy as one which does Oct. 12-15, 1975. pg. 536-539.
not currently demand attention, they also
regard it as one which may re-emerge in the (7) DeVoe, M. R. and D. S. Baughman. In
future. When it does, they expect CWIP Press. Research and policy issues
results to play an important role in fram- regarding coastal wetland impoundments:
ing the issues and informing them about the lessons learned in South Carolina.
questions which must be addressed. Proc. Marsh Management in Coastal
Louisiana: Effects and Issues, Baton
Rouge, Louisianaf June 7-9, 1988.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (8) DeVoe, M. R., D. S. Baughman and J. M.
Dean. 1987. South Carolina's coastal
The authors would like to acknowledge the wetland impoundments: a summary of
contributions of all to the CWIP: the sci- research and policy issues. Proc.

Symposium on Waterfowl and Wetlands in
the Coastal Zone of the Atlantic
61@ X ;-02'@@
Flyway. Wilmington, Delaware, Septem-
ber 16-19, 1986. pg. 487-498.

(9) DeVoe, M. R. and D. S. Baughman. 1986.
Coastal Wetland Impoundment Project:
Cooperfield
X"
problem identification and project
description. pg. 13-27. In: supra note
(4).

(10) Epstein, M. B. and D. S. Baughman. ai mars
1986. Study site description. In:
supra note (4)

(11) Wilkinson, P. M. 1970. Vegetative suc-
cession in newly controlled marshes.
Job Completion Report for period April k
1, 1967 to June 30, 1970. S.C.
Wildlife and Marine Resources
Department. 37 pp.

(12) Odum, E. P. 1984. The mesocosm. Bio-
- _Sr
science 34 (9) : 558- 5 6 2

(13) DeVoe, M. R. and D. S. Baughman, Eds.
1986. South Carolina Coastal Wetland e-
Impoundments: Ecological Character
ization, Management, Status, and Use.
Vol. II: Technical Synthesis. Pub.
No. SC-SG-TR-86-2. S.C. Sea Grant
Consortium, Charleston. South
Carolina @7
.@7
.@7

(14) Socolow, R. H. 1976. Failures of dis-
course. In: Feiveson, H. A., F. W. STUDY
Sinden and R. H. Socolow (eds.) AREA 51::
Boundaries of Analysis: An Inquiry
Into the Tocks Island Dam Controversy. MARSH UPLAND.
Ballinger Publishing Co., Cambridge,
MA, Ch. 1.

(15) March, J. G. and J. P. Olsen. 1976. Figure 1: CWIP Study Site
Attention and the ambiguity of self-
interest. In: March, J. G. and J. P.
Olsen, (eds.) Ambiguity and Choice
in organizations, Bergen, Universi-
tetsforlaget. Ch. 3.

(16) Kingdon, J. W. 1984. Agendas, Alterna-
tives, and Public Policies. Little,
Brown and Company, Boston.

EXPERIMENTAL MARSH MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN LOUISIANA

R. Eugene Turner

Coastal Ecology Institute
Center for Wetland Resources
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

ABSTRACT consideration in evaluating the cause and
effect relationships in wetlands is that
Replicated experimental marsh ecosystems the hydrologic changes in one part of the
are established and planned for research watershed may alter sediments and water
and management of coastal Louisiana regimes as far as 1 km from the initial
wetlands to (1) test management schemes activity2,13,15. This is not a trivial
before large scale implementation, and, consideration if one is familiar with
(2) discriminate between long-term dredge and fill permitting decisions
changes and the cumulative impacts of which typically to not consider off-site
many other alterations. Water level or cumulative impacts5,6,11,14.
changes are clearly shown to influence
plant metabolism, hence ability to of the Field mesocosms of wetland ecosystems are
marsh to withstand sea level rise and - one approach used to overcome some of the
geological subsidence. Animal migration/ obstacles to learning about wetland
emigration is influenced as well as management and impacts. This paper
sedimentation rates. Soil conditions, includes a description of some mesocosms
especially bulk density and mineral used in coastal Louisiana to learn about
content, influence hydrologic impacts, (1) why coastal wetland losses and
hence the need for replicated and diverse changes are both large (0.8% annually
manipulations. from 1955 to 197815fl8) and extensive
(these wetlands include about 40% of the
nation's coastal wetlandsl2,15, and, (2)
1. INTRODUCTION wetland development and management
options. Three very different
Man's management and impacts on coastal experimental field designs will be
wetland ecosystems is very often a result presented ranging in size from field
of how the hydrologic regime is modified. manipulations of 5 ha impoundments, to 25
Changes in sediments, plants and soil m2 test areas, to field trials in
chemistry are known to be caused by outdoor tanks. These mesocosms include'
hydrologic changes4,7f9,16,20, but the large replicates of whole (or nearly
direct and long-term consequences of whole) ecosystems are are followed for
hydrologic modification in wetlands are long periods of time. We have excluded
not well-known. These circumstances the excellent experi-mental results of
arise, in part, because the relationships Mendelssohn and McKeelO because they were
between parts of the ecosystem and relatively brief and small (marsh cores
hydrology are better known than the less than 20 cm). The studies described
reactions of the whole ecosystem. This here are in salt or brackish marshes,
situation is not altogether very primarily because the vast majority of
different from the situation that coastal wetlands in Louisiana are
environmental toxicologists may find composed of this vegetation type and
themselves in: the results of detailed eroding at very high rates.
and short-term (up to 30 days) laboratory
experiments of individual species may be
precise and predictable, but these same 2. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL
results may not be useful to Predict the EXPERIMENTAL WETLAND MESOCOSMS IN
LOUISIANA
consequences of the same stress when
applied in the field on whole ecosystems It is the purpose of a research program
and followed for years. An additional at the Center for Wetland Resources, I
Louisiana State University, to establish

CH2585-8/8810000- 41 $1 @1988 IEEE

a large-scale experimental study of Plant production seems to be indirectly
wetland hydrology to be followed over 10- related to soil flooding and we are now
20 years in direct cooperation with beginning to quantify the relationships
landownersl7. The planned new study in a meaningful way for field managers.
sites would be composed of at least Plant production is usually higher when
fifteen, 2 ha (5 ac) impoundments fitted flooding is reduced and lower when
with adjustable water control devices. flooding is increased for Spartina
Variability in waterflow, soil, plants, alterniflora, S. patens and Distichlis
and animals will be determined. The only spicata (Figures 1 and 2), but the effect
comparable large-scale wetland may vary, depending on the species and
manipulations we know of are at the Delta salinity. Plants contribute to marsh
Waterfowl and Wetland Research Station, stability through sediment trapping,
Delta, Manitoba-, erosion resistance, and organic
contributions to soils. These wetland
Other studies (in triplicate) are soils must accumulate enough material
currently underway (3 m circumference) at vertically to compensate for the rise in
5 sites in salt and brackish marshes. water level because of rising sea level,
These manipulations are meant to sediment compaction and a geosynclinal
replicate, at a smaller scale, the tilt in the basement material. Sediment
anticipated changes from the larger deposition behind hydrologic restrictions
impoundments, described above. One (e.g. spoil banks) may decrease leading
explicit intent of these smaller studies to a synchronous and synergistic
was to see if the marsh could be made to interactions between waterlogging
become open water through, it seemed, stresses and sediment deprivation. The
rather small hydrologic blockages in cumulative result may be a relative
either belowground or aboveground flow. increase in water level leading to lower
In essence, various plastic sheets were plant production and further stress.
inserted around intact marshes between
+30 and -60 cm from the marsh surface. If
we really knew why the marsh became open
water, we reasoned, then we could 100
intentionally create that result, observe olmpounded
the processes and more intelligently Percent eControl
determine solutions for stressed, but Maximum
still intact wetlands. C02 50
Smaller studies were completed by Uptake OcODD
Babcockl. Babcock transplanted 35 cm 0
Rate,
marsh cores to field tanks and followed A
plant growth for one year and the
influence of waterlogging, drainage,
burning and salinity. 0 0 90 180
Light (PAR)
Scale considerations become important if
one is interested in the role of large Figure 1. An example of the relative
organisms. The nutria (Myocastor coypus) photosynthesis rate for Spartina
and muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) are alterniflora (April, 1987) in control and
large herbivorous marsh mammals common in artificially-impounded wetlands
south Louisiana and hunted for their fur. (triplicate treatments).
Fuller et al.8 put fencing around a
developing delta island Saggitaria sp.
marshes in the Atchafalaya river delta. The study of large exclosures on newly
The intent was to study what would happen deposited delta lands8 showed a
if these large herbivores were excluded significantly higher plant biomass inside
from the marsh. compared to outside and there were
indications that plant species
3. RESULTS composition was affect by herbivory.
These results would not have been
The experience with these three types of determined with smaller scale studies.
mesocosms has been beneficial for the new
knowledge about (1) how the plants Attempts to build the large impoundments
respond to hydrologic changes, (2) the are being stymied by three factors, none
role of large herbivores in structuring of which are insurmountable. First, the
vegetation, and, (3) the difficulties in state permitting authority has not issued
organizing large experiments. These the necessary permits, in spite of their
results, and others not mentioned, would legal requirement to strongly and quickly
have been unlikely if smaller scale favor such scientific work. Second, the
experiments were substituted. landowner, a large oil and gas

4. DISCUSSION

The use of mesocosms provides a
Drained substantial field test of both real-life
alternatives field managers face daily
Level P=Peatg soil and of hypotheses that scientists bring
Flooded M=Mineral soil to bear on real world problems,
regardless of whether or not they are
immediately applicable to management. Our
knowledge of natural resources must be
200 - p M P M P M scaled to that of our interests, which
are for the long-term. In these case of
160- Distichlis these three examples, the results have
spicate not yet provided explicitly clear
Stems 120 - alternatives for management, but several
per conclusions are now obvious. First,
though seemingly trivial, the old (for
Pot 80 - Louisiana, at least) piecemeal approach
to manage for fish, fur, or fowl
40 interests, must be acknowledged to
influence other management interests. For
0 example, hunting groups might wish to
Salt Brackish Fresh attract waterfowl to open water (and
create open water from vegetated
marshes), but the water control
200 - P M P M P M structures used also inhibit fish and
Spartina invertebrate migration into and out of
the marsh and, in the long-term,.may
Stems 160- patens cause indirect losses of wetlands; Fur
harvest may be enhanced by burning or
per 120 - flooding to control vegetation quality,
Pot but waterfowl harvests be reduced. Water
80 - management, in other words, is total
ecosystem management, not species
40 - management, and these conflicting issues
must be addressed when public resources
are affected.
0 Salt Brackish Fresh Second, demonstration plots are useful to
(1) illustrate just how long it takes for
Figure 2. Stem density of Spartina changes to occur, (2) learn how different
patens and Distichlis spicata growth for soils affect the results, and, (3) let
one year at three water depths (+4, 0 and the non-specialist see, for themselves,
-4 cm below the marsh and at three the consequences of small managementa
salinities in the fieldl. changes. Changes did not occur as always
expected and the scientists'
understanding of how fragile some marshes
were was challenged.
development company, is undergoing
divestiture thereby complicating the Third, the larger the mesocosms, the more
commitment of funds and acquisition of diligence, perseverance and support is
legal rights necessary to complete the needed to sustain the research team
project. Third, the funding necessary (which is necessarily interdisciplinary),
for the dredge and fill operation has the financing, and the administrative
been difficult to obtain from the infrastructure. Mesocosms are as rare as
company, as initially expected. The the financing is rare.
company's profits plummeted with a fall
in oil prices the last few years and the There is growing awareness of the value
company found it difficult to fund a of long-term study sites in environmental
large project in the midst of a staff work3119. However, the design, funding
reduction program. A foundation proposal and study of long-term study sites offers
was rated very high in a national review, several special problems to the
but not funded when reviewed by within- researcher: having dedicated leadership
state representatives of a federal (including lead and core scientists), and
agency. State funds are unavailable due a unique site offering special
to the extremely dismal state financial advantages, and diverse approaches.
situation. Although the combination of growing
interest in addressing wetland losses in
Louisiana and the proven interest of the
university research community will

probably overcome these barriers. But, 10. Mendelssohn, I. A. and K. L. McKee.
the cooperation of the state and federal Spartina alterniflora die-back in
agencies is also required. The shortest Louisiana: time-course investigations of
path to a solution is understanding and soil waterlogging effects. J. Ecology
that requires a suite of technical 1988. Vol. 76:509-521.
approaches, of which mesocosms are a
uniquely useful addition. 11. Swenson, E. M. and R. E. Turner.
Spoil banks: Effects on a coastal marsh
S. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS water level regime. Estuarine and
Continental Shelf Science. 1987. Vol.
The new research described in this paper 24:599-609.
and the preparation of this manuscript
results from the support of the Louisiana 12. Turner, R. E. and J. G. Gosselink. A
Sea Grant Program and those landowners note on standing crops of Sipartina
allowing access to field sites. alterniflora in Texas and Florida. 1975.
Contr. Mar. Sci. 1975. Vol. 19:113-118.,

6. REFERENCES CITED
13. Turner, R. E. and Y. S. Rao. New
1. Babcock, K. M. The influence of water holes in an old marsh. Manuscript
depth and salinity on wiregrass and submitted to Estuaries. 1988.
saltmarsh grass. Unpubl. Ph.D. diss.
School Forestry and Wildlife Management, 14. Turner, R. E., D. R. Cahoon and J. H.
Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 1967. Cowan, Jr. Marsh management needs and
109 pp. myths in Louisiana. Proc. National
wetlands Symposium: Mitigation of Impacts
2. Cahoon, D. R. and R. E. Turner. and Losses. Assoc. State Wetland
Accretion and canal impacts in a rapidly Managers, Inc., New Orleans, Oct. 1986.
subsiding wetland. II. Feldspar marker 1988. Pp. 420-423.
horizon technique. Ms.submitted to
Estuaries. 15. Turner, R. E. and D. R. Cahoon
(editors). Causes of Wetland Loss in the
3. Callahan, J. T. Long-term ecological Coastal Central gulf of Mexico. Vol i:
research. BioScience. 1984. Vol.34:849- Executive Summary; Vol. 2: Technical
872. Narrative. Vol 3: Appendices. Final
report submitted to Minerals management,
4. Chalmers, A. G. Experimental Service, New Orleans, LA. Contract No.
manipulations of draingage in a Georgia 14-12-001-30252. OCS Study/MMS 87-0119.
saltmarsh: Lessons learned. Oceans 188. 1987. 536 pp.
1988. this volume.
16. Turner, R. E., J. W. Day, jr. and J.
5. Cowan, J. H., Jr., R. E. Turner and D. G. Gosselink. Weirs and their effects in
R. Cahoon. Marsh management plans in coastal wetlands (exclusive of
practice: do they work in coastal fisheries). Proc. Louisiana Geological
Louisiana? Environmental Management. Survey/US Fish Wildlife Serv. Marsh
1988. Vol. 12:37-53. Management Symposium Biological Report
Series: 1988. (in press).
6. Craig, N. J., R. E. Turner, and J. W.
Day, Jr. Wetland losses and their 17. Turner, R. E., J. H. Cowan, Jr., I.
consequences in coastal Louisiana-.-\ Z. A; Mendelssohn, G. W. Peterson, R. F.
Geomorphol. N. F. 1979. Vol. 34:225-241. Shaw, C. Swarzenski and E. M. Swenson.
Experimental marsh management
7. Devoe, M. R., D. S. Baughman, J. M. impoundments. Proc. Louisiana Geological
Dean and M. Tompkins. Relationship of Su'rvey/US Fish Wildlife Serv. Marsh
large-scale research to policy and Management Symposium Biological Report
management. Oceans 188. 1988. this Series: 1988. (in press).
volume.
18. Turner, R. E. Landscape development
8. Fuller, D.f C. E. Sasser, W. B. and coastal wetland losses in the
Johnson and J. G. Gosselink. The effects northern Gulf of.Mexico. Am. Zool. 1988.
of herbivory on vegetation on islands in (in press).
Atchafalaya Bayf Louisiana. Wetlands
1985. Vol. 4:105-114. 19. van der Valk, A. G. The marsh ecology
research program: The logistics of
9. King, G. M., M. J. Klug, R. G. Wiegert organizing, funding, and staffing a long-
and A. G. Chalmers. Relation of soil term, ecosystem level study. Oceans 188.
water movement and sulfide concentration 1988. this volume.
to ST)artina alterniflora production in a
Georgia salt marsh. Science. 1982. Vol.
218:61-6@3.

20. Wiegert, R. G., A. G. Chalmers and P.
F. Randerson. Productivity gradients in
salt marshes: the response of Spartina
alterniflor_d to experimentally
manipulated soil water movement. Oikos.
1983. Vol. 41:1-6.

THE MARSH ECOLOGY RESEARCH PROGRAM (MERP): THE ORGANIZATION AND
ADMINISTRATION OF A LONG-TERM MESOCOSM STUDY*

A. G. van der Valk

Department of Botany
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50011

B. D. J. Batt

and

Henry R. Murkin

Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Station
RR # 1
Portage La Prairie, Manitoba
Canada RlN 3A1

P. J. Caldwell

Ducks Unlimited Canada
1190 Waverley St.
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada R3T 2E2

John A. Kadlec

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84321

*Paper 45 of the Marsh'Ecology Research Program, Delta Waterfowl and
Wetlands Research Station Ducks Unlimited Canada.

season since 1980. Sixteen short-term projects by
ABSTRACT graduate students that supplement the main project
have also been done as part of MERP. MERP is
In 1978, the Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands Research largely administered by Delta. It is located on
Station and Ducks Unlimited Canada developed a Delta property; its full-time coordinator and staff
joint venture to study the impact of different work for Delta; and most field technicians are
water levels during a wet-dry cycle on the hired by Delta. Some specialized research is
composition and rate of nutrient cycling (N, P, and contracted out to other institutions, e.g. water
C) of prairie, lacustrine wetlands. Changes in chemistry, plant tissue analysis, and algal
water levels associated with wet-dry climatic production. A scientific team composed of 6 or 7
cycles are a characteristic of all prairie members, about half from Delta and Ducks Unlimited
wetlands. An experimental marsh complex consisting Canada and half from academic institutions, directs
of 10 rectangular mesocosms, each with an area of the project and makes all scientific and technical
at least 5 ha, was constructed by diking a section decisions. They designed the water-level
of the Delta Marsh, Manitoba, Canada. Each cell is experiments; established sampling and sample
equipped with water control structures and pumps. handling protocols, described in a field manual
The hydrology, water chemistry (surface and that is revised annually; and are responsible for
interstitial) vegetation, invertebrates, and publishing the data collected. Delta and Ducks
vertebrates (waterfowl, blackbirds, muskrats) of Unlimited Canada jointly fund the project, and they
each cell have been monitored during each growing have raised funds for it from a variety of

CH2585-8188/0000-46 $1 @1988 IEEE

individuals, corporations and foundations. impossible to separate site and year effects from
Recommendations for the design of field mesocosms responses to water-level changes. In order to
and conducting long-term studies are also given. determine the potential variation in the response
.to a water level treatment, replicates of each
INTRODUCTION treatment would be necessary. Mesocosms make it
The Marsh Ecology Research Program (MERP) is an feasible to replicate treatments.
experimental, long-term, ecosystem-level study of THE MESOCOSMS
the impact of water level changes on the
composition of, and cycling of nutrients (N, P, and In order to be able to apply the results of MERP
Q in, freshwater prairie marshes. In this paper, directly to other prairie wetlands, the study had
we will first discuss why we are using mesocosms, to be done in an existing wetland. To do this,
how we designed our mesocosms, and how we sample a series of marsh mesocosms was created by diking
them. Administrative, organizational and funding off a part of the Delta Marsh located on property
aspects of our project will then be discussed. controlled by the Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands
Finally, on the basis of our experience, we give Research Station, Delta, Manitoba, Canada. The
10 recommendations for conducting a successful final size and shape of the cells was determined by
long-term study using mesocosms. four major factors: (1) the area needed to include
all five major vegetation types found in the Delta
WHY USE MESOCOSMS? Marsh; (2) the area needed to detect changes in
waterfowl, blackbird, and muskrat populations; (3)
This study arose out of a need to develop reliable the area needed to avoid sampling areas disturbed
information about freshwater wetland ecosystems by boundaries (dikes and ditches) and 9 years of
that could be used to improve their management. sampling; and (4) the cost of constructing dikes.
The ultimate objective of the two organizations,
the Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Station Annual sampling disturbs about 2,500 m2 per
and Ducks Unlimited Canada, that developed this mesocosm (Table 1 and Figure 1). Only 175 m2 are
project was to improve the management of waterfowl disturbed by permanent sampling sites, but nearly
breeding habitat in the northern prairie region. 2,300 m2 by work lanes and sampling sites whose
location is shifted each year. Over the 10 year
All palustrine and lacustrine wetlands of the life of MERP, about 2.5 ha of each mesocosm will
northern prairie region undergo changes in their be affected by sampling. To reduce the annual
water levels that are the result of variation in sampling impact to less than 5% of the total area
annual precipitation, wet-dry cycles. During a of a cell, each cell would have to be 5 ha or more.
cycle, a freshwater wetland changes from an Five hectares also were considered adequate to
expanding emergent wetland, the regenerating stage, detect changes in waterfowl and muskrat
to a more open system, the degenerating stage, populations. In order to enclose all the
during which a combination of high water levels and vegetation zones found in the Delta Marsh,
muskrats begins to eliminate the emergent mesocosms would have to run about 320 to 340 m from
vegetation. This is followed by the lake stage its upper edge into the marsh. In order to avoid
during which emergent vegetation is largely abse 'nt. boundary effects, no regular sampling would be done
With the onset of the next drought, the final stage within 10 m of any mesocosm boundary. This 10 m
of the cycle begins, the dry marsh stage, during wide buffer area around each cell provides an area
which there is no standing water in part or all of fromwhich soil, plants and other samples can be
the marsh. During this stage the seeds of emergent collected for experimental purposes. These
species germinate on exposed mudflats. With the specifications meant that for rectangular mesocosms
end of the drought, the marsh ref loods and enters their width had to be between 150 and 220 m in
the regenerating stage again during which emergents order to effectively have a 5 ha cell. Ten
spread over the wetland by vegetative propagation. rectangular mesocosms of this size, contiguous to
Waterfowl, other birds, invertebrates, and mammals minimize the total length of dike needed, were
all respond dramatically to changes in water levels built with the funds available. Having contiguous
and vegetation during wet-dry cycles3. mesocosms did cause problems with seepage from one
cell to another during a few years when,some cells
We decided to study experimentally the responses of were flooded 1.5 m higher than adjacent cells.
prairie wetlands to water level changes during a During these years a buffer zone of 30 m or more
cycle. Two features of the cycle were chosen as was needed to avoid all boundary effects.
treatments: the length of the drawdown or dry- Funding to construct the experimental marsh complex
marsh stage and the depth of water during the was provided by Ducks Unlimited Canada, and the
regenerating, degenerating and lake stages. Both dikes were designed and built under the supervision
have significant management implications. Because of their engineers. Dikes were built wide enough
it is impossible to control water levels in natural so that muskrats could not tunnel through them and
marshes, some type of mesocosm complex had to be high enough so that the cells could be flooded to I
established. Such a study would of necessity have m above normal. Each cell was equipped with water
to be long-term because a complete wet-dry cycle control structures and an electric pump with
can take up to 20 or more years. The need to sufficient capacity to offset losses due to seepage
replicate treatments was also considered essential. and evapotranspiration at any water level.
The limited literature on wet-dry cycles and Additional information about MERP and the
prairie wetlands was based solely on studies done experimental cell complex can be found in
at one or two marshes3, and consequently, it was references 1 and 2.

Table 1. Area disturbed by work lanes and
different types of sampling during one year in a
El 0 mesocosm in the MERP complex.
El
OIP-V Sample Area (m2) Number of Total
0 V Type Disturbed Samples Area (m2)
0 per sample per cell Disturbed
0

1,500
Work Lanes 150 10
0
Shifting Sampling Sites
Q V
vo 0 Shoot Biomass 9 40 360
Root Biomass 9 40 360
0 Invertebrate 9 7 63
0 V
Algal 1 13 13
V vo Subtotal 796

Permanent Sites
0
-now-_ 0
Litter 9 5 45
Water 4 10 40
0 Vegetation 9 10 90
0
Subtotal 175

V TOTAL 2,471
El 0:::

result of these traditions and needs, it was
decided that most of the core sampling during MERP
0 would be done by recent university graduates or
beginning graduate students.
0 V00
The decision to do most of the work with relatively
V inexperienced personnel who would only work one
field season meant having to design the
vo-o V a administration of the project in such a way that
consistency in the collection and handling of
samples from year to year was assured. There was
also a need to integrate the day-to-day field
Shoot Biomass Root Biomass operations of the project to ensure that different
Invertebrate V Algal types of sampling did not interfere with each
other'. A full-time coordinator with an assistant
water El Vegetation was hired to manage the project and supervise on-
0 Litter Decomposition site operations. A methods manual was also written
that outlined sampling protocols in detail, how
samples were to be handled and stored, and how data
Figure 1. Location of sampling sites in mesocosm 5. were to be entered unto the computer for later
analysis. This manual has been revised annually.
Changes in the composition of the vegetation,
SAMPLING primary production (vascular plant and algal),
litter decomposition, secondary production
Education is one of the major missions of the Delta (invertebrate and muskrat primarily), water
Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Station. It had chemistry (surface and interstitial), and hydrology
done this traditionally by funding thesis and are all monitored as part of the core study
dissertation research of graduate students working (Fig. 1).
on waterfowl or wetland research projects. Delta
also had a tradition of hiring recent university It became clear during the early years of MERP that
graduates who planned to go to graduate school in some kinds of sampling and sample analysis could
either waterfowl biology or wetland ecology as not be handled reliably by people without any
field assistants to give them practical experience specialized training and supervision. This
doing field work. Ducks Unlimited Canada was resulted in a partial change in policy and the
interested in seeing more people trained as wetland hiring of people with specific expertise in some
ecologists whom they could hire as managers. As a areas. The first area in which this was done was

water chemistry. After the first year all water purposes. These too had to be approved by the
chemistry was done by the Freshwater Institute of scientific team.
Environment Canada in Winnipeg, and a full-time
technician was hired by Delta to work in this RECOMMENDATIONS
laboratory. Similar arrangements were made to
handle algal sampling with the University of Never take on long-term ecological research without
Manitoba and to do plant tissue analysis and a detailed assessment of what it will take
muskrat studies with Iowa State University. (manpower, facilities, funds, etc.) to complete the
project successfully. To facilitate this, we
ADMINISTRATION AND FUNDING provide the following 10 recommendations.

MERP is a joint project of the Delta Waterfowl and (1) The mesocosms should be as large as is
Wetlands Research Station and Ducks Unlimited feasible. When we began this project there was
Canada. Administratively and operationally, little to go on when it came to deciding at what
however, it is run by the Delta Waterfowl and scale we should do our study. Many kins of
Wetlands Research Station (Figure 2). It is sampling would have been easier to handle with
located on Delta property; most operating funds smaller mesocosms, e.g. algal and invertebrate. In
are administered by Delta, the coordinator of the retrospect, our mesocosms are an appropriate size
project is a Delta employee; and most of the because they encompass the variation found in the
technicians who work on the project are hired by natural marsh and are large enough to avoid both
Delta. Ducks Unlimited Canada, however, through a edge and sampling effects. Smaller cells would
formal arrangement with the Station, provides a have been too subject to cumulative disturbances
significant share of the annual operating budget of Larger cells were not affordable and would have
MERP, is involved in the design and conduct of some exceeded our ability to sample them adequately
aspects of the study, supports directly short-term because of funding and personnel limitations.
studies, and is the main vehicle for transforming
scientific results into day-to-day management (2) Design your mesocosms carefully and build them
recommendations. to last by using the best materials available. The
failure of a mesocosm in the latter stages of a
Neither the Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands Research long-term study could jeopardize years of work.
Station nor Ducks Unlimited Canada had the in-house All components of the MERP mesocosms were
expertise to design or carry out an ecosystem engineered to last 20 years, i.e. twice the length
study. Consequently, several academic wetland of the experiment. MERP has never had any problems
ecologists were recruited to direct various aspects with any of the mesocosms, except some minor dike
of the research (vegetation, litter decomposition, erosion during high water years. All dikes and
water chemistry and hydrology). Scientists from other structures were designed to withstand all
the Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Station onslaughts that could be anticipated, and only
and Ducks Unlimited Canada and three academic routine maintenance has been needed to keep the
ecologists formed the initial scientific team that cells fully functional.
designed the study.
(3) Every effort must be made to insure
All scientific and technical decisions are made by consistency in how data are collected from year to
the scientific team (Figure 2). They determine year. Meticulous record keeping is indispensable.
what data are collected and how it is handled. Records must be kept about all aspects of sampling
Publishing the results in their areas of expertise and data handling, including a daily log of all
is also their responsibility. The scientific team, activities. It is particularly important to record
however, does not play a role in project budgeting, any uncertainties about, orproblems with, the
and has been only peripherally involved in fund collection, handling or coding of a particular
raising and data collection. The role of an sample or datum. A full time, on-site coordinator
academic member of the scientific team lies is essential for the smooth running of a project
somewhere between consultant and principal during the field season, particularly to insure
investigator. The team usually meets twice a year: that different types of sampling do not interfere
once after the end of the field season to review with each other. MERP has been fortunate that the
how it went, and again before the next field season same person has coordinated the project from the
to finalize sampling plans and make decisions beginning, and core data collection has largely run
regarding new short-term projects, core data smoothly and uneventfully.
analysis, and future MERP publications.
(4) To carry out a long-term study requires
All short-term studies have to be approved by the institutional stability. MERP is a 10 year
scientific team. Sixteen graduate students have experiment. In reality, the project will take more
done short-term projects. Most of these have been than 15 years to complete when the pre-experimental
students of members of the scientific team. These planning phase and post-experimental write-up phase
studies were established to collect data needed to are included. This is equivalent to about one half
supplement the information collected by core MERP of the career of most scientists. Because people
sampling. Whenever possible, however, they were lose interest, become administrators, move to other
done outside the MERP complex to reduce damage to institutions, etc., a long-term project must be
it. Several other studies were carried out by able to survive changes in key personnel that are
scientists from other institutions who were inevitable over such a period of time In the case
interested in using the complex for their own of MERP, three members of the scientific team,

N. A. American Wildlife Foundation Ducks Unlimited Canada
Board of Trustees Board of Trustees

Delta Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Station Ducks Unlimited Canada

Scientific irector Manager of Biological
Group
Scientific
Team

Maintenance Construction of
Foreman MERP Coordinator Mesocosm Co

Mesocosm Equipment Core MERP Shorf-ter Ct
c
aintenance LFaIrication I I Sampling Studiesm Sam lin
I 2t

Figure 2. Administrative organization of MERP.

which has had only 6 or 7 members at any time, have We do not recommend, however, that principal
changed jobs and left the team. The fact that MERP investigators in a long-term project be so tied to
is largely an in-house Delta project has enabled it the project that they are unable to work on any
to weather this turnover of personnel. unrelated activities. Since most of the data
Nevertheless, there are fewer members of the collection in a long-term study tends to be
scientific team today than earlier,and some aspects standardized, routine sampling, after the first
of project have suffered because of these personnel year or two their direct involvement on a day-to-
changes. day basis is not needed or even desirable. Being
able to work on other activities may keep the
(5) There is a need for institutional flexibility. principal investigators from leaving a long-term
A large-scale and long-term study like MERP can project. It prevents them from becoming frustrated
require significant adjustments for an institution. because they do not have to pass up all other
These may include construction of new laboratory professional opportunities. What is essential is
space, offices and other facilities, hiring new that all the principal investigators have
staff, and dealing with decisions to redirect funds sufficient time formally committed to the project
from alternate uses. For a small organization like so that they can fulfill their obligations to it.
Delta, it can change the very character of the
institution. The number of scientists involved in the
organization and running of a project should be
(6) All research scientists whose expertise was kept to a minimum, - and each scientist's
needed to develop a project should be involved in responsibilities should be well defined and overlap
all aspects of the study. MERP is unusual in that as little as possible with those of others. There
most members of the scientific team have not been is also a need, however, to balance the expertise
involved in fund raising, have nothing directly to available not only by scientific discipline, but
do with project budgeting, and have little to do also in other ways. For example, there should one
directly with the collection of their data. Their or more scientists who can also contribute as
role, is largely as consultants, leaves them free administrators; others as theoreticians, writers or
to become involved in other projects, and they editors; and yet others who can translate
have. This has caused problems, particularly scientific results into management plans.
during the first few years when field operations
were being worked out, because these scientists
were not present at Delta. It has also delayed (7) Identify short term studies as early as
publication of the data because they were working possible that need to be done to supplement the
on short-term projects besides MERP that required data being collected by core sampling. This makes
their immediate attention. More direct involvement it easier to budget for short term studies and
of key scientists in the research and a more formal provides more lead time to get these studies
commitment of their time to the project is organized. This is often difficult, if not
desirable than was the case with MERP. impossible to do, since the need for some types of
data may not be obvious until the study is well
underway. Nevertheless, adequate budgeting for

future, short-term studies is crucial for a comprehensive books or monographs, will be its most
successful long-term research project (see also influential and significant products. Because of
recommendation 8). MERP several times had to the large volume of data and the myriad of ways
arrange for short-term studies too quickly, and a that it will be used, data analysis and the final
few times was unable to find adequately trained write up of the study will require a great deal of
personnel on time. time, we estimate a total of 11 man years, 5 for
members of the scientific team and 6 for their
(8) It is going to cost more than expected. support staff. This kind of time cannot be easily
MERP-s annual operating budget currently is 300% bootlegged from other projects. Unless release
higher than what it was estimated to be initially. time can be purchased after the completion of the
Not only does inflation over a ten-year period experimental phase of the project, the chances of
present a challenge to long term budgeting, but a it ever being fully written up diminish quickly as
successful project will unquestionably expand with key-scientists get involved in other projects.
time. In the case of MERP, it became clear that
certain types of data were essential that had not
been considered so at the beginning of the project. REFERENCES
For example, it became obvious that algal
production data were essential after a couple of Batt, B. D. J., P. J. Caldwell, C. B. Davis, J.
years. This required hiring three additional A. Kadlec, R. M. Kaminski, H. R. Murkin, and
technicians to do this work. A. G. van der Valk. 1983. The Delta
If funding is to be provided by more than one Waterfowl Research Station-Ducks Unlimited
organization, as was the case with MERP, carefully Canada marsh ecology research program. pp. 19-
consider how to set up a working relationship among 23. In H. Boyd (ed.) First western hemisphere
funding groups that will remain viable for the waterfowl and waterbird symposium.
length of the project. All organizations funding a International Waterfowl Research Bureau,
project should be involved in developing the Edmonton, Alberta.
overall project budget and its annual operating 2 Murkin, H. R., B. D. J. Batt, P. J. Caldwell, C.
budgets. Any changes in budgeting should also be B. Davis, J. A. Kadlec, and A. G. van der
made by all the funding organizations collectively. Valk. 1984. Transactions of the 49th North
As budgets escalate with the years, conflicts among American Wildlife and Natural Resources
funding organizations about which is to cover Conference 49:253-261.
additional costs can develop. A formal arrangement
in which each funding organization agrees to cover 3 van der Valk, A. G. 1988. Northern prairie
a certain percentage of the annual operating budget wetlands. Iowa State University Press, Ames.
or the cost of some aspect of the project is better
than an arrangement in which each organization
contributes a fixed sum of money. See also
recommendation 10.

(9) It is going to take longer than expected. It
will require a great deal of time to design and set
up a successful long-term study. For MERP it took
more than a year to design the experiment, work out
the sampling details, and write the methods manual.
It will also require several years of full-time
effort to complete the write up. This is longer
than foreseen. There are two reasons for this:
one, the large volume of data that is collected
over a 10 year period and the diverse ways that it
can be utilized; and two, the need to interact
frequently with other scientists, located at
different institutions, who are responsible for
various data sets. The final modelling of the
nutrient cycles in the case of the MERP project
cannot occur until the whole data set has been
worked up. This is not likely to be until one year
after the last data have been collected. An
additional period of one to two years will be
required to write the summary monographs. A 10
year experiment will, in reality, last at least 15
years or longer (see recommendation 10).

(10) Finding funding will become more difficult
with time. It is much easier to raise money for a
new project than to obtain funds for an ongoing
one. If at all possible, secure funding for the
entire project at the beginning. It seems to be
most difficult to obtain funding to support the
post-experiment data-analysis and write-up phase of
a long-term project. This is ironic because most
of the risks associated with long-term research are
now over, costs are much lower, and the final 51
product of this phase, usually one or more

MICROORGANISMS AS A CAUSE OF ECONOMIC LOSS TO THE SEAFOOD INDUSTRY

John Liston

Institute for Food Science and Technology, HF-10
Universi 'ty of Washington
Seattle, Washington 98195

ABSTRACT were unable to distinguish really fresh fish or
that they in fact preferred it. Consequently,
Direct loss of seafood products is more commonly our major concern was shelf life and much effort
due to microorganisms or their products than to was expended by researchers to try to stretch
any other cause. Bacterial spoilage of is the limits of acceptable storage by using
probably still the major culprit but antibacterial ices and dips, antibiotics and
contamination by potentially hazardous other treatments. All of this was done in good
microorganisms and the presence of toxins faith to extend the distribution range for fish
derived from microorganisms is a significant and to improve the average condition of seafoods
problem in shellfish and finfish from warm in our markets. However, while some of the
waters. Freezing raw product reduces newer methods proved quite effective in
traditional bacterial spoilage but new products preventing or, at least, in delaying spoilage,
produced from frozen material such as surimi and they had minor effects on intrinsic quality if
seafood analogues may present new and different we define quality as those factors which
problems. The focus of seafood scientists' distinguish a particular foodstuff in the fresh
attention has shifted in part to naturally condition from a stored product. We now know
occurring biochemical change due to endogenous that these factors are intrinsic to the fish and
enzyme systems. Toxins occurring in seafoods that they change mostly in response to
which may adversely affect sales as well as endogenous events mainly brought about by the
posing a direct hazard include scombroid toxin fishes own enzymes after death. Of course,
(probably histamine), ciguatera toxins, bacteria can affect this but even in their
tetrodotoxin, paralytic shellfish poisoning absence the changes will still take place.
toxins and a number of others mostly associated There has been some interesting recent work with
with shellfish. fish from tropical waters which suggests that in
some cases endogenous changes may even be the
cause of rejection of fish by sensory judges
the absence of significant bacterial activity.
Traditionally, the major negative effects of
microorganisms in the seafood industry have Because consumer attention has recently focused
resulted from spoilage of raw product. on a on fish as a desirable food for health and
world scale it has been estimated that 20-25% of dietary reasons lynd for fresh seafoods has
fish harvested from oceans, lakes and rivers are increased markedly and the supply system has
lost due to spoilage by bacteria and by insects. adapted to this in a number of ways. Air
Direct losses to North American fisheries are shipment of fresh seafood products on an
probably much less than this due to the lower international scale has increased enormously.
ambient temperatures in much of our fishing This became possible because of technical
areas and the almost universal use of ice or improvements in chilling methods and packaging
refrigerated and chilled sea water to cool fish and because an upscale market permitted pricing
after capture. Nevertheless, there are still that could absorb shipment costs which
direct losses due to over long fishing trips, or themselves showed some decline. Freezing at sea
improper procedures on land and sea. Most or near the site of capture is a technique
losses, however, are undoubtedly due to widely used to protect the quality of high value
reduction in value of commodities because of fish or fish caught in bulk. The shipboard
unsatisfactory quality and for the same reason processes increasingly involve primary
by customer dissatisfaction. processing so that fillets or dressed fish ready
for marketing are often the end product. All of
We know a good deal about microbial spoilage of this circumvents the bacterial spoilage problem
fish in our temperate fisheries and we are by holding fresh fish as short a time as
learning about quality. Until comparatively possible in cold conditions which greatly slow
recently "quality" has meant simply "not bacterial growth and by freezing which prevents
spoiled" and it was assumed that most consumers bacterial growth completely. Perhaps of more

CH2585-8/88/0000-52 $1 @1988 IEEE

direct importance rapid processing and handling (ie. pre-spoilage) quality. Anotner important
of products held at low temperatures insures factor in initial quality relates to rigor
that the endogenous enzyme processes are slowed mortis. Japanese buyers place high value on
as much as possible - or halted completely in fish in pre-rigor condition. Some fish show
frozen fish. Thus, the fresh sweet flavor often more rapid development of rigor mortis at 00 C
associated with inosine monophosphate is than at higher temperatures and this has led to
maintained through the point of sale to the a suggestion that such fish might be @hipped to
consumer. market at 5-100C after killing. This
phenomenon is related, of course, to the rate of
Does all this mean that bacterial spoilage is no ATP breakdown and lactic acid production and in
longer aproblem in the industry? some cases seems similar to cold shortening in
Unfortunately, the answer if "no." A large beef except that rigor develops quickly without
proportion of fish is still caught and landed by shortening. The importance of these
smaller fishing vessels with inadequate chilling observations from the microbiologists point of
and handling facilities. Moreover, there are view is that they could lead to practices which
still too may instances of improper practices would accelerate. microbial growth and spoilage.
during distribution of fish which can lead to This is particularly important in tropical
bacterial growth such as shipment in regions where delays in icing of more than 9-13
unrefrigerated vans, holding on loading docks, hours 1can shorten shelf life from 15 to 4 or 5
refrigeration shut downs in trucks hauling fish days. Obviously, fish should be cooled at
interstate. Unfortunately, many retailers are least to 100C as -quickly as possible after
still unaware of the special need to hold fish killing to avoid premature microbial growth.
at DOC and may carry product overlong at too 0
warm temperatures. Thus, research is still Rapid cooling to below 15 C is also important to
needed to accommodate the special problems of prevent growth of undesirable bacteria such as
smaller scale fisherman, transportation and the histidine decarboxylating species on tunas
retailing. Such research might logically be and mahi mahi and enterotoxigenic vibrios.
focused on antibacterial procedures and There is no more devastating effect on sales of
bacterial control. a food product than publicity concerning its
involvement in human disease or a recall
Of course, there are still unresolved problems associated with such a possibility. Estimates
of bacterial spoilage which merit research. of the economic costs of the canned salmon
Fish vary greatly in their shelf life when held botulism outbreak which only involved 2 people
under comparable conditions and -sometimes this are in the millions of dollars. Scombroid
can be related directly to bacterial populations poisoning is related to the presence of
as in the example shown in table 1. We really histamine produced by decarboxylation of
do not understand why this is so. histidine which is abundantly present in tunas,
dolphins, mackerels and blue fish. There seems
There are a number of unresolved problems in the little doubt that this is due to rapid growth of
case of fish from warm tropical waters. Until most mesophilic bacteria on fish which are held
recently comparatively little work had been done at relatively high temperatures. The effect has
on the bacteriology of these animals. With the been duplicated experiVnti@lly in tunas, and
expansion of fisheries in tropical regions mackerel and other fish.
resulting from increased world demand, there has
been a flurry of work in S.E. Asia and Australia Bacteria of the Proteus group seem to be most
particularly. In addition, the extensive commonly involved in histamine production giving
researches of Japanese scientists has been given rise to scombroid poisoning with Morganella
wider publicity and greater scrutiny. Warm morganii most frequently indicted. However,
water fish often show greatly extended shelf -ofFe-F-Facteria can give rise to histamine most
life when held in ice as compared to temperate notably Photobacterium whic @5 has been shown to
water fish. That this is due largely to the do so in salt cured herring.
rarity of typical psychrophilic spoilage
bacteria in their m ,icro5loii has been confirmed Other bacteria which may cause human disease
by a number of studies. However, as noted from consumption of seafoods have been
earlier Australian work has indicated that non identified earlier by Dr. Colwell and are well
bacterial antogenous changes due @o fish enzymes reviewed by Bryan.3 Economic loss arises from
may also be a determinant factor. each outbreak associated with seafood products
and fish.
Japanese workers have long emphasized the
importance of nucleotides in determining fish One aspect of microbial hazard which should not
quality. They u@ilize a "V value which is be ignored is that arising from changes in
essentially the ratio of Inosine and processing methods. We are all aware of the
hypoxanthine to all other ATP derived concerns over such novel processes as radiation
nucleotides as the primary index of qual@ty for and vacuum packaging,of unprocessed seafoods or
warm water and temperate region seafoods. This controlled atmosphere storage. All of these
index is largely independent of bacterial have been or are being fully studied and
activity @@ough bacteria can break down effective codes of practice developed. But we
nucleotides and is highly specific for initial should also recognize the potential problem of

products made from fish which no longer behave importance of this becomes apparent if we note
microbiological ly like fish. In particular, I that 132 out of 172 outbreaks of food borne
refer to the range of products derived from disease due to fish reported in USA in 3the
surimi whicn is rapidly spreading through our period 1976-1984 were due to fish poisoning.
markets. These seafood manufactured products do
not undergo spoilage in the same way as raw or I have deliberately avoided specific discussion
frozen fish. They are usually given of microbial problems related to molluscs. This
pasteurization treatment and may have very low is a situation of great difficulty and
microbial populations when sent out from the considerable complexity. Molluscs are largely
factories. The potential problem lies in the sessile, they reside in shallow inshore waters
repackaging carried out in supermarkets during and are subject to run off from land.
which contamination can occur. In the absence
of the normal competitive microflora of It is extremely difficult to insure that
untreated fish conditions may be good for the molluscs harvested from waters adjacent to large
growth of undesirable bac@iria. Studies @rban areas are safe and clean. A major problem
reporte by Matches et al. and Yoon and is virus contamination and most recent cases of
MatchesY6 clearly indT-cate-the potential for food borne disease from molluscs have been due
growth of food poisoning organisms on such to Norwalk or Hepatitis viruses. However, there
products if these are exposed to warmer are recurrent problems from human or land animal
temperatures. Industry must exert every effort enteric bacteria and Vibrio species which may be
to follow good handling practices to avoid such indigenous or introduced. We need to reassess
incidents. the situation with shellfish in light of our
improved understanding of transmission of
Most food borne disease is due to errors in disease organisms and the growing human
handling, storage and presentation of the food. populations along the shorelines and modify our
However, there are some causes of illness which control systems accordingly. The economic
occur due to events early in the handling effect of large scale sickness from molluscs in
sequence or to intrinsic problems in the raw the shellfish industry could be disastrous.
material. Scombroid poisoning from tuna is most
commonly due to improper handling immediately What then is the message concerning microbiology
after capture. However, fish poisoning due to in the fish industry? First, we are doing much
consumption of toxic fish or shelTsO is caused better at controlling bacterial spoilage which
by events beyond industry control. was the principal problem. However, there are
some aspects of spoilage which we do not
There are three kinds of fish poisoning which understand well enough to control effectively.
are most prominent in addition to scombroid Newer processing technologies produce safer
poisoning and these include Ciguatera, Puffer seafoods which however carry potential problems
Fish poisoning and Paralytic Shellfish for the future. We need to research these and
Poisoning. Most of the evidence suggests that develop recommendations on methods to avoid the
these are due to toxins which are accumulated in problems. There are microbiological implica-
the animal tissues from feeding on tions of aquaculture that have not been
microorganisms that originally produce these discussed here but which need research. Food
toxins. Currently we assume that these original borne disease is probably less of a problem for
toxin producers are dinoflagellates or seafoods than for meat and poultry products but
cyanobacteria. Recent work mostly by Japanese with an increasing consumption of seafoods and
authors has indicated that certain b@'terja may widening variety of species and products there
produce one or more of these toxins The will be greater public attention. We must be
evidence is strongest for tetrodotoxin (puffer vigilant both for the recrudescence of old
fish) which is apparently produced by some problems and the arisal of new pathogens and new
rather commonly occurring Vibrio species. The situations. Molluscan shellfish present a
significance of these observations for toxin continuing microbiological problem which has not
development in fish and shellfish is not yet been resolved and which deserves additional
clear but they raise intriguing questions which attention. Finally, in light of the renewed
need further research. Work is going on in my public drive for better food inspection and
own and in other laboratories on methods of control we must consider the applicability of
detoxifying poisonous shellfish and we have new methods of microbial testing to the problems
obtained partial success in removing 70-90% of in fisheries. Bacteria and molds are still the
the toxin. Nevertheless, at present the only number 1 problem of the food industries and fish
control measure available to the fish industry are no exception to this.
is to refrain from marketing toxic fish and
shellfish. This raises two problems. It locks
up valuable food resources which could be
utilized (eg. butter clams in Alaska) and it
requires an expensive testing and surveillance
program. We urgently need research to develop
quicker and cheaper testing methods than we now
have available to screen potentially toxic
seafoods and keep them off the market. The

TABLE 1 8. Kodama, M. , T. Ogata and S. Sato. 1988.
Bacterial production of saxitoxin. Agric. Biol.
BACTERIAL COUNTS ON FISH FROM SAME CATCH Chem. 52:1075-1077.

9. Liston, J. 1980. Health and Safety of
Days in Ice Sole Hake Rockfish Seafoods. Food Technology (Australia), L2:428-
436.
log CFU/cm2 skin
10. Liston, J. 1980. Microbiology in fishery
science. In: Advances in Fish Science and
0 1.8 1.2 2.1 Technology. Fishing News Books Ltd., Farnham,
3 2.3 2.5 1.4 Surrey, England, J.J. Connel, ed. Proceedings
of International Conference on Fish Science and
7 5.0 6.3 5.5 Technology, Torry Research Station, University
of Aberdeen, Scotland. July 23-27, 1979, pp.
10 6.3 6.3 4.9 138-157.
14 7.2 7.3 7.2 11. Matches, J.R., Raghubeer, E., Yoon, I.H.
and Martin, R. 1987. Microbiology of Surimi-
based products. In: Developments in Food
Indicates spoilage apparent. Sciences: Seafood Quality Determination. (Ed.)
D.E. Kramer and J. Liston. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

12. Slavin, J.W. 1987. Impact of quality on
consumer perceptions of seafood. In:
1. Barile, L.E., A.D. Milla, A. Reilly and A. DeveloQments in Food Sciences: Seafood Qualit
Villadsen. 1985. Spoilage patterns of mackerel Determination. (Ed.) D.E. Kramer and J. Liston.
(Rastrelliger faughni Matsui) 1. Delays in Amsterdam.
icing. In: "Spoilage of Tropical Fish and
Product [fe-velopment". (Ed.) A. Reilly. FAO 13. Simidu, U., T. Noguchi, D.F. Hwang, Y.
Fish Rep. (317) Suppl: 434 pp. Shicla and K. Hashimoto. 1987. Marine bacteria
which produce tetrodotoxin. Applied
2. Bremner, H.A., J. Olley, J.A. Statham and Environmental Microbiology 53:1714-1715.
A.M.A. Vail. 1988. Nucleotide catabolism:
influence on the storage life of tropical 14. Sumner, J. and F. Magno-Orejana, 1985. Do
species of fish from the North West shelf of tropical fish keep longer in ice than temperate
Australia. J. Food Science, 53:6-11. fish: the circumstantial and definitive
approaches. In: "Spoilage of Tropical Fish and
3. Bryan, F.L. 1987. Seafood Transmitted Product Development". (Ed.) A. Reilly. F.A.0.
Infections and intoxications in recent years. Fish Rep., (317) Suppl.:474 pp.
In: Developme ts in Food Science: Seafood
Quality Determination. (Ed.) D.E. Kramer and J. 15. Van Spreekens, K.J.A. 1987.. Histamine
Liston. Elsevier, Amsterdam. production by the psychrophilic flora. In:
DeveloQments in Food Sciences: Seafood Q alit
Ehira, S. and H. Uchiyama. 1987. Determination. (Ed.) D.E. Kramer and J. N y
4. iston.
Biochemical changes in relation to freshness. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
In: Developments in Food Sciences: Seafood
Quality Determination. (Ed) D.E. Kramer and J. 16. Yoon, I.H. and J.R. Matches. 1988. Growth
Liston. Elsevier, Amsterdam. of Pathogenic Bacteria on Imitation Crab. J.
5. Frank, H.A., Yoshinager, D.H. and Nip, W.K. Food Sc., 53:688-690.
1981. Histamine formation and honeycombing 17. Yunizal, W.T., A.M. Anggawati and S. Putro.
during decomposition of skipjack tuna 1985. Histamine formation in dried-salted
(Katsuwonus pelamis) at elevated temperatures mackerel. In: Spoilage of Tropical Fish and
Fish Rev., 43:9-14. Product Development" A. Reilly (Ed) FAO Fish
6. Iwamoto, M., H. Yamanaka, S. Watanabe and K. Rep. (317) Suppl. 474pp.
Hashimoto. 1987. Effect of storage temperature
on rigor mortis and ATP degeneration in plaice
Paralichthys olivaceus muscle. J. Food Science,
52:1514-1517.

7. Lima dos Santos, C.A.M. 1981. The storage
of tropical fish in ice a review. Tropical
Science, 23:97-127.

SEA GRANT ADVANCES IN SEAFOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

George J. Flick, Jr.

Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

of the fresh product; had a relatively long
ABSTRACT shelf life (over one year); and did not
have either the higher cost and reduced
The failure to express the thermal process consumer appeal produced by a 12 D thermal
rather than a time temperature relationship process. Unfortunately, improper process-
combined with improper processing and ing, packaging, storage, and transportation
quality control methods, resulted in large resulted in large product losses and the
product losses and a questioning of the expressed concern over the safety of the
product's safety. Sea Grant personnel product by both the Food and Drug Adminis-
developed process methodology, computer tration (FDA) and various health regulatory
based microprocessor control instrumenta- agencies. Eventually, the FDA issued both
tion, alternative packaging materials, a a Class I and a Class III product recall
quality assurance system, and appropriate and several studies were initiated to
training materials so that today pasteur- determine the potential hazard of pasteur-
ized crab meat sales are increasing. ized crab meat. As confidence in the
Additionally, the pasteurization process product eroded, sales of pasteurized crab
has been successfully applied to other meat significantly decreased and the U. S.
shellfish and foods. The development.of an Defense Personnel Support Center terminated
integrated (from harvest through their purchase of the product. The seafood
consumption) quality fresh fish program has industry became concerned over the situa-
enabled seafood dealers to extend shelf tion and in 1971 contacted the state Sea
life from 6 - 8 days to 12 - 21 days. This Grant program for assistance.
shelf life extension created new higher
revenue producing markets. A comprehensive research and educational
program was initiated by the Virginia Sea
1. INTRODUCTION Grant program to identify the various
constraints and issues associated with the
Since its inception, Sea Grant has devel- production of high quality pasteurized blue
crab meat. In order to achieve the goal,
oped and maintained active research and the Tri State Seafood Committee (a commit-
education programs in seafood science. tee of crab meat processors, Sea Grant
Programs in Virginia during the last 20 personnel, and state health regulatory
years have been effective in developing new personnel in Maryland, Virginia, and North
technology and expanding the scientific Carolina) was reformed. An audit of
knowledge within various academic disci- pasteurization processes and product
plines. As a consequence, consumers have handling practices was subsequently con-
been able to obtain seafood products that ducted in several plants. Several major
are economical, safe, convenient, and problems were identified as a consequence
nutritious. Examples of successful pro- of the study: 1) the usual process was to
grams are as follows: process the product to a temperature of 185
F for one minute at the geometric center of
2. PASTEURIZED CRAB MEAT the container, irrespective of container
size; 2) thermal processing equipment had
Meat from the blue crab was first produced no temperature regulating, indicating, or
as a fresh product in Virginia during the recording devices; 3) storage and shipping
1860's. In order to prevent product environments were not properly controlled;
spoilage and stabilize inventories, the and 4) no firms had developed reliable
meat was marketed as a canned or pasteur- quality control or assurance programs.
ized product almost 100 years later. Microbiological examinations of pasteurized
Pasteurized meat was an almost immediate meat revealed that many cans contained
success since: the product retained many of obligate anaerob populations exceeding one
the physical, visual, and sensory qualities million per gram.

CH2585-8/88/0000-56 $1 @1988 IEEE

It was obvious that many changes in equip- By this time, pasteurized crab meat was
ment and procedures would be required if again becoming accepted in the market place
pasteurized crab meat was to be reestab- since quality could be guaranteed and the
lished as a commercially viable product. longer shelf life reduced losses in retail,
The Tri State Seafood Committee established food stores and food service establish-
a Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) for ments. Additional developments rapidly
pasteurized crab meat which contained occurred. Sea Grant produced 6 forms that
would permit a firm to evaluate their
recommendations for equipment and facili-
ties, microbiological quality standards, process and maintain an accepted quality
and handling conditions. The 185 F inter- assurance program. Two color coded forms
nal temperature processing was retained as were developed to assist processors in
the Committee's interim recommendation. establishing a can seam evaluation and
The GMP was submitted to the FDA for record keeping program. Additionally, two
consideration, however, no action was video tapes were produced in cooperation
taken. with the Blue Crab Industries Association
on crab meat pasteurization equipment and
One of the greatest problems facing the procedures and can seam evaluations. The
production of high quality pasteurized crab tapes have been translated into several
meat was the development of a satisfactory languages and are used as training materi-
thermal process. Under processing results als in the processing of other Callinectes
,in product spoilage while over processing crab species. To insure that the educa-
causes discoloration. If the 185 F tional materials were understood by both
internal temperatureds used, large cans the industry and regulatory agencies, a
(16 oz) would receive a greater amount of series of training courses were held. At
thermal energy while small containers (12 the suggestion of the blue crab industry,
and 8 oz) would receive considerably less. some states required attendance at the
Several processds were monitored for their programs before a license to process crab
lethality with the process being being meat would be issued.
expressed in terms of f values Recently, a cooperative venture was initi-
(z - 16, f 185). F values obtained ranged
from 22 to 196 with an average of 96 which ated with Keltech, Inc. to develop a
indicated that some processors were were microprocessor controller that can be used
either under or over processing their in two modes. One is a time-temperature
product. Unfortunately, it was not possi- sequence and the other is the real time
ble to recommend a lethal process due to calculation of process lethalities. The
the relative large variation. Laboratory process controller monitors both the
and field research eventually indicated cooking and cooling process variables,
that an f value greater than 35 would terminates the process on pre-set
provide an adequate process. This research time-temperature of process lethality
placed the pasteurization process in schedules, and maintains records for
acceptable scientific terms and permitted quality assurance programs. The equipment
processors to use temperatures other than is now being used in both the United States
185 F and helped establish adequate pro- and the People's Republic of China.
cesses for containers of varying sizes and Several major advances were made when a
shapes. A computerized data base was process was developed for the pasteuriza-
established that would enable processors to tion in flexible films and plastic contain-
calculate their thermal processes and ers. The flexible film is capable of
compare their process to others. Sea Grant holding up to 6 lbs of product and costs
personnel evaluated each firm's thermal less than 10 cents whereas 6 metal contain-
.process on both the East and Gulf coasts to ers would cost over 4 dollars. The plastic
insure their adequacy. Eventually, foreign container (1 lb) has a cost of 15 cents.
countries (as far as Turkey) requested These new packaging materials have provided
visits by Sea Grant personnel to evaluate substantial savings to the industry and
pasteurization processes. their use is rapidly spreading and should
account for more than 80 percent of con-
A comprehensive crab meat pasteurization tainer sales within the next 5 years.
manual was developed in cooperation with
the National Fisheries Institute, Inc. The The pasteurization concept has been expand-
publication presented, for the first time, ed to include further processed foods,
the theory and applications of pasteuriza- institutional food products, and other
tion practices on meat shelf life and shellfish species. Virginia Sea Grant has
quality. Eventually the manual was provid- provided sufficient technology to pasteur-
ed to industry on a 5.25 or 3.5 inch ize seafood stuffings, mixes, sauces,
computer disk that enabled processors to soups, stews, and chowders. A patent has
calculate their process lethalities using been received for the process and new
normal office equipment rather than having
to access a main frame data base.

marketing opportunities developed as a obtained, at least for bluefish, by holding
consequence. Prior to the introduction of fish on ice in cold storage and processing
the bulk pack, pasteurized meat could only prior to marketing.
be purchased in metal containers. The
relative cost of the container and the cost The shelf life of Atlantic mackerel was
of opening a one pound container made shown to be dependent upon a specific
purchase of the meat unattractive. Conse- market form. Based on taste sensory
quently, many crab based products were not scores, with a score of 5 or less as the
produced during the winter when crab cutoff, the following shelf lives were
catches are at their lowest level. The obtained: dressed - 12 days; skinless
ability to process the product and store it fillet - 10.5 days; steak - 8.5 days; and
in an appropriate container provided skin-on fillet - 8 days.
alternative marketing opportunities.
Recently, pasteurization has been The temperature at which tray packed fish
successfully applies to crawfish tailmeat, fillets were stored significantly affected
shrimp, and oysters. quality and shelf life. Foe example, boxed
bluefish were processed under sanitary
Today, pasteurization is emerging as the conditions into skinless fillets, tray
preferred market form and accounts for packed, and stored at the following temper-
approximately 30 percent of the market atures: 29 F; 29 F for 2.5 days with
share. Within a few years, pasteurization subsequent storage at 33 F; and 33 F.
has been transformed from a questionable to Storage at 29 F resulted in an increase in
a respected product. the shelf life of approximately 3 days over
the 29 - 33 F combinations stored bluefish
3. FRESH FISH MARKETING and 5 days over the 33 F.

In 1983, a cooperative research project was Since the primary mechanism of fresh fish
initiated with Virginia Sea Grant, the spoilage appeared to be microbiologically
Kroger Co., and the Mid-Atlantic Fisheries related, a high pressure washer (up to
Development Foundation, Inc. to develop and 1,000 psi) was developed and tested. The
implement a high quality fresh fish market- washer was different from other washing
ing program. Initial studies revealed that devices on the market in that itcontained
mid-West markets were willing to pay higher three separate sections. A high pressure
prices for quality fresh fish products than pre-wash, high pressure wash (with or
East coast residents and that most fish without additives), and a low pressure
firms on the East coast were only capable post-wash containing sanitizing solutions.
of producing products that had a shelf life Fish which were high pressure wash prior to
between 6 to 8 days. An integrated program processing, demonstrated a reduction in
was initiated that included fishermen, microbial counts over the unwashed fish.
processors, distributors, and retailers. Evaluations of the raw fish for odor and
cooked fish for taste, demonstrated that
Several species of fish were boxed, short the high pressure washed fish were superior
shelved, and bulked stored. Boxed fish throughout the storage study. the high
generally produced higher quality products pressure washer was also tested on pro-
than the other methods since the fish cessed fish. Traditional methods of
had a greater cooling rate and were not washing fish have been shown to actually
physically damaged. Day of catch did effect increase the number of spoilage bacteria.
the quality and shelf life of boxed fish. Fresh fish which were boxed at sea were
Bluefish and mackerel had the shortest processed at two typical East coast fresh
shelf life. Blue fish caught on the last fish processing plants. One plant washed
day had an average shelf life of 10 11 the dressed fish by passing them through an
days, third day caught fish lasted 7 8 ice water wash tank while the other uti-
days, and first day fish lasted only 4.5 - lized the high pressure wash. Microbial
5.5 days. Bleeding and gutting by either a counts of dressed mackerel, sea 'bass, and
one or two stage process did not porgy which were passed through the conven-
significantly extend shelf life, The tional wash tank were more than two logs
effect of delayed processing produced (100 fold) higher than the high pressure
interesting results. Fishermen and washed fish. The high pressure washed fish
processors believe that the quicker you also had a substantially lower coliform
process fish the longer the shelf life. counts (240 vs <3 per g). The shelf life
Bluefish which were processed immediately of the high pressure washed fish can be
had the lowest sensory scores after 9 days extended by as much as 5 days.
of storage and the shortest shelf life.
Bluefish that were stored on ice for a When the various treatments were com,6ined,
period of 4 and 7 days before processing boxing at sea, sanitary processing with
lasted approximately 11.0 to 13.0 days. A high pressure washes, and superchilling,
longer shelf life can therefore be the shelf life was extended from the
customary 6 - 8 days to 12 15 days. This

shelf life extension made possible a market distribution of the product was executed to
expansion from the East coast to the ensure rapid delivery without temperature
mid-West. When modified atmospheres were or handling abuse. Upon arrival at Kroger,
used, the shelf life was extended from 17 the fish were checked for proper
21 days depending on the species. While temperature and quality before the shipment
this extra shelf life time was potentially was accepted.
useful, the added expense and potential
hazard form consumer and distributor abuse Retail Marketing Phase I - The mid-Atlantic
was not worth the benefit. Additionally, species marketing during phase I were
the food retailers did not want longer than Atlantic Mackerel (skin-on fillets),
absolutely necessary shelf lives since Whiting (dressed), Porgy (dressed), Bluefish
profitability is increased when greater (skin-off fillets), Black Sea Bass
product turnover occurs. Long shelf lives (dressed), Atlantic Croaker (dressed), and
encourages retail department managers to Gray Seatrout (skin-on fillets). These
inventory product rather than purchase on species were chosen based on availability
realistic projected needs. and quality.
The culmination of the project was a two Among the service seafood stores, the low
phase marketing effort conducted and high income stores reported the best
incooperation with the Kroger Co. The sales. Low income store "A" had sales of
marketing effort was divided into two 90% or greater for Croaker, Sea Bass,
phases. Phase I was held from April 14 to Bluefish, Whiting, and Mackerel. High
May 24 in six stores in the Dayton, Ohio income store "0" reported sales of 100% for
area. These stores, which were classified Seatrout, Croaker, Sea Bass, Bluefish, and
according to their consumer income level Whiting. In comparison, the medium income
profile, included one low income store, service stores (stores E, G, and I) were
four middle income stores, and one high not as successful. These stores reported
income store. During phase II, November 17 sales of 38-59% for Mackerel, 33-70% for
- December 20, the project was expanded to Whiting, 45-49% for Porgy, 25-50% for
include 17 stores (three low income, seven Bluefish,:, 20-87% for Sea Bass, 0-100% for
medium income, and seven high income) in Croaker, and 25-50% for Seatrout. Overall,
the Cincinnati-Dayton, Ohio area.@ Training high income store "0" reported the highest
programs were held, before@each phase, for sales with 93.6% of the product sold. Low
the seafood managers of the participating income store "A" had sales of 91.1%, while
stores. the medium income service stores (stores E,
G, and I) had the lower sales of 54.7%,
This project was unique, in respect to 39.4%, and 50.9%, respectively.
being vertically integrated. Several of
the activities tested, during parts I and On a percentage basis, the amount sold was
II, were implemented in part III to ensure very similar for all the mid-Atlantic
quality. Aboard the vessels the fish species which were marketed. The sales
were handled quickly to ensure rapid and ranged from a high of 75.6% sold for Sea
adequate icing. Storage methods such as Bass to a low of 62.4% sold for Porgy.
boxing and short-shelving prevented damage Bulk packed fish outsold the tray-packed
from crushing or bruising. In the fish by 15%.
processing plants sanitation personnel were
trained on the proper use of sanitizing Retail Marketing Phase II - The
equipment and chemicals. All employees mid-Atlantic species marketed during phase
were trained to use proper hygiene and II were Black Sea Bass (dressed), Atlantic
sanitary practices, including washing hands Croaker (dressed), and Gray Seatrout
prior to entering a work area, use of (skin-on fillet). These species were
hairnets and clean attire, elimination of chosen based on availability and quality.
eating and smoking in the work area, use of The success in selling these fish was
bactericidal hand and utensil dips, and use highly variable. Sales of sea bass ranged
of gloves that can be sanitized. A from 0 - 100% of the product sold with an
rotation system whereby product totes and average of 46.1%. Sales of croaker ranged
cutting boards were scrubbed and sanitized from 0 - 98% with an average of 36.6% and
routinely was implemented. All fish seatrout sold from 0 - 95% with an average
processed for this marketing effort were of 56.9%. If the sales data from three of
high-pressure washed to reduce spoilage the middle income stores, which displayed
microorganisms and to ensure at least 12 very little active participation (stores D,
days of quality shelf-life. Temperature E, and H), were omitted these averages
control was also closely monitored to would increase: sea bass 54.1% sold,
ensure rapid and adequate cooling . , croaker 43.0% sold, and seatrout 65.5%
throughout processing. Tray-packing sold.
equipment enabled product to be held.at 29
F rather than 33 F thereby extending fresh
shelf-life. Packaging, shipping and

59,

Sales of these fish, broken down into were packed in bulk over the tray-packed
store income profile levels, indicated that product.
the low income stores had the greatest Store Management - With respect to future
sales for all three species. Dressed sea marketing of mid-Atlantic fish, the
bass sold at an average rate of 73% for the majority of the seafood managers, from the
low income stores, 50% for the medium low income profile stores, stated that they
income stores, and 31% for the high income believed they could sell the following
stores. Average sales of dressed croaker species and market forms; filleted Atlantic
were 56%, 38%, and 27% for the low, medium, mackerel, dressed or filleted whiting,
and high income stores, respectively. Even filleted bluefish, dressed sea bass,
the higher priced seatrout fillets ($3.59 - filleted gray seatrout, and filleted
4.99 / lb.) sold best in the low income flounder. The seafood managers, from the
level stores. They had an average sale middle income profile stores had the
rate of 77%. The high income stores were following preferences; filleted whiting,
next'with 62% sold, followed by the medium filleted bluefish, dressed or filleted sea
income stores with 43% sold. Overall, bass, filleted gray seatrout, and filleted
.seatrout fillets sold best during phase II. flounder. The managers from the high
Out of 1190 pounds marketed, approximately income profile stores stated that they
715 pounds or 60.0% were sold. The dressed could only sell fillets. These included
fish, sea bass and croaker, did not sell as filleted mackerel, bluefish, sea bass,
well. They sold at rates of 45.9% and seatrout, and flounder.
36.6%, respectively.
During phase 11, 48.2% of the fish were Some of the overall comments on the project
sold. If we again omit data from stores included: "Would like to do it again!",
"D", "E", and "H", the average increases to "Are we going to get any more mid-Atlantic
56.2% sold. The percentage of fish sold product?-, "Did better with bulk pack...",
per store ranged from 6.8% to 96.4%. "Customers liked the variety", "Send more
fillets and less dressed fish.", "Bad time
for project, too many other things going
On a percentage basis, the sales of on.", "Waste of money at this store ... too
mid-Atlantic fish during phase I were high income level.", "Like@d the fish we
higher than during phase II. In phase I an received, but definitely prefer fillets.",
average of 68.5% of the product was sold "Tough to sell prior to the holidays",
versus 48.2% for phase II. One factor "Program was excellent ... very little
which may have influenced sales, was the problem with product overall".
greater variety of fish marketed during
phase I. In phase I, seven different
species were available. Only three species
were available during phase II. Another
probable contributing factor was the higher
retail price of the fish during phase II.
Sea bass, croaker, and seatrout sold for
approximately $1.00/lb. higher during phase
Ii.

It should also be noted that the phase II
marketing effort occurred during the off
.season for finfish sales (November -
December). One could surmise therefore,
that if you can sell almost 50% of your
product during the holiday season, even
with the limited availability and higher
pricing, that the sales potential at other
times of the year would be much greater.

In-Store Demonstrations - Evaluation of the
in-store demonstrations indicated that they
were beneficial to sales of mid-Atlantic
fish. The majority of the seafood managers
stated, that they believed the in-store
demonstrations were beneficial,to sales of
not only mid-Atlantic fish, but other
seafood products as well. The quality of
the mid-Atlantic fish that they received
was rated from average to excellent; with
most of the fish in the above average to
excellent range. Many of the managers
stated that they preferred the fish which

FLAVOR CHEMISTRY AND SEAFOOD QUALITY FACTORS

Robert C. Lindsay

Department of Food Science
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, WI 53706

ABSTRACT
to seafoods. Others are aware of the delicate,
Recent advances in the understanding of the health- mild flavors of fresh fish, but prefer not to risk
related benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty the purchase of fish and seafoods that in all like-
acids have enhanced the consumer image of fish and lihood will have a flavor quality less than their
seafoods. While future markets for seafoods appear expectations. Therefore, in order to realize the
extremely bright, this great potential will be potential for fish and seafood sales, it is essen-
realized only of products with fresh, mild flavors tial to strive to provide fish that lack fishiness
are provided to consumers. New discoveries about and have the highly acceptable quality character-
the chemical nature of fish flavors have provided istics of freshly caught fish.
important insights into the processes which yield
delicate fresh fish and seafood,flavors as well as In recent years fish oils have also been sold wide-
those which are associated with stalingand sea@ iy as supplemental sources of omega-3 fatty acids
food spoilage. This information is needed to guide to the food supply. However, many consumers re-
the development of safe new preservation.technolo- frain from purchasing fish oils because of cautions
gies, such as modified atmosphere packaging of from the medical community that the consequences of
fresh refrigerated fish. Loss of traditional heavy consumption of oils are not understood at the
spoilage odors is encountered in modified atmos- present time. Assuming, however, that moderate
phere packaged fish, and potential hazards arise consumption of fish oils will not be found harmful
from botulinal food poisoning in temperature- through research, it follows that many consumers
abused products. Thus, alternate means of detect- will not tolerate the pronounced fishy flavors now
ing handling abuse is a requirement for the found in various fish oils. Much interest has
introduction of this new technology. Measurement also been expressed recently about the incorpora-
of aroma compounds for this and other purposes tion of omega-3 fatty acids and fish oils into
are discussed in relation to spoilage and fishy usual foods much the same as other animal or plant
flavors. fats are used.. However, in most instances very
pronounced.fishy flavors result, and major techno-
INTRODUCTION logical hurdles face scientists and technologists
as they strive to overcome these difficulties. In
Consumers have dramatically increased their con- any event, without solutions to off-flavor problems
foods fortified with fish oils will be rejected by
sumption of fish and seafoods in recent years, and the majority of consumers.
many now project that the demand will continue this
upward trend into the future. In addition to bene- SEAFOOD QUALITY FACTORS
fits from attractive low calorie and low.cholester-
ol images, fish and seafood sales have significant- Consumers generally use several quality factors in
ly benefited from the emerging.knowledge about the decisions about fish and seafood purchases (3).
health benefits of the omega-3 long-chain, polyun- However, the species of fish often serves as a
saturated fatty acids contained somewhat uniquely basis for an initial concept of the quality, and
in fish lipids (1,2). Currently., fish, especially this is supported by several other considerations,
fatty species, provide the only major source of including form, composition, nutritional value,
omega-3 long-chain fatty acids to the food supply. texture and flavor. When little-known species of
fish are involved, consumers have little basis for
Freshly-harvested fish and seafoods are character- a perception of quality without some persuasion by
ized by very mild flavors that are particularly the marketer. Color, texture, and flavor proper-
lacking in fishiness, especially--after cooking. - ties in these fish become the most important fact-
Distinct and objectionable fishiness most disliked ors for quality perceptions.
by consumers arises as the quality of either fresh
refrigerated or frozen fish and seafood deterior- Many consumers object to the tough or dry textures
ates during handling and storage encountered in that are often encountered in frozen fish. Preven-
usual contemporary distribution systems. Many tion of tough textures in some species of fish dur-
consumers, particularly those in inland regions, frozen storage is0difficult, but rapid freezing and
have experienced only seafoods with pronounced storage below -20 C after dipping in polyphosphates
fishy flavors, and generally have little attraction generally lessens the severity of the problem (4).

CH2585-8/88/0000- 61 $1 @1988 IEEE

Application of polyphosphate dips reduces the drip measurements frequently do not parallel sensory
formed when fish is thawed and held, and this is assessments of fish flavor quality because other
attributed to an increased water-binding capacity fishy flavor compounds also contribute to these
of proteins. The use of polyphosphates can lead to flavors.
slight phosphate flavors and requires labeling as
a food additive. Dimethylamine is frequently found in marine fish
also, and especially in frozen'marine fish that
Freshness of flavor, however, very frequently is have not been held at suitably low temperatures.
the quality factor that determines acceptance of This alkyl amine also exhibits an ammoniacal, fishy
fish and seafo6ds. This is especial-ly the case aroma that is somewhat similar to trimethylamine.
currently where there is a great demand for fresh- Instead of having its origin through microbial
ness in all forms of foods. Perceptions of fresh- degradation of trimethylamine oxide, dimethylamine
ness by consumers includes several quality factors. is formed via endogenous enzyme action in fish
However, the odor quality of either fresh or pre- muscle (8). The enzyme action releases both di-
prepared seafoods plays a pivotal role in the methylamine and formaldehyde from the oxide, and
perception of freshness. Odors or aromas are pro- the formaldehyde molecule is believed to cause some
duced by volatile organic compounds when they reach of the toughening observed in frozen fish muscle
the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity, and through cross-linking of proteins.
thereby provide a major portion of the integrated
flavor sensation that is perceived when,a food is. Research that-began a few years ago in our labora-
consumed. Aromas associated with seafoods and fish tory on the chemical definition of seafood and fish
include not only those that are present in'freshly- flavors addressed the compounds that contributed
harvested products, but also those that are assoc- fresh flavors rather than those that appear when
iated with fish quality.deterioration. fish is sufficiently deteriorated so as not to be
considered in the very fresh stage. This research
There are several very general means by which fresh led to the discovery that specific carbonyls and
aromas and flavors of seafoods deteriorate. The alcohols that were enzymically generated by lipoxy-
traditional aerobic spoilage of fish by microorgan- genase activity accounted for the fresh, marine-
isms proceeds through a series of aroma stages that green aromas which characterize very fresh fish (9).
have been described as stale, sweet, ammoniacal, Lipoxygenases position hydroperoxides at specific
and finally putrid (5). Some quality deterioration sites on polyunsaturated fatty acids, and these hy-
can be attributed to autolytic enzyme action in droperoxides then serve as direct precursors for the
fish, but these effects are often subtle to the alcohols and carbonyls.
average consumer. Autolytic processes yield free
amino acids and are responsible also for the early Various species of freshwater and marine fish pro-
degradations of the 51-ribonucleotides. The loss duce differing,quantities of 6-carbon, 8-carbon,
of 51-ribonucleotides lessens fish freshness be- and 9-carbonIcarbonyls and alcohols from the poly-
cause they are flavor enhancers which provide some unsaturated fatty acid precursors, and this differ-
of the delicious or umami taste sensation that is ence accounts for the different aromas observed in
highly prized in fish, crabs, and other seafoods. the various.species of fish and shellfish (10,11).
The disappearance of 51-ribonucleotide--, often paral- Cleavage of hydroperoxides that are produced by the
.1els the loss of fish freshness (6,7), and their lipoxygenases at specific sites yields specific
measurement is sometimes used as an indirect index aroma compounds, and this appears to be carried out
of fresh fish quality. Another major mechanism for by lyase.-type'enzymes. This research has also shown
deterioration of flavor quality in fish stems from that the profile.of carbonyls and alcohols can change
the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in . with the stage of life cycle of fish. For example,
fish lipids which yields oxidized fishy flavors or salmon from saltwater exhibit different profiles of
rancidity. Often in the past it has been impossi- volatile aroma compounds that similar fish taken
ble to discern which of the mechanisms were most later during spawning -runs in freshwater. This
responsible for flavor quality deterioration in'a shift appears'to reflect a change in the cell level
specific circumstance. regulatory mechanisms for osmoregulation and slime
productions which appear to be mediated by hydroxy-
CHEMISTRY OF FISHY FLAVORS fatty acids or leukotrienes that are also derived
directly.derived from the hydroperoxides formed by
Trimethylamine is believed by many to be the@com- the lipoxygenases.
pound that is responsible for fishy flavors because
it is found in fish, and it exhibits fishhouse-like In refrigerated fresh fish, the very delicate marine-
aromas when present in ppm concentrations. However, green aromas are often lost during the first day or
it occurs only in significant concentrations two of holding. This has been found to be largely
in marine species of fish, and it is not present in the result of microbial conversion of-the cucumber-
these fish when they are freshly harvested (8). Its like compound, t,c-2.6-nonadienal, to a lesser po-
precursor is trimethylamine oxide which is odorless, tent aroma compound, t,c-2,6-nonadienal. Thus, the
and this substance functions in osmoregulation of loss in fresh aroma can be traced to a simple alter-
marine fish. Many spoilage bacteria associated with ation of compounds in the fish (12.). Continued aer-
fish are capable of reducing trimethylamine oxide to obic.storage results in the microbial production of
trimethylamine, and hence its development in refrig- various esters whic- provide sweet aromas, and fin-
erated marine fish has long been used as a chemical ally sulfur compounds are produced which along with
index of fish freshness (8). However, trimethylamine phenols and certain fatty acids give rise to spoiled

or putrid aromas (12). Ideal frozen fish technology, including rapid freez-
ing, storage below -30 0C, and vacuum packaging in
Until recently it was presumed that the lipids in barrier film, can preserve much of the quality of
fish dnd.seafoods rapidly became oxidized because fresh fish. Some argue currently that this is the
the autoxidation process was initiated by light and means by which seafoods should be marketed, but the
then was promoted by the presence of metals, and costs combined with quality deterioration ' that
particularly iron from heme. However, the discov- occurs from inevitable mishandling continue to make
ery of enzymic generation of flavor compounds via the option less attractive than improved fresh fish
lipoxygenase activity (9) combined with observa- systems.
tions that non-site-directed enzymic lipid oxida-
tions (13) occur in fish mus 'cle places emphasis on Modified atmosphere packaging with carbon dioxide
means for potential control of the development of or vacuum packaging of fresh fish also has been
oxidized flavors in seafoods in a different light explored significantly as a means for preserving
than formerly. In effect these enzyme activities the fresh quality of refrigerated fish (15,16).
provide a seeding of hydroperoxides into fish This technology also provides 'means for exclusion
muscle very soon after death. Thus, the processes of oxygen from contact with fish provided that a
that are responsible for the.desirable aromas of barrier package is employed, and it retards the
fresh seafoods and fish must be controlled somehow growth of traditional aerobic spoilage bacteria.
because they are also responsible for initiating Under ideal conditions, it has been shown that the
the random oxidation reactions that soon lead to usual shelflife of 4-8 days for refrigerated fresh
the expression of fishy oxidized flavors'. fish can be extended to 14-18 days. Such an exten-
sion does not imply, however, that fresh-from-the-
Fish lipid oxidation produces, perhaps, some of the water quality is retained throughout the period,
most objectionable fishy flavors known, and these but instead implies that the products remain accept-
are particularly pronounced in fish oils, such as able for that time.. The.freshly-caught quality
cod liver oil. However, these flavors are equally characteristics can be extended significantly,
influential in causing fishy flavors in aerobically however, under modified atmosphere packaging compar-
held fresh fish and frozen fish. Among the pro- ed to usual aerobic holding.
ducts of lipid oxidation, two isomers of 2,4,7-
decatrienal provide the most potent undesirable Desires for implementation of modified atmosphere
fishy flavors. These compounds are derived from packaging systems for fresh fish distribution have
the autoxidation of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, been expressed by,the seafoods and retail super-
and because of their low thresholds they become market .industries for some time now. However, a
dominant in the aromas and flavors caused by lipid major technological hurdle has arisen in the path
oxidation products (14). Recently, we have con- of.development.of these systems for fresh fish, and
tinued research on these compounds, and.have found this very simply is a potential hazard from botulism
that some hope.lies in devising means to alter the poisoning from mishandled fish. Clostridium botu-
course of autoxidation in fish oils so that the linum type E especially is widely distributed in
2,4,7-decatrienals are not favored as products of freshwater and marine environments, and it is cap-
oxidation. In the presence of high levels of able of growth at moderate refrigeration temper-
tocopherol-type antioxidants 'greater.amounts of atures (16,17,18). The reduced oxygen environments
1,5-octadien"3-ol are formed at the expense of in modified atmosphere and vacuum packages slightly
the decatrienals, and the alcohol has less flavor favor the outgrowth of the botulism organism compar-
impact and is not fishy in character. Thus, the ed to aerobic environments'. But more importantly,
use,of natural antioxidants and Pther mediator the presence of carbon dioxide and the absence of
compounds may have potential for reducing the oxygen inhibits the growth of usual spoilage micro-
flavor impact of lipid-derived fishiness. However, organisms that cause the putrid odors which prevent
considering the flavor potency of these compounds the consumption of potentially hazardous seafood
from lipid oxidation, it appears that a difficult products that have been temperature-abused. Thus,
task lies ahead in solving this highly significant the spoilage signal has been lost with the new tech-
problem of th e seafoods industry. nology. Similar lengthy holding of traditional aer-
obically packaged fresh fish also will yield botu-
PRESERVING SEAFOOD FRESHNESS THROUGH TECHNOLOGY lism toxin if spores or cells of C. botulinum are
present, but consumption would be prevented because
Based on the discussion of the chemistry of fishy of the offensive aroma.
flavors and other deteriorated flavors in seafoods,
it might appear that the task.of controlling flavor Thus, the implementation of modified atmosphere
quality might be a relatively simple matter of pre- packaging for fresh fish has been held back because
venting microbial growth and eliminating oxygen it is likely that somewhere a consumer will abuse
from contact with the product. Indeed, much of the fish by not keeping suitably refrigerated. Abusive
traditional processing of seafoods, such as drying, handling of modified atmosphere packaged fish that
salting, or pickling, addresses directly the pre- can lead to toxin formation, however, must involve
vention of microbial growth. Certainly, the frozen exposure to elevated temperatures for several hours.
fish industry also provides control of microbial
growth, but freezing does not control oxidation.
Further, frozen forms of seafoods are not highly Besides aroma signals that fish may not be suitable
desired by consumers, and sales have not increased for consumption, visual signals such as drip, tis--
similarly to fresh fish. sue disintegration, and bleaching, may also provide

information that the product is spoiled. However, research on the means for preservation of high qual-
visual ques are generally considered not strong ity fresh fish and seafoods remains high to assure
enough to deter consumption of marginally safe fish maintenence of seafoods as highly sought-after
products. Further, after washing in cold water the foods. Particularly needed are continued research
fish may again appear quite acceptable for consuinp- programs on developing means to control development
tion. of fishy flavors in seafoods as well as research on
the development of safe fresh fish packaging and
The most promising solution to providing consumers distribution systems that are compatible with con-
with a fail-safe signal appears to be the use of temporary retailing of fish. Additionally, research
time-temperature indicators which provide a very is needed on methods that can be used to determine
strong visual que that the product must not be con- fish freshness quality when they have been held in
sumed if it has been abused. The appearance of-a new preservation systems that obscure the tradition-
red color in an enzyme solution-based time-temper- al quality indices.
ature indicator tab after abusive temperature
exposure is one commercial approach to this need. REFERENCES
Another commercial system employs the travel of
a low-melting colored wax along a wick which.is 1. Simopoulos, A. P., Kifer, R. R-., and Martin, R.
positioned along a quality scale, and the wax E., eds. Health Effects of Polyunsaturated Fat-
travels towards a danger zone as the product is Acids in Seafoods, Academic Press, 1986, 473 pp.
exposed to abusive temperatures. These products 2. Kinsella, J. Seafoods and Fish Oils in Human
have great promise for use in making the modified Health and Disease, Marcel Dekker, 1987, 317 pp.
atmosphere packaging technology safe for fresh
seafoods. 3. Wesson, J. B., Lindsay, R. C., and Stuiber, D.
A. Discrimination of fish and seafood quality
However. the high cost and some lack of adequate by consumer populations. J. Food Sci. 44:878-
flexibility to cover all circumstancesof abuse 882, 1979.
have precluded their adoption by the fresh fish 4. B.oyd, J. W., and Southcott, B. A. Effect of
industry. More research is needed to improve the polyphosphate and other salts on drip loss and
functionality of these devices, and to lower the oxidative -rancidity of frozen fish. J. Fish.
cost to levels that make them affordable. Res. Bd. Canada 22:53-57, 1965.
At this time interest in modified atmosphere 5. Shewan, J. M., Maclntosh, R. C., Tucker, C. G.,
packaging systems for fresh seafoods appears cent- and Ehrenberg, A. S. C. The development of a
ered on master-package systems which can be con- numerical scoring system for the sensory assess-
trolled adequately in the distribution system so ment of the spoilage of wet white fish. J. Sci.
that essentially no threat of undetected temperature Food Agric. 4(6):283-285, 198S.
abuse exists. These systems utilize large contain- 6. Spinelli, J. Biochemical Ibasis of fish fresh-
ers to hold consumer-size packages under modified
ness. Process Biochem. 6(5):36-40, 1911.
atmosphere conditions. The consumer-size packages
contained in the master packages then can be re- 7. Ehira, S., and Uchiyama, H. Determination of
moved from the systems just before sale, and they fish freshness using the k value and comments
will spoil in the usual manner. Thus, the shelf- on some other biochemical changes in relation
life extension is provided in the distribution to freshness. In: Kramer, D. A., and Liston,
channels, andpotential hazards are not encountered J., eds., Seafood Quality Determination, Else-
by allowing consumers to temperature-abuse the vier Science Publishers, 1987, pp. 185-207.
product while it is under carbon dioxide. 8. Hebard, C. E., Flick, G. J., Martin, R. E.
QUALITY-RELATED RESEARCH NEEDS Occurrence and significance of trimethylamine
oxide and its derivatives in fish and shellfish.
Consumer demands for high quality fresh fish and In: Martin, R., Flick, G. J., Hebard, C., and
fishery products in general are projected to con Ward, D., eds., Chemistry and Biochemistry of
tinue in the future, and ever increas Iing demands- Marine Food Products, AVI Publishing Co., 1982,
pp. 149-272.
for better preservation of fresh flavor quality
will also result. Assuming that the health bene- 9. Josephson, D. B., and Lindsay, R. C. Enzymic
fits of moderate consumption of omega-3 long-chain generation of volatile aroma compounds from
Polyunsaturated fatty acids continue to be support- fresh.fish. In: Parliment, T. and Croteau, R.,
ed by on-going research, additional demands will be eds., Biogeneration of Aromas, ACS Symposium
encountered for fish oils. Currently, only fish Series No. 137, American Chemical Society,
and seafoods are viewed as viable sources of the Washington, D.C., 1986, pp. 201-221.
omega-3 fatty acids in the diet. However, research
activities towards the incorporation of omega-3 10. Josephson, D. B., Lindsay, R. C., and Stuiber,
fatty acids into foods other than seafoods has D. A. Variations in the occurrences,of enzym-
already begun. Fish oils are currently the only ically derived volatile aroma compounds in salt-
source of omega-3 fatty acids for these uses., but and freshwater fish. J. Agric. Food Chem. 32:
alternate production from genetic engineered aquat- 1344-1347, 1984.
ic plant-based sources are likely to compete with 11. Josephson, D. B., Lindsay, R. C., and Stuiber,
the fishery industry for this market. Therefore,

D. Volatile compounds characterizing the aroma
of fresh Atlantic and Pacific oysters. J.
Food Sci. 50:5-9, 1985.
12. Josephson, D. B., Lindsay, R. C_and Olafs-
dottir, G. Measurement of volatile aroma com@
pounds as means for following the sensory det-
erioration of fresh fish and fishery products.
In: Kramer, D. A., and Liston, J., eds., Sea-
food Quality Determination, Elseveier Science
Publishers, 1987, pp. 27-47.
13. McDonald, R. E., Kelleher, S. D., and Hultin,
H. 0. Membrane lipid oxidation in'mic-rosomal
fraction from red hake muscle. J. Food Bio"
chem. 3:125-131, 1979.
14. Meijboom, P. W. and Stroink, J. B. A. 2-trans
-4-cis, 7-cis-decatrienal, the fishy off-flav-
or in strongly autoxidized oils containing
linolenic acid and omega-3 fatty acids. J.
American Oil Chem. Soc. 49:555-558, 1972.
15. Lindsay, R. C. Recent developmen ts in pack-
aging. In: Winget, R. R., ed., Integration:
Problems and Promises in the Northwest Sea-
food Industry, Small Tribes Organization
of Western Washington, Sumner, Washington,
pp. 118-122.
16. Lindsay, R. C. Controlled atmosphere packag-
ing of fish. In: Brody, A., ed., Proceedings
of the International Conference On Controlled
Atmosphere Packaging-mCAP 184, Schotland
Business Research, Inc., Princeton, N.J.,
1984, pp. 63-73.
17. Genigeorgis, C. Review: Microbial and safety
implications of the use of modified atmos-
pheres to extend the storage life of fresh
meat and fish. International J. Food Micro-
biol. 1:237-251, 1985.
18. Garcia, G. W., Genigeorgis, C., and Lindroth,
S. Risk of growth and toxin production by
Clostridium botulinum nonproteolytic Types B,
E, and F in salmon fillets stored under modi-
fied atmospheres at low and abused tempera-
tures. J. Food Protect. 50:330-336, 1987.
19. Garcia, G. and Genigeorgis, C. Quantitative
evaluation of Clostridium botulinum nonproteo-
lytic Types B, E, and F growth risk in salmon
tissue homogenates stored under modified
atmospheres. J. Food Protect. 50:390-397,
1987.

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES RELATED TO UTILIZATION
OF OUR SEAFOOD RESOURCES

Herbert 0. Hultin

University of Massachusetts/Amherst

ABSTRACT difference between the catching of food fish and
obtaining food from domestic animals and birds is
The prim.,iry macronutrients obtained from seafoods that we are dealing with a common resource in the
are proteins and lipids. Their chemical and case of the fisheries. It is a case of "first
physical instabilities, however, are a major come, first serve" and makes management
drawback to full utilization of our marine particularly difficult. During the 1960's fish
resources. Fish proteins have a unique ability to catches increased, and it was thought by many that
form protein gels, even in the absence of NaCl. the living resources of the ocean were
These proteins, however, denature readily during inexhaustible. However, yields from the sea have
storage and processing, thus changing the physical long since leveled out and research scientists now
properties of the fish tissue or products derived recognize the limitations on the resource. This
therefrom. Current nutritional interest in fish imposes the necessity of our wise use of the
lipids relates to their high concentrations of n-3 resources that are available on a sustainable
fatty acids. Oxidation of these fatty acids level.
produces off-flavors and odors and unacceptable
products. A lack of understanding of the basic There are many unique problems associated with the
processes involved in these deleterious changes use of fish and shellfish from the marine
has prevented utilizing many of our marine environment. There are a wide variety of species
resources. Muscle tissue recovery processes with very different characteristics, including odd
involving tissue disruption exacerbate these shapes, sizes, or unattractive names. Even with
problems. Due to their living in an unusual species which are considered desirable,
environment, marine poikilotherms have enyzmes approximately 50% of the edible flesh is not
with unique and unusual properties. Commercial recovered in normal processing, and there has been
exploitation of these enzymes awaits further slow development in the commercialization of
research and development. byproducts of the fish processing industry. In
this short paper, I will concentrate on three
areas which illustrate both the problems and
INTRODUCTION opportunities that challenge us in utilizing
finfish. The areas are proteins, lipids and
The living resources of the oceans have produced enzymes. The unique characteristics of these
food for mankind for thousands of years and the materials from fish compared to other food sources
lore and challenge of the sea have prompted many a stem from the fact that most of the commercial
brave soul to choose fishing as a career. Fishing species are poikilothermic organisms taken from a
is still a process of hunting and in many respects low temperature, aquatic environment.
the search for the wild animals in the ocean today
is comparable to the relationship of humans with PROTEINS
land animals and birds some 10,000 years ago.
This has significance because variations in As is the case with the proteins of most animal
populations are greater than with species which tissues, fish muscle protein is of high
have been carefully bred for hundreds if not nutritional quality. Indeed, it is the primary
thousands of years. Part of the challenge of nutrient provided by this type of product. The
fishing as a livelihood stems from the fact that major problem associated with fish muscle proteins
often the roughest of waters provide the highest is to keep the product containing the proteins in
yields of the sea due in part to the upwelling of a form that people wish to consume.
the water in those areas which distribute
nutrients from the bottom of the ocean. The texture of fresh fish is, in general,
acceptable to the average consumer. The low
Fishing is unique in another respect in that while content of collagen and its relatively low tensile
the primary species of land animals and birds strength produce a generally tender product. The
consumed by humans were also prey in the wild to nature of fish muscle collagen is a consequence of
carnivorous species, most of the fish that is the fact that the fish lives in a medium (water)
consumed by humans are themselves carnivores, thus which supplies much support to the animal. The
greatly limiting sustainable yields from the sea ease of degradation of fish muscle collagen on
(Lorentzen, 1981). Perhaps an even more important cooking is a reflection of the fact that fish live

CH2585-8/88/0000- 66 $1 @1988 IEEE

at low temperatures and have proteins which are these proteins in products which are not
unstable at high temperatures. compatible with NaCl for reasons of flavor. In
related work, we have evidence that components of
It is the low temperature environment from which species which can form good gels in the absence of
the fish is derived, however, that does bring NaCl can be used to confer this ability on fish
about one of the major problems related to fish species which ordinarily require NaCl. Further
texture. The contractile proteins which primarily work is required in this area, but it may
determine the texture of fish flesh and the eventually lead to the ability to get desirable
functional properties of the muscle proteins are physical properties from the proteins of a wide
more unstable during handling and storage, e.g. variety of fish species which currently have
frozen storage, than the same proteins from land limitations in their use.
animals and birds. It appears that this is due to
the greater flexibility required for these LIPIDS
proteins to function at the low temperature at
which the fish lives. To obtain this flexibility, Fish lipids are currently the center of much
stability at high temperatures must be sacrificed research attention because of epidemiological
(Low and Somero, 1974; Tsuchimoto et al., 1988). studies which have shown a correlation between the
This great sensitivity to denatur@_tio-n when the consumption of n-3 fatty acids and a lessening of
proteins are stressed is the reason that adequate various human physiological disorders, especially
storage temperature for fish flesh is considered atherosclerosis and immune functions (Kinsella,
to be -300C rather than the -200C recommended for 1986). Oxidation products of the n-3 fatty acids
the muscle tissue of warm-blooded animals. appear to modify the effects of the products of
the arachidonic acid (an n-6 fatty acid) cascade.
The situation with many marine fish is complicated The principal n-3 fatty acids found in seafood are
by the fact that they have an enzymic system that eicosapentaenoic (C20:5) (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
degrades the osmolyte t rime thyl ami ne-N-oxide (C22:6) (DHA) acids. Fatty acids are unstable
(TMAO) to dimethylamine and formaldehyde. The because of their 1:4 conjugated diene systems.
products of this reaction increase the rate of DRA has five of these systems while EPA has four.
denaturation of the fish muscle proteins greatly. Thus, they are extremely suscepible to oxidation.
Although it had been suggested that formaldehyde Hydrogen is extracted from the conjugated system
functions by crosslinking the proteins, other forming a free radical which reacts readily with
evidence indicates that the primary function of molecular oxygen. This peroxy free radical can
formaldehyde may be to increase the rate of extract hydrogen from another fatty acid
denaturation by side chain modification (Ang and propagating the chain reaction while forming a
Hultin, 1988). The susceptibility of fish muscle lipid hydroperoxide. The latter are unstable and
proteins to denaturation following side chain will break down producing off-odors and flavors.
modification has broad implications. Many
components of the cytosolic fraction of the muscle Due to the high degree of unsaturation of the fish
cell could react directly or produce compounds n-3 fatty acids, they have not made convenient
that would react with the proteins. Also, there model systems. Thus, insufficient information is
is the possibility that free radicals produced in available about the rates of deterioration and
the aqueous phase can modify proteins leading both mechanisms of oxidation occurring in fish lipids
to their denaturation and hydrolysis (Davies, in bulk. The situation in fish muscle tissue is
1986). Fish muscle proteins would be particularly even worse because of the location and structural
susceptible to these changes due to their natural arrangement of lipids in biological tissue, the
instability. large number of prooxidants and antioxidants in
the tissue, and the great complexity of all of
Preventing these changes while recovering these interacting factors. To utilize oxygen,
functional fish muscle proteins from minced fish biological tissues have a large number of systems
prepared from underutilized species or fish racks for activating molecular oxygen to participate in
poses a major challenge for future research. Some necessary reactions in the cell. That
physical properties of fish muscle proteins are uncontrolled oxidation can sometimes be a problem
unique. One of these is their ability to form is indicated by the extensive antioxidant systems
highly elastic gels. This property is the basis present in the same tissue. It is perhaps not
of the process of surimi manufacture which has unreasonable to consider lipid oxidation as a
become an important economic venture recently in process waiting to happen with a small change in
the United States. It appears that the physical the balance of very strong prooxidative and
properties of fish proteins may be even more antioxidative forces. Some of the problems
unique than originally thought. We have recently related to this have been recently discussed
shown that very good gels can be produced from (Hultin, 1988).
some species of fish without the addition of NaCl
(Hennigar et al., 1988), usually believed to be Oxidation of fish lipids is important from two
necessary 7o -solublize the contractile proteins points of view. Due to their nutritional
prior to their formation of gels. This offers a significance, loss of substantial quantities of
great potential for a wholenew range of products n-3 fatty acids would have a detrimental effect on
catering to the desire, or even need, for people the nutritional quality of seafoods. We have
to restrict their intact of sodium. From a food found, however, that in a number of normal
product point-of-view, it could allow the use of processing operations as may be practiced both

commercially and in the home, chemical loss due to and its accompanying off-flavors for this to be
oxidation of the n-3 fatty acids is not a successful. Unfortunately, it appears that
significant nutritional problem (Xing et al., extracted lipids are less stable to oxidation than
1988). However, wherever heat is used, as in cook- the same lipids when present in fish tissue.
ing or canning, there is a rendering of lipid and
a concomitant loss of the n-3 fatty acids. This ENZYMES
physical loss of n-3 fatty acids was substantial,
and in a number of different thermal processes Fish are poikilothermic organisms. Most
ranged from 30-50 per cent of the total. The loss commercial species are from waters of low
is dependent on temperature, size and shape of the temperature. Due to their low temperature
portion, and fat content, among other variables. environment, fish have enyzmes which function well
Improved methods of heating may reduce this loss. at low temperatures. This makes storage problems
of fish muscle tissue different from those of
Although it may not cause a significant warm-blooded land mammals and birds.
nutritional loss, oxidation of the n-3 fatty acids Refrigeration of the latter would be expected to
is important from the standpoint of development of slow enzymic reactions normally occurring, whereas
off-flavor. The off-flavor components are typical refrigeration temperatures are very
detectable by the human nose at very low levels. similar to the normal body temperature of a fish.
Thus, off-flavor changes can occur even when there It should not be surprising that fish undergo
is only a very small loss in these unsaturated autolytic degradation at a much faster rate than
fatty acids. Progress has been made in does the muscle tissue of warm-blooded animals at
understanding the nature of lipid oxidation as it low (refrigerated) temperatures. These properties
occurs in fish muscle tissue. Transition metals, of fish enzymes have often not been given proper
especially iron, in the presence of molecular consideration in the storage and handling of fish
oxygen are primary causes for the changes muscle tissue.
observed. These transition metals may be
complexed to small molecular weight components of Indeed, there is a lack of good, fundamental
the muscle tissue, such as amino acids and information on the response of enzymes from fish
nucleotides, or may be associated with proteins, to temperature. This is of greatest consequence
either those containing hemes such as myoglobin with those enzymes which have important effects in
and hemoglobin or as yet unidentified nonheme controlling postmortem properties of the muscle
proteins. The presence of compounds which can tissue, i.e., those that control the breakdown of
reduce or oxidize the iron are also critical nucleotides to produce hypoxanthine, cellular
factors. Some success has been achieved in proteases, glycolytic enzymes which control pH
developing antioxidant systems to suppress some of changes and rigor, lipolytic enzymes, etc. We
these changes, but the number of prooxidants is have demonstrated that enzyme-catalyzed lipid
large and at times competing factors are oxidation in membrane fractions of muscle tissue
operative. For example, ascorbate activates ionic is much more rapid in fish than in birds and
iron but is an inhibitor of the iron associated mammals. In fact, the lipid peroxidation system
with heme proteins. Ascorbate levels in muscle of the sarcoplasmic reticulum of fish catalyzes a
decrease with postmortem age. This may play a rapid reaction at temperatures as low as -200C
role in changing the active prooxidant from ionic (Apgar and Hultin, 1982). Obviously, more
to heme iron. Many cellular membranes contain information is required in this area to prolong
prooxidants or are capable of reducing molecular top quality in fish products.
oxygen to superoxide or hydrogen peroxide.
Superoxide or hydrogen peroxide can interact with On the other hand, enzymes from marine organisms
iron to produce the,hydroxy free radical which is offer unique properties which potentially have use
capable of initiating lipid oxidation. Mincing, in commercial operations. Enzymes that have been
grinding or other mechanical disruption of the adapted to function at low temperature may differ
muscle tissue greatly accelerates oxidative from similar enyzmes from warm-blooded animals in
reactions by providing more molecular oxygen as a variety of their properties including the
well as distributing the prooxidant systems more Michaelis constant, molecular activity, activation
widely in the tissue. Antioxidant systems of the energy, stability to low and high temperatures,
cell may also lose their potency during postmortem and specificity (Hultin, 1980). It is possible
aging of the muscle tissue. A major challenge of that enzymes could be recovered from what is now a
the future is to control these changes to allow low value material which could have interesting
the most poorly utilized of our ocean species, advantages in commercial processes. For example,
fatty fish, such as Atlantic mackerel, herring, the enzymes may be better equipped to carry out a
and especially the menhaden, to be used directly reaction at low temperatures. This could be
as human foods. important in having a process that restricts
microbial growth and prevents chemical side
Another challenge facing the food scientist is to reactions from occurring. Enzymes with lower
duplicate what has been done in the soy bean Michaelis constants at low temperatures could
industry, namely, the extraction of lipid from function more efficiently in processes where
fish, especially those with a high content, and substrate concentration was limited due to
incorporation of the extracted lipids into a solubility problems or cost of the substrate.
variety of nonfishery products. It will be Lower thermal stability of these enzymes could be
absolutely essential to control lipid oxidation important in eliminating them after their function

has been carried out, that is, they could be detailed data base, and develop better means of
destroyed at a lower temperature causing fewer preventing quality changes. In the past, efforts
side reactions than comparable enzymes from warm- have not been made with fishery products
blooded animals. comparable to what has occurred with red meats and
poultry. To fully utilize this excellent
A current theory suggests that enzymes from low nutritional source, greater efforts must be made.
temperature environments have greater flexibility
in their structure which allows them to function REFERENCES
in an environment of low thermal energy (Low and
Somero, 1974). It is this greater flexibility Ang, J.F. and Hultin, H.O. 1988. Submitted.
which also makes them more susceptible to Apgar, M.E. and Hultin, H.O. 1982. Cryobiology
denaturation. This greater flexibility may be 19, 154.
reflected in broader substrate specificities of Da,@i_es, K.J.A. 1986. J. Free Radicals Biol. Med.
the enzymes. We have studied in detail 2, 155.
specificity against a variety of proteins of a Hennigar, C.J., Buck, E.M., Hultin, H.O., Peleg,
chymotrypsin prepared from the dogfish (Squalus M. and Vareltzis, K. 1988. J. Food Sci. 53,
acanthias) and compared the results with those 963.
obtained with the bovine enzyme (Ramakrishna et Hultin, H.O. 1980. In "Enzymes. The Interface
al., 1987). The fish enzyme was able to hydrolyze Between Technology and Economics", J.P. Danehy
a greater number of bonds in a number of protein and B. Wolnak, eds., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New
substrates, usually at a considerably faster rate. York, p. 161.
It was observed that dogfish chymotrypsin could Hultin, H.O. 1988. In "Fatty Fish Utilization:
even hydrolyze about 10 per cent of the peptide Upgrading from Feed to Food", N. Davis, ed.,
bonds of corn gluten, a substrate almost Univ. No. Carolina Sea Grant College Program,
completely resistant to the action of the bovine Raleigh, p. 185.
enzyme. In testing for possible use in cheese Kinsella, J.E. 1986. Food Technol. 40 (No. 2),
making, it was observed that the clot formed more 89.
slowly in milk treated with the fish enzyme but Lorentzen, G. 1981. In "Advances in Technology
had a much longer life than the similar one formed in the Chilling, Freezing, Processing, Storage
by the bovine enzyme. Even though the fish enzyme and Transport of Fish, especially Underutilized
hydrolyzed more bonds in the casein molecule, the Species", Int. Inst. Refrig., Paris, p. 25.
specific sites of hydrolysis must have been Low, P.S. and Somero, G.N. 1974. Comp. Biochem.
different and allowed the clot to remain formed Physiol. 49B, 307.
for a long period of time. Although these data Ramakrishna, M., Hultin, H.O. and Arallah, M.T.
are interesting, they only scratch the surface of 1987. J. Food Sci. 52, 1198.
the potential for a wide variety of enzymes that Tsuchimoto, M., Tanaka, N., Misima, T., Yada, S.,
exist in marine organisms and may have unique Senta, T. and Yasuda, M. 1988. Nippon
properties. Suisan Gakkaishi 54, 787.
Xing, H., Yoo, Y., i-e-11eher, S.D., Nawar, W.W. and
SUMMARY Hultin, H.O. 1988. Paper presented at 196th
National American Chemcial Society Meeting,
The major nutrients of fish are its proteins and Sept. 25-30, Los Angeles.
lipids. The primary challenge of food science is
to maintain the quality of the product so that the
consumer wishes to consume these high quality
nutrients. This is true whether the fish is
consumed directly, restructured as in a fish gel,
or the components are used as ingredients for non-
fish based products. The unique properties of
fish muscle as food are due to the nature of the
animal and its habitat. These are the reasons for
the instability of protein to denaturation, the
highly unsaturated nature of the lipids with the
concomitant susceptibility to chemical oxidation,
the low content of collagen, high concentrations
of some osmolytes in the cytosolic fraction, and
the high activity of fish enzymes at low tempera-
tures. Too often, the assumption is made that fish
muscle tissue is very similar postmortem to that
of land animals and birds. Although in terms of
fundamental physiological functions, there is a
lot of truth in this, the behavior of the tissue
as a food during storage and processing is, in
fact, quite different. In the future, it is going
to be necessary for researchers to learn more
about the nature and chemistry of fish muscle
tissue, understand the changes they undergo during
storage and processing, build a broader and more

MICRO-CONFUTER BASED DESIGN OF RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS FOR THE
PRODUCTION OF SOFT-SHELL BLUE CRABS (CALLINECTES SAPIDUS)

Mark P. Thomasson, Daniel G. Burden, and Ronald F. Malone

Departme nt of Civil Engineering
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

ABSTRACT the crab holding trays. The most common examples
include saltwater facilities located in, or near,
Use of recirculating shedding systems in the brackish bays and estuaries. Unfortunately, not
soft-shell blue crab industry continues to every crab shedding facility can be located near
increase as the capabilities of existing in-shore a suitable water source. As an alternative,
production facilities expand. This industry recirculating systems are often employed. These
significantly contributes to the value of the systems typically reuse the same water throughout
near-shore fishery. Recent advancements in water the season replacing only evaporation losses.
treatment capabilities have been based on Water quality is maintained by using filtration
fluidized bed and upflow sand filters to support components which break down the nitrogenous crab
growth of desirable waste-consuming bacteria and wastes, thus maintaining a suitable environment
to remove solids. The filters' superior treat- for the organisms. Without mechanical and
ment capabilities permit a reduction in system biological filtration, the water in a recircu-
construction costs while reducing mortalities lating system would soon become toxic to the
resulting from water quality degradation. System crabs, resulting in high mortalities. Therefore,
designs, however, are complicated by the specific the quality of the environment supporting these
hydraulic requirements of the filter beds. A organisms is most important when considering the
micro-computer program has been written for the economic viability of a crab shedding system.
Louisiana Sea Grant College Program to assist
crab fishermen with sizing filters, reducing flow BACKGROUND
requirements, and selecting pumps. The distribu-
tion of the software is expected to accelerate Overview
the adoption of this new filter technology and
strengthen the blue crab shedding industry. A Sea Grant research project at Louisiana State
University, initiated in 1982, found that the
INTRODUCTION major threat to crabs in a recirculating system
was toxicity due to nitrite (6). This knowledge
The blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), like all permitted rational design of low-rate biological
crustaceans, derives its body shape from a shell filters (submerged rock filters) for nitrifica-
(exoskeleton) which completely encases and tion of the system water. Following further
protects the vital organs and muscle tissues. research and development, interim design criteria
Periodically, immature crabs undergo ecdysis (or were released for commercial producers of soft-
molting) by which the old shell is replaced. shell crabs (5).
During this growth process, the crab expands the
new inner shell while dissolving and cracking the Because these filters' have limited support
old shell until it can work itself free. For a capacity in relation to their size, and have a
few hours after ecdysis, the new exoskeleton is tendency to clog, research efforts were directed
soft. Crabs captured in this condition are toward developing and testing high-rate biologi-
commonly known as "soft-shell" crabs. Commercial cal filters, principally the fluidized bed and
production of this seafood delicacy depends on the upflow sand filters (2). These filters were
capturing crabs that approach ecdysis, keeping much smaller 'and more efficient than the sub-
these animals healthy until. they molt, and merged -rock filters, and, therefore, effort
harvesting them before their shell hardens. concentrated on developing design criteria for
these new filters (3,4).
The holding and shedding of crabs has tradi-
tionally been accomplished by pumping water, in High rate filter design is complex. Commercial
which the animals naturally live, into a holding operators found the hydraulic requirements
facility and discharging the wastewater back into difficult to master, leading to many poorly
the body of water from which it was taken. This designed filters in early facilities. Conse-
method of shedding, known as a flow-through quently, a computer program, OPTIMUM, developed
system, succeeds only when the water source is to assist research, was modified for industrial
consistently of acceptable quality and tempera- application. This software is to be distributed
ture to facilitate the high loading density in through the Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service

CH2585-8188/0000- 70 $1 @1988 IEEE

network to promote the new filter technology and Two types of filters modeled by OPTIMUM include
accelerate its implementation in the blue crab the fluidized bed and upflow sand f ilters
shedding industry. (Figure 2). A fluidized bed is an attached-
growth microbial filter in which bacteria grow in
Recirculating Systems a film on the surface of sand grains. The filter
medium consists of 8/16 (1.2-2.4 mm) filter sand,
Recirculating systems typically reuse the same which provides a large specific surface area for
water throughout the shedding season. These the bacterial growth. The bacteria consume the
systems reduce the costs associated with wat 'er crab wastes and convert ammonia to nitrate.
acquisition and heating while providing complete
control over water quality. Components of a The fluidized bed filter operates in a continuous
typical recirculating system (Figure 1) include upward stream of water. The drag caused by the
holding trays, screens, a reservoir, a sump, water's upward velocity expands the filter bed,
pumps, and filters. A brief discussion of each keeping the sand particles in suspension.
component is presented below. Because of the continuous fluidization of the
filter bed, the filter will not capture solid
Screens are used to remove large solids that may wastes, and thus must be accompanied by a solids
damage the pump or otherwise degrade water removal system. Collisions of the sand particles
quality. The reservoir provides a large volume abrade bacterial growth, which is flushed out by
of water which buffers the system while the sump the upflowing water. Consequently, the filter
serves as a [email protected] point for the recircu- never clogs.
lating water. An additional pump is recommended
to expand (or clean) the upflow sand filter, as In the second filter, the upflow sand filter, the
well as providing backup in case of pump failure. media remains packed during normal operation.
Water quality control is provided by employing a The packed sand traps solids as the water flows
filter system which treats crab wastes. upward through the filter. The filter is cleaned
daily by increasing the flowrate through the
Ammonia is the most critical type of metabolic filter, expanding the sand bed, and diverting the
wastes produced by the crabs. With the aid of cloudy, solids rich effluent to a drain line.
biological filtration, ammonia can be removed. Once the solids are removed, the filter resumes
Two specific types of bacteria, Nitrosomonas and normal operation.
Nitrobacter, are cultivated in the biological
filter. The former converts ammonia to another Although the sand in this filter is not fluidized
toxic compound known as nitrite while the latter except during the cleaning cycle, it provides
converts nitrite to relatively non-toxic nitrate sufficient surface area for nitrifying bacteria
(1,7). This series of events is known as nitri- growth. Thus, the upflow sand filter can serve
fication. the dual function of solids removal and crab

HOLOM
TRAYS

WASH WATER

OUTFLOW

PRESSURIZED UPFLOW
FLUIDIZED BED D FILTER(S)

PUMP MAKE-UP WATER :@;77 -EXPANDED
S-Up P.-P BED HEIGHT
a e-_--V,'
SCREM C=== / -
PACKED
BED HEIGHT

8/16
SAND-
RESERVOIR 1/2"-1/8"
GRAVEL INIF OW

Figure 1. System 2: Parallel operation of up- Figure 2. Simplified view of an unpressurized
flow sand and pressurized fluidized bed filters. fixed film nitrification filter bed.

wastes reduction. Therefore, the upflow sand system includes a pressurized fluidized bed
filter can be used alone or in combination with filter for high-rate waste reduction coupled with
the fluidized bed. an upflow sand filter for solids removal. This
configuration takes advantage of the low head
Interim design criteria for fluidized bed and loss through the fluidized bed by placing the
upflow sand filters were recently released by filter in series with the water line supplying
Malone and Burden (3) for commercial soft-shell the holding trays. The upflow sand filter can be
blue crab producers. A summary of these cri- pressurized or unpressurized and is operated in
teria, used in developing OPTIMUM, is presented parallel with the fluidized bed. Only one pump
in Table 1. Summarizing, the surface area is required for this system, but a second pump
requirement for trays with a five-inch water for expansion and backup is recommended.
depth is 0.16 ft2 /crab while the volumetric
requirement of the system is one gallon per crab. System 3: Parallel Operation of Fluidized Bed
The sand volume in the filters, 0.00067 ft3/crab, and Upflow SandFilters (Figure 4). System 3
is based on a 15-inch media depth. Flowrates are consists of three parallel flow loops. One loop
dictated by the cross-sectional area of each flushes water to the holding trays, another to
filter. Normal operation of the fluidized bed the fluidized bed, and the last to the upflow
and expansion of the upflow sand filter requires sand filters.
a flowrate of 65 gpm/ft2, based on using 8/16
filter sand. Normal operational flowrate for the Filters used with this configuration include the
upflow sand filter (no expansion) equals 10 unpressurized fluidized bed and upflow sand
gpM/ft2. Tray flowrates are based on a flushing filters. The open top on these filters allows
requirement of 0.015 gallons per minute per crab. access to the filter media for routine main-
tenance and inspection. The fluidized bed filter
COMPUTER MODEL returns the treated water to the sump for tray
distribution, while only the upflow sand filters
The program OPTIMUM was developed by the authors return water to the reservoir--thus keeping the
as a research tool to aid in designing fluidized reservoir free of solids. A two-pump system is
bed and upflow sand filters and was modified to also recommended for this configuration to reduce
assist in technology transfer to the industry. continuous pumping costs.
The program is currently equipped to handle unfed
crab and fed crawfish recirculating shedding The program OPTIMUM begins by prompting the user
systems. for the species and number of pounds to be
supported by the facility and the filter shape
Three system configurations (filter combinations) desired (square or round). The program then
are supported by the computer model (Figures 1, graphically displays each system configuration
3, and 4). System sizing is based on the desired supported and prompts the user to select the one
amount of animals (in pounds) to be held in the to be analyzed. Once a system configuration is
system. Filters are designed to be compatible selected, OPTIMUM calculates the filter dimen-
with the pumps for a given system configuration sions, the number of filters required, and the
while meeting secondary objectives such as energy required pump flowrates. A generalized flow
conservation and/or ease of operation. A brief diagram for program OPTIMUM is shown in Figure 5
discussion of each system configuration followed and a sample output is presented in Table 3.
by a description of the program is presented
below. Table 2 presents the advantages and dis- Experimental prototype filters were designed
advantages of each configuration. using an early version of OPTIMUM. Following the
success of these filters, 15-20 commercial faci-
System 1: Upflow Sand Filters with a Combined lities in southern Louisiana and Mississippi were
Sump/Reservoir (Figure 3). The unpressurized designed with the aid of OPTIMUM and have
upflow sand filter serves the dual purpose 'of operated successfully since 1986. Custom design
solids removal and nitrification while providing of shedding systems is facilitated by this
filter media access for inspection and main- program because OPTIMUM allows the user to make
tenance. as many changes as desired while instantaneously
producing design recommendations. OPTIMUM was
Only one pump is necessary, but a backup/expan- written in Turbo Pascal version 4.0 and will be
sion pump is recommended. The circulation pump available for IBM compatible micro-computers
supplies water to the trays and the filter at using DOS version 3.0 and later through the Sea
normal flow, while the backup pump is used to Grant Marine Advisory Service network. Copies of
boost the flowrate to the upflow sand filter for program OPTIMUM will be obtainable from local
cleaning. This two pump system economically marine extension service agents.
reduces power requirements by reducing the size
of the pump which must be operated continuously. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

System 2: Parallel Operation of Upflow Sand and This work was supported by the Louisiana Sea
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Filters (Figure 1). Grant College Program, an element of the National
This system configuration optimizes pump use, Sea Grant College Program,.under the auspices of
thus reducing continuous pumping costs. The NOAA, US Department of Commerce.

Tab le 1

Summary of Interim Design Criteria for Blue Crab Shedding
Systems Employing Sand Filtration

Parameter Value Comment

Tray Area 0.16 ft'/crab Normal loading density for trays

Water Depth 5 inches Recommended water depth in trays

Sand Size 1.2-2.4 mm Diameter of 8/16 filter sand

Bed Depth 15 inches Assumed bed depth in sand filters

Sand Volume 0.00067 fts/crab At least 50% of sand volume must be in upflow sand filter

Total Volume 1 gallon/crab Total of operational volume of all components

Flowrates 0.015 gpm/crab Minimum flowrate to trays

65 gpM/ft2 Normal operational flowrate for fluidized bed

10 gpM/ft2 Normal operational flowrate to upflow sand filter

65 gpM/ft2 Expansion flowrate for upflow sand filter

Table 2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Recirculating System

System Advantages Disadvantages

System 1: Upflow Sand Filters. High solids processing capabilities Limited carrying capacity
with a Combined Sump/Reservoir
Uses small recirculating pump Large expansion pump required

Filters are accessible

System 2: Parallel Operation Low continuous pumping requirements High construction cost for
of Upflow Sand and Pressurized pressurized fluidized bed
Fluidized Bed Filters High animal loading capacity

System 3: Parallel Operation Filters are accessible for cleaning Moderate energy cost
of Fluidized Bed and Upflow and inspection associated with large
Sand Filters recirculating flows
High animal loading capacity

HOLDING WASH HOLDING
TRAYS WATER TRAYS

U WASH WATER WASH
WATER

UPFLOW
SAND
UPFLOW FILTERS
SAND FILTER($) UNPRESSURIZED
FLUIDIZED
BED

MAKE-Up CIRCI LATIONI
PUMP BACKUP PUMP WATER PUMF -4-
MAKE-UP WATER
r----j SCREEN
EXPANSION
PUMP
SCREEN

RESERVOIR)SUMP RESERVOIR

Figure 3. System 1: Upflow sand filters with a Figure 4. System 3: Parallel operation of a
combined sump/reservoir. fluidized bed and upflow sand filters.

Table 3

Sample Output from OPTIMUM

Type of System: Unfed Blue Crab Shedding System

Actual Total Capacity: 1069 pounds

Filter Media Grain Size: 8/16 sieve analysis

Depth of Media: 15 inches

System Configuration: Parallel Pressurized Fluidized Bed and Upflow Sand Filter

FILTER SPECIFICATIONS:

Number & Type of Filters: I-Pressurized Fluidized Bed Filter

Shape of Filters: Cylindrical Filter

Diameter: 14 inches

Number & Type of Filters: 2-Unpressurized Upflow Sand Filters

Shape of Filters: Cylindrical Filter

Diameter: 14 inches

Required Output from Pump: 80.00 gallons per minute
@. 7N
1\11.R BE

REFERENCES
Cr 1. Colt, J. and D. Armstrong. Nitrogen
toxicity to fish, crustaceans, and mollusks.
INSTRUCTIONS Proceedings of the Bio-Engineering Symposium
for Fish Culture, J. A. Lochie and E. C.
Kinney, eds., pp. 34-37, 1979.

2. Malone, R. F. and D. G. Burden. High Rate
FACILITY Nitrification in Recirculating Blue Crab
SPECIFI- Shedding Systems in Proceedings of the
CATIONS
Second National Symposium on the Soft-shell
Blue Crab Fishery, Michael Oesterling and
SELECT Christine Plummer (eds.) Virginia Institute
FILTER of Marine Science, 1987.
7CONFIGURATION
3. Malone, R. F. and D. G. Burden. Design of
Recirculating Blue Crab Shedding Systems.
SINGLE UPFLOW PRESS. FLUIDIZED FLUIDIZED Louisiana Sea Grant College Program,
SAND FILTER BED Sk a D a UPFLOW Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
(FIG. 3) UPFLOW SAND SAND FILTER
FILTER (FIG. 1) (FIG. 4) Louisiana, 1988.
I I
_j 4. Malone, R. F. and D. G. Burden. Design of
Recirculating Soft Crawfish Shedding
COJE SIGN Systems. Louisiana Sea Grant College
PUTATIONS
r L Program, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, 1988.

CHANGE RECOMMENDED FILTER IEW 5. Malone, R. F. and D. P. Manthe. Chemical
CONSTANTS DESIGN W/SUMMARY Addition for Accelerated Nitrification of
OF OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS[ Biological Filters, in Closed Blue Crab
Shedding Systems National Symposium on the
Soft-Shelled Blue Crab Fisheries, P. M.
PRINTOUT Perry and R. F. Malone, eds. , pp. 41-47,
1985.

Y S REPEAT 6. Manthe, D. P., R. F. Malone, and S. Kumar.
Limiting Factors Associated with Nitrifica-
tion in Closed Blue Crab Shedding Systems.
NO Journal of Aquaculture Engineering, Vol. 3:
END 119-140, 1984.

7. Spotte, S. Fish and Invertebrate Culture,
Figure 5. Generalized flow diagram for program Water 'Management in Closed Systems. Wiley-
OPTIMUM. Interscience, New York, N. Y., 1979.
VIEW
DETAILED
DESIGN
4
ES

COMPUTERIZED RAPID MEASUREMENT OF AMMONIA CONCENTRATION IN AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

G. Ellen Kaiser and Fred W. Wheaton
Graduate Research Assistant Professor

Department of Agicultural Engineering
Universi y of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742

ABSTRACTI which requires many separate microprocessors. The
The other is to control all of the unit operations
The response of an ammonia gas sensing from one central processor (e.g. a personal
electrode was measured automatically via a computer). The latter approach is taken in the
simple FET (field effect transistor) operational research system described in this paper. Many
amplifier (op-amp) circuit, a data acquisition different ion or gas sensing electrodes, tempera-
and controls system (Cyborg ISAAC 20002), and an ture sensors, flowmeters, etc. can be connected to
IBM-PC. It is possible to measure the chemical the same computer through a single data acquisi-
concentrations of various solutions faster and tion device (i.e. an analog to digital (A/D)
more conveniently using the system described converter) so that the data is easily stored and
than by using conventional methods that involve ready for processing. This approach avoids the
a pH/digital voltmeter. This system permits need for excessive data handling and the use of
development of automated ammonia concentration many different meters, manually switched
control, a particularly valuable attribute in multiplexers, recorders, etc.
recirculating aquaculture systems.
The personal computer (PC) possesses useful
features that provide a good basis for a central
control processor. Two of these features are the
graphics and audio functions. that provide the user
1. INTRODUCTION with valuable tools for analyzing information.
For instance, a graph of multiple interrelated
Automated Water Quality Measurement inputs (raw and/or processed) can be displayed
and Control concurrently in real time. This is far more in-
formative than separate displays from digital
The ability to reliably, and automatically millivolt (mV) meters. Also, graphics and audio
measure and control water quality parameters such functions can signal the execution of certain
as temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen, nitrite, procedures, or alert an operator to unfavorable
nitrate and ammonia (NH3) concentrations are conditions. The decision making feature of the
attractive prospects to operators of recirculating PC forms the basis of a feedback and control
aquaculture systems. In industry, automation system. The PC can compare sensor inputs to pre-
would reduce labor requirements and allow more determined selected levels and signal for an
efficient system management. This system could appropriate compensating action, such as opening
eventually lead to higher productivity at lower a valve to add a chemical.
costs. In research, automation allows certain
studies to be performed faster with better Unfortunately, computer measurement and con-
repeatibility, and allows experiments to be trol of water quality is not as straightforward as
conducted that would otherwise be impossible with it may first appear. Many problems in automation
manual methods. involve sensors. Interfacing sensors with the
computer, sensing element limitations, and other
There are two main approaches to automated problems must be considered before reliable com-
water quality control. One approach is to design puter based monitoring and control of water quality
individual control systems for each unit operation, will become a reality. Such problems are illustra-
ted in this paper using the automated measurement
IScientific Article Number A4825 Contribution of ammonia as an example.
Number 7851 of the Maryland Agricultural Automated Ammonia Measurement Using an
Experiment Station. Partial funding for this Ammonia Gas Sensing Electrode
project was provided by the Maryland Sea Grant
Program and the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Ammonia gas sensing electrodes are convenient
Station. to use but have several limitations. They exhibit
2Use of trade names is for clarity onl and does high internal resistance tend to drift quite
pot imEly endorsement by the Univers4y of rapidly over time, are siow to stabilize in low
ary a d. ammonia concentration solutions and have a limited

CH2585-8/88/0000- 76 $1 @1988 IEEE

life. then transmitted to a Cyborg ISAAC 2000 1-130
card where the A/D conversion took place. Cali-
High Internal Resistance. Like thermo- bration of the system provided the following
couples, gas and ion sensing electrodes produce relationship for digital numbers between 0 and
low level electrical signals of only a few mV. 4095:
However, unlike thermocouples which have a fairly
low internal resistance, the gas and ion sensing Digital number = 2022.43 + 15.335 (mV)
electrodes have very high internal resistances.
For this reason, these electrodes require special A digital number of 0 corresponds to approximately
@easurement devices that have a very high input -132 mV and 4095 corresponds to approximately 135
impedance (see Appendix section Impedance mV. Thus, each integer increment respresents
Mismatch Problem). Few, if any A/D converters 0.065 mV; or, approximately 15 digital values
(needed to interface external analog inputs to a represent I mV. The digital value sent by the
computer) have a high enough input impedance for 1-130 card was read into an IBM-PC by a BASICA
direct connection of the electrodes. Therefore, program statement.
an interface is needed. Currently, pH/ISE (ion
selective electrode) meters are used for measuring Liquid flow in the system is controlled by
signals from these electrodes. However, these solenoid valves and electrically actuated ball
meters are expensive and are designed so that only valves. Each valve shown in Figure I is con-
one electrode can be connected to the meter at a nected to a separate channel of the relay unit.
time. There are manually operated electrode The relay unit contains 16 solid state relays
switchboxes that simultaneously connect up to 7 corresponding to 16 channels. These can be
electrodes with a pH/ISE meter; however, they are switched on or off from the IBM-PC through an
of no use in a computer automated system. An 1-120 binary output card which is mounted in the
inexpensive, high input impedance FET op-amp ISAAC and connected to the 16 relays through a
circuit is presented as an alternative interface. cable. Any relay or combination of relays can
between the electrode and the A/D converter. be turned on by sending a command to the 1-120
This circuit can also be used in other applica- card through a BASICA program statement. When a
tions to interface ion and gas sensing electrodes relay is switched on, 120 VAC is delivered to a
directly to recorders. set of three sockets, thus powering the valve(s)
plugged into the socket(s). When a relay is
Drift. Because of drift, the ammonia switched off, the 120 VAC is no longer delivered
electrode must be calibrated hourly to obtain the to the sockets. Each solid state relay has a .
most reproducible electrode measurements (+/-2 maximum current rating of 3 A which is sufficient
percent)(Orion, 1986). An automated calibration for the valves in this system.
procedure is presented that allows hourly
calibration of the ammonia sensing electrode. Calibration Procedure

Stabilization Time. The faster a measure- The following four NH4CI standard solutions
ment can be made, the faster.a control response were prepared by mixing measured amounts of
can be implemented which can provide a more NH4CI with distilled water to produce 25 L of
stable control. Likewise, fast measurements each solution:
permit many variables or systems to be monitored
by the same computer, thus reducing cost. Before Standard 1 - 5.88 X 10-5 mol/L (1.0 mg NH3/L)
a reading can be taken. the ammonia sensing Standard 2 - 4.12 X 10-4 mol/L (7.0 mg NH3/L)
electrodes must be allowed to stabilize after Standard 3 - 4' 70 X 10-4 mol/L (8.0 mg NH3/L)
first being immersed in a new ammonia solution. Standard 4 - 5.88 X 10-4 mol/L (10.0 mg NH3/L)
The lower the ammonia concentration, the longer
the electrode takes to stabilize (5 to 10 minutes These were placed inthe four tanks as shown
for concentrations below 4 X 10-6 M ammonia in Figure 1. A 10 M NaOH solution was placed in
(Orion, 1986)). An unsuccessful attempt to another tank beside the standards. A computer
predict the stable ammonia electrode response in program was written to perform the following
a shorter time is presented. procedures automatically:

2. EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES 1. The tap water solenoid valve was opened
and the sample chamber flushed for about
Experimental Configuration 1 minute with water. After flushing,
the valve was closed and the chamber
Figure 1 illustrates the overall experimental allowed to drain.
configuration. An Orion (Cambridge, MA) ammonia
gas sensing electrode (Model 95-12) was mounted 2. The sample chamber was flushed with 500
in a sample chamber of clear, acrylic plastic ml of standard I by opening the standard
pipe with a volume of about 500 ml. The electrode I solenoid valve, B.
was connected to a high input impedance amplifier
circuit via a shielded coaxial cable. The 3. The ball valve below the sample chamber
amplifier was then connected to a Cyborg (Newton, was closed.
MA) 1-140 analog input card through a Cyborg
1-160 card, a 16 channel multiplexer. The 1-140 4. The NaOH solenoid valve, A, was opened
amplified the mV signal to +/-5 volts, which was to allow at least 5 ml to flow by

gravity to the sample chamber, then it predicted by the equation.
was closed.
Tables I and 2 give an example summarizing
5. The standard I solenoid valve, B, was this procedure using the readings obtained during
opened and approximately 500 mL flowed by one calibration trial. Regression equation's in
gravity to the sample chamber where it Table 1 were used to predict the 'unknown' con-
mixed with the NaOH. The purpose of centration from the observed digital number of
adding the NaOH was to raise the pH of the 'unknown' as illustrated in Table 2.
the sample to above 11, thereby con-
verting the NH4+ ions in the standard to Table 1. Digital numbers observed at three times
NH3 gas which is measured by the for three different ammonia standards
electrode. and the calculated calibration equation.
6. The electrode response as a function of Ammonia
time was recorded for up to 6.6 minutes. Time Concentration (C) Regression Equation
Trial tests indicated that with a new (min) (mg NH3/L) Digital = A+B (ln C)
electrode, this provided sufficient 1.0 7.0 10.0 A B
stabilization time to produce readings
with less than 4 percent error for con- 2.2 889 242 126 890 -339 .9990
centrations between 1.0 and 8.0 mg 4.4 1032 336 219 1032 -361 .9997
NH3/L. 6.6 1021 354 252 1021 -344 .9999

7. The ball valve below the sample chamber
was opened and the sample discharged.
Table 2. Estimated calibration error.
8. Steps 1-7 were repeated for each of
the remaining NH4CI standards. Observed Predicted
Concentra- Concentra-
Analytical Procedures Time Observed tion tion
(min) Digital (mg NH3/Q (mg NH3/Q % error
Cal ibration Equations. When the electrode
was initiaTly immersed in a sample solution, a 2.2 172 8.0 8.30 3.5
waiting time was required before stable readings
were possible (see Figure 2). The lower the 4.4 273 8.0 8.20 .9
6.6 303. 8.0 8.05 0.7
solution concentration, the longer the stabili-
zation time interval. Normally, when pH/ISE
meters are used, the stable electrode reading
(read as mV) is recorded at three different Early Prediction of Stable Electrode Reading.
standard concentrations. Since mV verses log When the electrode was new, its response as a
ammonia concentration is linear in the range of function of time appeared to be exponential (see
about 0.1 to 1000 mg NH3/L (Orion, 1986), a Figure 2). For this reason, an attempt was made
calibration curve of mV verses log ammonia con- to predict the stable reading (i.e. the 6.6 minute
centration may be calculated using linear reading) by fitting to an exponential curve, data
regression. Similarly, using the computer, taken between 2 and 4 minutes after electrode
linear regression was used to calculate a cali- immersion in each new solution.
bration curve of digital number (linearly
proportional to the mV output of the electrode) The purpose for employing this technique was
versus the log of the ammonia concentration using to allow faster NH3 measurements while still main-
the stable readings for three ammonia standards: taining or possibly increasing the accuracy of the
1.0 ' 7.0, and 10.0 mg NH3/L. A reading taken at measurement.
6.6 minutes was considered stable.
The exponential equation that was fit to the
Error Estimate. The fourth standard solu- data obtained when the electrode was new is of the
tion (8.0 mg NH3/-LT, bracketed in concentration form:
by the other three standards, was treated as an
'unknown' in order to estimate the error of the C Cf (1 - (-K(t-to))
calibration relationship. This was done by where,
comparing the actual concentration of the
lunknown' to the concentration predicted by the t measurement time
calibration equation at 6.6 minutes. to the time at which the concentration
In order to observe the errors expected if measured = 0
readings were taken before the stabilization C concentration measured at time t
time, two additional calibration' equations were Cf actual concentration of solution
calculated, one for the readings obtained at 2.2 K rate constant
minutes and the other at 4.4'minutes for the same Solving equation (1) (see Appendix section
three standards. Again, each equation's 'error
was estimated by com aring the actual concentra- Solution of the Exponential Equati2n) gives:
tion of the fourth Nandard to the concentration

dC/dt = K Cf - K C (2) Table 3. Results of automated NH3 electrode
Thus, plotting dC/dt verses C gives a straight calibrations - New Electrode.
line, Figure 6, with Cf(K) as the intercept and K % ERROR ESTIMATED
as the slope. dC/dt was numerically determined Calibration 2.2 min. 4.4 min. 6.6 min.
from the raw data by using the slope between each
two consecutive readings and plotting this value 1 3.45 1.92 0.71
against the average concentration of the two 2 6.13 1.96 0.28
readings. Figure 7 illustrates how one such data 3 3.28 1.70 0.13
pair was obtained. A straight line was fit to 4 7.17 3.19 1.17
these data pairs by the method of least squares 5 0.84 0.89 0.34
in order to determine Cf, the predicted final 6 5.28 2.65 1.50
concentration, and K. 7 5.24 1.29 0.67
8 6.67 4.30 2.58
A measure of deviation of the data from the 9 2.14 0.45 1.11
fitted curve was calculated for 1.5 minute time 10 5.79 2.11 0.19
intervals with 45 readings each as follows: 11 10.16 4.59 3.95
12 6.65 4.30 3.66
D (z (Yobs - Ypred)2) )1/2 (3) 13 8.55 3.05 2.17
14 5.93 1.50 0.67
where, 15 7.13 4.40 3.50
16 6.88 2.86 2.13
Yobs Observed Digital Number at time t 17 3.24 0.80 0.40
Ypred Digital Number Predicted from equation 18 4.20 2.30 0.88
2. 19 1.19 0.37 1.33
D Deviation: the smaller the D, the 20 4.66 1.35 0.03
better the curve fits the data. 21 6.44 2.04 0.25
Maximum error
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION observed 10.16 4.59 3.95
Impedance Matching Mean % error 5.29 2.29 1.32
Range 9.32 4.22 3.76
The amplifier circuit shown in detail in Standard Deviation 2.35 1.31 1.23
Figure 8 provides the high input impedance re-
quired for measuring a small voltage produced by
an electrode with a high internal resistance. Table 4. Results of automated NH3 electrode
Electrode Accuracy calibrations - 2 month old electrode
before cleaning.
Tables 3 through 5 contain the results of
three sets of calibrations. The percentage error % ERROR ESTIMATED
shown was calculated as described previously. Calibration 2.2 min. 4.4 min. 6.6 min.
Figures 2, 4 and 5 show a typical set of response
curves obtained from each calibration set. The 1 3.50 2.40 0.35
four curves on each graph represent the electrode 2 3.80 3.90 3.70
response at four different NH3 concentrations: 3 '7.03 6.36 5.07
1.0, 7.0, 8.0, and 10.0 mg NH3/L. 4 4.34 6.17 4.83
5 7.20 7.04 7.03
Electrode Aging Affects. Figures 2 through 6 4.33 5.62 4.90
4 illustrate the observed electrode response as 7 4.22 4.06 5.03
the electrode ages. It appears that initially, 8 6.40 7.10 7.40
the electrode response over time after immersion 9 5.30 5.90 6.40
in a solution is exponential as seen in Figure 2. 10 5.70 5.90 6.40
After months of use, however, this response tends 11 7.70 7.90 6.50
to flatten out more quickly after immersion as 12 7.06 7.90 8.10
seen in Figures 3 and 4. It would seem reason-
able to assume that when the response flattens Maximum error
out more quickly, indicating that the electrode observed 7.7 7.9 8.1
stabilizes more quickly, that more accurate Mean % error 5.55 5.85 5.48
readings could be taken sooner. However, this is
not necessarily the case as can be seen by com- Range 4.2 5.5 7.8
paring Table 3 and Figure 2 to Table 4 and Figure Standard Deviation 1.50 1.67 2.05
4. It is true that at 2.2 minutes the 2-month
old electrode gave less maximum error (7.7%) and
standard deviation (1.5% than the new electrode
(10.2% and 2.35%, respe%vely). However, at 6.6 mean error of the new electrode was always less
minutes, the 2-month old electrode gave roughly than the mean error of the 2-month old electrode
twice the maximum error and about 1.5 times the before cleaning. After the 2-month old electrode
standard devIation of the new electrode. Also, the inner body was cleaned according to the procedures

Table 5. Results of automated NH3 electrode Then, the deviations of the data from the curve
calibrations - 2 month old after would be calculated for each fit. The hope was
cleaning. that the curve with the smallest deviation D would
best fit the overall curve as well. Unfortunately,
% ERROR ESTIMATED this was not the case. Figures 9 and 10 illus-
Calibration 2.2 min. 4.4 min. 6.6 min. trate the problem. The electrode's response to
standard 1 (1.0 mg NH3/L)is shown in both Figures
1 .74 2.10 0.80 9 and 10. This is the overall curve referred to
2 1.98 1.69 1.13 above. Figure 9 also shows the-exponential curve
3 2.67 2.10 1.94 obtained by fitting a piece of the overall curve,
4 1.24 0.76 1.82 the data acquired between 2 and 3.5 minutes, to an
5 2.16 1.50 0.99 exponential function. Likewise, Figure 10 in-
6 2.60 1.60 3.30 cludes the curve obtained by fitting the data
7 2.60 1.40 1.80 acquired between 2.2 and 3.7 minutes to an
8 2.30 1.80 1.07 exponential function. The deviations (D) calcu-
9 2.12 2.40 1.25 lated indicate the deviation of the data points
10 3.60 8.88 3.50 within the fitted time interval from the exponen-
11 0.83 0.21 2.88 tial curve to which they were fit. While the
12 0.43 -0.33 0.41 curve in Figure 9 (D=1100) fits the overall data
13 3.85 4.30 0.88 better than the curve in Figure 10 (D=541), it
14 2.18 1.58 4.12 does not fit data in the fitted interval as well,
15 3.50. 2.80 1.43 as is indicated by the higher deviation, D. Since,
16 1.37 0.86 2.40 of course, in practice, the overall data is not
17 1.46 1.12 1.36 available because the objective is to use data
18 1.89 2.33 0.61 obtained in less time to predict the future
19 1.00 1.45 1.67 response, it remains to be seen how to find the
20 0.99 0.27 1.12 interval which provides the best overall fit that
21 3.11 3.50 3.12 could, in turn, be used to predict the final
stable value.
Maximum error
observed 3.85 8.88 4.12 4. CONCLUSIONS
Mean % error 2.03 2.05 1.79 Computer automation and calibration of an
Range 3.42 8.67 3.71 NH3 sensing electrode that allows measurements
Standard Deviation 0.99 1.87 1.04 with less than 4.2 percent error is possible in
relatively interference free, fresh water samples.
This system allows for automatic calibration to
specified by the manufacturer (Orion, 1986), it be performed hourly (necessary to obtain the best
gave maximum error readings of 3.85% at 2.2 accuracies) and for the development of NH3
minutes as compared to 3.95% error at 6.6 minutes controls. For instance, water from a tank con-
for the new electrode. The mean errors of the taining NH3 can be pumped to the sample chamber
new electrode and the 2-month old cleaned for testing, and the computer can then respond to
electrode after 4.4 minutes were comparable. This the condition of water by switching on a pump or
indicates that the 2-month old electrode, after valve that would add an appropriate amount of
cleaning, stabilizes more quickly than the new compensating chemical.
electrode while giving comparable accuracies,
standard deviations and ranges. However, more 5. REFERENCES
tests are needed to determine how often the
electrode must be cleaned to,maintain good Fisher Scientific. 1988. FISHER 88 Catalog.
accuracies, and how long the electrode will last Print Facility. 1600 Parkway View Dr. Pittsburgh,
under these conditions. PA 15205. p. 808-810.
Early Prediction of Stable Electrode Readin_q.
Orion. 1986. Model 95-12 Ammonia Electrode
When the electrode was new (see Figure 2),it Instruction Manual. Orion Research Inc. Boston,
exhibited an exponential increase in readings over MA.
time and then approached a stable value. As can
be seen in Table 3, the accuracies achieved were Schmidt, B. 1986. Engineer,Cyborg Corp. 55
quite good if measurements were taken for 4.4 Chapel Street, Newton, MA 02158. Personal
minutes or longer after immersion of the electrode communication.
in the new solution. However, an attempt was made
to fit the data points between the time of 2 and 4 6. APPENDIX
minutes to see if perhaps as good or better
accuracies could be achieved in less time by cal- Impedance Mismatch Problem
culating new calibration curves using the
predicted stable value for each standard obtained Figure 11 illustrates the impedance mismatch
by fitting data to an exponential curve. The problem. When the electrode, which has an
objective was to fit data from a few 1.5 minute internal resistance of 200-600 megohms is con-
intervals between 2 and 4 minutes (i.e. 2.0-3.5, nected to the input of the 1-140 card, which has
2.1-3.6,...2 2.5-4.0 min.) to exponential curves. an input resistance of about 22 megohms (Schmidt,

1986), the voltage appearing across the 1-140
card is:
V(I-140) Ri )(Ve) (4)
Ri+Re

where,
Ve = Voltage produced by the electrode
Ri = Input impedance of the 1-140 card
Re = Internal resistance of the electrode

If, for example, the electrode is producing a
50 mV signal, then:
V(1-140) = (50 mV) 22 Megohms
( 600 Megohms+22 Megohms/
= 50 mV (0.0354)
= 1.77 mV

Thus, the 1-140 would only measure about 1.77 mV
even though the electrode's response is 50 mV.

An Analog Devices' AD545KH FET (Field Effect
Transistor) Op-Amp has an input impedance of
about I X 1013 Ohms. Therefore, the voltage
output from the amplifier is:
V(amp circuit) = (1013)(Ve)
(106 + 1013)

= (0.99999) Ve

Or, the voltage output from the circuit should be
approximately equal to the voltage input to the
circuit by the electrode.

Solution of the Exponential Equation:
C = Cf(l - e(-K(t-to))
(-K(t-to))= 1 _ CjCf
e
thus, C= Cf - Cf (e(-Kt))(e(Kto))
where, Cf and e(Kto) are both constants.
dC/dt = K Cf e(-K(t-to)) = K Cf (1- C/Cf)

thus, dC/dt = K Cf K C (2)

Electrode 1-140 Card
rF

R,t
200 600MA
Rolistance Input' 22ma Vi1-140
of Electrode Impedence
of 1-140

I L-0
T

L L- - - - - -

Figure 11. Effects of loading an voltage measurenent
accuracy.

NoOH NH4C1 NH4 C1 NH4C1 NH4 C1

1 7 a 10

mg/L rng/L mg/L mg/L

N SOLENOID
VALVES

-wi-- TAPWATER
--Valve
SAMPLE a
CHAMBER

t 5V RELAY UNIT
2-WAV 1 1.
130 ISAAC 20
SALL VALVE a 2000

0-4095

TO DRAIN

Figure 1. Schematic representation of overall experimental configuration.

Ir
1-
dC KCf-KC z W,
2

JEM C.4 Ac
z
JC K--Slope W,
dt OW -T
Z11
0, dC AC
Cf z Intercept/Slope CFt &t

time
J2 13
C At
Figure 6. Plot of dC/dt versus Cavg, a method of Figure 7. Plot of concentration measured by
determining K and Cf of an exponential. electrode versus time, a method
for determining dC/dt.

A0545
lectrode + Rf]
E,
D va
684

2MA

Figure 8. Amplifier circuit using an Analog Devices, precision,
FT
.@AM @v
40
I L 7&
g
Mg

-V
*r5V !@@RELAI
t

95
0-4
0;
ISM-PC

0"' u'

E. V,
2 @Ml
low drift FET Input Operational Amplifier (AD545K).

00 90
1000
Soo
goo 700
Q) 6001 0.0 nq NH.3 / L @8.0 mg NH3 / L
.0 700 Of ------- 0.0 mg NH3 L Q) -* 10.0 rng NH3 / L
7.0 rng NH3 L -0 800 -------
E [3---0 1.0 Mg NH3 L F- 7.0 mg NH3 L
600- :3 500 3--M 1.0 rng NH3 L
00 z
400
i
401.
0)3w - - - - - - - -

200, 200

too 100
011 01
0 100 200 300 400 300
0 200 300
Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)
Figure 2. New NH3 electrode response to four Figure 3. One-month old electrode response to
ammonia standards. four ammonia standards.

1200' 1100

1100, 10004,
1000,. 900'
0 qW. e.0 mg NH3 L o-----*8.0 mg NH3 L
@o . *------- * 10.0 mg NH3 / L ------- 10.0 rng NH3 / L
E eco- 7.0 mg NH3 L
1.0 mg NH3 L E1 7.0 mg NH3 L
:3 7001 1.0 mg NH.3 L
70D. z
Soo- 600
500

400
4OD' - - - - - - - - - - . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ...

300. 300
2004 2004
100 2W 300 400 0 too 200 300 400
-rime (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

Figure 4. Two-month old electrode response to Fi.gure 5. Two-month electrode response to
four ammonia standards before four ammonia standards after
cleaning. cleaning.

110DI 1100
1000,
1000

B00- ritted Exponential CuNe 900
Fitted E.ponenticl C@,e
-0 700' ------- Data Points ------- Data Points
E E8aa
am, P :3
Z700

400 Soo

300
200 500 d
'e
10D 400
0 .1 "
0 1@0 20'0 300 0 1W 2@. 300 400
Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)
Figure 9. Electrode response over time after Figure 10. Electrode response over time after
immersion in I mg NHYLsolution. immersion in I mg NH3/L solution.
Exponential curve fitted to data Exponential curve fitted to data
between 2 and 3.5 minutes. between 2.2 and 3.7 minutes.

USE OF AUTOMATED HOLDING SYSTEMS FOR INITIAL OFF-FLAVOR
PURGING OF THE RANGIA CLAM, RANGIA CUNEATA

1 2
Kelly A. Rusch Walter H. Zachritz 11 , Thomas C. T. Y-Hsieh , and Ronald F. Malone
1Department of Civil E ngineering and 2 Department of Food Science
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

ABSTRACT assure bacterial quality. Alternatively, using
computer controlled, recirculating systems for
The brackish water clam, Rangi cuneata, is holding and purging clams provides an environment
widely distributed in coastal waters of the Gulf free of seasonal variations and does not require
of Mexico. The use of rangia clam as a high a constant water source. The use of recircu-
value food product remains largely unexploited lating systems allows for complete computer
due to an off-flavor detected occasionally in the control of all processes such as pH, salinity or
steamed product. Initial tests indicate that the feedsource that directly affect the release of
substance is closely associated with fatty com- clam off-flavors.
pounds and will not be removed quickly. Initial
engineering system analysis suggests the use of This paper describes the preliminary development
recirculating technology involving fluidized bed of a microcomputer-based system to hold fed and
and upflow sand biological filters, chemical feed unfed clams to determine specific factors for
for pH and alkalinity control, UV/ozonation, and enhancing the removal the off-flavor causing com-
foam fractionation, for maintaining critical pound, geosmin.
water quality parameters in the clam holding
system. An algal chemostat system integrating BACKGROUND
controlled air/carbon dioxide ratios, mixing,
photoperiod, harvest, and disinfection modes is The marketability of Rangia cuneata in the state
used to provide a uniform feed. The operation of of Louisiana depends on removing geosmin from the
the clam holding system and the algal chemostat meat. Geosmin, chemically known as trans-1,
is linked by microcomputer control and all major 10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol, creates problems in
processes are automated. potable waters as well as in many aquatic
organisms. Reports of earthy odors were docu-
INTRODUCTION mented as early as 1891 when researchers des-
cribed the odors associated with soil (20). A
The Louisiana road clam, Rangia cuneata, is a f ew years later, in 1895, research centered on
brackish water (0-18 ppt) bivalve found along the off-flavors and odors began when cultures of
Gulf of Mexico coastline from northwest Florida actinomycetes producing "earthy" odors were
to Laguna de Terminos, Campeche, Mexico (6). In identified by Rullmann (18). Studies involving
addition, these clams are found along the aquatic organisms were initiated when salmon
Atlantic coast as far north as Maryland (6). caught from rivers in England were contaminated
Presently, the economic importance of rangia with this "earthy" odor/taste (18,19). Experim-
clams stem from using it as roadbed material and ental studies showed that the taint in fresh
for the manufacture of many industrial products water fish did not originate from mud associated
(17). The estimated 24-48 billion clams, found with the source water, but from an odoriferous
in the Western Louisiana waters alone, are species of actinomycetes found in the water
largely an untapped food resource. While the column (9,19). This study was the first of many
clam is occasionally canned and eaten in New attempts to identify the chemical responsible for
Jersey, Texas, North Carolina, and Yexico, the the odor.
Louisiana rangia clam exhibits a muddy/earthy
musty odor or off-flavor when steamed or micro- In the late 1960's, Gerber (2,3) and associates
waved. The cause of this off-flavor problem has isolated and identified a compound from actino-
been identified as geosmin (4). mycetes which they named geosmin. This substance
is a saturated tertiary alcohol which is unstable
Economically, rangia clams can be an important in the presence of acid. Gerber's findings,
food source if the off-flavor can be removed. consequently, stimulated more research as other
Presently, these clams are relayed into a natural possible sources of the compound were identified
water environment in anticipation that the clams (10,11,13,15,16).
would purge themselves of the off-flavor causing
chemical. But to date, relaying has not been During the 1970's, more attention was paid to the
effective in consistently removing the geosmin; problems associated with the aquatic life found
however, relaying may be an economical step to in tainted waters. Originally, Thaysen and

CH2585-8/88/0000- 84 $1 @1988 IEEE

Pentelow (19) presented evidence that geosmin was parameters such as salinity, pH, temperature, and
primarily taken up by the gills of salmon thus particulates. Each of these factors were varied
causing taste and odor problems. Fish species independently and geosmin levels were monitored
known to have taste and problems include rainbow in the clam meat and water before and after the
trout, Salmo gairdneri, bream, Abramis brama, testing. Additional taste panel evaluations were
walleye, Stizostedion vitreum vitreum, lake used to determine product marketability. All
herring, Coregonus artedii, and northern pike, testing was carried out using the clam holding
Esox lucius (1,5,12,21). Pond raised channel system.
caTf-iJh -Ictalurus ictalurus have also been shown
to uptake geosmin from the surrounding water The second sequence of tests assumed that longer
(7). Even though fish readily take up geosmin, periods of time were required by the clam to
research has shown that removal is fairly rapid purge the geosmin to acceptable levels. These
if the fish is separated from the source. longer holding periods require that the clams be
Several methods have been tried to eliminate the fed to maintain a good product. Feeding may also
odor problem in the water industry. Oxidation by stimulate the release of geosmin in the gut and
ozone/H 20 along with activated carbon seem to surrounding tissue as well as enhance the flavor
produce t9e most effective results thus far. and texture of the clam and thus, provide added
value. A green algae, Chorella, was used as a
Little is known about the uptake/release of feedsource. This feedsource was provided in
geosmin in rangia clams; however, based on the large enough quantities to feed up to 1000 clams
evidence of geosmin removal from fish, it was daily for several weeks. Other parameters
concluded that relaying the clams would facili- associated with the feed such as physiological
tate purging of the off-flavor causing compound. state and growth phase were also be controlled.
This process takes two weeks to accomplish and is
subject to highly variable environmental condi- Clam Holding Syste
tions, and even under ideal conditions may not
produce a consistently reliable product. The recirculating holding system designed for
purging rangia clams consists of the following
Moving the clams to a controlled recirculating components: holding trays, fluidized bed and
system equipped with. a properly designed upflow sand filter, foam fractionator, sump,
filtration unit, the exact purging conditions UV/oz one /activated carbon loop, and a pumping
(temperature, salinity, pH, alkalinity, etc) can system.
be determined and maintained. To design a
treatment unit for a recirculating system, the Holding Trays. The clam holding trays are
characteristics and amount of wastes excreted by multiple stac6d trays with internal racks to
the clams must be known. Prior research on hold clams in the water column. This arrangement
geosmin, waste characterization data, and known allows food and oxygen to be evenly distributed
effective treatment methods are essential in among the clams while heavier waste solids
designing the various treatment components for a accumulate at the bottom. Removal these solids
recirculating clam holding system. For Rangia is facilitated by several inverted bottom-draw
clam feeding requirements, additional information manifolds located between the clam racks. Sur-
about optimum algae species, temperature, face outlets remove any suspended solids, scum or
salinity, feed rates and other factors must be foam that may accumulate. Recirculated water is
determined to design a system capable of pro- introduced to the trays via sprayheads for
ducing a consistent feedsource. aeration and circulation.

SYSTEM APPROACH Filtration Design. Adequate water quality in a
holding system requires a filtration unit to
Factors contributing to the release of the off- maintain total ammonia nitrogen and nitrite
flavor causing substance in rangia clam meat are nitrogen levels below a concentration considered
highly complex and interrelated. Testing even critical to rangia clams. Due to the lack of
the simplest methods for purging the clam research on rangia clams, the critical concentra-
requires strict maintenance of all influencing tions causing fatality or lowered product quality
parameters. Computer controlled recirculating are unknown, consequently, values for crawfish
holding systems provide an environment which and blue crabs were used (0.5 mg-N/1 for nitrite
allow continuous monitoring of water quality and 1.0 mg-N/1 for ammonia). Filtration designs
parameters of any given test condition. In (fluidized beds and upflow sand filters)
addition, several different control strategies developed by Malone and Burden (8) are used for
can be tested quickly by simply changing appro- controlling ammonia and nitrite levels. The main
priate parameters in the software program. The purpose of a fluidized bed filter is for nitrifi-
experimental system used to conduct these complex cation of highly toxic ammonia and nitrite to the
studies consists of two subsystems: the clam relatively non-toxic nitrate form.
holding system and the chemostat or algal pro-
duction unit. Upflow sand filters, on the other hand, are used
for solids removal, but also have the capacity to
Two basic approaches were used to determine the perform nitrification. Recirculated water laden
best purging methodology. The first employs a with waste solids flow upwards, penetrating deep
short test sequence that involves altering into the sand bed, but as more solids are

captured the flow rate is reduced. To restore
filtering capacity, the sand bed are backwashed
or expanded and the backwash flow is diverted to
completely remove the captured solids from the
system. The computer controls the duration and
frequency of this backwash process. Based on our
initial waste characterization studies for Rangia
clams, solids removal from the system will effec-
tively reduce the BOD 5 loading exerted on the
filters by 47 percent. For these carefully con- Iwo, EM
trolled studies, the clam shells were washed to
remove excess solids. Rangia clams are usually
harvested from muddy sediments and can be
expected to carry high levels of solids, which in "NQ9*
effect, add to the BOD loading of a recircu-
lating system. Thus, sAids removal is critical
to maintaining adequate water quality. VM"

Foam Fractionation. Based on visual observations
of the clams during our waste characterization 29;_
studies, foaming was a significant problem for
both short and long term clam holding. Inclusion
of a foam fractionation unit was necessary to
alleviate the foaming problem created by the
aeration of excreted organics. The foam frac-
tionation loop may be replaced in part, by the
UV/ozone/activated carbon process loop. The
Uv/ozone/activated carbon loop is being tested
for destruction of geosmin and fecal coliform Figure 1. Layout of the nutrient and disinfec-
bacteria purged from the clams. Control of tion loops for the algae chemostat system.
frequency and duration of the UV/ozone dosing
rates by the computer will insure economical and
efficient operation of the UV/ozone generator.

Pump Syste . The total recirculating holding
system is tied together by the pumping system.
This system consists of a sump which is the
pickup point for the pump. The pump circulates
water to the holding trays, the filters, and the
UV/oz one /activated carbon loop. Computer moni-
tored, water level indicators are located in the
sump and water can be added as needed.

Algae Chemostat Syste
f WN WHTE
LU 1;6WL
While the rangia clams are held in the holding L*HT
system, they will be fed a monoculture of algae
produced by a semi-continuous culture chemostat. -OSE VALVE
The success of the chemostat depends on the YEN
interrelationship between the following compo- W1&19"2@4 REUIPSM&L
..O.4r@A@ -
nents (Figures 1 and 2): (1) growth chambers,
(2) air/CO /light system, (3) nutrient system,
2 TOP V4 HP AP
COWRESSC
(4) disinfection V MAC")
system, and (5) the computer
control/monitor system. Each component will be C02 CYLNXFI
discussed, in depth, in the following sections.
2- 1 VZ'OA4V2*
AJR STONE.S
Growth chambers. The system consists of three
algal growth chambers made of fiberglass
reinforced with polymer sheet (tradename,
SUN-LITE HP). The layout of the chambers is TO WASTE.
MOMTEP BLOC
shown in Figure 1. Each chamber is 12 inches in OPHARVEST
diameter, four feet in depth, and contains a 1125 W PUIV
total volume of 23.5 gallons. These chambers
have a light transmissivity of 92 percent. The Figure 2. Layout of the air supply loop for the
-11lr@
L

bottom is reinforced fiberglass while the top algae chemostat system.
cover is a friction-fit cap allowing for venting.
Additions and withdrawals from the chamber are
made through a 3/4" thru-hull fitting in the

bottom plate and is controlled by a selonoid Disinfection syst . Weekly, each chamber is
valve. Air and CO 2 enter the chamber through emptied and disinfected to insure the growth of
3/4" fittings in the cover. In addition, another pure cultures of Chlorella. Figure.1 depicts the
3/4" fitting is in the cover for venting and disinfection in relation to the nutrient system
inoculating purposes. Placed five inches from and growth chambers. This system consists of a
the top of each chamber is a water level detector tap water source (bypassing the activated carbon
(two stainless steel wires positioned at a speci- column) controlled by a selonoid valve, a
fied distance from each other) used as a prompt 20-liter disinfectant carboy, a fixed rate
to signal the computer to turn off pumps and peristaltic pump, and a 1/25 chemical feed pump
close selonoid valves when the chamber is full. (the same one used in the nutrient system). Once
Positioned on the backside of each chamber is a the chamber has been harvested, it is filled with
solar cell for detecting relative densities of a 4 percent chlorox solution and allowed to soak.
algal cells. The three chambers are housed in an After 7 minutes, the chlorox solution is dis-
open front stand lined with foil to focus and charged and the chamber rinsed twice with tap
increase the light intensity. water. The tap water is discharged and wasted.
Once this procedure has been completed, the
Air/CO /light inp, system. Air and CO (Figure 2) chamber is once again inoculated by the nutrient
are introduced into the growth ch.M?ers through cycle described previously.
3/4" PVC fittings attached to the cover. The
air/CO 2 mixture is dispersed by two low pressure, Computer Control/Monitor System
fine Kibble air diffusers (average pore size of
35 u). Each diffuser is 5.5 inches long and The two sub-systems (chemostat and clam holding
attaches to standard 3/4" PVC fittings. A 1/4 HP system) are controlled and linked using a Kaypro
Thomas air pump rated for continuous duty model 2X micro-computer interfaced to the
supplies the air while CO is introduced from a monitoring devices with a Remote Measurements
gas cylinder. The CO 2 , Injected into the air Systems ADC-1 data acquisition and control unit.
line, is controlled by a selonoid valve which The ADC-1 interface allows for 16 analog inputs,
opens every ten seconds for a five second period. 6 digital outputs, 4 digital inputs, and 32 BSR
Before the air/CO 2 combination reaches the growth outputs.
chambers, it is passed through two filters; a
mini capsule with 0.80/0.45 um pore size used as The control program, written in TURBO Pascal
a prefilter and then a HEVA capsule with 0.3 um (Borland, 1985), is a user friendly menu driven
pore size. program using a supervisor stack sequence to
implement procedures to monitor probes, turn
Illumination is produced by two banks of lights equipment- on and off, and collect and record
(40w cool white fluorescent) situated in front of data. The flow diagram (Figure 3) indicates that
the chambers facing the back panel. Due to the the subsystems are controlled via separate stack
foil covering the inside of the stand, the light sequences. Direct linkage of the subsystems
reaching all sides of the chamber should be the occurs during the harvest and feed modes when
same. Presently, the lights are left on in a algae is removed from the chemostat and fed to
continuous state, but any sequence of photoperiod the clam holding trays. Manual override
can be programmed. procedures are also provided for system startup
and testing of individual components during
Nutrient system. The nutrient cycle, activated operation.
every time a chamber is emptied and disinfected
or harvested, is illustrated in Figure 1. The All pumps and selonoid valves were controlled
system consists of two-2 liter media bottles, a using a BSR Type X-10 remote control system
20-liter brine solution carboy, two peristaltic connected to the ADC-1. These units use a
pumps (one fixed rate and one variable rate), a transmitter which generates a digital code super-
1/25 HP chemical feed pump, and an activated imposed upon standard house current lines to
carbon column connected to a water source. The control up to 255 separate remote relay modules.
activity of the pumps is controlled by the The BSR units are relatively inexpensive ($20),
computer through the use of BSR units. The tap and minimize the need for hardware connection and
water used to dilute the nutrient media and lengthy cable runs in a wet environment, thus
create an environment for algal growth is passed reducing equipment failure and operator hazards.
through an activated carbon column (bed volume of The pumps were directly connected to the BSR
0.28 ft3) via a selonoid valve to remove units. The selonoid valves use 24 volt AC
chlorine. The monoculture algae, in this case current, and thus, a series of transformer were
Chlorella, is grown in an environment as closely required between the BSR X-10 modules and the
related to that of the clams as possible. Rangia valves in order to decrease the line voltage from
clams are being held at a salinity of 10 ppt, 110 to 24 volts.
thus, the nutrient water in the chambers must be
at 10 ppt. In order to maintain a constant Temperature probes, level detectors, light
salinity within the growth chambers, artificial sensors, conductivity probes, pH and other
sea salts must be added every time fresh media measurement devices are wired to the ADC's analog
and water are added. The amount to be added is inputs which are then converted to digital
determined by conductivity readings taken inter- signals and relayed to the computer through a
mittently throughout the day. RS-232 serial line.

stants making the system self adjusting. Changes
in control sequence or value ranges for a speci-
f ic probe can be rapidly performed by inputing
new constants.

The supervisor control and specific stack
SET INTER sequences for both the algae chemostat and clam
CLOCK holding system outlined in this paper, allow each
Cr SET
I"ITIALI11 OUTPUTS of these subsystems to independently evaluated
PORTS and optimized. Thus, investigations into
SET BAUD
RATE kinetics of algae growth can be evaluated while a
purging test sequence is under way. As more
"IN STACK
PROCEDURE specif ic factors are determined about each
system, the closer the two system can be linked.
SU CTPAT YES If high salinities enhance purging and the algae
PERVISOR CLAM HOLDIN SYSTEM CLAM species is grown at a similar salinity then
PROC 0 ALGAE ALGAE CHEMOSTAT
No EDURE STACK HOLD NO HEMOSTAT PROCEDURE 114CI
I JISTEM CROC DISINFECTION
S LWT1 P DUNE feeding and salinity adjustments can be inte-
ROCEDURE SEQ NCE NUTRIENT
PH SEOU NCE grated. Other such refinements can be imple-
TEMPERATURE CALINITY
ALGAE FEED I)SAIR RATIO mented as the study develops.
MANUAL UPFLOW 5 NO FILTER TEMPERATURE
CONTROL BACKWASH PH
ALGAE HARVEST When the exact conditions that result in a satis-
i factorily purged clam are identified, simplifica-
CLAM LGAE tions of the process can be developed to make
HOLDING CH
SYSTEM ITORIN
TOGGLE NITORING S N N eventual commercialization less dependent on
SPECIFIC SEQUENCE EQUENCE
FIR CURE sophisticated control systems. Through this
S
0
EQUENCE research, the specific control requirement limi-
tations can be defined and an economical design
UPDATE developed for the commercial sector.
SCREEN
CTIVATE YES
UPERM SOR ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NO NO POPM YES
CAT This work was supported by Louisiana Sea Grant
NO ABORT College Program, an element of the National Sea
PROG 'R Grant College Program under the direction of
YES NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce.

END REFERENCES

1. From, Jon and Viggo Horlyck. 1984. Sites
of uptake of geosmin, a cause of earthy-
flavor in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., Vol. 41,
Figure 3. Flowchart of the linked control pro- pp. 1224-1226.
gram for the clam holding system and algae chemo-
stat system. 2. Gerber, Nancy N. 1967. Geosmin, an
earthy-smelling substance isolated from
actinomycetes. Biotechnology and Bioengi-
SUMMARY neering, Vol. IX, pp. 321-327.

The microcomputer based experimental clam holding -3. Gerber, N. N. and H. A. Lechevalier. 1965.
and algal chemostat system described in this Geosmin, an earthy-smelling substance iso-
paper provides a valuable tool for the determina- lated from actinomycetes. Applied Micro-
tion of the complex factors contributing to biology, Vol. 13, pp. 935-938.
purging off-flavors from the Rangia clam. The
control system as designed, allows for the 4. Hsieh, T. C.-Y., U. Tanchotikul, and J. E.
collection of water quality data on a continuous Matiella. 1988. Identification of geosmin
basis for extended periods of time. The autono- as the major muddy off-flavor of Louisiana
mous nature of the program frees the operator brackish water clam (Rangia cuneata). J.
from the distraction of day-to-day maintenance Food Sci. (in press).
activities and allows more sophisticated control
strategies and fine tune adjustments to be 5. Iredale, D. G. and R. K. York. 1976.
explored with relative ease. Data collection - Purging a muddy-earthy flavor taint from
frequency can be selected and data reduction rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) by trans-
techniques integrated into the program procedures ferring to artificial and natural holding
provide succinct output. Control of voltage environments. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.,
shifts of output from remote sensory probes are Vol. 33(l),,pp. 160-166.
provided by set points and predetermined con-

6. LaSalle, Mark W. and Armando A. de la Cruz. produced by Strptomyces griseoluteus.
1985. Species profiles: life histories and Applied Microbiology, 16(l), pp. 178-179.
environmental requirements of coastal fishes
and invertebrates (Gulf of Mexico)--common 15. Saferman, Robert S., Aaron A. Rosen, Charles
rangia. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. I. Mashni, and Mary E. Morris. 1967.
82(11.31). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR Earthy-smelling substance from a blue-green
EL-82-4. 16 pp. alga. Environmental Science and Technology,
1(5), pp. 429-430.
7. Lovell, - R. T. 1983. Off-flavors in
pond-cultured channel catfish. Wat. Sci. 16. Tabachek, Jo-Anne L. and M. Yurkowski.
Tech., Vol. 15, pp. 67-73. 1975. Isolation and identification of
blue-green algae producing muddy odor
8. Malone, R.F., and D.G. Burden, 1988. Design metabolites, geosmin, and 2-methyliso-
of recirculating soft crawfish shedding borneol, in saline lakes in Manitoba. J.
systems. Louisiana Sea Grant Publication. Fish. Board Can., 33(l), pp. 25-35.

9. Morris, Robert L., John D. Daugherty, and 17. Tarver J. W. and R. J. Dugas. 1973. A
Gene W. Ronald. 1963. Chemical aspects of study of the clam Rangia cuneata, in Lake
actinomycete metabolites as contributors of Ponchartrain and Lake Maurepas, Louisiana.
taste and odor. J. Am. Wat. Works. Assoc., La. Wildl. Fish. Comm. Tech. Bull. No. 5.
Vol. 55, p. 1380. 97 pp.

10. Persson, Per-Edvin. 1979. The source of 18. Thaysen, A. C. 1936. The origin of an
muddy odor in bream (Abramis brama) from the earthy or muddy taint in fish, I. The nature
Porvoo Sea are (Gulf of Finland). J. Fish. and isolation of the taint. Ann. Applied
Res. Board Can., Vol. 36, pp. 883-890. Biol., Vol.23, pp. 99-104.

11. Persson, Per-Edvin. 1980. Sensory proper- 19. Thaysen A. C. and P. T. K. Pentelow. 1936.
ties and analysis of two muddy odour com- The origin of an earthy or muddy taint in
pounds, geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol, in fish. II. The effect on fish of the taint
water and fish. Water Research, Vol. 14, produced by an odoriferous species of
pp. 1113-1118. Actinomycetes. Ann. Applied Biol., Vol. 23,
pp. 105-109.
12. Persson, Per-Edvin. 1982. Muddy odour: a
problem associated with extreme eutrophica- 20. Yurkowski, M. and Jo-Anne Tabachek. 1974.
tion. Hydrobiologia, Vol., 86, pp. 161-164. Identification, analysis, and removal of
geosmin from muddy-flavored trout. J. Fish.
13. Persson, Per-Edvin. 1984. Uptake and Res. Board Can., 31(12), pp. 1851-1858.
release of environmentally occurring odorous
compounds by fish. Water Research, Vol. 18, 21. Yurkowski, M. and Jo-Anne Tabachek. 1980.
pp. 1263-1271. Geosmin and 2-methtlisoborneol implicated as
a cause of muddy odor and flavor in commer-
14. Rosen, Aaron, A., Robert S. Saferman, cial fish from Cedar Lake, Manitoba. Can.
Charles I. Mashni, and Antonio H. Romano. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., Vol. 37, pp. 1449-
1968. Identity of odorous substances 1450.

GULF OF MEXICO CHEMOSYNTHETIC COMMUNITIES AT OIL SEEPS:
ESTIMATING TOTAL DENSITY

Ian MacDonaldl, Robert Carney2, and Daniel Wilkinson3

Dept. of Oceanography, Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843
2 Coastal Ecology Institute, Louisiana State University
3 Geochemical and Environmental Research Group, Texas A&M.University

ABSTRACT We have examined the spatial distribution of tube
worms and mussels at oil seeps on the Gulf of Mexico
Chemosynthetic communities occur on the continental slope using a large-area imaging system
continental slope of the Gulf of Mexico at sites where developed by the U.S. Navy. The system provides
liquid oil and methane gas can be observed escaping relatively low image resolution, but very precise
from the substrate. Video and still photographs spatial control of sampling. This is the converse of
taken from submersibles suggest that seep mussels the usual imagery data obtained by research
(Bath=odiolus like: Mytilidae) are, together with the submersibles. In this paper, we describe our
vestimentiferan, Lamellibrachia sp., biomass- attempts to extend the understanding of distribution
dominants in these communities. The mussel forms processes in chemosynthetic communities by these
irregularly shaped beds that range in area from 1 to means.
>20 M2. Length frequency distributions of three
collections of mussels show distinct size cohorts. 2. STUDY SITE
Published length-weight relationship curves for
mytilids are used to estimate the mean weight of the Oil and gas seepage on the continental slope south of
collected mussels. Large-area-imaging techniques Louisiana is associated with subsurface faulting,
are used to estimate the total area and mean density diapir networks and the in situ formation of
of mussel beds at one of the seep sites. These authigenic carbonate and sulfides (Brooks et al., 1986;
estimates will be combined to give a first order Behrens, 1988). Oil stained cores and/or
estimate of the mussels' standing-stock biomass. chemosynthetic fauna have been collected from over
40 locations (Kennicutt et al., 1985). Six of these sites
have been sampled by submersibles and/or by
1. INTRODUCTION photographic sleds (Brooks et al., 1986; Rosman et al.,
1987). These results, and our unpublished
On the sea floor of the continental slope and abyss, observations, suggest that seep communities are
the distribution of larger, sessile animals is spatially discrete, ovoid or linear in shape, and
intriguing because they are generally both rare and restricted to areas less than 500 m in maximum
diverse. Carney et al. (1983) note that animal dimension.
zonation in the deep sea is not only due to the great Video data have been collected at portions - of four
physical gradients present, but also to interaction communities using the large-area imaging
between animal communities. However, despite techniques described below. One of these data sets
some successes in describing characteristic patterns has been processed in preliminary form. This site
of deep-sea fauna (Grassle et al., 1975), the prevalent was an area of mussel beds located at 27'47.5'N and
conclusion is that few generalizations are possible 91'15.5V at a depth of 640 m (Fig. 1). The topography
regarding the causes of the spatial patterns observed of this site is quite uniform; the bottom is mostly free
(Jumars and Eckman, 1983).
of surface irregularity and the total variation in depth
A notable exception to this occurs where inorganic across the site is less than 10 m. Sediments are silty
compounds seep into the water at the deep-sea floor. clay; however, cores collected by submersible
Specially adapted tube worms and bivalves are able to demonstrated that there is often a layer of carbonate
utilize these chemicals through the mediation of immediately beneath the surface (< 30 cm depth).
internal symbionts and therefore enjoy an unusually
abundant food supply (Cavanaugh et al., 1981). The 3. FIELD METHODS
resulting communities are denser, by orders of
magnitude, than the normal deep-sea fauna (Hessler Single frames of monochrome video were taken from
et al., 1985) and exhibit distinct patterns that can be the submarine USS NR-1. The camera was mounted
directly attributed to the geological processes vertically at a location 1 m from the submarine's
controlling seepage (Sibuet et al., 1988). view-ports. Video frames were simultaneously

CH2585-8/88/0000- 90 $1 @1988 IEEE

to guide the submarine along the transects while
video images were recorded (Fig. 2). Spacing between
300
transects was approximately 3 m, mean altitude of
the submarine was 3.8 m, its mean speed was 0.2 m
per sec, and video frames were recorded every 5 sec.
0 A total of 3923 frames were recorded within an area
'00e of 16500 M2
Z. A 3.5-kHz precision depth recorder
provided a record of the sub-bottom profile along the
transects (Fig. 2).
GULF OF MEXICO Additional observations of seep mussel beds at this
site and other sites in the vicinity were made from the
submersible JOHNSON SEA-LINK I. A vertically
200- mounted 35-mm camera equipped with a short-range
altimeter was used for quantitative photography.
L
Collections of seep mussels were made with a scoop
900 800 mounted on the submersible's manipulator arm.
Figure 1. Map showing location in the Gulf of 4. ABSOLUTE MOSAICS
Mexico of oil-seep community sampled using large-
area imagery techniques. This site is at a water Large-area images of selected portions of the mussel
depth of 640 m and is located near the center of a aggregation were created by constructing a mosaic of
region characterized by numerous oil and gas seeps. adjacent frames and eliminating the overlap between
frames (Fig. 3). Photo-negative prints of the video
recorded on laser disk and on 1/2-in video tape. The frames were made by 4 three step process in which
time and date was overprinted across the bottom of the images were first digitized by a video capture
each frame and an observer recorded a continuous board (Data TranslationO, model DT2211) installed in
narrative describing what he saw through the view- a Macintosh IIS micro computer, then saved as
ports as the the frames were being recorded. The PICT format files, and finally printed with a laser
submarine's latitude, longitude, and altitude were printer (Apple Laser Writer8). Photo-negative
logged by an on board computer every second (as were prints were produced because they were found, to
CTD readings and other data). show light-colored shell material more clearly than
Extensive reconnaissance of the study site indicated positive images.
that seep mussels were generally restricted to a As the submarine traversed the transects, its altitude
region approximately 60 by 250 m in size. A series of tended to vary slightly. This caused the scale of the
transects was established across this region and the video images to vary. These differences tended to be
precision navigation capability of the NR-1 was used most pronounced between transects. For this reason,

20 m

Seismic reflec tor Transect Lines for Video Mosaic
Figure 2. Location of transect lines used to obtain video mosaic images. Total study area is approximately'275
by 60 m. The study site was traversed by the submarine NR-1 along 19 transects spaced 3 m apart (the actual
spacing was somewhat variable). The submarine recorded single-frame video images with a vertically
mounted camera at 5 sec intervals during each transit. A total of 3940 images were taken. Solid squares show
the position of seismic reflectors detected along the transects with a 3.5 kHz precision depth recorder.

construction of absolute mosaics has been initially
limited to piecing together frames taken along the
same transect.
The linearity evident in the shape of the mussel beds
shown in Figure 3 was a consistent attribute of the
study site. In addition to mussel beds, other features
showed this characteristic shape. These included
patches of non-mussel bivalve shells on the sediment
surface, mats of bacteria, and areas with apparent
oil-stained sediment.

5. VIRTUAL MOSAICS

A second type of mosaic, which showed the
EMI
distribution of seep mussels and shell materials at
the study site, was produced by evaluating each of the
video frames with respect to several qualitative
measures (i.e., presence or absence of seep mussels,
approximate shell densities, etc.). These values were
then assigned to appropriate locations within a plot of
the transects (Figs. 4 and 5). The methods used to
produce these plots were the following.
The altitude of the camera above the bottom at the
EMt time each frame was available in the computer log of
the submarine's altitude and position. From the
acceptance angles of the lens of the video camera, it
was calculated that a video frame taken from a
camera altitude of 3.8 in (the mean altitude of the
submarine) covered an area area of the bottom 4.3 by
5.3 m, or 22.8 m2, in size. The diagonal dimension of
such a frame would be 6.8 in. The location of the
center of each frame in an X-Y coordinate system
EM, was determined from the submarine's latitude and
longitude. Thus, the location and the scale of the
video frame could be determined with great
precision.
EM
However, a simple calculation shows that at a mean
camera altitude of 3.8 m, 3923 frames would
comprise a total frame-area of approximately 89,500
M2. Since the area of sea floor transected was only
16,500 M2 in size, there was clearly considerable
overlap between frames. It was therefore necessary
to average the values of overlapping frames and
assign these average values to a grid of mosaic
elements.
Because the transects were intended to be spaced 3 in
apart (Fig. 2 shows that this was not always achieved
in practice.), an appropriate size for mosaic elements
was 3 by 3 m. Other scales could be chosen as well.
"V,
The algorithm used for the averaging process is
known as a distance-weighted moving-average
(Ripley, 1981) and has the following form:
Figure 3. Absolute mosaic of photo-negative video E w (dilh) zi / E w (dilh);
images showing large beds of the seep mussel where, for each mosaic element, the intensity zi is
(Bathymodiolus -like) taken from the submarine NR- the weighted average of the i = 1, 2, ..., n estimates of
1. The images were digitized from video tape records areal coverage; and di is the distance from the center
by use of a video-capture board and printed with a of the video frame to the center of the mosaic element.
laser printer. The actual area of the bottom shown in The band-width, h, can be obtained from the mean
the images is approximately 5 by 13 m. diagonal dimension of the video frames.- It is

AIR-- 14U, 'I

absent

dead mussel shells
living mussels mussels on surface

clusters abundant
continuous mats (> 2 m2)

Figure 4. Virtual mosaic showing the distribution of living mussels and mussel shells within the study area.
This plot was obtained by viewing the single-frame video images and coding each image according to the
number of mussels present (see key for categories). Mussels and mussel shells were generally absent beyond
the boundaries of the mosaic. Note the general linearity of the distribution of mussel within the site.

...... .....

absent 20 m
< 10 / M2
10 - 50 / M2 Bivalve shells on surface
50 - 100 / M2 (predominantly lucinids)
> 100 / M2
(approximate densities)

Figure 5. Virtual mosaic showing the distribution of dead bivalve shells on the surface within the study area
obtained by coding single-frame video images. These shells included seep-mussel shells, those of lucinid and
vesicomyid clams. The lucinid shells were numerically predominant. Areas of shell-covered bottom extended
beyond the area of the mosaic; however, the mosaic area was characterized by particularly dense shell cover.

intuitively obvious that frames whose centers are 6. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF
farther apart than their diagonal dimension will not SEEP MUSSELS
overlap. The weighting function, w , treated x , the
distance divided by the band width: Three collections of seep mussels were measured to
W (x).O..9375(1_x2) 2 determine their length frequency distribution (Fig. 6).
These collections were made from three distinct beds
for-I< x<1. at two locations in the vicinity of the study site.
The distribution of mussel beds shown in Figure 4 (Unfortunately, no length frequency data were
again shows a distinctly linear pattern, with several available for the mussels from the study site.) The
nodes of very high density. The lacunae at either end distributions are similar in that all three show
of the study area are the result of a combination of distinct size cohorts; however, the mean sizes and the
variation in transect lengths and reduced altitudes at size ranges of the collections were significantly
the ends of transects. The linear pattern is repeated different, even for collections made from virtually
somewhat more diffusely in the distribution of adjacent mussel beds (Fig. 6, Green Canyon 272 a
lucinid shells (Fig. 5). and K
The occurrence of size cohorts suggests that there is
Green Canyon 272 a periodicity in the recruitment of juveniles to these
20- mussel beds. Differences in the abundance of
n 67 smaller individuals suggests that recruitment
success was highest at the site of the Bush Hill
collection, intermediate at the Green Canyon 272 b
site, and that the Green Canyon 272 b site has not
10- recruited any juveniles since the initial cohort was
established.
Densities of individual mussels clusters were
0 oil im. M estimated by projecting 35-mm photographs of the
clusters onto the platen of a digitizing planimeter.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Because the photographs were taken with a vertically
Green Canyon 272 b mounted camera, their scale could be calculated
from the camera altitude as was done with the video
100-n 406 images. Outlining the clusters and counting the
number of mussels in a cluster provided a direct
U 80- estimate of mussel density (Fig. 7). Densities were
C reasonably constant over the range of cluster areas
60-
studied. The mean density was 383.4 individuals per
M2 (standard deviation 145.32).
40
U_
20.. Observed Mussel Densities
0-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 700 - n 42 0

Bush Hill
525-
100n 754
80 - :3
350-
00
60 (D -
.0 0".'
E
40 0 175-
4 Z 0
20

0
0
0 O@3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Area of Mussel Bed (M 2)
Shell length (mm) Figure 7. Plot showing the monotonic increase in
number of mussels in beds of increasing area. Mean
Figure 6. Length frequency histograms of three density was 383.4 per M2 (standard deviation 145.32).
collections of the seep mussel (Bathymodiolus -like). Estimates of bed area were obtained by photographing
Note the apparent size cohorts and the very different mussel beds with a vertically mounted camera at a
proportions of size frequencies in the three known altitude and tracing their outline on
collections. Samples from Green Canyon 272 were planimeter. The counts were of only mussels having
collected from beds located approximately 200 in both valves intact and held closed (i.e., living
LA

apart. mussels).

7. DISCUSSION require continued use of both absolute and virtual
mosaics.
The. purpose of this study was to examine the These preliminary results have convinced us that it
analytical results that could be produced from video is possible to obtain accurate estimates of the total
data and to consider how these results could be used area covered by seep mussels at a scale sufficient to
to study the distribution patterns of seep organisms define an entire seep community. In theory, a
and to estimate their biomass. Our preliminary straight forward extrapolation of the mean density
results show that large-area imaging techniques can and mean size of seep mussels should provide a first
be used to compile mosaics of substantial areas of the order estimate of the biomass of the mussel
seafloor, but with sufficient detail to be useful for population at the study site. However, the variability
ecological investigations. The data are voluminous, of mussel size and density among clusters within a
but tractable to be manipulated with larger micro community demonstrates the necessity for thorough
computers. The major advantage of digitized video
data over normal photographs is that the scale of the ground-truthing. Plans for additional mussel
images can be adjusted with relative ease. The trade- collections and detailed photography of the study site
off is a distinct loss of resolution. One should are underway at the time of this writing.
consider, therefore, the type of mosaic that will be Acknowlegments: We thank Lt. Commander Holloway and
produced and how it will be used. the crew of the USS NR-1, made available thru ONR Contract
N00014-80-C-0113 to the Texas A&M Research Foundation. Use
The absolute mosaic (Fig. 3) is a reproduction of the of the R / V Johnson-Sea-Link I was funded by NOAA NURP.
actual pictures at some constant scale and the Additional support was given by the Texas A&M University
assembly of these pieces into a single image of the and Louisiana State University Sea Grant Programs.
total bottom area. As the scale of the final image is
reduced so that it can be printed at some manageable REFERENCES
size, one loses first the details that make it possible to Behrens, E. W.: Geology of a continental slope oil seep,
distinguish between different types of feature, and northern Gulf of Mexico, 1987. Am. Assoc PeLr. -G&Q-1., 72,
second the capacity to distinguish the smaller 105-114.
features at all. To reproduce an image of a 275 In Brooks, J. M., H. B. Cox, W. R. Bryant, M. C. Kennicutt II, R.
long mussel community at table-top size, it would G. Mann, and T. J. McDonald, 1986. Association of gas
probably be necessary to reduce the scale to the point hydrates and oil seepage in the Gulf of Mexico. Organ
where individual mussel beds could not be Geocbem, 10, 221-234.
distinguished from rocky outcroppings or scatterings Carney, R.S., R.L. Haedrich and G.T. Rowe, 1983. Zonation of
of lucinid shells. fauna in the deep sea; pp 371-398 in: G.T. Rowe (ed.) 1h&
Production of absolute mosaics is therefore best S=. vol. 8: Pee2-Sea Biology, Wiley and Sons, New York.
limited to selected portions of the overall study area. Cavanaugh, C. M., S. L. Gardiner, M. L. Jones, H. W.
Jannasch, J. B. Waterbury, 1981. Prokaryotic cells in the
One salutary feature of producing hard copy with a hydrothermal vent tube worm Riftiapaebyptila Jones:
laser printer is that paper copies could be turned out possible chemoautotrophic symbionts. Science, 213, 340-342.
at a cost of just pennies per sheet. It was therefore Childress, J. J., C. R. Fisher, J. M. Brooks, M. C. Kennicutt 11,
possible to cut and paste the individual sheets with R. Bidigare and A. Anderson. 1986. A methanotrophic
considerable freedom. Another possibility we are molluscan (Bivalvia: Mytilidae) symbiosis: mussels fueled
considering recognizes the fact that these video by gas. Science, 233, 1306-1308.
images are in many ways similar to unprocessed Grassle, J.F., H.L. Sanders, R.R.Hessler, G.T. Rowe, and T.
satellite images, which also must be assembled into a McLellan, 1975. Pattern and zonation: a study of bathyal
non-overlapping picture. It will probably be possible megafauna using the research submersible Alvin, D= &I
to adapt some of the satellite-image processing Researeb, 22, 57-481.
software developed by NASA to production of seafloor Hessler, R. R., W. M. Smithey, Jr. and C. H. Keller: Spatial
video mosaics. and temporal variation of giant clams, tube worms and
mussels at deep-sea hydrothermal vents. In: Hydrotbermal
Virtual mosaics avoid the difficulty of distinguishing vents 9-f t1w eastern Pacific: an overview pp 411-428. Ed. by
between different features. Separate mosaics can be M. L. Jones. Bull. MgL 5Qe
,_ Wash, 6, 545 pp (1985)
produced showing features that were distinguished Jumars, P.A. and J.E. Eckman, 1983. Spatial Structure within
in the full scale data (Figs. 4 and 5). Although the deep-sea benthic communities; pp 399-452 in: G.T. Rowe
data we used were qualitative in nature, the (ed.) TI&Sm. vol. 8: Deep-Sea Biology, Wiley and Sons,
technique is perfectly applicable to quantitative data. New York.
The recent proliferation of low-cost image-processing Kennicutt II, M. C., J. M. Brooks, R. R. Bidigare, R. R. Fay, T.
tools promises to speed the production of virtual L. Wade and T. J. McDonald, 1985. Vent-type taxa in a
mosaics from quantitative video data. hydrocarbon seep region on the Louisiana slope. Nature,
We noted that linear shapes were apparent both in 317,351-353.
the large-scale absolute mosaics (Fig. 3) and in the Rosman, 1, G. S. Boland and J. S. Baker, 1987, Epifaunal
smaller scale virtual mosaics (Figs. 4 and 5). In light aggregations'of vesicomyidae on the continental slope off
of the seep mussel's dependence on methane Louisiana. DeeR-Sea E&a., 34,1811-1820.
(Childress et al., 1986), this intriguing consistency Sibuet, M., S.K. Juniper and G. Pautot, 1988. Cold-seep
communities in the Japan subduction zones: Geological
suggests geochemical processes operating on two control of community development. sl. Maz. H=. 46, 333-
different scales. Verification of these patterns will 348.

EMERGING ISSUES OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT TO DEEP-SEA CHEMOSYNTHETIC PETROLEUM SEEP COMMUNITIES

ROBERT S. CARNEY,

COASTAL ECOLOGY INST][TUTE, LOUISIANA STATE uNIVERSrFY

ABSTRACT Priority with deeper oil exploration and the discovery
of polymetallic sulfides within the U.S. Economic
Continental slope chemosynthetic communities Exclusion Zone (EEZ). Since an experienced and
associated with hydrocarbon seeps off Louisiana and reasonably effective federal system is in place for the
Texas are similar to communities associated with protection of shallower marine. environments, it is
hydrothermal activity and polymetallic sulfide deposits. understandable that designs for looking at deep systems
In each case potential environmental impact must be might resemble designs appropriate for shallow
considered in conjunction with any plan to utilize the systems. However, when we take a critical look at the
mineral resources. Unlike deep seafloor mining, which real substance of impact work at shelf depths, the
is still in the planning phase, progressively deeper underlying assumptions are found to be inappropriate
petroleum production is now a reality. Therefore a for the deep-sea.
higher priority should be assigned to determining the
sensitivity of petroleum seep communities. In spite of an increasing emphasis upon
understanding ecological processes in marine systems,
On the basis of current knowledge, two opposing the most important assumption which still underlies
sensitivity models can be proposed. According to the the vast majority of marine impact work is that species
first (which has been implicitly adopted by MMS), seep censusing is the best means of assessing both the
communities are robust with respect to impacts due to potential for and the actual existance of impact. The
changing exposure to hydrocarbons. As such, no persistance of this approach implies that the
impact is to be expected from exploration and fundamental ecological processes of the systems *are so
production if reasonable care is used.to avoid well understood, that census data can be placed in a
mechanical disturbance. According to the second, seep process oriented context without major investigations
model, communities are specialized to a narrow of those processes. An excellent example of this can be
geochemical window. Drilling and pumping which seen in Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) surveys and
alter the subsurface flow of hydrocarbons may have a monitoring, where benthic sampling is done to the
very major impact upon the continued existence of this virtual exclusion of water colume studies. There is
window. It is anticipated that future research will absolutely no effort made to describe the trophic
contrast and test these two hypothetical models. structure of theses systems (see chapters in Boesch and
Rabalais, 1987).
INTRODUCTION Of course, the continued emphasis on faunal
census, is not based upon a profound ignorance of
It is the purpose of this brief review to suggest a course contemporary ecology. It is, rather, a cost effective
of action which that will assure an appropriate level of compromise made when studing systems in which the
environmental protection for the unique deep-sea fudamental processes are thought to be reasonably well
chemosynthetic communities associated with known. Applied to the deep-sea, there are insidious
petroleum seeps. Rather than considering these consequences. We really know very little about the
deep-sea. (See chapters in Rowe, 1985)
communities in isolation, it is important that they be
treated as special cases in the larger problem of With respect to deep-sea trophic structure, we
preventing unacceptable impact in the deep-sea. When know only that biomass decreases markedly with depth.
this larger perspective is taken, we quickly find that We still do not know the rates and routes which link
assumptions borrowed from shallow water experiences carbon flux, sedimentary detritus, and the biota. The
are inappropriate. Fundamental questions about these potential for impacting this system remains unknown.
deep systems, especially the reef-like chemosynthetic With respect to basic community composition, we know
communities remain unanswered. Efforts to assess only that species diversity can be extraordinarily high.
sensitivity of impact must be designed answer some We can not explain what factors allow for such high
very basic questions. diversity, and we known nothing of what would
Concern over environmental impact at depths constitute a potential threat to these communities. Even
over 1000m is a relatively new facet of marine with respect to simple species distribution, we do not
environmental protection which has gained a higher know what causes the consnicuous bathvmetric

CH2585-8/88/0000- 96 $1 (D1988 IEEE

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY REGULATED BY LARGER
Primary SCALE OCEANOGRAPHIC PROCESSES INFLUNCING
Production LIGHT, NUTRIENTS, WATER COLUMN STABILITY

PELAGIC
POPULATIONS

SUSPENDED ROTROPHIC AUTOTROPHIC
LABILE BENTHIC SEEP
ORGANIC POPULATIONS POPULATIONS
DETRITUS

SEEP PRODUCTIVITY APPARENTLY
DEPOSITED REGULATED BY SMALL SCALE
LABILE MANIFESTATIONS OF GEOLOGICAL
ORGANIC PHENOMENA
DETRITUS

FIGURE 1. Deep-Sea chemosynthetic communities must be treated as spatially restricted subsystems of the
larger deep-sea community. Since the actual routes and rates of energy flow through this ecosystem are not
known. Designs to assess the potential for impact which stress faunal inventory over process oriented studies
are not acceptable in this situation. Of primary concern is determining to what extent the ecology of
chemosynthetic communities is controlled by geological processes which will be altered by exploitation.

HISTORY and SIGNIFICANCE of the PROBLEM
changes in faunal composition. Therefore, it is a Recent discoveries in the northern Gulf of
mistake to assume that deep-sea census data can be Mexico are dramatically altering our understanding of
evaluated within an appropriate context of well the geological, chemical and biological processes which
understood ecological processes. Prudent investigation control the overall ecology of the continental slope. In
of the potential for impact in the deep-sea must be the geological area, high resolution profiling has
based upon first leaning about basic processes. increasingly shown that salt tectonism and related
processes dominate mesoscale topography and produce
I hope that it has been established that in the islands of hard substrate in a predominantly mud
planning stages of any deep-sea impact work, we must environment (Roberts, et al. 1987). Active and
address a profound level of ignorance. When we widespread geochemical systems involving
encounter a deep-sea chemosynthetic community, an hydrocarbons at or near the deep-sea sediment-water
even greater level of complexity is acheived. Embedded interface were first confirmed by the discovery of oi 'I
in a detritus feeding ecosystem, we have a dense stained cores and thermogenic hydrates by the Texas
chemosysnthetic "reef"( Figure 1). The ecology of A&M Univ. Geochemical and Environmental Research
these communities is far less well understood than the Group (Brooks et al., 1984). Trawling in these areas
later discovered that a fauna utilizing chemosynthetic
ETE

biology of the key species. symbionts were associated with these systems

Kennicutt et al. 1985, papers here in) Clearly, as hydrocarbons. They may, in effect, be "weeds" capable
resource development of the EEZ progresses beyond the of rapidly locating and colonizing numerous sites
shelf break, concepts of Gulf of Mexico slope ecology which afford the correct geological -geochem ical
developed prior to 1985 can not be used for setting. In such a case, simple restrictions to prevent
management decisions. mechanical damage might be sufficient when
combined with regulations which preserve some
The Louisiana continental slope chemosynthetic habitat areas.
communities associated with hydrocarbon seeps are one
of a series discoveries of functionally and 2. A Fra2ile Community- Alternately, it can be argued
taxonomically related assemblages in the deep-sea. All that these communities occupy a relatively rare and
of these communities share the common feature of narrow niche associated with different phases of
being associated with sources of methane or hydrogen petroleum degradation. Being so very highly
sulfide in an oxygenated environment. The underlying specialize, the narrow range of environmental
geological processes supplying these reduced conditions which support these communities might be
compounds vary from site to site. These communities very easily altered by drilling and production
are the focus of intense international research, and activities. Indeed, production may result in a loss of the
many of the questions to be asked in the Gulf of Mexico very energy source required by these communities.
have already been identified and are being addressed.
Determination of the extent to which the
1. What are the detailed geological, chemical, and hydrocarbon seep communities are robust or fragile
ecological processes where by seeping hydrocarbons entails coordinated geological, geochemical and
support distinct communities? ecological efforts that will develop an understanding
of the spatial and temporal linkage pattern between
2. How do these communities persist, and to what hydrocarbon seepage and chemosynthetic community
degree do physical-chemical and biological factors development on the seafloor. These investigations must
interact on different spatial and temporal scales? determine how communities are established and persist
within the particular geological and geochemical
3. How do the component species reproduce, environments which support them (Sibuct et al. 1988).
disperse, and then successfully recruit into new or As stated above the key to understanding potential
existing communities? impacts lies in understanding how the processes of
geology, geochemistry and biology interact.
In the Gulf of Mexico, these basic scientific
questions assume an applied importance, since we are
faced with the question of environmental impact upon PREVIOUS CONCERNS: The Gorda Ridge Hydrothermal
a fauna that is uniquely associated exploitable Vent Communities
hydrocarbon reserves. It is important that we
understand how these communities persist in the While resource exploitation beyond the
natural environment, and the extent to which they will continental shelf is relatively rare, there are a few
be resilient in the face of petroleum related activities. ongoing programs within the U.S., which deal with the
Preconceptions about possible impacts (i.e. they issue of potential damage to sensitive deep-sea
have either a low or high probability), all depend upon communities. To a certain extent these can serve as
how the chemosynthetic communities are envisioned, models for work on the chemos;nthetic communities in
rather than specific findings. For example, if the the Gulf of Mexico and other OCS areas. Of particular
authegenic carbonate hard substrates and the relevance is the concern over environmental impact
associated tubeworms, mussels, solitary corals, soft associated with deep-sea mining of polymetallic
corals, etc. are considered to be a simple variation of a sulfides. These deposits have associated chemosynthetic
live bottom, then protection is a simple matter. As with fauna and fall under the authority of Minerals
any live bottom, sensitivity to petroleum activities Management Services (MMS).
would be determined, and appropriate limits placed on The Gorda Ridge is a deep-sea geological
the proximity of activities. structure within the Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) off
Petroleum seep communities can not simply be the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California. It is
treated as live bottoms. Rather, in addition to the usual an area in which seafloor hydrothermal activity results
live bottom concerns, it is important to determine what in the deposition of potentially valuable deposits of
the unique links among geology, geochemistry, and polymetallic sulfide minerals. The unique chemical
biology are. Informed management decisions can only environment associated with ore deposition also
be made when the possible effects of petroleum supports chemosynthetic communities very similar
activities on these critical (and possibly complex) those on the Louisiana-Texas continental shelf. The
linkages. draft environmental impact statement (DEIS) prepared
by Minerals Management Service (MMS, 1983)
When the gcological-geochemical-biologicaI established three very important points concerning
linkages are considered, the appropriate management resource development in regions where deep-sea
goal should be to determine to what extent the Gulf of chemosynthetic communities are found, First, these
Mexico deep water petroleum seeps fit into two possible communities are of considerable scientific value and
categories: a robust or fragile community warrant efforts at preservation. Second, these
communities may be more ecologically sensitive than
the more typical, heterotrophic deep-sea fauna. Third,
1. A Robust Community-Since these communities are the most appropriate means of protection might be to
associated with petroleum and degradation processes prohibit mining in the vicinity of communities.
then they may be uniquely immune from impact by

Due to a critical lack of information on the Third, within the appropriate geological and
potentially impacted systems discussed in the Gorda geochemical settings, what factors regulate the
Ridge DEIS, strongly negative public opinion lead to establishment, persistence and resilience of
the formation of the Gorda Ridge Technical Task Force. chemosynthetic communities?
This joint Federal-State research coordination effort,
has grown into a major Department of Interior, Finally, with what confidence can faunal survey,
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric geochernical survey, and/or topographic survey
Administration, U.S. Navy cooperative program provide in a cost effective manner the information
(McMurray, 1986). The recommendations of a NOAA needed to locate and protect these communities?
sponsored workshop chaired by Dr. Robert Hessler of
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (Hessler, 1983)
have played a central role in directing the research of In undertaking such an investigation, we are
the Task Force. It was recommended that population well aware of the slow rate of progress in some aspects
dynamics of communities be studied, and that long-term of deep-sea community ecology. While our task are not
monitoring be initiated. Unlike the Gulf of Mexico trivial, they are obtainable because the Louisiana-
situation where the location of some communities is Texas slope communities afford three special
very well known, a major exploratory effort has been opportunities which, we will exploit.
initiated on the Gorda Ridge to locate systems for study
(McMurray, 1985). 1. These sites are relatively shallow (less than
1000m). As a result, a wider variety of
technologies can be employed than in deeper
To a certain extent, the concerns and systems.
recommendations with respect to polymetallic sulfide 2. There is considerable information available on
mining were based upon earlier consideration of the the geology and geological processes of the
potential impacts associated with deep-sea nodule region.
mining. In order to protect the fauna associated with 3. There are obvious management needs will result
nodule rich environments, federal legislation mandates in the appropriate priorities focusing upon the
the establishment of stable reference areas (SRA) geol ogical-geochernical -ecological link.
within which no mining activity would be allowed. A
committee formed by the National Research Council of CONCLUSION
the National Academy of Sciences reviewed this
approach, found it scientifically valid, and outlined a Deep-sea chemosynthetic communities pose a
course of research (Nail. Research Council., 1984, R. unique set of management problems. On the basis of
Heath overall chairman, R.S. Carney chairman current knowledge, it can be suggested that they
ecological workshop). The central theme of research is depend upon the same geological resources which man
to determine the distance at which the bottom fauna seeks to exploit. If this is the case, then an effective
receives no impact from mining. Once this distance is protection plan must have at least two components.
known, it will be possible to establish areas large First, there must be conservation to assure an
enough to protect the fauna and small enough to avoid acceptable level of habitat preservation. Second, there
unneeded restrictions upon development. must be assured protection from impact due to
drilling/mining in areas open to exploitation. The
AN EFFECTIVE APPROACH to PETROLEUM SEEP research which leads to the adoption of a management
COMMUNITIES program must provide a basis for both components.
Therefore, it is critical that ecological processes be
The overall design of seep systems must be based studied. The highest priority must go to the
upon a careful consideration of the state of knowledge determination of the linkage between biology and the
of other deep-sea chernosynthetic communities, the geologic al/geochemi c al phenomena which appear to
concerns about impact to those systems within the U.S. be necessary for the communities to exist.
EEZ, unique aspects of the Louisiana-Texas ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
communities, and our own considerable experience in
the Gulf and elsewhere. If the hydrocarbon seep
communities are to receive appropriate protection, it The author's research on the ecology of Gulf of Me x1co
will be necessary to determine those factors most petroleum seep communities is supported by the
important for the establishment and persistence of the Louisiana Sea Grant program. Additional support has
communities. As will be detailed in the following been provided by the Texas Sea Grant Program and the'
sections, we feel that such information can be NOAA Undersea Research Program. Discussions with 1.
developed in a hierarchical fashion employing MacDonald were very helpful in the preparation of
submersible survey, sampling, experimentation and this study.
monitoring. LITERATURE CITED
First, what is, the nature and distribution of and N.N. Rabalais (eds). 1987. Long-term
geological structures with which such communities are Boesch, D.F.
associated? environmental effects of offshore oil and gas
development. Elsevier Applied Science. 708pp.
Second, within the appropriate geological
settling, what is the nature and distribution of the Hessler, R.R. 1983. Geological, geochernical and
geochemical environment which can support biological research needs with environmental.
chemosynthetic communities? and timing concerns. In. M.B. Hatern (ed.) 1983.
Marine 'polymetallic sulfides: a national

overview and future needs. Maryland Sea Grant
Publication No. UM-SG-TS-83-04.
Kennicutt, M.C., J.M. Brooks, R.R. Bidigare, R.R. Fay, T.L.
Wade, and T.J. MacDonald, 1985. Vent-type taxa in
a hydrocarbon seep region of the Louisiana
slope. Nature 317:351-353.

McMurray, G. 1985. Environmental considerations for
the development of metalliferous sulfides.
Marine Technology Society Journal. 19:57-61.

McMurray, G. 1986. The Gorda Ridge Technical Task
Force: a cooperative Federal-State approach to
offshore mining issues. Marine Mining, 5:467-
475.

Minerals Management Service. 1993. Draft
Environmental Impact Statement. Prepared by
MMS Headquarters Office, 12203 Sunrise Valley
Drive, Reston. Va. 22091. J.P. Zippin Coordinator.
Proposed Polymetallic Sulfide Lease Offering. 580
pp.

Roberts, H.H., R. Sassen, P. Aharons, 1987. Carbonates of
the Louisiana continental slope. Offshore
Technology Conference Report 5463.

Sibuet, M., S.K. Juniper and 0. Pautot. 1988. Cold-seep
benthic communities in the Japanese subduction
zone: Geological control of community structure.
Journal of Marine Research 46:333-348.

100

PETROLEUM - DERIVED AUTHIGENIC CARBONATES OF THE LOUISIANA
CONTINENTAL SLOPE

Harry H. Roberts, Roger Sassen, and Paul Abaron

School of Geoscience (Coastal Studies Institute, Basin Research Institute,
Dept. Geology and Geophysics), LSU, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

ABSTRACT 98* 96' 94 - ----- ----- 92' 90*
.............. ..... .....
Seismic and echo-sounder profiles across Louisiana's continen-
........... X... X. . .......
.. .... .....
tal slope have historically suggested the presence of abundant hydrocar-
.. ........ ........ ................ .
. ................ ........ ........ .....
30* . ......... ........ ........... 4.4 - :.:. @,
bons in shallow subsurface sediments and in the water column. Various . ............... ..... ... . .....
mineralogical types of authigenic carbonates are common in hydrocar- .:.* ..
..... .......... ..... ........
.. ........
. .. .......
.............
bon seep areas. Signif
icance of a substantial carbonate component to the X.:
sedimentary architecture of the Mississippi delta complex has never been
... ........
seriously evaluated.
mississup
SHELF
jr*
Large topographic variations on the slope are related to salt
tectonics. Close inspection of these features (geohazards data and cores)
28* 1@*Q-
suggests that they are largely carbonate capped. These carbonates range
from shell hashes through cemented clays and hardgrounds to massive 4,-o
_3
re
moun -like buildups ten of meters in relief. Analysis of host sediments
d
commonly reflect the presence of biogenic gas generated in situ and K
thermogenic gas and associated crude oil generated outside the realm of
TEXAS
L, J, Tath ey-
surface sediments. Numerous faults act as conduits for fluids and gases 1i e I
from the subsurface. 26'
@4 IMENT
Isotopic values of the authigenic carbonate (SC-13 values to 48 1ESrER,
6ULF RISE
o/oo 1`1313) reflect a link with hydrocarbons. Microbial 2xidation of
methane and heavier hydrocarbons provides a source of CO in intersti-
tial waters and triggers chemical precipitation of carbonates (primarily
aragonite and Mg-calcite) characterized by extreme depletion of the C- o5 SIGS 3EE PLAIN
2 4.
13 isotope.
Challenger
Kno I

INTRODUCTION figure 1. Bathymetry of the northern Gulf of Mexico
Data taken in support of hydrocarbon exploration continental slope topography associated with salt
and production in slope-depth environments of the north- tectonics (modified from Martin and Bouma, 1978).
ern Gulf of Mexico have increasingly confirmed the abun-
dance of authigenic carbonates. The bathymetrically,
structurally, and sedimentologically complicated continen- Recent data indicate that surface and near-surface
tal slope off Louisiana is an area where the occurrence of sediments (2, 3) display a wide variety of depositional set-
oil and gas seeps is convincingly associated with the produc- tings, including settings of slow hemipelagic deposition over
tion of enormous volumes of calcium carbonate, sediments more rapidly deposited low sea-level fluvial sediments,
and structures. Data that support these findings are lar ely areas of seafloor failures and mass movement, and exten-
high resolution seismic profiles, side-scan sonographs, got- sive regions of sediment stripping and erosion. In addition,
toin samples cores, and geochemical surveys run to assess these studies have shown that the slope is a zone of active
potential drill sites and pipeline routes. faultiny, that provides avenues for fluid and gas movement
The slope is underlain by a massive salt unit from the deep subsurface to the modem seatloor. Oil and
(Louanne Salt, Jurassic), which largely controls major gas seeps are common (4). It is also clear, from studies of
topographic and structural variations. The salt has been both sediment cores (3) and seismic profiling (2, 5, 6), that
deformed into a variety of d spines, domes, and sedimentation on the slope is strongly modulated by sea-
ridges, some of which reach the=e or are close enough level fluctuations. Although the deposition of fine-grained
to influence modern seafloor topography and near-seafloor hernipelagic sediments and various types of turbid
stratigraphy. Resulting seafloor complexity of the slope is flows/debris flows initiated by mass-movement processes
expressed in highly irregular depth contours, (Figure 1). are part of the rising to high sea-level suite, coarser sedi-
Processes of salt tectonics have produced numerous ments are typical of falling to low sea-level periods, when
interslope basins and topographic highs. Bathymetric and shelf-edge delta building takes place (5). However, many
�KW_<
_E,

structural maps of the slope lack the necessary detail to of the elevated salt domes were largely bypassed by fluvial
accurately portray the gradients and complexities of relief deposition even during low sea-level periods and left to
that actually exist (1). accumulate carbonates.

CH2585-8/88/0000- 101 $1 @1988 IEEE

ABUNDANCE OF SLOPE HYDROCARBON SEEPS gas can include higher hydrocarbons such as those noted in
Several researchers have shown that active gas and gas hydrates (8). Biodegradation of thermogenic hydrocar-
crude oil seepage is widely distributed across the upper bons is known to result in preferential preservation of
continental slope of Louisiana (7, 8, 9, 10, 4). Seeps are methane, as other higher hydrocarbon gases are preferen-
common to diapir crests which are associated with complex tially oxidized by bacteria (15). This process results in
faulting. Acoustic data from these areas commonly record methane-rich residual gas of thermogenic origin that could
gas in the water column and acoustic wipeout zones in the also be utilized by chemosynthetic organisms.
subsurface that are interpreted as shallow accumulations of RELATION OF HYDROCARBON OXIDATION TO
biogenic and thermogenic gas and gas hydrates. Near AUTHIGENIC CARBONATES
shallow diapir crests, upturned and truncated bedding is T'he relationship between microbial oxidation of
common, as well as surface topography that is complicated
@y irregularities ranging from fist-sized carbonate nodules hydrocarbons and the formation of carbonate minerals,
in the sediment to carbonate mounds that can attain verti- including aragonite, Mg-calcite, and dolomite characterized
cal dimensions of tens of meters (Figure 2). by isotopically light carbonate carbon, has been docu-
The biogenic gas is thought to be formed in place as mented (7, 8, 9, 16). Moreover, such processes occur at
the result of microbial activity on dominantly terrestrial even greater water depths than the resent paper encom-
organic matter transported to slope sediments. There is passes. Isotopically light carbonate Kas been identified in
little doubt, however, that large volumes of thermogenic association with crude oil and elemental sulfur in the shal-
gas and crude oil are migrating to the slope surface at the low cap rock of Challenger Knoll, a salt dome in the
present time. Among evidence for present migration of Sigsbee deep abyssal plain at a water depth of 3600 m in
thermogenic gas to the present seafloor are unusual gas the Gulf of Mexico (17).
hydrates recovered from Green Canyon cores. Tlese Certain aspects of microbial oxidation of hydrocar-
bons and formation of carbonates with isotopically light
yellowish-orange nodules of thermogeruc gas @ydrates, carbon in the slope sediments are incompletely understood.
iound in association with biodegraded crude oil, included The carbon isotopic compositions of authigenic carbonates
methane as well as ethane, propane, isobutane, and normal on the Louisiana continental slope display wide variation,
butane (8, 9). Additional analytical work on Green Canyon with values ranging from those typical of marine carbonates
cores (11) also indicates the presence of carbon dioxide and to values as light as -48 o/oo PDB (7, 9, 18). It could be
hydrogen sulfide encased within the gas hydrate structure. assumed that the isotopic variability of the slope carbonates
Based on calculated thermal maturity models for the simply reflects a mixture of carbon derived from methane
Louisiana slope, thermogenic gas and crude oil did not and marine carbonates, but research on the on*gin.of Gulf
form at shallow depths, but instead migrated along faults Coast salt dome cap rocks suggests greater complexity.
from deeply buried Lower Tertiary or Mesozoic source Carbonate carbon isotopic values of salt dome cap
rocks (12). rocks associated with crude oil seepage (-25 to -30 o/oo
It has been noted (13, 14) that slope hydrocarbon PDB) have been attributed to microbial oxidation of crude
seeps are frequently associated with chemosynthetic com- oil hydrocarbons with a similar carbon isotopic composition
munities similar to hydrothermal vent fauna (tube worms, (19). Microbial oxidation is not necessarily limited to
bivalves, gastropods, and other organisms) that utilize
methane and hydrogen sulfide as nutrient sources. The hydrocarbon gases as described (15), but can result in
origin. of the methane utilized by these chemosynthetic nearly complete oxidation of quantitatively more significant
organisms is complex. Both biogenic and thermogenic liquid saturated hydrocarbons of much higher molecular
methane are available in seeps. Biogenic methane does not weight (20, 21). Crude oils from Green Canyon seeps are
typically include higher hydrocarbons, whereas thermogenic known to be biodegraded (7, 8, 22), suggesting that in some

A000NATIT
M6UNDS,

1, som,

44
Of
7,'l
4@ S

W
p
E 01j"i
N
@20N
WA A,
BIE ;@J

Figure 2. High resolution seismic profile near the crest of a shallow salt diapir. Note the
upturned and truncated bedding, mounded surface topography, and acoustic
"wipeout zones."

102

seeps .hydrocarbons associated with crude oil could be a mollusc debris, carbonate cemented pellets, large carbon-
sigiiificint contributor to authigenic carbonates. Never- ate clasts, and coral debris (both hermatypic and aber-
theless, carbonate carbon isotopic values of some salt dome matypic corals). The large cemented clasts of authigenic
ca k n a ciated with oil seepage (-30 to -50 o/oo carbonate commonly found Jn these sediments are isotopi-
p roc s v ot sso. Cally light (SC -21) to -46 o/oo).
PDB) ha e been attributed to microbial oxidation of -13 values ranging from
b
iog .
emc methane (23). Additional research needs to be it is thought that large carbonate mounds as shown
done to elucidate the relative contributions of different on the seismic profile of Figure 2 are composed primarily
hydrocarbon types to Louisiana slope carbonates with. of isotopically light calcium carbonate (mostly aragonite).
widely varying carbon isotopic compositions. A large piece of this material collected from the Green
Cafiyon area off central Louisiana is shown in Figure 5A. It
CARBONATE MOUNDS AND SEDIMENTS contains many voids, borings, and various types of epifauna,
Recently assembled and interpreted high resolution including solitary corals and brachiopods. Most of the
seismic data (24) clearly show carbonate buildups of vari- matrix is cemented with isotopically light aragonite, and
ous dimensions on the crests of many salt diapirs at varyin voids are filled with @plays of acicular aragonite crystals
water depths. They are found from the shelf edge, whic9 (Figure 5B) or thick rims of botryoidal cements. Once a
was near sea level during the last low stand (-20,000 yrs substrate is established by cementation catalyzed by the
BP), to depths that were far below the photic zone even microbial oxidation of hydrocarbons, it becomes a habitat
when sea level was at its lowest. Acoustic data shown in for hard substrate organisms. On the crests of shallow
Figures 2 and 3 indicate the seafloor irregularities common domes at the continental shelf edge it is not uncommon to
to slope areas affected by shallow salt diapirs. Note the find both living and dead ahermatypic and hermatypic
surface mounds of Figure 2 and the associated acoustic (reef-building) corals (Figure 6). During low sea-level
pe
wipeout zones. These areas of no acoustic return are riods, many upper slope-distal shelf dome crests were in
usually interpreted as pockets of shallow subsurface gas, a favorable photic environment for reef growth. A few of
but a hard carbonate substrate, such as those shown in these features, such as Flower Garden Banks off the Texas-
F@gure 2, can reflect acoustic energ and create acoustic Louisiana border, have survived as viable coral reefs. It is
wipeouts beneath these features. The acoustic response pro a e a any
seen in Figure 2 is commonly a combination of both effects develo ent on ard substrates provided by the rocess of
in the salt diapir crest environment. an ige c carbonate production discussed previously.,
A side-scan sonograph showing the distribution of Carbonate o ds of the present continental slo e.that e
mounded areas near a shallow salt diapir crest is shown in located at depths beyond the photic zone eve uring peri-
Figure 3. Areas of smooth seafloor on the diapir flanks and ods of lowered sea level are likely to have y roc bon
in local areas of the diapir crests collect hernipelagic sedi- seep origin. Research is currently underWa to deter 'ne
ments. These sediments are characterized by lack of the origin of carbonate buildups at various depths in several
stratification, thorough burrowing, and abundant slope areas.
calcareous microfossil. tests (up to 30%) (Figure 4). These
thin (2-4 in thick) hemipelagic sediments, which represent CONCLUSIONS
rising to high sea-level deposits, drape nearly the entire Research, on carbonate sediments and moundlike
slope (3). They are underlain by thicker and more strati- buildups on the continental slope off Louisiana have led to
fied deposits from the last low sea-level period (5, 6). Sur- the following conclusions:
face sediments from mounded areas of seafloor are gener-
ally rich in sand-sized and coarser carbonate debris, includ- 1. Acoustic data suggest the widespread occur-
ing encrusting foraminifers, calcareous algal fragments, rence of mounds and rough bottom areas

S-)

Figure 3. Side-scan sonograph from a slope diapir crest showing rough bottom topography
associated with carbonate mounds. In the vicinity of the mounded areas the surface
sediments are commonly composed of either shell hash or carbonate cemented
clasts in a mud to shell hash matrix.

103

N ,

Figure 4. X-ray radiographs of cores from two common
types of near-surface sedimentary facies, burrowed
d
turbid flow sequences commonly associated with
hemipelagics that drape much of the slope an

sediments deposited during the last low sea level.
Due to seafloor erosion, these low sea-level deposits Figure 5. (A) A large block of isotopically light carbonate
are sometimes exposed on the modern seafloor. (mostly aragonite) collected from the Green Canyon
Prints are pictures of the radiograph negative. Light area off central Louisiana. Dark areas around the
areas are dense to passage of X-radiation. voids are crude oil stains from a natural seafloor
seep. (B) The small-scale voids in the larger rock
shown above are filled with splays of aragonite
crystals as shown on the scanning electron
associated with salt diapir crests that, when photomicro, raph. Aragonite cements have SC-13
sampled directly, are usually composed of values as gTt as _48 o/oo PDB.
various species of calcium carbonate
minerals.
2. Cores and bottom samples from mounded thermogenic methane to crude oil
areas are usually carbonate-rich and com- hydrocarbons.
monly contain crude oil. The presence of 5. Hydrocarbon-derived carbonates provide a
abundant gas in these areas is suggested by substrate for organisms requiring a hard
frequent acoustic wipeout zones in the shal- substrate.
low subsurface and reflection events from gas
in the water column. REFERENCES
3. Geochemical analysis of hydrocarbons
reflects multiple origins,. from in situ biogenic 1. Bouma, A.H., and Coleman, J.M., 1986. Intraslope
methane to thermogemc gas and crude oil basin deposits and potential relation to the conti-
that has migrated to the surface from great nental shelf, northern Gulf of Mexico: Trans. Gulf
subsurface depths, presumably by way of Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc., v. 36, p. 419-428.
large growth fault systems. 2. Suter, J.R., and Berryhill, H.L. Jr., 1985. Late
4. Isotopic signatures of the carbonates (SC-13 Quaternary shelf-margin deltas, northwest Gulf of
values to -4 o/oo PDB) reflect a link with Mexico" Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists Bull., v. 69,
hydrocarbons in the carbonate-forming pro- p- 77-91.
cess. It appears that much of the isotopic 3. Roberts, H.H., Singh, I.B., and Coleman, J.M., 1986.
variability of the carbonates is related to the Distal shelf and upper slope sediments deposited
varied pool of carbon made available by during rising sea level, north-central Gulf of Mexico:
microbial degradation of a spectrum of Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc., v. 36, p. 541-
hydrocarbons, from biogenic and 551.

104

12. Nunn, J.A., and Sassen, R., 1986. The framework of
hydrocarbon generation and migration, Gulf of
Mexico continental slope: Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc.
Geol. Soc., v. 36, p. 257-262.
13. Kennicutt II, M.C., Brooks, J.M., Bidigare, R.R.,
Foy, R.R., Wade, T.L., and McDonald, T.J., 1985.
Vent-type taxa in a hydrocarbon seep region on the
--353.
Louisiana slope. Nature, v. 317, p. 351
14. Brooks, J.M., Kennicutt, M.C. II, Fisher,C.R.,
Macko, S.A., Cole, K., Childress, J.J., Bidigare, R.R.,
and Vetter, R.D., 1987. Deep-sea hydrocarbon seep
A communities: Evidence for energy and nutritional
cience, v. 238, p. 1138-1142.
sources:S
15. James, A.T., and Bums, B.J., 1984. Microbial alter-
ation of subsurface gas accumulations. Amer.
VM WM Assoc. Petrol. Geologists Bull., v. 68, p. 957-960.
am low 16. Sassen, R., 1987. Organic geochemistry of salt dome
cap rocks, Gulf Coast salt basin: in D
.ynamical
Geology of Salt and Related Structures (I. Lerche
Figure 6. Hermatypic corals collected by piston core from and J.J. O'Brien, eds.) p. 631-649, Academic Press,
a carbonate mound on a shallow salt diapir crest London.
east of the modern Mississippi River delta. This 17. Davis, J.B., and Kirkland, D.W., 1979. Bioepigenetic
reef/bioherm probably started on a hard substrate sulfur deposits: Economic Geology, v. 74, p. 462-
of authigenic carbonate associated with a seep. 468.
18. Roberts, H. H., Sassen, R., and Aharon, P., 1987.
Carbonates of the Louisiana continental slope:
4. Behrens, E.W., 1988. Geology of a continental slope Pro6. 19th Annual Offshore Technology Conference
(OTC 5463), Houston, Texas, p. 373-382.
oil seep, northern Gulf of Mexico: Amer. Assoc. 19. Sassen, R., 1980. Biodegradation of crude oil and
Petrol. Geologists Bull., v. 72, p. 105-114. mineral deposition in a shallow Gulf Coast salt
5. Coleman, J.M., and Roberts, H.H., In Press, Sedi- dome: Organic Geochemistry, v. 2,X. 153-166.
mentary development of the Louisiana continental 20. Bailey, N.J.L., Jobson, A.M., an Rogers, M.A.,
shelf related to sea level cycles: Part I - Sedimentary 1973. Bacterial degradation of crude oil: Compari-
sequences: Geo-Marine Letters. son of field and experimental data. Chemical Geol-
6. Coleman, J.M., and Roberts, H.H., In Press, Sedi- ogy, v. 11, p. 203-221.
mentary development of the Louisiana continental 21. Evans, C.R Rogers, M.A., and Bailey, N.J.L, 1971.
shelf related to sea level cycles: Part H - Seismic
response: Geo-Marine Letters. Evolution and alteration of petroleum in western
Canada. Chemical Geology, v. 8, p. 147-179.
7. Anderson, R.K., Scalan, R.S., Parker, P.L., and 22. Sassen, R., Kennicutt, M.C. 11, and Brooks, J.M.,
-p oil and gas in Gulf of
Behrens, E.W., 1983. Set. 1985. Ongoing deposition of isotopically light car-
Mexico slope sediment: Science, v. 222, p. 619-621. bonate in oil seeps, Gulf of Mexico continental
8. Brooks, J.M., Kennicutt 11, M.C., Fay, R.R., slope. Sixth Annual Research Conference, Gulf
McDonald, T.J., and Sassen, R., 1984. Thermogenic Coast Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists
gas hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico: Science, v. 225, and Mineralogists, Foundation, Program and
409-411. Abstracts, p. 27.
9. Uoks, J.M., Cox, B.H., Bryant, W.R., Kennicutt 11, 23. Posey, H. H., Price, P.E., and Doyle, J.R., 1987.
M.C., Mann, R.G,, and McDonald, T.J., 1985. Asso- Mixed carbon sources for calcite cap rocks of Gulf
ciation of gas hydrates and oil seepage in the Gulf of Coast salt domes: in Dynamical Geology of Salt and
Mexico: in Advances in Organic Geochermistry, Related Structures (I. Lerche and J.J. O'Brien, eds.),
1985 (D. Leythaeuser and J. Rullkotter, eds.), p. 593-630, Academic Press, London.
Organic Geochemistry, v. 10, p. 221-234. 24. Berrybill, H.L., Jr., Suter, J.R., and Hardin, N.S.,
jo. Kennicutt 11 M.C., Denoux, G.J., Brooks, J.M., and 1986. Late Quaternary facies and structure, north-
Sandberg, [email protected]., 1987. Hydrocarbons in Mississippi ern Gulf of Mexico: Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geolo-
Fan and intraslope basin sediments: Geochimica et gists, Studies in Geology, v. 23, p. 289.
Cosmochimica Acta, v. 5 1, p. 1457-1466. 25. Martin, R.G., and A.H. Bouma, 1978. Physiography
11. Davidson, D.W., Garg, S.K., Gough, S.R., Handa, of the Gulf of Mexico: in Framework, Facies, and
Y.P., Ratcliffe, C.I., Ripmeester, J.A., Tse, J.S., and Oil-Trapping Characteristics of the Upper Conti-
Lawson, W.F., 1986. Laboratory analysis of a natu- nental Margin (A. H. Bourna, G. T. Moore, and J.
rall occurring gas hydrate from sediment of the M. Coleman, eds.): Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
GZ of Mexico: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Studies in Geology, v. 7, p. 3-19.
Acta, v. 50, p. 619-623.

105

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL, AND SOCIAL IMPACT' OF NOAA:S
MOBILE UNDERSEA RESEARCH HABITAT.

Gilbert A Smith
Richard S. Rounds

National Undersea Research Center - Fairleigh Dickinson University
40 Estate Castle Coakley, St. Croix, USVI 00820

ABSTRACT
Habitat life support systems include an Environmental
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Control System (ECS), two high pressure air sources,
(NOAA's) Undersea Research Center at Fairleigh Dickinson oxygen and oxygen/nitrogen gas supplies, primary and
University (NURC-FDU) on St. Croix, U.S.V.I. presently emergency power and communications systems, remote and
operates (AQUARIUS), a recently commissioned scientific direct monitoring of habitat atmosphere, and remote video
saturation diving habitat system, The unique undersea habitat monitoring. Remote environmental monitoring eliminates the
is located in the apex of a submarine canyon on St. Croix's need for a 24 hour radio watch, allowing scientists to have a
north shore at a depth of 50 ft. By utilizing saturation diving, normal sleep schedule during the mission. Remote sensing
teams of six aquanaut/scientists are able to spend up to four will relay all critical life support data continuously from the
weeks living beneath the sea, studying the ocean floor and its habitat to the support base via radio. The decision was made
inhabitants. Moreover, the AQUARIUS mobile system in late 1986 to go with a radio system both for voice
consists of the habitat, its anchoring baseplate, and a Launch, communications (on VHF channel 82A) andfor transmitting
Recovery, and Transport (LRT) vessel that can be retrofitted sensor data from the life support systems (on channel 2A). I
to serve as a Mobile Support Base (MSB) and floating The scientists can be alerted from shore if a problem is
laboratory. This mobile capacity will allow NURC-FDU to detected. A hard-wire communications umbilical has been
serve the research needs of the entire Caribbean. installed as a back-up system. The addition of an onboard
technician will free diving scientists from the daily
1. DETAILS ON THE HABITAT SYSTEM maintenance and operation of the habitat and increase the time
available for research.
The AQUARIUS habitat system was deployed in Salt Riv@r
Canyon, St. Croix in September 1987. The habitat system is Living conditions within the habitat will be markedly
composed of four major elements; the habitat, the Life improved over HYDROLAB. The improvements include an
Support Buoy (LSB), the LRT/MSB, and the Baseplate. The indoor toilet, two sinks, a shower, a dining table, a large
habitat represents a major advancement in facilities for refrigerator, a microwave oven, bunks for all team members
scientific saturation diving by providing enhanced scientific and several science work areas. The habitat will be supplied
capabilities in a comfortable living environment. The habitat with hot and cold fresh water from a desalination unit and
is an American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) classed double water heater on the LSB. Water will not be rationed.
lock vessel capable of housing and supporting six persons in Provision for adequate bathing facilities should reduce the
an environment closely approximating a typical field research frequency of skin infections. An indoor toilet reduces
laboratory. It is rated to an internal pressure of 103 psi (232 exposure time and the need for extra showers.
feet of sea water) and an external pressure of 54 psi (120 feet
of sea water), allowing a maximum saturation depth of 120 Another technological advance in the system is that
feet. The pressure hull is 3.5 times larger than the original decompression in the habitat will be controlled by NURC-
HYDROLAB (an undersea habitat operated in St. Croix by FDU staff on the surface. Controls are housed in the LSB.
NURC-FDU between 1978 and 1985). It has rectangular The advantages to remote control are that decompression will
hatches for easy entry and exit and several viewports up to 23 now be controlled by an experienced staff so that scientists
inches in diameter. will be freed to rest or pursue research.
A non-pressure rated "wet-porch" is attached to one end of 2. LIFE SUPPORT BUOY (LSB)
the habitat. This room will serve as the habitat entrance and
provides a dressing room, shower for divers, and wet LSB was constructed from a 45 foot fisherman-type hull
laboratory space, including a seawater table and aquaria. Wet acquired from the U.S. Customs Service and delivered to
laboratory space was not provided for in HYDROLAB, and NURC-FDU in late 1985. Design and conversion of this
is highly desirable. The wet porch also features a dumb- vessel was accomplished on St. Croix by the NURC-FDU
waiter system which will be used for the transfer of supplies staff and local contractors. The LSB will provide the primary
in pressure -resistant containers to and from the habitat. life support for the habitat.
During HYDROLAB missions, support divers carried bulky
containers by hand.

CH2585-8/88/0000-106 $1 9)1988 IEEE

The LSB has been designed with a reverse osmosis
desalinator for ample supplies of fresh water, two diesel
engines and generators, two high pressure compressors, one
low pressure compressor, the control unit for the ECS, and
support for the habitat's VHF radio antennas. A continuous
duty rotating video camera mounted on the LSB monitors sea
conditions and boat traffic from the support base. An
insulated, air-conditioned control room houses the controls
for decompression, the atmosphere monitoring equipment,
radios and video equipment. A small shop with tools and
spare parts is housed below deck.
3. LAUNCH, RECOVERY AND TRANSPORT Z J
vesseINOBILE SUPPORT BASE (LRT/MSB) 7 . . . ......

In 1987 the final design for the LRT/MSB and baseplate was
completed with the contract to build these components being
awarded to Brown & Root Marine. The LRT/MSB was
.. ..... ......
completed during August 1987. This design features a new
baseplate as well as a catamaran style vessel and a Mobile
Support Base that can provide transportation for the entire
system.

The LRT/MSB has three principal roles. The first is to
launch, recover and transport the system around St. Croix
and throughout the Caribbean. The second role is to house J-7
and transport a self-sufficient mobile support base that will .......
allow offshore deployment in remote areas with few or no
shore facilities. The third is to provide a "dry dock" facility I lu
able to lift the habitat and baseplate completely clear of the sea
for periodic maintenance. This is the first time any habitat FIGURE 1. Habitat Operations in Salt River
system has incorporated this important capability. Canyon.
screw jack assembly. On the bottom the habitat is oriented
In its configuration as an MSB, the vessel will be equipped perpendicular to the centerline of the baseplate and the lead
with all of the support equipment now located at the NURC- filled legs act as "outriggers" to resist the overturning forces
FDU operations base. Permanently installed apparatus exerted by the sea on the large surface area of the side of the
includes main generators (2-100kw), high pressure air habitat. While on the LRT/MSB, the baseplate acts as the
compressors (2-20cfin), a low pressure compressor support platform for the habitat with the habitat parallel to the
(120cfin), a reverse osmosis desalination plant, and storage centerline of the baseplate.
for fuel and breathing gases. In order to fully utilize the
depth and personnel capabilities of the system, an 72-inch 5. OPERATIONS
(large enough for six persons plus a tender) recompression
chamber and a handling system for a Personnel Transfer Training and qualification of the habitat scientific team are
Capsule (PTC) will be installed near the bow of the vessel. conducted prior to the start of each research mission. Both
After the habitat is deployed, the LRT/MSB returns to the in-water and classroom training sessions are held to
nearest convenient port with containerized freight handling familiarize the aquanauts with the operation of the habitat,
equipment to pick up six trailer sized (40 feet x 12 feet) modified diving equipment and safety procedures. Upon
fiberglass modularized buildings which will span and cover completion of required pre-dive checklists, the aquanauts
the "moon pool" of the vessel. These buildings will contain SCUBA to the habitat. An onboard technician conducts the
the operations control room, field science laboratory, daily habitat checks, replenishes carbon dioxide absorbent,
infirmary, shop, bunk rooms, galley, showers and marine and performs any required maintenance. Life support
toilets. Once these three buildings are loaded and "plugged- parameters are monitored at the shore operations base with a
in" the vessel can be returned to an anchorage near the habitat data link and packet radio from the habitat and LSB.
and serve as the remote Mobile Support Base.
The aquanauts routinely spend up to 9 hours a day working
4. BASEPLATE on their experiments on the seafloor. A video system allows
monitoring of experiments and surface conditions. An
The baseplate is the foundation of the habitat and contains the onboard computer and data link are used to gather
ballast weight to hold the buoyant pressure hull on the experimental data. After undersea experiments have been
bottom. The baseplate has adjustable legs which provide a completed, decompression of the aquanauts must be
means of levelling the habitat on an uneven sea floor. conducted and is accomplished by slowly reducing the
Hydraulic winches mounted on the baseplate are used to pull pressure inside the habitat to surface atmospheric pressure.
the buoyant habitat to the bottom in a controlled manner. The When the aquanauts reach surface pressure, after
baseplate is a tubular framework measuring approximately 45 approximately 20 hours of decompression, they exit the
feet by 25 feet with fqur vertical tube legs and foot pads. habitat and swim to the surface. The diving medical officer
Each of the vertical tube legs is ballasted with 21 tons of lead; examines the aquanauts for signs of decompression sickness
it's length is adjustable by means of a hydraulically operated or other medical problems.2

107

FIGURE 4. Habitat and Baseplate Aboard LRT
Vessel.

t
equipped with a low light level television camera with quartz
halogen lights to provide real time observations to the user.
Several packages of optimal capabilities such as articular
arms, still cameras, etc. may be available to increase the
flexibility of the Mini-Rover. A second tethered ROV
available is the Deep Ocean Engineering Super Phantom.
This vehicle is equipped with a one function manipulator,
tube coring device, scoop and suction sampler. It has a color
video with annotated depth, time and heading recorded on
tape. There is a low light video, collimated light system for
particulate/plankton assessment, and a 35 min film camera.
The program provides a trained technician for piloting the
ROV. These vehicles may be used in conjunction with a
saturation mission or may be used for a research project (in
St. Croix or elsewhere in the Caribbean) that is independent
FIGURE 2. Modifications at St. Croix7s Container of the saturation habitat.
Port.
Manned Submersibles - Several shallow and deepwater
manned submersibles may be made available to support
research projects requiring increased vertical flexibility.
Studies requiring submersibles may be proposed for any
location throughout the Caribbean; however support for
submersible dives at a particular location will be more
logistically feasible if several investigators propose to work
collaboratively at particular locations. Such is indeed the case
with the innovative, multi-investigator Beebe Project which
will be based on St. Croix in 1989.

NURC-FDU Support Facilities - The shore support
base is located on a peninsula in the middle of the Salt River
Estuary, approximately 1,000 meters from the habitat site.
The base has a bunk room and kitchen facilities for the nine
research team personnel. During the saturation period,
habitat operations -personnel are also housed at the shore
base.

Two recompression chambers capable of treating four and six
FIGURE 3. Underwater Photo of AQUARIUS divers respectively (as well as an attendant), a SCUBA
Habitat. charging station with associated high pressure air bank, and a
small boat dock are located adjacent to the main base facility.
Medical facilities include an emergency room/clinic: on-site. It
6. EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES AVAILABLE is equipped for advanced cardiac life support and is prepared
THROUGH NURC-FDU to meet treatment needs for diving and occupational
Other NURC-FDU equipment or facilities that may be used in emergencies.
conjunction with the AQUARIUS system are described A small laboratory, suitable for basic sample treatment and
below. analysis is available at the Salt River shore support base. A
NURC-FDU laboratory facility is also located at the West
Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV'S) - A Deep Sea Indies Laboratory (WIL), where more sophisticated
Mini-Rover Mk 11 is one ROV available for appropriate instrumentation can support complex sample analyses. The
@.A

research projects. This vehicle has depth capabilities up to NURC-FDU science facility at WIL widl also support pre-
1000 ft. (500 ft. nominal), a payload of 6-10 lbs., and is and post- mission research activities of funded investigators.
This has become an increasingly important aspect of the

108

71o. 4 7't4A,
?'IC OCIE41V
research projects funded by NURC-FDU, as it allows time to
refine techniques prior to a mission and/or extend the studies da:i_-
into shallow water habitats. This represents another aspect of F
1 10
."10
the flexibility in approaches that are provided and supported
'd-os
by NURC-FDU. QxmN.'@.
f.. RE-LIC

C
7. RESEARCH d 4,91,9,0 4- L'I*. _G 4
4N P 142L-1
"A
During 1987, a Caribbean-wide marine research program was
designed that is being implemented in 1988 and beyond, to
drive research supported by NURC-FDU. This program will 111HUAtA oMlWoC
lo' CO@O-A 'W
provide modem oceanographic tools and support facilities to
scientists conducting research within the areas of research
concentration of the NURC-FDU program. The program
will foster integrated, multidisciplinary studies on scientific
questions of particular regional significance. It consists of a
Core Research Program that provides a framework for the FIGURE 5. Map of Caribbean Region
science conducted using the AQUARIUS mobile habitat
system, remotely operated vehicles, submersibles, other
research tools and efforts to develop instrumentation and
techniques that will aid in the conduct of research supported
by the program.

The major function of this program is to provide a scientific The Energetics of Sediment Removal and Zooplankton
framework that focuses research projects supported by Feeding in Caribbean Reef-Building Corals,
NURC-FDU in a multidisciplinary way on topics of Patterns and Processes Structuring Tropical Algal
particular interest. The topics that are the foci for research at
NURC-FDU and which address NOAA's undersea mission Communities Along a Depth Gradient: The Dynamic Roles
objectives in the Caribbean Basin are. of Productivity and Herbivory Revisited,
Biological Productivity and Living Resources - Zooplankton Capture by Corals: The Effects of Water
larval recruitment processes and reproductive biology of coral Movement Under Field Conditions,
reef fishes and invertebrates; identification of new fisheries
species/stocks; primary and secondary production; food web and Field Measurement of Diffusional Boundary Layer and
studies; benthic/pelagic coupling. Turbulent Enhancement in Scleractinian Reef Corals.
Coastal, Oceanic, and Estuarine Processes Special Projects
production and transport of carbonate sands; biological Another aspect of the Core Research Program is a group of
stabilization and disruption of the seafloor; benthic nutrient
regeneration and its contribution to primary productivity; proposed research projects that may lie outside the designated
history of sea, level changes and sea surface temperatures; areas of research concentration but that show promise in that
role of groundwater and terrestrial runoff in tropical coastal they explore new directions in marine science and
environments. technology.

Studies supported in 1988 within this category are
Pathways and Fate of Materials in the Ocean- effects development of a reef/coral coring apparatus that could
of pollutants, sediment loading, hurricanes, dredging, operate in a remote mode in order to retrieve reef or coral
blasting, and eutrophication on coral reef ecosystems; cores from depths beyond safe saturation diving limits.
processes of recovery. Earlier studies suggest that data obtained from a Caribbean-
wide coring program could provide a more complete record
Ocean Services - oxygen toxicity effects; biofouling and of sea-level changes and reef growth (from reef cores)
corrosion; assessment of biomedicinals in Caribbean biota; throughout the Holocene and with recently developed
techniques, may even provide a detailed record of climatic
physiological and psychological effects of hyperbaric changes for the past 100-200 years (from fluorescent banding
conditions. patterns in coral cores). The initial portion of this project
being conducted in 1988 will involve the development of the
1988 saturation missions in the habitat have lasted as long as coring apparatus and determining the feasibility of applying
14 days - Studies have included: the fluorescent techniques to detect freshwater run-off events
that were developed in Australia, to Caribbean reef corals.
Primary Productivity and Nutrient Fluxes of the Benthic
Microflora of Coral Reef Sediments, Another area of special interest is the effects of hyperbaric
conditions on human physiology. Data gathered in
Oxygen Dynamics and Anaerobic Metabolism in Sediments conjunction with ongoing saturation missions will increase
of Salt River Canyon, the understanding and limits of saturation diving.

109

Instrumentation and Technique Development

The technical expertise of NURC-FDU has often furthered
the research projects of supported investigators. The
development of a series of remote data acquisition systems to
accompany the new habitat will not only monitor life support
parameters within the habitat but is also designed to accept
data from a variety of sensors to obtain routine
oceanographic data or data from experiments setup by
scientists. These systems will allow rapid data analysis,
-.0 either in the habitat or at the shore base, and allow
.'@ML modifications in the experimental design where necessary.

1@7
Future Developments
A

The sites of future undersea research supported by NURC-
,'100 FDU using the AQUARIUS system will be determined
primarily by the nature of the scientific problems to be
investigated, subject to safety and operational constraints.
The portability of some oceanographic tools (e.g., ROV's,
!ubmersibles, and oceanographic vessels) will ensure that
FIGURE 6. Aquanaut Testing Coral with important scientific questions can be addressed in a wide
Respirometer. variety of Caribbean environments. The mobility of the
AQUARIUS system will also allow the in-depth study of
processes over a wide geographic range in the Caribbean.
The optical properties of marine waters are very important in
acquiring data obtained from photographic techniques Use of the available oceanographic systems provides NURC-
whether they are in situ or remote (satellite). Exploring FDU-supported scientists with horizontal mobility and
techniques by which images can be enhanced using optical flexibility. In addition, the combination of surface-supplied
technology or allow data to be retrieved from poor quality diving, saturation diving, and the use of ROV's and
photographs which were compromised by conditions submersibles to be offered by the program in the future will
beyond the control of the scientist (e.g., low light, also provide vertical mobility. These tools will give scientists
turbidity). the capability to address unique aspects of different habitat
types over both geographical and depth ranges, but more
NURC-FDU Staff Research Projects importantly to address the coupling between systems and
processes from shallow water habitats to the deep sea.
The third component of the Core Research Program consists
of the research projects conducted by members of the
NURC-FDU scientific staff or other related organizations. 8. RELOCATION
Currently this includes a project looking at the effects of
herbivores on algal primary productivity and a preliminary The decision to move to any site will be driven by scientific
project investigating gradients in marine productivity across research needs and opportunities . Operational and support
the Caribbean. needs can be adapted accordingly within the framework of
safety which is paramount from both a scientific and an
Environmental Monitoring Program operational viewpoint. Evaluations of the recent deployment
suggest that six months is the minimum amount of time
NURC-FDU will expand the environmental monitoring required to safely make a transition from missions at one site
program that was instituted in 1987 to provide supported to missions at another. Because of this anticipated down time
investigators with an array of environmental information that and the needs of scientists for follow up studies, the cost of
relates to their research projects, and to build an archive of relocating, the potential for damage to equipment, and other
data that will be of use to future investigators designing new factors, it is not cost or safety effective to move on an annual
experiments. Presently, data is being collected routinely basis. NURC-FDU will interact extensively with local
within Salt River Canyon on water temperature, scientists and engineers and contribute to the local island
photosynthetically active radiation at the surface, and at 10m economies while operating at future remote sites. NURC-
and 20m depths, water current speed and direction, wave FDU will emphasize safety and scientific needs as the
height, and conductivity. These data are relayed to the habitat overriding factors governing the future locations of the
for real-time use by investigators and are also relayed back to AQUARIUS system and the timing of relocation.
a shore base computer and stored on floppy disks. NURC-
FDU is expanding the monitoring effort to include wind 9. COMMUNITY U147ERACMON
speed and direction, tide height, turbidity, concentrations of
major nutrients (ammonium, nitrate + nitrite, and Operations associated with the AQUARIUS Mobile
phosphate), and a description of the physical oceanography Saturation System and the proliferation of NOAA sponsored
of Salt River Canyon and other nearshore areas around St. scientific and technical research have focused considerable
Croix.

110

NURC-FDU has been a major proponent of the fusion of
science and technology. The design and operation of the
@,@,Or&AA 00t%
habitat and its components as well as the development of
research techniques and tools has necessitated and will
continually demand close cooperation among scientists,
engineers, technicians, and administrators at every level.
Now that the system has proven functional and reliable,
-FDU will aggressively pursue multidisciplinary and
NURC
multi- investigator studies in situ and in the laboratory. FDU
6-1
"k has fostered cooperative projects with other universities and
institutions such as a current human factors study being
conducted in St. Croix by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). Diving physiology can be studied
uniquely in the rare field environment of the habitat.

10. SUMMARY

The Caribbean region is of vital importance to America
economically, socially, and militarily. It is a region which
supports rich ecosystems with unique flora, fauna, and
natural phenomena. The island nations of the Caribbean are
depleting resources available to them from the ocean.
Moreover, they often lack the financial resources and
W
4g, scientific expertise necessary to support in situ research. By
kA, -
pro
viding a mobile saturation habitat system and other
;'e
research tools NOAA can insure that its research objectives
-being of the region. In
are met while contributing to the well
outstanding researchers, and a
short, state-of-the-art tools,
made NOAA's
ment to safety and excellence have
commit
representative, Fairleigh Dickinson University, an
-Al
%
ambassador of science, technology, and goodwill in the
A01 h
Caribbean region.
A R

Il. REFERENCES

FIGURE 7. Researchers Inspecting Current Meter. Glenn Zorpette, "An Underwater Visit to Aquarius,"
IEEE Spectrum, March 1988, p. 26.

2 A. N. Kalvaitis, R. Rounds, and H. Bob Delery, A Mobile
attention on Fairleigh Dickinson University and St. Croix. Undersea Habitat, Oceans '87 Proceedings, p. 1211.
Visitors to the operations base have ranged from elementary
school classes to government officials. The habitat has
become a popular stop for sport divers, and tourists often
write or call for literature and pictures. In its six months of
operation the AQUARIUS System has generated extensive
media coverage. Stories about the habitat and associated
undersea research have appeared in print media and on
television locally, nationally, and internationally. NOAA's
Undersea Research Center in St. Croix has been featured on
the Cable News Network's weekly Science and Technology
report as well as ABC's Good Morning America. Film. crews
have come to St. Croix from as far away as Japan and
Australia.

Community outreach has extended far beyond public
relations. Education has been a primary focus. Local
students have had tours, lectures, and multi-media
presentations. Several student interns have worked in
NURC-FDU's Operations and Administrative divisions.
Graduate students are actively involved in research in
cooperation with mission principal investigators and special
project researchers. Funding is to be made available for
independent student research projects in 1989. NURC-FDU
staff have been actively engaged in career counseling,
particularly in the areas of marine science, ocean engineering,
and diving.

MANNED SUBMERSIBLES SUPPORT A WIDE RANGE OF UNDERWATER
RESEARCH IN NEW ENGLAND AND THE GREAT LAKES

DR. RICHARD A. COOPER
IVAR G. BABB

NATIONAL UNDERSEA RESEARCH CENTER
UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT AT AVERY POINT
GROTON, CT 06340

ABSTRACT Centers (NURCs) that conduct manned and
unmanned research missions. The NURC
NOAA's National Undersea Research at the University of Connecticut at
Center at the University of Connecticut Avery Point (NURC-UCAP) fulfills this
at Avery Point (NURC-UCAP) has mandate by leasing manned systems, and
experienced a meteoric rate of growth operating/leasing remotely operated
since its inception 'in 1984. Chartered vehicles (ROVs). By leasing
submersibles (manned) support the submersibles, NURC-UCAP retains maximum
majority of the underwater research flexibility in terms of matching the
conducted by NURC-UCAP scientists in research support capabilities of
the Gulf of Maine, southern New various dive systems to the
England, and in the U.S. Great Lakes. specific requirements of the
The investigations addressed a wide scientist.
range of applied and basic research
topics. For example, assessments were The science program at the NURC-
made of: the impact of "ghost gill UCAP has experienced a meteoric growth
nets" on ground fish populations, rate since its inception in 1984. The
studies of deep sea scallops, the number of submersible dives,
phenomenon of bioerosion on the ocean participants, and affiliations
and lake floors, the nature and role of associated with NURC-UCAP has witnessed
the "fluff" and "nepheloid" layers in a ten-fold increase in just 4 years
recycling nutrients and pollutants, (Figure 1). Typically, NURC-UCAP
water column ecology, the environmental leases two classes of submersible: 1)
factors governing benthic productivity, Type I - a two-person, low payload,
and calibration and groundtruthing of highly maneuverable, moderate sampling
conventional surface-oriented sampling capacity reconnaissance sub (e.g.
gear. Much of the research conducted Marfab Inc.'s Delta), and 2) Type II -
with manned submersibles has evolved to a three to four-person, high payload,
quantitative, replicated,and site highly sophisticated sampling capacity
specific experiments. Sophisticated sub (e.g. Harbor Branch Oceanographic
sampling, sensing, photographic and Institution's Johnson Sea Link I and II
manipulative techniques have been and InternationaT_ Underwater
developed to address a wide range of Contractor's Mermaid). The first class
scientific requirements. The "ideal" of sub usually dives for about one hour
shallow water (0 - 1000 meter) manned and averages 6-7 dives per day, while
submersibles for the 1990's and beyond the latter remains submerged for 2-3
and their associated scientific hours for two dives a day. Therefore,
capabilities are defined, based on 18 the absolute number of dives can be
years of submersible experience misleading, unless one compares the
(approximately 1150 dives in the actual bottom time of a submersible
northeast and Great Lakes) and an dive (Figure 1). Beginning in 1986 the
assessment of scientific requirements focus of research was divided every
for the northeast and "Large Lakes of other year between the Great Lakes and
the World". the New Enqland area, which reduces the
number of dives during the Great Lakes
years for two reasons, 1) the amount of
transit time required, and 2) the type
INTRODUCTION sub used was the type 11 exclusively.
Both classes have direct application to
The National Oceanic and NURC-UCAP depending upon scientific
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) need, and these along with ROVs and
supports underwater research through scuba comprise the diving methodologies
several National Undersea Research utilized to conduct fine scale, in situ

CH2585-8/8810000- 112 $1 (DI988 IEEE

FIGURE 1.

NURC-UCAP SUPPORTED MANNED SUBMERSIBLE DIVES, 1984-1989-

700
EM SUBMERSIBLE TYPE I
- MM SUBMERSIBLE TYPE 11
600- EM DIVE HOURS

500

CO
UJ
>
0 400
LL M
0 a:
ix 0
Ld
M 300-

200-

100-

0-
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

YEAR
1989 figures are projections based on geographic area of
focus and type of research to be supported.

sampling and manipulative experiments term experiments that address process-
that are the hallmark of the entire oriented questions. Submersible-based
National Undersea Research Program. research has made the leap from pure
Occasionally an ROV is teamed with a observation of natural history and
manned sub for maximum efficiency of biota-habitat pattern definition
the dive systems in use. (although this initial phase of the
scientific method is still an important
Not only has the quantity of dives component of NURC-supported research)
increased dramatically over the past to an experimental, manipulative,
five years, but the quality of dives in process-oriented level of
terms of scientific productivity has investigation. In situ investigation
been enhanced significantly as well. using deep diving techniques has become
This ri-se in productivity is the result a credible, multidisciplinary aspect of
of three major factors: 1) trial and oceanography and limnology.
error based on 18 years of submersible
experience, 2) increased investigator SUPERSITES
familiarity with the sensing, sampling,
and manipulative capabilities of As more researchers realize the
submersibles, and 3) a concomittant capabilities of manned submersibles to
enhancement in the design of sampling conduct in situ investigations they
devices as NURC-UCAP personnel, have unified their research efforts.
submersible contractors and ocean This coordinated effort is more
engineers respond to the increasing efficient scientifically and
demands of the submersible scientist. operationally. Given the high cost to
This greater sophistication in sampling lease manned submersibles, and the
capabilities has allowed for the multidisciplinary nature of many
establishment of site-specific, long- investigations, a single research

113

cruise that can collect information Aquanaut" program - an activity to
useful in testing several hypotheses by introduce the underwater world and the
"piggybacking" investigations is field of aquatic sciences to young
economically sound and scientifically adults as potential diver scientists
more productive. and/or future decision-makers regarding
environmental or resource issues.
Furthermore, many physiographic
areas lend themselves to this unified A "Large Lakes of The World"
and cooperative approach and groups of initiative began in 1987 in cooperation
investigators are presently identifying with seven African nations and Israel.
these areas as "supersites" that can This study is directed towards
be revisited seasonally and annually by comparing bio-geochemical systems of
teams of investigators. This concept the ancient "Rift Valley" Lakes with
allows for quantification of the infant U.S. Great Lakes. Manned
environmental parameters (water submersibles will play a major role in
temperature, salinity, transmissivity, this activity in the immediate future.
current, etc), species population
dynamics (abundance, distribution, MANNED SUBMERSIBLE RESEARCH MILESTONES
recruitment), sediment dynamics
(deposition rates, particle sizes, There are several research
resuspension) and other time-series projects that have been particularly
processes (predator/prey interactions, successful in fulfilling these research
bioerosion, benthic productivity, needs and taking advantage of manned
benthic-pelagic coupling). By submersibles as either their primary
collecting biological, chemical, and research tool, or as a complement to
physical data a supersite can be a other methodologies. Among these are
natural laboratory to quantify research on benthic-pelagic coupling,
environmental change caused by in the Gulf of Maine and Great Lakes,
pollution. The location of supersites sediment dynamics in the Gulf of Maine,
in ecologically sensitive habitats and benthic productivity on hard
therefore becomes an important substrates in the Gulf of Maine, and
component of this concept. benthic productivity on hard substrates
in the Gulf of Maine.
RESEARCH THEMES
Benthic/Pelagic Cougling
The National Undersea Research
Program has outlined six principle The mid-water environment makes up
research themes that meet NOAA's more than 98% of the habitable volume
mandate for underwater research. These of the earth. Little is known of the
include: 1) biological productivity,and composition and habits of the fauna,
marine resources, 2) coastal oceanic, the fine-scale processes that occur
estuarine, and lacustrine processes, 3) there, or the nature of the
pathways, fates, and effects of interactions between pelagic and
materials in the oceans and Great benthic zones. Many NURC-UCAP
Lakes, 4) ocean lithosphere and mineral investigators have adopted an
resources, 5) global oceanic ecosystem-based research approach that
processes, and 6) ocean services. has allowed them to begin to map the
energetics of these interactions. The
Within these themes, NURC-UCAP has flow of energy within these ecosystems
identified specific, regionally defined approximates the following pathway.
research needs including: 1)
biological, geological, and technical o - Organic carbon enters the food
research to improve living resource web via primary production by
assessment for fisheries conservation phytoplantkon. A large portion settles
and management, 2) studies to directly to the benthos as
understand population, ecosystem phytodetritus.
response to stress, natural and man-
made, 3) research to understand the o - Another large portion of this
factors responsible for high benthic production is consumed by herbivorous
productivity in the Gulf of Maine, 4) zooplankton, and later settles as fecal
studies of the geological and material.
sedimentary features on the ocean floor
and Great Lakes bottom and processes o - Some quantity of the primary
that shape these environments, and 5) production is broken down by bacteria
to provide ocean services assistance to to reenter the water column in a
state, federal and academic teaching reusable nutrient form.
and research institutions. Within this
latter category, NURC-UCAP includes its o - The organic matter is transformed
recently initiated "High School and aggregates in various

114

hydrographically defined compartments, recording, mapping, fine scale sampling
e.g. subsurface particle maximum and precise placement of instruments
layers or the benthic nephloid layer (e.g. sediment.traps, sediment profile
(BNL). cameras, current meters) to "ground
truth" and verify recently generated
o - In temporate zone waters, a major synoptic data (e.g. seismic, side-scan
fraction of organic matter input to the and high frequency reflections charts).
sediments occurs through the BNL as a Major geological environments (rocky
result of settling of the spring bloom ledge, sand nearshore ramp and
(due to inadequate zooplankton grazing) deposition basins) have been described
before warming and subsequent from direct observation and the
stratification takes pTace. The BNL is patterns of transition zones
often tens of meters thick, with a determined. Site specific inspection
thinner (up to several cm thick), has provided detailed reconnaissance
flocculant portion, called the "fluff" of; rock outcrops, seabed feature
layer often visible at the sediment- orientation, sand-wave field crests,
water interface. ripple and scour zones, basin furrows,
and pock marks. Sedimentary
0 Due to this flocculant stratigraphy has also been addressed
consistency and biochemically labile from the sediment water/interface to
nature of the material, it has never depths of 20-30 cm and related to
been properly sampled using surface biogenic effects on sediment fabric and
based methodologies. For the past heterogeneity of surficial sediment
three years, NURC-UCAP research has features.
focused on developing the technology
for precisely sampling the fluff and As part of the overall ecosystem
nepheloid layers of the seabed and lake of the Gulf of Maine, sediment dynamics
floor from a submersible. The approach is a critical area of study. Surficial
has been 1) to deploy a flume which sediments are an important part of the
would resuspend and filter the material benthic habitat, controlling
and 2) to pump large volumes of water distribution and abundance of organisms
from a precisely positioned suction to a large degree, and are intimately
device through filters on the involved in the food web through
submersible. Both techniques have transport pathways, substrates for
proven to be highly successful. microorganisms, and through storage and
In addition to the obvious role recycling of nutrients within the
? - bottom. Besides nutrients, sedimentary
this material plays in energy transfer, particles also transport, store and
it also is the medium for transporting recycle pollutants, affecting the
and sequestering organic pollutants, benthos in less beneficial ways.
inorganic heavy metals, and nutrients.
The dispersal potential of this A prime area of current research
material makes it an extremely is the source, transport pathways, and
important target for understanding its sinks of sedimentary particles. Part
potential in pollutant mobilization in of that study is the present
the environment. The fluff and distribution of sediment types and the
nepheloid layers in the Great Lakes are geologic record of past distributions.
hypothesized to function as a cleansing The redistribution of sediments by
zone for these contaminants. slumps, tidal currents, and wave aciton
occurs at least seasonally, and
0 - Megabenthic fauna play a major probably at a more frequent rate on
role in the resuspension and horizontal most ridges and shoals. The rate at
distribution of particulates within the which this material is carried to
fluff layer through bioerosion. deeper basins has important
Considerable research is being directed consequences to benthic communities.
toward this phenomenon as it relates to On hard bottoms, being swept clear of
benthic-pelagic coupling. sediments has a distinct advantage. On
muddy bottoms, input of new sediments
o - Future proposals will address the is advantageous up to a certain rate,
the role of mobile fishing gear in since new food is made available. When
resuspension and transport of nutrients sediment smothers the bottom to a
and pollutants in the marine critical depth, however,
environment. macroinvertebrates will be killed, and
nutrients will be buried too deeply for
Sediment Dynamics in the Gulf of Maine excavation. The rate of sediment
accumulation and the episodicity of
NURC-UCAP has sponsored several processes thus requires quantification.
geological investigations that have
utilized submersibles for in situ video 0 - Three major nearshore

115

environments have been identified in limit of an algae (the extinction
the Gulf of Maine: rocky ledge, sandy depth) correspond to the lowest depth
nearshore ramp, and basin. Rocky at which net photosynthesis can be
ledges are swept clear of sediments, achieved, or are other factors, such as
but often have a talus pile of angular recruitment or competition with sessile
rocks at their base. Next to the talus invertebrates. important, is being
pile are carbonate shell hash-rich investigated through time series, site-
gravel aprons, grading into basinal specific, manipulative experiments.
muds or sand. Sandy ramps are reworked
paleodeltas or beach shoreface o - Mechanisms contributing to the
deposits. Sand waves and oscillation lack of herbivores on Ammen Rock were
megaripples provide evidence for examined. These experiments indicate
current and wave activity on these that the offshore megabenthic
surfaces. Basins are usually the sites communities are heavily influenced by
of former estuaries, produced at the fish predators which remove most of the
early Holocene low sea stand, and are mobile benthic invertebrates, normally
muddy and abundantly bioturbated the top predators in coastal regions.

o - Not all the sediment found within 0 - The composition, structure and
the system is mineral particles; a dynamics of benthic invertebrate
fecal pellets composed of plankton communities from inshore, coastal, and
which have passed through the gut of offshore rock pinnacles are being
larger organisms, or films and coatings compared, producing quantitative
of mucus and bacteria. The composition definitions of community structure.
and methods of breakdown and
utilization of this material at the 0 - Estimates of growth rates,
base of the food web are critical recruitment, mortality, and abundance
issues for the overall productivity of of sessile benthos to depths of 60 m
the Gulf of Maine. Buried organic-rich have been made yielding estimates of
sediment has produced natural gas secondary production. Various
accumulations visible in seismic processes affecting invertebrate
reflection profiles and possibly as abundance and distribution have been
seeps in pockmarks on the seafloor. identified, i.e. - sponge mortality and
These phenomena are important clues to nudibranch predation on anemones are
location and nature of past nearshore the major processes opening up space
and estuarine environments. for settlement of other organisms in
the highly space-limited hard substrate
Benthic Productivity on Hard Substrates community. Recolonization experiments
- Gulf of Maine are an integral part of this research.
Hard substrates comprise a major 0 - Time lapse photography has
portion of benthic habitats in the Gulf demonstrated that fish predation has a
of Maine. Understanding the much greater impact on the invertebrate
environmental conditions that govern population offshore than inshore. Also
productivity in this habitat type is fish predation rates on invertebrate
critical to wise management of the prey are several times greater at
environment and its living resources. shallower depths.
NURC-UCAP is sponsoring several
investigations dealing with benthic 0 - These above experiments are
productivity at a submerged bedrock yielding information for the definition
pinnacle (Ammen Rock) in the central of a benthic food web.
Gulf of Maine. Ammen Rock is a
"Supersite" study location. MANNED SUBMERSIBLE SAMPLING'TOOLS
o - The benthic algal community on In-situ research requires the
Ammen Rock is one of the deepest design and development of special
reported in the north Atlantic. it samppling devices that can function
exists without any macro-herbivores and from or be deployed by submersible or
the shallower zone is dominated by a ROV. A major objective of NURC-UCAP is
previously undescribed kelp species. to conceive, engineer, test and
evaluate unique tools, requested via
0 - Recruitment and competition of scientific proposals, and make them
sessile invertebrates with macrobenthic available within our inventory (or on
algae contributes to their (algae) lease) to the marine research
depth distribution. Recruitment at the community. Several modifications to
spore, gametophyte and early sporophyte conventional gear have been made in
stage is being examined. collaboration with contractors and
principal investigators, as NURC-funded
0 - The question, does the lower innovative prototype projects. The

116

following is a list of tools currently Hasselblad camera frame - for in situ
being utilized by NURC-supported photographs of fouling panel and algal
researchers with the organization colonization plates (HBOI).
responsible for its development in
parentheses. OPTIMAL RESEARCH SUBMERSIBLE
Parallel Taser scaler for image Due to the variety of tasks
calibration and size measurement defined by the various scientific
(Harbor Branch Oceanogrpahic disciplines, no one manned submersible
Institution (HBOI), NURC-UCAP). dive system will effectively serve the
needs of all diver scientists in NURC-
Suction sampling - for collection of UCAP's program. These needs and the
soft-bodied organisms and plankton. range of operating conditions dictate
(HBOI). two distinct dive systems, 1) Type I -a
relatively small, light weight
Nei)heloid fluff layer sampling system - reconnaissance vehicle that can operate
for collection of the fluff layer from a number of support vessels and be
(HBOI, NURC-UCAP). trucked/flown readily from coast to
-coast or country to country and, 2) the
Fluff layer flume nozzel - for high Type II - a relatively large vehicle
resolution sampling fluff layer that can carry an array of sensing and
(University of Maine). sampling systems and store a large
number of samples per dive.
Independent nepheloid fluff sampler Specifically, the following features
for smaller submersible and diver characterize these optimal research
deployment (University of Maine). submersibles:

Plankton & e0benthic net - for depth Light Weight Reconnaissance Sub
specific manipulator controlled
quantitative zooplankton samples (HBOI, 1. Weight not to exceed 3-4 tons.
NURC-UCAP). 2. Depth capability to 500 meters,
highly maneuverable.
Cores and quivers - for box and punch 3. Two/three person capacity.
core collection and retrieval (HBOI, 4. Viewing distance from observer
NURC-UCAP). to ocean/lake bottom not to
exceed 1 meter.
Bioturbation rates - measured by glass 5. Capable of averaging 6 dives per
bead spreaders, rare earth element 12 hr. work day to depths of 200
blocks (NURC-UCAP). meters, average "bottom time" of
1.0 to 1.5 hrs.
Video Sediment Profile Camera - for 6. Capable of independent movement
real time data on vertical profile of in 1.0 knot water currents for
sediment/water interface (30 cm) - for minimum of 2 hrs.
strategic core sampling and gradient 7. "Robotic" arm with 5/6 degrees
detection (University of Wisconsin). freedom.
8. Sample payload of 100 pounds.
FOVAR camera - for event recording via 9. Sample receptacle capacity to
light beam actuated bathypelagic 35 mm hold three punch cores or two
camera and strobe (HBOI, NURC-UCAP). box cores and three distinct
animal containers.
Electroshocker/Suction Sami)ler - 10. Sample suction and retainer
manipulator mounted, variable voltage- capability for sampling water
pulse rate anode-cathod bar or probe column or bottom
for selective sampling of lamprey & animals/sediments.
sculpin in fresh water (HBOI, NURC- 11. Ports/hemisphere positioned for
UCAP). effective 3/4", 1/2", or 8 mm
video (hand held) documentation,
Interstitial water sampler -manipulator as well as 35 mm photographs.
control of micro pipette for descrete 12. Submersible format conducive to
habitat water quality determinations externally mount a 35 mm camera
(lake trout spawning sites) (NURC- and strobe and/or video for
UCAP). sharp down angle documentation.
13. Launch and recovery in seas up
Transmissometer mounts - for near to 2 m wave height (short
bottom gradient changes in suspended period), launch and recovery
particulate load (HBOI). amidships most effective.
14. Total system (submersible and
Cameras lights and mounts - for special support vessel cost not to
applications (HBOI, NURC-UCAP). exceed $7-8,000 per day.

117

Medium Sized Sampling Sub must be maximized. Eye-mind
manipulation/sampling coordination is
1. Weight not to exceed 10-12 critical to the effective support of
tons. underwater research.
2. Depth capability to 1000 meters,
good maneuverability. CONCLUSIONS
3. Minimum three person capacity
(one pilot, two observers). The development of manned
4. Viewing distance from observer submersible support for science has
to ocean/lake bottom not to rapidly evolved in the past 5 years,
exceed 1.5 meters. not only in New England and the Great
5. Capable of averaging 2 dives per Lakes, but in other regions of the
12 hr. work day to depths of country that are supported by the
1000 meters, average "bottom National Undersea Research Program.
time" of 2.0 to 3.0 hrs. The quantity and quality of dives will
6. Capable of independent movement continue to increase, particularly as
in 1.0 knot currents for minimum sampling equipment and submersible
of 2 hrs and the ability to design simultaneously become more
"hover" in midwater for extended sophisticated. The demands of the
periods of time. research community will continue to
7. Robotic arm with 6/7 degrees drive the development of the ideal
freedom. research submersibles.
8. Sample payload of 300 pounds.
9. Sample receptacle capacity to
hold 12 punch cores, 3 box
cores, a lazy susan or 12 bin
receptacle for storing separate
samples (scallops, rocks, etc).
Submersible can also be rigged
for extensive water column
sampling using externally
mounted still and video cameras
and suction sampling into
separate receptacles (12 or
more).
10. Submersible must have sufficient
external framing/work bars/work
platform as to mount very
specialized equipment such as an
electroshocker suction sampler
for colle'cting mobile fauna.
11. Ports/hemisphere positioned for
effective observation of benthos
and water column.
12. Submersible format conducive to
mount externally forward portion
of sub two 3/4', 1/2", or 8 mm
video cameras and required
lighting and two 35 mm cameras
and strobes.
13. Launch and recovery in seas up
to 2 m wave height (short
period), standard operating
procedure. Launch and recovery
restricted to stern of support
vessel.
14. Submersible should have adequate
through-hull connectors and
should carry environmental
parameter data loggers (minimum
transmissometer and CTD) to
augment sampling capability.
15. Total system (submersible and
support vessel) cost not to
exceed $10-11,000 per day.

Of upmost importance, observer
viewing, comfort, and manipulative
(external robotic arm) capabilities

118

FIELD RESEARCH PROGRAMS AT THE CARIBBEAN MARINE RESEARCH CENTER
NATIONAL UNDERSEA RESEARCH PROGRAM

Robert 1. Wicklund Bori L. Olla
Caribbean Marine Research Center Cooperative Institute for Marine
100 East 17th Street Resource Studies
Riviera Beach, Florida 33404 National Marine Fisheries Service
Hatfield Marine Science Center
Newport, Oregon 97365

ABSTRACT define ecological requirements of
important species residing in the
Marine science programs of the coastal areas of Florida, the Bahamas
Caribbean Marine Research Center (CMRC) and other Caribbean nations, and (6) to
include studies on recruitment, ecology provide a field laboratory for
and population dynamics of Gueen conch, educational programs in all of the
spawning and recruitment of grouper and marine sciences geared toward graduate
other important resource species, and undergraduate curricula, and
surveys of deepwater fish stocks and technical training in aquatic food
marine geological processes,. production.

All of these programs utilize to Much of the research is carried out
some degree undersea techniques close to the Center's field laboratory
requiring the use of various subsea at Lee Stocking Island, Exuma Cays,
platforms and vehicles. Research Bahamas, located on the eastern rim of
facilities operated by the Center and the Exuma chain 110 miles south of
headquartered at Lee Stocking Island, Nassau. This location provides easy
Exuma Cays, Bahamas, include the access to pristine marine environments,
research vessels J.W. Powell and including shallow reefs, ooid shoals,
Undersea Hunter (85 ft and 156 feet, mangrove swamps, grass beds, deep water
respectively), the PC-1401 submersible, and other habitats.
a shallow-water habitat and a remote
operating vehicle. Lee Stocking Island has a variety
of facilities to support the research
Several remote and environmentally effort, including housing for permanent
controlled experimental laboratories are scientific and support staff,
operated by CMRC in both the Bahamas and accomodations for small groups of
Florida. visiting scientists and students, an
experimental hatchery for rearing
selected aquaculture species, lab
1. INTRODUCTION space/computers, experimental and
production tanks, boats, 3000-ft
The Caribbean Marine Research airstrip, dock, dive equipment,
Center (CMRC), funded by the National decompression chamber, workshopsg dining
Undersea Research Program of NOAA and hall and an unlimited supply of
the. Perry Foundation Inc., conducts uncontaminated seawater required for
research aimed at problems of natural research projects. Additional
resources and marine food production for experimental facilities have been
Caribbean regions including the Bahamas, recently extended to the Florida State
southeast United States and the Gulf of University Marine Laboratory on the Gulf
Mexico. of Mexico, sixty miles from Tallahassee,
FLorida.
The general goals of the Center are
(1) to provide facilities and support Vessels with high seas capabilities
for scientific research on the marine include the Undersea Hunter, an 85-foot
environment, (2) to develop technology dive and submersible support ship, and
for low-cost aquatic food production in the J.W. Powell, a 156-foot ship
the Caribbean and similiar locations acquired @rom the U.S. Geological Survey
around the world, (3) to study physical as part of a cooperative program between
and ecological relationships on deep, the USGS and CMRC. The latter ship,
shallow-reef and other benthic originally a seismic vessel, has been
environments of the Caribbean, (4) to refitted to perform various fisheries
develop the scientific bases for and oceanographic projects and as a
rational habitat utilization through platform for research submersible
conservation and enhancement, (5) to support. The J.W. Powell works with

CH2585-8/88/0000- 119 $1 @1988 IEEE

other NURP centers, particularly the process of being quantified, with
University of Connecticut and the special emphasis being placed OD
University of North Carolina-Wilmington potential relationships between animal
under a cost-covering lease basis. CMRC deDSity and egg production.
also operates the PC-1401, a submersible Concurrently, larval ecology studies,
with a 1000-ft depth capability, the iDCludiDg plankton tows and laboratory
Shark Hunter wet submersible, a small rearing of conch veligers through
self-contained habitat and a Phantom-300 metamorphosis, have been conducted to
ROV. determine larval dispersal, nutrition,
recruitment and settlement of which
Major field research programs of there is presently little information.
the Center fall under three major Egg masses are collected by divers in
categories: 1) benthic resource the field directly from spawning
ecology, 2) fish resource ecology and 3) females. Productivity of the spawners
marine geology. All of these research and larval recruitment are compared to
activities incorporate scuba diving determine survivability in the field.
and/or deep submersible systems to
varying degrees. Over 700 dives Recently, the successful rearing of
employing SCUBA were logged in 1987, juvenile conch to metamorphosis has
with the anticipated 1988 total provided clues to the length of the
exceeding 1500 dives. Approximately 150 pelagic stages of the larvae and
submersible dives ranging from 100 to settlement in response to environmental
2300 feet in the Delta and Deep Rover stimuli. Additionally, the effect of
submersibles have also been logged over food supply, both from natural seawater
the past three years. and from artificial feeding, is being
examined in the laboratory.
2. RESEARCH PROGRAMS
During the spring of 1987, diver-
Benthic Resource Ecology scientists discovered a massive
aggregation of juvenile conch in shallow
Benthic research at CMRC is water exceeding 250 individuals per
presently focusing on the Queen conch, square meter. This aggregation,
Strombus Rip-as, one of the most totalling approximately 130,000 conch,
important food species of the Caribbean was the result of a synchronous
region. This species has been heavily emergence from the sediment and has
fished throughout the Caribbean and is provided valuable clues to the
commercially threatened in some areas. distribution of the 0+ yearclass for
which little information exists.
The general goal of this research
is to study mechanisms of Queen conch Distribution of conch populations
distribution, reproduction and abundance and habitat are now being studied using
through experimental field studies that images taken from the Landsat 4 and 5
can be ultimately applied to sound satellites. Their ability to penetrate
management practices. Particular the clear waters of the Bahamas makes
emphasis is being placed on mechanisms the imagery potentially suitable for
and processes ranging from larval benthic habitat identification with
ecology to reproductive biology and proper groundtruthing techniques.
biogeography. Seagrass species density and biomass
will be matched to conch distribution.
A large population of
reproductively active adult S. gigas Fish Resource Ecology
were found by divers on the easiern side
of Lee Stocking Island in Exuma Sound. This program is concentrating on
This population is beyond the depth of the Nassau grouper, Epinephelus
traditional commercial exploitation striatus, among the most important fish
techniques (15-25m). Utilizing SCUBA in the Caribbean. Fishing pressure has
and, on occasion, a wet submersible significantly depleted this species in
(Shark Hunter) and a tow scooter for most countries, particularly the island
surveys, investigations in 1987 showed nations of the Caribbean. Despite its
that virtually all individuals were popularity as a foodfish, the biology of
adults with densities as high as the Nassau and other groupers is not
3.0/100m2. While initial tagging well understood and has, therefore,
efforts showed that the population was impeded progress toward their rational
mobile, they were, nevertheless, stock management.
resident to the area. In July 1988 over One important aspect of this
20 percent of this population were seen research is to examine ontogenetic
to be reproductively active. The changes. that occur in habitat
abundance and distribution of requirements of E. striatus. Young fish
individuals and egg masses are in the first appear in a habitat characterized

120

by shallow (<2m) Thallassia seagrass
beds and vacant conch shells, as well as The Bahamian subtidal stromatolites
debris such as old tires, buckets and provide a new set of environmental
the like, during March of each year. parameters for interpreting spatial
The smallest juvenile grouper found distribution, orientation, water depth,
during this time of year average under salinity constraints on growth forms and
25mm. By the fall these fish have grown the timing of cementation and
to 75 and 100mm and have changed their mineralization of ancient stromatolites.
habitat requirements, moving toward the Unusual carbonate mud beds are also
Island characterized by coral, small found in the inter-island channels of
holes and adjacent seagrass beds. Coral the Exuma Cays associated with large
heads or small caves in the bottom are submarine sand dunes migrating across
also used as this second juvenile flood tidal deltas and bars. The strong
grouper habitat and a monitoring study currents that sweep in and out of the
of these fish show them to remain at four-to-eight-meter deep channels three
least one year. hours out of every six are not usually
associated with mud deposition. These
The study of reproductive will be the subject of major study
aggregations of the Nassau grouper is during the next year.
the key to understanding the complicated
life history of the species. During 3. ADDITIONAL STUDIES
January 1988 diver-scientists discovered
a spawning,aggregation of Nassau grouper Deepwatei: Surveys
off the southern tip of Long Island,
Bahamas. Thousands of adult grouper Several deepwater surveys which
gathered in a small area at a depth of have incorporated the submersibles
between 60. and 100 feet allowing the Delta, Deep Rover and PC-1401 are being
researchers to study population numbers @@o-nducted by CMRC. Large deposits of
and individual sizes, social behavior, sediment in the Exuma Sound were
sex ratio and reproductive state of the discovered in depths of 900 to 2300
fish. The discovery and initial study feet. Origins of the sediment are
of this aggregation,.which appears to unknown although high production and low
occur each year, will be the focus of a accumulation of sediments on the bank
major fisheries-oceanographic project suggest that the deepwater deposits are
during the fall and winter of 1988-89. carried off the shallow bank by offshore
Eggs and larvae of Nassau grouper will tidal currents.
be followed by the R/Vs J.W. Powell and
Undersea Hunter using current drogues Other projects include the
tracked by satellite from their point collection of rocks to study boring
source to their settling habitat organisms in deep water and population
concurrently with ichthyoplankton surveys of deepsea fish, particularly
collections. Early development of the Queen snapper.
larval E. striatus will also be studied
in the laboratory to determine growth, Coral Reef Bleaching
feeding, survivability and identifica-
tion soon after spawning. During the late summer and fall of
1987 unprecedented levels of
Marine Geology zooxanthellae loss resulted in bleaching
and some mortalities in stony corals and
The unique marine geological other reef cnidaria and sponges
features of the lower Exuma Cays have throughout the Caribbean, Bahamas and
provided a rich opportunity for a marine southern Florida waters. Zooxanthellae,
geology program at CMRC. an endosymbiotic algae, is lost when the
coral host organism is stressed.
In 1984 large fields of giant Scientists examining bleaching in the
lithofied subtidal columnar Exumas using SCUBA and the submersible
stromatolites were discovered off Lee Delta discovered a high proportion of
Stocking Island. These stromatolites bleaching at 10-55 m, but none deeper.
grow in 5 to 8 meters of water in a Warmer-than-usual water, which was
current-swept tidal channel that is prevalent in the region during the
flushed with both open-ocean water and summer, is thought to be responsible for
bank-top water each six-hour tidal this occurrence, but further study is
period. Current velocities during peak required to ascertain the causative
flow periods reach 100 cm/sec and set agent.
the entire sediment bottom (sand-sized
ooid-dominated) in suspension. This Caribbean Temperature Studies
environment is not typical of what has
been previously thought to promote Efforts to assign a cause to the
stromatolite development. coral bleaching phenomenon and the

121

possible role of temperature in this and acceptance as food fish, ease of
other biological processes were impeded breeding and rearing, ability to utilize
by the fact that there are virtually no a variety of inexpensive feeds of both
longterm data sets on temperature plant and animal origin, and
available for the Caribbean and adjacent adaptability of culture methods to less
regions. In response to this lack of developed regions.
information, CMRC has initiated a
Caribbean-wide temperature study. The Florida red tilapia hybrid
Subsurface recording thermographs have Oreochromis ureolepis hornorum (female)
been placed in 20-m depth in five X 0. mossambicus (male) was selected
locations around the Bahamas, south from initial studies suggesting that it
Florida and the Caribbean, including the was suitable for marine culture.
Turks and Caicos, Puerto Rico, St. John Subsequent studies focused on seawater
(V.I.), Barbados, Martinique, Belize, tolerance and growth of this hybrid.
Tobago, Jamaica and Columbia. Suitability for high density culture in
Temperatures will be measured every two seawater cages has become an important
hours over the next five years. The aim part of the program which is aimed at
of this research will be to analyze the farming in coastal waters of the
possible longterm effects of temperature Caribbean.
changes on coral reef ecosystems,
including important resource species, 4. SUMMARY
and trends in the Caribbean that may be
indicators of global temperature The Caribbean Marine Research
changes. Center will continue to develop new and
innovative research programs to meet the
Artificial Reef Surveys problems of marine ecology, resource
management and food production
Studies to determine the throughout the Caribbean and southern
effectiveness of artificial reefs in U.S. tropical and subtropical
shallow and deep water off southern environments. Future projects will
Florida were conducted in September of !emphasize field research using undersea
1987 from the J.W. Powell and techniques, including saturation diving
submersible Delta. The reefs were from a habitat, increased submersible
constructed mainly of old ship hulls use and new ROV systems.
ranging in depths from 30-120 m.
Temperature ranged from 30 C at 43 m to
.10.6 C at 120 m. Surveys showed that
the most effective reefs were limited to
depths less than 45 m . In general,
those below 45 m were devoid of most
tropical reef species. The deeper
wrecks were all below the thermocline,
indicating that temperature is the
limiting parameter to reef success in
this area.

Aquaculture

While aquaculture research is one of
the major programs at CMRC, it falls
outside the scope of the conference, and
therefore will be only briefly mentioned
here.

Since July 1984 CMRC has undertaken a
program to identify potential candidate
species for mariculture development.
Presently, research is aimed at
developing technology for marine culture
of tilapia (a euryhaline, freshwater
finfish group) as an inexpensive source
of animal protein for Caribbean islands
and similar regions where freshwater
resources are limited. Although not
indigenous to the Caribbean, tilapia
were identified as a finfish group
encompassing most of the important
criteria established by CMRC, including
seawater adaptability and tolerance,

122

OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY CONFLICTS ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF

Dr. Robert W. Middleton

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service

ABSTRACT
The primary focus of this topic is to review
Conflicts between the fisheries industry and oil and evaluate the potential for conflicts between
and gas exploration and production activities the two primary industries on the OCS;
have occurred in all regions of the OCS. The
primary, and most persistent, suggestions of fisheries and oil and gas.
conflict have been claims of fixed fishing gear
damage resulting from geological and geophysi- We have, as our speakers, four representatives
cal exploration activities and mobile fishing from each of the agencies -- the National Ma-
gear damage from bottom debris in oil and gas rine Fisheries Service and the Minerals Man-
exploration and production areas. Other poten- agement Service. These agencies are responsible
tial conflicts are ascribed to competition for for the overall management of the natural
docking space and spatial exclusion of fisheries resources of these two industries. We are going
from fishing grounds. Additional conflicts re-
sult from the perceived risk to fishing liveli- to assume a geographic format for presenting
hoods, which many fishermen attribute to the the information on potential multiple-use con-
potential that an oil spill may occur during oil flicts on the U.S. OCS, starting in the Northeast
and gas industry activities. Since 1973, MMS portion of the country and proceeding to the
has provided funding for over $111 million of southeast, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, and Alaska.
biological research studies, many of which are
directly applicable for identifying, assessing, The speakers from the National Marine Fish-
and mitigating potential conflicts between the eries Service will provide an overview of the
oil and gas and fishing industries. The MMS
continues to strive to minimize OCS conflicts various fishery activities and methods used
between oil and gas industry activities and around the Nation and present areas of poten-
fisheries by using the information obtained tial conflict with other OCS activities. The
from environmental studies to develop deferral Minerals Management Service speakers will
alternatives, stipulations on leases, and Infor- follow and identify oil and gas industry activi-
mation to Lessees and Notices to Lessees com- ties that may conflict with fisheries industry
munications. activities and specifically address environmen-
tal studies that have been initiated to assess po-
tential effects resulting from multiple interests
Hello and welcome to the Oceans '88 sessions in resources of the OCS. After these presenta-
on potential multiplc-use conflicts on the Outer tions, Ms. Alana Knaster of the Mediation Insti-
Continental Shelf. My name is Bob Middleton tute will speak on conflict resolution efforts to
and I represent the Offshore Environmental minimize or mitigate potential multiple-use dis-
Assessment Division of Minerals Management putes between the fisheries and oil and gas in-
Service (MMS). Dr. Mark Holliday and I will dustries.
be cochairing these two sessions.
At this time, I will present a general overview
of the potential concerns that have been raised

CH2585-s/88/oooo- 123 $1 @1988 IEEE

concerning the coexistence of the two indus- surface longlines and drift gillnets. In both of
tries. Basically, the potential conflicts between these fisheries, the fisherman will set the gear
oil and gas and fisheries industry activities can and have no direct control of the movement of
be roughly divided into three major categories. the gear until it is recovered, which may be 8
These are: (1) space-use conflicts, (2) gear-dam- to 12 hours or more. If we assume that the
age conflicts, and (3) resource-damage conflicts. current is moving at a modest 0.5 kts, a 12-hour
drift will move the gear approximately 6 nauti-
Space-use conflicts may occur onshore as well cal miles. The gill nets are typically of lengths
as offshore. In areas of high oil and gas indus- of about 1600 m (I mile) or more. However,
try exploration and/or development activities, with the advent of strong, single-strand
competition for dockage space, repair facilities, monofilament, some of the surface longlines on
and general maintenance facilities may occur the shelf break of the East Coast have lengths
in onshore areas. Even if space at these facili- as long as 64,000 m (40 miles). These surface
ties is available, the increased competition may longlines are used to fish for swordfish and
result in a concomitant increase in cost for tuna off the northeast coast of the United
their use. Although this has a net positive ef- States. Because of the extent of these f ree-
fect on the facilities, it has a negative effect moving types of fishing gear, fishing efforts
on the fisheries industry. Space competition may be excluded from larger areas up-current
onshore, however, is typically minor in most of OCS structures.
regions and hard to distinguish. By far, the
primary space-use concern of the fisheries in- Spatial competition, however, is not restricted
dustry is the potential exclusion of fishermen to just occurring between industries. Recently,
from specific fishery areas, which the fishery because of the very high prices received for
industry contends separates them from their prime tuna, there has been an increase in inter-
product. The placement of offshore structures est in the longline f ishery f or tuna of f the
by the oil and gas industry may exclude f ish- northeastern coast of the United States. Conse-
ermen from the immediate vicinity of the quently, It has been reported that there are se-
structure. Typically, it is calculated that a bot- vere spatial conflicts among the fishermen for
tom-founded structure will require approxi- setting their longline gear in the northeast tuna
mately 0.8 square miles and that a floating fishery areas because of diverse techniques for
structure such as a semisubmersible will require setting the longlines and, presumably, from the
about 1.8 square miles because of the anchoring length of line that is set (National Fisherman,
system that extends out from the rig (Centaur, 1988).
1981). These areal estimates represent the space
that an oil and gas structure may physically oc- By far, the most easily identifiable conflict be-
cupy. However, with particular mobile f ishery tween the fisheries and oil and gas industries is
techniques such as trawling, the area precluded gear damage. Typically, gear damage can be
by a structure may be greater. This is a result separated into two categories. The first occurs
of the necessary buffer zone that the fisherman when a fisherman towing mobile gear, such as
must allow for either setting or retrieving the a trawl, hangs the gear on bottom obstructions
fishing gear. But, it should be pointed out that such as anchors, pipelines, structures, or debris.
sernisubmersibles are mostly used in water The second category is damage to fixed gear
depths of over 200 meters and are not usually such as crab or lobster pots, or to f ree moving
in direct conflict with the majority of trawl gear, such as drift gill nets or longlines. The
f isheries. second category of damage is typically at-
tributed to seismic survey vessels or supply ves-
Additional concerns have been raised over sel traffic. The seismic vessels are towing
other types of mobile fisheries, which include sound-producing and sound-recording equip-

124

ment behind the vessel for analyzing the geo- theory. However, if an oil spill does occur in
logic formations under the sea bed. If this an offshore area, we can anticipate two events:
equipment is towed through a fishing gear set, (1) surface fishing gear such as marker buoys,
it could snag and move or damage the fishing longlines, and gillnets and any fishing vessels
equipment. Although all seismic survey loca- that move into the area are likely to be fouled,
tions and dates are required to be announced in and (2) fishing vessels will be excluded from
advance in the Notice to Mariners and/or other the area in which the oil spill occurs. Addi-
information sources available to fishermen, tional concerns have been raised over other po-'
some damage occurs or may be attributed to -tential effects that may be manifested by an oil
seismic surveys, occasionally. To offset any spill. The first is tainting of the flesh of fish
confirmed damage, amendments to the Outer harvested near areas in which an oil spill oc-
Continental Shelf Lands Act establishing a curred. Uptake of petroleum hydrocarbons by
Fishermen's Contingency Fund were passed. harvested species could give the flesh of the
This fund may contain up to $1,000,000 for organism a "kerosene" flavor, which would
reasonable compensation to fishermen who' suf- eliminate or minimize the marketability of the
fer gear damage and economic loss. product. In some cases it may be possible to
affect the perception of the "freshness" of the
Resource-damage concerns are the most diffi- fish even if actual tainting does not occur.
cult to assess. It is assumed that some damage This would, of course, affect the economic via-
to local populations of sessile or minimally bility of the specific fishery. It has been
motile species may occur in proximity to a well demonstrated by various researchers that most
site. This would include mortality resulting organisms metabolize or purge hydrocarbons in
from setting a platform on the bottom or an- a short time (NAS, 1985). However, the stigma
choring a semisubmcrsible and from smothering of tainted products may remain for an appre-
benthic organisms by discharging drill muds, ciably longer period of time.
and cuttings, which settle to the bottom. How-
ever, these mortalities are extremely localized The second concern is the potential effect on
and not estimated to cause any long-term dam- fishery population levels from egg and larval
age to species abundance and distribution. The mortality resulting from oil spills. Many of the
National Academy of Science (NAS, 1983) coni- commercially important species have eggs and
pleted a thorough review of the available liter- larvae that spend part, if not all, of their life
ature on the effects of drilling muds and cut- history stage in the upper water column areas.
tings discharge into the marine environment. Prediction of the potential effects of offshore
They concluded that there was no evidence that oil spills is strictly subjective. The magnitude
these discharges would cause either acute or of impact on the resource would be determined
chronic long-term effects. by the exact combination of biological, physi-
cal, and chemical factors at the time at which
Until now, I have been discussing the potential the spill occurs. However, the high variability
effects on the fishery industry that may result of year class recruitment to the fish popula-
from various actions. However, the most diffi- tions adds further complications to the evalua-
cult aspect of determining the conflicts be- tion of potential effects of oil spills on fish re-
tween oil and gas and fisheries industries in- sources. Although it is widely accepted that
volves the potential effects that may be caused the earlier life stages of fish species are most
by the occurrence of an oil spill. Oil spills, of susceptible to the toxic effects of petroleum
course, are events that everyone is attempting hydrocarbons, it is difficult -- if not impossible
to prevent. Therefore, oil spills which may oc- -- to determine what effect on the total popula-
cur are accidental in nature and the potential tion the loss of a specified number of eggs and
risk assessment is estimated using probability larvae would have for a given species. It is an-

125

ticipated that any effects that may be mani- Literature Cited
fested, assuming an equal toxicity response,
would be qualified by a number of factors in-
cluding: (1) correspondence of the spill with Centaur Associates, Inc. 1981. Assessment of
spawning season and area, (2) percentage of the Space and Use Conflicts between the Fishing
spawning area affected by the spill, (3) dura- and Oil Industries. Minerals Management Ser-
tion of contact of the spill with the early-fift vice Study no. CT9-26. Minerals Management
stages of the species, and (4) any ecological fac- Service, l8th and C streets, N.W., Washington,
tors that affect the survivability of the other D.C., 22040.
early-life-history-stage individuals. Although it
may be possible to calculate estimates of the National Academy of Sciences -- Marine Re-
potential effects of the first three factors based view Board. 1983. Drilling Discharges in the
upon fundamental assumptions and probability Marine Environment. National Academy Press,
equations, incorporation of the fourth factor Washington, D.C. 180 pp.
adds an indeterminate component to the analy-
sis. Considering that over 99.9 percent of all National Academy of Sciences. 1985. Oil in the
eggs and larvae do not survive to become re- Sea -- Input, Fate, and Effects. National
cruited into the population, it is questionable Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 450 pp.
that the loss of some early-life-stage individu-
als to an acute environmental event such as an Pollack, S. 1988. Tuna Mania. National Fish-
oil spill could be determined to have an effect erman, September, 1988. Vol. 69; No. 5.
on population level.

In this paper, I have provided an overview of
the potential conflicts between the fisheries
and oil and gas industries. The authors that
follow will specifically discuss the fisheries of
each of the regions and Minerals Management
Service's role in assessing and mitigating con-
flicts between the two industries. Since 1973,
the Minerals Management Service has provided
approximately $111 million for various scien-
tific research studies to evaluate the potential
effects of oil and gas industry activities on
fisheries. This represents a substantial effort
on the part of MMS to accurately and compe-
tently evaluate the potential conflicts between
the two industries and to identify reasonable
mitigation techniques when they are needed.
Although some conflicts are inevitable when
two or more affiliations are competing for use
of a finite resource -- in this case the OCS -- it
is also possible to minimize any disputes by
factual evaluation of the events causing the
conflicts and exchanging information among
the concerned parties. Hopefully, this session
will augment ongoing efforts to mitigate fish-
ery and oil and gas industry controversies.

126

OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC

Ronald J. Essig

Fisheries Statistics Division, F/REI
National Marine Fisheries Service
Washington, DC 20235

ABSTRACT FISHERY HABITAT

Natural limestone outcroppings and The coasts of North Carolina, South
artificial reefs provide much of the Carolina, Georgia and east Florida form a
productive fishery habitat of the South large bight of the Atlantic Ocean called
Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). the South Atlantic Bight. The Outer
Only 19 percent of the total South Atlantic boundary of the Continental Shelf in the
commercial landings in 1987 came from the South Atlantic Bight, as demarked by the
OCS, but they accounted for 37 percent, or 100-fathom. depth contour, is approximately
$55.3 million, of the value. The six major 80 miles from shore throughout much of the
commercial fisheries in the South Atlantic region from southern North Carolina to
OCS are shrimp, offshore reef fishes, , northeast Florida. The shelf break moves
coastal pelagics, oceanic pelagi'cs, calico inshore in the northern and southern
scallops and the North Carolina winter portions of the bight to within 25 miles
trawl fishery. The recreational catch of from shore off Cape Hatteras, North
finfish from the South Atlantic OCS in 1987 Carolina to within five miles from shore
was 8.0 million fish, or 13 percent of the off Palm Beach, Florida3. The Gulf Stream
South Atlantic total. Bottom fishing and generally tracks the shelf break and is
trolling are the preferred OCS recreational very important in the distribution of eggs
fishing methods. OCS activities have the and larvae of OCS finfish and shellfish.
potential for major impacts on South
Atlantic fishery resources. The ocean bottom in the South Atlantic
Bight is primarily sand with little relief.
However, natural "live bottom" areas of
INTRODUCTION limestone outcroppings are scattered
throughout the OCS area at varying
This paper provides descriptive information distances from shore. These outcroppings
on the fishery habitat, commercial provide substrates for attachment by soft
fisheries and recreational fisheries of the and hard corals, sponges, and other
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) of the South invertebrates. An example of a live bottom
Atlantic. It is intended to serve as area is Gray's Reef National Marine
background for further discussion of Sanctuary, a 17 square mile area 16
potential impacts of OCS oil and gas nautical miles offshore of Sapelo Island,
activities. Georgia. The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is
The fishery statistics presented in this responsible for managing the sanctuary,
paper cover the Exclusive Economic Zone including the issuing of fishery
(EEZ), the area of ocean between 3 and 200 regulations to protect its unique fishery
nautical miles from shore. Although these resources.
statistics include fisheries inshore of the
OCS, they are the best available data. All-four South Atlantic coastal states have
Commercial fishery data were collected been very active in artificial reef
through the Southeast State/Federal development and maintenance programs over
Cooperative Statistics Program and the last 15 years. Artificial reefs
recreational data were collected through provide opportunities for productive
the Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics fishing not otherwise available along much
Survey (MRFSS). All data presented are of the coast. For example, South Carolina
preliminary from the Fisheries Statistics currently maintains 20 offshore artificial
Division of the National Marine Fisheries reefs. MRFSS intercept data from the.last
Service (NMFS), Washington, DC. Final six months of 1987 show that 35 percent of
fishery statistics are published in the charter boat and private boat ocean
Fisheries Statistics of the United Statesl fishing trips in South Carolina were
and other NMFS Current Fishery StaFl-stics associated with artificial reefs4.
publications2-.

127 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Many South Atlantic artificial reefs have The EEZ shrimp fishery is a trawl fishery
recently been designated as Special targetting primarily on shrimp of the
Management Zones through the provisions of Penaeidae family. Species represented in
the Snapper/Grouper Fishery Management Plan commercial quantities are white shrimp,
(FMP) of the South Atlantic Fishery Penaeus setiferus, brown shrimp, P.
Management Council (SAFMC). This aztecus, and pink shrimp, P. duorarum.
designation allows the placement of special These species utilize estuari .es as nursery
restrictions on fishing activities on the areas, so they migrate inshore-offshore as
reefs. on a broader scale, the Council is well as along the South Atlantic coast.
responsible for managing all South Atlantic White and brown shrimp overwinter in deeper
fishery resources between 3 and 200 miles EEZ waters off northeast Florida.
from share through the FMP process.
Rock shrimp, Sicyonia spp., and royal red
shrimp, Hymen02enaeus robustus, are also
COMMERCIAL FISHERY RESOURCES targetted during certain times of the year.
These are deepwater species also caught by
Commercial landings of finfish and trawling. There are no federal regulations
shellfish in the South Atlantic region in on shrimping in the South Atlantic EEZ
1987 represented 3 percent of the nation's except for the requirement for nets to have
total. In 1987, 235.1 million pounds of trawling efficiency devices (TED's) to
finfish'and shellfish were landed in the reduce bycatch of threatened and endangered
four South Atlantic states, compared to sea turtles.
almost 7 billion pounds nationwide5. The
value of the 1987 South Atlantic,catch was Offshore Reef Fishes
$150.4 million. Although only 19 percent
of the total 1987 South Atlantic commercial South Atlantic offshore reef fishes
landings came from the EEZ, they accounted targetted commercially include groupers,
for 37 percent, or $55.3 million, of the Epinephelus spp. and Mycteroperca spp.;
value. Over 50 percent of east Florida snappers, Lutianidae family; porgies,
commercial landings were from the EEZ. Sparidae family; tilefish, Lopholatilus
chamaeleonticeps; and black sea bass,
South Atlantic EEZ,commercial fisheries can Centropristis striatus. Important grouper
be grouped into six major types. Fisheries species are gag, Mycteroperca microlepis,
that occur throughout the entire region are scamp, L. phenax, red grouper,
shrimp trawling, handlining for offshore Epinephelus morio, and snowy grouper, E.
reef fishes, gillnetting and trolling for niveatus. Red snapper, Lutjanus
coastal pelagics, and surface longlining campechanus, and vermilion snapper,
for oceanic pelagics. Two other more Rhomboplites aurcrubens are the most
localized fisheries are a calico scallop common snapper species. Important porgy
fishery off the east Florida coast and a species are whitebone porgy, Calamus
winter trawl fishery for coastal ground leucosteus, and red porgy, Pagrus pagrus',
fish off northeast North Carolina.
Commercial landings of offshore reef fishes
Shrimp in the South Atlantic EEZ in 1987 were 4.5
million pounds valued at $7.2 million.
The shrimp fishery is the bread and butter North Carolina and South Carolina combined
fishery of the South Atlantic region, landings represented 74 percent of this
accounting for the greatest value of all harvest. Natural live bottom areas and
fisheries. In 1987 the harvest of shrimp artificial underwater obstructions produce
in the South Atlantic region was 22.9 the greatest catches.
million pounds valued at $46.4 million.
The South Atlantic shrimp fleet in 1985 was The majority of the offshore reef fish
comprised of approximately 1,500 vessels catch is taken by snapper reels. These are
and 1,500 boats and employed 6,000 full and electric or manual reels mounted on the
part-time fishermen. boat's transom that contain line and baited
hooks. Bottom longlines are used to fish
Most of the South Atlantic shrimp harvest for deepwater species at the shelf break
is from state territorial waters inside like tilefish and snowy grouper. In
three miles from shore, eg., 72 percent in southeastern North Carolina, black sea bass
1987. However, the EEZ landings of 6.3 are caught in fish pots. Roller-rigged
million pounds valued at $11.1 million in trawls are used to catch vermilion snapper,
1987 represented 14 percent of the volume black sea bass and other smaller reef
and 20 percent of the value of the total fishes, but the SAFMC is currently amending
South Atlantic EEZ catch. East Florida and the Snapper/Grouper FMP to prohibit the use
Georgia combined to produce 97 percent of of trawls in this fishery between Cape
the South Atlantic EEZ shrimp catch. Hatteras and Cape Canaveral.

128

Coastal Pelagics The principal gear used in the oceanic
pelagics commercial fishery is the surface
Major coastal pelagic species targetted by longline. This gear has a mainline on the
South Atlantic commercial fishermen include surface from which baited hooks are
bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, king suspended at varying depths to several
mackerel, 9comberomorus cavalla, and hundred feet. Mainlines may have over 1000
spanish mackerel, S. maculatus. South hooks and stretch over 50 miles.
Atlantic EEZ landings of these three
species in 1987 totalled 6.1 million pounds A swordfish FMP exists and a shark FMP is
valued at $4.2 million. North Carolina and under consideration. Tunas are considered
east Florida accounted for 97 percent of highly migratory species that are not
the landings. Bluefish and king mackerel managed through the Councils but through
were important species in North Carolina, the International Commission for the
while king and spanish mackerel were Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT).
important species in east Florida.
Seventy-eight percent of the nation's king Calico Scallops
mackerel landings were from the South
Atlantic. The principal fishing grounds for the
calico scallop, Argopecten gibbus, are in
Several gear types are employed in South the EEZ off Cape Canaveral, Florida.
Atlantic EEZ coastal pelagics fisheries. Landings of calico scallops in Florida in
Gill nets set around schools of fish near 1987 were 8.2 million pounds valued at $8.9
the water surface account for a large million. These landings represent the
portion.of the catch. Trolling is also an total U.S. production for this species. No
important method of catching coastal federal regulations exist for this fishery.
pelagics species.
Calico scallop fishermen use heavy trawls
Coastal pelagics species are migratory so fished at bottom depths from 10 to 75
their availability to the commercial meters. Many vessels in the calico scallop
fishery is quite seasonal. Markets for fishery were originally built for shrimp
bluefish are often flooded by high volumes trawling. The ease of conversion between
of landings within a short period of time. fisheries is important since scallop
A bluefish FMP is currently under abundance varies considerably from year to
development. The Coastal Migratory year. South Atlantic calico scallop
Pelagics FMP includes commercial and landings have varied from 1.6 to 39.1
recreational quotas for king and spanish million pounds in the last five years. A
mackerels that have triggered closures of North Carolina calico scallop fishery
these fisheries in the South Atlantic in important in the early 1970's is no longer
recent years. in exixtence.

Oceanic Pelagics North Carolina Winter Trawl Fishery

A diverse group of oceanic pelagic fishes From November to March, there is commercial
is caught by commercial fishermen in the trawling directed toward coastal ground
South Atlantic region. Swordfish, Xiphias fishes in the inshore portions of the EEZ
gladius, is probably the most sought off North Carolina. Targetted species
species since it commands such a high include weakfish, Cynoscion regalis, summer
price. The South Atlantic fishery for flounder, Paralichthys dentatus, and
yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares, has Atlantic croaker, Micropogonias undulatus.
expanded in the last five years, with 1987 The EEZ landings of these three species in
landings up over 500 percent since 1983. 1987 were 9.3 million pounds valued at $6.5
other important tunas include blackfin, T. million. This important fishery accounts
atlanticus, bigeye, T. obesus, and bluefin for 75 percent of the U.S. EEZ landings of
T. thynnus. Sharks f1ke shortfin mako, weakfish and 66 percent of the U.S. EEZ
Isurus oxyrinchus, and spinner shark, landings of Atlantic croaker. A.summer
Carcharhinus brevipinna, are also caught in flounder FMP for EEZ waters is currently
this fishery. under development.

South Atlantic oceanic pelagics landings
were 4.0 million pounds valued at $8.0 RECREATIONAL FISHERY RESOURCES
.million in 1987. East Florida accounted
for 72 percent of the total landings and Marine recreational fishermen caught an
over 80 percent of the landings of estimated 61.0 million finfish in the South
swordfish and sharks in the South Atlantic Atlantic region in 1987. This represented
region. 16 percent of the nation's total estimated
marine recreational catch of 383.1 million
fish in 1987. Since forty percent of the

129

South Atlantic catch was released alive, Bottom Fishing
the remaining 36.7 million fish represented
fish removed from the system. They weighed An estimated catch of 1.8 million black sea
an estimated 49.3 million pounds. bass dominated the South Atlantic EEZ
bottom fish recreational harvest in 1987.
Over 4.0 million marine recreational other major offshore reef fishes and their
fishermen were estimated in the South estimated 1987 South Atlantic EEZ
Atlantic region in 1987. These anglers recreational catches in number were:
made an estimated 20.9 million trips, or 28 grunts, Haemulidae family, 918 thousand;
percent of the nation's total marine snappers, 886 thousand; groupers 378
recreational fishing trips. Retail sales thousand; and porgies, 124 thousand. The
associated with marine recreational fishing majority of these catches were associated
in the South Atlantic was estimated at $2.0 with natural live bottom areas or
billion in 19856. The number of artificial underwater obstructions.
participants and retail sales in South
Atlantic OCS recreational fisheries is not Inshore EEZ bottom fish recreational
known, but the estimated number of fishing catches were dominated by members of the
trips was 2.5 million in 1987. This drum, Sciaenidae, family including Atlantic
represents 28 percent of the South Atlantic croaker, spot, Leiostomus xanthurus, and
boat fishing trips. spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus.

The recreational catch of finfish from the Trolling
South Atlantic EEZ in 1987 was estimated at
8.0 million fish, or 13 percent of the The 1987 South Atlantic EEZ recreational
South Atlantic total catch. Disregarding troll fishery was dominated by an estimated
fish released alive, an estimated 4.9 catch of 955 thousand dolphin, Coryphaena
million fish weighing 21.9 million pounds hippurus. other common pelagic fishes and
were removed from the South Atlantic EEZ by their estimated numbers caught by
recreational anglers in 1987. EEZ harvest recreational trolling in 1987 were: king
by weight was 44 percent of the total 1987 mackerel, 388 thousand; little tunny,
South Atlantic harvest. Recreational Euthynnus alletteratus, 310 thousand;
harvest of shellfish in the South Atlantic spanish mackerel, 297 thousand; bluefish,
EEZ is insignificant. 258 thousand; great barracuda, Sphyraena
barracuda, 185 thousand; blue runner,
Modes of fishing in the South Atlantic EEZ Caranx crysos, 103 thousand; and greater
are party boats, charter boats and private amberjack, Seriola dummerili, 77 thousand.
boats. Party boats, or head boats, provide
fishing space and privileges to individuals Billfishes are highly prized by offshore
for a fee. These are large boats that can recreational anglers fishing the blue
carry from 10 to over 100 anglers. In the waters outside the shelf break. Species
South Atlantic they do bottom fishing targetted are sailfish, ' Istiophorus
exclusively. Charter boats are hired by a 2latypterus, blue marlin, Makaira
pre-formed group of individuals for a nigricans, white marlin, Tetrapturus
fishing trip. They usually carry six or albidus, and longbill spearfish, T.
fewer passengers and go trolling, but may pfluegeri. A billfish FMP is currently
bottom fish on occasion. Private boats under development. Blue water anglers also
belong to individuals and may go bottom catch wahoo, Acanthocybium solanderi, and
fishing or trolling. tunas including skipjack, Euthynnus
.2elamis, albacore, Thunnus alalunga,
Most recreational fisheries in the South yellowfin, blackfin and bluefin.
Atlantic EEZ can be characterized by the
two major fishing methods - bottom fishing Fishing tournaments are popular in South
and trolling. Bottom fishing with natural Atlantic OCS waters. King mackerel is the
baits while either anchored or drifting is favorite target species, but there are also
the typical method of fishing for offshore numerous tournaments targetting billfishes,
reef fishes and inshore bottom fish. sharks, and other offshore species. The
Trolling with artificial lures or natural top prizes in tournaments are typically
baits is the preferred method of fishing several thousand dollars or new boats, so
for coastal and offshore pelagic fishes. the competition is keen. Recreational
Other methods that are used occasionally fishermen may bring their boats long
include casting artificial lures and distances to participate in tournaments in
fishing natural baits near the water neighboring states.
surface.

130

Other Surface Fishing There is the potential that increased
marine traffic due to OCS activity will
Recreational fishing for sharks in the cause difficulties in fishing operations or
South Atlantic EEZ typically involves loss of fixed gear like gillnets and
chumming to attract fish to an anchored longlines. Another potential impact is the
boat. Lines with baited hooks are set out destruction of live bottom areas or scallop
at varying depths near the boat. The beds through activities associated with
estimated 1987 South Atlantic EEZ catch of mining or laying pipeline.
sharks was 91 thousand fish. Blacktip
shark, Carcharhinus limbatus, was the most
commonly caught species. REFERENCES

There are other surface fishing methods 1. NMFS. Fishery statistics of the United
used in certain circumstances for certain States 1977. Statistical Digest No. 71.
species. Bluefish, spanish mackerel and U.S. Dept. Commerce, Natl. Oceanic
other species are sometimes caught by Atmospheric Admin., NMFS, Washington, DC,
casting lures while the fish are actively 1984. 407 p.
feeding at the surface. Fishermen sight
cast to species like cobia, Rachycentron 2. NMFS. Marine recreational fishery
canadum, that are attracted to buoys and statistics survey, Atlantic and Gulf
dolphin that are found along weedlines. coasts, 1986. Current Fishery Statistics
King mackerel can be caught on live baits No. 8392. U.S. Dept. Commerce, Natl.
fished near the water surface. Oceanic Atmospheric Admin., NMFS,
Washington, DC, 1987. 127 p.

POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OCS ACTIVITIES 3. Gusey, W.F. The fish and wildlife
resources of the South Atlantic coast.
Certainly one of the events associated with Shell Oil Company, Houston, TX, 1981. 522
South Atlantic OCS activities with the P.
greatest potential to impact fishery
resources would be a major oil spill. The 4. Low, B. Black sea bass on South
magnitude of its impact would depend Carolina artificial reefs. Saltwater
heavily upon its location and time of year. Conversation 1988(2):27-29.
For example, a major oil spill off the
northeast Florida coast in early spring 5. NMFS. Fisheries of the United States,
could potentially affect the entire South 1987. Current Fishery Statistics No.
Atlantic population of white and brown 8700. U.S. Dept. Commerce, Natl. Oceanic
shrimp. This is.when newly hatched larvae Atmospheric Admin., NMFS, Washington, DC,
occur high in the water column and begin 1988. 115 p.
their inshore recruitment to estuarine
nursery areas further north. 6. Schmied, R.L., and E.E. Burgess.
Marine recreational fisheries in the
A major oil spill in the vicinity of a southeastern United States: an overview.
productive area of natural live bottom or Marine Fisheries Review 1987(49):2-7.
an artificial reef would certainly curtail
commercial and recreational fishing
activities in the short term and may damage
the long term health of fish populations
associated with the reef.

Evidence from the Gulf of Mexico suggests
that the installation of oil and gas
platforms would create new fishing
opportunities, particularly for
recreational fisheries. MRFSS data from
the Louisiana OCS show that up to 70
percent of all recreational fishing trips
took place within 200 yards of a structure.
However, there may be negative impacts with
commercial fisheries such as displacement
from traditional fishing grounds and gear
loss due to oil and gas related structures
and debris.

131

The Outer Continental Shelf Fishery Resources Of The Pacific
Coast

Steven Koplin

Fisheries Statistics Division, F/REI
National Marine Fisheries Service
Washington, DC 20235
Abstract million dollars. Although on the decline,
direct fishing by vessels from China,
The fish and shellfish resources of the Poland, South Korea, and Japan contributed
Pacific coast are very diverse. The major a catch of 263 million pounds valued at 60
commercial fisheries are for groundfish, million dollars. Thus the commercial
salmon, scombrids, crabs, and shrimp. fisheries of the Pacific coast in it's
Recreational fishing with 47.5 million entirety is approximately 6.3 billion
fish caught also constitutes a substantial pounds valued at 1.7 billion dollars.
harvest. In addition to fisheries, marine
sanctuaries and marine mammal interaction Needless to say that with most natural
must be taken into account when discussing resources comes regulations, either
the impact of Outer Continental Shelf federal, state or in the case of fisheries
(OCS) development. international. We now know that fish and
shellfish stocks are not limitless as once
perceived. To enhance or preserve the
optimal sustainable yield of specific
fisheries, managers employ a number of
methods. Some of these are: size
Introduction restrictions on the fish or shellfish,
gear restrictions, quotas, seasons, and
The fish and shellfish resources in the limited entry to a fishery. On the
ocean waters adjacent to the Pacific coast federal side is the Magnuson Fishery
states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and Conservation and Management Act that
California are very diverse. The numerous provides for the conservation and
fisheries associated with this diversity management of all fishery resources within
range from the two-person crew of a salmon the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
troller to the large catch er-processor except highly migratory tuna. The EEZ
vessels employing over 100 crewmen to land extends from three nautical miles to 200
and process-at-sea the abundant Alaska nautical miles from shore. The Act also
pollock stock. An attempt to delineate provides for fishery management authority
the fisheries of inshore waters versus over continental shelf resources and
outer continental shelf fisheries would be anadromous species beyond the EEZ, except
misleading. The migratory patterns of the when they are found within a foreign
fish and shellfish stocks as well as the nations recognized territorial sea or
species interaction recognize no fishery conservation zone. At the close
boundaries. of 1987, seven Fishery Management Plans
(FMP) were in place; Northern Anchovy,
with approximately 59 thousand f ishermen Alaskan King Crab, Commercial and
utilizing 25 thousand vessels employing Recreational Salmon, High Seas Salmon,
gears such as gillnets, longlines,,pots Pacific Groundfish, Gulf of Alaska
and traps, trawls, and purse seines, Groundfish, and Bering Sea and Aleutian
landings for 1987 along the Pacific coast Islands Groundfish. Additionally, two
states amounted to 2.5 billion pounds Preliminary Management Plans (PMP), Bering
worth an exvessel value of 1.4 billion Sea Herring and Bering Sea Snails, were in
dollars. When compared to total U.S. place for Pacific Fisheries. The Tanner
landings of 6.9 billion pounds valued at Crab FMP which was implemented in 1978,
3.1 billion dollars, the Pacific states was repealed by the Secretary of Commerce
represent 36 percent of the volume and 45 in 1987. The United States is also a
percent of the value. In addition to signatory to four commissions that manage
direct landings, two other forms of those fisheries that have international
commercial activity must be recognized. cross boundary stocks: International
joint venture fishing in which U.S. Pacific Halibut Commission, International
vessels catch the fish and then transfer North Pacific Fisheries Commission,
to a foreign vessel accounted for an Pacific Salmon Commission, and the
additional 3.5 billion pounds- worth 212 Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission.

132 United States Government work not protected by copyright

The Pacific states also have specific Washington, Oregon, California
regulations that they apply to inshore
f isheries. Some of the fisheries that are The three coastal states of Washington,
managed directly by the states are salmon, Oregon, and California had landings of 795
crab, shrimp, herring, spiny lobster, million pounds valued at 419 million
squid, and mackerel. dollars. The groundfish combination
accounted for 32 percent of the landings
In an attempt to simplify the commercial with 261 million pounds worth 93 million
landings data compiled by the National dollars or 22 percent of the total value.
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), I have Salmon landings of 73 million pounds was
grouped the numerous species into six only nine percent of the total volume but
categories: Groundfish, Salmon, Scombrids, 29 percent of the value at 123 million
Crabs, Shrimp and other fish and dollars. The bulk of the scombrid group
shellf ish. Groundfish includes the is landed from Monterey, California
numerous species of rockfish and flatfish, southward. At 204 million pounds,
Pacific cod, Pacific hake, Alaska pollock, scombrids accounted for 26 percent of. the
lingcod and sablefish. The salmon group landings but only 12 percent of value at
is made up of chinook, chum, pink, red, approximately 50 million dollars. The
and coho. The scombrids would include the crab fishery, principally for dungeness,
tunas, bonito and Pacific mackerel. landed 22 million pounds valued at 30
Although not a true scombrid, jack million dollars. The fishery for the
mackerel is also included in this group. Pandalus shrimp has increased in recent
Crabs are principally dungeness, king, and years. Landings of 69 million pounds
snow along with minor landings of spider represent 9 percent of the landings and at
and rock crab. an exvessel value of 48 million dollars,
11 percent of the area's value. The last
category of other fish and shellfish
Alaska accounted for 21 percent of the volume at
166 million pounds at 75 million dollars
Alaska is first in the nation with direct representing 19 percent. This very
landings valued at 942 million dollars and diverse group includes fisheries for
second only to Louisiana with landings of anchovy, sea bass, sharks, swordfish,
1.7 billion pounds. At the national level spiny lobster, clams, squid, and sea
Alaska accounts for 25 percent of the urchin as well as many other.
landings and 29 percent of the value.
Regionally, Alaska makes up 68 percent of
the landings and 69 percent of the value. Joint Venture and Foreign Fishing
The Alaskan groundfish harvest of 930
million pounds represents 53 percent of As previously mentioned, there are two
the state's landings but only 22 percent other forms of commercial fishing activity
of the exvessel value at 207 million off the Pacific states. Vessels of
dollars. The highly prized salmon with foreign nations which have negotiated a
landings of 489 million pounds accounts Governing International Fishery Agreement
for 29 percent of the state landings but (GIFA) with the United States may fish in
with an exvessel value of 473 million the EEZ for species managed under the
dollars accounts for 50 percent of the Magnuson Act after receiving an allocation
value. The crab fishery principally snow of that species and a valid fishing
and king accounts for 152 million pounds permit. After a GIFA is in force, a
valued at 208 million dollars. foreign nation must submit a permit
Respectively these landings account for application to the U.S. Department of
only nine percent of the landings but 22 State for each vessel to fish in the EEZ.
percent of the state's values. The shrimp Permit applications must also be made for
fishery accounts for 2.7 million pounds foreign vessels to receive U.S. joint
and 2.3 million dollars which is less than venture harvested fish. The Department of
one percent of the volume or value of the State provides copies of the applications
state's fishery. The other fish and to Congress, Coast Guard, Regional Fishery
shellfish, principally the inshore herring Management Councils and the National
fishery, category accounts for 123 million Marine Fisheries Service. The Assistant
pounds valued at 52 million dollars or Administrator of NMFS after review and in
seven percent of the volume and five consultation with Department of State and
percent of the value. the Coast Guard may approve an application
in whole or in part. Any conditions and
restrictions on the approval of an
application are sent to the foreign nation
through the Department of State, and must
be accepted by the nation before a permit
is issued.

133

Direct foreign fishing within the Pacific National Marine Sanctuaries
region in 1987, was restricted to the
eastern Bering Sea and Aleution Island's, The Marine Sanctuaries Act established by
57 percent of the volume, and to waters Congress in 1972, provides for the
off of Washington, Oregon, and northern protection and preservation of ocean areas
California. The foreign catch in 1987, and resources. Under this law the
contributed 263 million pounds, 97 percent Secretary of Commerce may designate ocean
of which was groundfish, valued at and coastal waters, and areas of the Great
approximately 57 million dollars or 96 Lakes as National Marine Sanctuaries. The
percent of the foreign catch. Pacific cod Marine Sanctuaries Act provides the only
and Pacific hake accounted for 229 million opportunity to designate and manage
pounds of the 254 million pounds discrete areas as ecosystems, as opposed
groundfish category. to managing individual resources, such as
mammals or fish, under several different
Joint venture fisheries which began in law s.
1979 contributed 3.5 billion pounds valued Two National Marine Sanctuaries have been
at 212 million dollars to the Pacific established off the coast of California.
coast fisheries in 1987. As with direct The channel Islands sanctuary designated
foreign fishing the groundfish catch makes in September 1980, is located offshore
up the majority of the catch with 3.4 from Santa Barbara. This 1,252 square
billion pounds worth 207 million dollars. mile area protects the habitat for marine
Alaska pollock which is processed into mammals and sea birds. The Gulf of the
fillets and surimi accounts for 67 percent Farallones sanctuary was designated in
of the catch at 2.3 billion pounds. it is January 1981. The 948 square mile habitat
expected that in the foreseeable future located northwest of San Francisco also
with the development of shore side protects marine mammals and seabirds.
facilities and U.S. at-sea-processing much
of the joint venture catch will shift to In addition to the established
U.S. commercial landings if not entirely sanctuaries, one additional area is under
eliminated. proposal and five areas are undergoing
site evaluation. Originally considered in
Recreational Fisheries 1977, the proposed Monterey Bay sanctuary
was withdrawn by NOAA in 1984. Following
Recreational fishing must be discussed protest from conservationist and local
when examining the impact of OCS officials, Representative Leon Panette
development. Besides generating income (D-CA) introduced HR-734 in January, 1987,
for the states, recreational fisherman which directs NOAA to reverse its decision
harvest a substantial number of fish. and to move the sanctuary through the
Utilizing preliminary data which excludes designation process. If approved
Alaska and the west coast salmon fishery, Panette's bill will be the first
NMFS reports that approximately 47.5 successful congressional effort to
million fish were caught by fisherman in designate a major ocean area as a national
California, Oregon, and Washington. This marine sanctuary. Undergoing site
represents 12 percent of the national evaluation at this time are areas off
estimated total of 384.4 million fish. Washington, Oregon, and California. The
Washington State Nearshore encompassing
The catch in number of Pacific mackerel approximately 275 square miles is located
was the highest of any species on the around the San Juan Islands within Puget
Pacific coast in 1987. Top-ranked species Sound, Washington. Western Washington
groups in each subregion were Pacific Outer Coast containing 230 square miles is
mackerel in Southern California, located along 90 miles of coastal
rockfishes in Northern California, black northwestern Washington. The
rockfish in Oregon, and spiny dogfish in Hecata-Stonewall Banks are submerged banks
Washington. Southern California accounted off Oregon lying along the 100 fathom
for 67 percent of the Pacific coast in depth contour and would encompass 400
number catch. square miles. The Morro Bay site located
south of Morro Bay, California contains an
The ocean 3 miles or less from shore had area of three square miles. The offshore
the highest catch in numbers (59 percent) Tanner-Cortes Banks west of San Diego
in 1987. The portion of the catch in the would be approximately ten square miles in
area more than 3 miles from shore (20 area.
percent) was similar to the 16 percent for
the Atlantic and Gulf coast EEZ.
Percentage catches in nu Imber of f ish were
59 percent for private/rental boats, 23
percent for shore, and 19 percent for
party/charter boats.

134

Marine Mammals References

When discussing outer continental shelf Foster, N.M., and J.H. Archer. The
development the potential impact on marine National Marine Sanctuary Program -
mammals must be considered. Numerous Policy, education, and research.
species of porpoise, whales, seals, and Oceanus 1988, volume 31, number 1:5-17 1
sea lions haul out, migrate, or reside in
waters bordering the Pacific coast states. NMFS. Fisheries of the United States,
The NMFS by authority of the Marine mammal 1987. Current Fishery Statistics No.
Protection Act (MMPA) administers 8700. U.S. Department of Commerce,
long-term management and research programs National Oceanic and Atmospheric
to conserve and protect these animals. Administration, NMFS, Washington, DC,
Some marine mammals are protected by the 1988. 115 p.
Endangered Species Act as well as the
MMPA. NMFS. Marine mammal protection act of
1972, Annual report 1986/87. U.S.
Most marine mammals are wide-ranging Department of Commerce, National Oceanic
migratory animals, and international laws, and Atmospheric Administration, NMFS,
treaties, and conventions-are necessary Washington, DC, 1987. 47p.
for their protection. The U.S. is a
participant of the International whaling
commission, Inter-American Tropical Tuna
Commission, International North Pacific
Fisheries Commission, Fur Seal Act, and
the U.S. - U.S.S.R. Marine Mammal Project.

Potential Impacts of OCS Activity

Platform blowouts, pipelines, well heads,
seismic exploration, mining, and
additional marine traffic have the
potential to adversely impact fishing
activities and marine ecosystems.
Depending on the time of the year and
location a platform blowout or tanker
spillage could impact marine mammal
rookery sites, whale migration routes, or
marine sanctuaries. Displacement of
fishing activity by seismic surveys and
seabed mining is also a possibility.

The impact of the 1969, Union oil,
platform blowout off of Santa Barbara,
California and the resulting damage is
still fresh in the minds of west coast
citizens. more recently the explosion and
partial sinking of the "Puerto Rican" in
1984 off the Gulf of the Farallones
sanctuary and the collision and sinking of
the "Pac Baroness" in 1987 off the Channel
Islands sanctuary reawakened concern for
the protection of the marine environment.

1.35

COEXISTENCE OF FISBING AND OIL AND GAS INDUSTRIES IN TBE GULF OF MEXICO

Mr. Jerry Brashier

Minerals Management Service
1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard
New Orleans, Louisiana 70123

ABSTRACT under lease, over 7,600 producing wells, and over 33,500
offshore petroleum-related workers. Petroleum production
Fishing and oil production coexist in the Northern Gulf of in the coastal marshes and offshore waters of Louisiana
Mexico (GOM). Oil and gas activities on its Outer alone exceeds 400 million barrels of oil and 6 trillion cubic
Continental Shelf (OCS) have increased from 890,000 feet of gas per year (Perrett and Roussel, 1984). Although
acres under lease, less than 100 platforms and 6.7 million the mutual existence of fishing and oil and gas industries
barrels of oil produced in 1955 -- to 21 million acres under has not been without problems, these industries have
lease, 3,350 platforms and 340 million barrels of oil successfully coexisted in the northern GOM for over 50
produced in 1986. In the same period, commercial fish years.
landings rose from 850 million pounds to 2,400 million
pounds. The majority of the 2.2 million sport fishermen 2. FISBERIES RESOURCES
who fish the GOM visit oil platforms, taking advantage of
the artificial reefs they create. Characteristic fishes are associated with the various Gulf
environments. The low salinity estuaries are generally
At least four oil spills have contacted the shoreline of dominated by finfishes such as croakers, spot, sand trout,
Louisiana or Texas. The effects of these spills were never anchovies, mullet and menhaden, and shellfishes such as
investigated. Modem oil spill prevention programs and oysters and crabs. The shallow Gulf (surf zone)
technologies make such accidents unlikely in the future. characteristically contains such fishes as the Gulf whiting
Accidental oil spills throughout the OCS from 1971 and Atlantic threadfin. The bottom becomes muddier
through 1987 totaled about 69,000 barrels while the tanker outside the surf zone, and fishes found here include the
"Alvenus" lost 45,000 barrels over a two or three day croaker, spot, star drum, silver trout, and longspine porgy.
period after it ran aground off Galveston in 1984. Drilling Farther offshore toward the middle shelf, the number of
fluids used in the GOM have low acute and chronic Sciaenids (croaker family) is drastically reduced, and the
toxicities, in light of the fluids expected to be used and fish community is dominated by small flounders and sea
rapid dilution and dispersal after discharge. Space robins. The offshore reefs support such fishes as snappers
competition, even cumulatively, is not a significant issue. and sea basses, while oceanic fishes such as the bluefin
OCS operations are responsible for less than 5 percent of tuna and broadbill swordfish inhabit the offshore open
all the direct wetland losses that occurred between 1955 ocean waters (USDC, NN1FS, 1979).
and 1978. 3. COMMERCIAL FISBERIES
Finally, laws and regulations play a major role in reducing
adverse impacts on fisheries - and in compensating Nearly all species significantly contributing to the Gulf's
fishermen for loss or damaged gear, as well as for commercial catches are estuarine dependent. With the
consequent loss catches due to OCS oil and gas activities. exception of such species as the oyster and spotted seatrout,
most leave the estuaries as juveniles or subadults and
spawn at sea after becoming reproductive adults. The eggs
of the majority of these species hatch in the waters of the
1. INTRODUCTION open Gulf. The developing larvae become part of the
offshore planktonic community. Under the influence of
The fishery resources of the northern Gulf of Mexico tides, currents, and winds, the young eventually arrive at
(GOM) constitute one of the largest fishery biomasses in the estuarine nursery grounds where they feed, grow, and
the world. The 1986 commercial harvest for the five Gulf mature prior to migrating out to sea to repeat the spawning
States totaled approximately 2.4 billion pounds valued at process.
$781 million (USDC, NMFS, 1987a). The northern GOM
is the site of the greatest concentration of coastal and Approximately 50 species of food finfish are harvested in
offshore oil industry activity in the world with well over the Gulf. Some of the more important species include
4,000 oil and gas structures in State and Federal waters. croaker, snappers, groupers, black mullet, red and black
These structures represent over 99 percent of our nation's drum, spotted and silver seatrout, Spanish mackerel, spot,
offshore oil and gas structures. Most of them (3,600) are pompano, flounders, crevalle, Gulf kingfish, sheepshead,
located off the Louisiana coast and about 3,200 are in and king mackerel. The majority of food finfish are caught
Federal waters (Reggio, 1987). In Federal waters in the in coastal waters with the exception of such fishes as the
northern GOM, there are currently over 21 million acres snappers, groupers, mackerels, tunas, and billfish.

CH2585-8/88/0000-136 $1 @1988 IEEE

Nine species of Penaeids contribute to the northern GOM the northern GOM. Oil spills that contact the coastal
fishery. Brown, white, and pink shrimp are the three most marshes, bays, estuaries, and open Gulf areas with high
important commercial species. Brown shrimp are centered concentrations of floating eggs and larvae have the greatest
in the northwestern Gulf while white shrimp are centered potential for damage to commercial fishery resources
on the mud and sand bottoms off the coast of Louisiana. (USDI, MMS, 1987). Little is known about the levels of
Pink shrimp have an almost continuous distribution hydrocarbons in coastal and ocean pelagic fishes, reef
throughout the Gulf, but consistent commercial pink fishes, coastal herrings, and groundfish. Data are also
shrimp catches are made on the shell, coral sand, and coral scarce on the long-term effects on fisheries from oil and
silt bottoms off southern Florida. Other important gas activities in the northern GOM.
invertebrates landed in the Gulf include oyster and blue
crab. Spiny lobster are landed in the eastern Gulf. Commercial fishery resources could be adversely affected
by the discharge of drilling fluids. The National Academy
Gulf menhaden occur in the shallow waters of the of Sciences (1983) stated that most water-based drilling
nortlicentral Gulf from eastern Florida to eastern Texas fluids used in Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) drilling
with about 93 percent of this fishing effort occurring within programs have low acute and chronic toxicities to marine
10 miles of shore. Also, the industrial bottomfish trawl organisms, considering the fluids expected to be used and
fishery exists in the nearshore waters of the northcentral discharge dilution and dispersal. Effects of drilling fluids
Gulf. Generally, the following fishes contribute 95-98 and cuttings are restricted primarily to the ocean floor in
percent of the trawl fishery catch: croaker, spot, sand the immediate vicinity and for a short distance downcurrent
seatrout, silver seatrout, silver eel, catfish, and longspine from the discharge. The bioaccumulation of metals from
porgy. Croaker, the largest component of the catch, prefer drilling fluids appears to be restricted to barium and
a mud bottom and are generally not found at depths chromium and is observed as a low value in the field. This
exceeding 60 fathoms. impact-producing factor is considered minor.

4. RECREATIONAL FISHERIES Installation of oil and gas production structures removes 3-
5 acres of trawling space for each structure. USDI, MMS
Recreational fishing is big business in the Gulf States with (1987) estimated that the cumulative loss of trawling area
an estimated 2.2 million United States residents through installation of offshore structures results in at most
participating annually. In 1980, marine recreational fishing a very low impact on commercial fishing in the northern
in the northern GOM resulted in an estimated $1.3 billion GOM. The presence of underwater obstructions (many of
in retail sales (the highest of any region in the nation). This which are not oil and gas related) causes gear conflicts and
represented approximately 33 percent of total marine results in losses of trawls, shrimp catch, business
'United States recreational fishing related sales (Sport downtime, and vessel damage. Financial losses to
Fishing Institute, 1983). fishermen as a result of unknown OCS obstructions may be
compensated by the Fishermen's Contingency Fund.
Spotted seatrout and red drum were the most sought after
species in 1986. Forty-one percent of the total marine Loss of wetlands has a detrimental effect on fisheries
recreational catch in the Gulf consisted of various members production (Turner, 1984). However, most of the data on
of the Sciaenid family. Spotted seatrout was the most this relationship is correlative. Wetlands serve as food-rich
commonly caught species and contributed 16 percent of the refuges from predators during the critical growth stages of
total catch. Other commonly caught species were sand the young. In comparison to the open water, the wetland
seatrout, Spanish mackerel, Atlantic croaker, saltwater edge is rich in organics and the interior has a high density
catfishes, and pinfish (USDC, NMFS, 1987b). of benthic prey. The impact of the present coastal wetland
losses is not yet evident in the commercial landing statistics
5. IMPACTS ON COMMERCIAL FISHERIES because of the wide annual landing variations that mask
long-term effects. OCS operations are responsible for less
Possible adverse impacts on commercial fisheries from oil than 5 percent of all the direct wetland loss that occurred
and gas activities include oil spills, discharge of drilling between 1955 and 1978 (Turner and Cahoon, 1987).
fluids, space competition, gear damage or loss and loss of
catch on underwater obstructions, loss of wetlands, and The removal of obsolete oil- and gas-related structures with
removal of oil and gas structures by explosives. explosives has the potential to cause mortalities of
commercially important fish such as snappers and
Oil interferes with vital functions of many aquatic groupers. However, 80-90 percent of the fish killed are
organisms. Free oil and emulsions can cover epithelial usually of no commercial value. The magnitude and
surfaces of aquatic animals and interfere with respiration. significance of this impact-producing factor has not been
Sublethal effects of petroleum are largely unquantified. assessed.
However, many aquatic organisms are known to display
adverse responses to petroleum components at levels 100- A benefit to commercial fishing from Gulf of Mexico OCS
1,000 times lower than acutely toxic concentrations. Even oil and gas activities is the apparent creation of productive
very low oil concentrations can taint fish flesh (Penkal and shrimp trawling areas adjacent to pipelines. Tate (1982)
Phillips, 1984). Fish and bivalves are moderately sensitive stated that older pipelines have a continuing positive
(10-100 ppm); however, lethal concentrations may be impact because uncovered pipe has a "log in water" effect
lower (0. 1 -1 ppm) for the more sensitive larval and juvenile on attracting fish and shellfish. Also, anomalies along the
forms (USDI, MMS, 1985). Studies cited by Evans and pipe tend to trap current-driven material such as rope,
Rice (1974) show that certain fish eggs are extremely plastic, and netting and serve as small artificial reefs to
sensitive to the influence of oil products. congregate fish and shellfish. These benefits persist long
after the pipeline is laid. New pipeline activity seems to
A large oil spill is one of the major impact-producing have the most profound effect because fish congregate and
factors that could affect commercial fishery resources in forage through the disturbed bottom. Fishing greatly

,137

improves in the area until the bottom settles and exposed 7. MEANS THAT LESSEN NEGATIVE IMPACTS
foods are eaten. The fish then scatter and remain in certain
areas such as near exposed pipe or wherever the bottom The Fishermen's Contingency Fund, administered by the
was left uneven. Fishermen willing to add mud-dragging National Marine Fisheries Service (NUFS), was authorized
gear to the nets may be rewarded by catching shrimp that in 1978 under Title IV of the OCS Lands Act Amendments.
congregate on both sides of the freshly installed pipelines. Claims for compensation through this fund must
demonstrate that the obstruction is related to OCS oil and
Another benefit to commercial fishing is the provision of gas exploration, development, or production and lies within
productive hook and line fishing areas by oil and gas a 3-mile radius of such activities. The damage or loss must
structures. Gallaway (1984) stated that oil platforms not be caused by fishermen negligence, must have occurred
constitute a major portion of the red snapper habitat and after September 18, 1978, and must not be covered by
fishing ground in the northwestern Gulf. Perrett and insurance. There is no ceiling on a single claim, although
Roussel (1984) mentioned that many fish species may be the damage or loss must not exceed the replacement value
more exploitable because they congregate under and of the fishing gear. Claims must be filed within 60 days of
around offshore structures. Dimitroff (19 82) stated that the the incident. Funds are obtained by assessing levies on
snapper/grouper fishermen from Niceville and Pensacola, each exploration permit, lease, easement, or right-of-way
Florida, almost exclusively fish the oil and gas structures in that has been issued or maintained under the OCS Lands
the Central Gulf. Ditton and Auybng (1984), in a study Act since its authorization in 1978 (Louisiana Geological
conducted offshore Louisiana from April 1980 - March Survey, 1985). During 1985, 157 GOM claims were
1981, found that of the 11,911 fishing boats in the vicinity approved for a total of $561,199. The average claim
of 164 major structures, 1,030 were commercial fishing processing time has been reduced from as much as 7
boats. There is still some question as to. whether artificial months to about 40 days after the claim is received by
reefs enhance fish production or merely concentrate fish. NNIFS (USDI, MMS, 1987).
Whatever the case, the offshore fishing industry has
benefited by the presence of offshore structures. Title III of the OCS Lands Act, as amended (43 USC 1801-
1866), provides for the Offshore Oil Spill Pollution Fund,
6. IMPACTS ON RECREATIONAL FISHERIES whereby a fishing vessel or equipment damaged by contact
with spilled oil may receive compensation.
Oil and gas activities may adversely impact recreational
fisheries in the same way as commercial fisheries. Several OCS Orders and Notices are designed to niinimize
However, installation of the more than 4,000 petroleum conflicts with fishermen. OCS Order No. 9 states that all
structures in the northern GOM has been a real benefit to pipelines shall be installed and maintained to be compatible
recreational fishing. Ditton and Auyong (1984) noted that with trawling operations and other uses. Section 22 of the
out of 11,911 boats observed fishing near major offshore current lease form (MMS 2005, March 1986) states that
structures off the Louisiana coast from April 1980 - March within one year after termination of the lease the lessee
1981, that 10,881 were recreational boats. This included shall remove all devices, works, and structures. OCS Order
8,983 private fishing boats, 1,624 charter/party fishing No. 3, paragraph 2.9, requires that, upon abandonment, the
boats, and 274 scuba boats. Hardison (a charter boat well locations be cleared of all obstructions to a depth of 16
operator in the northern GOM for over 30 years) (1982) feet (5 meters) below the ocean floor. NTL 81-5
stated that he annually takes over 10,000 people deepsea establishes the minimum requirement for verification of
fishing. All of his fishing is conducted while tied up to oil site clearance with at least one of the, following
and gas structures. Scogin (1982) found that approximately requirements: a trawl dragged in two directions across the
one-quarter of all the offshore ocean fishing originating in location, a chain or cable dragged between two boats in two
Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi was directly associated directions across the location, a diver search around the
with oil and gas structures. Ditton and Graefe (1978) found well bore for a minimum radius of 100 feet, or a side-scan
that oil and gas structures off the Texas coast attracted 87 sonar survey across the location. The Louisiana Concerned
percent of the boats and 50 percent of all offshore Shrimpers Association recently brought to the attention of
recreational fishing. Witzig (1985) found that MMS its concern over debris remaining on the site after
approximately 60 percent of the fish caught near structures structures are removed. In order to minimize this impact
within three miles of the shore were kept compared to less on commercial fishing MMS is currently forming a task
than 10 percent caught at nonstructure sites. The force with the shrimpers and the Offshore Operators
proportion of the catch kept on fishing trips greater than Committee to further identify acceptable techniques and
three miles from shore was over 70 percent for trips to develop rules to accomplish the requirements of OCS
structure sites and approximately 35 percent to nonstructure Order No. 3. Further, Department of Transportation
sites. Regulations Parts 192.319(c) and 195.246(b) require that
all offshore pipe in water at least 12 feet deep but not more
Scogin (1982) stated that structures constitute a major than 200 feet deep, as measured from the mean low tide,
change in the ecology of the northern GOM since the must be installed so the top of the pipe is below the natural
offshore seafloor consists largely of a flat, soft-bottomed, bottom unless it is supported by stanchions, held in place
gradually sloping plain. Shinn (1974) estimated that a by anchors or heavy concrete coating, or protected by an
typical major platform in water depths of 30 meters equivalent means.
provides 8, 173 square meters of steel substrate; the average
major platforms in the northwestern GOM provide over Although not specifically designed to do so, several Gulf of
2,471 acres of submerged steel substrate. Structures are Mexico OCS stipulations lessen impacts on commercial
subject to biofouling organisms, a basic food source of and recreational fishes by providing protection to
many recreational fishes. Gallaway and Lewbel (1982) topographic features and their biota in the central and
detem-iined that structures constitute approximately 28 western GOM, to pinnacles and their biota in the central
percent of the known hard-bottom habitat off the Louisiana GOM, and to live bottoms in the eastern GOM.
and Texas coasts.

138

Topographic Features Stipulation Stetson Bank 6
Applebaum Bank .85
The topographic features stipulation was first developed in Low Relief Banks2
the early '70s and has recently been modified by a DOI
workshop of MMS and FWS biologists. Comments were Mysterious Bank 7
solicited from Federal and State agencies, industry, (see leasing map)
academia, and interested environmental groups. The
stipulation wording is based on years of scientific Blackfish Ridge 70
information collected since the inception of the stipulation. Big Dunn Bar 65
This information includes various Bureau of Land Small Dunn Bar 65
ManagementIMMS-funded studies on the topographic 32 Fathom Bank 52
highs in the Central Gulf, numerous stipulation-imposed, Coffee Lump Various
industry-funded monitoring reports, and a National (see leasing map)
Academy of Science (NAS) report (1983). The stipulation Claypile Bank3 50
was formulated based on consultation with various Federal South Texas BankS4
agencies and comments solicited from State, industry,
environmental organizations, and academic representatives. Dream Bank 78,82
The banks that would cause this stipulation to be applied to Southern Bank 80
blocks of the Central Gulf are the following: Hospital Bank 70
North Hospital Bank 68
Bank Name Isobath (meters) Aransas Bank 70
South Baker Bank 70
McGrail Bank 85 Baker Bank 70
Bouma Bank 85 'Flower Garden Banks - In paragraph (c), a
Rezak Bank 85 "4 Mile Zone" rather than a "I Mile Zone"
Sidner Bank 85 applies.
Sonnier Bank 55 2Low Relief Banks - Only paragraph (a) applies.
Sackett Bank2 85 3Claypile Bank - Paragraphs (a) and (b) apply.
Ewing Bank 85 In paragraph (b) monitoring of the effluent to
Diaphus Bank2 85 determine the effect on the biota of Claypile
Alderdice Bank 80 Bank shall be required rather than shunting.
Parker Bank 85 4South Texas Banks - Only paragraphs (a) and (b)
Fishnet Bank2 76 i
Jakkula Bank 85 apply.
Sweet Bank' 85- 5Central Gulf of Mexico bank with a portion of
Rankin Bank 85 its "I Mile Zone" and/or "3 Mile Zone" in the
29 Fathom Bank 64 Western Gulf of Mexico.
Bright Bank 85
Geyer Bank3 85 The stipulation reads as follows:
MacNeil Bank3 82 (a) No activity including structures,
'Only paragraph (a) of the stipulation applies. drilling rigs, pipelines, or anchoring
(See page 6.) will be allowed within the listed
20nly paragraphs (a) and (b) apply. isobath ("No Activity Zone") of the
3Western Gulf of Mexico bank with a portion of banks as listed above.
its "3 Mile Zone" in Central Gulf of Mexico.
(b) Operations within the area shown as
The banks that would cause this stipulation to be applied to "1,000 Meter Zone" shall be,
blocks of the Western Gulf are: restricted by shunting all drill
cuttings and drilling fluids to the
Bank Name Isobath (meters) bottom through a downpipe that
terminates an appropriate distance,
Shelf Edge Banks but no more than ten meters, from
the bottom.
West Flower Garden Bank, 100
(defined by 1/4 1/4 1/4 system) (c) Operations within the area shown as
East Flower Garden Bank, 100 "1 Mile Zone" shall be restricted by
(defined by 1/4 1/4 1/4 system) shunting all drill cuttings and drilling
MacNeil Bank 82 fluids to the bottom through a
29 Fathom Bank 64 downpipe that terminates an
Rankin Bank 85 appropriate distance, but no more
Geyer Bank 85 than ten meters, from the bottom.
Elvers Bank 85 (Where there is a " 1 Mile Zone"
Bright Bank5 85 designated, the 1,000 Meter Zone in
McGrail Bank5 85 paragraph (b) is not designated.)
Rezak BankS 85 (d) Operations within the area shown as
Sidner Bank5 85 "3 Mile Zone" shall be restricted by
Parker Bank5 85

139

shunting all drill cuttings and drilling development on this lease, including, but not
fluids from development operations limited to, well drilling and pipeline and
to the bottom through a downpipe platform placement, the lessee will submit to
that terminates an appropriate the Regional Director (RD) a live bottom
distance, but no more than ten survey report containing a bathymetry map
meters, from the bottom. prepared utilizing remote sensing technique
and an interpretation of live bottom areas
Live Bottom (Pinnacle Trend) Stipulation prepared from a photodocumentation
(Central GOM) @urvey. The live bottom - survey report,
including the attendant surveys, will
(To be included only on leases in the encompass an area within a minimum 1,000
following blocks: Main Pass Area, South m distance of a proposed activity site.
and East Addition Blocks 219-226, 244-266, If it is determined that live bottom areas
276-288, Viosca Knoll Blocks 521, 522, might be adversely impacted by the
564,565, 566, 609, 610, 654, 692-698.) proposed activity, then the RD will require
the lessee to undertake any measure deemed
For the purpose of this stipulation, "live economically, environmentally, and
bottom areas" are defined as seagrass technically feasible to protect live bottom
communities; or those areas which contain areas. These measures may include, but are
biological assemblages consisting of such not limited to, the following:
sessile invertebrates as sea fans, sea whips,
hydroids, anemones, ascidians, sponges, (a) the relocation of operations to avoid
bryozoans, or corals living upon and live bottom areas;
attached to naturally occurring hard or rocky
formations with rough, broken, or smooth (b) the shunting of all drilling fluids and
topography; or areas whose lithotope favors cuttings in such a manner as to avoid
the accumulation of turtles, fishes, and other live bottom areas;
fauna. ,
Prior to any drilling activities or the (c) the transportation of drilling fluids
construction or placement of any structure and cuttings to approved disposal
for exploration or development on this lease, sites; and
including, but not limited to, well drilling
and pipeline and platform placement, the (d) the monitoring of live bottom areas
lessee will submit to the Regional Director to assess the adequacy of any
(RD) a live bottom survey report containing mitigating measures taken and the
a bathymetry map prepared utilizing remote impact of lease initiated activities.
sensing techniques. The bathymetry map
shall be prepared for the purpose of In addition, the MMS worked with the Gulf of Mexico
determining the presence or absence of live Fishery Management Council and National Oceanic and
bottoms which could be impacted by the Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to protect coral and
proposed activity. This map shall algal communities (which serve as fish habitat) from
encompass such an area of the seafloor explosives and anchoring at the Flower Gardens in the
where surface disturbing activities, western GOM. As a result, language was provided on
including anchoring, may occur. nautical charts requesting mariners to avoid anchoring at
If it is determined that the live bottoms those areas.
might be adversely impacted by the
proposed activity, the RD will require the Rigs-to-Reefs,
lessee to undertake any measure deemed
economically, environmentally, and The Rigs-to-Reefs Program provides for converting
technically feasible to protect the pinnacle obsolete, nonproductive offshore oil and gas structures to
area. These measures. may include, but are designated artificial reefs. The Secretary of the Interior
not limited to, the following: joined with the president of the National Ocean Industries
Association in 1983 to form the Recreational and
(a) the relocation of operations; and Environmental Enhancement for Fishing in the Seas
(REEFS) task force. The task force, composed of marine
(b) the monitoring to assess the impact fishery representatives from coastal states and public and
of the activity on the live bottoms. private officials, set out to develop a strategy that would
lead to the creation of a national artificial-reef policy, plan,
Live Bottom (Low Relief) Stipulation and program in the United States. On November 8, 1984,
(Eastern GOM) that objective was advanced when President Reagan signed
into law the National Fishing Enhancement Act (NFEA) of
(To be included on leases on blocks in 1984 (Title II of P.L. 98-623). In the NFEA, Congress
water depths of 100 m or less.) recognized the social and economic value in developing
artificial-reefs, established national standards for artificial-
A description of live bottom areas for reef developments, called for creation of a National
this stipulation is the same as that for the Artificial Reef Plan under the leadership of the Department
Pinnacle Trend Stipulation. Prior to any of Commerce, and established a reef permitting system
drilling activities or the construction or
placement of any structure for exploration or 'Extracted from Reggio, V.C., Jr, 1987.

140

under the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers that limits the removal operations may negatively impact fishery
liability of participants in the program. Congress intended resources. However, this has not been quantified.
that artificial-reef support and development be
accomplished through existing Federal programs in As a benefit, newly installed pipelines provide productive
conjunction with public and private cooperation leading to areas for fishing and shrimping. Of particular importance
the use of materials of opportunity. The law calls for an are the more than 4,000 oil and gas structures in the
evaluation of incentives likely to encourage private sector northern GOM that provide substantial and popular
support for artificial-reef development. The National commercial and recreational fishing areas.
Artificial Reef Plan lists specific materials and design
standards that include oil and gas structures among Several means other than the Fishermen's Contingency
recommended materials of opportunity. Fund lessen negative impacts on fisheries in the northern
GOM. These include Title III of the OCS Lands Act; OCS
The oldest and most highly recognized fishing structures Order No. 9; OCS Order No. 3; NTL 81-5; Section 22 of
are those within 25 miles of the GOM shore and in water MMS Lease Form 2005, March 1986; topographic features
depths less than 200 feet. National Research Council stipulation in the central and western GOM; pinnacle trend
information indicates that by the year 2000, twelve years stipulation in the central GOM; live bottom stipulation in
from now, two-thirds of the existing offshore structures the eastern GOM; and the Rigs-to-Reefs program. Further,
will have become nonproductive and removed for onshore MMS has worked with the Gulf of Mexico Fishery
disposal. Estimates are that over 100 structures will be Management Council and NOAA to protect fish habitats at
scheduled for removal in the GOM each year for the next the Flower Gardens.
20 years. The size, shape, design, and profile of major
structures result in their being desired for productive Fishing and oil and gas industries have coexisted in the
artificial fishing reefs. The oil and gas industry is anxious northern Gulf of Mexico for over 50 years. The general
to cooperate with reef developers and will probably devote trend in both commercial fisheries landings and oil,
a major portion of disposal savings to artificial-reef condensate, and gas production has been on the increase
projects since it is seldom feasible to reuse obsolete since before 1968, indicating that oil and gas activities have
structures for oil and gas operations, and the scrap value not devastated fishery resources.
barely pays for shore-based dismantling and disposal.
Overall, there have been over 125 artificial-reef projects REFERENCES
permitted throughout the northern GOM. Nine Rigs-to-
Reefs projects have been permitted to date. Dimitroff, F. 1982. Survey of snapper/grouper fishermen
off the northwest Florida coast. In: Proceedings, Third
Krahl (1986) stated that MMS has adopted a policy aimed Annual Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting.
at encouraging the use of obsolete petroleum structures for New Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals
fishery development. Ile MMS is evaluating and updating Management Service. p. 57.
its regulations and procedures and will cooperate with
intradepartmental. initiatives to allow sanctioned reef Ditton, R.B. and J. Auyong. 1984. Fishing offshore
builders the maximum possible flexibility to capture the platforms Central Gulf -of Mexico - An analysis of
fisheries enhancement value for oil and gas structures. recreational and commercial fishing use at 164 major
offshore petroleum structures. OCS Monograph/MMS
8. CONCLUSION 84-0006. New Orleans, La,: U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
Minerals Management Service. p. 20.
Fishery resources of the northern GOM constitute one of
the largest fishery biomasses in the world. In 1986, the Ditton, R.B. and A.R. Graefe. 1978. Recreational fishing
total commercial harvest amounted to 2.4 billion pounds, use of artificial reefs on the Texas coast. Contract
valued at $781 million. Over 2.2 million United States report. Prepared for the Texas Coastal and Marine
residents participate annually in northern GOM marine Council, Austin. p. 58.
recreational fishing, with retail sales exceeding $1.3 billion.
In this Region, over the last 50 years, extensive oil and gas Evans, D.R. and S.D. Rice. 1974. Effects of oil on marine
activities have been conducted. Currently, there are over ecosystems: a review for administrators and policy
21 million acres under lease, over 7,600 producing wells, workers. Fishery Bulletin 72(3):625-637.
and over 33,500 petroleum-related employees. Gallaway, B.J. 1984. Assessment of platform effects on
Fisheries could be negatively impacted by several impact- snapper populations and fisheries. In: Proceedings,
producing factors. Oil spills that contact the coastal Fifth Annual Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer
marshes, bays, estuaries, and open northern GOM having Meeting. OCS Report/MMS 85-0008. New Orleans,
high concentrations of floating eggs and larvae have the La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management
greatest potential for damage to fishery resources. Most Service. p. 130.
drilling fluids used in the northern GOM have low acute
and chronic toxicities to marine organisms considering the Gallaway, B.J. and G.S. Lewbel. 1982. The ecology of
fluids used and dilution and dispersal after discharge. petroleum platforms in the northwestern Gulf of
Installation of oil and gas structures is estimated to remove Mexico: A community profile. Washington: U.S. Fish
from 3-5 acres of trawling space for each structure. Even and Wildlife Service (FWS/OBS 82/27) and New
in a cumulative sense, this is expected to result in no Orleans, La.: Bureau of Land Management, Gulf of
significant impacts. Gear damage or loss and loss of catch Mexico Regional Office (Open File Report 82-03). p.
on underwater OCS obstructions may be compensated for 15.
through the Fishermen's Contingency Fund. However,
many. of these claims may result from non-OCS
obstructions. Loss of wetlands and explosive structure

141

Hardison, C. 1982. Charter boats and offshore oil and gas Turner, R.E. and D.R. Cahoon, editors. 1987. Causes of
development. In: Proceedings, Third Annual Gulf of Wetland Loss in the Coastal Central Gulf of Mexico.
Mexico Information Transfer Meeting. New Orleans, Volume I: Executive Summary. Final report submitted
La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management to Minerals Management Service, New Orleans, La.
Service. p. 64. Contract No. 14-12-0001-30252. OCS Study/MMS 87-
0119. 32 pp.
Krahl, R. 1986. Federal focus on platforrn disposition for
artificial reefs. In: Proceedings, Sixth Annual Gulf of U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries
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MMS 86-0073.
La., October 22-24, 1984. OCS Study/. Mexico prepared for U.S. Dept. of State, SEFC
Metairie, La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals contribution No. 79-53F, Miami, Fla. 24 pp.
Management Service. pp. 112-114. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries
Louisiana Geological Survey. 1985. Commercial Service. 1987a. Fisheries of the United States, 1996;
fishermen's compensation funds. Resource current fishery statistics no. 8385. Washington. p. 3.
Development News. Baton Rouge, La. p. 1'. U.S. (Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries
National Academy of Sciences. 1983. Drilling discharges Service. 1987b. Marine recreational fishery statistics
in the marine environment. USDI and NAS Contract survey, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 1986; no. 8392.
14-12-0001-29063. Washington: National Academy Washington. p. 18.
Press. p. 112. U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service.
Penkal, F.R. and G.R. Phillips. 1984. Construction and 1985. Final environmental impact statement. Proposed
operation of oil and gas pipelines. Fisheries 9(3):7. oil and gas lease sales 104 and 105 (Central and
American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Md. Western Gulf of Mexico). Washington. Available
from NTIS, Springfield, Va.: PB86-125481/AS.
Perrett, W.S. and J.E. Roussel. 1984. Oil and gas
operations and fishing activities in offshore waters. In: U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service.
Proceedings, Fifth Annual Gulf of Mexico Information 1987. Final environmental impact statement for
Transfer Meeting. OCS Report/MMS 85-0008. New proposed oil and gas lease sales 113, 115, and 116
Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals (Central, Western, and Eastern Gulf of Mexico).
Management Service. pp. 123-126. Washington. Available from NTIS, Springfield, Va.:
P1388-128723.
Reggio, V.C., Jr. 1987. Rigs-to-Reefs. The use of
obsolete petroleum structures as artificial reefs. OCS Witzig, J.F. 1985. Rig fishing in the Gulf of Mexico -
Report/MMS 87-0015. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept. 1984 Marine Recreational Fishing Survey results. In:
of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 18 pp. Proceedings, Sixth Annual Gulf of Mexico Information
Transfer Meeting. OCS Report/MMS 86-0073. New
Scogin, M. 1982. The 1980 marine recreational fishery Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals
statistics survey. In: Proceedings, Third Annual Gulf Management Service. pp. 104-105.
of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting. New
Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals
Management Service. p. 53.

Shinn, E.A. 1974. Oil structures as artificial reefs. In:
Proceedings of an international conference on artificial
reefs. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University,
Center for Marine Resources. pp. 91-96.

Sport Fishing Institute. 1983. Marine recreational fishing -
big business. SFI bulletin No. 348. Washington. p. 1.

Tate, E. 1982. Association between OCS activities and
commercial fishing. In: Proceedings, Third Annual
Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting. New
Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals
Management Service. pp. 58-59.

Turner, R.E. 1984. Relationship of fisheries production
and coastal wetlands: possible effects of oil and gas
development. In: Proceedings, Fifth Annual Gulf of
Mexico Information Transfer Meeting. OCS
Report/MMS 85-0008. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Dept.
of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. . pp. 12 1 -
122.

142

POT'ENTL,kL CONFLICTS BETWEEN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
ACTIVITIES AND COMMERCIAL FISHING

Barry R. Clark

Minerals Management Service--Atlantic OCS Region
1951 Kidwell Drive, Suite 601
Vienna, Virginia 22180

ABSTRACT
Offshore oil and gas activities occur worldwide in areas operations, and the potential hazards, conflicts, and
impacts resulting from offshore oil and gas exploration
that have important commercial fishing industries. activities."'
Examples include the North Sea, Alaska, southern
California, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Outer The FTP was prepared by the oil industry under the
Continental Shelf. Fishing methods and gear may vary, auspices of the Offshore Operators Committee and in
but the poten@ial for conflict between oil and gas activities response to the requirements of the Department of the
and commercial fishing exists in all these regions. Interior. The draft program was reviewed by
representatives of several State and Federal Arricies, as
This paper looks at how the two industries have well as by officers of New England fishermen's
interacted in the portion of the North Atlantic known as cooperatives. Recommended changes were adopted prior
Georges Bank. It also examines the measures employed to implementation of the FTP. To date, more than 1,000
by the Department of the Interior to ensure that the people have completed this training.
seemingly conflicting interests of oil and gas exploration
and commercial fishing could both be served without The FTP stresses that exploratory operations could
significant problems. conflict with commercial fishing activities in several ways.
Included in these potential conflicts are physical
INTRODUCTION preemption of fishing grounds, direct interference with
gear by service and geophysical vessels, dumping of
The commercial fishing industry associated with Georges debris, and acute/chronic effects on the biota from
Bank in the North Atlantic is one of the world's most discharged drilling muds, cuttings, and oil spills. The FTP
productive and lucrative. Following years of negotiations, summarizes various protective measures that have been
litigation, environmental research, and analysis of instituted to minimize the potential effects.
potential environmental impacts, the Department of the
Interior in 1979 received total hi h bonus bids exceeding The F`1T and resultant coordination of oil/gas and fishing
$816 million for 63 oil and gas leases between 110 and activities minimized the number of gear conflicts during
170 miles offshore Cape Cod, Massachusetts. These exploratory operations in the North Atlantic Planning
leases were located along the southern flank of Georges Area. Following the drilling of eight exploratory wells on
Bank, an area with fishing efforts directed toward cod, Georges Bank, there were two claims of damages
haddock, pollock, scallops, lobster, and yellowtail allegedly resulting from oil industry anchor buoys that
flounder. had broken loose from their moorings. The first incident
involved a fisherman who abandoned his gear while
FISH VERSUS OIL attempting to recover an anchor buoy. When he returned
to his gear, he found it had been destroyed by sharks.
Of immediate concern to fishermen was the potential for After making a formal complaint to the owner of the
oil and gas activities interfering with fishing gear such as anchor buoy, the fisherman was reimbursed for
trawls, seines, longlines, traps and pots, dredges, and @ill replacement of his gear, lost catch, costs incurred while
nets. Fishing vessels, gear, and methods vary depending retrieving the buoy, and a "finders fee."
on fish species sought and the distance of the fish@ng
grounds from shore. How could drilling rig, service The second incident involved the loss of gear because of
vessel, and geophysical survey vessel personnel possibly an anchor buoy and attached cable floating through a
understand fishing patterns in the North Atlantic? lobstering area. Repeated requests by the Minerals
Management Service (MMS) to have the gear's owner
A basic knowledge of commercial fishing operations on submit a detailed listing of losses were unproductive;
Georges Bank was considered vital to minimizing therefore, no reimbursement was completed.
interference by exploratory operations. As such, Lease
Stipulation No. 6 and Notice to Lessees (NTL) NA-80-10 Both of these claims involved oil company equipment that
required that all personnel involved with operations on was clearly marked, so ownership was never in question.
Sale 42 leases complete a Fisheries Trainin Program Accidentally discharged materials could be traced back to
(F'IT). This program was designed to give s9ore-based the appropriate operator because of the marking of
supervisors, service vessel crews, and all drilling rig @q rigent requirements outlined in NTL NA-82-11.
uitiln
ersonnel information on the "value of the commercial ar of equipment is a quick and easy way to expedite
fishing industry and the methods of offshore fishing fishermen's claims for reimbursement.

143 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Five allegations of gear interference resulted from the
presence of seismic vessels in the area. Geophysical amount of exposure received by various organisms. TO
survey vessels traverse an area being studied prior to the minimize any potential effects of such discharges, the
onset of drilling operations. Equipment used during Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) National
these surveys includes towed arrays, which stream behind Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
the seismic vessel. The array may be more than a mile permits for Sale 42 leases contained some of the strongest
behind the boat and can become entangled in fishing restrictions ever attached to offshore operations.6 These
gear. Of the five incidents, one resulted in no damages, restrictions included the following requirements:
two were resolved through reimbursement for damages,
and two could not be settled because the fishermen failed 1. Muds and cuttings be shunted to at least
to file accurate claims. 10 meters (33 feet) below the ocean
surface.
Even though the number of gear conflict occurrences has
been small, the MMS has decided that expansion of the 2. The maximum undiluted mud discharge
coverage of the FTP would further mitigate this problem. rate shall not exceed 30 barrels per hour
As a result, prelease geological and eo hysical (G&G) following setting of the conductor casing.
surveys located between Maine and 4orT Carolina were
brought under the FTP requirements in 1984. In 3. Mud shall be diluted by at least 10:1
conjunction with this change, G&G permit holders are (water:mud) prior to discharge.
required to complete the FTP and give fishermen 2 weeks
advance notice of impending operations. Additionally, Several chemical additives known to have adverse effects
permit holders are urged to coordinate their activities on marine organisms were totally banned for use during
with representatives of major fishermen's cooperatives. operations on Georges Bank. Other materials with the
Both the fishermen and the sury@y companies have seen potential for causing harm to the environment had
this as being beneficial in minimizing gear conflict. discharge limitations and monitoring requirements.
Analyses for the presence of a specific list of metals as
As discussed above, the FTP and marking of equipment well as for petroleum hydrocarbons are also required by
requirements have been effective in miTimizing gear the NPDES permits. Only seven standard, oil-free
conflict. An absolute prohibition on jettisoning debris and drilling muds previously bioassayed for Mid-Atlantic
the requirement that items accidentally lost overboard be drilling operations were allowed to be discharged in the
recovered have resulted in the Sale 42 drilling area being Sale 42 area. Further bioassay of the muds intended for
virtually free of oil industry material that could snag gear. use in the Sale 42 area was required ing test o anisms
Following abandonment of drilling sites by oil companies, us io r9s could
known to occur on Georges Bank. Addi nal rn@
operators had to conduct sidescan sonar surveys to ensure have been used if bioassay results were submitted and the
the area did not contain any debris that could be results approved in advance by EPA.
potentially hazardous to fishing. Time and catch are lost
whenever fishing gear hangs up on obstructions, and One of the most important requirements of the NPDES
5xpensive fishing gear can be lost or damaged. Serious permits was the inclusion of the Georges Bank Biological
injuries and deaths may occur if towing warps snap as a Task Force (BTF) Monitoring Program' as a prerequisite
result of snagging heavy debris. to drilling. That program is summarized in another paper
presented at Oceans '88.' Additions to the BTF
Any large material identified on the sidescan sonar Monitoring Program included requirements for the
records had to be retrieved by the operator. This collection of water current and temperature data in each
retrieval system uses 4,rapplin hooks, divers, and in some of three depth zones as well as detailed determinations of
cases, small submersible crafts. To date, no problems the type and amounts of discharged materials.
concerning the snagging of oil industry debris on the sea
floor in this area have been raised by commercial The Georges Bank Monitoring Program concluded that
fishermen. no substantially significant negative impacts on the
benthic environment were seen as a result of the Sale 42
discharge of oil, drilling muds, and cuttings has also drilling. 8,9
been of major concern to commercial fishermen. In
efforts to miru'rru'ze any potential negative effects from CONCLUSION
these discharges, stringent discharge requirements were
adopted for the Sale 42 drilling. Sale 42 and resultant oil and gas activities have proven
that given appropriate mitigating measures and a
In most areas of the world where offshore drilling has willingness to coordinate activities, the commercial
occurred, drilling muds and cuttings have been routinely fishing and oil/gas industries can coexist on the Outer
discharged into the surrounding ocean. Numerous studies Continental Shelf.
have shown that these discharges are rapidly diluted upon
entering the receiving water and have little measurable
effect on the biota more than a few hundred meters from
the drilling rig.',',' A clockwise system of currents known
as the Georges Bank gyre effectively maintains water
masses on the Bank for longer times than would be
expected without the gyre.' This circulation is believed to
be important to the fishery since larvae are sometimes
kept in the nutrient-rich waters of Georges Bank for
extended periods when the WTe is firmly established.
This same gyre could cause drilling discharges or spills to
be circulated around the Bank and thus increase the

144

REFERENCES

1. Offshore Operators Committee - Georges Bank
Fisheries Training Program, 1980.

2. Ayers, R.C., Jr., D. Bowers, R.P. Meek, and T.C.
Sauer, Jr. - An Environmental Monitoring
Study to Assess the Impact of Drilling
Discharges in the Mid-Atlantic. 1. Quantity
and Fate of Discharges. Symposium on
"Research and Environmental Fate and
Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings,"
January 21-24, Lake Buena Vista, Florida,
1980.

3. Ecomar, Inc. - Tanner Bank Mud and Cuttings
Study. Prepared for Shell Oil Company,
1978.

4. Clark, R.B. - Summary and Conclusions:
Environmental Effects of North Sea Oil
and Gas Developments, Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. B 316, pp. 669-667, 1987.

5. Butman, B., R.C. Beardsley, B. Magmell, D. Frye,
J.A. Vermersch, R. Schlitz, R. Limeburner,
W.R. Wright, and M.A. Noble - Recent
Observations of the Mean Circulation on
Georges Bank: Journal of Physical
Oceanography, v. 12, pp. 569-591, 1982.

6. Environmental Protection Agency - Authorization
to Discharge Under the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
for North Atlantic Operators Mobil, Exxon,
Getty, Tenneco, Shell, Murphy, and Union,
June 26, 1981.

7. Biological Task Force for OCS Lease Sale #42 -
Georges Bank - Georges Bank Monitoring
Program and Related Studies, by Working
Group of the Biological Task Force, April
14,1981.

8. Miller, R.E. - Georges Bank Monitoring Program:
A Summary, Presented at the Marine
Technology Society Oceans '88, Baltimore,
Maryland, October 31 - November 2, 1988.

9. Maciolek-Blake, N.J., J.F. Grassle, and J.M. Neff
(editors) - Georges Bank Bentbic Infauna
Monitoring Program: Final Report for the
Third Year of Sampling, U.S. Department
of the Interior Contract No. 14-12-0001-
29192,1985.

145

INFORMATION ON FISHERIES RISK ASSESSMENT IN THE ALASKA OCS REGION

Robert M. Meyer

Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region
Leasing and Environment Office
Anchorage, Alaska 99508-4302

ABSTRACT 2. BACKGROUND

The U. S. Department of the Interior--through the The harvest of marine resources--including fishes,
Minerals Management Service's Environmental marine mammals, and sea birds--off Alaska has
Studies Program (ESP) in the Alaska OCS Region--- continued for nearly nine millennia (2). Euro-
has invested over $208 million in 465 environmen- peans became aware of the area's marine wealth in
tal studies since the program was initiated in 1648-1649 when commercially significant quantities
1973. Over half of these studies have focused on of walrus ivory were found along the Bering. Sea
fisheries-oceanography issues. The ESP has coast by promyshlennikis (Cossacks) Stadukhin and
evolved from identifying resources at risk from Dezhnev (2). The real awareness began, however,
potential oil and gas activities to determining when survivors of Vitus Bering's last voyage
the sensitivity of underlying ecological proces- (1741) returned with sea otter and fur seal pelts.
ses. The Alaska OCS Region currently is conduc- During the ensuing century and a half, the
ting coastal fisheries-oceanographic studies in commercial harvest of natural resources concen-
both Arctic and southeastern Bering Sea waters. trated on the region's abundant marine mammal
populations, including the great whales.

1. INTRODUCTION Commercial fishing (cod and salmon) by the
American fishing fleet began in the eastern Bering
The U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI), as Sea during the latter part of the 19th century and
part of Project Independence (a program to reduce continues today. The Japanese fishing fleet began
the United States' dependence on imported oil), harvesting bottomfish and crab from the eastern
began leasing submerged lands on the Outer Bering Sea in the 1930's; however, their efforts
Continental Shelf (OCS) off Alaska for oil and gas were halted by the second World War.
exploration in April 1976 with OCS Lease Sale No.
39 in the northeastern Gulf of Alaska. Since Following World War II, fishing fleets of the
then, USDOI has conducted 14 OCS lease sales and United States, Canada, Japan, and Russia expanded
leased 3.2 million hectares, and industry has their operations into Alaskan waters. Following
drilled some 67 exploration wells in Federal establishment of the 200-mile exclusive economic
waters offshore Alaskan. Oil in economically zone, the Canadian, Russian, and Japanese fishing
producible quantities has been found under State fleets have been, for the most part, excluded from
waters in Cook Inlet and under Federal and State these waters. The American fleet has expanded to
waters in the Beaufort Sea--some 8 wells have been harvest salmon, crab (king and tanner), shrimp,
classified as producible in the Federal OCS halibut, cod, herring, and bottomfish (for local
portion of the Beaufort Sea near Prudhoe Bay. markets and through joint ventures with foreign
processing companies).
In addition to the legal mandates guiding the
Department's activities (1), Departmental managers Scientific research in Alaskan waters appears to
recognize that the harvest of marine resources-- have begun with the
primarily fish--plays an important part in expedition commanded by Vitus Bering, during which
cultural and commercial activities within Alaska. Steller described many of the hitherto unknown
They, therefore, have directed considerable species from the "Far Eastern Sea" (Bering Sea) (2
resources to assessing potential conflicts between and 3). The next major expedition into the area
traditional uses of these resources and the was during the last voyage of Captain James Cook
exploration for oil and gas resources. The in 1787.
following provides brief histories of marine-
resource harvesting, scientific research (inclu- Following Cook's voyages, numerous expeditions
ding that supported by MMS), and fisheries studies visited Alaskan waters and collected natural
currently being supported by MMS. history material, but the next major expedition
into the area did not occur until 1880 when--under
a broad program of the 10th Census--the steamers
"Yukon" and later the "Albatross" spent several

146 United States Government work not protected by copyright

years exploring the area. These cruises, unfor- offshore oil and gas resources into production.
tunately, ceased shortly after the turn of the Portions of the ESP are managed by the National
century; and fisheries research in the area was Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's)
not resumed until 1938. At that time, the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment
Congress approved funds for the U.S. Fish and Program (OCSEAP) office located in Anchorage,
Wildlife Service (USFWS) to gather information on Alaska. The MMS directly contracts for certain
the migration of salmon in western Alaska, studies, including those for endangered species,
particularly those of Bristol Bay origin. The monitoring, and pollutant transport as well as
program was expanded in 1940 to include studies of social and economic studies and conducts the
king crab and bottomfish but was terminated by annual Beaufort Sea bowhead whale aerial survey.
World War II.
An Alaska Regional Studies Plan (RSP) is prepared
Fisheries research in Alaskan waters was resumed annually to guide MMS and NOAA in accomplishing
by the United States in 1947, with much of the program objectives. Information needs are
work being done by the National Marine Fisheries identified and reviewed by diverse organizations
Service (NMFS) (formerly the Bureau of Commercial and committees, including the Scientific Commit-
Fisheries, USDOI) and the International North tee of the National OCS Advisory Board, the State
Pacific Halibut Commission. of Alaska, and several Federal agencies (for
example, U.S. Geological Survey, the Environmental
Research conducted by other countries included Protection Agency, USFWS, NOAA, and MMS); and
that sponsored by Russia and Japan. The Pacific further critiques result from program reviews and
Scientific Institute of Ichthyology (TINRO) of the disciplinary workshops. The RSP identifies
Soviet Union sponsored extensive voyages into the existing and potential offshore-management
Bering and Chukchi Seas during 1932 and 1933; and decisions and specifies relevant studies' objec-
the Soviet Bering Sea Comprehensive Scientific- tives to aid in making those decisions. Both
Commercial Expedition initiated by TINRO in 1958 OCSEAP and MMS contract for studies to fulfill
provided a wealth of information (3). Japanese these data needs. Principal investigators are
scientists have been conducting fisheries and drawn from universities, State and Federal
oceanographic research off Alaska since World War Government Agencies, and private organizations.

4. FISHERIES STUDIES
3. ALASKA OCS REGION'S ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES PROGRAM The MMS-supported studies that relate specifically
to fisheries can--for the purposes of this paper--
In 1974, The Minerals Management Service (MMS) be grouped into four general categories: (1)
initiated the Environmental Studies Program (ESP) literature review; (2) distribution and abundance
to support the OCS oil- and gas-leasing program studies; (3) fisheries oceanography, which
of f Alaska. The ESP--which is conducted by the includes ecosystem and modeling studies; and (4)
Alaska OCS Region--is the largest, single-agency, special studies. The MMS also has supported many
mission-oriented, marine-studies program in the studies on the fate and effects of petroleum on
Federal Government. fish and fisheries, but these are not discussed in
this paper.
The purpose of the ESP is to establish information
needed to assess and mitigate potential effects Prior to the MMS ESP, information on the fisheries
that proposed oil and gas leasing and development resources and fisheries ecology in the waters off
might have on the human, marine, and nearshore Alaska occurred in numerous foreign and domestic
environment-- sound leas e-management decisions are publications and processed reportst making it
enhanced when pertinent information is available difficult for fishermen, resource managers, and
in a timely manner. Since its inception, the ESP scientists to develop a comprehensive model of
has conducted some 465 environmental studies at a these resources. One of the first tasks of the
cost of over $208 million. Over half of these ESP, therefore, was to conduct literature reviews
studies have focused on fisheries-oceanography of all available information about the marine
issues. Information acquired through this program waters off Alaska. These efforts included the
is in the forefront in subarctic and arctic acquisition, entry into the national database,
studies and is used to support offshore leasing analysis, and summary of all available fisheries
and management decisions. data for Alaska. These data were obtained from
the NMFS, International Pacific Halibut Commis-
Program activities are coordinated with two other sion, International North Pacific Fisheries
studies programs that focus on offshore oil and Commission, and the University of Washington
gas development--these are the industry-sponsored Fisheries Research Institute and included foreign
studies that are usually coordinated by the Alaska and domestic commercial catches and fisheries
Oil and Gas Association and focus on specific research on pelagic and demersal fisheries
operational problems and the MMS-sponsored resources from 1948-1976. (This effort continues
Technology Assessment and Research Program (TARP). to date.)
The TARP is an engine ering-oriented program that
provides information for permitting decisions for Also in conjuction with the ESP, MMS has conducted
offshore operations. The three programs comple- multidisciplinary meetings to assess and syn-
ment one another in the process of bringing thesize published and unpublished information--

147

including the data mentioned above--for each of The MMS also has funded support studies such as
the nine active OCS lease-sale planning areas off development of a forage fish otolith and skeletal-
Alaska. Results from these meetings, coupled with remains key and a Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and
the literature reviews, have provided MMS with a Arctic Ocean ichthyoplankton key.
comprehensive perspective of re sources-- including
fish and an initial understanding of the ecosystem --The skeletal remains and otolith key was an
processes at risk from oil and gas activities. important contribution to the fish, marine bird,
Results of the syntheses are available in report and marine mammal trophic studies. This inf or-
form and are updated for each succeeding sale in mation was required before the trophic studies
an area. could proceed and provided a common reference for
all investigators involved in projects to describe
Additionally, MMS contracted for the preparation the food habits of larger marine organisms.
of summary documents including "Effects of
Petroleum on Arctic and Subarctic Marine Environ- --The ichthyoplankton key also provides a common
ments and Organisms, Volumes I and IV (4); "The reference for investigators involved in ichthyo-
Eastern Bering Sea Shelf: Oceanography and plankton research and was required before the MMS
Resources, Volumes I and 2" (5); and "The Gulf of plankton research could proceed.
Alaska, Physical Environment and Biological
Resources" (6). In addition, a fish-pathology study to describe
the prevalence, distribution, and characteristics
Fisheries-resource-assessment surveys supported by of diseases in fish and shellfish populations in
MMS in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering and Chukchi Alaskan marine waters was supported by MMS. This
Seas provided the first systematic and comprehen- information serves as an indication of the
sive information base on the seasonal and geogra- incidence of disease in these populations before
phical distribution and relative abundance of oil and gas leasing was conducted in these areas
demersal fishes and shellfishes found in these and will serve as a reference to determine the
waters. The surveys also gathered information on potential effect of oil and gas development on the
the abundance and distribution of marine birds, health of these populations.
marine mammals, benthic organisms, zooplankton,
meroplankton, and oceanographic properties for Another special fisheries project supported by MMS
correlative analysis. These surveys provided a was the development and operation of a multi-
baseline of information for assessing the resour- specie s-interac tion model that uses information
ces at potential risk from OCS oil and gas gathered through the ESP to describe the inter-
activities. actions between major species in the Bering Sea as
a function of their predator-prey relationships.
Following the resource-assessment surveys, MMS This model is used to describe potential changes
focused its attention on conducting fisheries- in the relative abundance of important populations
oceanographic studies in lower Cook Inlet and off as a function of changes in the abundance of a
Kodiak Island. Conducted by multidisciplinary major prey species.
research teams, these studies. documented the The potential effects of spilled oil on commercial
seasonal occupance (succession), diurnal movement, fisheries in the Bering Sea were simulated with
and distribution of maro and ichthyoplankton; and the use of fisheries information, the fisheries-
they correlated these observations with infor- interaction model, and other information and
mation on the spawning locations and times and the models developed through the ESP. The simulation
general migration routes of fish moving from study was prepared by NMFS (7) under contract to
deeper to more shallow waters as the seasons MMS. An objective of the study was to achieve
advanced and waters warmed. Also described were maximum-effect conditions by simulating the
species interaction (trophic) and dependencies of following conditions:
major lifestages of important fish and shellfish
populations and the dynamics of these inter- 1. The largest plausible oil-well blowout in one
actions. Fisheries oceanography studies were of three locations, releasing 20,000 barrels per
coordinated with other oceanographic, marine bird, day of Prudhoe Bay oil for 15 days, and a tanker
marine mammal, and feeding studies to improve the accident releasing 240,000 barrels of automotive
integration of study results. Similar studies diesel (refined) at a rate of 10,000 barrels per
currently are under way in the Bering Sea and are hour in one of the same three locations: off Port
proposed for the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. These Moller, 45-meter depth; off Port Heiden, 43-meter
studies are discussed be low. depth; and off Cape Newenham, 43-meter depth.

Results from fish, marine mammal, and seabird 2. Winds, tides, mixed-layer depth, and tempera-
trophic studies supported by the ESP in Alaska ture that produced the largest possible area of
provide comprehensive descriptions of trophic highest possible concentration (less than 1 ppm)
interactions and dependencies between the major of water-soluble fraction of oil in water.
components of the marine environment. These
studies describe primary trophic pathways and key 3. The most unfavorable time with respect to the
species in the ecosystems, provide an under- fishery resources (peak spawning time with maximum
standing of trophic dynamics, and provide a aggregation of fish per unit area and/or peak
measure of how the effects of oil and gas activi- migration time).
ties on one component of the ecosystem may affect
the entire ecosystem.

148

4. The prevailing conditions affecting the Future studies supported by the ESP will build on
sedimentation of the oil to the bottom were such the extensive information base collected through
that the highest possible quantity of oil accumu- the program and that developed by other agencies
lated on the bottom in the shortest possible time. and marine scientists. The program is expected to
concentrate efforts in those areas where commer-
The authors of the study concluded that an cially producible oil and gas discoveries have
extensive blowout or a unreasonably large tanker been found and where development of these resour-
accident would have no measurable effect on ces is expected. Therefore, the program is
offshore fishery resources in the eastern Bering expected to shift focus from regional studies to
Sea. more site-specific studies as the database permits
and the pace of development dictates.
Based on the results of the spilled-oil/fisheries-
interaction simulation study, MMS is concentrating
current fisheries studies in the coastal areas 6. REFERENCES
where the risk of potential effects from oil and
gas development are considered more likely. 1. USDOI, MMS. 1985. OCS Laws Related to
Mineral Resource Activities on the Outer Contin-
ental Shelf. OCS Report, MMS 85-0069.
5. CURRENT AND PLANNED FISHERIES STUDIES
2. Fay, F.H. 1981. Marine Mammals of the
The MMS currently is supporting a coastal fisher- Eastern Bering Sea Shelf: An Overview. In: The
ies-oceanography study in the North Aleutian Basin Eastern Bering Sea Shelf: Oceanography and
Planning Area (southeastern Bering Sea) and is Resources Vol. 2, pp. 807-811.
planning to initiate a similar study in the
Chuckchi and Beaufort Sea (Arctic) Planning Areas. 3. Favorite, F. 1981. Overview of Fisheries
The Bering Sea study includes objectives to Oceanography. Ln: The Eastern Bering Sea Shelf:
describe the major ecological processes and biotic Oceanography and Resources, Vol. 1, pp. 447-453.
relationships occurring in the coastal zone;
timing and stock identity, habitat use, environ- 4. Malins, D. 1977. Effects of Petroleum on
mental controlling mechanisms of juvenile salmon Arctic and Subarctic Marine Environments and
migrating along the Alaska Peninsula; euviron- Organisms, Volume I, Nature and Fate of Petroleum,
mental conditions and key habitat variables that and Volume II, Biological Effects, 821 pp.
affect the development, survival, and recruitment
of larval and juvenile king crab; seasonal changes 5. Hood and Calder 1981. The Eastern Bering
in habitat use by lifestages of important forage Sea Shelf: Oceanography and Resources, Volumes 1
species; and seasonal changes in coastal circula- and 2, 1339 pp.
tion, temperature, salinity, and nutrients. This
study--which began in FY 1984 and should be 6. Hood and Zimmerman. 1987. The Gulf of
completed in FY 1990--is the first study of its Alaska, Physical Environment and Biological
type in the eastern Bering Sea and complements Resources, 655 pp.
similar studies conducted by MMS in the Kodiak
Island area and Cook Inlet. Results from the 7. Laevastu, T., R. Marasco, N. Bax, R. Fuku-
study will provide an information base for future hara, A. Gallagher, T. Honkalehto, J. Ingraham, P.
decisions concerning coastal activities in the Livingston, E. Miyahara, and N. Pole. 1985.
area should development occur. Evaluation of the Effects of Oil Development on
the Commercial Fisheries in the Eastern Bering
An arctic coastal fisheries-oceanographic study is Sea. OCSEAP Final Reports, Vol. 36, Parts 1 and
being planned by MMS for initiation in FY 1989. 2, 1128 pp.
To assist MMS, an ad hoc coordinating committee--
which included representatives of Federal, State,
and local agencies; the University of Alaska; and
the oil and gas industry--was empaneled to plan
and help conduct a workshop. Objectives of the
workshop were to review the current status of
information on Arctic fish, to formulate a suite
of study objectives for future research on fish in
the Arctic, and to develop a network for coor-
dinating current and future studies in the Arctic.
The workshop was held April 4-7, 1988, in
Anchorage, Alaska and MMS presently is preparing
the workshop proceedings.

The MMS and NOAA are using the workshop to develop
-the first-year objectives for the study. The ad
hoc coordinating committee is planning to serve as
a conduit for coordinating future fisheries
research in the Arctic.

149

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY AND COMMMERCIAL FISHING CONFLICTS,
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, AND CONFLICT MITIGATION IN THE
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE PACIFIC OCS REGION

R. Craig Wingert

U.S. Minerals Management Service
Pacific OCS Region
Los Angeles, CA 90017

ABSTRACT geophysical survey exploration, and the controversy
surrounding this issue in the POCS Region, this
Geophysical exploration for oil and gas on the paper will discuss: (1) the types and general
Federal OCS offshore California, Oregon and characteristics of geophysical survey activities
Washington is regulated by the Pacific OCS (POCS) that occur in the POCS Region, (2) the types of
Region of the Minerals Management Service. In conflicts that may arise and the potential
recent years conflicts between commercial fishing vulnerability of different commercial fisheries to
and geophysical exploration activities in the these conflicts, (3) studies either conducted or
Region have become an increasingly Important issue, planned by the POCS Region of the MMS to
particularly offshore California. These conflicts investigate the potential for geophysical survey
have centered on space-use, gear damage, and effects on fishery resources, and (4) existing
fishery resource issues. Fishery resource issues, and/or potential mitigation for reducing conflicts
such as geophysical survey effects on fish between geophysical survey activity and commercial
behavior and catchability, and the egg and/or fishing in the POCS Region.
larval stages of fish and shellfish, have been the
principal focus of environmental studies conducted 2. GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY ACTIVITIES AND POTENTIAL
within the POCS Region. Mitigation of space use COMMERCIAL FISHING CONFLICTS IN THE MMS POCS REGION
conflicts in the POCS Region has been addressed
principally through a special permitting and Two types of geophysical survey operations are
notification system. The need for mitigation conducted on the POCS: (1) deep seismic surveys
measures specifically designed to minimize and (2) high resolution shallow geologic hazard
potential fishery resource conflicts are considered surveys. Deep seismic surveys are designed to
premature by the POCS Region. investigate subsurface geological formations for
the purpose of exploration and may be either
two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) in
design. Typical 2D geophysical surveys are
1. INTRODUCTION normally conducted during the prelease stage for
regional exploration, as well as during postlease
In recent years conflicts between the commercial exploration on a smaller scale, whereas 3D
fishing industry and geophysical survey activities geophysical surveys are used as a postlease tool
permitted by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) when detailed information is required to determine
Pacific Outer Continental Shelf (POCS) Region have locations for potential exploratory or production
become an increasingly important issue. Unlike drilling activity. In contrast, high resolution
exploratory drilling and development and production surveys are generally conducted during postlease
activities, which are also subject to 14MS exploration and/or development to reveal shallow
regulation and presently concentrated in only a few geologic details and potential drilling hazards
areas within southern California, geophysical necessary to safely site drilling rigs, platforms,
survey activities and potential commercial fishing and pipelines. For these reasons, 2D surveys may
conflicts may occur throughout all four OCS occur throughout the POCS Region, depending upon
Planning Areas in the POCS Region. Conflicts the MMS leasing schedule, while 3D and high
between the two industries may occur as a result of resolution surveys occur only in southern
spatial preclusion and interference, gear damage California where postlease operations presently
occur. The characteristics (e.g. acoustic sources,
@nd loss, and potentially from fishery resource shot line spacing, survey duration) of these three
impacts such as fish dispersal and reduced fish basic types of geophysical surveys are quite
catchability, and direct effects on eggs and different (table 1).
larvae. Because of public concerns raised over the
potential for fishery resource impacts, the MMS
POCS Region has directly funded or participated in
several recent studies and others are. planned in,
the near future. Due to the importance of

150 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Table 1. Types and characteristics of geophysical surveys conducted in the stages of commercially harvested fishery resources
Pacific OCS Region. by acoustic siqnals has been raised as an issue by
V Survey the fishing industry in general, although
Type Phase Source Length Spacing Duration Area trapfishermen targeting lobster in southern
Deep Seismic Cal iforni a and Dungeness crab in northern
California represent specific groups with this
2D Pre lease airgun/ 1-2 mi broad/ variable/ variable/ concern. Fishermen representing a wide range of
regional watergun 1-3 mi I or more medium
coverage months to large fisheries (e. g. hook and line, trawl, drift gill
net, troll) have raised the issue of fish dispersal
3D Post lease airgun/ 1-2 mi close/ variable/ small/one to@ effects;' however, hook and line fishermen and
pre/post to 50 m I or more several lease salmon trollers, in particular, have probably been
drilling mos blocks the principle groups concerned with this issue.
High Resolution In addition to fishermen and others in California,
Post-lease sparker/ none to intermed./ 1 mo or site specific/ these questions are of concern in other areas or
Explor./ sub bottom 100-1000' 300-500m less one to several
Develop. profiler/ or less lease blocks countries (e.g. British Columbia, Canada, and the
sidescan North Sea). Because of the limited scientific
evidence concerning these potential types of
effects, and the high level of concern by fishermen
For this reason, each type of geophysical survey and others in the'POCS Region, the MMS has recently
has the potential to generate a different set of emphasized the study of these issues. This section
conflicts with commercial fishing activity in the provides a review of these studies, focusing
POCS Region. particularly on those either sponsored by the MMS
POCS Region or those in which the Region has
Geophysical survey activity in the POCS Region may participated.
potentially conflict with commerical fisheries
through: I ) spatial or areal preclusion and/or Table 2. Sensitivity of commercial fisheries In California to potential
interference, 2) fishing gear and/or vessel geophysical survey conflicts
cFnflict Type
damage or loss, and 3) direct effects on the Fishery space 5ear Resource Health/
abundance of fishery resources (ie. eggs, larvae Type Preclusion Damage Dire-c-tDispersal Safety
and/or adults), or on the availability (i.e. Lixed Gear
dispersal) of targeted resources. Conflicts,of
these types may secondarily result in fishermen Trap H H P
being forced to move from the geophysical survey Hook/line H H - P
area to another fishing ground, loss of fishing Set gillnet H H P P
opportunity, increased competition between Mobile Gear
fishermen, reduced catches and economic losses, and
loss of fishery product markets. Additional Trawl L-M L P P
issues raised by commercial fishermen include Troll L-M L - P
multiple geophysical surveys in the same areas, Drift Gillnet L-M M - P
slow and/or difficult compensation procedures
(either with the Federal Fishermen's Contingency Purse Seine L L P P
Fund or directly with companies that are at fault), Dive P P
listraying" of geophysical vessels outside of their H-high, M-medium, L=low, P=potential
permitted survey boundaries, intentional damage of
gear by geophysical vessels, and potential health
and/or safety effects on commercial dive fishermen. a. Effects on Eggs and Larvae
Not all types of commercial fisheries that occur on
the POCS are considered to be equally vulnerable to Very few studies have investigated the effects of
the potential geophysical survey conflicts listed seismic energy source (i.e. airgunii2e, posure on
above. In general, fixed gear fisheries are the eggs and/or larvae of fish These
considered to be most vulnerable to conflicts with studies have examined direct effects on survival,
geophysical survey activities; however, there is as well as sublethal effects on growth and
considerable variability among the different histological condition in some instances. Results
fisheries (table 2). indicate that eggs and/or larvae suffer mortality
or other adverse effects only when in close
3. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES CONDUCTED BY THE MMS proximity (i.e. 5-10 meters or less) to operational
POCS REGION ON POTENTIAL FISHERY RESOURCE EFFECTS airguns or waterguns. To date, no studies have
been published concerning effects on shellfish eggs
Commercial fishermen (and others) in California or larvae. Although the POCS Region of the MMS has
have claimed that the acoustic signals produced by not directly sponsored any studies on fish or
airgun arrays and/or other types of energy sources shellfish eggs and/or larvae through the
used in geophysical surveys: 1) directly damage Environmental Studies Program, regional staff serve
fishery resources at the egg and larval stages and on an interagency-industry group known as the Egg
therefore may result in reduced abundance of and Larval Committee (ELC). The ELC, together with
commercially harvestable adult fish or shellfish the American Petroleum Institute, directed the
and 2) cause the dispersal of adult fishes Tracor Applied Sciences (1987) study. The ELC
resulting in lost fishing opportunity and/or the consists of representatives of the commercial
reduced catchabilitY of fish targeted by fishing, geophysical and oil industries, as well as
fishermen. Direct damage of the egg and larval the MMS POCS Region, National Marine Fisheries

151

Service (NMFS), California State Lands Commission. Given the spacing and pattern of shot lines during
and California Department of Fish and Game. actual 2D and 30 geophysical surveys, the patchy
distribution of eggs and larvae, and the movement
3 of eggs and larvae due to currents and other
In the study by , northern anchovy eggs and larvae transport processes, it seems unlikely that
(yolk sac and postyolk-sac larvae ranging from 1 to individual eggs and/or larvae would normally be
22 days of age) were exposed to a range of peak exposed to more than one or two shots within the
pressure (1-5 bars) and cumulative energy levels near field influence of an array during an actual
using single airguns ranging from 10-300 cubic survey.
inches (CI) in volume and a small subarray
consisting of four 300 CI airguns. The Predicting subsequent population level effects on
experimental exposure regime consisted of multiple commercially harvestable fish and/or shellfish
airgun shots designed to simulate the approach, species resulting from egg and/or larval mortality
passage, and departure of an operational seismic associated with actual geophysical surveys is
vessel past the test organisms. Exposure to airgun extremely difficult and probably is best approached
signals under this regime resulted in by population modeling. This approach will require
statistically significant (at the 5% level) development of an acoustic model for various
reductions in survivorship for eggs (up to 8%) and geophysical sources, experimental determination of
nonfeeding yolk-sac larvae (14-35%), although survival rates for all larval stages, a geophysical
reduced survivorship was not detected in all survey model, and a population impact model. The
experimental trials. The highest reduction in ELC intends to pursue modeling efforts of this type
survivorship between test (45.5% survivorship) and following the completion of all the necessary field
control (68.6% survivorship) larvae was 35 percent studies on Dungeness crab larvae.
in one experiment with 2-day larvae. However, this
level of mortality only occurred at an acoustic Currently, the MMS POCS Region is not planning to
energy or sound exposure level that was reported exclusively fund future studies on the effects of
to be three to four times higher than that which airgun sources on the eggs and larvae of fish and/
would occur with a 40-gun array passing directly or shellfish, but will remain an active participant
over the larvae at a distance of approximately 3 in such studies through the ELC. For example, the
meters. While not statistically significant, there Battelle Memorial Institute, under the direction of
appeared to be a higher correlation between reduced the ELC, is currently studying the effects of
survivorship and increasing cumulative energy acoustic signals from an airgun subarray on the
exposure than with increasing peak pressure. zoea stage of Dungeness crab larvae. This study
There was no evidence that feeding larvae suffered is expected to be completed during the summer of
a significant reduction in survivorship as a result 1988. The MMS contributed direct funding of
of airgun exposure. At the higher peak pressure $70,000 to this project, as well as indirect
and cumulative energy levels, total larval length funding of approximately $250,000 through Federal
was significantly reduced in some experiments with 8(g) payments to the State of California. Other
larvae of ages 2, 4 and 22 days. While the authors groups contributing to the funding of this project
reported no evidence of gross morphological or include the National Coastal Research Institute,
tissue damage based on histological evaluation of Arco, the Western Oil and Gas Association, the
larvae, the tissue condition of approximately 6 Provincial Government of British Columbia, and the
percent of the larvae examined was similar to that Federal Government of Canada. In addition to this
reported for larvae that had fed poorly or been ongoing study, the ELC expects to fund additional
starved. The authors hypothesized that the controlled field experiments using the larval
observed tissue condition may have resulted from megalopae stage of Dungeness crab, as well as
changes in feeding behavior and/or success due to population and acoustic modeling studies to address
airgun exposure. the question of potential effects on adult crab
R@,Iimited scientific evidence pres Iently available populations.
suggests that any effects on fish eggs and/or b. Fish Dispersal Effects
larvae would most likely occur only within close
proximity (i.e. less than 10 meters) to an There are at least two early field studies that
ODerational airoun array. A Science Panel convened suggested adult fish 4espond to ait un energy
by the ELC in January 1988 to review an releases. According to (as cited in 3 Atlantic
experimental design proposed for a study on herring responded to airgun sound pressure levels
Dungeness crab larvae also concluded that potential of 180 dB (re 1 micro Pascal at 1 m) by sw 1 mmin@
effects on larvae would most likely occur only in away from the airgun source. Similarly,
the near field (i.e. within approximately 10 meters reported that airgun sound levels of 188 dB (with a
or less) of a typical airgun array. For this source level of 220 dB re 1 micro Pascal at 1 m)
reason, the Science Panel concluded that a single caused whiting to change their depth distrib@tion.
shot, static exposure of larvae using a single A recent study conducted in the North Sea also
linear array consisting of 6 to 8 airguns would suggested that the distribution and abundance of
best simulate the sound pressure or energy levels adult fishes (i.e. a demersal mixed fish species
experienced by eggs or larvae during an actual assemblage and whiting) was changed by exposure to
geophysical survey. The conclusions of 3 this seismic energy or sound produced by a 40-gun airgun
Science Panel also suggest that the study by may source used in a simulated 3D geophysical survey.
have actually overexposed larvae to acoustic energy However, the design of this study was confounded by
since a rsultiple shot exposure protocol was used. differences in the time of day observations. were

152

made, the natural movements of fish during the sound pressure levels generated by the single
presurvey, survey, and postsurvey periods, the airgun. The nature of the alarm responses varied
elapsed time between the pre- and postsurvey with the different species, but a threshold sound
periods of data acquisition, and the lack of a true level eliciting the observed res@onses was
control. For these reasons, a direct estimated at approximately 180 dB re I micro
cause-and-effect relationship between the seismic Pascal at 1 m). The estimated sound level
survey operations and changes in fish distribution threshold for startle responses was higher (200 to
and abundance was not convincingly established. 205 dB) for those species exhibiting such a
Because of the importance of the fish dispersal response. These responses were not always
issue in California, the WIS POCS Region has maintained throughout the entire sound exposure
actively been investigating the effects of airgun period, and the fish appeared to return to
signals and geophysical survey activity on fish presound exposure behavior within minutes following
dispersal and catchability. cessation of the airgun sound exposure.
A joint 7 industry-sponsored pilot fish dispersal The controlled field experiments with rockfish
study was recently conducted off Point plumes were principally designed to investigate
Conception under the auspices of a joint Seismic rockfish catchability; however, observations were
Steering Committee that included the POCS Region of also made of plume height and shape. The
MMS, the NMFS, various California state agencies, experimental field exposure consisted of a vessel
and the oil, geophysical and commercial fishing firing a 100 CI airgun source every 10 seconds
industries. The principal objective of this study while circling a target rockfish plume for 60
was to investigate the purported dispersal of minutes at a distance of approximately 165 m. The
rockfish aggregations (or plumes) associated with objective was to produce a sound pressure level
rocky outcrops by geophysical survey operations. at the rockfish plume of approximately 180-190 dB
Several experimental trials were conducted with (the threshold sound level producing alarm and/or
commercial fishing vessels monitoring the size, startle responses in the behavior experiment).
shape and distribution of rockfish plumes by Over this 60-minute exposure period set lines were
fathometer while an approaching seismic survey fished for 20-minute periods and fathometer
vessel (the Arco Resolution) discharged a 28-gun tracings were obtained before and during exposure
(4,000 CI) array under normal operating to investigate catchability and plume height/area.
conditions. The operational seismic vessel respectively. Control experiments were conducted
approached the target rockfish plumes from in an identical manner, but without the airgun
distances of approximately 10 nautical miles (nmi) emissions. Statistical analysis of the fathometer
to distances of less than I nmi. Sound pressure tracings produced conflicting results. No
levels measured near the depth of target rockfish significant difference in the areal extent of
plumes ranged from 152 to 203 dB depending upon the rockfish plumes was found with airgun exposure,
distance of the seismic vessel from the target whereas a slight but significant decrease in the
plume. Each experimental trial was essentially height of rockfish plumes was measured. Since no
equivalent to a single line shot during a 2D or 3D observations were made of rockfish behavior durin
seismic survey. Observations indicated that the these trials, it is unknown what (if any@
height of some rockfish plumes decreased during behavioral changes were responsible for the
experimental trials; however, both the height and decrease in rockfish plume height. Even though
distribution of some plumes changed in the absence observations on changes in plume height and shape
of geophysical survey operations. Although the were somewhat equivocal, catch-per-unit-effort of
data suggested a possible effect on the spatial rockfish by hook and line gear was found to be
distribution (i.e. the height) of some rockfish significantly reduced by approximately 50 percent
plumes, the results were inconclusive. 7Additional as a result of the experimental exposure to airgun
controlled studies were recommended by and the sound emmissions. Although this study
Seismic Steering Committee. experimentally demonstrated effects of airgun sound
emissions on rockfish behavior, distribution, and
In response to the recommendation of the Seismic catchability, the exposure regime used did not
Steering Committee, the POCS Region gf the WS attempt to simulate sound exposure conditions that
funded a followup study conducted by The would occur during an actual geophysical survey,
study consisted of both behavioral observations on and may have represented an unrealistic
caged rockfishes and controlled field experiments overexposure to airgun sound pressure levels.
targeting rockfish plumes associated with rocky
outcrops. The acoustic source used for all The studies conducted to date, including those iB
experiments was a single 100 CI airgun operated at which the MMS POCS Region has been involved 7,
450 psi. In the behavioral experiment, mixed are inconclusive. However, these studies do
species of caged rockfish were observed prior to suggest that adult fish may respond to signals
exposure, during exposure (for approximately 10 from airgun sources by moving away from the source,
minutes) at a range of sound pressure levels, and by eliciting identifiable alarm and/or startle
after airgun exposure ceased. Experimental response behavior, or by changing their
exposures and observations were made at distances distribution. The limited information suggests a
ranging from 5,800 to 11 m, corresponding to sound threshold sound level that elicits behavioral
pressure levels of 137 to 206 dB (re I micro responses may occur at 180 to 190 dB, that
Pascal at 1 m), respectively. Behavioral habituation of fish to, or recovery from, sound
observations indicated that several rockfish pressure exposure may also occur, and that
species elicited alarm and/or startle responses to catchability of adult fish may be reduced.

153

Although some questions have been answered by these conflict. In addition, the MOA's provide for the
studies, there are still many others that need to Oregon and Washington Departments of Fish and Game
be resolved. Given the present level of to participate in the review of permit applications
information and design of these experiments, it is prior to approval.
not possible to accurately assess the threshold
distance or sound pressure levels at which these b. Potential Fishery Resource Conflicts
types of effects occur, the duration of exposure
required to cause the effects, or the time required Based on existing scientific information, the MMS
for recovery to preexposure conditions. To obtain POCS Region believes that the development and
additional information for impact assessment, the imposition of mitigation measures designed to
t1M,S POCS Region is funding a second study in 1988 minimize potential fishery resource conflicts are
to further investigate the effects of geophysical premature at this time. As discussed previously,
survey activities on commercial fishing in the available scientific literature concerning the
California. The objectives of this study will be potential for fish dispersal and its effect on fish
to determine: 1) whether a representative catchability is either equivocal or has failed to
acoustic source and survey pattern more typical of clearly demonstrate a direct cause-and-effect
those used offshore California measurably reduces relationship between dispersal and actual
fish catch and, if so. the magnitude and duration geophysical survey activity. Similarly, the MMS
of the reduction, 2) how reduced catch may vary as does not believe that the available scientific
a function of the sound pressure level and/or information concerning the effects of acoustic
distance from the source and as a function of the airgun sources on fish eggs and larvae supports the
duration of exposure, 3) the duration of reduced conclusion that fishery resources are significantly
catch following cessation of exposure to threshold affected by geophysical survey activity. Each of
sound pressure levels, and 4) underlying these issues requires further study, and the MMS
mechanisms responsible for reductions in reduced POCS Region intends to take an active role in
catch (e.q. behavioral changes in swimming patterns this process. The POCS Region is committed to
and/or feeding). further study of fish dispersal and reduced fish
catchability issues as described above and intends
4. MITIGATION OF POTENTIAL,COMMERCIAL FISHING to continue its participation on the ELC to better
AND GEOPHYSICAL-SURVEY CONFLICTS understand potential egg and larval effects
IN THE MMS POCS REGION resulting from airgun exposure, as well as the
potential for effects on adult fish and s.hellfish
a. Space Use and Gear Damage Conflicts populations.

Based on past experience the MMS POCS Region has If potentially significant effects on fish eggs
found that geophysical survey operations may and/or larvae, or fish dispersal and"catchability
conflict with the operations of commercial are demonstrated by these and perhaps additional
fishermen. To eliminate or minimize space use studies, the MMS POCS Region will need to consider
(i.e. spatial preclusion and interference) and/or the development and imposition of mitigation
gear damage conflicts on the California OCS, the measures to reduce the conflicts. AlthQ.gh
MMS POCS Region has established a special presently speculative, these measures could take
permitting and notification system, which includes the form of: 1) area and/or time closures (i.e.
a requirement for negotiations designed to reduce windows) for geophysical survey activity to avoid
conflicts between the permittee and commercial important spawning periods or areas and peak
fishermen. This process includes a series of steps fishing periods or areas, and 2) the use of
that must be followed by the geophysical survey standoff distances between geophysical survey
permittee prior to the issuance of permits and vessels and areas of commercial fishing operations.
during the actual survey period. At present, this
process applies only to the California OCS where
most geophysical survey activities occur in the
POCS Region. This process has resulted in both 5. REFERENCES
the delay and spatial and/or temporal restriction
of 2D and 3D geophysical -surveys in California, 1. Kostyuchenko, L.P. Effect of elastic waves
either through the imposition of stipulations by generated in marine seismic prospecting on fish
the MMS POCS Region or as the result of joint eggs in the Black Sea. Hydrobiol. J. 9: 45-48.
negotiation between the two industries. The 1971.
application and permit issuance procedures for
geophysical (and geological) permits are published 2. Dalen, J. and G.M. Knutsen. Scaring effects on
in a special Notice To Geophysical and Geological fish and harmful effects on eggs, larvae and
Survey Permit Applicants for the California OCS. fry from offshore seismic explorations.
Twelfth ICA Associated Symposium on Underwater
For the Oregon-Washington OCS Planning Area, Acoustics, 16-18 July 1986, Halifax, Canada.
individual Memoranda of Agreements (MOA's) have 10 p. 1986.
been established with each of these states to
address potential conflicts between the commercial 3. Tracor Applied Sciences. Effects of airgun
fishing and geophysical industries. The individual energy releases on the northern anchovy. API
MOA's identify areas, depth ranges, and times of Publication No. 4453. Health and Environmental
various types of commercial fishing activity, as Sciences Department, Washington, D.C., December
well as times and areas of potentially high 1987. 108 p. 1987.

154

4. Dalen, J. Stimulating herring schools.
Investigations in Hopavagen and
Imsterfjorden/Verrafjorden 1973. Report for
the Norwegian Institute of Technology,
Trondheim (in Norwegian). 1973.

5. Battelle Memorial Institute and BBN
Laboratories. Effects of sounds from a
geophysical survey device on fishing success.
OCS Study MMS 87-0020 funded by the Pacific OCS
Region under Contract No. 14-12-0001-30273.
293 p. 1987.

6. Chapman, C.J. and A.D. Hawkins. The importance
of sound in fish behavior in relation to
capture by trawls. FAO Fish Rep. 62: 717-729.
1969.

7. Greeneridge Sciences Inc. Pilot study on, the
dispersal of rockfishes by seismic exploration
acoustic signals. A Joint commercial
fishing/petroleum industries project in
cooperation with the State of California and
Federal Agencies. 50 p. 1985.

155

THE USE OF ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
IN RESOLVING OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF-DISPUTES

Alana S. Knaster

The Mediation Institute

In recent years, the diverse parties and many years. In the late 60's
interests in a given OCS dispute arena professional mediators in these two
have elected to try alternative dispute fields began to experiment in applying
resolution approaches for addressing these same approaches to public policy
theiridifferences. disputes. These initial efforts have
evolved from being experimental to
Four case studies, three in California being a widely accepted option for
and one in Alaska, are described in dispute resolution.
detail. There have been both successes
and failures, but most important, The common ingredient in these
critical lessons learned that may be approaches is the -voluntary
applied in the future. participation of the parties in
addressing their differences through
the involvement of third party neutrals
who assist the parties in their
Since the beginning of this decade, the deliberations. To date, disputants in
number of challenges to the exploration OCS conflicts have engaged in policy
and development of our outer continental dialogues, facilitated discussions,
shelf oil and gas reserves has mediated formal negotiations, a
dramatically increased. Concerns about negotiated rulemaking and scientific
effects on air quality, water quality, negotiations. The involvement of the
ecological balance and potential impacts neutral intervenor has ranged from that
on commercial fishing, tourism and other of convenor- helping the parties define
ocean dependent activities have been the terms and conditions f or
transformed into public opposition to negotiating, facilitator- assisting the
leasing policies and to some of the p a r t i e si n improving t h e i r
current operating practices of the off- communication at meetings and in
shore oil and gas industries. recording the results of discussions,
mediator- assisting the parties in
Some of the Challenges have resulted in jointly exploring their differences,
litigation. other battles have been exchanging proposals and helping them
waged in the political arena. However, move towards their own consensus, and
for many disputants, neither of these process consultant- designing and ad
strategies have yielded solutions that hoc process for deliberations and
are satisfactory. Most recently, the impl,ementation of agreements that
diverse parties and interests in a given accomplishes the goals of the
OCS dispute arena have elected to try participants. The third party
new approaches for addressing their neutrals in the case studies described
differences that facilitate joint below were called upon to play one or
problem-solving, and face to face more of these roles during the course
negotiations. of the processes that emerged.

This paper describes some of the
WHAT ARE SOME ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE situations in which voluntary,
RESOLUTION APPROACHES UTILIZED IN OCS alternative dispute resolution
DISPUTES? approaches have been employed. Four
case studies, three in California and
Alternative disputes resolution one in Alaska, are described in detail.
processes have been applied in the labor There have been both successes and
relations and international affairs for failures; but more importantly, there

CH2585-8188/0000-156 $1 @1988 IEEE

CASE STUDIES The. Eazs and Larvae Committee
(Scientific Necioti4tions)
Space Use,.C,anfl_ict.s Between the
Commercial Fishiiiii'ltid"try and the One of the issues that divided the
Off -s-hore"01-1 -_ I,h.d.Us.tries fishing and oil industries in their
deliberations was the question of
In 1983, after the period of intensive possible effects by acoustic air gun
oil activity in the Santa Barbara signals on both fish behavior and the
Channel, the number of conflicts survival of fish eggs and larvae.
between the oil and fishing industries
reached crisis proportion. Accepting Recent attempts to resolve scientific
the advice of the Sea Grant Marine issues on potential impacts had
A d v i s o r ,leaders among the two resulted in each faction questioning
industries agreed to consider formal the credibility of a given research
negotiations with the assistance of a project, especially when it had been
mediation team to address both their commissioned by an industry or agency
immediate needs and long range concerns. perceived to have a self-interest to
protect. Not surprisingly, studies
After six weeks of careful preparation undertaken under the auspices of
and formulation of an agenda, the industry or an agency perceived as
parties met in their first formal joint having a pro-leasing or pro-oil stance
session. Agency representatives were would be branded as biased as were
present as observers. The press was studies commissioned by opponents of
excluded, since both sides wanted a full individual projects.
and frank discussion of the
possibilities of establishing ongoing The oil industry and fishing industry
talks. negotiators in Santa Barbara were
determined not to replicate this
The outcome of this meeting was the, situation nor to waste further funds or
formulation of the Joint Oil/Fisheries time on studies that would be rejected
Liaison Committee or The Joint as biased. With the assistance of a
Committee, whose goal was to negotiate mediator, they designed a process
the issues that had been mutually agreed whereby both industries and all the key
upon as potentially resolvable through agencies - state and federal leasing
formal deliberations. The Joint agencies as well as resource protection
Committee, over several years time, has agencies at the state and federal
been credited with the following levels - would jointly design and
accomplishments: oversee research studies that they
deemed critical.
Establishment of a Liaison office to
facilitate inter-industry communication This multi-party committee was formed
on potential short-therm conflicts and to determine if commercially valuable
long-term planning f ish species were dispersed by
geophysical acoustic airguns. The
Design and implementation of a vessel committee commissioned a pilot study
traffic corridor map to minimize at-sea based on the recommendations of a
interference between crew and supply specially convened neutral panel of
boats and fishing vessels experts. The study results were then
incorporated into a major study by MMS
Formulation of an areal preclusion integrating the results of the pilot
mitigation program which provides for a study.
vessel safety inspection and equipment
program, a gear technology grant Using the same model of deliberation,
program, marketing assistance and a the group reconstituted itself, added
gear repairing and staging area. new members and renamed itself the Eggs
and Larvae Committee. This Committee's
The areal preclusion program, supported goal was to determine if there were any
by both the Governor of California and effects on the eggs and larvae of
key coastal legislators is directly commercially valuable fish by the
tied to enhancing the ability of acoustic airgun signals. The Committee
commercial fisherman to seek new utilized the same approach as their
fishing grounds and markets in the predecessor committee: convening of
event that tradition fishing operations panel of experts, preparation of a
are interrupted by either short or long research design based.on the advice of
term oil activities. the panel, joint writing of an RFP,
selection and monitoring of a

157

contractor and joint issuance of the The oil industry did a survey of needs
findings of their study. among 19 companies who were asked to
rate tracts into four categories
To date, the Committee has undertaken ranging from greatest interest to least
two studies, one on anchovy eggs and i n t e r e s t . A c o a 1 i t i o n of
larvae and a second on Dungeness crab. environmentalists, which included
The results of these two field studies native Alaskans and fishermen, were
will then be utilized in a modeling asked to undertake a similar process.
study to determine if these observed Price Waterhouse, which kept the raw
effects translate into a significant data confidential, consolidated the
impact at the population level. material into a map which identified
where high priority areas overlapped
Key to the success of the Eggs and and where there were lesser degrees of
Larvae Committee has been the potential conflict.
involvement of mutually acceptable
panels of science experts at each stage At an intensive two day meeting, the
of the Committee's deliberations. The negotiators pieced together a map which
scientists selected were carefully indicated which tracts should not be
screened to ensure that they would not leased and which were appropriate but
be viewed as supporting one interest would require further negotiation of
group or another based on previous conflict areas. The group then began
contract work or reputation. The panel to work out stipulations for leasing
deliberations, which were also this latter category.
facilitated by a mediator, were viewed
a s IT n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h i n a Unfortunately, after a series of
negotiations", since the scientists follow-up meetings, several of the
were asked to develop sets of consensus participants withdrew because of
recommendations to the Committee. disagreement on some of the provisions
being negotiated. The final agreement
was not signed by al I , but the
Bering Sea Lease Sale Deliberations dissenters submitted letters indicating
where there was consensus and where
A sma 11 group of oi 1 industry there was not.
representatives and environmentalists,
who were concerned about the unending The negotiated agreement was submitted
controversies over off-shore oil as part of the public comment on the 5
development and the seeming lack of year plan for the Bering Sea and was
solutions, agreed to met in Washington, reflected in one of the three preferred
D.C. to explore approaches for alternatives in the EIS.
improving the lease sale process. This
meeting resulted in the formation of a The negotiating committee that had
steering committee. remained in tact set up an ongoing
group, The Bering Sea Resources
The committee, assisted by staff f rom Association, whose role was to work out
the Institute for Research Management the specifics on each upcoming sale.
which had served as the convenor for They were active during the first sale
the initial meeting, decided to sponsor and are expected to continue their
a conference to further discuss the efforts and respond to all the
issues that separated industry and additional sales that are currently
environmentalists but also to broaden scheduled.
the participation of groups interested
in problem-solving in the OCS arena. Neciotiated Rulemaking on Air Ouality
Based on the input from the conference, Standards for the OCS in California
the steering committee concluded that
it was preferable to jointly identify The Department of Interior and State of
priorities early on in the process thus California, in an attempt to settle
giving more predictability to both longstanding litigation on air quality
sides . Joined by some of the key rules for oil and gas operations off
interests who had participated at the California, convened a group of twenty-
conference, they decided to choose a five negotiators representing
potential lease sale area to see if approximately fifty separate interests
this approach would work as an to prepare a consensus rule. Such
alternative to lobbying in Congress. rulemakings had been convened by OSHA,
They selected the Bering Sea as their the FAA and EPA and were viewed by many
"test" case. officials as a viable alternative to
the long, protracted traditional

158

administrative process which more often propose solutions to problems in a
than not ended in litigation. manner that accommodated the needs of
each interest and to work towards a
Conceptually, the parties that would common goal - reducing the conflicts
normally play an active role during the that had been draining the time and
public comment phase on a proposed resources of the parties who faced off
federal rule would instead participate for each OCS permit application.
in a series of meetings to draft rule
provisions deemed acceptable to all the
parties in the process. During the APPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
public comment period, the negotiators
would be expected to comment favorably 1. The accomplishments of the
to the agency assuming the rule oil/fishing negotiations in Central
embodies the provisions of the California are readily replicable in
negotiated consensus document. other areas. Vessel traffic maps,
project scheduling and ongoing conflict
Because of the confidentiality resolution mechanisms can be adapted to
agreement governing the OCS Negotiated fit the individual locale in which
Rulemaking, one cannot discuss the communications are established between
substantive content of this process in these two industries.
great detail, other than to describe It is also recommended that this type
the structure of the Negotiating of effort be established early in the
Committee. process of exploring for oil and
permitting permanent facilities.
Five caucuses or bargaining groups were Responding while conflicts are
established - the Federal Caucus (DOI, occurring or after the fact is
EPA, OME, DOE AND DOJ) , The State di f f icul t and 1 ikel y to be less
Caucus (Air Board and Coastal successful.
Commission) , the Local Caucus (the
coastal counties and central California All the participants in the oil/fishing
coastal cities), Industry (represented negotiations still firmly believe that
by WOGA), and the Environmental Caucus the voluntary approach to problem
(Sierra Club, NRDC, Santa Barbara solving is mutually beneficial despite
environmentalists, Citizens for a instances in which enforcement of their
Better Environment and Coalition for voluntary system have broken down.
Clean Air). This framework was With a voluntary approach, changes can
necessary to ensure that all the key be made more readily to accommodate
groups interested in formulating the schedules, weather and ocean phenomenon
provisions of the rule were well such as El Nino. Although both sides
represented in the process. occasionally wi-sh that an agency could
step in to play the role of enforcer,
It was incumbent on each individual they both recognize that, in the
caucus to reach a consensus among its balance, the benefits of a voluntary
members as a prerequisite for system outweigh those of formal
conducting negotiations with the other government intervention. Government
interest groups. This d e 1 i c a t e support for these types of efforts,
balancing of interests, although however, is indispensable.
necessary to achieve an ultimate
consensus, made the process even more 2. The experience of the Eggs and
complex and lengthy than had been Larvae Committee has indicated the
o r i g i n a 1 1 yenvisioned. The value of multi-party involvement in
mediation/ f aci 1 itati on team often found overseeing research efforts that affect
itself assisting in seven or eight policy decisions on controversial
simultaneous negotiations - five public issues. However, unlike the
internal caucus deliberations, typical advisory committee, all the
discussions between individual caucuses members of the Eggs and Larvae
with similar interests or positions and Committee share an equal role,
then, of course, the negotiations of responsibility and vote. Although
the total group. time-consuming, their consensus
decision-making approach (unanimity on
Whether or not a consensus is all actions) is seen as critical to the
ultimately reached, the negotiated acceptability of their research
rulemaking in California has provided a products. The scientists involved on
valuable experience for all the the panels view these "scientific
participants. They were able to share negotiations" as a positive,
technical information with one another, constructive use of their expertise and

159

several have agreed to continue to deliberating with one another that
donate their time whenever requested by accommodated their "ad hoc"
the Committee or groups to have decided relationship.
to model the Committee's approach.
5. Success and failure in these
3. The Bristol Bay deliberations are alternative dispute resolution
a n example o f p r e - c o n f 1 i c t processes cannot be measured entirely
negotiations. The process that evolved on the production of a final consensus
enabled the parties to have more open document, although all the participants
communication and to discuss their real certainly would have preferred this
interests, rather than those that could outcome. With or without a consensus,
bring them the best press coverage or the participants believe that they have
gail the most public sympathy. The benefitted from the experiences. New
map/ranking exercise represents a and creative solutions to problems have
unique approach for negotiated problem- emerged in all cases; cooperative
solving that may be applied to other working relationships have been
environmental'arenas as well. developed that have continued in other
settings. Most importantly, the
The neutrals, both the facilitators and participants have gained a greater
the independent auditing firm, enabled understanding and respect for one
the participants to share valuable, another's positions and needs as
confidential and strategic information organizations that is rarely achieved
in a manner that benefitted both sides. when one battles in the legal and
Most importantly, it enabled the political arena.
parties to deal with one another with
-,respect.

The parties were able to narrow the
s i z e o f the playing field and
concentrate their efforts on those
issues and areas that were most
critical, instead of waiting until
their positions were entrenched and
resources wasted in fighting peripheral
battles.

In adapting this approach in the
future, one might consider broadening
the base of participants even further
to include the leasing authorities, and
natural resource protection agencies at
the state and federal level.

4. Each of the situations described in
'this paper involved the use of third
party neutrals to facilitate
communication, assist the parties in
developing compromise solutions and
designing conflict resolution
mechanisms that provided the
opportunity for all the participants to
share in the decision-making.

Although the participants in each of
these cases might have deliberated and
negotiated on their own, the third
parties played a valuable role in
ensuring access of all the participants
to the process and involvement in all
the decisions. Unlike in labor-
management where the parties have a
formal relationship and negotiate
routinely, the disputants in the OCS
case studies relied on the
facilitators/mediators to help them
design a mechanism for communicating and

160

THE FUTURE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR OCS STUDIES PROGRAM

Don V. Aurand

Branch of Environmental Studies
Minerals management Service
these constraints is that the Secretary of
the Interior must balance orderly energy
resource development with protection of
ABSTRACT the human, marine, and coastal environ-
ments.
For the past two years the Minerals Man-
agement Service has been evaluating the The OCSLA amendments also established the
goals and implementation of the OCS ESP, and gave it the objective of "estab-
Environmental Studies Program (ESP). lish(ing) information needed for pre-
This effort has led to the development of diction, assessment, and management of
a Long Range Study Plan, which presents impacts on the OCS and the nearshore area
a blueprint for the future of the ESP. which may be affected... 08 (43 CFR 3001.7).
This is a comprehensive evaluation of our Within the guidelines established by the
level of understanding concerning the Act, the ESP strives to:
environmental impacts of oil and gas
development on the OCS, and the role the 1.) Provide information on the status of
MMS should play in meeting future the environment upon which the prediction
environmental data requirements. it is of the impacts of OCS oil and gas develop-
clear that we will be emphasizing ment may be based.
process -oriented, interdisciplinary field
monitoring programs in the future, in 2.) Provide information on the ways and
order to more fully evaluate long-term extent that OCS development can
low-level impacts. potentially impact the human, marine,
biological, and coastal area.

3.) Ensure that information already
available or being collected under the
1. INTRODUCTION program is in a f orm that can be used in
the decisionmaking process associated with
The Minerals Management service (MMS) is a specific leasing action or with the
responsible for the leasing and super- longer term OCS minerals management
vision of offshore oil and gas operations responsibilities.
')n the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS).
The MMS is committed to obtaining, and 4.) Provide a basis for future monitoring
using, appropriate environmental informa- of OCS operations, including assessments
tion at all phases of the offshore oil and of short-term and long-term impacts
gas program. This commitment began even attributable to the OCS oil and gas pro-
before the passage of the Outer gram.
Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) amend-
ments in 1978 and remains a critical, and These general principles have always
highly visible, component of the offshore formed the basis of the ESP; however,
program. The nearly $450 million expended there have been significant changes over
since the inception of the Environmental the years in how the program has addressed
Studies Program (ESP) in 1973 is in- each of them.
dicative of the high level of commitment
of the Department of the Interior. 2. PAST ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES PROGRAM
while the ESP did begin in 1973, 5 years
before the passage of the OCSLA amend- In the early years of the ESP, between
ments, the purpose of the program is 1973 and 1978, the focus was primarily on
defined by the provisions of that legisla- baseline and monitoring studies-that were
tion. The Act, as amended, is intended to intended to address basic questions con-
expedite exploration and development of cerning resources at risk. In retrospect,
OCS minerals; it also establishes con- some of the program objectives of that
straints on these activities. One of time were naive. In 1978 large-scale

161 United States Government work not protected by copyright

baseline surveys were eliminated as being It is dif f icult to summarize the results
inappropriate and not statistically useful of the ESP during this period. In the
for interpreting potential impacts. other first years of the program (1973-1977), a
early efforts to define the laboratory and total of 137 contracts were completed. In
field toxicity of oil, characterize the the next 8 years (1978-1985) 546
biological resources at risk, and work on contracts, four times the number for the
physical oceanography and modeling were first 5 years, were finished. In both
more successful and made a substantial cases the number of actual documents
contribution to the scientific literature. received was even greater, since many
This decision was influenced by a U.S. contracts produced multiple reports. This
General Accounting office (U.S. GAO) re- paper will highlight some of the more
view of the program (1) and by the results significant milestones that were achieved
of a National Research Council (NRC) study in these years. of course, the Department
of the existing program's scientific merit of the Interior was not the only source of
(2)_ Subsequent to the NRC review, a information related to oil and gas impacts
program management document was prepared in the marine environment during this
that documented the restructuring of the period. This was a period of intense
ESP and required a clear relationship research activity worldwide, at least
between a study and OCS issues and partially stimulated by the publication of
decisions (3) . That guidance document a major review of the impacts of petro-
continues to be in effect today, although leum-related activities in the marine
it is presently under review to see if it environment by the NRC in 1975 (4), which
requires updating. confirmed the need for additional data on
many issues.
In the succeeding years, the ESP supported
a broad range of studies oriented towards By 1980, the NRC concluded that many of
refining our understanding of the the issues raised in their 1975 report
potential impacts of operational dis- needed reevaluation, and so the ocean
charges from both exploration and produc- Science Board of the NRC began work on an
tion platforms as well as the consequences update. For the next 4 years they worked
of oil spills. Because of the high in- to review and compile the relevant data,
terest in exploring the OCS off Alaska in and in 1985, they published their results
the mid-1970s, MMS, in cooperation with (5). Although not all of the issues
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric raised in 1975 have been solved, they did
Administration (NOAA) , undertook a major conclude that considerable progress had
effort to evaluate the ecological and been made. This 700-page report is the
social impacts of such development. A best available compilation of information
significant effort was also supported in on this subject currently available, and
the North Atlantic in response to concerns includes most of the research sponsored by
over the. proposed exploration of the the Department of the Interior through
Georges Bank area. Efforts in the Pacific 1983.
and the Gulf of Mexico, while significant,
were not as extensive during this period. A second review, undertaken somewhat later
and sponsored by a number of Federal
From 1978 through 1985, the program's agencies, focused on the long-term effects
content was fairly consistent. Individual of oil and gas activities in the marine
studies varied from year to year and environment (6) . This document outlines
regional emphases changed, but there was the authors' approach to what they felt
little programmatic restructuring. There were the remaining scientific issues and
was a considerable emphasis on field attempts to prioritize them in terms of
studies in physical oceanography and feasibility as well as importance. Both
marine biology to characterize the ecolog- the NRC report (5) and that by Boesch and
ical resources at risk in the various Rabalais (6), along with our conclusions
planning areas and to provide the data based on the results of the ESP, are the
necessary for circulation modeling, which key elements in the development of our
also received considerable support. Tox- future studies program. Based on these
icity studies were undertaken, primarily sources, what do we feel has been learned
to define lethal effects of both petroleum over the years?
compounds and operational discharges from
drilling rigs or production platforms. First, the impacts of operation of an oil
monitoring programs were developed or and gas platform or drilling rig on the
initiated by all of our regional offices OCS are localized and, except in areas
to determine the extent of operational where there are extreme concentrations of
impacts. Endangered species, marine activity, are unlikely to have regional
mammals and seabirds also received con- significance. The impacts in the
siderable attention. In Alaska, social immediate vicinity may be locally im-
and economic studies were also a portant, depending on hydrographic
significant part of our program. conditions and the presence or absence of

162

sensitive biological communities, but have become more critical as research
usually are not a major problem. General topics, as documented by both the NRC (5)
conclusions concerning impacts can be and Boesch and Rabalais (6).
extrapolated from appropriate studies to
similar situations in other geographic 3. FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR THE
areas. This has been demonstrated on ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES PROGRAM
several occasions by field monitoring
programs, including those sponsored by MMS By 1985, the MMS had concluded that it
for exploratory drilling on the Georges would be appropriate to reevaluate the
Bank (North Atlantic) and on the mid- focus of the ESP. As part of that evalua-
Atlantic shelf. It has also been tion, the NRC was asked to review the ESP
supported by laboratory (and field) for a second time and to offer advice on
toxicity experiments, especially for oper- the future direction of the program, as
ational discharges of muds and cuttings, well as its progress to date. That
as summarized by the NRC (7). Our process is now ongoing and the first por-
research suggests, and a recent evaluation tion of their review, involving the ESP
by a panel of scientists and managers physical oceanography program, should be
assembled by the NOAA confirms, that oper- available in the fall of 1988. The entire
ational discharges from offshore oil and project will not be completed until late
gas facilities are, at worst, a low to 1989. In addition to requesting the NRC
moderate pollution problem (8). Other review, MMS felt it was appropriate to try
types of operational impacts, such as to develop an integrated, long-range man-
space-use conflicts with fisherman, may be agement plan for the ESP.
locally significant, but have usually
proven to be resolvable. Intermittently, MMS has compiled 3 to 5
year projections of study needs, primarily
Issues related to oil spills from for internal management us'e. While these
facilities on the U.S. OCS are a much more products have been referred to as "plans"
significant and intractable concern. they were not true management documents
While such events are extremely rare, the because they were not prepared in response
impacts of oil spills are serious and to preestablished goals and objectives,
disruptive to the environment; however, and they were not integrated on a
most temperate habitats recover from spill programmatic basis. When the planning for
events within several years. Even in the Long-Range Study Plan began in 1985,
arctic and tropical areas, or in temperate it was envisioned as a link between the
areas of 'special sensitivity such as ESP, from a national perspective, and the
marshes or estuaries, most, if not all, anticipated events in a specific 5-year
oil spill impacts appear reversible and period.
similar in impact and magnitude to natural
disasters. Again, location and climate Early in this effort it became obvious
play a significant role in determining that the long lead time for planning en-
severity. The NRC report (5) contains an vironmental studies, along with the time
excellent summary of the effects of necessary to complete many field studies,
several major oil spill events, which did not lend itself to a five-year
supports these general conclusions. Eval- planning window. Instead, the MMS chose
uation of oil spill impacts is a key en- to try to focus on likely events, both
vironmental issue where ESP data can help pre- and postlease, for the next 10 years,
define the risks and consequences more as best as they can be defined, to deter-
clearly. Unfortunately, research efforts mine studies needs. These needs must be
are hindered by the fact that oil spills considered in the context of existing
are both probabilistic and rare, which information, and so it was also decided
makes them difficult to study. The use of that the document would present an
planned controlled spills, at least on the analysis of the current status of
U.S. OCS, is not feasible at this time. knowledge for each area of proposed
Even if additional studies are conducted, studies. The MMS could then concentrate
it is clear that data alone will not re- on issues of high priority that were amen-
solve the issue of what constitutes an able to resolution by the scientific
acceptable environmental risk. method and areas where additional data
would clearly be beneficial to all parties
while most researchers agree that acute concerned with the environmental effects
impacts from operational discharges from of oil and gas development. At present,
OCS oil and gas facilities are minor or we intend to review and update the Long-
resolvable, there is less certainty con- Range Studies Plan in coordination with
cerning chronic, sublethal effects. Such the preparation of each new 5-year Leasing
impacts are hard to detect and quantify, Program.
and were not a high priority in the early
days of the ESP when the acute impacts
were not well defined. Now, these issues

163

The second draft of this document is now studies will be undertaken in other areas
in internal MMS review. We expect to as appropriate, Emphasis will be placed
release it for public comment in the late, on process-oriented studies that will
fall of 1988. Based on the public com- allow explanation of the mechanisms at
ments, a final plan will be issued. We do work to cause observed impacts.
not.intend for this plan to offer detailed
descriptions of all anticipated studies. 4.) Studies in all areas will be phased
Instead, we are focusing on information to provide information at the appropriate
"goals" and "objectives". In the context point in the decisionmaking process.
of this effort a "goal" is defined as the. While MMS is committed to providing
.ultimate accomplishment to be achieved, appropriate environmental studies, we must
while an "objective" is an intermediate also operate within a restricted budget.
point to be achieved to satisfy the Each phase of the oil and gas program,
intended goal. This information will then culminating in production activities, has
direct the annual planning effort, during unique information needs and offers unique
which individual studies are identified study opportunities. For example, it is
and prioritized for funding. unreasonable to begin any type of
monitoring activity in an area prior to
Based on our preliminary draft, existing determining if producible hydrocarbons are
program guidance, and on the information present and where they are located.
contained in NRC (5) and Boesch and Critics of the ESP have, on occasion,
Rabalais (6), it is possible to summarize requested that detailed, site-specific in-
some of the expected future trends for the formation be developed prior to a lease
ESP. These may undergo some modifica- sale. This is impractical to do on an
tions, based on the results of the Long- areawide basis, given the localized.
Range Study Plan review and the results of nature of the potential impacts. While it
the ongoing NRC,review, but they represent is relatively common for questions related
an accurate encapsulation of the future to operational impacts to arise during the
ESP. prelease evaluation process, all such
issues cannot be resolved at that time.
1.) The ESP will continue to shift In addition, much of the available data
towards the collection of environmental from other regions is useful in
information for postlease decisions, interpreting potential impacts. Appropri-
rather than for prelease analyses. In ate prelease studies emphasize more gener-
frontier areas where environmental infor- alized characterization, while more site
mation is scarce and where the potential specific studies are appropriate during
for oil and gas production and development exploration, development, and production.
exists, the MMS will continue the
collection of descriptive information 5.) MMS will try to support studies to
specifically for use in the prelease evaluate oil spill impacts whenever the
process. However, there are lease areas circumstances suggest that a study would
where there exists an adequate be appropriate, and our resources are
environmental database on which prelease sufficient to cover the costs. Since
decisions have been made in the past and opportunities for this type of study occur
can be made in the future. In these areas infrequently, and are not predictable,
additional descriptive studies useful only each situation will be evaluated on its
for refining the baseline data for pre- own merits.
lease decisions will not be supported.
6.) Efforts to improve data accessibility
2.) As sales are held and exploration and/or utility -- including synthesis
begins in various planning areas, the ESP reports, state-of-the-art summaries and
will focus on areas of known oil and gas technical position papers -- will have a
resources. In areas where the potential high priority.
for oil and gas development is low or
nonexistent, no, or only limited, environ- Currently, one of the greatest concerns of
mental studies will be undertaken. the MMS is our inability to effectively
communicate the results of the ESP (as
3.) In areas of oil and gas development well as other relevant research) to con-
and production, studies will be needed to cerned citizens and non-MMS decision-
monitor the possible effects of oil and makers. Many of the concerns raised about
gas activities on the environment of the OCS oil and gas activities are overstated,
area. Studies will concentrate on especially when considered in the context
evaluating the long-term, low-level cumu- of other activities on the OCS. Simply
lative impacts of oil and gas development collecting further scientific data cannot
on the environment. A long-term resolve disputes involving value judg-
monitoring program is already underway in ments. MMS can improve the process, how-
the Pacific Region, and -one is being ever, by including information dis-
planned in the Gulf of Mexico. Similar semination and management as a priority

164

within the ESP. While having well- shop. June 9-11, 1987. Easton, Maryland.
designed, focused studies with testable U.S. Department of Commerce. Washington,
hypotheses is critical for the scientific D.C. 1987. 53 p. + appendices.
community, it is equally important that we
develop mechanisms to ensure that the
information is used effectively. In the
absence of effective communication, even
the best studies are not fulfilling the
goals of the ESP.

This paper contains only a brief summary
of where the ESP is today and where it
will be directed in the future. The final
Long-Range Study Plan will provide much
more detail. In addition, by incorpo-
rating the public's comments, as well as
summarizing our experience to date, the
MMS will create a mechanism that should
improve our ability to provide information
in support of the effective management of
our mineral resources on the OCS.

4. REFERENCES

I.) U.S. General Accounting Office.
Benefits derived from the Outer Con-
tinental Shelf Environmental Studies
Program are questionable. CED-78-83.
Washington, D.C. 1978. 25 p.

2.) National Research Council. OCS Oil
and Gas: An assessment of the Department
of the Interior Environmental Studies
Program. National Academy of Sciences
Press. Washington, D.C. 1978. 109 p.

3.) U.S. Bureau of Land Management.
Study design for resource management
decisions: OCS oil and gas development and
the environment. Department of the
Interior. Washington, D.C. 1978.

4.) National Research Council. Petroleum
in the marine environment. National
Academy of Sciences Press. Washington,
D.C. 1975. 107 p.

5.) National Research Council. oil in
the sea: Inputs, fates, and effects.
National Academy of Sciences Press.
Washington, D.C. 1985. 601 p.

6.) Boesch, D. and N. Rabalais (eds.)
Long-term environmental effects of off-
shore oil and gas development. Elsevier
Applied Science. New York, NY. 1987.
708 p.

7.) National Research Council. Drilling
discharges in the marine environment.
National Academy of Sciences Press.
Washington, D.C. 1983. 180 p.

8.) U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Proceedings National
Marine Pollution Problems and Needs Work-

165

AIR QUALITY ISSUES, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES, AND CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

IN THE PACIFIC OCS REGION

Thomas Chico

Minerals Management Service, Pacific OCS Region
1340 Wes t Sixth Street
Los Angeles, California 90017

ABSTRACT 2. AIR QUALITY ISSUES

Past and current air quality study needs were The reason for conducting an air quality study is
driven by the following issues: (1) the to satisfy the needs of the decisionmaker for
modeling requirements of the.Department of the appropriate information. An air quality study
Interior's air quality rule (30 CFR 250,45), and must be necessary for or contribute to an OCS
(2) the need to accurately assess the potential leasing or permitting decision. Past and current
effects of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and air quality study needs were driven by the
gas development on onshore nonattainment areas. following issues:

The early studies sponsored by the Minerals 0 the modeling requirements of the Department
Management Service were directed toward of the Interior's (001) air quality rule
developing the necessary modeling tools for (30 CFR 250.45), and
impact assessment, while recent study efforts
have been directed at understanding the OCS a, the need to accurately assess the potential
contribution to onshore air quality. An overview effects of OCS development on onshore
of several pertinent studies is presented. nonattainment areas.
Selected results of the Joint Interagency
Modeling Study are discussed with emphasis on the Significant Environmental Studies Program funds
cumulative effects of OCS oil and gas activities were also spent estimating potential air quality
on onshore ozone air quality. impacts from Pacific OCS Region lease sales. The
results of these studies (or assessments) are not
discussed here since they do not advance the
understanding of air quality, but merely provide
1. INTRODUCTION information regarding specific lease sales.

The Minerals Management Service (MMS), by virtue
of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act and the a. Air Qua7ity Node7ing Requirements of
Submerged Lands Act, and pursuant to delegation 30 CFR 250.45
by the Secretary of the Interior, has
jurisdiction over the Outer Continental Shelf To insure that onshore air quality is not
(OCS) submerged lands. Since the MMS is the significantly affected by OCS oil and gas
managing agency for these submerged Federal development, the 001 established an air quality
lands, it has certain regulatory responsibilities regulatory program as set forth in 30 CFR 250.45.
over offshore oil and gas development activities The program is summarized in figure 1 and is
to balance energy resource development with basically a three-step process. The first two
protection of the human, marine, and coastal steps include a set of screening procedures to
environments. One of these responsibilities is determine whether a part Icular OCS facility could
regulating oil and gas activities so that they do significantly affect the onshore air quality of
not significantly affect onshore air quality. an adjacent State. The third step stipulates the
air quality mitigation required under specific
Air quality issues in the Pacific OCS are impact conditions and the attainment status of
presented in Section 2. Studies addressing these the impacted area. Modeling is an important part
issues are discussed briefly in Section 3. The of steps two and three. An air quality modeling
paper concludes with a discussion of the tool for estimating impacts from offshore sources
cumulative effects of OCS oil and gas devel.opment did not exist when 30 CFR 250.45 became
on air quality in one area of the Pacific Region effective, so one of the first air quality study
as determined by a photochemical modeling study. goals was to develop a model capable of
simulating pollutant dispersion overwater.

466 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Estimate Calculate J. Y Exempt from
project ------ > emission iss s Step I
exan tion rther review
emissions amount (E) E =r1ux=1 Z=Me w
No

Perform No Voc Yes
air quality emissions Step 2
modeling

Exempt from No Exceeds
further review signiricence
level I

Yes

Apply SACT and
model S02 and Y Attainment No Fully 0 Attainment Step 3
Bros mitigate Wes ?
TSP impacts

Yes

xc Mitigate further to
Exempt from NO max. allowable Yes prevent excesdance Apply
further review ncresse of max. allowable BACT
increase

Figure 1. Department of the Interior Air Quality Regulatory Scheme.

MMS outlined a three-step process to meet this scheduled for the SCPA by 1992, which could
goal. I n 1980, temporary guideline models were potentially result in nine additional platforms
adopted in the interim. Then, MMS sponsored two in the Planning Area.
coastal tracer experiments over the period 1980
to 1982 to better understand the dispersion Most of the onshore coastal areas in southern
conditions offshore and near the shoreline. By California do not meet the National Ambient Air
1985, the data from the tracer studies had been Quality Standard (NAAQS) for ozone and are thus
used to develop and evaluate an overwater classified as nonattainment for this pollutant
dispersion model. The tracer studies and the (40 CFR 81.305). The 1977 Amendments to the
Todel developed from those studies are discussed Clean Air Act require that nonattainment areas
in more detail in Section 3. take the steps necessary to comply in a timely
fashion with the NAAQS. These steps include
applying additional controls on existing
b . Effect of OCS Deve7opment on Onshore pollutant sources and requiring more stringent
Nonattainment Areas controls on future sources.

The Southern California Planning Area (SCPA) Because most of the Pacific OCS oil and gas
extends from the Monterey and San Luis Obsipo activity has occurred and is likely to continue
County line southward to the U.S. and Mexico in the SCPA, its proximity to onshore
border. There are 21 existing platforms and 6 nonattainment areas makes air emissions from
proposed platforms in the SCPA. Additionally, in current operations and future OCS development a
J
Ye
ec
I o nt 'x
? fu

No Y
es

the 5-Year Leasing Plan' two lease sales are. sensitive and controversial issue. Recently, the

167

MMS has funded several studies to estimate the shoreline. Using the data collected from the
cumulative contribution of the OCS to onshore MMS-funded tracer experiments, it was shown that
ozone concentrations; these studies are discussed the OCD model was superior to the interim MMS
in the next section and the results of one of guideline model4. On March 28, 1985, the model
those studies are presented in Section 4. was approved by the MMS for estimating inert air
pollutant impacts from OCS facilities (50 FR
12248), and recently OCD was accepted by the EPA
3. STUDIES RESULTING FROM AIR QUALITY ISSUES as a preferred model (53 FR 392).

Studies designed to address the issues discussed
previously are presented in this section. The b. Joint Interagency Modeling Study (JIMS)
early studies sponsored by the MMS were directed
toward developing the necessary modeling tools In the early 1980's, Santa Barbara County
for impact assessment, while recent study efforts predicted it would meet the federal 1-hour ozone
have been directed at understanding the standard by 1987 in time to meet the Clean Air
cumulative effects of OCS oil and gas activities Act requirements for attainment. However, the
on onshore air quality. County's projections for county-wide growth and
future OCS oil and gas activity were
underestimated and it became apparent that Santa
a . Tracer Studies and the Development of the OCD Barbara County would not meet the federal ozone
Model standard by 1987. The Joint Interagency Modeling
Study (JIMS) was conceived in 1984 for the
.In the early 1980's, the MMS funded two tracer purpose of correcting the deficiencies in the
experiments in southern California. The first growth projections and OCS activity projections
experiment occurred in September 1980 and January and assessing "the cumulative impacts to the
1981 in the coastal area between the cities of California onshore ozone concentrations in the
Ventura and Oxnard and was performed by Santa Barbara Channel area from present and
6
AeroVironment Inc. and the Naval Postgraduate future OCS development" . Study participants
Sch 0012. The second experiment was performed by included: EPA, Region IX; MMS; California Air
SRI International and the Naval Postgraduate Resources Board (CARB); and the Counties of Santa
School and took place along the coast south of Barbara and Ventura. The JIMS consisted of two
San Luis Obispo in December 1981 and June 19823. phases: (1) develop the data base necessary for
The tracer experiments were designed to (1) photochemical modeling and perform the model
evaluate the performance of dispersion models evaluation; and (2) apply the photochemical model
adopted by the MMS on an interim basis, (2) to assess the impacts from future OCS
develop and evaluate a dispersion model for development.
offshore pollutant sources, and (3) expand the
understanding of overwater dispersion. The first phase collected or generated the
necessary topographic, meteorological, air
The experimental design of these experiments was quality, and emissions data for three two-day
as follows. An inert tracer gas (sulfur modeling periods in September 1980 (11-12, 25-26,
hexaflouride 'SF@) was released at a known rate and 28-29). Model evaluation was then performed
offshore and its concentrations measured for the three two-day periods. September 25-26,
downstream. The sampling pattern included fixed 1980 was chosen for the future impact assessment
ground-level samplers along the coast and inland for meteorological reasons and because its
6
and mobile samplers offshore along the coast and emission inventory was presumed more accurate
inland. The mobile samplers included vans and The MMS funded future year impact assessments for
fixed-wing aircraft. The vans performed the two periods not considered under jIMS7.
continuous ground-level sampling inland and the Selected JIMS results. are discussed in Section
aircraft performed continuous sampling aloft at 4.
multiple levels. The tracer concentration data
collected by the fixed ground-level samplers and
the vans were used to describe the horizontal c. South Central Coast Cooperative Aerometric
dispersion of the gas, and the aircraft-collected Monitoring Program (SCCCAMP)
data were used to describe the vertical
dispersion. Supporting meteorological One concern of the participants in the JIMS was
measurements were made offshore and inland, near that the models tended to substantially
the surface, and aloft. underestimate maximum ozone concentration at
inland stations 6. The South Central Coast
The most important result of the tracer studies Cooperative Aerometric Monitoring Program
was the development of the Offshore and Coastal (SCCCAMP) is an attempt to improve upon the
Dispersion (OCD) model. It was built upon the photochemical performance noted by past modeling
framework of an existing U.S. Environmental studies, such as the JIMS.
Protection Agency (EPA) guideline model. OCO
incorporates overwater transport and dispersion The SCCCAMP is a multiphased program whose
and considers plume fumigation* near the overall purpose is to "develop a means for
assessing the aggregate impact of offshore
Fumigation is the rapid vertical mixing to petroleum industry sources on onshore ozone and
ground level of an elevated pollutant layer. N02 concentrations"9. The SCCCAMP, like the JIMS

168

is a cooperative effort. The participants Table I
include all the agencies involved with the JIMS Comparison of 1990 Emissions by Source Categorys
plus industry through representatives of the
Western Oil and Gas Association.
Emissions (tons/yr)
To date, the following has been accomplished Source category
under the Program. Since it is a cooperative VOC NO,
effort, communication among Federal, State, and
local regulatory agencies and industry has
improved. A major field experiment was conducted Fuel combustion 1.88 28.38
in the Santa Barbara Channel area from September Waste burning 0.44 0.54
3rd to October 7th, 198510 for the two-fold Solvent use 20.94 0.00
purpose of: (1) improving our understanding of Petroleum process, 29.78 0.05
the atmospheric processes that lead to high storage, & transfer
onshore ozone concentrations and (2) collecting a Industrial processes 0.62 1.33
comprehensive meteorological and air quality Misc. processes 42.92 4.73
database to improve the performance of existing On-road vehicles 43.73 72.39
photochemical models. Through MMS funding, the Other mobile 13.97 14.71
SCCCAMP 1985 field data have been archived and Natural seeps 40.48 0.00
are publicly availableii. The field data are Channel shipping 1.03 32.15
currently being analyzed by Sigma Research OCS and related sources 3.37 15.41
Corporation and their major subcontractor Systems Tideland platforms 0.56 7.42
Applications, Inc. under an MMS contract; final Unspecified sources 0.04 0.03
reports will be available by the end of 1988.
Santa Barbara County and the CARB are using the Total 199.74 177.13
SCCCAMP 1985 data archive for the photochemical
modeling being performed to support the County's
Air Quality Attainment Plan update. The MMS
recently funded a study to evaluate an existing
photochemical model using the data archive. The from the latter to give the series of isopleth
data archive will be used to support future OCS maps in figure 2. OCS contributions greater than
leasing and permitting decisions. 6 parts per billion (ppb) have been shaded in the
figure. The Federal 1-hour ozone standard is 120
parts per billion (ppb). Therefore, the
4. CUMULATIVE EFFECTS OF OCS OIL AND GAS highlighted area represents incremental impacts
ACTIVITIES ON ONSHORE AIR QUALITY slightly greater than 5 percent of the standard.

In this section, the cumulative effects of OCS The area of greatest impact begins in the center
activities on onshore ozone air quality in the of the Santa Barbara Channel (figure 2a) and
Santa Barbara Channel area for 1990 are gradually migrates northeastward until it reaches
summarized from Haney et a16. The impacts the coast south of Goleta at 2 p.m. (figure 2b).
represent those that might occur in a particular The wind observationse show that the peak impact
meteorological situation. Also, the 2-day period area is due to existing and proposed development
September 25-26, 1980 was chosen for the future in the Santa Ynez Unit (SYU). The peak impact
impact assessment. area then drifts eastward (figures 2c and 2d) for
the rest of the time shown. Peak incremental
Table I compares the projected NO., (nitrogen impacts due to OCS oil and gas activities reach
oxides) and VOC (volatile organic compounds) their maximum value of 12 ppb between 2 p.m. and
emissions by source category for 1990. NOx and 4 p.m. and occur just off the coast, south of
VOC emissions are shown since those compounds are Santa Barbara (figure 2c). This incremental
the primary precursors to the formation of ozone. impact represents approximately 10 percent of the
OCS activities account for 9 percent and 2 Federal standard. The area highlighted (> 6 ppb)
percent of the basinwide NO, and VOC emissionS7 occurs in only a small portion of the modeling
respectively. Contrast this contribution to that domain and the remainder of the region is largely
of on road vehicles, which account for 41 percent unaffected by OCS activities' with incremental
and 22 percent of the basinwide NO, and VOC impacts less than 2 ppb.
emissions, respectively. OCS oil and gas
activities are not even the primary NO x and VOC Several events have reduced the magnitude of the
emission source in Federal waters; channel OCS incremental ozone impacts shown in figure 2.
shipping is the primary source of NO x and natural The SYU Project has changed substantially since
seeps are the principal source of VOC in the OCS. the completion of the JIMS. As a result of these
changes, emissions from that project have been
The OCS contribution to the 1990 ozone reduced significantly (see table 2). For
concentrations are shown by the series of example, NO, emissions, a precursor to ozone
isopleth plots given in figure 2. The plots were formation, have been reduced by over 70 percent.
developed by first running the photochemical
model excluding OCS sources. Then OCS emissions DOI is also proposing a new, more stringent
are added to the inventory and the model executed regulatory program for OCS facilities adjacent to
again. The results of the former are subtracted the State of California. A proposed notice of

169

Santa Barbara and Santa Barbara and
Ven tura Counties 2 Ventura Counties
2

6
2 2

Cam

Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

a) Between 11 a.m. and 12 p.m. c) Between 3 p.m. and 4 p.m.

C) Santa Barbara and Santa Barbara and
Ventura Counties Ventura Counties

6
6
-2 2

Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean

Between 1,p.m. and 2 p.m. d) Between 7 p.m. and 8 p.m.
2 6,

Figure 2. Incremental impacts (ppb) for September 25th using 1990 emission
estimates (modified from Haney et al.8). Shaded area indicates
impacts greater than 6 ppb.

Table 2 4. Hanna, S. R., L. L. Schulman, R. J. Paine,
Changes in NOX Emissions Resultin from and J. E. Pleim. "Development and
Changes in the SYU ProjeCt12% Evaluation of the Offshore and Coastal
Dispersion Model," JAPCA 35: 1039. 1985.

NO, emissions (tons/yr) 5. Hadd, T. L. Interagency agreement between
the EPA and MMS dated September 26, 1984.
1990 1995
6. Tesche, T. W., J. L. Haney, D. R. Souten, L.
R. Chinkin, H. Hogo, and M. C. Didik.
Original project (as 2263 1302 "Evaluation of Photochemical Models for Use
modeled in the JIMS) in the South Central Coast Air Basin --
Volume I," SAI Report No. SYSAPP-85/099.
Approved project (1988) 595 217 Prepared for the EPA Region IX by Systems
Applications, Inc., San Rafael, CA 94903.
1985.

7. Haney, J. L., D. R. Souten, and L. R.
rulemaking was published this past summer. Chinkin. "Evaluation of the Air Quality
Important aspects of the proposed rule that will Changes Due to Petroleum Resource Development
reduce existing and future OCS emissions are as in the California South Central Coast Outer
follows. Continental Shelf Area," SAI Report No.
SYSAPP-87/080. Prepared for the MMS by
a Best Available Control Technology is Systems Applications, Inc., San Rafael, CA
required of all new facilities regardless 94903. 1987.
of their pollutant burden. 8. Haney, J. -L., D. R. Souten, and L. R.
0 Existing OCS facilities will be subject to Chinkin. "Application of the PARIS Model for
retrofitting Reasonably Available Control 1990 and 1995 in the California South Central
Technology within 3 years of the effective Coast Air Basin," SAI Report No.
date of the new rule. SYSAPP-85/064. Prepared for the EPA Region
IX by Systems Applications, Inc., San Rafael,
0 The number of exploration vessels operating CA 94903. 1986.
at any one time is limited and the air
emissions from those vessels are limited. 9. Dabberdt, W. F., W. Viezee, and K. C. Nitz.
"SCCCAMP Field Study Design, Volume 1:
The MMS is committed to reducing air emissions Monitoring Network." Prepared for the WOGA
from its facilities on the California OCS as by SRI International, Menlo Park, CA 94025.
evidenced by its proposed new, more stringent air 1985.
quality rule. In addition, the Technology
Assessment and Research Branch is funding a study 10. Dabberdt, W. F. and W. Viezee. "South
that is compiling and ultimately testing- Central Coast Cooperative Aerometric
promising NOx control technologies. The end Monitoring Program (SCCCAMP),"' B01. Amer.
product of this research will be a list of proven Meteor. Soc. 68: 1098. 1987.
NO. control equipment for consideration on future
OCS facilities. 11. Endlich, R. M., A. D. Valdes, and W. Viezee.
"User's Guide to the Data Archive for the
South Central Coast Cooperative Aearometric
5. REFERENCES Monitoring Program," MMS Report No. 87-0088.
Prepared for the MMS by SRI International,
1. MMS. "Proposed 5-Year Outer Continental Menlo Park, CA 94025. 1987.
Shelf Oil and Gas Leasing Program Mid-1987 to
Mid-1992 Final Environmental. :. Impact 12. Saxena, P., W. R. Oliver, L. R. Chinkin, and
Statement." MMS Document No. 86-0127. 1987. B .S. Austin. "Emission Projections for the
OCS Platforms and Related Sources," SAI
2. Zannetti, P.D., D.M. Wilbur, and R.A. Baxter. Report No. SYSAPP-85/159. Prepared for the
"Southern California Offshore Air Quality MMS by Systems Applications, Inc., San
Model Validation Study," Contract No. Rafael, CA 94903. 1985.
AA851-CTO-56. Prepared for the MMS by
AeroVironment Inc., Monrovia, CA 91016. 13. Fedak, M. Written correspondence of August
1981. 18, 1987 from Exxon to Mr. Thomas W. Dunaway
of MMS.
3. Dabberdt, W.F., W.B. Johnson, R. Brodzinsky,
and R.E. Ruff. "Central California Coastal
Air Quality Model Validation Study: Data,
Analysis and Model Evaluation," SRI Final
Report 3868, Contract No. 14-12-001-29114.
Prepared for the MMS by SRI International,
Menlo Park, CA 94025. i984.

171

GEORGES BANK MONITORING PROGRAM:

A SUMMARY

Robert E. Miller, Ph.D.

Minerals Mangement Service

Atlantic Region OCS, Vienna, Virginia

through the drill site location, and
Transect III was located downcurrent
from the drilling location. Other
regional stations (see figure) were
located at sites of possible deposition
of drill cuttings. These sites included
the heads of Lydonia and Oceanographer
ABSTRACT Canyons (stations 7 and 9), the shelf-
slope break (station 8), the Gulf of
The Georges Bank Monitoring Program was Maine (station 14), the top of the Bank
designed to determine both near- and in shallow water (station 15), and the
far-field environmental impacts from Mud Patch (station 13). Station 7 was
exploration wells. The results of this moved from the side of the Lyondia Canyon
study indicated that no significant to the Axis (7A), a second station 14A
changes in the benthic infaunal was moved to an area of finer grained
community structure could be attributed sediment (14A), as --shown in the
to the eight exploration wells drilled figure 1. Two well sites were selected
on the Georges Bank. for near-field monitoring of drilling
discharges on the benthic environment,
Shell 410 and Mobil 312. An array of 29
stations was located in a radial pattern
INTRODUCTION around regional station 5, the site of
the Mobil 312 exploration well, as shown
In 1981, in response to the concerns in the figure. One station was located
about the exploration program on the within 200 m of the drill site and two
Georges Bank, a Biological Task Force was stations were located approximately 2 km
established by the Federal Government. upcurrent and downcurrent, respectively.
Th'a purpose of the Task Force, was to Additional sites were located at 0.2,
recommend to the Supervisor of oil and 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 km from the rig site.
Gas Operations, the design of an Nineteen of the stations were designated
environmental monitoring program that as primary locations, and all samples
would provide early warning of adverse from these stations were analyzed. The
effects of oil and gas exploration on the remaining 10 stations were designated as
Georges Bank environment secondary stations from which all samples
collected were archived. All the
Program Design stations were sampled four times per year
on a seasonal basis for 3 years. At each
Near- and far-field environmental impacts station, six replicate 0.04 M2 biology
of petroleum exploration activities were samples and three replicate 0.1 M2
considered in the design of the Georges chemistry samples of undisturbed bottom
Bank Monitoring Program. Three transects sediments were collected with Van Veen
were located in a north-south direction grabs. Subeamples of the biology grabs
perpendicular to local depth profiles at were taken for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
approximately 60-, 80-, and 100-meter (CHN), and sediment grain size analysis;
water depths. The net water movement the remainder was washed through 0.3 mm
over the southern flank of the Bank at screens and preserved for infauna
all depths is toward the southwest. The analysis. Still photographs of the
eastern transect (1) was located in an bottom were taken at each station to
upeurrent position relative to the document microtopography and epifaunal
drilling activities and represents a densities and in an attempt to detect
reference transact. Transect II passed possible accumulations of drilling mud
and cuttings. Dredge and trawl samples

172 United States Government work not protected by copyright

were collected at certain regional and Over the course of the 3 years of the
site-specific stations to obtain fish and Monitoring Program, a 10-20 percent by
mollusc (ocean quahog Arctica and weight increase occurred in the less than
islandica) samples for chemical analysis. 0.125 mm fine fraction at the canyon head
These samples were used to obtain stations (station 7A and 9), at the Mud
representative specimens of epifauna and Patch stations (stations 13 and 13A), and
demersal fish for a voucher collection at station 16 near rig site Block 410
used in identifying species observed in (see figure). Seasonal trends in
bottom photographs. Measurements of sediment grain-size distribution show the
salinity, temperature, and dissolved percentage of the course fraction
oxygen in surface and bottom water were increases during the winter months and
taken at all regional stations decreases during the summer. Such
seasonal patterns are most likely the
Changes made to the study were to add (1) result of storm-induced resuspension and
a detailed analysis of the size-class transport of the fine-grained sediment
structure of populations of selected during winter months. Still photographs
species at certain stations (life history of the bottom, taken at most stations on
task); (2) a study to determine the most cruises, showed that stations at
linkage of benthic infaunal production to similar depths exhibited similar patterns
demersal fish populations (benthic of microtopography and sediment type. At
production and fish feeding task); and many stations, primarily the deeper ones,
(3) analysis of infaunal samples in the spring and summer, sediments were
collected at three U.S. Geological Survey smooth with a uniform coverage of
stations on Georges Bank prior to detritus. However, during the winter the
commencement of drilling (Benthic infauna detritus was absent and the bottom showed
at long-term mooring sites task). ripple marking and scouring suggesting a
seasonal change in bottom
Field and Analytical Methods micromorphology 1.
The field and analytical methods used in Bothner et al. (1984) 2 reported a change
the Georges Bank Monitoring Program are in the concentration of barium in the
described in detail by Maciolek-Blake et upper 2 cm of bulk sediments from 32 to
al. (1985) 1, Bothner et al. (1984) 2, 183 ppm between the first predrilling and
Payne et al. (1985) 3, Phillips et al. sixth postdrilling cruises in the
(1987) 4 ,and Neff et al. (1988, in monitoring of the drill rig at Block 410.
press) 5. It is significant to note that a second
Drscussrom increase in the barium concentration
occurred long after the drilling
Sediments operation ceased. This concentration
was, however, within the range of
predrilling concentration of 28-300 ppm
on the southern flank of Georges Banks measured at other regional stations. No
the surface sediments are predominantly drilling-related changes in the
quartz sands with minor amounts of concentrations of chromium or of the 11
gravel, pelecypod shell, and echinoderm other metals (Ra, Al, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg,
test fragments, silt, and clay. The Mn, Ni, Pb, V, Zn) were observed in bulk
sands are noncohesive, medium to fine sediments at any of locations including
grained, rounded to subangular in shape, station 5-1 located 200 m west of the rig
and translucent to light brown (iron on Block 312.
oxide coated). Those areas with
unusually high silt and clay content, 25- Aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations were
90 percent, include the head of Lydonia de'termined for regional stations 2, 7a,
Canyon (station 7A), the region west of and 13 as well as for near-rig stations
the Bank known as the Mud Patch (stations 5-1, 5-18, and 5-28 4. No seasonal
,13 and 13A), and the area north of trends or changes in the total aromatic
Georges Bank in the southern Gulf of equivalent concentrations due to drilling
Maine (station 14A), as shown in the activities were apparent at sites 7a and
figure 13. Methylnapthalenes through perylene
were detected in quantifiable
From a regional perspective, there was a concentrations by gas-chromatography
slight increase in the percentage of mass-spectrometery in sediment samples
material finer than 0.126 mm in sediments collected during drilling. A very small
with increasing water depth. Fine-grain increase was noticed from a predrilling
6ediments were particularly abundant at range of 0.007 to 0.102 ppm total
the heads and on the flanks of Lydonia aromatics to a post-drilling range of
and Oceanographer Canyons. In addition, 0.097 to 0.575 ppm. Such concentration
a clear gradient of increasing silt and levels of low-to-medium molecular weight
clay occurred from northeast to southwest hydrocarbons are not believed to be toxic
along the 70-to-80 meter depth contours to benthic organisms 6. Where traces
for Stations 2, 5-1, 11, 13, and 13A quantities of petroleum-derived

173

hydrocarbons were ' detected in the than to replicates from any other
sediments, such concentrations rapidly station. The benthic community at any
returned to normal background values particular station was always distinct
after drilling was completed. There was from the community at any other station.
no accumulation of hydrocarbons or metals When replicates from each sampling data
in the tissues of two ocean quahogs were summed, the samples from each of the
Arctica islandica or four spot flounder 12 sampling periods clustered,together
Paralichthys oblongus during or after before joining with samples from any
drilling that could be attributed to the other station. Biomass varied over time
discharge of drilling muds 3,4. and among stations. At some stations
biomass increased significantly between
Benthic Infauna the first and second years. Clams
Arctica islandica and sand dollars
Taxonomic studies conducted during the Echinarachnius parama dominated the
Georges Bank Monitoring Program revealed biomass when they were present. When A.
that a total of 959 taxa of benthic islandica and E. Parma were absent,
marine animals was identified. polychaetes and arthropods dominated the
Polychaetes were represented by 372 biomass. Levels of wet-weight biomass
species or 38.8 percent of all taxa found in this study were similar to
identified. A total of 49 polychaete estimates from other studies
families was recorded with spionids,
ayllids, maldnids, and paraonids best A highly significant correlation between
represented. A total of 124 polychaete community parameters and percent fine
species new to science was identified, sand was observed. Although stations
some of which represent new genera. within the site-specific array in Block
Thirty-two species of oligochates were 312 had a homogeneous community structure
identified, 18 of them previously over most of the area, species
undescribed and 1 representing a new composition was different at two stations
family located to the west of the rig site where
the proportion of fine sand was higher
The arthropods were represented by 189 than at other stations in the array.
species and accounted for 19.7 percent of These results indicate that discharges of
all taxa identified. Amphipods were the drilling fluids and cuttings did not
dominant group of arthropods with 99 measurably impact the benthic fauna in
species, at least one of which is new. Block 312
Molluscs were represented by 144 species,
accounting for 15 percent of all taxa CONCLUSION
identified. A total of 24 species of
ech.;.noderms was identified, representing During the 3-year monitoring program no
2.5 Percent of all recorded taxa significant changes in the benthic
infaunal community structure could be
attributed to the drilling of eight
exploration wells on the Georges Bank
Throughout the course of the 3-year
monitoring program, the average seasonal
densities at site 5-1 were higher in
years 2 and 3 (postdrilling) than before
and during drilling in year I. In Acknowledgments
comparison, there was very little
variation in density during the 3 years
at site-specific station 16. The principal investigators and
Furthermore, clear seasonal patterns of scientists on whose research this review
density were not apparent at most paper is based are:
stations. The changes in abundance that
were observed are believed to be related Dr. J.M. Neff, Dr. N.J. Maciolek,
to changes in sediment grain size Battelle Ocean Sciences, Duxbury, Mass.
probably induced by storms rather than by Dr. J.F. Grassle, Woods Role
drilling-related activities. For the Oceanographic Inst., Woods Role, Mass.
most part, those stations located at the Dr. N.H. Bothner, Dr. B. Butman, U.S.
same water depth had similar benthic Geological Survey, Woods Hole, Mass.
communities I.
Dr. J.R. Payne, Dr. C.R. Phillips,
During the 3 years of the monitoring Dr. J.L. Lambach, Dr. G.H. Farmer,
program, the replicate infaunal samples Science Applications International Corp.,
from each regional station showed an La Jolla, Calif.
exceptionally high degree of homogeneity.
Cluster analysis demonstrated that all of
the replicates from any one regional
station were more similar to each other

174

REFERENCES

l. Maciolek-Blake N.J., Grassle, J.F..,
and Neff, J.M., (eds.), 1985, Georges
Bank Benthic Infauna.Monitoring Program:
Final report for third year of sampling.
Final executive summary, Vol.1, p. 1-38.

2. Bothner, Rendigs, R.R. Campbell, E.,
Doughten, M.W., Paramenter, C.M., O'Dell,
C.H., Dillisio, G.P., Johnson, R.G.,
Gillson, J.R., and Rait, N, 1984, The
Georges Bank Monitoring Program:
Analysis of trace metals in bottom
sediments during the third year of
monitoring. Draft final report submitted
to the Minerals Management Service, IA
14-12-0001-30153, 97 p.

3. Payne, J.R., Lambach, J.L., Farmer,
G.H., Phillips, C.R., Beckel, M.K.,
Sutton, J.G., and Sims Jr., R.R., 1985,
Georges Bank Monitoring Program:
Analysis of hydrocarbons in bottom
sediments and analysis of hydrocarbons
and trace metals in benthic fauna during
the third year of monitoring. Final
report to the Minerals Management
Service, Contract 14-12-0001-30001,
106 p.

4. Phillips, C.R., Payne, J.R., Lambach,
J.M., Farmer, G.H., and Sims Jr., R.R.,
1987, Georges Bank Monitoring Program:.
Hydrocarbons in bottom sediments and
hydrocarbons and trace metals in tissues,
Marine Environmental Research, 22,
p. 33-74.

6. Neff, J.M., Bothner, M.H., Maciolek,
N.J., and Grassle, J.F., 1988, Impacts of
exploratory drilling for oil and gas on
the benthic environment of Georges Bank
p. 1-52. (Submitted to Journal of Marine
Environmental Research)

6. Neff, J.M., and Anderson, J.W., 1981,
Response of marine animals to petroleum
and specific petroleum hydrocarbons.
Halstead Press, New York, 167 p.

175

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THE ROLE OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE
OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF PROGRAM OF MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE

John M. Teal

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543

ABSTRACT experts on benthic ecology, marine mammals, and
fisheries. Members are also chosen on the basis
of geography; thus membership is approximately
The Scientific Advisory Committee gives advice to equally divided among East Coast, Gulf Coast, West
Minerals Management Service on the Studies Program Coast and Alaska.
of the Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas leasing
Program. The SAC has aided the development of the The Committee generally meets three times per
OCS Studies Program at MMS, helping to shift its year, although frequency can vary. Most of the
focus away from general surveys and toward process meetings conform to the MMS budgetary cycle. The
oriented studies, to more universal publication of meetings are held around the country to take ad-
results, to focus of more of the research on vantage of the experience and expertise of the
long-term effects, and to concentration of effort regional MMS offices, to provide an opportunity
in regions of the OCS where there are most likely for Committee members to observe at first-hand the
to be effects. OCS activities of that region, and to allow the
public to make presentations to the committee with
regard to their perceptions of information and
research needs.

2. FUNCTIONS

The committee has established subcommittees (which
have varied over the years) to address current
principal concerns. At present, these committees
are 1) social and economic effects, 2) environmen-
tal effects and 3) study design and information
transfer.
1. INTRODUCTION
Review of Proposed Studies
The Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) was estab-
lished under the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) The committee reviews proposed studies every year.
Lands Act as the third part of the OCS Advisory The studies are proposed by the regional offices
Board. SAC's purpose is to advise the director of of MMS, and by the Regional Technical Working
Minerals Management Service on the feasibility, Groups. By the time the proposals get to the SAC
appropriateness and scientific value of the En- they have been reviewed by the Regional and Na-
vironmental Studies Program. In practice, the tional Studies Offices and ordered according to
committee has been concerned almost exclusively established priorities. The ranking includes an
with oil and gas activities; only in the last 18 indication of the proposals which could be funded
months have discussions regarding bard mineral within the budget. The SAC reviews the proposed
leasing become a part of the Committee's agenda. studies considering both the needs of MMS and how
the proposed studies would contribute to scien-
The Committee consists of about 15 members ap- tific knowledge.
pointed by the Secretary upon recommendation by
the MMS staff from nominations from a wide variety MMS must write an adequate Environmental Impact
of sources: the scientific community, academia, Statement for a lease sale and regulate activities
industry, states, conservation organizations, etc. once a sale has occurred. In the early days of
Under current policy, individuals serve for 2 the program, the effort was concentrated on the
years and may be reappointed twice. Members are Lease sale and EIS for the lease sale. The notion
chosen to represent the full range of scientific that one must know everything about the ecology of
expertise appropriate to MMS's mission in the OCS: an area to write an adequate EIS - an extreme view
physical oceanography, chemistry, geology, biol- - was common among individuals and groups critical
ogy, economics, sociology/anthropology. In biol- of oil and gas leasing. This belief influenced
ogy, for example, there is an effort to include the type of studies carried out - the baseline

CH2585-8/88/0000- 177 $1 @1988 IEEE

studies of the early years of the program. The well under way, is A tag which would both identify
extent to which we can understand any ecosystem is the individual and its position in the ocean.
debatable. Even our ability to acquire a complete However, there has been continued pressure to fund
list of an ecosystems inhabitants is very limited, studies on whales even though the only techniques
especially underwater where observation is dif- readily available were inadequate to achieve the
ficult and expensive. The baseline approach was desired results.
severely criticized and has been abandoned for the
most part. We have moved away from the general survey ap-
proach and now concentrate on supporting studies
The belief that complete information is needed of the processes which control marine ecosystems
before action should be taken is still encountered and the ways in which oil and gas activities would
(although usually in a modified state). One area effect those processes. A good example of a
in which it has some validity is in physical process study was the Georges Bank Monitoring
oceanography and meteorology. If we are going to Study which investigated the ways in which drill-
predict where oil spills will go, we have to have ing muds and cuttings were dispersed from an ex-
adequate knowledge of the currents and winds. On ploratory drill rig. The research also considered
the other hand, a prediction is always statistical the effects of those materials on benthic or-
and so the question arises as to how much ganisms. The study was carefully designed so that
knowledge of the variability is enough. Physical the results would be statistically significant.
oceanographers familiar with a region can always It had the benefit of a scientific advisory panel
claim with perfect legitimacy that more data on to review the project as it proceeded. Results
variability in their region would be useful. Thus showed no statistically significant impact of ex-
the SAC must review study plans to try to achieve ploratory drilling on benthic communities. But
a balance between the amount of knowledge avail- because of careful planning and design, along with
,able and the public's and regulators' desires to the result of "no significant impact" (which is
be as certain as possible. Then we must consider useful to the agency but scientifically unin-
where it makes the most sense to spend the limited teresting) the study acquired good information on
budget. sediment transport and benthic biology.

The question of background knowledge also con- Besides the impact on ecosystems, the studies
tinues to arise in relations to limited, special program deals with socioeconomic impact analysis.
environments. The Flower Garden reefs off the Thus the studies program is concerned with effects
Texas coast are a good example of a very special of OCS activities on fisheries as well as upon
environment -- a coral reef community in an other- fish, with the impact upon traditional ways of
wise soft sediment dominated region. Most people life, particularly the cultures of native
share,the desire to protect such special habitats Americans, as well as upon society in more heavily
which obviously implies detailed knowledge and, populated areas. Most of the studies budget for
thus, study of them. But how far should we go in socioeconomic studies have been spent in Alaska on
focusing attention on special habitats? One that native populations and on fisheries.
is truly unique,' or even unique within a large,
region such as the northern Gulf of Mexico, The SAC is also concerned about the distribution
deserves considerable attention. On the other of studies throughout the OCS regions. Most of
hand, should we give equivalent consideration to the leasing and production occurs in the central
each isolated hard bottom community along the and western Gulf of Mexico and Southern Califor-
southern and mid-Atlantic Coasts? These environ- nia, but some of the most pressing demands for
ments, of which there a number, occupy a small studies come from frontier areas. I have been an
fraction of the total shelf area which is again advocate of studies, such as the Georges Bank
dominated by soft sediments. To understand the Study, which potentially could follow the effects
potential impact of oil and gas activities in a in a pristine area from exploration through full
region, it is more important to know the impact on production. But that can only occur if there is
the dominant environment within the area than on production. Given the history of production and
special but relatively rare systems. And so one geological knowledge and interest of the oil in-
must balance the need to understand the dominant dustry, we can be reasonably confident that
ecology with the desire to protect specialized, production will follow exploration in much of the
restricted environments. central and western Gulf of Mexico and in parts of
California, so it makes sense to design research
The other area where there is pressure to know programs to take advantage of this. Studies to
everything before doing anything has to do with prepare for leasing in areas with little potential
species of particular c 'oncern such as cetaceans, for leasing have a lower priority.
pinnepids, sea birds and, along the Pacific coast,
sea otters. The problems that arise in relation Studies Recommendations
to these animals have more to do with study design
than of the need for the study because marine mam- The SAC can recommend study areas that it feels
mal studies are often mandated by the Marine Mam- should be given additional attention. Two ex-
mal Protection Act. For example, it is very dif- amples of these are in socioeconomics. The ef-
ficult to track or count populations of whales. fects of changes in the industry have had enormous
The obvious solution, the development of which is effects upon segments of our industrial society as

178

can be seen in coastal Louisiana, where the take the lead in conducting long-term studies.
downturn in offshore activity brought about by the Careful research design will be particularly im-
downturn in oil prices, has produced widespread portant in these studies to distinguish between
un- and under-employment. This is certainly a long-term effects of OCS oil and gas activities on
very large impact of offshore activity but it is the one hand and long-term changes from other
little studied and poorly linked to leasing causes, including natural variability on the
policies. other.

The other area in which there is little informa- Information Transfer
tion has to do with the public use of scientific
data on the impact of OCS oil and gas activities. The SAC has worked toward getting the results of
There seems to be a poor general understanding of studies into the published scientific literature.
the results of studies of the impacts of oil and This should help to make the study results avail-
gas activities in the OCS. Three non-exclusive able to the public although we recognize that few
explanations are possible: knowledgeable laymen read scientific journals.
But the SAC still feels that encouraging or even
1) the results of the investigations really are requiring publication as a part of a study con-
poorly known. tract stimulates better research than might take
place in the absence of publication. Papers sub-
2) the results are known but are believed not to mitted to scientific publications are reviewed for
apply to the region under consideration. This is rigor in methods and analysis. Knowing that such
likely to be important in frontier areas where a review process is goning to occur makes for bet-
people are reluctant to apply results obtained in ter planning, fieldwork and write-up. And the
other areas. research results become a readily available part
of the public record, known to scientists and
3) the results are known and people are willing to potentially to anyone.
extrapolate them to their area, but their objec-
tions to exploration and possible development are 3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
not based upon environmental considerations, but
upon political and social ones. Therefore, The SAC has been a part of the development of the
citizens ignore the results of the studies OCS Studies Program at MMS. The SAC reviews
program, or claim they are inappropriate, to delay proposed studies for coming years. It may suggest
the leasing program regardless of the value of -the changes in priorities and deletion of studies
studies. depending upon available information in the scien-
tific literature and upon how it sees the needs of
In all these cases it would be useful for the the leasing and management programs. The SAC may
design of the studies program to understand better also recommend studies such as the increased em-
what moves opposition to OCS leasing, how people phasis on long-term studies in producing areas and
perceive risk from OCS oil and gas activities, and studies in socioeconomics. It has put con-
bow and why their attitudes to OCS activities siderable emphasis on the desirability of better
change. When or if my first consideration is publication of study results in the reviewed
operating, then better public information is scientific literature.
desirable. In the case of number 3, the studies
program could be less concerned with further There is a need for a better mechanism for bring-
studies that provide additional details of what is ing the results of the Studies Program into
already known since the results are not likely to resolving conflicts that arise in OCS' leasing ac-
be instrumental in solving conflicts. Instead the tivities. I do not believe this should be a part
limited funds could be concentrated in areas of of the SAC mission, partly because we are not par-
knowledge or geography where the largest uncer- ticularly suited for conflict resolution, and
tainties still exist.. partly because scientific results are not always
germane to the conflict or its solution. But
In the case of process studies, beyond pointing there is a large and growing body of scientific
out additional studies in traditional areas that knowledge about the consequences of OCS leasing
are needed, eg. better information on physical and production for marine ecosystems and for on-
oceanography in the Gulf of Mexico, the SAC has shore effects on both natural and human systems.
promoted two types of studies: onshore effects and It is a shame that this cannot be better and more
long-term studies. In the first case, for ex- fully used.
ample, SAC pushed for a study of the effects of
OCS pipelines on the Louisiana marshes. This was
completed last year. In the second case, SAC has
'been working for a number of years both to point
out the need for long-term studies and to define
the areas in which this knowledge was lacking.
Such studies will necessarily be conducted
primarily in the Gulf of Mexico and Southern
California. The MMS is currently trying to make
arrangements with a university in each area to

179

THE MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE BOWHEAD WHALE
MONITORING PROGRAM AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Stephen D. Treacy

Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region
Leasing and Environment Office
Anchorage, Alaska 99508-4302

ABSTRACT derived by the IWC and the Alaska Eskimo Whaling
Commission.
Aerial surveys of the fall migration of bowhead
whales are conducted annually by the Minerals The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972
Management Service (MMS) in the Beaufort Sea. (16 U.S.C. 1361-1407) recognized that certain
Survey methods and Fall-1987 results on the species and populations of marine mammals are, or
population distribution, the relative abundance, may be, in danger of extinction or depletion as a
and the timing of the bowhead whale migration are result of human activities and established a
briefly summarized. Application of this informa- national policy that marine mammal populations
tion is discussed relative to management decisions should be protected and encouraged to develop to
affecting oil and gas operations. Incidental the greatest extent feasible, commensurate with
sightings of other marine mammal species and a sound policies of resource management. The
preliminary assessment of Fall-1988 survey Secretaries of the Departments of the Interior and
applications also are presented. Commerce are charged with all responsibility,
authority, funding, and duties under the MMPA.

1. INTRODUCTION The bowhead whale received additional protection
when it was designated an endangered species under
Every year since 1979, the U.S. Department of the the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973. The ESA
Interior (DOI), Minerals Management Service requires that major Federal actions do not
(formerly Bureau of Land Management) has funded jeopardize the continued existence of listed
aerial surveys of endangered whales in the Arctic species or result in the destruction or adverse
Ocean. The surveys were initially performed under modification of habitats determined to be crit-
interagency agreements with the Naval Ocean ical. It also requires interagency consultation
Systems Center and through subcontracts to SEACO, regarding potential jeopardy, alternatives to
Inc. Beginning in the fall of 1987, MMS staff proposed actions, and information needs.
scientists conducted these surveys in the Beaufort
Sea, with continuing aircraft support obtained The current Oil and Gas Leasing Program indicates
through an intra-agency agreement with DOI, Office that additional lease sales are planned for the
of Aircraft Services., Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. Information from
endangered whale studies will be used to prepare
The primary focus of endangered whale studies in draft and final environmental impact statements
the Beaufort Sea is the bowhead whale. The (EISs) related to these sales. Baseline informa-
bowhead (Balaena mysticetus) is a large baleen tion will be used to write postlease EIS's for
whale (adult body length can exceed 16 meters) development and production in offshore arctic
that migrates each fall from its summer feeding waters. Such information also will be integral to
grounds in the Canadian Beaufort Sea, across the documents related to the ESA Section 7 consulta-
Beaufort and Chukchi Seas north of Alaska, en tion.
route to wintering areas in the Bering Sea.
The present goals of the ongoing endangered whale-
Historic populations of bowhead whales were survey program are to:
decimated worldwide by commercial whalers for
whale oil and whalebone (baleen), with the largest 1. Provide real-time data to MMS and the National
population--the Spitzbergen stock--effectively Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) on the fall
hunted to extinction. Following an intense period migration of bowhead whales for use in implemen-
of hunting by yankee whalemen (1848-1915), the ting overall seasonal-drilling restrictions and
Western Arctic stock of bowhead whales has only seasonal limitations on geological /geophysical
recently shown signs of recovery. The present exploration.
estimate of the bowhead population adopted by the
International Whaling Commission (IWC) is 7,800.
Bowhead whales are presently hunted only for
Eskimo-subsistence purposes, subject to quotas

180 United States Government work not protected by copyright

2. Provide real-time, site-specific data on The - initial sighting of a whale was made 6
endangered whales for use by MMS Resource Evalua- September east of the study area. The first
tion in day-to-day regulation of seismic-explora- bowhead sighted in Alaskan waters was on 9
tion operations. September. The number of sightings per unit
effort (SPUE) increased to 1.02 sightings per hour
3. Continue collection of data to describe of effort on 11 September and peaked at approxi-
temporal and spatial trends in the distribution, mately three sightings per hour on 27 September
relative abundance, habitat, and behaviors of and 29 September. The SPUE decreased to 1.30 on 6
endangered whales in arctic waters; October. Between 14 and 31 October only three
sightings were made, for an SPUE ranging from zero
4. Continue data collection and between-year to 0.29. The last sighting of a bowhead in the
trend analysis of the median depth (or distance study area was made on 30 October.
from shore) of the migration axis for bowhead
whales; The main differences in the charts showing the
number of whales per hour of survey effort and the
5. Record and map nonendangered marine mammals SPUE for all areas surveyed occurred on 16
observed incidentally to endangered whale surveys; September, when a single sighting of three
and bowheads within only 0.95 hours of survey effort
resulted in what probably is an artificially high
6. Determine seasonal distribution of endangered relative abundance of 3.16 WPUE. The higher
whales in other planning areas of interest to MMS. WPUE's (relative to SPUE) on 6 and 7 October are
due to large pod sizes recorded on those days.
The midpoint (median) of the fall migration of
2. METHODS bowhead whales through the study area (when 50% of
all sighted whales had been recorded) occurred on
The overall annual survey program is based on a 29 September, with a peak relative abundance
design of random field transects within estab- (mode) of 4.94 on 7 October.
lished geographic blocks in and adjacent to
Chukchi and Beaufort Sea sale areas offshore Of the 37 bowhead whales seen on line transects
Alaska. The present study (1) was focused on the during September to October 1987, the median water
bowhead whale migration from I September 1987 to depth at the sightings was 31 m. The depth was
31 October 1987 between 1400W. and 1540W. longi- within the range of similar median values for
tudes, south of 720N. latitude. Occasional previous years and was considered typical of
flights involved survey coverage in Canada as far median values for Years 1982, 1984, 1985, and
east as 1370W. longitude. 1986. Thus, the data suggest that the position of
the migration corridor didnot change in 1987.
Survey blocks were divided into sections that were
30 minutes of longitude wide, and each section was A total of 150 beluga whales were seen during the
divided into 10. equal segments. Starting and/or Fall 1987 surveys. The beluga. (or belukha) is a
turning points were chosen within each section by medium-sized cetacean known primarily for the
selecting two numbers from a random-number table obvious white color of the adults. Each year many
and matching them to the numbered segments. A belugas share a migration schedule similar to that
transect line was then drawn between the two observed for bowhead whales.
segments. The same procedure was followed for
each section of the survey block, and all transect A total of 13 bearded seals (referred to as
lines were then linked. together with connecting floogruk" by the Eskimos) were observed in Fall
lines at top and bottom. This methodology permits 1987. The bearded seal is the largest seal found
later analyses of median water depths at bowhead in arctic waters and--like the bowhead and beluga
sightings based on line-transect information (2). whales and the ringed seal--is widely hunted for
It also is compatible with analyses of population subsistence in Alaska's Eskimo communities.
densities based on strip-transect theory (3).
The total number of ringed seals for the 1987
survey (285) was the highest number noted in the
3. RESULTS 1982-1986 MMS-funded arctic whale surveys (pre-
vious high = 167 in 1984). The ringed seal is the
There were 76 sightings of 110 bowhead whales made smallest marine mammal found in arctic waters.
during Fall-1987 surveys in the study area. A
daily index of relative abundance or whales per
unit effort (WPUE) was calculated for bowhead 4. MANAGEMENT USE OF 1987 FIELD INFORMATION
whales during 149.34 hours of survey effort, which
included 63.20 hours on random transects. When During 1987 MMS issued eight permits to industry
calculating relative abundance, all whale sight- for seismic exploration in the Beaufort Sea. Only
ings were used regardless of the type of survey six of the permits were used between 24 July 1987
being conducted. and 26 October 1987, primarily in the eastern
Beaufort Sea. The permittees followed stringent
The day-to-day timing of the bowhead migration restrictions--including a provision to stop
through the overall study area is shown in Figure seismic operations when whales are visible from
1. the vessel--as the bowhead whale migration
progressed through the area of operations in order

181

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0 -1 is 15
m 15 1
I m 5
7 7
M = 3: ,8 ,a
c (D (D
(9 a) 9
Im 0 [D 290 290
m CL m 21 m 21
X 22 ;0 22
23 23
.1 24
a5 2
0 28 26
(a 27 2
28 25
0 29 ag
0 so 30
CL a -
5 2 2
eo 0 (D a a
CL 4 4
5 5

(D 7 7
a 8

0 to 10
II II
co 2 2
-D ,3 C) Ia
L4
n 14
n 14
5
15 15
C: D 17 C) 17
1 1
(D t: CD a
t:
M 2r M 20
21 21
CL 22 22
23 23
24 24
25 25
25 26
L
,7 27
28 28
2
9
30
-31

to prevent potential operational effects on
subsistence whaling. Daily summaries of survey
information were transferred from the field to
Anchorage for use by MMS Resource Evaluation and
by NMFS in implementing areawide permit restric-
tions on high-energy seismic operations during
periods of limited visibility.

On 13 September 1987, Tenneco Oil Company emplaced
a Single Steel Drilling Caisson (SSDC) at
70006.6'N. latitude and 142047.1'W. longitude,
east of Barter Island. The main body of the
structure is approximately 162 m long, 53 m wide,
and 25 m high. In order to determine with high
resolution the number of whales in the immediate
area of the SSDC, two systematic survey grids with
parallel transect lines 4 km apart--permitting up
to 100-percent survey coverage--were conducted on
20 September 1987 and 13 October 1987.

Based directly on daily summaries of survey
information provided by the Fall- 1987 study, and
on subsequent management decisions about the end@
of the bowhead migration made by MMS Field
Operations and NMFS, the SSDC well in this
location was not spudded until 2 November 1987.

5. REFERENCES

1. Treacy, S.D. In press. Aerial Surveys of
Endangered Whales in the Beaufort Sea, Fall 1987.
Anchorage, AK: U.S. Department of the Interior,
Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region.

2. Cochran, W.G. 1963. Sampling Techniques.
New York. J. Wiley. 413 pp.

3. Estes, J.A. and J.R. Gilbert. 1978.
Evaluation of an Aerial Survey of Pacific Walruses
(Odobenus rosmarus divergens). J. Fish Research
Board Can. 35:1130-1140.

183

IMPACT OF OFFSHORE OIL OPERATIONS IN THE NORTH SEA

R. B. Clark

University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.

The North Sea is an intensively used, multi-
purpose resource. It is important for
commercial fishreries, seabird conservation, Introduction
tourism, shipping and other commerce, as well
as mineral extraction. There was therefore The North Sea is a very intensively used
great concern about the possible impact of international body of water. It supports a
developing oil and gas fields there in harsher highly productive fishery, includes the most
climatic conditions and deeper water than had heavily trafficked sea-lanes in the world,
previously been attempted. The oil and gas its coasts are important for tourism, and it
industry has been closely regulated and under provides wintering grounds for a significant
constant scrunity in its activities. While proportion of arctic ducks and seabirds as
there have been some accidents--one blowout well as supporting a large resident seabird
and several pipeline fractures--gross oil population. It also receives the wastes by
pollution damage has been avoided. Earlier direct outfalls and dumping from the 31 million
anxieties about the threat to seabirds, sea people living in its coastal zone, but also
mammals and fisheries have proved to be by atmospheric inputs and notably by the
unfounded, and identified environmental damage rivers Rhine, Elbe and Scheldt, from much of
is limited to the seabird within 1 km or less central and western Europe. And there are
of the platforms. major offshore oilfields in the northern
sector and gas fields in the southern half
of the North Sea.

In recent years, there has been growing concern
about the North Sea ecosystem to withstand the
pressures placed upon it, and certainly there
have been episodes of anoxia in bottom waters
of the German Bight and damaging algal blooms
IMPACT OF OFFSHORE OIL OPERATIONS in the Skagerrak and off the Norwegian coast
IN THE NORTH SEA which indicate that some parts, at least, of
R. B. Clark the North Sea are severely overloaded with
(University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.) organic wastes and plant nutrients.

Oil and gas extraction in the North Sea takes The political strength of the environmentalist
place in an intensively used, environmentally lobby varies among the North Sea states and,
and politically sensitive sea area which also understandably, there has been a considerable
receives the wastes from much of central and divergence of views about the seriousness of
western Europe. There is a substantial the impact of human activities on the North
consensus among European scientists about the Sea and about what remedial actions, if any,
minor contribution of offshore oil operations should be taken. In this climate, it has been
to stresses on the North Sea. Offshore difficult to get objective 5cientific data,
oVerations 4reures onsible for 29@t yr-I let alone agreement on how it should be
o a total inp t ov 71-150 kt yr- petroleum interpreted.
hydrocarbons. 90 percent of the offshore oil
input is residues of oil-based drill muds on There have been two meetings of Environmental
cuttings dumped on the seabed. The only Ministers of the North Sea states to try and
detected environmental impact of North oil and resolve these issues, and in preparation for
gas extraction is limited to the sea bed the second, held in London in November 1987,
fauna within 1 km of the platforms. a Scientific and Technical Working Group of
senior scientists from all the member states
was commissioned to draw up a report on the
Quality Status of the North Sea.

CH2585-8/88/0000-184 $1 @1988 IEEE

This group reported in September 1987 the Piper field in the British sector in July
(Department of the Environment, 1987) and 1988 also resulted in the uncontrolled loss of
revealed a remarkable degree of unanimity, oil, but the quantity and fate of this is not
never seen before, about the inputs to the yet known.
North Sea and their impact. As a prelude
to this enquiry, the Royal Society of London In the British sector, there were 335 accidental
organized a two-day discussion meeting on spillages of oil during the 6 years 1979-84.
the environmental effects of North Sea oil One spill was of 980 t, five others averaged
and gas developments (Hartley & Clark, 1987). 55 t each, and the remainder were in the range
These two documents offer the most authoritative 1-3 t (Larminie, 1987).
and objective view of the health of the North
Sea and in particular, the environmental impact In 1979, the U.K. government introduced a
of offshore oil and gas extraction, that is notification scheme for non-petroleum
available at the present time. hydrocarbon chemicals used offshore and surveys
were made in 1982 and 1984 of the quantities
Oil Inputs discharged to sea. In 1984, when 290 wells
were drilled, 133 kt of drill fluids were
The total input of petroleum hydrocarbons to discharged, of which, 75 percent were barites
the North Sea is currently estimated to be 71- and bentonite which are inert and insoluble.
150 kt per annum, excluding illegal discharges The main lignosulphonate used is ferrochrome
from shipping for which there is no agreed lignosulphonate containing 3-4 percent chromium.
estimate. Most of this input is from land-based Chromium adsorbs strongly onto clay minerals
sources unconnected with the oil industry, and in drilling muds and is expected to have no
is dissolved, dispersed or adsorbed. Offshore effect outside the settlement zone. About
oil and gas production is estimated to account 5-6 kt of 'non-inert' chemicals were discharged
for 29 kt of this total (DoE, 1987). in that year. Toxicity data exist for only
about half of that mass, but the total mud
About 90 percent of the input from offshore system is required by law to have a 96 h LC50
platforms is currently residues of oil-based greater than 6000 ppm to the brown shrimp
drill muds (OBM) contaminating drill cuttings Crangon crangon and it is predicted
which are dumped on the seabed around the that for the great majority of the constituents
platforms. OBMs have been increasingly used have a 96 h LCSO of more than 1 ppm (Bedborough
in the North Sea, from 36 percent in 1981 to el al., 1987). Production chemicals discharged
77 percent of wells drilled in 1985 (Bedborough in the oil and gas fields account for only
et al., 1987). Initially, these were diesel- 1-2 percent of the total input of non-petroleum
based', but low toxicity oils were introduced chemicals.
in 1981 and had completely replaced diesel by
1985. Future inputs of OBMs will depend on Contamination Levels
drilling activity in the North Sea and that
is not altogether predictable at present.
Hydrocarbon concentrations in uncontaminatyd
Production and displacement water accounted for offshore water are generally below 2 ug 1-
an input of 3 kt of oil in the U.K. sector in In the open North Sea, c9ncentrations of
1981 and is expected to peak at around 4 kt in 0.7-1.3 (mean 0-9) ug 1-1 have been recorded
the mid-1990s. Platforms are required to comply in sub-surface water south of the Auk and
with a monthly oil-in-water standard below 40 mg Ekofisk oilfields (Bessborough et al., 1987),
1-1 and their performance monitored by the 0.4-2.2 in the German sector, 0.01-0.4 in
Department of Energy (Bedborough et al., 1987). the Norwegian sector and 1-3 in the British
Most of the platforms operate well below this sector (DoE, 1987). Much higher levels are
standard, but are expected to approach it as the recorded in coastal waters and estuaries, but
water flow rate increases to the design capacity these are not connected with the offshore oil
of the control equipment in later stages in the industry. In the neighborhood of oil platforms,
life of the oilfields. concentrations of petroleum hydrocaibons in
sub-surface water are 0.4)2.2 ug 1- in the
It is inevitable that there will be accidental German sector, 0.05-1.7 in the Norwegian, and
spillages of oil at offshore platforms. The 0.7-7.5 (mean 2.7) in the British sector.
most serious of these in the North Sea was the Sediments beneath platforms using oil-based
blowout in Ekofisk field in the Norwegian sector drill muds have very high levels of contamina-
in April 1977 when 20,000-30,000 t of oil was tion, typically 103-104 times background
released before the well was brought under levels up to 200 m from the platform, but oil
control. Some spraying of the resulting oil concentration falls rapidly with increasing
slicks with chemical dispersants was attempted distance from the platform, reaching background
but this was largely ineffective and the oil levels within 3 km of the platform (DoE, 1987).
dispersed naturally; none came ashore. The
explosion and fire an a production platform in

185

Seabirds discarded construction debris on the seabed,
but the compensation scheme operated by the
oil industry, or in Norway by the Government
In a number of countries, the consequence of oil until recently, is efficient and loss or damage
pollution that causes greatest public concern is of fishing gear from this cause is not regarded
the damage it inflicts on seabirds. Some tens, as a serious problem.
if not hundreds of thousands of birds are oiled
each year in the northeast Atlantic and North Benthos
Sea, but it is now clear that this chronic
mortality is due almost entirely to the (usually Since sediments in the immediate vicinity
illegal) discharge of oily waste by general of offshore platforms are by far the most
shipping. The number of seabird casualties is contaminated elements offshore in the North
not related to the quantity of oil spilled. The Sea, considerable research effort has been
Ekofisk blow-out caused no known seabird devoted to studying the environmental impact
casualties and major tanker accidents have made of oil drilling on the benthic fauna. This
a relatively minor contribution to the annual has been conducted in mesocosms and also in
mortality. The worst bird-kill on record was. in field investigations in oil-contaminated
the Skagerrak in January, 1981 when some 30,000 sediments inshore and in a number.of offshore
oiled birds appeared on neighboring beaches; oilfields.
small amounts of oil were involved, probably
derived from shipping, but the source has never The deposition of drill cuttings, whether oil-
been confirmed (Clark, 1984). contaminated or not, smothers the seabed, cuts
off the substratum from water exchange, reduces
Dunnett (1987) estimates that 4.5 million pairs the redox potential, and increases the soluble
of seabirds breed on North Sea coasts. In sulphide level. The important role of sulphate-
general, most of the 19 species have shown a reducing bacteria in this sequence of events has
steady increase in numbers in recent decades. been demonstrated by Sanders & Tibbetts (1987).
Guillemots (murres) are the predominant In a mesocosm, these changes are associated with
casualties of oil pollution and, in common with a substantial fall in the nematode population
a number of other species, have an extremely low and the elimination of burrowing copepods,
reproductive capacity. It had been thought that although epibenthic copepods appear to be able
on this account they might not be able to to survive smothering. If the cuttings are
withstand the recurrent losses from oil pollu- contaminated with diesel or high concentrations
tion but, in fact, murres have shared in the of low toxicity oil, the nematode population
expansion of the breeding populations. The continues to fall over the year following a
underlying,reasons for these changes are pro- single deposition of the cuttings, but at low
bably climatic, but the causes of seabird popu- concentrations of low toxicity oils, they show
lation fluctuations are poorly understood an erratic recovery. In these circumstances,
(Dunnett, 1987). epibenthic copepods show an enhanced population,
perhaps because of the fertilizing effect of
At one time, it was suggested that migrating. the oil (Leaver et al., 1987).
land birds might be attracted to gas flares on
the platforms when crossing the North Sea and so These observations have been largely confirmed
be killed (Sage, 1979). This possibility has by studies at a number of offshore platforms,
been investigated and shown to be groundless. though in the field it is difficult to separate
the toxic effects of the oil-based drill muds
Fisheries from those of the activity of sulphate-reducing,
bacteria, leading to the production of
The North Sea fisheries are among the most sulphides, in areas where the seabed is
intensively studied fisheries in the world. blanketed by cuttings and organically enriched
Most fish stocks are over-exploited but continue by the presence of the oil-based muds.
to maintain their yield and, although there are
fluctuations in annual landings, these can be Close to the platform where the greatest depth
explained by fishing intensity, class strength of cuttings accumulates, blanketing of the
and growth rates (DoE, 1987). Fishermen are seabed is severe, but a short distance away
excluded from the immediate vicinity of oil and (50-250 m) where cuttings are 10 cm deep, there
gas platforms and are not allowed to trawl over is the greatest activity of sulphate-reducing
pipelines, some of which lie in traditional bacteria and production of sulphides. Around
fishing grounds, but the total area in which the Beryl A platform, the meiofauna is impacted
fishing is prohibited is insignificant. This, for a distance of 800 m (Moore et al., 1987),
of course, does not prevent fishermen from but viewing North Sea oilfields generally, the
complaining. There are occassional instances distance from the platforms over which there is
of trawls fouling undersea pipelines or an impact on the macrofauna (principally

186

polychaete worms) is about 500 m (Kingston, References
1987). It is anticipated that the impacted area
would be smaller around platforms where there Addy, J. M. 1987. Monitoring of the Beatrice
are strong bottom currents and dispersion of oilfield development. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
cuttings and oil-based drill muds would be Lond., B 316, 655-668.
greater, as in the southern North Sea.
Bedborough, D. R., Blackman, R. R. A., and
An important finding of Kingston's survey is Law, R. J. 1987. A survey of inputs to the
the'extreme patchiness of drill cuttings around North Sea resulting from oil and gas
platforms. This may account for conflicting developments. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.,
reports of contamination and impact based on B 316, 495-509.
inadequate sampling.
Clark, R. B. 1984. Impact of oil pollution on
Discussion seabirds. Environ. Pollut., A 33, 1-222.

The development of the North Sea oil and gas Department of the Environment 1987. Quality
fields has been very recent and rapid. Gas Status of the North Sea. H. M. S. 0., London.
extraction started in 1965 and the first oil
platform was installed in 1969. In the las-t Dunnett, G. M. 1987. Seabirds and North Sea
20 years a chain of oilfields down the centre oil., Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.-, B 316
?f the northern North Sea has been exploited 513-524.
in a most hostile environment and at-unprece-,
dented water depths. From the outset there Hartley, J. P. and Clark, R. B. 1987.
were great fears that oil extraction under Environmental Effects of North Sea Oil and
these circumstances might prove disastrous Ca-sDevelopments. Royal Society, London.
for other important,commercial interests such,
as fisheries and tourism, as well as cause Kingston, P. F. 1987. Field effects of
unacceptable environmental damage, to seabirds platform discharges on benethic macrofauna.
and other elements in the marine ecosystem. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B316, 545-565.
The oil industry has therefore had to work
under strict controls and close public Larminie, F. G. 1987. The history and future
scruntiny. Pressures on the oil industry of North Sea oil and gas: an environmental
have become more severe as inshore oilfields, perspective. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.,
such as Beatrice in the ecologically sensitive B 316, 487-493.
Moray Firth, have been developed, and here
very comprehensive monitoring has been Leaver, M. J. Murison, D. J., Davies, J. M.
carried out (Addy, 1987). and Rafaelli, D. 1987. Experimental studies
of the effects of drilling discharges.
It may be argued that had the public concern Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B 316, 625-640.
been less, the oil industry would have been
less careful, but whether that is true or Moore, C. G., Murison, D. J., Mohd Long, D.,
not, it is clear that the development of the and Mills, D. J. L. 1987. The impact of oily
North Sea oil and gas fields has been @ discharges on the meiobenthos of the North
achieved with minimal environmental damage. Sea. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B 316,
This not to say that there are no ecological 525-544.
problems in the North Sea; several coastal
areas are seriously overstressed and demand Sage, B. 1979. Flare up over North Sea birds.
urgent remedial action, but the offshore oil New Scientist, 81, 464-466.
industry does not contribute to these problems.
Sanders, P. F. and Tibbetts, P. J. C. 1987.
The history of the North Sea oilfields shows Effects of discarded drill muds on microbial
that, given strict controls and constant populations. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
yigilance, offshore fields can be exploited B 316, 567-585.
in environmentally sensitive areas without
causing material damage.

187

GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ATLANTIC OCS GAS DISCOVERY
AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

Frederick R. Keer

Minerals Management Service
Atlantic OCS Region
Vienna, Virginia 22180

ABSTRACT
0.
9 $100
The most significant Atlantic OCS
hydrocarbon discovery (gas and minor oil)
lies 80 miles off the New Jersey coast. A
14
Drilled in eight locations with a 63 1.19
percent success rate, this structure has
sufficient proven gas resources to be a @N
ME
viable field if additional resources can
be identified to support a pipeline and
other infrastructure. Due to the economic
.outlook and difficulties in predicting
hydrocarbon occurrences on the structure,
exploration during the early 1980's was VT NH
halted. The geologic origin of the
structure and of the hydrocarbon source
4,
has major implications to the exploration do 4e
potential of Atlantic offshore grabens. MA
With current interest in East Coast NY
graben-related traps on and offshore, the CT R1
geologic history and hydrocarbon potential
of this structure should be carefully
considered.
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY PA Ni A A
Itimore
anyon
ro.
The most significant Atlantic OCS oil gh
and gas discovery lies 80 miles off the
New Jersey coast in 440 feet of water.
.This discovery, associated with a large, MD DE 598-STRUCTURE
.complexly faulted anticline, was drilled
in eight locations with a 63 percent '16,
.success rate (figs. 1 & 2). The structure
on blocks NJ18-3 598, 599, 642, and 643 VA 0 5.0 100
was leased by several companies during OCS srATurE MLES
.Sale 40 in August 1976. Drilling was
conducted from April 1978 to March 1981,
commencing with the Texaco 598-1 and
ending with the Texaco 598-4. Of the Figure 1. 598 structure and cross section
eight wells drilled, three (Texaco 598-2, locations.
598-3, and 598-4) were dry (fig. 2). The
four blocks were unitized in April 1982, reservoir distribution to increase
Iwith Tenneco Inc. designated as operator. drilling success. Due primarily to the
Also in April 1982, the Minerals overall negative economic outlook for
Management Service (MKS) declared the new petroleum products, the unit was allowed
.unit producible, converting the unit from to expire April 1984.
rental to royalty status, and granted a
suspension of production until April 1984. HYDROCARBON TESTS AND SHOWS
During this extension, approximately 725
miles of 3-D seismic data were collected Significant proven pays were
with the intent of gaining sufficient encountered in five wells between
knowledge of the complex faulting and approximately 11,700 and 15,000.feet,

188 United States Government work not protected by copyright

--------------------------------------------------------------

Well Drilling Flow test Total drilling
number results results depth (feet)
------ ------- ----------------------------
553 554 555 Texaco 598-1 Measured 7.5 mmcfd 15,025
flows of 9.3 mmcfd
gas
Tenneco 642-2 Measured 12 mm fd 18,400
fl ows Of I Cfd
c
oi 1/gas 630 bopd

Texaco 642-1 Measured 5.5 mmcfd 15 786
A flows of 14.2 rimcfd
9 gas 18.9 mmcfd
597 599 Exxon 599-1 Measured 8 mmcfd 17,121
flows of 1 mmcfd
gas 1.3 mmcfd

Tenneco 642-3 Measured 6 mmcfd 16,475
flows of 3.65 mmcfd
gas

-------------------------------------------------------------
30
mmcfd = million cubic feet per day.
641 642 643 A' bopd = barrels oil per day.

-------------------------------------------------------------

Table 1.

* PLUGGED & ABANDONED predictions for reservoir locations and
* OIL & GAS TESTED
* GAS TESTED PROTRACTION DIAGRAM hydrocarbon sources were formulated
554 BLOCK NUMBER NJ 18-3 accordingly. Although the diapir model is
a reasonable one, recent discussions by
Figure 2. 598 structure and well the author and Charles O'Hara (oral
locations. commun., 1986-88) on the origins of
various Atlantic OCS structures indicate
this complex structural anticline may be
(table 1). Significant untested gas also caused by faulting triggered by movement
was present. In the 598-1 well, for of, and subsidence around, a deeply buried
example, log analyses indicated that as crustal block resulting from passive
much as 660 feet of net gas pay, in 25 margin, rift tectonics (fig. 3).
zones ranging in thicknesses from 10 to 90 Mattick and others (5), in a seismic
feet, may be present (4). Additionally, velocity and magnetic study, depicted a
in the 642-2 well, 8 feet of oil pay at basement ridge near and on trend with the
the 8,320 foot level tested 630 bopd. block 598 structure as a horst-like,
Significantly, an abnormally fault-controlled structure. More
pressured gas-bearing zone was penetrated recently, Rosendahl (6) related cross
at approximately 17,800 feet in the Texaco sections from the Tanganyika Rift
642-1 well. While drilling with 12.8 ppg depicting a horst and graben province
mud, drilling was ceased to circulate and (rift morphology) model to the evolution
condition gas-cut mud using 14.5 ppg mud. of the Baltimore Canyon Trough (BCT). The
Circulating mud weight was increased to morphology of the crustal block (horst) is
114.8 ppg and a 30 barrel slug of 21.5 ppg not known due to the lack of resolution in
,barite mud was pumped into the hole with seismic records over the structure.
no reduction of the gas flow. Ultimately, Contributing to the poor resolution of
full control of the well was regained and seismic data are the complex faulting and
the hole was sidetracked at 11,830 feet prograding carbonate sequences (fig. 3)
and drilled to 15,786 feet. This traversing the section at the 3.5-4.0
abnormally'pressured, deep gas zone was second level (7, 3). Depicted
not tested but may be indicative of schematically in figure 3, the horst
significant, additional resources. appears to be asymmetric with a steeply
STRUCTURAL SETTING dipping face on the west and a shallower
dipping face to the east. The steep
dipping face is thought to represent the
At the time of leasing and major border fault complex where
exploration activity, the generally under-lying blocks down faulted toward the
accepted explanation for the stratigraphic axis of the BCT (O'Hara, oral commun.,
and structural development of this 1987-88). An extension of this border
complexly faulted anticline was focused on fault (fig. 3, fault@D) cuts into the
the diapir (shale or salt) model. As a family of down-to-the-east, listric normal
result, paleodepositional environments and faults creating and dissecting the 598-642
1113
/__1 00 P 7@ 1FO2
,241 12 643
_.,00

the stratigraphic history tended to be structure.
related to the local setting, and

189

A 598-2 642-1 642-2 A'
N.W. - %@ i k `@' S.E.
0 Axis BCT 15 1421 643 1
Cenozoic
0 1 - r Botto
to

2 - I oil Cretaceous
P Near @imm&idgian
3

. ...........
0 4
X.*

XX X
5 X X X
0 Jurassic X X XX
U X X X
a) Paleohi X
co 6 - (Basement Blo ?)

.0, PLUGGED & ABANDONED PROGRADING CARBONATES
OIL & GAS TESTED
GAS TESTED
Figure 3. Composite dip cross section A-A' over 598 structure.
Generally, the structure resulted DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
from a combination of differential
sediment compaction around and over the The occurrence of hydrocarbons in a
tilted horst and relief of lateral structure apparently formed as a result of
confining pressure due to movement in post-rift deposition over early rift
faults to the east. The local morphology, is significant. Rather than
depositional environment over the being treated as an isolated occurrence
structure is interpreted to be resulting from a set of special
transitional marine (shallow marine, circumstances, this discovery must be
sabkha) from late Jurassic through early analyzed on a regional scale within the
Cretaceous (4). This environment resulted framework of passive margin, rift
in the deposition of reservoir rocks that tectonics. Doing so could open
are scattered and difficult to exploit. possibilities for further exploration on
HYDROCARBON SOURCES the structure proper and, more
importantly, for exploration of horst and
The hydrocarbon sources are not graben/half graben structural provinces
known. Kerogen analyses performed in the throughout the Atlantic OCS.
642-2 well indicate thermal immaturity at Figure 4 is a composite section over
the 8,300-foot level where oil was tested a typical half graben, horst structure in
in Albian sands (2). Therefore, the oil the southern part of Georges Bank, and
is believed to have migrated from the more figure 1 shows the approximate location.
mature, marine Jurassic section to the Although lower in relief and less
east [preliminary geochemical complexly faulted, the structure in the
finger-printing analyses of the oil post-rift section above the horst is
suggest an algal carbonate source (2)]. generically identical to the 598-642
Since light optical kerogen analyses structure. Figure 5, a composite section
indicate a somewhat immature hydrocarbon over a half graben province further to the
diagenetic environment at the depths where northeast, shows an example of the type of
much of the gas is found, the gas must structure found within graben fill.
also have had a source from deeper in the Although recent exploration in the
section. The most likely sources are the Atlantic OCS has focused on carbonate
thick, marginal marine and marine, plays, the only@significant discovery, one
post-rift Jurassic section immediately to which most likely would have been produced
the west (within the BCT) and, deeper in if located near the necessary production
the section, synrift Triassic/Jurassic infrastructure, is found in clastic
terrestrial and lacustrine deposits reservoirs perhaps formed at the edge of a
containing gas prone kerogens. Although tilted horst resulting from rift
the synrift Triassic and Jurassic deposits tectonics. The current exploration
occur well below the gas generation window interest in east coast rift basins bodes
at present (approximately 23,000 feet, MMS well for both the Atlantic OCS and the
unpublished studies), early migration eastern onshore exploration industry.
might have preserved some of the
hydrocarbons generated.

190

45-V-Imile
B B1
N.W. S.E.
0 0 CO -ozoic **-Water Bottom
E
Cretaceous
2- Post-Rift Unc
Jurassic
ca 3- XXX X XX,(
X XX X X X X
Basement `x x XXXX XX XXX. X
0 4- @4 Triassic,
X 7
>1 x a XXXXX X X X
F_ X X XX Basement
co 5- XXXX
0
L) ro
0)
Cn

Figure 4. Composite dip cross section B-BI in Georges Bank Area.
C 4k- V_ I mile C1
N.W. S.E.
0 Cenozoic Water Bottom
I Cretaceous
.E
Post-Rift unconformit Jurassic
X X@x
< X xx@x
2 - XXXXXXXX XX X
XX XX X XX X Triassic XXX X Triassic X X X-XX X"X
>. XX X - @S_i C. @Xx X11. XX11
ca X XX, X X; X
3 - X XXXX X xx Basement
0 Basement X X X X X X

r
0

5.
Figure 5. Composite,dip cross section C-C' in Georges Bank Ar .ea.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3. Grow, J. A., Deep structure and
evolution of the Baltimore Canyon Trough
Figure 2. Modified from Lishman, F., and in the vicinity of the COST B-3 Well, in
Smith, J. H. MMS unpublished
data. P. A. Scholle, ed., Geologic studies of
the COST B-3 Well: U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ.
Figure 3. Compiled by O'Hara, C. J., and No. 833, 1980, pp117-125.
author. 4. Kobelski, B. J., Nichols, R. R., and
Figure 5. Compiled by Johnson, R. Smith, J. H., Interpretation and Resource
Study of the Tenneco-Texaco Structure
REFERENCES Block 598 Unit-Atlantic OCS: Unpublished
I. Dies, J. L. and Kurz, F. N., Mid- MMS Report, 1984.
Atlantic summary Report 2, A revision of 5. Mattick, R. E., Foote, R. Q., Weaver,
Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas N. L., and Grim. M. S., Structural
Activities in the Mid-Atlantic and their Framework of United States Atlantic Outer
Onshore Imports: A Summary Report, Continental shelf North of Cape Hatteras:
November 1979, U.S. Dept. Int., MMS, 1982, Amer. Assoc. of Pet. Geol. Bull., v. 58,
p16. no. 6, Part II of 11, 1974, pp1179-1190.
,2. Fry, C., Kerogen Analyses, in Bielak, 6. Rosendahl, B. R., Architecture of
.L. E., ed., Tenneco Hudson Canyon 642-2 Continental Rifts with Special Reference
.Well--Geoloqical and fterational SummarV: to East Africa: Ann. Rev. Earth Planet.
L. E., ed., Tenneco Hudson Canyon 642-2 Sci., 15: 1987, pp445-503.
.Well--Geological and operational Summary:
OCS Report MMS 86-0077, 1986, pp26-28.

491

7. Schlee, J. S., Behrendt, J. C., Grow,
J. A., Robb, J. M., Mattick, R. E.,
Taylor, P. T., and Lawson, B. J., Regional
geologic framework off northeastern United
States: Amer. Assoc. of Pet. Geol.
Bull., v. 60, 1976, pp926-951.

192

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF THE DEEPTHATER ( 600 FEET)
GULF OF MEXICO

Pulak K. Ray

Minerals Management Service

ABSTRACT Thousands of bore holes on the Continental Shelf
have provided an enormous amount of data for the
The Continental Shelf of the Gulf of Mexico has exploration, engineering evaluation, and develop-
been extensively explored up to an average depth ment of the shelf area, which can be considered a
of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. The potential of the matured hydrocarbon province. However, the data,
deeper water areas of the Gulf is evaluated on rather than providing an unambiguous picture of the
the basis of dynamic stratigraphy of the basinal framework and depositional facies, have
Continental Slope, especially as it relates to proved the complex nature and high degree of
subsurface salt movement, source rock and reser- variability of the geology within and between
voir potential, and spatio-temporal distribution @roduction trends. The data have unquestionably
of reservoirs. Deep-water turbidites, interdomal improved our understanding of the production
basin fills, slumped shallower water deltaic trends of the shelf area, but a clear picture of
sediments, and sediments associated with listric the geology of the slope area where the future ex-
growth fautls of middle Miocene to Pleistocene ploration activity is expected to be concentrated
age may provide suitable reservoir rocks. On the is yet to be developed.
upper Continental Slope faulted anticlines
associated with diapiric salts, rollovers and HISTORY OF EXPLORATION
other structures associated with listric faults,
and subtle traps associated with intraslope Leasing activity serves as an excellent indicator
basins provide the trapping mechanism. The of the present and near-future exploration activ-
lower Slope is characterized by extensive lateral ity of the gulf. Pearcy and Ray (1986) indicated
salt movement. Numerous structural and subtle a decrease in leasing activity in shallow shelf
traps associated with the salt movement, both areas (0-600 feet of water) and a steady increase
below and above the tabular salt, provide an in the leasing activity of the slope areas of the
excellent trapping potential. Gulf since 1983. Leasing of tracts in water depths
exceeding 3,000 feet started in 1983 (figures I
INTRODUCTION and 2). The bids on a large number of tracts in
the deep-water Alaminos Canyon Area of the Western
The exploration and development of the Outer Con- Gulf and Atwater Valley Area of the Central Gulf
tinental Shelf (OCS) of the Gulf of Mexico has a during 1987 lease sales (No. 110 and 112) indicate
long history, dating back to the 1930's. Since a strong industry interest in the exploration and
the introduction of Federal OCS lease sales on development of the deep-water Continental Slope
October 13, 1954, more than 25,000 wells have been area of the Gulf of Mexico. Coincidentally,
been drilled. Currently, close to 20 million acres the advancement of industry interest to deeper
of the OCS are under lease. As of October 1987, water areas is in keeping with the historical
there were 4,552 active leases, including 1,509 exploration and developmental activity of the
producing leases. Cumulative production is 7.26 Gulf, as indicated by the yearly deployment of
billion barrels (Bbbl) of oil and condensate and deepest water platforms (figure 3). Approximately
79.7 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of gas from 704 every ten years since 1947, the oil industry has
f ields of the Gulf of Mexico at the end of 1987 moved to develop the hydrocarbon resources of the
(Melancon, et al., 1988). next deeper geomorphic province, from inner shelf
to the upper slope. It is well within reason to
The economic importance of the northern Gulf of expect the development of the lower slope in the
Mexico basin cannot be overstressed. According mid-to late 1990's,_ provided significant dis-
to Weise, Slitor, and McCord (1983), production coveries are made in that area.
from the Gulf of Mexico accounted for more than
90% of the total U.S. offshore production. The The first Federal leasing of OCS Land of the Gulf
exploration and development activity of oil and of Mexico was held in 1954. To September 1987,
gas of the Gulf basin responds to fluctuations in 58 lease sales have been held. The number of tracts
the price of oil and gas in a fashion similar to leased for each sale have varied significantly from
that of the U.S. in general. An anomalous high sale to sale depending on economics and industry
in drilling activity and production in the Gulf interest. Prior to 1983, only tracts that were
basin in 1984 and 1985 can be attributed to the nominated by industry were offered for lease by
introduction of areawide lease sales in 1983 the government. The first areawide lease sale,
(Pearcy and Ray, 1986). in which all tracts within the Central, Western

193 United States Government work not protected by copyright

or Eastern Gulf of Mexico were offered for lease, accounted for 3 to 4 percent of the total wells
was introduced in 1983. Since then, the leasing drilled between 1978 to 1983. From 1984 to 1986,
history of the gulf has changed dramatically. this number increased from 6 percent to 11 percent.
In the first half of 1988, 13 percent of the wells
The largest lease sale was held on May 25, 1985, were drilled in water depths ranging from 600 to
when Minerals Management Service collected $3.5 3,000 feet. Drilling in water depths beyond
billion in accepted bids for tracts in the central 3,000 feet in the Gulf of Mexico started in 1984.
Gulf of Mexico. As a result of the economic Since then, the number of wells drilled in that
depression of the mid-1980's, and because of the water depth increased steadily (figure 4). In
fact that most prime acreage was already leased 1987, 9 wells (1.1 percent) were drilled beyond
during earlier sales, the leasing activity in the 3,000 feet water depth. In 1988, a successful
Gulf of Mexico declined through Sale 110 (1987). well was drilled in the Mississippi Canyon area
In Sale 112 (1987, Western Gulf of Mexico) the at a water depth of 7,638 feet.
Minerals Management Service reduced the minimum
per acre bid value from $150 to $25. The oil Information from wells that have been drilled on
industry, speculating on an improved market in the OCS indicates that the Continental Shelf has
the future, reacted very positively to the change; been extensively explored up to an average depth
367 tracts of the Western Gulf received bids. of 10,000 to 12,000 feet (Ray and Pearcy, 1988).
Many tracts, that may be uneconomic under present Ray (1988), on the basis of frequency analysis of
market conditions, where new plays will be tested over 12,000 reservoirs from the Continental Shelf,
at greater depths, and that are in deeper waters established that over 80 percent of discovered
(e.g., Alaminos Canyon Area), received bids. As oil and gas reservoirs are located in sediments
of October 1987, there were 4,552 leased tracts, of Outer Shelf and Upper Continental Slope paleo-
of which 1,509 were producing. Seven thousand environments. It is believed that more reservoirs
five hundred fifty-five oil and gas wells were may be discovered below 12,000 feet, where Miocene
located on these tracts. Oil wells accounted for and Pliocene lower slope sediments are expected
54 percent of the total number. to be encountered. Since crude oil can be preserved
up to a depth of 29,500 feet and thermogenic gas
The introduction of areawide lease sales in 1983, even at greater depths (Nunn and Sassen, 1986),
the lowering of minimum bids in 1987, the exten- it is evident that a large portion of the geologic
sion of lease terms from 5 to 10 years for deeper column and a large geographical area of the Gulf
water tracts, and passage of the National Gas of Mexico still remain to be explored (figure 5).
Policy Act (NGPA, 1978) have had a cumulative,
positive impact on the leasing activity in the DYNAMIC STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CONTINENTAL SLOPE
Gulf. The long-term economic and national stra-
tegic benefits derived from the new discoveries, The Gulf of Mexico Basin can be described as a
resulting from the exploration and development of small, old ocean basin that has remained tecton-
the vast amount of leased acreage, far outweigh a ically undisturbed except for regional subsidence
decline in bonus money from the leased tracts of (Antoine and Bryant, 1969). Buffler and Sawyer
the last few sales. (1985) estimated total tectonic subsidence of
13,000 to 16,000 feet on the shelf to more than
Leasing of relinquished tracts in the shelf areas 19,500 feet in the central part of the basin.
of the Central Gulf averaged around 40 percent
of the total tracts leased for a sale; but for During the Triassic and Early Jurassic the Gulf
the Western Gulf re-leasing tracts showed a steady of Mexico went through a stage of tensional
increase from 13 percent during Sale 67 (1982) to stretching (Buffler and Sawyer, 1985) when rift
30 percent during Sale 84 (1984). This scenario basins formed. Possibly during the Callovian,
is expected to change dramatically for both areas when the Gulf was connected to the Pacific Ocean
in 1989 when a large number of tracts that were (Salvador, 1987), a 10,000- to 13,000-feet-thick,
leased during the first area-wide lease sale and incompetent, ductile layer of salt was deposited.
have not been qualified for development become Emplacement of oceanic crust took place during
available for re-leasing. the Late Jurassic, and the salt was separated into
two widely spaced areas of the northern and south-
It is clear from the leasing history that advanced ern Gulf. By the Early Cretaceous, the Gulf had
drilling technology, superior geophysical data taken its present shape, and carbonate platforms
acquisition and processing techniques, and pros- formed along the periphery of the basin. A basin-
pects for higher gas and oil prices in the future wide erosional-nondepositional unconformity formed
have propelled the industry to venture into the during the Middle Cretaceous.
exploration of the frontiers of deep-water tracts
and deeper prospects in the Gulf. The Cenozoic history of the Gulf is marked by
filling of the subsiding basin by a steadily
The drilling activity reflects the same trend of prograding continental margin. The Cenozoic
exploration activity in the OCS. Dodson and LeBlanc cyclic stratigraphic units typically grade sea-
(1988) reported that 84 percent of the wells drilled ward from thick continental, lagoonal, and deltaic
between 1983 and 1987 were located in water depths of sandstones, through inner neritic alternating
300 feet or less. In the first quarter of 1988, sands and shales into thick outer neritic and
this number dropped to 74 percent. The number of bathyal-abyssal shales and turbidites.
wells in the 600-to 3,000- feet water depth range

194

Cenozoic depocenters often accumulated in excess wedges, as the slope aggrades, many of the salt
of 20,000 feet of sediments and periodically features are buried and and modified due to re-
changed geographic location. During Oligocene distribution of overburden load. In many instances
and earlier time the depocenter was located on diapiric salt structures form as salt flows upward
the western Gulf Coast. The Miocene is marked by due to loading from intraslope basins and annular
two widely separated deltaic depocenters of the loading from the filling of peripheral sinks.
Western and Central Gulf. The Pliocene and During the uplift of the diapiric salt, if it
Pleistocene are of special significance to the encounters a weak zone, the salt flows laterally
history of the Gulf because at this time a large to form tabular salt tongues from the flanks and
volume of -glacially derived sediment became avail- top of the salt dome.
able, and the Mississippi River became the major
supplier of sediments. The Plio-Pleistocene In areas of listric growth faults, in some cases,
depocenters prograded as much as 50 miles (Woodbury the semihorizontal portion of the fault plane
et al., 1973). serves as a conduit for the flowage of salt as the
diapirs reach that surface. The toe region of the
The single most important process factor that growth-f aulted sediments is uplifted over the salt,
profoundly affects and virtually controls the tilted landward, and thrusted over younger sedi-
spatial and temporal distribution of reservoir- ments. The growth-faulted block thus goes through
quality sands on the Continental Slope is the a rotational motion as it subsides near the steep
eustatic changes of sea level. During high sea part of the fault and is uplifted and thrusted at
level, associated with interglacial stage, the the toe region. The uplifted toe area is eroded
deltaic deposition is primarily restricted to the due to slope adjustment and other aqueous processes.
Continental Shelf area, and only f ine grained- The salt tongues formed by this process are less
sediments are deposited on the slope. The Cont- thick (measured in hundreds of feet) than the
inental Slope and the abyssal floor, where sub- landward dipping salt wedges (which can be several
marine fans provide reservoir-quality sand, went thousand feet thick) that form large scarps at the
through a dormant stage of evolution during the lower slope. The lateral extent of thinner semi-
interglacial period. During falling sea level horizontal salt tongues is extremely variable;
associated with the glacial periods prograd- however, they can be as much as 30 to 40 miles in
ation, upbuilding and retrogradational slumping length. In other cases, however, the diapirs have
through slope failure occur. The rivers get been observed to pierce through preexisting growth
entrenched on the shelf, and active deltaic sedi- faults.
mentation takes place directly on the slope.
Some of the coarse-grained sediments are trapped The latest lateral flowage of salt, which resulted
in the intraslope basin while a large portion of from the loading of the Pleistocene depocenter,
the sediments are deposited on the submarine fan. produced the Sigsbee scarp (Wilhelm and Ewing,
1972). Many authors support the concept that the
As the prograding elastic wedges advanced seaward, emplacement of the allochthonous salt in the
Jurassic salt was squeezed seaward ahead of the slope is a direct consequence of sediment loading
depocenter due to sediment loading. A possible updip on the Continental Shelf at the depocenter
model for the flow of salt and formation of various (Amery, 1969; Humphris, 1978; Shih et al., 1977;
structural forms is presented in figure 6. As a Watkins et al., 1978; etc.). If we make a reason-
result of sediment loading, the salt layer is able assumption that the overall sedimentologic
subjected to several forces, the principal ones regime on the Continental Slope has remained the
being 1) the downward force of the overburden, same during Cenozoic time, it can be argued that
which translates to lateral hydraulic force of salt scarps similar to the present-day Sigsbee
the viscous salt; 2) the opposing resistant force scarp must have been associated with depocenters
of the sediment through which salt has to flow; of earlier times. Possible locations of such
and 3) the upward buoyant force. The resultant scarps of Miocene and Pliocene age were recou-
force propels the salt along a thrust plane which structed using a constant radius of curvature
dips landward. On the Continental Slope, as the from the center of gravity of the depocenter
Salt flows upward along the thrust plane, it up- (f igure 7). The poor quality of seismic data below
lifts the overlying sediments producing a bathym-- the salt makes the recognition of older scarps
etric high and occasionally a pronounced scarp. extremely difficult, especially in areas where
The bathymetric high produces a sediment trap the younger salt tongue formed above the older one.
(scarp margin basin). An alternating landward down- Blocked canyon clastics, which are typically tur-
lapping and seaward onlapping seismic sequence in bidites and slumped deltaic sediments, provide
the scarp margin basins may suggest contemporary suitable reservoir rocks. The majority of the salt
thrusting of the salt and basin filling. In some tongues and salt wedges formed during Miocene to
cases, when the updip location of the depocenter Pleistocene time. Since salt provides an excellent
switches position, the flow of salt into the tongue seal, the potential for trapping hydrocarbons that
ceases. Under such circumstances, if the loading expulsed and migrated during late Miocene to post-
in the scarp margin basin continues, the tongue may Miocene time is excellent in the structure below
become separated from the mother salt and remain the salt.
as an isolated salt lens. In some situations, the
bathymetric high produces an unstable slope and It is well established that the Gulf of Mexico has
is partially eroded by by submarine gravity slides. not gone through any regional tectonic compressional
With continued progradation of subsequent elastic regime since Paleozoic time. It is, however, be-

195

lieved that compressional forces of local signifi- Sound, Main Pass, and Mobile Areas of the Central
cance can be generated by the intruding salt that Gulf. The Upper Miocene (Robulus E to Textularia
is driven by lateral flowage. Numerous structural L) trend is not well defined in the Western Gulf.
and stratigraphic traps form as a result of the In places where it is defined, it is separated from
lateral flowage of the salt, both below and above the Middle Miocene trend by growth faults. In the
the intrusive salt layer. Various types of traps Central Gulf, this trend is better defined and is
that have been observed on seismic lines from the located in the inner shelf area. Upper Miocene
Continental Slope are shown in figure 8. production is reported from all areas of the
Western and Central Gulf except the Brazos, Sabine
Since the salt wedges and often the salt tongue Pass, Breton Sound, and Viosca Knoll Areas. However,
intrude into the sediment layer at an angle, the major reserves are reported f rom the West Cameron
truncation of sediment layers against the bottom to Main Pass Areas.
surface of the salt provides an excellent trapping
mechanism. Erosional truncation of sediments The objectives of the Miocene production trend are
associated with uplifting that results from the mainly restricted to structural closures associated
intrusion and thrusting of salt wedges and salt with salt diapirism, shale and salt uplifts, and
tongues, and pinchouts associated with scarp growth faults. Upper Miocene production is also
margin basin fills, provide potential stratigraphic reported from stratigraphic traps in the Matagorda
traps above the salt layer. Folds and faults formed Island Area of the Western Gulf and the South Pass to
due to uplifting and tensional stretching in the Chandeleur Island Areas of the Central Gulf. These
sediments overlying the front edge of the lateral stratigraphic traps are often defined by bright
salt and structures formed by compressional deforma- spots on seismic lines.
tion ahead of the salt provide potential traps.
Sediments below the salt layer are often af f ected by Both oil and gas reservoirs of the Miocene trend
compressional forces generated by the lateral move- account for a very small percentage of the total
ment of the salt and are folded into anticlinal hydrocarbon reservoirs of all ages. Bigenerina A
traps. Literature on hydrocarbon traps associated (Upper Miocene) oil and gas reservoirs of the
with diapiric salt is extensive and will not be Central Gulf and Bigenerina R (Middle Miocene) gas
discussed here. However, it should be mentioned reservoirs of the Western Gulf are the dominant
that sediment layers below overhangs of salt contributors to the total Miocene reserves in the
domes are usually upturned and often overturned respective areas. The average depth of Upper
(figure 8D). In salt domes that grow contempora- Miocene production increases steadily from 4,000
neously with sedimentation, the sediment layers feet in both west and east to more than 12,000
pinch out against their flanks. In either case, feet in the Ship Shoal and South Timbalier Areas.
when overhangs form at late diapiric or post- The production depths of Middle Miocene and Lower
diapiric stages of growth, excellent traps form Miocene similarly increase eastward from the
below the salt. In some recently drilled wells Western Gulf area toward the Eugene Island and
that penetrated overhangs and salt tongues on the East Cameron Areas. -The average size (ACFT/RESV)
Outer Continental Shelf 'and upper Slope, a reversal of the Middle and Upper Miocene reservoirs of the
of biostratigraphic sequence was observed below the Western Gulf ranges from 5,000 ACFT to 10,000
salt. Such reversal of sequence helps in interpret- ACFT, except for Eponides 14, Textularia L and
ing the time of formation of overhangs or salt Discorbis 12 reservoirs. In each of these cases
tongues and lends support to the concept of the a low number of reservoirs contributes to the
evolution of diapirs explained in figure 8D. anomalous values. The Middle Miocene (Cibicides
Opima to Bigenerina 2) and Upper Miocene Discorbis
PRODUCTION TRENDS 12 reservoirs of the Central Gulf are larger than
10,000 ACFT. The rest of the Middle and Lower
The well established Cenozoic production trends are Miocene reservoirs of the Central Gulf range from
shown in figure 9. Discussion of the trends follows. 5,000 to 10,000 ACFT. Cristellaria K, Bigenerina
A, and Robulus E reservoirs are generally smaller
Miocene than 5,000 ACFT.

The Miocene trend extends from the Viosca Knoll The Lower Miocene reservoirs account for an insigni-
Area to the east to the North Padre Area of the ficant amount of the total Miocene oil reserves.
Western Gulf. This trend can be subdivided into High Island, Sabine Pass, West Cameron, and Mustang
three subparallel trends: Lower, Middle and and Matagorda Island are the only areas with produc-
Upper Miocene. Lower Miocene production is pri- ible Lower Miocene oil reserves. The largest reserve
marily restricted to State waters of the Gulf. of Middle Miocene oil is located in the West Cameron -
In Federal waters, Lower Miocene production is Eugene Island Areas and Main Pass. The Upper
reported from the inner shelf of Mustang Island to Miocene reservoirs are the major contributors to the
the East Cameron and Viosca Knoll Areas. The Middle total production from the Miocene trend in the
Miocene (Eponides 14 to Robulus L) subtrend is Central Gulf. They contribute 3.0 Bbbl of oil
located seaward of the Lower Miocene trend and is and 22.7 Tcf of gas to the total 3.7 Bbbl of oil
separated from it by a series of growth faults. and 44.5 Tcf of gas reserves of the Miocene trend
Laterally, the Middle Miocene trend extends from of the Central Gulf. In the Western Gulf, however,
the North Padre Island Area of the Western Gulf to Middle and Lower Miocene reservoirs account for
the Eugene Island Area of the Central Gulf. Middle the major portion of the total Miocene reserves
Miocene production is also reported from the Breton and production: 100 million barrels (MMbbls) of

196

oil out of 115 MMbbls Miocene oil reserve and 9.9 The seaward and the westward boundaries are yet to
Tcf of gas out of 10.5 Tcf Miocene gas reserve. be defined. At its depocenter, the thickness of
Pleistocene sediments may exceed 20,000 feet. Some
The Middle Miocene Bigenerina R trend of the of the wells drilled at the depocenter failed to
Western Gulf is called the Corsair trend. It is reach Lower Pleistocene sediments even at a subsea
located on the downthrown side of a large growth depth greater than 16,000 feet.
fault system that marks the boundary between the
Lower and Middle Miocene production trends. Numer- The Pleistocene trend is highly affected by salt
ous rollover structures are associated with these and shale tectonics, and a majority of hydrocarbon
growth faults. The production depths range from occurrences are associated with salt and shale
8,000 to 16,000 feet. The total reserve of this structures and growth fault systems. Stratigraphic
trend has been estimated to be 2 Tcf of gas. The traps with their associated bright spots, by
Bigenerina H section in this trend is greatly virtue of their shallow depths, are attractive
expanded in the downthrown side of the growth prospects of the Pleistocene trend.
fault system. Huge sand sections up to 2,000
feet thick are recorded in many of the wells in The majority of oil and gas reservoirs of the West-
this area. Typically, 20- to 50-foot-thick sand ern Gulf are of Pleistocene age. The number of
layers are separated by shale. Angulogerina B and Hyalinea B reservoirs is less
than that of Valvulineria H, Lenticulina 1 or
Pliocene Trimosina A reservoirs. In the Central Gulf, the
number of Pleistocene reservoirs of different
The maximum thickness of Pliocene sediments is biostratigraphic intervals follows the same trend.
observed on the middle and outer shelf off central The average depth of production ranges from 4,000
and eastern Louisiana. The thickness of the Pli- to 7,500 feet on the Continental Shelf. The
ocene (Buliminella 1 to Textularia 6) sediments average depth of production, as in the case of
ranges from 4,000 feet off Texas to 8,200 feet Miocene and Pliocene trends, increases from east
off Louisiana. Even though a minor amount of hydro- and west toward the South Timbalier Area. The
carbons is produced from the High Island Area of average size. of the Central Gulf Pleistocene
Texas, the majority of Pliocene production comes reservoirs ranges from 3,500 to 5,800 ACFT. The
from the Continental Shelf off Louisiana. The reservoirs of the Western Gulf, with the exception
western limit of the Pliocene trend is not well of Lenticulin 1, are larger than those of the
defined; however, based on the current production Central Gulf. The average thickness of the
data, the trend's western limit has been set at the Pleistocene reservoirs of both the Western and
Texas-Louisiana border (figure 9). In its eastern the Central Gulf ranges from 20 to 40 feet.
end it possibly continues up to the Lower Cretaceous
trend. In the downdip direction the Pliocene remains Gas reservoirs of the High Island, West Cameron, and
productive below the Pleistocene trend. East Cameron Areas are mainly of Lower Pleistocene
age. Upper Pleistocene reserves are mainly located
The Pliocene trend, like the Upper Miocene and in upper slope sediments of the East Breaks, Green
Pleistocene trends, produces both oil and gas. Canyon, and Mississippi Canyon Areas. The majority
The Pliocene reservoirs of Textularia X and of Pleistocene oil reserves are reported from the
Buliminella 1 constitute a major percentage of area between Vermilion and South Timbalier. More
the total oil and gas reservoirs of the Central than 250 MMbls of oil reserve have been estimated
Gulf. Even though there are large numbers of for the High Island Area. A recoverable reserve
producing Pliocene reservoirs, they are generally of 100 to 200 MMbls of oil is demonstrated from
smaller ( 3,000 ACFT) than either Pleistocene the Green Canyon and Mississippi Canyon Continental
or Miocene reservoirs. The average thickness of Slope areas. The majority of Pleistocene gas
these reservoirs ranges from 17 to 25 feet. reserves are located between the High Island and
The average depth of production ranges from 4,500 Grand Island Areas.
feet in Viosca Knoll to about 11,000 feet in
South Timbalier Area. The depth of production, The Plio-Pleistocene trend in the upper slope areas
in general, increases from east and west towards of Louisiana and Texas, popularly known as the
the central part of the trend. Flexure trend, is one of the most prospective plays
of the Gulf. This trend is known for its thick oil
The area from Eugene Island to Main Pass has the pays. Net pays range from 75 to more than 200 feet.
highest concentration of Pliocene recoverable The average depths of Pliocene and Pleistocene
reserves of oil. The highest reserve of gas is reservoirs, in their deepest part in Green Canyon,
located between Vermilion and Main Pass Areas. are about 13,000 and 9,000 feet respectively.
Pliocene production is also reported from the Hydrocarbon-bearing sands of Pliocene and Pleist-
Continental Slope of the Mississippi Canyon Area. ocene age include blocked canyon intraslope de-
posits, slump and other mass-wasting deposits, and
Pleistocene possibly proximal turbidites. The sand layers
are highly variable, both in thickness and in
The Pleistocene trend is located in the Outer lateral extent. Since 1983, especially during
Continental Shelf and Slope of the Central Gulf and the last two lease sales, numerous tracts in the
the Galveston South and High Island South Areas of lower slope and continental rise areas have been
the Western Gulf. The Pleistocene trend terminates leased. Seismic study of the Continental Slope
against the Lower Cretaceous trend to the east. off Louisiana (Ray and Cooke, 1987) revealed that

197

the lower slope below the salt scarp is signifi- high. Both suitable structures and reservoir
cantly different from the upper slope in its rocks are believed to be present in these areas.
structural and stratigraphic complexity. Deep- In addition to structural traps, stratigraphic
water Upper Miocene sands, which may be promising traps are of equal importance in this area. In
prospects, are within the limits of drilling in the lower slope portion of this area, the section
these areas. below salt tongues may also have high potential.

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL CONCLUSIONS

The Continental Slope of the Northern Gulf of 1. Jurassic to Early Tertiary sediments possibly
Mexico presents an area of high hydrocarbon provide the source rocks for the hydrocarbon in
potential. Exploration of the shallow water the basin. Reservoir rocks that meet the geologi-
portion of the slope has met with extreme success. cal and geochemical suitability criteria for stor-
At least 16 oil and/or gas fields have been dis- age and preservation of hydrocarbon are believed
covered between East Breaks and Viosca Knoll at to be present in the entire geologic column of the
water depths between 600 and 1,500 feet. Recent Gulf. Reservoir rocks include deltaic, strand
drilling at water depths exceeding 7,600 feet plain, and their associated sand bodies of the
clearly indicates that the exploration of the paleo-shelf, blocked canyon intraslope basin,
entire Continental Slope is well within tech- slump, masswasting, submarine fan and other turbi-
ological limitations. dite sand bodies, and carbonate deposits of
Cretaceous and Jurassic age.
The reservoir rocks in the slope areas are Cenozoic
clastics, consisting of turbidite sands, slump 2. Areawide lease sales, 10-year lease terms for
and other mass wasting deposits, and intraslope deep water tracts, the Natural Gas Policy Act, and
blocked canyon sediments. Reservoir-quality sedi- the recent reduction of minimum bids have had
ments are expected to be present in the entire a positive impact on the leasing activity of the
geologic column from the Mesozoic to Quaternary. Gulf. In recent years, industry interest in the
However, the Quaternary section, except in the Gulf has shifted to deeper water (slope and beyond)
Mississippi fan area, thins considerably in the and deeper prospects. The Continental Slope of the
deeper water areas. The Lower Miocene and Early Gulf is expected to be the area of most active
Tertiary sections in the east Central Gulf are exploration and drilling in the future.
also extremely thin and totally absent in some
cases. The Mesozoic reservoir rocks are expected 3. The paleo-shelf and paleo upper slope environ-
to be reefs, reef talus, limestone, and dolomites. ments of the Cenozoic production trends have been
explored extensively on the present day Continental
Dolan (1986) presented a cursory look at the struc- Shelf to 10,000 to 12,000 feet. However, deeper
tural styles and traps of the Continental Slope of water paleoenvironments of various trends are yet
the Northern Gulf Basin. He indicated that the to be fully explored.
structures of the area between East Breaks and
western Green Canyon are related to intense verti- 4. The structures responsible for trap formation
cal and lateral salt movements. He also emphasized are related to salt movement (which has been
the importance of stratigraphic traps in the sporadic throughout Upper Tertiary and Quaternary),
Mississippi Canyon Area. Based on the interpreta- growth faults and their associated antithetic
tion of thousands of miles of CDP seismic lines, faults, and other faults resulting from slope
limited releasable well logs and published litera- failure. Stratigraphic traps are primarily related
ture, certain generalizations can be made regarding to pinch outs, unconformities, and lenticular sand
the future hydrocarbon prospects for the Gulf of bodies in a sand-shale sequence.
Mexico slope (figure 10).
5. If the timing of hydrocarbon generation and
The future hydrocarbon prospects for the East expulsion is Cretaceous and Early Tertiary, and
Breaks area may range from Miocene to Pleistocene if a strong secondary migration is invoked, a large
in age. Structures related to dip reversal near portion of the stratigraphic section and geographic
mid-to upper slope seem to be very prospective. area yet remains to be explored.
The Alaminos Canyon Area contains large scale
structures. Foote et. al. (1983), in describing 6. Closer attention needs to be paid to the explora-
the Perdido Fold Belt, suggested Oligocene to tion of stratigraphic traps and structures associ-
Miocene as the time of uplifting of these struc- ated with lateral movement of salt on the slope,
tures. Presence of possible Middle Miocene sub- especially below the base of the salt.
marine canyons in the Brazos Area, as interpreted
from seismic data, suggests possible conduits of REFERENCES
reservoir-quality deep-water sands for the Alaminos
Canyon Area. Even though both suitable structures Amery, G. B., 1969, Structure of Sigsbee Scarp,
and reservoir rocks are present, the hydrocarbon Gulf of Mexico: AAPG Bull., v. 53, p. 2480-2482
exploration of the upper slope area of Garden
Banks has not been as successful as in the Green Antoine, J. and W. R. Bryant, 1969, Distribution
Canyon and Mississippi Canyon Areas. Future dis- of salt and salt structures in Gulf of Mexico:
covery potential of hydrocarbons from Mississippi AAPG Bull., v. 53, p. 2543-2550.
Canyon, Green Canyon, and Atwater Valley Areas is

198

Buff ler, R. T., and D. S. Sawyer, 1985, Distribution in deep Gulf of Mexico: In A. H. Bouma and others,
of crust and early history, Gulf of Mexico Basin: eds., Framework, facies and oil-trapping char-
Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies acteristics of the upper continental margin:
Transactions, v. 35, p. 333-344. AAPG Studies in Geology, no. 7, p. 69-85

Dodson, James K. and L. A. LeBlanc, 1988, Gulf of Weise, D. J. , D. L. Slitor, and C. A. McCord, 1983.
Mexico: Exploration drilling rate remains high Gulf of Mexico summary report, September 1983.
across Gulf. Companies postpone development work Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas activities
in drive to evaluate acreage: Offshore, May, in the Gulf of Mexico and their onshore impacts.
1988 issue. Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Information
Program; Contract No. 14-08-0001-19719, 19719,
Dolan, P., 1986, Deep Water (200-1,800 meters) Washington: Department of the Interior, Minerals
Hydrocarbon Potential of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico: Management Service, p. 1-106.
AAPG Memoir 40, p. 243-268.
Wilhelm, 0., and M. Ewing, 1972, Geology and his-
Foote, R. Q., R. G. Martin and R. B. Powers, 1983, tory of the Gulf of Mexico: GSA Bull., v. 83,
Oil and Gas Potential of the Maritime Boundary p. 575-599.
Region in the Central Gulf of Mexico: AAPG
Bull., v. 67, n. 7, p. 1047-1065. Woodbury, H. 0., 1. B. Murray, P. J. Pickford,
W. H. Akers, 1973, Pliocene and Pleistocene
Humphris, C. C., Jr., 1978, Salt movement on depocenters, Outer Continental Shelf, Louisiana
continental slope, northern Gulf of Mexico: In and Texas: AAPG Bull., v. 57, no. 12, p. 2428-
A. H. Bouma, G. T. Moore, and J. M. Coleman, 2439.
eds., Framework, facies, and oil-trapping char-
acteristics of the upper continental margin:
AAPG Studies in Geology 7, p. 69-85. LEASING HISTORY
Melancon, J. M., J. P. Brooke, J. W. Compton, and WESTERN GULF OF MEXICO
W 100--
J. H. Knipmeyer, 1987, Estimated oil and gas 600'
reserves, Gulf of Mexico, December 31, 1987: 90 - 600, - 3000.
New Orleans, Department of the Inter ior/Minera le 3000'
Management Service, OCS Report MMS 88-0036.

Th
Nunn, J. A., and R. Sassen, 1986, e Framework of
Hydrocarbon Generation and Migration, Gulf of -0
E@
Mexico Continental Slope: Gulf Coast Association 40-
of Geological Societies Transaction, v. 36, p.
30-
257-262.
E_ 20
Z
.............
Pearcy, J. R. , and P. K. Ray, 1986, The Production W
L) 10-1.
Trends of the Gulf of Mexico: Exploration and
93.0
Development: Gulf Coast Association of Geological PRE'1983 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987
Societies Transactions, v. 36, p. 263-273. YEARS OF SALE
Ray. P. K., D. W. Cooke, 1987, Louisiana Continental Figure 1. Percentage of tracts leased at various
Slope: Geologic and Seismic Stratigraphic Frame- water depths,
work: (abs.) AAPG Bull., v. 71, n. 5, p. 605.

LEASING HISTORY
Ray, P. K., and J. R. Pearcy, 1989, An overview of CENTRAL GULF OF MEXICO
the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Geology, production
600,
trends, historical development, and future poten--
go
600. - 300D.
tial: In Offshore Louisiana Oil and Gas Fields
3000'
(Volume ID, New Orleans Geological Society, p. 80
E.
7-36. U 70

60
Ray, P. K., 1988, Hydrocarbon reservoirs of Gulf
50-
Mexico. Spatial and temporal distribution
of
(Abs.): AAPG Bull., v. 72, 239. E"
p. 40-

30-
Salvador, A., 1987, Late Triassic-Jurassic Paleo- 0
geography and Origin of Gulf of Mexico Basin: 20-
z
-451.
AAPG Bull., v. 71, no. 4, p. 419
10-

0
Shih, T. C., J. L. Worzel and J. S. Watkins, 1977, PRE 1983 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Northeastern extension of the Sigsbee Scarp, YEARS OF, SALE
Gulf of Mexico: AAPG Bull., v. 61, p. 1962-1978. Figure 2. Percentage of tracts leased at various
Watkins, J. S., and others, 1978, Occurrence of salt water depths.

199

M7 J956 1967 1978 198P DRILLING ACTIVITY
j:j 100 GULF OF MEXICO
JL 90
so
100
70
1941
100 20
F . Wswr
00
(6.1
3
100- @2
It! 1, 50
40D - 6 0
103 R. W..., 40
't 500 - (31.4.)
600 - 30
700 z
W 20
1967
80D .140 Ft W- L)
(103-6.)
10
Ll E I
900
300. 0
I A
4 = 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
I- -LI YEARS
3 78 EM SHELF, M UPPER-SLOPE LOWER-SLOPE
1023 R 1615 lw@@
(1111 1 2 w Figure 4. Percentage of wells drilled in a spe-
L cific geomorphic province of the OCS. Drilling in
Figure 3. Deployment of deepest production plat- the Lower Slope started in 1984. 1988 data repre-
forms. During 1947-1956, 1956-1967, 1967-1978 and sents the first half of the year.
1978-1988 the Industry concentrated on the devel-
opment of the Inner, Middle and Outer Shelf and
Upper Slope respectively.

5yr.Term 8yr.Terml 1 Oyr.Te -- - - - --------
.7- 7
7:7:7:71
600 . . . . . .
V.
-26,3 IEL6@,: .. . .. .. .... .... .. . . . .
46 70,3 : .: -_@ 11 ...
................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
@'.WELLS 9:
W .......
. . . . . . . . . .
2:: . . . . . . . . .
IN L'L

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ...
....... ....

PF
Col4TI ENTAL S CONTINENTAL SLO ; @1. . @ . . . . . . ..
. . .. . . . . . .
..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
-.3000.
. . . . . . 5:00
ow ... .. . . . . .
:@i:@ 5587ii@@:: SLo@
X
FIELD
10,00
15
Yet To Be Explored Developed
. . . . . . . . . .
12,000-
Partially
-15,00
6.0 Explored
" ........... ....
III #WELLS, -
:0,000-
..... -20,000
Yet To B@ @. 1('),,Dd
@>POO
ELLS
IV @W@LL@ @-42@ 30,000

Figure The Continental Shelf has been extensively explored and developed up to 12,000 feet.
A large portion of the geologic section of the OCS still remains to be explore'd. DM, DP and DO
refer to the deepest known Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene production, respectively.

200

CRETACEOUS A N 9
0 MILES S

3 2
SALT z 2
W: 0 z
3 0
W 4 2 UJ2-
C.ONTINENTAL CRUST OCEANIC CRUST 5 0 5 10 S 2
3-
MILES
UPPER MIOCENE
C D
0-
SALT 0
z z 2-
0 0
2
3 176w, 4-
LOWER MIOCENE N 0 5 10 E 0 2 4
MILES MILES
E 0 2 4 F
SALT MILES
0 N
3 1 0.
4- z S
20
W 0
z
PLEISTOCENE 3 wo
W4-
0 5 10 W
2

N S 6
MILES
Figure 8. Examplea.of types of traps,
SAU

S*1 ---------
@MS-A
Figure 6. Evolution of the geologic section of
the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Note the lateral T@
movement of the salt. F-DA

WALE

MS AL
Tx LA It---, I---
111 D I FL N Figure 9, Production trends of the OCS,
D2

DEPOCENTERS,
D5 D3 I S4
S3

SI
F RIDA
ESCP
S5 S4 IMS AL
2@ i[GSBEE SCARP CENOZOIC SCARPS
TX LA

C 1P)

0 200

MILFS

Figure 7. Locations of the Cenozoic depocenters
(D) and their possible associated scarps (S),
Numbers 1-5 refer to Lower, Middle and Upper Mio, .1 FUTURE HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL
cene, pliocene and Pleistocene respectively. Figure 10'. Future hydrocarbon potential of the
deepwater OCS. Prospective areas are shaded.
M@ !M

201

CORRELATION OF CENOZOIC SEDIMENTS
GULF OF MEXICO OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF

W. E. Sweet and J. C. Reed

Minerals Management Service

ABSTRACT geophysical mapping and economic evaluation of all
tracts selected for a particular lease sale.
For several years, under the Resource Evaluation
Program, the Minerals Management Service (MMS) In 1981, the Department of the Interior, under
has been conducting detailed stratigraphic corre- revised offshore leasing policies, initiated plan@-
lations of the Texas-Louisiana Outer Continental ning for the areawide leasing concept whereby all
Shelf (OCS). The program was designed primarily unleased acreage within certain specified large
to assist the resource evaluation effort involved 11planning areas" would be offered for lease. The
in the large, areavide leasing program. tracts receiving bids would be evaluated and bid
acceptance or rejection decisions made within 90
Regional structural, stratigraphic, and production days after the sale. The new system presented MMS
maps and cross sections delineate 26 identified with the problem of evaluating a greatly increased
productive intervals in the northwestern Gulf of number of tracts in a limited period of time. It
Mexico. Part 1 of this study extends from Galveston was apparent that a more comprehensive understand-
Area offshore Texas through Vermilion Area offshore ing of regional structural and stratigraphic
Louisiana. It encompasses portions of the most conditions would assist in the postsale evaluation
productive trends on the Federal OCS including a of tracts receiving bids. In 1982, Resource
stratigraphically complex Miocene Trend and the Evaluation began the basin-wide correlations and
prolific Pleistocene and its complex depocenters. mapping necessary to implement regional strati-
graphic/structural studies.
Data base includes 1,500 well logs, 1,000 paleon-
tological reports, 152 well velocity surveys and The f irst priority of the Regional Mapping Pro-
2,000 miles of seismic data. gram was to establish a series of well log and
seismic correlations across the Louisiana and
Texas OCS.

INTRODUCTION This correlation grid was prepared to

The Minerals Management Service (MKS) of the De- 1. Develop a series of regional, structural,
partment of the Interior has completed the first stratigraphic and production maps and cross sec-
part of detailed stratigraphic studies of the Texas- tions to delineate 26 identified production inter-
Louisiana Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) . The work vals in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico.
was performed by geologists, geophysicists, and
paleontologists under the Resource Evaluation pro- 2. Provide the geological framework neces-
gram in the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region office in sary for stratigraphic mapping as the Gulf of
New Orleans, Louisiana. This study, which includes Mexico OCS develops into a mature oil and gas
the important hydrocarbon producing region of the province.
Galveston Area, offshore Texas, through the Ver-
milion Area, offshore Louisiana (fig. 1), has 3. Publish regional cross sections and maps
been published as an atlas, OCS Report MMS 87-0026. to support the continued economic development
of the OCS, and provide a comprehensive data
The Federal Government's Resource Evaluation Pro- base to promote future research and publica-
gram for the OCS began in 1968 in the Conservation tions.
Division of the U.S. Geological Survey.
STUDY AREA
Between 1968 and 1983 the Resource Evaluation
effort in the Gulf of Mexico supported a series The central and western Gulf of Mexico were divid-
of oil and gas lease sales that usually included ed into three study areas (fig. 1). Study Area 1
only tracts with a relatively high degree of in- was selected for publication first because it is
dustry interest as expressed by multiple company centrally located and includes portions of most
nominations. This leasing policy generally limited of the productive trends on the Federal OCS. It
the size of each sale to between I and 1.5 million includes a stratigraphically complex Miocene Trend
acres. Most Resource Evaluation work consisted characterized by the transition from the deltaic
of detailed presale, tract-specif ic geological and sedimentary sequences of the central Gulf of Mexico

CH2sss-mmooo- 202 $j @1988 IEEE

to the offshore bar and deltaic sedimentary se- lower Tertiary strata are thickest in the Rio Grande
quences of the western Gulf of Mexico. Also, embayment of Texas, whereas the Miocene is thickest
the most prolific Pleistocene production and its in Louisiana (Shinn, 1971; Woodbury, et al., 1973).
geologically complex depocenters are located in The thickest Pliocene strata occur in the Central
this study area. Shelf area. The Pleistocene depocenters are located
seaward near the present day outer shelf from the
DATA BASE High Island Area to the South Timbalier Area.

A total of more that 1,500 well logs, 1,000 pale- STRUCTURE
ontological reports, and over 12,000 line miles of
seismic data are used to establish the regional The study area is located on the northwestern flank
stratigraphic framework for Part I. Two hundred of the Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Prominent structural
forty-seven well logs and 2,000 line miles of features are related to basinal subsidence and salt
seismic data appear on the published sections. A or shale movement in response to sediment loading.
well data summary is included for each well on the In general, the regional structural features include
section; also included are 183 paleontological re- deep-seated anticlinal uplifts, salt and/or shale
ports and 142 seismic time depth charts. Forty- diapirs and ridges, withdrawal synclines with asso-
three geophysical contracting companies and oil ciated contemporaneous growth faulting, and numer-
companies granted MMS permission to use proprie- ous flexures with associated listric normal faults
tary data in this publication. This study could and glide planes. The majority of the structural
not have been published in its present form with- traps discovered in the northern Gulf are associated
out the generous cooperation from industry. with salt and/or shale diapirs and ridges. Regional
down@-to-the-basin fault systems (figs. 3 and 4) are
CROSS SECTIONS contemporaneous with deposition and commonly attain
displacements greater than 5,000 feet. These sys-
The correlations of regional stratigraphic hori- tems often consist of a series of interconnected
zons are presented on closely paralleled electric arcuate faults paralleling regional strike. Re-
log and seismic cross sections (fig. 2). The cor- gional faults are oriented parallel to flexures
relation grid includes 7 east-west and i2 north- associated with paleo-shelf margins (Winker, 1982).
south electric log cross sections, which@are pre- Many of these fault systems flatten with depth
sented on 33 sheets. The seismic cross sections into a common glide plane. The down-to-the-coast
include 6 east-west and 12 north-south lines, which' faults are usually singular and result from stress
are presented on 38 sheets. Color is used to, relief due to diapiric growth and depositional sub-
identify equivalent stratigraphic markers on the sidence. The most pronounced structural feature in
electric log and accompanying seismic cross sec- the area is a broad uplift referred to as the High
tions. The electric log cross sections are illus- Island Ridge. It closely parallels the Pleistocene
trated at a vertical scale of 1 inch equals 1,000 depositional strike and can be traced southwestward
feet and a horizontal scale of I inch equals 10,000 beyond the shelf break in the Galveston Area and
feet. The seismic cross sections are illustrated eastward into the West and East Cameron Areas. It
at a vertical scale of 2.5 inches per second (half- is a deep-seated structure that probably formed
scale) and a horizontal scale of 1 inch equals I during the middle Miocene seaward of the Brazos
statute mile. The large scale and line orienta- fault system. A large influx of clastic sediments
tions of the cross sections are selected to pro-, during middle Miocene caused the seaward move-
vide a working data base that can be 'easily used ment of underlying salt or shale beds resulting
to correlate and integrate additional electric logs in an uplift of the seaward edge of the depo-
and seismic sections into the grid. center. The dip along the southern flank of the
ridge is vague and difficult to detect on seismic
REGIONAL GEOLOGY data. Numerous regional fault systems oriented
parallel to Pleistocene flexures or ancient shelf
The Gulf of Mexico as described by Antoine and margins occur along the seaward flank of the
Bryant (1969) is a small ocean basin that has been High Island Ridge. A glide plane fault system
subjected to regional subsidence since Late Meso- has been interpreted at the top of the Miocene
zoic. The present form has resulted from early, section south of Cross Section TLS-9. Movement
rifting and intrabasin sedimentary tectonic pro- along the system was initiated by Pleistocene
cesses. Graben@ basins resulting from basin rifting deposition. About nine miles of basinward move-
were formed and filled with terrestrial sediments ment of sediments along this decollement zone can
during the Triassic. More than 10,000 feet of salt be observed on Cross Section TLS-11 between Cross
were deposited during the Jurassic, and by Late Sections TLS-14 and 18. The surface of the glide
Cretaceous the present shape of the Gulf was estab- plane is distorted by diapiric uplift and salt
lished. Since then as much as 50,000 feet of sedi- withdrawal synclines (some nearly 20,000 feet
ment have been added to western and northern parts thick) seaward of each flexure. The movement of
of the basin in successively younger, offlapping sediments along a horizontal glide plane develops
wedges of strata. As the northern and western Gulf a wedge of upthrust sediments where the continental
prograded seaward, the depo6enters shifted lateral- slope 'and fault plane converge. The upthrust
ly eastward in response to a change in sediment section forms a ridge-like dam trapping sediments
source from the Rio Grande to the Mississippi on the shoreward side (fig. 5). Increasing over-
drainage system. The major shift occurred between burden initiates subsidence within the depopod and
Oligocene and Miocene time (Winker, 1982). * The the underlying salt and/or shale is squeezed into

203

a basinward direction. Continued movement along outer shelf and upper slope beginning in the late
the glide plane can initiate tilting of the distal 1970's has penetrated Miocene sediments at depths
strata in the depopod forming a tilt block of less than 10,000 feet in several wells seaward of
sediment dipping shoreward on the flanks of the the High Island Ridge. During the Miocene-early
ridge. Pliocene, a low stand of sea level (Vail, Mitchum,
and Thompson, 1977) exposed the shelf areas to
Within the study area many of these structures were extensive erosion. Upper Miocene sediments were
subaerially exposed and extensively eroded during subjected to erosion over the exposed parts of the
low stands of sea level in the lower Pleistocene. High Island Ridge and adjacent shelf areas to the
These structures and fault systems were subsequently south (table ID. An angular unconformity is ob-
overlain by thick Pleistocene deposits. These served between Miocene and Pliocene sediments on
"buried" structures and associated unconformities the seismic sections across the crest of the
may provide excellent hydrocarbon traps in the deep structure. As a result of the High Island Ridge,
Miocene sediments in the southern third of the the Miocene shelf in the High Island Area is be-
study area. lieved to, extend at least 20 miles farther sea-
ward than previous studies have suggested (Martin,
STRATIGRAPHY 1975, and Bearden et al., 1986). The late Miocene
shelf edge extends northeastward from the southern
Sediments included in the study area range from flank of High Island Ridge, parallel to Pleistocene
Miocene through Pleistocene in age and represent faults bounding the northern limit of the Pleisto-
an offlapping sedimentary sequence. The Miocene, cene depocenter (fig. 6). The major fault systems
Pliocene, and Pleistocene producing trends are are associated with paleoshelf margins. The reg-
subdivided into 26 stratigraphic horizons (markers) ional glide-plane fault systems commonly observed
based on the first occurrences of regional index in the southern part of the study area (Cross
fossils (table 1). Key wells, usually chosen Sections TLS-11, TLS-16, TLS-18, etc.) are inter-
from tbicker, downdip sequences, are selected to preted to be associated with the late Miocene
provide as complete a sedimentary section as pos- paleoshelf margin. The extension of an upper
sible. The wells have the paleontological infor- Miocene shelf, south of the High Island Ridge,
mation, nearby seismic control, and seismic velocity may be of significance to the petroleum explora-
data necessary to integrate the log markers with tionist in projecting potential reservoir sands
equivalent seismic horizons. 'Paleontological in- in deep waters. Miocene sands, though silty, are
formation is used to establish equivalent markers encountered in several wells in the High Island,
on both sides of major fault systems. The str&- South Addition Area and adjacent slope.
tigraphic horizons are based on first occurrences
of regionally recognized foraminifers in washed PLIOCE14E
samples, which are considered to be regional ex-
tinction points of specific foraminifers. First Isopach maps of the study area indicate that
occurrences of regionally recognized foraminifers Pliocene age sediments attain a maximum thickness
can be correlated along strike in most of the study of 4,500 feet off Texas and 5,500 feet off Louis-
area. However, correlations in the updip direc- iana. Across the High Island Ridge, Pliocene
tion are often difficult because of limited fossil- sediments were deposited in a relatively deep-
bearing shales in shallow water/nearshore environ- water environment. Any significant progradation
ments. Regional correlations based primarily on of the shelf margin during the Pliocene is evident
electric logs are also often inaccurate. The only in the main depocenter east of the study area.
thick elastic deposits in the study area lack The Pliocene shelf break west of the Vermilion Area
regional marker beds to aid correlation. Apparent is believed to be coincident with the late Miocene
log correlations are often inaccurate and cross shelf break.
time lines because of the lateral accretion and
coalescence of multiple deltaic sequences 'that PLIOCEVE-PLEISTOCENE BOUNDARY
exhibit similar SP and resistivity characteristics.
Consequently, electric log correlations supported There is a complete lack of agreement as to the
by seismic data are used as the primary means of location of the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary.
correlation once the reference section is defined The extinction of GloboQuadrina altispira is used
by paleontological information. by many to define the Plio/Pleistocene boundary
in the Gulf of Mexico. Some paleontologists con@-
MIOCENE tend that the extinction of Globoguadrina altispira
occurred at the beginning of the Pleistocene and
Miocene sediments are present in the onshore and use it to define the Plio/Pleistocene boundary.
offshore Texas-Louisiana coastal areas. The Paleontological analyses and seismic interpreta-
Miocene stratigraphic units gradually thicken tions indicate that Cloboguadrina altispira per-
basinward and change from prolific oil- and gas- sisted into the early Pleistocene. The Auliminella
bearing sand/shale sequences to mostly deep-water 1 biostratigraphic marker mapped as upper Pliocene
shales. The total thickness of Miocene age sedi- (UP) is considered the major marine transgression
ments in the study area is estimated at 20,000 within the upper Pliocene stage. Also, there is
feet. The most prolific Miocene production is seismic evidence of a chaotic sequence directly
confined to the inner shelf areas in the northern overlying Buliminella 1 sediments and within
third of the study area (north of Cross Section Lenticulina I (LPL-2) and Valvulineria "H" (LPL-1)
TLS-5). However, exploratory drilling on the time. These chaotic beds indicate a glacial period

204

and support the concept of a major unconformity East Cameron along Cross Sections TL-9 and TL-11.
between Buliminella I and the lower Pleistocene. The UPL-3 is present throughout most of the area
Therefore, for practical purposes the Lenticulina and can be correlated across growth faults. The
1 marker and, where present, the Valvulineria "H" UPL-4 marker relates to the Sangamon ( interglacial)
marker are considered in the lower Pleistocene stage period.
and the Buliminella I marker is considered in the
upper Pliocene stage. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
PLEISTOCENE 0 A regional correlation grid of 26 horizons is
established using electric well logs, seismic date,
During the Pleistocene, sedimentation was profound- and paleontological information.
ly affected by continental glaciation. Sea level 0
fluctuations of more than 600 feet (Akers and Recent exploratory drilling has indicated that
Holck, 1957; Beard, 1969) exposed the Continental the Miocene in the High Island Area has prograded
Shelf to subaerial erosion out to the shelf edge. farther seaward than along other parts of the Texas/
Chaotic zones, channel cuts, erosional surfaces, Louisiana shelf.
and major flexures are commonly observed on seismic 0
records throughout the Pleistocene Trend. Basins The regional structural style is one of deep-
containing more than 20,000 feet of Pleistocene seated anticlinal uplifts, salt and shale domes,
:
ediments with sand sequences over 2,000 feet thick and ridges. Numerous flexures and associated
re developed within this trend. The lower Pleis- listric growth faults trend east-west.
tocene section is subregionally divided into two 0
units: the Lower Pleistocene Unit 1, consisting of The High Island Ridge is an east-west-southwest
Valvulineria "H" age sediments, and the Lower trending anticline that began to form in middle
Pleistocene Unit 2, consisting of Lenticulina 1 age Miocene time.
19 ediments. On seismic records, the lower Pleisto- 0
cene section is frequently characterized by a thick The beginning of the Pleistocene age is marked
chaotic zone overlain by continuous parallel re- by widespread fluvial-deltaic and associated pro-
f lectors. This section closely correlates with the delta facies characterized by chaotic seismic
major marine regression and transgression that reflectors.
occurred during the Nebraskan (Valvulineria "H") 0
and Aftonian (Lenticulina 1) glacial/interglacial The Pleistocene depocenter attains thickness in
periods respectively (table II). The base of the excess of 20,000 feet. Numerous regional listric
chaotic zone is interpreted to represent an ero- growth faults contribute to the basinward movement
sional surface at the beginning of the Nebraskan of sediments along glide-plane fault systems at the
Glacial Stage. There are many localities in the top of the Miocene.
study area where Valvulineria "H" fossils are not
found because of limited marine transgression or APPLICATION OF THE STUDY
erosion. The lower Pleistocene cannot be seismi-
cally differentiated on the southern half of the The stratigraphic cross sections, which have been
study area and appears as an undifferentiated unit supported by a wealth of data and thoroughly docu-
from Lenticulina (LPL-2) to Buliminella I (UP). mented, will provide a sound basis for a number of
During the Nebraskan low stand of sea level, most geological and engineering operations related to
of the Pliocene sediments were exposed to subaerial exploration and production,. as well as reserve and
erosion. Cross Section TLS-9 exhibits the profile resource estimates.
of an entrenched valley. Coastal onlap of lower
Pleistocene sediments is apparent on the western Recognizable benefits include
end of the section. A prograding fluvial-deltaic
shoreline is observed on Cross Sections TLS-6, 1. More accurate information for the corre-
TLS-8, and TLS-12. lation and identification of producing horizons
and a more reliable basis for projecting trends and
The middle Pleistocene section is divided into two assigning geographically isolated producing hori-
units characterized by two occurrences of Angulo- zons to the proper producing trends.
Rerina "B" (MPL-1 and MPL-2). The Upper Pleistocene
Marker 1 (UPL-1) corresponds to the Hyalinea bal- 2. Provide a more accurate data base for
thica "B" index fossil. The unit thins north of evaluating tracts when pay, kinds of traps, thick-
Cross Section TL-11, and the updip limit is dif- nesses, etc. have to be projected in from other
f icult to determine. It thickens on a downdip locations. It could also influence the assignment
direction attaining a maximum thickness along Cross of risk values.
Section TL-13. In this study the "climbing" Anitu-
logerina "B" faunas in the High Islandand Galveston 3. The process of prospect ranking will be
Areas are considered to be the updip equivalent of enhanced by a more accurate identification of the
the Hyalinea "B" zone and are included in the UPL-1 correct stratigraphic horizon of prospective traps.
mapping unit.
4. The study will provide a solid basis for
Stratigraphic markers 'UPL-2 and UPL-3 are defined determining the correct geological trend to be used
by the second and first occurrence of Trimosina in the calculation of reserves and in estimating
"A". Both markers occur in wells in West and undiscovered resources.

205

5. Exploration will benef it f rom the increased Charles E. Payton, ed. Am. Assoc. of Petroleum
control provided by the basic framework and addi- Geologists Memoir 26. pp. 83-97.
tionally from the structural and stratigraphic maps
that will be generated and tied into the cross Winker, C. D. 1982. Cenozoic shelf margins, north-
sectional framework. Sand-shale ratio and sand western Gulf of Mexico Basin. Gulf Coast
percentage maps can.be extended through the use of Assoc. of Geol. Soc. Trans. 32:427-428.
information supplied by the study because the logs
and the seismic sections have been reproduced at Woodbury, H. 0.,.1. B. Murray, Jr., P. J. Pickford,
a scale that allows detailed analyses. and W. R. Akers. 1973. Pliocene and Pleistocene
depocenters, Outer Continental Shelf, Louisi-
6. Research will be encouraged because of ana-Texas. Am. Assoc. of Petroleum Geologists
the establishment of the stratigraphically con- Bull. 57(12):2428-2439.
trolled cross-sectional grid. By utilizing this
grid additional studies can be made to refine more Figures and Tables
localized and subtle structures and to determine
how they relate to the regional structural frame-
work. ........

7. In particular, this work will form a com- N
prehensive basic data base permitting exploration
groups, large and small, to consider a broader
range of possible exploration prospects. 7@1

SELECTED REFERENCES

Akers, W. R., and J. J. Hoick. 1957. Pleistocene
beds near the edge of the Continental Shelf,
Southeastern Louisiana Geol. Soc. America 15XAs -.1-NA1
Bull., 68:983-992.

Antoine, J. and W. R. Bryant. 1969. Distribution
of salt and salt structures in Gulf of Mexico.
Am. Assoc. of Petroleum Geologists Bull.
53(12):2543-50.

Beard, J. H. 1969. Pleistocene paleotemperature
record based on planktonic foraminifers,
Gulf of Mexico. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc.
Trans. 19:535-553.

Bearden, B. L., R. M. Mink and E. A. Mancini. 1986.
Regional geologic. framework and petroleum
geology of Miocene strata of Alabama coastal
waters area and adjacent Federal waters area.
Geological Survey of Alabama and State Oil Figure 2. Lmatian of Cross Sections
and Gas Board.

Martin, R. G. 1978. Northern and eastern Gulf of
Mexico Continental Margin: Stratigraphic and
structural framework. In: Framework, facies,
and oil-trapping characteristics of the upper V-
EXAS LOUI@IANA@
Continental Margin, A. H. Bouma, G. T. Moore
and J. M. Coleman, eds. Am. Assoc. of Petro-
leum Geologists Studies in Geology 7. pp.21-42.

Shinn, Anthony D. 1971. Possible future petroleum
potential of upper Miocene and Pliocene,
western Gulf Basin I In: Future petroleum
provinces of the United States - th@ir geology
and potential. Ira H. Cram, ed. Am. Assoc
of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 15, Vol. 2:
pp. 824-835.

Vail, P. R., R. M. Mitchum, Jr., and S. Thompson Ill.
1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes
of sea level, part 4: global cycles of relativ
e
changes of sea level. In: Seismic stratigra- 4
phy - applications to hydrocarbon exploration,
Figure 3. Rel@iunal St=tur&l Feet-
o_`

206

T T TLS-S
s T 9 N

LPL-2 NORTHWEST SOUTHEAST
EISTOCENE ROTATIONAL
P TILT BLOCN EROSION SUBSIDENCE ERos1oN
o-
Lp
THRUSTEO
LIST- 1AULT
Um3- To.
UNAA 12. -2.0.

MIDDL
PLIOCENE
U u'w' -0 "a VEPOCENTER/
1XIAs

MIOCENJ@_ le

FiSUT, 5. M,,Ie Pj@ FAUIC EyftOo SAIS.I. DATA C.U.1E.1 01
SCALE TELEDYNE EIPLORATION
;HIGH ISLAND RRi-E
The f,11@1,S by At ... t.l.si-I
.1 .... L .4 A.
Figure 4. High Island Ridge
u I Table I. P"t I StWY Area Stratigr4phic SUIDdivisionis
ERATREK SYSTEM. SERIES] STAGE CHRONozoNES aIDCIIRofiozoNEs

UPPER PLEtSMCENZ MARKER 4 -
Up"4 S.ft- F....
UPPER PLEISTOCENE MARKER 3 -
UPPER uPL-3 71 -- 'A' 1.@
ST Sa HARRIER 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
UPL-2 TNIIII "A" 2nd cc,rr,,c,
'To" MARKER I - -
UPL-1 hy.14I. "B'I 76-INA 'B-
I CIUPSIANA@ MIVIXA PLEISTOCENE HARKER 2 -
UPPER PLEZ
TEXAS@ UPPER 'LEE
MPL-2 "a"
IA. ..... "..c.
MIDDLE - MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE MARKER I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
MPL-I Aplap'd. 'a' 3,d ac-r-ce
-LOWER PLEISTOCENE MARKER 2
L112 I L."'..&NA I
LOWER -LOWE PLEISTOCENE MIUBUR
LPL-1 v'I.U .. m "u,
1_0 -UPPER PLIOCEN MARKER - -
B.01d.1p. I
-L... 11I.CUNZ MARKER -
LOWE& LP
'01 UPPE MIOCENE MARKER 3 -
UNI-3 Aob,Iw"E"1BUmmAA
011 K UPPER -"PER HFOCZNZ MiUIXER 2 -
UX-2 clu"VAN. K.
-UPPER RIME.. HARK21 I -
UM-1 Dh,.bb 12
-Too. MIOCEN MAULKER 9 - -
M'9 2
-MIDDLE MIOCENE MARKER a -
MAREJUL 7 W.
A -MIDDLE NIMM
"A"
-KI..u Him.. HARKER 6
-MIDDLE M1OC`xm: .. I
MIMLZ M-5 06111do OpIN.
6 11, -NIONBLN MIME. -A 4 -
MIDDLE NIOCIENZ HARREL 3 -
A."ho 43
MIDDLE KIOMN MARIAZI 2 -
-2 C1.-IIANA 14
MIDDLE MIOCENE MARKER I -
KM-I GywIdJ,IA 'K"
OCENE MARKER 4 -
4 D.-Ibk '0'
LOAD. E_ a .. , _
I MANow- -A-
LOWER -LOWER MIDC=wE HARKER I--
UN-2 SA,- _`,I
-LDWZA MIOCENE MAJUCER I
LN-1

Comparison Table 11. Camt=isaa of Global CY-1- of Sea LAWal Ch"e to
Stratigraphic aibdivisl@, PRXt I StUdY Area
F.,
4-1
RAU' .11. A.
UPLI S-.. F- ft.- lo

UL, UUA

C_
o
LP 15

nm-

207

A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL
OF THE WASHINGTON-AND OREGON CONTINENTAL SHELF

Catherine A. Dunkel

U.S. Department of the Interior
Minerals Management Service
Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region
Los Angeles, California

ABSTRACT 127 0 125 0 123 0 1210

The continental shelf off Washington and
Oregon encompasses a large volume of subsurface Vancouver"t... ;CANADA
strata that may contain appreciable IslandI
accumulations of hydrocarbons. Regional
analyses of exploratory well and seismic
reflection data indicate the presence of a thick 00
succession of Cenozoic marine sedimentary and
igneous rocks, which exist within five shelf- 0
wide, unconformity-bounded, stratigraphic 48
sequences. The sequences comprise rocks from X
the early Paleogene, late Paleogene, early -.Seattle
Neogene, late Neogene, and Quaternary periods.
Oil- and gas-prone source rocks that have
undergone thermal maturation and hydrocarbon
generation exist within the sedimentary rocks of
the sequences; also present are potential G) WASHINGTON
hydrocarbon reservoirs and traps. These factors
suggest that geologic conditions that favor
hydrocarbon generation, accumulation, and PACIFIC
entrapment have existed along the Washington and 46 0
Oregon continental shelf and that appreciable OCEAN (D Co -t River
hydrocarbon resources may be present.

Portland

INTRODUCTION

The continental shelf off Washington and
Oregon (Figure 1) encompasses a large volume of
3
subsurface strata that may contain appreciable
accumulations of hydrocarbons. Although 2 OR E G ON 44 0
economic hydrocarbon accumulations have not yet seaward
been discovered offshore Washington and Oregon,
the area has been relatively unexplored compared edge of the
with other regions of the petroliferous Pacific continental shelf1
continental shelf. Regional analyses of
exploratory well and seismic reflection data
offshore Washington and Oregon provide insight
to geologic conditions that have controlled 0 50 mi
hydrocarbon generation, accumulation, and I
entrapment along the shelf and permit a 0 100 krn 0
42
potential of the region. ORN A
qualitative assessment of the hydrocarbon
CALIF I

STRATIGRAPHY
Figure 1. Index map of the Washington and Oregon
Exploratory well and seismic reflection continental shelf. Circled numbers denote loca-
data indicate the presence of a thick succession tions of exploratory oil and gas wells referred
of Cenozoic marine sedimentary and igneous rocks to in Table 1 and Figures 2 and 3.

208 United States Government work not protected by copyright

TABLE 1 The occurrence of oil and gas ("shows") in
rock samples from offshore exploratory wells
REFERENCE (Figures 2 and 3) indicates that thermal
NUMBER COMPANY WELL,NAME and NUMBER maturation of hydrocarbon source material has
occurred locally along the continental shelf.
1 Pan Am OCS P-0112 No.1 The probable existence of volcanically elevated
regional geothermal gradients suggests that
2 Union OCS P-0130 Fulmar No.1 hydrocarbon maturation and generation may have
occurred elsewhere along the shelf as well.
3 Shell OCS P-087 No.2
RESERVOIR ROCKS
4 Union OCS P-093 Grebe No.1
Knowledge of the presence and quality of
5 Standard OCS P-0103 Nautilus No.1 reservoir rocks along the continental shelf is
limited to exploratory well locations where
6 Shell OCS P-072 No.1 lithologic data have been collected. These data
indicate that sedimentary rocks along the shelf
7 Shell OCS P-075 No.1 are predominantly fine-grained sandstone and
siltstone of relatively low porosity and
8 Shell & OCS P-0150 No.1 & 1A permeability. However, the occurrence of
Pan Am hydrocarbon shows within each of the
9 Shell OCS P-0155 No.1 stratigraphic sequences indicates that some of
the sedimentary rocks have sufficient porosity
10 Pan Am OCS P-0141 No.1 and permeability to permit migration and
accumulation of oil and gas.
Table 1. Exploratory oil and gas wells referred
to in Figures 1 through 3. Although a greater number of hydrocarbon
shows were encountered in Paleogene strata as
compared with younger rocks, it is unlikely that
along the continental shelf off Washington and potential reservoirs are more abundant within
Oregon. The strata exist within five shelf- the Paleogene sequences. Most of the well
wide, unconformity-bounded, stratigraphic locations are outside or along the periphery of
sequences (Figures 2 and 3), which were produced the.post-Paleogene basins; therefore, the well
by episodic marine sedimentation and volcanism data do not provide meaningful lithologic
during the early Paleogene, late Paleogene, insight to strata within the thickest and
early Neogene, late Neogene, and Quaternary potentially most prospective portions of the
periods. The sequences range in age from Neogene and Quaternary sequences. The existence
Paleocene (?) to middle Eocene (lower Paleogene of coarse-grained clastic rocks within
sequence), late Eocene to Oligocene (upper depositionally similar shelf-basins suggests
Paleogene sequence), early to middle Miocene that the Neogene and Quaternary basinal
(lower Neogene sequence), late Miocene to sequences offshore Washington and Oregon contain
Pliocene (upper Neogene sequence), and some porous and permeable sedimentary rocks that
Pleistocene to Holocene (Quaternary sequence). may be potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Although Paleogene strata are widespread along
the continental shelf, thick accumulations of TRAPS
Neogene and Quaternary strata are restricted to
six depositional shelf basins. Maximum Seismic reflection data along the
stratigraphic thickness occurs at the basinal continental shelf indicate the presence of
depocenters where the Cenozoic section ranges numerous structural and stratigraphic features
from 10,000 feet (3050 meters) to more than that have potential for entrapment of
20,000 feet (6100 meters) thick. hydrocarbons. Although the quantity and areal
extent of the seismic data are insufficient to
SOURCE ROCKS permit trap-specific evaluation, the data
provide insight to the geographic and
Sedimentary source rocks suitable for stratigraphic distribution of potential traps
hydrocarbon generation exist within the along the shelf.
subsurface strata of the continental shelf and
the adjacent onshore area. It is likely that Potential structural traps include simple
the hydrocarbon source-rock potential of to complexly faulted anticlines, fault traps,
offshore strata is more favorable than that of and traps associated with shale diapirs, pillow
adjacent onshore source rocks, which are structures, and igneous intrusions. A
organically lean, gas prone, and of marginal shelf-wide discontinuity in structural style
thermal maturity. This supposition is based on exists in the vicinity of the Columbia River.
the inference that potential'offshore source Geologic structures north of the discontinuity
rocks were deposited in deep-water, organically generally consist of numerous northwest-
rich environments and have undergone greater trending, tightly folded anticlines and thrust
burial and thermal maturation. faults, as well as shale diapirs; the structural

209

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style south of the discontinuity is SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
characterized by relatively extensive, broad
anticlines and thrust faults that trend Braislin, D.B., Hastings, D.D., and Snavely,
northward. In general, older stratigraphic P.D., Jr., 1971, Petroleum potential of
sequences along the shelf display greater western Oregon and Washington and adjacent
structural complexity. These observations continental margin, in Cram, I.H., ed.,
seemingly infer that numerous small, complex Future petroleum provinces of the United
structural traps may exist within the older States--their geology and potential:
(e.g., Paleogene) sequences in offshore American Association of Petroleum
Washington and, conversely, that fewer and Geologists Memoir 15, p.229-238.
larger structural traps may exist within the Kulm, L.D., and others, 1984, Western North
younger (e.g., Neogene and Quaternary) sequences American continental margin and adjacent
in offshore Oregon. ocean floor off Oregon and Washington,
Atlas I Ocean Margin Drilling Program,
Potential stratigraphic traps are abundant Regional Atlas Series: Marine Science
along the continental shelf, and may exist along International, Woods Hole, MA, 32 sheets.
unconformities and within lithofacies pinch- Snavely, P.D., Jr., 1987, Tertiary geologic
outs. framework, neotectonics, and petroleum
potential of the Oregon-Washington
CONCLUSIONS continental margin, in Scholl, D.W.,
Grantz, A., and Vedde-r, J.G., eds., Geology
Synthesis of geologic and geophysical and resource potential of the continental
information from the Washington and Oregon margin of western North America and
continental shelf indicates (1) the presence of adjacent ocean basins--Beaufort Sea to Baja
a large volume of marine sedimentary rock, (2) California: Circum-Pacific Council for
the presence of oil- and gas-prone hydrocarbon Energy and Mineral Resources. Earth Science
source rocks, (3) the existence of geothermal Series, v.6, p. 305-335.
gradients that have permitted hydrocarbon Snavely, P.D., Jr., and Kvenvolden, K.A., 1988,
maturation and generation, (4) the presence of Preliminary evaluation of the petroleum
porous and permeable sedimentary rocks that are potential of the Tertiary accretionary
potential hydrocarbon reservoirs, and (5) the terrane, west side of the Olympic
presence of abundant potential hydrocarbon Peninsula, Washington, Part 1, Geology and
traps. hydrocarbon potential: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 88-75, p.1-26.
These factors suggest that geologic Snavely, P.D., Jr., Pearl, J.E., and Lander,
conditions that favor hydrocarbon generation, D.L., 1977, Interim report on petroleum
accumulation, and entrapment have existed along resources potential and geologic hazards in
the Washington and Oregon continental shelf and the Outer Continental Shelf--Oregon and
that appreciable hydrocarbon resources may be Washington Tertiary province (with a
present. section on resource appraisal estimate by
E.W. Scott): U.S. Geological Survey Open-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS File Report 77-282, 64 p.
Snavely, P.D., Jr., Wagner, H.C., and Rau, W.W.,
The ideas expressed here are based on 1982, Biostratigraphy and correlation of
collective analyses by the author and by Frank Tertiary rocks in wells drilled on the
Webster and Tim Ingwell of the Minerals southern Oregon continental margin: U.S.
Management Service. Our analyses have been Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field
greatly aided and influenced by numerous Studies Map MF-1482.
geologic studies of the region; the primary of Snavely, P.D., Jr., and Wells, R.E., 1984,
these are listed in the bibliography. I thank Tertiary volcanic and intrusive rocks on
my colleagues for constructive reviews of the the Oregon and Washington continental
manuscript. shelf: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
Report 84-282, 17 p.
Webster, F.L., 1985, Pacific OCS Lease Sale,
October 1, 1964, Oregon and Washington:
Minerals Management Service OCS Report MMS
85-0101, 36 p.
Zieglar, D.L., and Cassell, J.K., 1978, A
synthesis of OCS well information, offshore
central and northern California, Oregon,
and Washington, in Hill, F.L., coord.,
Energy Exploration and Politics: California
Division of Oil and Gas, 27 p.

212

IMPACT OF THE OIL-BEARING MONTEREY FORMATION ON
UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES OF OFFSHORE CALIFORNIA

Jeff Kennedy and Carol Grant

Minerals Management Service
Pacific OCS Region
Los Angeles, California 90017

ABSTRACT The Partington (northern Santa Maria basin), Ano
Nuevo (Outer Santa Cruz), La Honda (Inner Santa
Cruz), Bodega, and Point Arena basins have all ex-
perienced similar tectonics and sedimentation.
About 1.4 billion barrels of oil equivalent Although the sediments (e.g., Monterey Formation)
reserves will be ultimately produced from frac- are not continuo 4aterally, they are cor-
tured Monterey reservoir systems within identified relatable (fig. 2).11 The Monterey Formation is
fields in the southern California Outer Continen- organic rich with a total gDrganic carbon (TOC)
tal Shelf. Understanding Monterey fracture sys- content of 3 to 18 percent. Diagenetic altera-
tems will help develop new potential discoveries tion of sediments and tectonic overprinting have
within offshore central and northern California. created massive fracture systems. Once formed,
these fracture systems become excellent fluid
INTRODUCTION migration paths/fracture reservoirs. Accordingly,
a better comprehension of fracture reservoirs,
The United States of America needs secure sources such as the Monterey, can well enhance oil
of domestic oil and gas. Recent published working recoveries.
papers by the U.S. Geological Survey personnel
suggest that the nation's economically recoverable REGIONAL GEOLOGY
oil nd pas maybe lower than previously
estim:ted. Lower resource estimates are the The regional geology for central and northern
result of recent drilling disappointments (e.g., California is similar for the following four
$150 million Mukluk dry hole) and lower oil prices basins: (1) Santa Maria - Partington (northern
that have preclufed exploration or development of Santa Maria), (2) Ano Nuevo (Outer Santa Cruz),
high-cost pools. As a result of this postulated (3) La Honda (Inner Santa Cruz) - Bodega, and (4)
reduction of resources, additional attention is Point Arena (fig. 2). Three major depositional/
needed to augment these reserves. orogenic cycles make up the tertiary stratigraphic
section of coastal California (fig. 3). During
The frontier basins of the California Outer Con- the Paleogene, approximately 58 to 28 million
tinental Shelf (OCS) are considered to be among years before present (mybp), sand, silt, and mud
the few remaining areas within the continental were deposited into deep ocean environment. At
United States in which to find major undiscovered the beginning of the Neogene (26 mybp), the land
resources. Since OCS Lease Sale 53, May 5, 1981, was uplifted (Oligocene uplift) above the sea and
39 exploratory wells have been determined to have eroded (fig. 3). During the early Miocene (26 to
recoverable hydrocarbons that are producible in 16 mybp), the oceans started to transgress onto
paying quantities in the southern California OCS. the land. During the Miocene (26 to 5,mybp), the
Twenty-one new oil fields have been identified present basins were formed as a consequence of
within the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region right lateral movement along the San Andreas fault
(POCS) by these, wells (fig. 1). zone. In the middle Miocene (16 to 13 mybp), the
Monterey Formation and its equivalent rocks were
Total estimated ultimate production from dis- deposited into deepwater, oxygen-starved (anaer-
covered fields in the southern California OCS is obic) basins during the maximum transgression of
2.1 billion barrels of oil equivalent. This the sea. The depositional cycle was terminated
production is attributed to 22 oil and gas fields with the Miocene-Pliocene uplift (approximately 13
and 2 gas fields. Gas reserves are expressed in mybp). Sea level rose again in late Miocene time
terms of oil on the basis of equivalent heating (13 to 5 mybp), and initiated the late Neogene
values (6,000 cubic feet of gas has approximately depositional cycle, which endl with the
the same heating value of 1 barrel of oil). Ap- Pliocene-Pleistocene uplift (1 mybp).
proximately two-thirds of anticipated ultimate
production, 1.4 billion bayels of oil, will be The Eel River basin is a forearc basin that fol-
from the Monterey Formation. lows a similar set of depositional cycles (fig.
3).

213 United States Government work not protected by copyright

21
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U.S. Department ol the Interior
AM Imnarsts Management Service

PROvINCIAL WEST
CUAST USAGE
(D Q
POINT BODEGA LA HONDA AND NUEVO SANTA
EEL RIVER
BASIN BASIN MARIA
S& BASIN ARENA BASIN
n @-
I BASIN BASIN
S
1 11 , j E2
. ol

a 0- 0--." ow .... 1,
.1. 84. sk)

a "PLIO STOCE E UPLIFT
,41,'I
4v
a
a.

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Mb, N,W.. F.
Is. S'-) (Sl- A SO (M- & a.,
S.@ G
2.5-
EW R- F. P ......
Mb,

CENE
PLIFT
TE
0 .... C... S." a
"@W s ......
S N
ON IT(
F.
Pg. A.... F.
Up,., 8... R1... Vm--Y") @t- F. F@
a.,.
0211H, Sh. ch"k. MAI Sit.t. Ch
IS. & 60k 611.1) 3, & 01, a.) A D.I.) P'. S.,
(D F,
___F SO
11-5
16.0- 0
z
F.
M, 1.
//'/a -
Z.5 -
-
IN,
/*
OLIGOCENE U P L I
26.0

37.5
Rl- M11t
42.0-

/0
49.0

//,x
Z

F,
I U
53.0 Yp F.
SR., & a.) F.
(a. & SIt") G
50.0-
ALEOCENE UPLIFT?

10.0- ......... 15, 1
&a F. D' P.I., F.
S. & S"'t,
78.0- (C
o 'Z//MID-UPTER CRETI CEOUS UFL
X

92.0
N

too.0- Ud
F...
F%Z.&.. F.
2

(D
Q)

Figure 3. Stratigraphic chart of central and northern
California. 4

215

MONTEREY FORMATION with the crest of the structure and those wells
that penetrated a fault zone, (zone of high frac-
The middle Miocene Monterey Formation records the ture potential). Those wells with the lowest
deposition of foraminiferal and diatomaceous oozes production did not appear to penetrate a fault or
with various amounts of calcareous and phosph:t1c fractured zone (matrix production only).
getritus in anaerobic, deepwater marine basin
Widespread deposition of siliceous and cal- Plotting the following five pieces of information
careous lithofacies suggest that a rapid bloom of may aid in planning a field development: (1) plot
plankton occurred below or near the fluctuating perforation interval of all wells on Monterey
boundary of an ocean oxygen minimum zone. structure map; (2) posting of production rates
Material deposited below this zone is well (per perforation foot per month); (3) identifica-
preserved as it is not destroyed by most tion and posting of lithofacies; (4) comparison of
microbiological and scavenger action. A source rock density to movement along faults or crestal
rock of 1 percent TOC is considered good; the Mon- flexture of beds to delineate the size of fracture
terey has a TOC of 3 to 18 percent, which makes zones or envelopes (area of fracturing); and (5)
the Monterey a superb source rock. review of seismic interpretations to identify new
fault zones. By understanding the fault patterns
With increasing pressure and temperature during and mapping potential Opal-CT and quartz
burial, the organic finely laminated biogenetic lithofacies the location of a development well can
deposits in time were converted into diatomites be optimized to intersect the maximum exposure of
cherts, porcellanites, siliceous siltstones, the fracture envelope. These wells should be able
mudstones, and dolostones. X-ray diffraction to produce for a longer period of time at a higher
analysis has shown the diatomites convert from production rate. Infill drilling between fault
amorphous silica (Opal-A) to a more ordered crys- zones may be necessary to recover all convention-
talline phase of Cristobolite-Tridymite (Opal-CT s ally recoverable reserves before abandonment of
with increasing tpmperature from 40.60C to 58.9 C the field.
(1050F to 1380F).O," A final phase change occurs
from Opal-CT to quartz at a temperature rang% be- MONTEREY PETROLEUM POTENTIAL IN THE CENTRAL
tween 65.60C and 87.80C (150OF and 1900F). 1 6 CALIFORNIA PLANNING AREA
The silica phase changes will reduce porosity to
18-22 percent, which is typi 'cally found in Mon- The Central California Planning Area includes the
terey reservoir rock. The amounts of clay region between the offshore extension of the San
materia@ in the oozes may retard these phase Luis Obispo-Monterey County line and the offshore
changes. With each phase change the rock becomes extension of Sonoma-Mendocino County line. Within
denser and water is expelled as the molecular this planning area are four sedimentary basins:
volume decreases. Internal hydraulic ff acturing Partington (northern Santa Maria basin), La Honda,
of rock compensates for pressure changes. Ano Nuevo, and Bodega basins (fig. 2). In this
area, 12 wells were drilled from'September 1963 to
Fracture density is lowest in the siliceous September 1967. These wells were drill?d on
mudstones, shales and dolosto IT s and greatest in leases issued from the May 1963 lease sale.
the brecciated cherts (quartz). Fractures may be
caused by (1) syneresis (a shrinkage crack formed Two wells were drilled in the Ano Nuevo basin.
by spontaneous expulsion of water), (2) diagenetic Shell Well OCS-P 036-1 found 530 m (1,760 ft) of
fractures, (3) tectonic fracturing (fold and fault Monterey Formation. Drill cuttings throughout the
related), 9(4) joints, and (5) fractures from Monterey Formation were coated (up to 100%) with
weathering. Within the Point Arquello Field, free tarry oil. Shell Well OCS-P 035-1, located
fracture permeability (1 to 2% of reservoir 19.2 km (11.5 miles) southeast of OCS-P 036-1,
volume) appears to be the major factor in control- drilled 451 m (1,480 ft) of Monterey Formation.
ling initial production rates (6,000 b y rels of Free tarry oil coated the drill cutting throughout
oil per day) from the Monterey Formation. Within this zone. The amount of free tarry oil was less
the field, matrix permeabg!itf commonly averages than what was observed in OCS-P 031-1. No forma-
0.1 millidarcy or less 0 suggesting that tion tests were run on eithev well. 1
within the Monterey Formation fracture intensity
is controlled more by lithology than by structural In the Bodega basin, 10 wells were drilled. The
position or bed curvature. Monterey Formation ranged in thickness from 43 to
314 m (142 to 1,030 ft) within these wells. Shell
MONTEREY RESERVOIR STUDIES Well OCS-P 055-2 and redrill 2A penetrated a thin
section of Monterey sediments. Oil stains and
Review of individual well production histories for traces of bleeding oil were noted from 1,976 to
several fracture reservoir fields revealed that 1,979 m (6,480 to 6,490 ft) within the Monterey
more than half of the production came from only a chert. Minor or nj oil shows were observed in the
few wells. These wells were drilled on a 50- to other eight wells. 1
90-acre spacing. Initial production rates in some
of these development wells ranged from 20 to 6,000 No wells were drilled in Partington or offshore La
barrels of oil per day (BOPD). An apparent Honda basins.
direct relationship exists between the location of
the perforated interval for those wells with the
highest production rates and the structural posi-
tion. Highest production rates were associated

216

oil.5 Within offshore Santa Maria, over 1 billion
MONTEREY PETROLEUM POTENTIAL IN THE NORTHERN barrels of discovered oil is fr the fractured
CALIFORNIA PLANNING AREA strata of the Monterey Formation.?f

The Northern California Planning Area includes the The geology, oil shows, and well log characteris-
region between the offshore extension of the tics found in wells of central and northern
Sonoma-Mendocino County line and the offshore ex- California are similar to those seen in the Santa
tension of the California-Oregon border. Within Maria basin. These similarities suggest that
the planning area are two sedimentary basins: several undiscovered giant oil fields mat yet be
Point Arena and Eel River (fig. 2). In this area found in central and northern California.ri
seven wells were drilled from blocks offered in
the May 1963 lease sale. These wells were drilled SUMMARY
from July 1964 to November 1966.
Due to increasing oil demands and shrinking na-
Three wells were drilled within the Point Arena tional oil reserves, the United States needs to
basin by Shell Oil Company. Well OCS-P 030-1 was improve its methods of discovering new oil and gas
a vertical hole drilled on a faulted and tightly fields and maximize recovery from those already
folded structure to a total depth of 3,243 m producing. The Monterey Formation holds the most
(10,636 ft). From the first recovered drill cut- promise for containing new large oil and gas dis-
tings, 171 m (61 ft), to total depth, up to 90 coveries in central and northern California plan-
percent of the cuttings were coated with free, ning areas. As Monterey productio ,n depends
tarry oil. A 1,494-m (4,900-ft) section of Point heavily on fracture permeability, locating zones
Arena Formation (Monterey equivalent) was of optimum fracturing will play a major role in
penetrated. This well penetrated two reverse the discovery and development of California OCS
faults thus encountering repeated sections of resources.
Point Arena Formation. Six wire-line formation
tests were made recovering mostly water and drill- REFERENCES CITED
ing fluids. Formation test No. 1 in the Point
Arena Formation at 1,564 m (5,130 ft) recovered 50 1. Mast, R.F., Dolton, G.L., Crovelli, R.B.,
cubic centimeters (cc) of 29 degree API gravity Powers, R.B., Charpentier, R.R., Root, D.H.,
oil and 9,950 cc of water. This well has been and Attanasi, E.D., 1988, Estimates of un-
@dered to b a potential new discovery by discovered recoverable oil and gas resources
consi
private industry.12 Weak oil shows were observed for the onshore and State offshore areas of
throughout the Pliocene apd pre-Miocene sections in the United States: USGS Research on Energy
the remaining two wells.' Resources - 1988 Program and Abstracts , USGS
Circular 1025, p. 31-32.
Commercial gas has been produced from the Neogene
(26.0-0.7 mybp) turbidite sandstone reservoirs in 2. Raftery, P.J., and Wolfson, S.A., 1988, Es-
two onshore fields within Eel River basin. oil timated oil and gas reserves, Pacific Outer
seeps have been reported within the basin, and Continental Shelf (as of December 31, 1987):
minor amounts of oil have been produced from Department of the Interior, Minerals Manage-
Cretaceous (135 to 65 mybp) strata near Petrolia, ment Service, OCS Report MMS 88-0047, 17p.
17 km (10 miles) south of Eel River basin. Mon-
terey type deposits (Bear River Beds) exi st on 3. Pisciotto, K.A., and Garison, R.E., 1981,
the flanks of the onshore Eel River basin and may Lithofacies and depositional environments of
exist offshore. Four offshore leases issued from the Monterey Formation, California, in Gar-
the May 1963 lease sale were' tested by drilling. rison, R.E. and Douglas, R.G., editors, The
These wells were drilled along the flanks and Monterey Formation and related siliceous
crest of a basement high. No oi I or gas shows rocks of California: Society of Economic
were reported and the Monterey Formation or its Paleontologists and Mineralogists, p. 97-
temporal equivalfpts, the "Bear River Beds", were 122.
not encountered.
4. Webster, F.L., Burdick, D.J., and Yenne, K.A.,
MONTEREY OIL, A NEW LOOK 1986, Geologic report, proposed Northern
California Planning Area, OCS Lease Sale No.
Before 1969, the Monterey Formation and similar 91: Department of the Interior, Minerals
rocks were not considered to be economically Management Service, OCS Report MMS 86-0025,
capable of producing oil and gas offshore. In 47p.
1969, oil was discovered in the Monterey Formation
at the Hondo structure in the Santa Ynez Unit 5. Crain, W.E., Mero, W.E., and Patterson, D.,
within the Santa Barbara Channel, offshore 1985, Geology of the Point Arquello dis-
California. Ultimate production from Pis field covery: American Association of Petroleum
is estimated at 202 million barrels.i: In May Geologists Bulletin, Vol. 69, No. 4, p.
1981, Chevron USA and partners bid $333,596,200 537-545.
for OCS-P 0450 to delineate and confirm a giant
Monterey oil field (Point Arquello) with estimated 6. Bachman, S. and Crouch, J., 1984, Structure
reserves between 300 and 500 million barrels of and stratigraphy of the Monterey For-
mation and adjacent rocks of central

217

California: A field seminar, Part 1,
descriptive text and guidebook, Nekton
Inc., 54P.

7. Issacs, C.M., 198U, Diagenesis in the Monterey
Formation examined laterally along the
coast near Santa Barbara, California: PhD
thesis, Stanford University, Stanford,
California, 344p.

8. Redwine, L.E., 1981, Hypothesis combining
dilation, natural hydraulic fracturing,
dolomitization to explain petroleum reser-
voirs in Monterey shale, Santa Maria area,
California: in Garrison, R.E., Douglas,
R.G., Pisciotto, K.E., Issacs, C.M., and
Ingel, J.C., editors, The Monterey Forma-
tion and related siliceous rocks of
California: Pacific,Section, Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists,
p. 221-248.

9. Synder, W.S., 1987, Structure of the Monterey
Formation: Stratigraphic, diagenetic, and
tectonic influences on style and timing, in
Ingersoll, R.V., and Ernest, W.G., editors,
Cenozoic basin development of coastal
California: Rubey Volume VI, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, p. 322-347.

10. B01field, W.C., Helwig, J., LaPointe, P., and
Dahleen, W.K., 1983, South Ellwood Oil
Field, Santa Barbara Channel, a Monterey
Formation fracture reservoir: in Issacs,
C.M., Garrison, R.E., Grahim, S.A., and
Wensky, W.A., editors, Petroleum generation
and occurrence in the Miocene Monterey For-
mation, California: Pacific Section,,
Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists, p. 213-221.

11. Webster, F.L. and Yenne, K.A., 1987, Northern
and central California, lease sale/May 14,
1963: Department of the Interior, Minerals
Management Service, OCS Report'MMS 87-0108,
48p.

12. Ogle, B.A., 1981, Oil and gas exploration off-
shore central and northern California, in
Halbouty, M.T., Energy resources of the
Pacific: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, p.375-381.

13. California Division of Oil and Gas, 1987, 72nd
Annual report of the State oil and gas su-
pervisor: California Division of Oil and
Gas, Publication No. PR06, p. 39.

14.Minera-ls Management Service, 1987, Pacific
Summary/Index: June 1, 1986-July 31, 1987:
Department of the Interior, Minerals
Management Service, OCS Information Report
MMS 87-0078, 140p.

218

THE ANCIENT ATLANTIC REEF TREND

GARY M. EDSON

Minerals Management Service
Atlantic OCS Region
1951 Kidwell Drive
Vienna, Virginia 22180

ABSTRACT the North American margin, around the tip
of Florida, and into the Gulf of Mexico.
In 1983 and 1984, Shell Offshore, Inc., 4, 5, 6, 7
drilled four petroleum exploration wells
about 90 miles offshore from Mew Jersey, The Baltimore Canyon trough, offshore
Delaware, and Maryland. This exploration from the mid-Atlantic States, is the most
program, at the time, established world thoroughly explored of the U.S. Atlantic
deep-water drilling records; one drill sedimentary basins. Two stratigraphic
hole was in 6,952 feet of water. Shell's test wells, COST (Continental Offshore
main exploration targets were the lime- Stratigraphic Test) B-2 and B-3, and 28
stones of an ancient, buried platform industry petroleum exploration wells were
margin, reef, and other associated rock drilled shoreward of the limestone plat-
units. These limestones extend discon- form and reef trend between 1975 and
tinuously from Canada to Florida beneath 1981. In 1983 and 1984, Shell Offshore,
the edge of the continental shelf and Inc., conducted a four-well exploration
,slope. Petroleum accumulations occur in program on the seaward margin of
many parts of the world in deeply buried Baltimore Canyon trough, about 90 miles
reefs of former geologic ages, but the offshore from New Jersey, Delaware, and
Shell drill holes encountered no signifi- Maryland (Fig. 1). Three of these drill
cant amounts of oil or gas. Neverthe-
less, this exploration effort provided
considerable information about previously 76* 75* 74* 73- 72* 71*
untested rocks. The platform-edge lime- jPA /' I - .-- 0. W
stones and reef do have reservoir $(p 000
characteristics and may contain petroleum NJ
at other locations offshore from the COST 0-2
At lantic seaboard.

-396
COST B-3 -
DE 372-1
INTRODUCTION '- TENNECO 496-1 . ,
In the 19601s, dredge hauls recovered MD SHELL 586-1 , SHELL 587-1
Lower Cretaceous reefal and shallow-water _38'
platform limestone fragments from the 0 SHELL 93-1
base of Blake escarpment, 1 north of the
Bahamas and Offshore from Florida. Rely-
ing on these discoveries and on seismic 0 50 ni
data, investigators speculated that an
0 W km
ancient reef or limestone bank system is ---r37-
buried in the North American Atlantic
offshore subsurface.2, 3 Continued
seismic interpretation, together with Figure 1. Map of a portion of the
information from United States Gulf Coast Baltimore Canyon trough area,
and Canadian Nova Scotia shelf showing locations of the Shell
exploration wells, provided additional 372-1, 586-1, 587-1, and
evidence that a Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous selected other wells. English
reef-limestone platform" system is buried equivalents of bathymetric
under the continental slope and outer contours are 565 ft (200 m),-
shelf. This platform system extends from 3,281 ft (1,000 m), and 6,562
ST &_2
P@ST ?EI-3
37Z-1
WE ::@j

the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, along ft (2,000 m).

219 United States Government work not protected by copy-right

holes penetrated the limestone platform,
reef, and associated other limestone The Limestone Platform
units. Although no commercially signif-
icant hydrocarbon shows were encountered, The deepest rock unit tested by Shell is
these wells produced a wealth of geologic a platform limestone', which is flat
information, including the first rock topped and slopes landward. Correlation
samples from the ancient, buried reef. with adjacent basins indicates that the
In addition, a world deep-water drilling platform exists discontinuously all along
record was set by the Shell Wilmington the North American Atlantic margin. How-
Canyon 372-1 well (water depth 6,952 ever, north of Cape Hatteras it is
feet); the record stood until 1987. narrow, being flanked on its landward
side by continental detrital rocks and
THE REEF TREND IN BALTIMORE CANYON TROUGH terminating on its seaward side as the
continental slope. In the vicinity of
The reef and limestone platform are in the Shell wells, the top of the platform
the seaward portion of the Baltimore is less than 10 miles wide. Thickness of
Canyon trough (Fig. 2). Through Middle the platform is difficult to determine
because it has not been entirely pene-
trated by drilling and because seismic
7e 750 7e 73* 72* 71' profiles show few interpretable reflect-
A 4d' ions within or under the platform.
However, the platform may be as much as
NJ 101 33,000 feet (10 km) thick.8
0
The platform is cut by normal faults,
which trend northeast-southwest and
mostly have down-to-the-basin throws
DE toward the ocean. Major faults are
SHELL HELL 372- generally growth structures, showing
100 greater displacement with increasing
MD / e
I SHELL 587-1 depth, and appear to be lystric, having
it, concave fault planes that merge with the
1 93--1 -3e bedding of rocks deep in the basin. The
11@(y top of the platform slopes downward to
the west, interpreted to be a consequence
0 so rN of rotation of platform segments, owing
i I . to downward movement along the curved
0 50 km Sr faults.

Comparison of Baltimore Canyon drilling
Figure 2. Schematic map showing the results documents the transition from
outline of Baltimore Canyon shoreward, continentally derived detrital
trough (heavy dashed) and the rocks to the platform limestones at the
position in the subsurface of seaward edge of the basin (Fig. 3). The
the limestone platform (shaded) Tenneco 495-1 well is about 10 miles west
between the ancient Hudson and of the seaward rim of the platform and
Delaware submarine deltas. penetrated interbedded sandstone,
siltstone, shale, and minor limestone in
that part of the stratigraphic section
equivalent in age to the platform. The
Shell 586-1 well, about 3 miles from
the platform rim, encountered mostly
Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous limestone but with many interbeds of
time, the trough was dominated by conti- sandstane,.siltstone, and shale. The
nental detrital sediments (sand, silt, platform-edge Shell 587-1 well penetrated
clay), which were shed into the basin limestone with numerous thin shale inter-
from the west. Therefore, the lime- beds.
stones, which require relatively clear
water, were restricted to the outer part The Baltimore Canyon platform limestones
of the basin. In addition, major rivers are typically fine grained, having been
built large deltas, and the submarine lithified from carbonate mud sediments,
portions of the deltas extended seaward and contain variable quantities of
beyond the reef trend. As a consequence, calcareous micro- and macrofossils.
the limestones occur as segments between Abundant fossils include bryozoans,
delta systems, for example, between the echinoderms, sponges, stromatoporoids,
ancient Hudson and Delaware deltas-@ foraminifers, and blue-green algae. In
Shell's exploration program investigated moderate quantity are corals, bivalves,
this segment of the reef trend, which is and rudists. Minor components include
shown in cross section in Figure 3. gastropods, ostracods, and green algae.

220

NW SE
DEPTH 0 TENNECO 496-1 SHELL 586-1 SHELL 587-1
WTI'

- - - - - - - - - - OR
SAW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
------------------------ ------ ------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
------------------ ---- --------
- - - -C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
[email protected] ES -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
----------- -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10,000 REEF
............. - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
D % - - - - - - -

1510W00
..... ......... ..

--'.-.-..-1 ..... . .........
.... ..... .
LIMESTONE PLATFORM

20=0W

km
. . . ...... .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 3. Schematic cross section through the ancient continental shelf margin
in the vicinity of the Tenneco 495-1 and Shell 586-1 and 587-1 wells.

Geologic age ranges of diagnostic fossils energy cycles of deposition. Calcareous
indicate that almost all of the platform fossils and clasts range from sand and
is Jurassic in age but that its uppermost gravel sizes to a few inches in diameter
portion persisted into the earliest part and probably much larger, but determin-
of the Early Cretaceous Epoch. Finally, ation is limited by the drill hole
deposition of platform sediments is in- diameter. Fossil biota include corals,
ferred to have occurred in the generally stromatoporoids, sponges, echinoderms,
quiet waters of a shallow marine envi- bryozoans, pelecypods, gastropods, and
ronment protected from the open sea by blue-green algae. within some intervals
the platform rim. The great thickness of of the detrital assemblage are pods and
shallow-water limestones is explained by crusts of corals and stromatoporoids that
basinal subsidence, which allowed accumu- appear to be in growth positions.
lation of sediments for tens of millions
of years. Age-diagnostic fossils are rare in these
limestones, but calpionellid species from
The Reef the moundlike reef in the 372-1 well and
the top of the platform margin in the
According to seismic analysis, the reef 587-1 well are earliest Early Cretaceous.
is discontinuous and variable in size and The data suggest that deposition of the
shape. Where present, it occurs as a limestone platform persisted into Early
raised rim along the seaward edge of the Cretaceous time and concluded with the
limestone platform (Fig. 3). In places, rapid upward growth of reefs along the
this ridgelike structure is rounded and platform edge. This culmination appears
mound shaped and in others it is flat to be related to a period of 9 rapid
topped. Its relief above the adjacent worldwide rise in sea level.
platform is as much as 500 to 600 feet. The Overlying Rock Units
Two Shell wells were drilled at the
seaward edge of the platform, the 587-1 Through most of the Early Cretaceous
and 372-1. The latter penetrated a Epoch a wedge of continental detrital
moundlike reef and the former encountered sediments prograded seaward, burying the
reeflike limestones and fossil reefbuild- continental shelf in Baltimore Canyon
ing biota within the platform margin. trough.10 This wedge is readily apparent
Limestone samples from the 587-1 well on seismic sections and is shown diagram-
were also strongly weathered, having a atically in Figure 3. This progradation
chalky texture. In general, the reefal is interpreted to have been caused by
and shelf margin rocks appear to be cycles of low sea level. When the wedge
largely carbonate detrital accumulations. reached the edge of the carbonate plat-
That is, fossils, fossil fragments, and form, it spilled over the reef and onto
'limestone clasts form a chaotic assem- the continental slope, creating a thick
blage, which implies probable agitation apron of Cretaceous sediments. In middle
and reworking by wave and storm action. Cretaceous time the continental shelf-
Some limestone intervals contain car- edge sediments appear to have become
bonate mud matrix and some do not, subaerially exposed during a period-of
indicating relatively lower and higher low sea level. The ancient continental

221

slope was then beveled by erosion to its periods of low sea level. Freshwater
present configuration in the subsurface. leaching of the limestones produced zones
Finally, Late Cretaceous shales, associ- of good porosity. Reservoir top seals
ated with rising sea level, covered the may be provided by the shales above the
underlying sedimentary units. platform margin and reefal limestones.
It was hoped that petroleum had migrated
PETROLEUM POTENTIAL into the reservoirs from underlying
organic-rich carbonate rocks or shales or
Shell's exploration program found porous from source beds on the continental
platform margin and reefal limestones. slope, immediately to the east. However,
Platform-edge limestones in the 587-1 no hydrocarbons were encountered other
well had up to 25 percent porosity, based than trace quantities of natural gas,
on petrophysical tests of plugs from owing to apparent lack of organic-rich
drill core. Porosities were much poorer source beds in the vicinity.
in the 372-1 well reefal core, having a
maximum of only 6 percent. However, well With the reservoir potential of the
log analysis and drilling rates suggest limestone margin established, future
that porous intervals do occur in that drilling targets along this trend will
well. The more shoreward 586-1 well probably be chosen only after con-
showed no evidence of significant poro- siderable effort is expended in identi-
sity in the.platform. fying likely source rocks. Source rocks
may include limestones and shales of the
The limestone platform margin and reef underlying platform and shales on the
occupy a regional topographic high continental slope. In addition,
ground, and the weathered limestone in submarine portions of river deltas, where
the 587-1 well suggests that the platform they are adjacent to the limestone trend,
edge, or immediately overlying rocks, may contain pertinent source beds.
became subaerially emergent during

REFERENCES

1. Heezen, B.C., and R.E. Sheridan, 1966,, 6. Jansa, L.F., 1981, Mesozoic carbonate
Lower Cretaceous rocks (Neocomian- platforms and banks of the eastern
Albian) dredged from Blake North American margin: marine
escarpment: Science, v. 154, p. Geology, v. 44, p. 97-117.
1644-1647.
7. Emery, K.O., and E. Uchupi, 1984, The
2. Emery, K.O., E. Uchupi, J.D. Phillips, geology of the Atlantic Ocean: New
C.O. Bowin, E.T. Bunce, and S.T. York, Springer-Verlag, 1050 p.
Knott, 1970, Contintental rise off
eastern North America: American 8. Poag, C.W., 1985, Depositional history
Association of Petroleum Geologists and stratigraphic reference section
Bulletin, v. 54, p. 44-108. for central Baltimore Canyon
trough, in C.W. Poag, ed., Geologic
3. Schlee, J.S., J.C. Behrent, J.A. evolution of the United States
Grow, J.M. Robb, R.E. Mattick, Atlantic margin: New York, van
P.T. Taylor, and B.J. Lawson, Nostrand, Reinhold Co., p. 217-
1976, Regional geologic framework 264.
off northeastern United States:
American Association of Petroleum 9. Vail, P.R., 1987, Seismic stratigraphy
Geologists Bulletin, v. 60, p. interpretation using sequence
926-951. stratigraphy--Part 1, seismic
stratigraphy interpretation
4. Poag, C.W., 1978, Stratigraphy of the procedure, in A.W. Bally, ed.,
Atlantic continental shelf and Atlas of seismic stratigraphy:
slope of the United States: Earth American Association of Petroleum
and Planetary Science Letters Geologists, Studies in Geology No.
Annual Review, v. 6, p. 251-280. 27, v. 1, p. 1-9.

5. Schlee, J.S., W.P. Dillon, and J.A. 10. Libby-French, J., 1984, Stratigraphic
Grow, 1979, Structure of the framework and petroleum potential
continental slope off the eastern of northeastern Baltimore Canyon
United States, in L.J. Doyle and trough, Mid-Atlantic Outer
O.H. Pilkey, eds., Geology of Continental Shelf: American
continental slopes: Tulsa, Society Association of Petroleum Geologists
of Economic Paleontologists and Bulletin, v. 68, p. 50-73.
Mineralogists, Special Publication
No. 27, p. 95-117.

222

THE EFFECT OF EXPLORATION ON RESOURCE ESTIMATES
FOR THE ALASKA OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF

BARBARA J. BASCLE

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service
949 East 36th Avenue, Suite 316, Anchorage, Alaska 99508

ABSTRACT planning areas offshore of Alaska: the Gulf of
Alaska, Lower Cook Inlet/Shelikof Strait,
Beaufort Sea, Norton Basin, St. George Basin,
Resource estimates generated prior to Navarin Basin, and Chukchi Sea.
exploration drilling of the Alaska Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS) indicated the general More than sixty exploration wells have tested
optimism held for this vast frontier area. structures in these planning areas, with the
Drilling In six of the most promising planning exception of the Chukchi Sea Planning Area,
areas indicates less potential than previously leased for the first time in May of 1988. Most
anticipated. Recent resource estimates reflect of these exploration wells have been plugged,
the fairly negative drilling results, showing a and abandoned.
marked decline in resource potential for the
drilled areas. Drilling results and a better understanding of
the petroleum geology of the tested planning
Numerous traps, plays, and structural provinces areas have tempered the early general optimism
remain untested in each of the drilled areas. of the 1970's for the Alaska OCS as a
Though drilling results have tempered optimism, geologically prospective area for major
these untested features still provide hope for hydrocarbon accumulations. The U.S. Geological
finding significant resources in the Alaska OCS. Survey (USGS) developed resource estimates for
the Alaska OCS in 1981. These early estimates
INTRODUCTION were based primarily on reconnaissance mapping
and analog basin studies. In 1984 and 1987,
The Alaska Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) updated estimates were developed by the U.S.
comprises 74 percent of the total OCS acreage of Minerals Management Service.
the entire United States. The Department of the
Interior (DOI) has divided the Alaska OCS into The USGS estimates are not directly comparable
fifteen "Planning Areas" for Federal OCS sales to MMS estimates due to the use of different
(Figure 1). Planning areas encompass one or methodologies. A gross comparison of the USGS
more geologic provinces or sedimentary basins. 1981 and MMS 1984 estimates can, however, serve
To date, fourteen sales have been held by the to show the change in perspective regarding
Department of the Interior in seven different the resource potential for the Alaska OCS
(Table 1).

TABLE I -- Comparison of USGS 1981* and MMS 1984 estimates of undiscovered,
economically recoverable resources.(risked mean estimates), offshore Alaska. (1), (2)

Oil (BBO) Gas (TCF)

USGS MMS Percent USGS MMS Percent
1981 1984 Diff. 1981 1984 Diff.
Total Federal (+) Total Federal (+)

12.2 3.3 -73 64.6 13.9 -78

*USGS estimates include both State and Federal offshore lands, since in 1981 land
ownership had not been completely determined.

BBO=billion barrels. TCF=trillion cubic feet.

223 United States Government work not protected by copyright

TABLE 2 -- Comparison of MMS 1984 (1) and 1987* estimates of undiscoveredt
economically recoverable resources, Alaska OCS.

Drilled Conditional Conditional Margi nal
Planning Oil-BBO Gas-TCF Probability
Area Mean Mean Hydrocarbons
1984 1987 1984 1987 1984 1987

Gulf of Alaska 0.54 1.17 8.34 5.95 0.08 0.05
Lower Cook Inlet 0.21 0.17 0.35 0.25 0.03 0.02
Norton Basin 0.64 0.15 2.94 1.51 0.15 0.01
St. George Basin 1.69 0.41 15.76 4.55 0.22 0.05
Navarin Basin 4.80 1.19 5.84 3.50 0.27 0.04
Beaufort Sea 1.28 0.91 5.62 5.61 0.70 0.42

*1987 resource estimates are preliminary and subject to review.

BBO=billion barrels. TCF=trillion cubic feet.
The 1984 and 1987 estimates were generated using comparable price scenarios.

Comparison of resource estimates generated by The Kulthieth occurred in only two wells but
the MMS in 1984 and 1987 shows an overall had good reservoir potential and fair source
decline in potential resources (Table 2). The rock potential. It contained over 1 percent
1987 MMS estimates reflect a systematic TOC and had sufficient thermal maturity to
reassessment based on detailed seismic mapping produce hydrocarbons.
and well data.
The Poul Creek Formation, an offshore
To understand the basis for declining resource equivalent of the Katalla Formation reservoir
estimates, a basic understanding of the geology of the now abandoned onshore Katalla Field,
of the tested basins is necessary. A general becomes shalier offshore. Where penetrated by
overview and summary of the resource potential wells, the Poul Creek appears thermally
for the six tested planning areas follows. immature. Maturity may increase with deeper
burial in other parts of the GOA, enhancing its
GULF OF ALASKA PLANNING AREA potential as a source rock.

The Gulf of Alaska (GOA) Planning Area Resource estimates for the GOA show an increase
encompasses 30,000 square miles of OCS lands in mean conditional oil from 540 million
(Figure 1). Acreage in the central GOA was barrels to 1.17 BBO (Table 2). This increase
offered in 1976, In the first Federal OCS sale reflects the additional traps recognized as
for Alaska. Industry leased over 400,000 acres having oil potential as a result of detailed
at this time. Twelve exploration wells tested mapping in previously unmapped areas. Drilling
structures during the 1977 and 1978 drilling results were also incorporated into the
seasons. All wells were plugged and abandoned, resource estimates, but did not negate the new
with no commercial hydrocarbon accumulations data generated from detailed seismic mapping.
encountered. Mean conditional gas declined from 8.34 TCF to
5.95 TCF. The marginal probability that
Two more sales held for the GOA Planning Area economically recoverable hydrocarbons exist in
included acreage in both the central and eastern the GOA dropped from 8 percent to 5 percent.
GOA. At these sales the DOI leased about
200,000 more acres, all in the eastern GOA. One Though resource potential as measured by the
well tested a structure in this area, but marginal probability has diminished, structural
encountered no commercial hydrocarbon regimes remain untested. A Tertiary basin in
accumulations and was subsequently plugged and the far-eastern GOA contains sediments which
abandoned. range from 5,000 to 20,000 feet in thickness.
Sediments of middle to late Tertiary age are
Figure 2 summarizes the stratigraphy present in postulated to rest unconformably on Jurassic
the GOA. Ten of the thirteen wells encountered and Cretaceous metasediments, volcanics, and
severe overpressuring in the Yakataga Formation. intrusives of the basement complex (Figure 2).
The Yakataga exhibits fair reservoir potential
but very poor source rock potential. It is In the west-central GOA, a large province with
thermally immature and contains low amounts of sediments up to 20,000 feet thick remains
total organic carbon (TOC). untested. Structurally, this area appears
thrust faulted, with good potential for traps

2124

to exist. Farther west, sediment thickness 20,000 feet of Tertiary sediments overlie
decreases to 12,000 feet and less. This area is probable Paleozoic metamorphic basement. A
structurally complex and possibly thrust sequence of mainly fluvial to shallow marine
faulted. Numerous traps probably exist. mudstones siltstone, sandstone, and minor coals
occurs. Deeper water clastics were deposited
LOWER COOK INLET AND SHELIKOF STRAIT in the western subbasin during the lower
Tertiary, when it was structurally isolated
The DOI held the first Lower Cook Inlet (LCI) from the eastern subbasin by the Yukon Horst.
sale in October 1977, leasing about 410,000
acres at this time (Figure 1). Ten exploration Reservoir quality rocks occur mainly in the
wells tested structures over the next three Oligocene nonmarine and shallow-water deposits
years. The DOI held two additional sales for in the eastern subbasin. Thermal maturity
the LCI, including the Shelikof Strait area to sufficient to generate hydrocarbons exists
the south. An additional 75,000 acres were below about 10,000 feet in both subbasins.
leased. Through 1985, industry drilled three However, source rocks appear to be scarce and
more exploration wells. Speculation that the mainly gas prone.
producing trend found in the Upper Cook Inlet
petroleum province continued southward into the Resource estimates for the basin appear in
Lower Cook Inlet/Shelikof Strait area lessened Table 2. The estimate for mean conditional oil
as all the wells were plugged and abandoned. declined from 640 million barrels in 1984 to
150 million barrels in 1987. This large
In Upper Cook Inlet, the sequence of Tertiary decline reflects the paucity of oil-prone
reservoir rocks (Lower Tyonek, Hemlock, and West source rock evident from well data. Mean
Foreland Formations) overlies Jurassic source conditional gas resources also declined, from 3
rocks. Large-scale faulting and a major TCF to 1.5 TCF. In addition, the marginal
unconformity between the Tertiary and Mesozoic probability dropped from a 15-percent chance of
rocks act as migration routes for hydrocarbons. economic accumulations of hydrocarbons being
This same unconformable relationship apparently present to a I-percent chance.
does not exist in the LCI (Figure 3). The
Tertiary section, in general, appears thin and Though interest in the hydrocarbon potential
has poor reservoir rock potential. Localized for Norton Basin has waned, many traps remain
nonmarine sandstone reservoirs do exist, untested. Only one well has tested the western
however, in the west-central part of the LCI subbasin. This subbasin exhibits a more marine
where two wells encountered noncommercial oil character in the deeper, older sediments which
accumulations. could provide a better potential for oil
maturation and generation.
Resource estimates for the LCI/Shelikof area
have declined since 1984 (Table 2). A decrease ST. GEORGE BASIN PLANNING AREA
from 210 million barrels to 170 million barrels
for mean conditional oil estimates reflects the In 1983, DOI leased over 540,000 acres in the
most recent drilling results. Mean conditional St. George Basin (Figure 1). Nine exploration
gas estimates declined from 0.35 TCF to 0.25 wells tested structures during the next two
TCF, while the marginal probability for economic years. All wells were plugged and abandoned
hydrocarbon accumulations to exist in the - with no commercial accumulations of
planning area decreased slightly from 3 to 2 hydrocarbons encountered.
percent.
St. George Basin Planning Area contains two
A number of untested structures remain within main depocenters, the St. George Basin graben,
the LCI/Shelikof Strait area. In addition, with up to 40,000 feet of sediment, and the
localized marine sands may occur in the planning Pribilof 'Basin half-graben, with about 20,000
area. These sands could be thicker and have feet of sediment. A Tertiary-age sequence
better reservoir quality than those encountered dominated by fine-grained sandstones,
in the two exploration wells with hydrocarbon siltstones, mudstones, and minor conglomerates
shows. overlies either Mesozoic sediments or basement
igneous rocks (Figure 5).
NORTON BASIN PLANNING AREA
The common occurrence of volcanic rock
In 1983, the DOI held the Norton Basin sale, the fragments limits the development of good
first sale to offer acreage in the Bering Sea reservoir rock. These generally alter to
(Figure 1). Industry leased some 330,000 acres zeolites and clay minerals, and reduce porosity
at this sale. During the next two years, six and permeability of the sediments. Source rock
exploration wells tested structures in the potential appears low in the Tertiary, with low
planning area. All wells were plugged and TOC values and thermally immature sediments.
abandoned with no commercial accumulations of
hydrocarbons found. In 1984, MMS estimated the economically
recoverable oil (mean value) at about 1.7
Figure 4 shows the stratigraphy present in the billion barrels (Table 2). Estimates for 1987
Norton Basin. Norton Basin encompasses two dropped to 410 million barrels, indicative of
subbasins separated by the Yukon Horst. Up to poorly developed reservoir and source rock in

225

the wells. Gas resource estimates declined from Industry drilled nineteen wells in the planning
15.8 TCF to 4.6 TCF (mean values of area. MMS classifies eight of these wells as
economically recoverable gas). The marginal "producible." In this context, "producible"
probability for the planning area also declined means a well is capable of producing oil or
from 22 percent to 5 percent. gas, or both, in quantities that will provide a
monetar,y return in excess of cost, after
St. George Basin Planning Area still has completion, at the well head. The costs of the
potential for hydrocarbon accumulations. Plays leasep building of ice or gravel islands,
within the graben and half-graben may be drilling, and other investments are not
associated with rocks deposited in a restricted included in the determination.
basin providing conditions more favorable for
source rock preservation and maturation. The Beaufort Planning Area comprises several
Generation and entrapment of hydrocarbons, geologic provinces. It lies offshore of the
before adverse diagenetic changes occurred largest oil field discovered in North America,
within the sands, could have preserved reservoir the giant Prudhoe Bay field, with original
porosity and permeability. reserves estimated at ten billion barrels of
oil and 26 TCF of gas.
NAVARIN BASIN PLANNING AREA
Figure 7 shows the stratigraphy of the Beaufort
In 1984, DOI held the first lease sale for the Planning Area (3). All commercial hydrocarbon
Navarin Basin (Figure 1). Industry leased over accumulations, both onshore and offshore, occur
920,000 acres at this sale. During the next within the Ellesmerian sequence. The Ivishak
year, eight exploration wells tested structures Formation remains the most prolific reservoir
within the basin. All wells were plugged and of the North Slope, with the Lisburne and the
abandoned with no commercial accumulations of Endicott Groups subsidiary reservoirs in the
hydrocarbons found. Ellesmerian sequence.

Navarin Basin encompasses three subbasins. A The Ellesmerian sequence represents sediments
thick Tertiary section overlies Cretaceous and deposited in a stable shelf environment which
possibly older Mesozoic rocks (Figure 6). onlapped an ancient landmass situated north of
Maximum sediment thickness within the three the present-day Beaufort continental margin.
subbasins ranges from about 26,000 feet to at Ellesmerian sedimentation ended during the Late
least 36,000 feet. The wells did not reach Triassic when rifting began.
basement rocks.
The Beaufortian sequence represents sediments
The Tertiary sediments lack good reservoir deposited during a failed rifting episode of
rocks. Sediments appear very shaly and silty. the Jurassic and the successful rifting event
Mesozoic rocks, though sandier, exhibit little which opened the Canada Basin during the Early
reservoir potential because of low porosities Cretaceous. The Barrow Sandstone, Kuparuk
and permeabilities. Source rock potential is, River, and Point Thomson reservoirs formed
in general, poor to marginal, owing to low TOC during the rifting events.
content and Insufficient thermal maturity. The
basin may, however, have source rock of limited Rifting ended by mid-Cretaceous time. The
geographic extent. Brooks Range to the south provided the sediment
for the deltaic deposits prograding into and
Based on seismic mapping and drilling results, filling the newly formed Canada Basin.
resource estimates for Navarin declined
substantially from 1984 to 1987 (Table 2). Mean Though reservoir rocks occur in the Brookian
conditional oil estimates dropped from almost 5 sequence, the discontinuous nature of deltaic
billion barrels to 1.20 billion barrels. In sedimentation limits their extent. Reduction
addition, the marginal probability for the basin of the permeability and porosity of sediments
declined from 27 percent to 3 percent. Estimates due to diagenetic alteration upon burial also
for gas declined from almost 6 TCF to 3.5 TCF. commonly occurs.

Despite poor drilling results, the Navarin basin The Ellesmerian and the Beaufortian sequences
still provides exploration opportunities. The have good hydrocarbon source rocks. Source
potential for stratigraphic traps, such as rock potential for Brookian sediments offshore
turbiditer sequences, exists within the basin. is not well documented as data are scarce.
In addition, a number of structural provinces Brookian shales encountered in the Canadian
within the planning area remain untested. Beaufort, possibly equivalent to distal shales
present in the Beaufort Sea, are considered
BEAUFORT SEA PLANNING AREA probable source rock for hydrocarbons
encountered during drilling.
The Beaufort Sea Planning Area remains the
premiere area for hydrocarbon potential offshore Resource estimates for 1984 show mean
of Alaska (Figure 1). Four lease sales have conditional oil resources of about 1.3 billion
taken place for the Beaufort Sea since leasing barrels and mean conditional gas resources of
first began in 1979. To date, the DOI has over 5.6 TCF (Table 2). Resource estimates for
leased almost four million acres. 1987 show a 400 million barrel decrease in mean

226

conditional oil to about 900 million barrels. REFERENCES
This decrease follows the unsuccessful drilling
of a number of traps in the oil-prone (1) Cooke, Larry W., Estimates of
Ellesmerian sequence. Undiscovered, Economically Recoverable Oil and
Gas Resources for the Outer Continental Shelf
Estimates for conditional gas resources remain as of July 1984, OCS Report MMS 8S-0012, 1985,
virtually unchanged, reflecting the greater 45 pages.
number of traps identified through detailed
seismic mapping in the Brookian sequence. The (2) Dolton, G. L., et al., Estimates of
marginal probability dropped, however, from 70 Undiscovered Recoverable Conventional Resources
percent to 42 percent, as a number of wells of Oil and Gas in the United States, U.S. .
tested dry structures. Geological Survey Circular 860, 1981, 87 pages.

The Beaufort Sea Planning Area maintains high (3) Hubard, Richard J., et al., Geologic
exploration interest and resource potential. Evolution and Hydrocarbon Habitat of the
Numerous traps remain untested within the wArctic Alaska Microplate,' Marine and
planning area, as do several structural Petroleum Geology, Vol. 4, February 1987, 32
provinces.. The chance of hydrocarbon pages.
discoveries appears quite good for the area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
1. Dellagiarino, George (editor), United
Over six million acres in seven Alaska OCS States Outer Continental Shelf Basins: Maps
planning areas have been leased since 1976. and Descriptions, OCS Report MMS 86-0048, 1986,
More than sixty exploration wells have tested 80 pages.
structures in six of the leased areas. The
majority of these wells have been plugged and 2. Slitor, Douglas L., and Jeffrey D. Wiese,
abandoned. Alaska Summary/Index: January 1986-December
1986, OCS Information Report MMS 87-0016, 1987P
.Recent Federal Government estimates show a 97 pages.
marked decline in resource potential for the
leased areas from estimates generated early In
the exploration history of the basins. The GENERALIZED STRATIGRAPHIC GENERAUZEO S7RATIGRAPHIC
SECTION OF SECTION OF SOUTHEASTERN
lower estimates reflect not only the number of GULF OF ALASKA GULF OF ALASKA
dry holes drilled, but also the more pessimistic
view of basin geology obtained from the wells. YAKATAGA
But the drilling results do not tell the whole ........
FURMATICIN
story. Numerous traps, plays, and structural
Z
provinces remain untested in the six planning
_J
areas. These still provide hope for finding _POUL X 7.
LJ
significant resources in the Alaska OCS. CREEK
FORMATION LLJ >-

KULTHIETH
_J

L'i
rURMATION

EIEAUIOIT C)
SEDIMENTS
60 CHUKCHI SEA
SEA
U P3 0 U
YAKUTAT
IX
H@E CR13UP 7- Z
U F_
Z
F- LLI
Li X
Z3 X UJ
55 ALASKA
LITHOLOGY
/"I V,' /Al,kEW.
LOWER COOK MUDSTONE
INLET
ST SILTSTONE
ULF OF
'TAT SANDSTONE
50 "4
IA.P11
ALASKA
KODIAK CONGLOMERATE
ic
I SHUMAGIN E3 BASALT
Z-1 GRAYWACKE, AROLUTE.
AND SLAM

METASE UENTS WTH IN@ITTIRNT
174 180 174 @8 162 156 150 144 138 MXCANICS AND INTRUSIVES
FIGURE 1. Outer Continental Shelf Planning Areas FIGURE 2. Generalized strotigraphic column
of the Gulf of Alaska

227

GFNERAL AnGRAPHIC
COLU
NORTON BASIN LITHOLOGY
GENERALIZED STRATIGRAPHIC 7*
COLUMN
Lam COOK INLET, ALASKA 7_
LITHOLOGY SANDSTONE
BELUGA I'll, . ......
LAM 7
TYONEK NON-MARINE SILTSTONE SILTSTONE
FM. GENERAL STRATIGRAPHIC
<
SILTS ONE COLUMN
HEMLOCK COL. MUDSTONE ST. GEORGE BASIN LITHOLOGY
NEST FORELAND
FM. EI SANDSTONE
SANDSTONE
COAL PUOCENE-PLE11TOCENE
7___ EZ LIMESTONE
7 LATE ------ :7: SILTSTONE
KAGUYAK 7 - QUARTZITE. PHYLUTE, PLIOCENE ---------
FM. E3 VOLCANICS 7@ AND MARBLE EARLY
Z SHALE/MUDSTONE
----------
COAL
LATE --------- CONGLOMERATE
0-
LIMESTONE. CHERT. AND 2 MIOCENE
HERENI)EEN GREENSTONE _1
0 MID@
FM. CALCAREOUS MUDSTONE
LATE
I BASALT
NAKNEK OLIGOCENE
FM.
EA
Ly ...

7
CHINITNA FM. L
7. @EOCENE A@- ------
P
TUXEDN']'* GROU IE
Ld
Uj -.- MIDDLE EOCENE .........
TALKEE.TNA 7-7 OR OLDER
FM
0
Ld
.. . . . ... .
BASALTIC BASEMENT
.. .... ..
7
.........
BASEMENT L
COMPLEX
FIGURE 5. Generalized stratigraphic column of
St. George BCsin
FIGURE 3. Generalized stratigrophic column of
Lower Cook Inlet

FIGURE 4. Generalized stratigraphic column of
Norton Basin

GIN
COAI
NAVARIN As,N LITHOLOGY GENERALIZED STRATlGRAPHIC
SECTION OF
I__ .__ I
NORTH ALASKA
r=1
MUDSTONES,SILTSTONES
7F
Upper :,r
> Eumko LITHOLOGY
S,
MUDDY SANDSTONES
0
E].MUDSTONE
CALCAREOUS CLAYSTONES 00
SILTSTONE
10 Middle
@p
Uj VOLCANICS 0 M S SANDSTONE
Z WO .- i
Lower S
0 R COAL CONGLOMERATE
Of pper R
COAL
Z
W C-3
0 BASEMENT
0 i7i
0 V)
M < Lower S
077.- S HYDROCARBON
SOURCE ROCK
Ld
ZI 2@ HYDROCARBON
Lj RESERVOIR ROCK
0 -SH K- -
0 Upper - - -
R
it
Gr_P
W Z

L)
0 R
LJ
*GAS Ub-.
Middle
Tr'. SHOW Ro V) _P
---7- -R-4r, 6,
G,

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0 <
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'01 A BASEMENT
0

4M
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b
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ddle
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or

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BASEMENT ':..,L
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0 (UNDIFFERENTATED)
E

FIGURE 6. Generalized Stratigraphic column of FIGURE 7. Generalized stratigraphic column of
Novarin Basin northern Alaska

228

PRE-LEASE GEOPHYSICAL PERMITTING FOR THE PACIFIC OCS;
PROCEDURES, PROBLEMS, AND SOLUTIONS

Drew Mayerson

Minerals Management Service
Pacific OCS Region
Los Angeles, California 90017

ABSTRACT during the permit process. This paper also reviews
some of the solutions that have been tried to
Geophysical surveys, using nondynamite energy eliminate or minimize Outer Continental Shelf
sources, in Federal waters off the Pacific coast (OCS) conflicts.
have traditionally been treated as relatively in-
nocuous operations with little impact on the marine PROCEDURES
environment or other users of the Outer Continental General
Shelf (OCS). However, the increasing use of three-
dimensional seismic survey techniques, combined The Minerals Management Service (MMS) is authorized
with the inconclusive results from recent studies under title 30, section 251 of the Code of Federal
dealing with the effects of geophysical surveys on Regulations to issue a geophysical permit to any
the marine environment, has increased public and applicant wishing to conduct geophysical activities
media awareness of geophysical surveying. This on Federal OCS waters not already authorized under
has, in turn, affected the process by which permits a lease. A permit is also required if these ac-
for that activity are approved by the Minerals tivities will occur on leased lands under lease to
Management Service. Additionally, strong local op- a third party. These permits are issued by the MMS
position to OCS Lease Sale No. 91 for northern Regional Office of Resource Evaluation (ORE).
California has focused attention on all mineral ex-
ploration activity along that stretch of coastline. There are two types of geophysical permits: (1)
Within the last 3 years the geophysical permitting Geophysical Permit for Mineral Resources (generally
process has shifted from a low-profile formality to sought by companies wishing to sell data or exploit
an event with high visibility in environmental and the hydrocarbon resources of an area) and (2)
political groups. Consequently, other OCS users, Geophysical Permit for Scientific Research, which
namely the fishing industry, have seized the oppor- involves the use of solid or liquid explosives
tunity to unify and publicly voice their concerns (usually sought by universities or public
to environmental and political groups that had pre- utilities). Data and information gathered under
viously taken little notice. This ability to the latter permit must be made available to the
jointly voice their concerns has enabled the fish- public for inspection and reproduction at the ear-
ing industry to change the permit process and force liest practicable time. Data acquired under the
the seismic industry to listen to their complaints. former permit is proprietary and not releasable to
Throughout these changes, the MMS has remained the public for a period of 50 years. Information
flexible and supportive so that a balance between derived from the data (eg., processed seismic sec-
the oil industry and other OCS users can be main- tions) are not releasable to the public for a
tained. To facilitate this balance, the Pacific period of 25 years from the date on which the in-
OCS (POCS) Region has incorporated its own proce- formation is submitted to the MMS. The majority of
dures into the geological and geophysical permit applicants for geophysical permits in the POCS
process that benefit all POCS users by attempting Region request that their permit be for mineral
to minimize or eliminate operational conflicts resources.
prior to the issuance of the permit.
Additionally, every geological and geophysical
INTRODUCTION (G&G) permit is subjected to a categorical exclu-
sion review (CER) by the MMS Office of Leasing and
Complaints from the fishing industry and environ- Environment. This review determines whether or not
mental groups regarding seismic survey activity the proposed survey may be excluded from further
along the Pacific coast, especially off California, environmental review, or whether further review
have risen dramatically since 1986. This paper ex- such as an Environmental Assessment or an Environ-
amines the procedures the Minerals Management Serv- mental Impact Statement is required pursuant the
ice Pacific Outer Continental Shelf (POCS) Region National Environmental Policy Act.
uses to issue permits, the types of geophysical
surveys conducted in the POCS Region, and the
operational and environmental problems encountered

229 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Specific POCS Region Procedures (California) The POCS Region also incorporates a set of stipula-
tions into the permit that (1) recommend the use of
All applicants for G&G permits on the OCS off a scout boat for surveys shallower than 120 fathoms
California are required to distribute survey to guard against accidental gear entanglements, (2)
notifications (by return-receipt mail) prior to encourage two-way radio communication between the
permit is'suance. The notices are sent to fishing fishermen and the seismic vessel, and (3) require
organizations, fuel docks, fish markets, harbor- permittees to renotify other users who are iden-
masters, State and local government agencies, tified as having possible operational conflicts
Federal agencies with regulatory authority off- with the survey, 72 hours in advance of the survey.
shore, and the military. These notifications are This renotification need not be a written one. Ad-
intended to identify other OCS users who might ditionally, the permit allows for special stipula-
foresee a potential operational conflict with the tions to be included, if it is deemed necessary
proposed survey. All notifications are clearly from the responses to the notifications, to mini-
marked "SURVEY NOTICE" and give detailed informa- mize at-sea conflicts.
tion on the timing and nature of the proposed sur-
vey. The recipient is requested to post the notice Specific POCS Region Procedures (Washington and
in a prominent place so that the survey information Oregon)
reaches the greatest number of other OCS users.
All recipients are provided with the name, phone In 1982 the MMS and the State of Washington entered
number, and address of the applicant, State of into a Memorandum of Agreement to facilitate coor-
California geophysical coordinator, and the ORE dination and scheduling of seismic activities off
Regional Supervisor. Recipients are encouraged to the coast of that State. When MMS determines a
alert MMS and the permit applicant of a potential permit application is complete, a copy is forwarded
conflict at the earliest practicable time so that to the Washington State Departments of Ecology and
negotiations can begin promptly and a speedy Fisheries. Initial notifications are handled by
resolution can be obtained. See Figure 1. the State and 72-hour renotification is handled by
the permittee. Within 14 days, the aforementioned
DAY MMS OTHER USERS APPLICANT departments provide MMS with recommendations they
plications "' Ions sen feel are necessary to avoid or minimize potential
-.ryad by IWIVIS "1fr*'r"en' its Ing
.,:n-1x.".nf fI.,borrrast rs, conflicts between the survey and State resources.
tell and lederriagencle.,
E- --1 and They also provide a listing of Washington State
2 fishermen identified as having an interest in the
survey. This list is included in the permit. If
3 Notices rec.1yed MMS does not incorporate one or all of the State's
suggestions into the permit, MMS provides the State
4 with written justification for its actions.
5 A similar agreement was reached between the MMS and
the State of Oregon in 1983. The two Oregon
M M
Z Z agencies responsible for application review and
U If a potential a notification are the Oregon Department of Land Con-
> conflict exists. > servation and Development and the Oregon Department
_< notify MMS and/or _<
7 0 applicant 0 of Fish and Wildlife. Except for the response
0 0 period (Oregon returns its suggestions within 10
days) all other procedures are essentially the same
M
Z YES Conflict NO Z as that of Washington.
--I I ... Ned? --I
9 'a 'U
M M TYPES OF GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
P ... bl.
10 There are two geophysical survey methods that are
routinely used on the Pacific OCS. The first is a
high-resolution survey, the second is a de ep
penetration common-depth-point survey.
12 d11 '1.* d6
High-Resolution Surveys
13 Id High-resolution surveys are generally conducted
over areas that have already been leased. As part
14 of the lease agreements, the MMS requires that
these surveys be performed in order to evaluate
15 geologic hazards and shallow structural detail in
the leased block prior to drilling or along
16 proposed pipeline routes leading to and from the
block.

Figure 1. Flow diagram showing the procedures Most high-resolution systems consist of bottom
used and the idealized timing of the Pacific OCS profiling instruments that give a cross-sectional
Region's G&G permit process. depiction of the seafloor and the uppermost under-
10 lying rock layers. Seismic signals generated by
'IS%

230

the seismic source are reflected back to the source organizations and general public. The MMS is
or to pressure sensitive hydrophones towed in a responsible for minimizing or eliminating conflicts
cable behind the survey vessel. The length of the between all of the parties and tries to balance
cable tow varies but is generally less than 1 mile operational conflicts and environmental concerns
long. The depth of the towed cable varies from 0 against the country's growing need for greater
to 40 feet below the surface. energy autonomy.

Deep Seismic Surveys Operational Conflicts

If a company is searching for new hydrocarbon Operational conflicts occur when two or more OCS
reserves or wishes to delineate the deeper struc- users want to be in the same place at the same
tures in a known field, then high-resolution seis- time.
mic techniques are inadequate. Seismic equipment
that generates signals capable of penetration into With the military, operational conflicts usually
the deeper layers of the earth's crust use various amount to scheduling problems with underwater noise
technologies developed by a multitude of manufac- measurement tests or missile/shell firing practice.
turers. By far, the most common deep penetration With the former, the survey vessel will shut down
marine seismic source in the world is the airgun. operations for a brief period. With the latter,
It operates by rapidly venting highly compressed the survey vessel wisely stays out of the area un-
air into the water column. Usually, airguns are til the firing is over. The key to preventing
towed in an array behind the survey vessel. By mishaps with the military is communication. The
varying the size, spacing, and timing of the airgun military is included on the survey notification
array, the operator can "tune" the array so that lists, and the contractor is directed, when the
the signals merge and the reverberations from the permit is granted, to contact the U.S. Navy
bubbles, produced by the venting of air, partially scheduling officer prior to commencement of seismic
cancel each other. This helps to produce a single, operations. - If these guidelines are followed,
large detonation. there is usually no conflict.

Two types of deep seismic surveys are conducted in Fishermen along the west coast have a more compli-
the POCS Region. The first, known as a two- cated situation. Many oil company representatives
dimensional (2D) survey, is usually conducted for initially assume that since oil exploration and
regional, reconnaissance work. The trackline spac- fishing coexist somewhat peacefully along the Gulf
ing varies, but is generally on the order of a I- coast, that west coast operational conflicts be-
to 2-mile separation. Surveys in frontier areas tween the two industries have little merit. This
can have a trackline spacing greater than 20 miles. is an erroneous assumption. Aside from oil being a
Most 2D surveys along the west coast are run in a high-profile, large employer for Gulf coast
grid pattern, over a relatively large area (200 to citizens, the Gulf has a continental shelf (where
1000 square miles) and over a period of about 3 to most fishing and hydrocarbon exploration occur) ap-
5 weeks. The mileage shot averages about 500 to proximately 10 to 15 times larger than the Pacific
1000 miles per survey. The second type of deep shelf. The narrow Pacific shelf means greater op-
penetration survey, known as a three-dimensional portunity for space-use conflicts to occur and
(3D) survey, is generally used for postlease opera- greater opportunity for mistakes to be made.
tions. It is useful for giving a detailed repre-
sentation of the structure on a lease or block of Generally, fishing is seasonal. However, most
leases. It can be used for reconnaissance work, fishermen fish for more than one species, and if
but the large size and long duration of the survey the season for one species ends or.wanes, they
traditionally makes it economically impractical to switch to another fishery. Since they operate
do so. As opposed to 2D surveys, 3D surveys on the during the day and sometimes the night, at all
west coast can be up to 3500 line miles on hundreds locations along the coast, they cannot always be
of parallel seismic lines, spaced approximately 150 accommodated by scheduling the survey when the
to 300 feet apart. They are ordinarily run over a fishermen are not around. Sometimes a permit ap-
small area (10 to 100 square miles) and can extend plicant will schedule operations to avoid a par-
over a time period of up to 4 months. Figure 2 con- ticular fishing season, only to be confronted by
trasts the two types of surveys. another group of fishermen seeking a different type
of fish at the rescheduled time.
PROBLEMS
Historically, permit applicants have found that
There are two types of problems associated with the during the pre-survey negotiation process, fisher-
application for a geophysical permit. First, there men from some areas are more difficult to deal with
are the operational conflicts between the survey than fishermen from others. The main reason for
vessel and other legitimate users of the OCS such this is not that some fishermen do not like "Big
as fishermen or the military. Military space-use Oil." In fact, most fishermen fully acknowledge
problems occur occasionally, but they are generally their dependence on petroleum to run their boats.
short lived and easily solved by rescheduling. However,, many fishermen have had negative ex-
Conversely, fishing conflicts are not short lived, periences with the oil industry. Conflicts with a
and scheduling around an all-year activity can be negligent seismic operator, or supply boat captain,
complicated and often times impracticable. all can contribute to skepticism and, in some
Secondly, there are environmental conflicts between
the permit applicant and environmentally conscious

231

- - ---- ------ - ------

--- ----- ---- - - - - --

`-30 BURVE
3 MILE
Figure 2. Contrast between 2D and 3D geophysical surveys. 2D surveys acquired over 5 year period
(1983-1987). 3D survey acquired in less than 4 months (Note: Every other line in the 3D survey shown
above has been removed for clarification during reproduction). The tremendous amount of 3D survey seis-
mic lines compressed into a small area has led to increased allegations from the commercial fishing in-
dustry in southern California that 3D surveys can have a negative impact on the amount of fish they catch
in and around the survey area. Also, fishermen feel that the long duration of the survey, usually during
the peak fishing months, precludes them from fishing in that area. They have asked for compensation for
lost catch and preclusion.

cases, hostility toward marine hydrocarbon explora- delineation of a field can be accomp lished without
tion as a whole. Oil companies work very hard to drilling as many delineation wells. Nevertheless,
project a good image. Cooperation and communica- many of these surveys shoot 2 to 3 times more seis-
tion are their forte, and sometimes their personnel mic line-miles than a conventional survey in an
seem astounded when fishermen complain about nega- area 10 times smaller and over a period 4 times
tive experiences with their company. All it takes longer than a 2D survey (see Figure 2). These con-
to upset a year's worth of good relations with a ditions make space-use conflicts commonplace and
fisherman is a minute of carelessness from a seis- have led to increased allegations that seismic sur-
mic vessel captain or the quarrelsome attitude of a veys, particularly 3D surveys, can impact the fish-
seismic party chief who wants to finish the survey. ing in an area for months after the survey is com-
pleted. This situation has caused some fishermen
One group of commercial hook and line fishermen to ask for compensation for lost catch, not just
fron, southern California feel that the oil industry during the survey period, but for up to 8 months
is ruining their fishing grounds in the Santa @Iaria after the survey ends. The oil companies and seis-
basin area. They maintain that they have only a mic contractors view such compensation as a dan-
limited area to fish and that every platform and gerous precedent, especially when the allegations
pipe]-ine built in that area impacts their ability appear to have minimal, if any, evidential support.
to catch fish; they want to be compensated. Com-
pensation has been paid to certain fishermen by the In two cases during the summer of 1987, two dis-
oil industry for various projects that impact their gruntled fishermen placed their fishing gear in the
fishing grounds. middle of the survey area and refused to move it.
They insisted on compensation and the oil companies
The same group of fishermen, along with a growing involved refused to pay it, although attempts were
number of others in southern California, believe made to negotiate an equitable settlement. The end
that the 3D surveys, conducted over leased blocks, result was that both companies could not acquire
also have a detrimental effect on their fishery. all the data they had originally wanted and the
In 1986, the POCS Region permitted lessees to con- survey eventually took 20 to 30 percent more time
duct 3D surveys over their lease or lease block than it would have under normal circumstances.
unit in lieu of drilling to extend the term of the
lease. From the operational standpoint of the oil Recognizing that the OCS is a multiple-use resource
companies this is more cost effective since and that the MMS has no regulatory authority over
the fishing industry, the MMS POCS Region has

232

remained neutral on the comperisation issue and The eggs and larvae study revealed no dramatic
maintains that both parties should negotiate their changes in the survivability of anchovy eggs and
differences on their own. However, before a permit larvae that could clearly be attributable to airgun
is issued, the ORE Regional Supervisor must be as- signal exposure. Although there was some mortality
sured that either their differences have been to very young stages (2-3 day old), it only oc-
resolved or a good faith attempt has been made to curred within 10 feet of the airguns and was rela-
reach an agreement. tively small when compared with natural mortality.
Nevertheless, the State of California, through the
Environmental Conflicts California State Lands Commission, seized on the
negative effects of these experiments and, in con-
In the last 3 years, the POCS Region has ex- junction with other uncertainties, banned all high-
perienced a surge in the amount of complaints from energy geophysical surveying in California State
fishermen regarding offshore exploration ac- waters until an Environmental Impact Report is con-
tivities. Many of the complaints are easily solved pleted and evaluated. The MMS feels the State's
by putting the fishermen in contact with the action is premature, given the equivocal results
permittee's representative or the contractor. of the rockfish experiment and the lack of negative
However, in the State of California, vocal opposi- effects for the eggs and larvae experiment. A
tion to Lease Sale No. 91 and increased newspaper second catchability study, using a more realistic
and television coverage of the events leading up to seismic regime and designed to address distance and
the sale have put offshore oil exploration in the duration of effects, is in progress, as is a second
public eye. It has become a cause celebre with en- study using crab eggs and larvae as opposed to
vironmentalists and politicians. The increased at- anchovy.
tention to the offshore has helped fishermen to
consolidate, focus, and showcase their grievances SOLUTIONS
so as to gain greater support from State and local
1 egi sl ators. The POCS Region has always maintained that com-
munication is the key to conflict resolution. Com-
Four years ago, the POCS Region rarely heard from munication is the framework for the permit proce-
political or environmental groups when a permit ap- dures, and a number of steps are taken to insure
plication was received. Now, comments from State that the communication lines are as clear as pos-
and local governments and environmental groups are sible.
routine. Three recent permit applications for
seismic surveying in northern California received If MMS receives a complaint from a fisherman or
comments from approximately 100 citizens, State and fishermen, the POCS Region's first step is to
local politicians, and environmental groups from notify the permit applicant of the problem and re-
northern California. In fact, for the first time, quest that they contact the person(s) with the com-
the California Coastal Commission (CCC) requested plaint and try to reach a solution. Usually there
that the Department of Commerce (DOC) permit the is a simple misunderstanding, which is easily
CCC to review these permits for consistency with remedied. Sometimes there is no easily identifi-
the California Coastal Management Program. Though able solution and further clarification and nego-
CCC later withdrew their request, the DOC Office of tiations are needed. The POCS Region stresses that
Ocean and Coastal Resource Management decided that permit applicants should work out their problems on
the permitted activities would not affect the coas- their own, and in fact, most prefer to do that.
tal zone and that the CCC has "no authority under The permit applicant is encouraged to do everything
the CCMP to review the G&G permits." possible to maintain a meaningful dialogue, includ-
ing sending a representative to the town(s) where
Two recent studies regarding the effects Of seis- most of the fishermen are located and, if neces-
mic surry activity on (1) the catchability of sary, hold a meeting(s) with the fishermen who
rockfish eyd (2) the survivability of anchovy eggs foresee a conflict. Meetings are generally infor-
and larva have helped support some California mal and cordial, and even if no solution is
fishermen's contention that seismic surveys impact reached, both parties part with a greater under-
their fishing. standing of one another's concerns. Whatever the
outcome, the stage is set for further negotiations
The authors of the rockfish study noted a substan- until a resolution is found. There are times when
tial reduction (52.4%) in the amount of rockfish neither party is willing to compromise and it be-
caught when an airgun was in operation. However, comes necessary for MMS, as the permitting agency,
the experiment was not at all similar to a typical to step in and try to effect a solution. Some7
marine seismic survey. A typical survey is con- times, additional permit stipulations are added
ducted in straight line segments at speeds of 4-5 that restrict operating times or areas of opera-
knots, thus passing over (in a few minutes) a given tions. At other times, ORE might request that the
fish aggregation only once. The experiment was permit applicant convene a meeting with all parties
designed to show a worst case effect and therefore present and try to negotiate a settlement. But
required the survey vessel to circle the fish ag- frequent meetings can be an irritation, especially
gregation for a period 15-20 times longer than nor- for the fishermen since they do not receive a
.mal and at a distance of about 500 feet. The study paycheck for attending them. This has led to a
did not address the duration of the effect or the call from fishermen for a solution that is more
distance at which the effect can be felt. permanent.

233

One option that the POCS Region examined and to conduct their business on the OCS. The POCS
rejected was the possibility of permanent seismic Region strives to maintain a balance between the
operation "windows" based on low fishing activity two industries and remains committed to a flexible
levels. During the summer of 1987, personnel from permit process that emphasizes cooperation and,
the POCS Region, together with personnel from the just as importantly, communication.
State of California, attended a series of meetings
at various locations along the California coast. REFERENCES
The purpose of the meetings was to solicit comments
from the fishing industry regarding impacts of Battelle/Marine Research Laboratory, Effects of
seismic surveys to their operations, what times of Sounds from a Geophysical Survey Device on Fishing
the year would be best for seismic activity, and Success, MMS Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region
what times are best for fishing. The outcome was contract 14-12-0001-30273, June 1987, 293 p.
that although there might be times when fishing ac-
tivity wanes, a window does not exist when there is 2 Tracor Applied Sciences, The Effects of Airgun
no commercial fishing activity. Some fisheries are Energy Releases on the Eggs, Larvae, and Adults of
year round. Generally, the slowest time of year the Northern Anchovy (Engraulis modax), submitted
are the winter months when frequent storms often to the American Petroleum Institute, January 1987,
keep fishermen onshore and short daylight hours 98 P.
keep fishermen close to port. However, these months
are also the worst times for seismic surveying
since high seas can deteriorate data quality.
Also, the commencement and completion dates of
fishing seasons are set by the appropriate
regulatory agencies and are therefore subject to
change from year to @ear, or even closure.

Certainly better scheduling by the companies that
intend to collect seismic data could help minimize
or eliminate some of the problems. This aspect is
encouraged by MMS, and some companies have taken
the lead and applied for permits well ahead of the
minimum time period set by the procedures. Also,
greater coordination between the agencies that set
fishing seasons and the MMS would alert both or-
ganizations to potential problems before can to be-
come major issues. In Santa Barbara and San Luis
Obispo Counties, a committee composed of represen-
tatives from the oil industry and commercial fish-
ing industry has hired a neutral liaison officer to
help answer fishery questions, expedite claims for
lost or damaged fishing gear, and facilitate com-
munications between both industries. This solution
has worked quite well and should be examined for
use in other areas as offshore oil production
grows. Newsletters published by local marine ad-
visors also help aid communication among OCS users.

Communication and continuing dialogue are the foun-
dation upon which greater cooperation and fewer
misunderstandings are built. In every equitable
solution these have been the underlying principles
that have enabled the conflicts to be resolved.
These should be maintained.

CONCLUSIONS

As publicity and controversy surrounding POCS
Region lease sales increase, it is likely that the
conflicts surrounding geophysical permit applica-
tions will increase. Whether this is due to a
legitimate problem or an alleged problem perceived
by those who would like halt OCS leasing is becom-
ing harder to discern. Whatever the problem, it is
up to MMS to sift through the extraneous rhetoric
and grasp the facts. This enables MMS to make in-
formed decisions and incorporate stipulations into
the permit so that an equitable solution can be
reached. The OCS is a multiple use resource.
Fishermen and oil companies have a legitimate right

234

POST-LEASE SALE'EXPLORATION OF THE NAVARIN BASIN, BERING SEA, ALASKA

David A. Steffy

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service
949 East 36th Ave., Suite 30L Anchorage, Alaska 99508

stratigraphic test wells, most of them in the larger Anadyr Basin.
Exploratory results were discouraging, and both reservoir rock
ABSTRACT distribution and timing of trap formation appeared to be major
Although the basin had optimistic beginnings, interest in further problems. Gas shows were reported in Miocene sandstones, and oil and
gas shows were reported in Eocene and Oligocene strata. One well
exploration of the Navarin Basin is waning because of disappointing produced excellent initial gas shows from at least 10 middle to upper
drilling results. Eight exploratory wells were drilled in the Navarin Basin Miocene sandstones with an aggregate thickness of 260 feet. Reservoir
in the year following Lease Sale 83 in 1984. All of these wells tested pressures declined rapidly with further testing, which suggests that the
Tertiary fill that drapes or folds over simple, broad basement highs. sandstones were small-volume, lenticular bodies.' The most prospective
Significant reservoir rocks were absent in all of these wells. Immature to reservoir rocks were encountered in Cretaceous and upper to middle
mature Eocene kerogen with possible hydrocarbon-generating Miocene sandstones; the interbedded source shales contained mostly
characteristics was found in a stratigraphic test well and two exploratory gas-prone humic organic matter. Exploratory drilling since 1978 has
wells located on the flanks of the Pervenets subbasin. However, no signs yielded more encouraging results. In 1981, an oil discovery was
of oil or oil migration were evident. A third exploratory well drilled on reported? This discovery, although not a commercial find, stimulated
the southeast flank of the Pinnacle Island subbasin encountered further drilling. More recently, commercial accumulations of both oil
thermogenic gas from a thin, probably Ienticular Paleocene sandstone. and gas condensate have been reported from the Anadyr lowlands of the
The gas was probably sourced from interbcdded, resinous coal. The 2
Anadyr Basin. Specific data on reservoir horizons or flow volumes were
geologic information collected from seven of the eight exploratory wells not disclosed.
has now been released to the public. Of the leases acquired in Sale 83,
74 percent have been relinquished as of January 1988. Exploration in the Khatyrka Basin has been spurred on by the discovery
of oil seeps and over 200 hydrogen sulfide springs where Miocene rocks
are present.' The upper Senonian, Paleogene, and lower Miocene
1. INTRODUCTION sections contain source rocks capable of generating hydrocarbons.
Upper Senonian marine shales have measured total organic carbon
The Bering Sea lies between western Alaska, eastern Siberia, and north contents of up to 0.81 percent and contain dominantly hurnic kerogen.
of the Aleutian Arc (fig. 1). This region is truly a frontier area with a The Eocene and Oligocene section contains mudstone with an average
remote and hostile subarctic marine environment that long discouraged total organic carbon content of 1.05 percent, and the lower Miocene
exploration. The northern Bering Sea includes a broad, shallow section contains shale beds with a total organic carbon content
epicontinental shelf covering an area of approximately 275,000 square (dominantly saproVelic kerogen) ranging from 0.38 percent to 1.79
miles, where water depths range between 100 and 600 feet. percent. McLean states that there appears to be major problems with
reservoir-rock distribution and the timing of trap formation.
Soviet and American explorations of the adjacent onshore areas since
the early 1900's were initially prompted by the presence of oil seeps. Petroleum exploration in the Alaska Peninsula, north of the Aleutian
Government and university reconnaissance surveys of the Bering volcanic arc, has occurred since the early 1900's. A description of oil
continental shelf revealed large Tertiary sedimentary basins with seeps reported by the Russians in 1869 "near Katmi" probably referred to
features associated with hydrocarbon generation and entrapment. the Kanatak district near Lake Becharof on the Alaska Peninsula. 3
Subsequent investigation by private industry of the Navarin Basin Between 1903 and 1959 there were 11 wells drilled in the Kanatak
included the collection of over 84,000 line-miles of seismic-reflection district. Since 1959, another 16 wells have been drilled west and south of
data and the drilling of a stratigraphic test (COST) well in 1983. Navarin the Kanatak district along the Alaska Peninsula. None of these wells
Basin Lease Sale 83, held in 1984, received approximately $631 million in discovered any producible hydrocarbons.
high bids. This sale opened up exploration in the Navarin Basin and
resulted in 8 exploratory wells being drifted on leased acreage. Seismic exploration of the continental shelf began in the mid-1960's.
Government and university research surveys of the northern Bering Sea
Overall, drilling results from the eight exploratory wells were have been generally uncoordinated, reconnaissance seismic surveys
disappointing, with all wells being plugged and abandoned. These investigating the regional geologic framework and shallow geology.
negative drilling results eventually led to the relinquishment of 120 of the Seismic surveys by private industry have been ongoing since the 1970's.
163 leased tracts in the Navarin Basin by January 1988. These surveys have established a high-density, seismic grid over the
prospective areas of the individual sedimentary basins.
2. REGIONAL EXPLORATION HISTORY
3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The earliest petroleum exploration in the shelf basins of the western
Bering Sea was initiated by the Soviet Union in 1959 in the onshore The Bering Sea continental shelf contains five large Tertiary basins
portions of the Anadyr and Khatyrka Basins 1 (fig. 1). Between 1963 and (Navarin, Pribilof, St. George, Amak, North Aleutian) (fig. 1). These
1978 the Soviet Union drilled over 30 onshore exploratory and basins were formed as rifts in the Mesozoic basement rocks. The

235 Unites States Government work not protected by copyright

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pre-Tertiary basement complex of the Bering Sea outer continental shelf, consisted of gray claystones and organic-rich claystones with local
parts of northeastern Siberia, and the Alaska Peninsula is part of the limestone lenses. The section was deposited in outer neritic to middle
forearc basin belt of Fisher and others.4 bathyal environments, and rests unconformably upon coal-bearing,
nomnarine sediments of Cretaceous age. Total organic carbon content
The forearc basin belt consists of Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks (TOC) in this section ranged from 1.0 to 2.0 percent from a mixture of
composed Of deep-water ofistostromes, mafic volcanics, and nonmarine types Il and III kerogen. The sum of amorphous plus exinitic kerogens is
and marine sediments. The belt may extend beneath the Tertiary forearc generally greater than 65 percent@ suggesting a liquid-prone source. In
basins. The northern portion of the Koryak Range of eastern Siberia the COST No. I well, the random vitrinite reflectance (R.) reaches 0.6
contains complexly juxtaposed slabs of Mesozoic olistostrome and percent at 9,400 feet and 1.3 percent by about 15,000 feet; therefore, the
melange sequences and ultrainafic masses. These possibly Eocene to early Oligocene section falls within the catagenic: zone (oil
allochthonous blocks are unconformably overlain by Paleozoic and window).
Mesozoic volcanics or terri nous deposits. Devonian through Permian
IT16
limestones are also present. The Anadyr Ridge is probably an Approximately 22 miles west-northwest of the ARCO COST No. 1 well
offshore extension of the Koryak Range and defines the northern lies the Exxon Redwood No. 1 well (figs. 1 and 3). Both wells were
boundary of the Navarin Basin (fig. 1). South of the Bering Sea, drilled on a northwest-trending basement ridge which defines the
Mesozoic rocks of the Alaska Peninsula include the Late Jurassic to southwest border of the Pervencts subbasin. The Redwood well was
Early Cretaceous siltstones and sandstones of the Naknek Formation, drilled to a total depth of 11,536 feet and bottomed in a 536-foot interval
which may be correlative with the Late to Middle Jurassic rock in dredge of probable Late Cretaceous marine shales and mudstones deposited in
samples from Zemchug Canyon and the Navarin continental slope. 67 an outer neritic to upper bathyal environment* 9 Geochcm Laboratories,
The composition of the basement rock sampled by exploratory wells and Inc.,10 conducted a geochernical survey of the Redwood No. 1 well.
dredge hauls in the Bering Sea tends to support the contention of Minerals Management Service (MMS) interpretation of this survey
Marlow and others 6 that the basement rock along the modern Beringian evaluates the interval between the depths of 5,650 and 8,800 feet as
margin is a northern extension of the Mesozoic Peninsular Terrane. containing sediments with good potential to produce hydrocarbons.
Micropaleo Consultants, Inc.,9 reported the presence of probable late
4. NAVARIN BASIN GEOLOGY Eocene to Oligocene (possibly late Eocene) strata between the depths of
5,650 and 8,800 feet. Side-wall cores between 5,650 and 8,800 feet had
The Navarin Basin consists of three en echelon subbasins (Navarinsky, TOC contents that ranged between 0.89 and 2.95 percent. Hydrogen
Pervenets, Pinnacle Island), each filled with more than 34,000 feet of indices measured from side-wall cores for the same interval are between
layered Tertiary sedimentary rocks (figs. 2 and 3). The subbasins started 65 and 408 milligrams of hydrocarbons per gram of organic carbon,
to form in response to extensional subsidence associated with strike-slip which when plotted versus oxygen indices on a modified Van Krevelen
motion or oblique subduction of the Kula Plate beneath the North diagram indicate the presence of some type Il kerogen. For this same
American Plate in the early to middle Eocene time. Basin interval of rock, the sum of amorphous plus exinitic kerogens is generally
paleobathymetry deepened rapidly from continental to middle bathyal by greater than 60 percent. MMS interpretations of data collected by
early Oligocene. Basin axes trend northwestward and parallel the Geochem Laboratories, Inc.,10 indicates that the kerogen are largely
modern continental shelf break. Fault-bounded ridges and immature and may just be approaching catagenesis at the bottom of the
compressional folds segregated the subbasins and isolated their well. For combined side-wall cores from 8,623 and 8,640 feet the Ro
depositional systems. value is 0.56 percent andTmax: values are 434 and 435 OC. The
transformation ratio (Sl/(Si + S2)) remains quite low in the interval of
By the late Eocene, movement of the Kula Plate was isolated by the interest from 5,650 to 8,800 feet. In addition, gas chromatograms of
onset of intraoceanic subduction at the modern Aleutian Arc. Subbasin C15 + hydrocarbons from as deep as 6,ND feet appear to be very
subsidence remained active until the late Oligocene, resulting in the immature.
continuous deposition of marine mudstones and siltstones throughout
most of the Paleogene. Sea-level lowerings in the middle and late The Amoco Danielle No. I well lies on the northern flank of the
Oligocene, however, exposed older Tertiary and Mesozoic basement Pervenets subbasin, approximately 25 miles north-northeast of the Exxon
highs to wave-base erosion which resulted in the deposition of Redwood No. 1 well (figs. 1 and 3). The Danielle No. I well was drilled
coarser-grained material along the subbasin flanks. Cessation of Kula on the southern flank of a west-trending basement ridge that plunges
Plate motion by the early Neogene was followed by crustal cooling which westward and separates the Navarinsky subbasin to the north from the
allowed regional subsidence of the shelf beyond the fault-bounded Pervenets subbasin to the south. Micropaleo Consultants, Inc.,11 reports
subbasins. Middle and outer neritic mudstones and sandy mudstones that the well bottomed at 10,045 feet in a 2,755-foot sequence of
were deposited throughout the Neogene. Coarser-grained deposits may probable Late Cretaceous age. Core Laboratories, Inc.,12 geochemical
have formed on the flanks of basement highs exposed to wave-base investigation of the well classified the section which lies between 6,600
erosion during a sea-level lowering in the late Miocene. and 7,140 feet as having good gas- and oil-generating potential. This
S. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS OF THE EXPLORATION section consists of a brown siltstone with minor amounts of limestone,
WELLS sandstone, and claystone of late Eocene age." Traces of oil staining
were reported common throughout this 540-foot section. This interval
Geochemical studies were conducted in each of the eight exploratory has a reported TOC content ranging between 1.12 and 2.15 percent.
wells and the COST well. In three wells (Amoco Danielle No. 1 well, Hydrogen indices measured from cuttings and sidewall cores ranged
ARCO COST No. 1 well, Exxon Redwood No. I well) that are located from 208 to 415, which when plotted versus oxygen indices on a modified
on the basement ridges that deffinit the Pervenets subbasin, potential Van Krevelen diagram suggest mixed type Il and III kerogen. This
source beds were encountered in Eocene to early Oligocene sequences mixture is confirmed by Core Laboratories, Inc.,12 visual descriptions of
(fig. 1). Interpretation of seismic-reflection data from the Pervenets significant amounts of amorphous, herbaceous and woody macerals.
subbasin area indicates that the Eocene to early Oligocene(?) section is Thermal maturity of this 540-foot interval is rated by Core Laboratories,
mappable as a discrete seismic sequence between the wells and Inc.,12 to be very marginally mature based on a Tmax of 426 to 432 'C, a
throughout the subbasin (figs, 2 and 3). This correlation is further, TAI of + 1 to + 2, and a Ro ranging between 0.33 and 0.43 percent.
supported by paleontological data.
Sparse beds of coal and claystone in the Paleogene sequence were found
Turner and others 8 rated the Eocene to early Oligocene(?) section as to be marginally mature in a few of the other exploratory wells drilled in
the most favorable for source potential in the ARCO COST No. 1 well the Navarin Basin (fig. 2). oxidation of the coaly organic material limits
(fig. 2). This section was found between 11,700 and 12,780 feet and the present potential for hydrocarbon generation. However, a sidetrack

237

GENERAL STRATIMRAPHIC LITHOLOGY
COLUMN
NAVARIN BASN

MUDSTONES,SILTSTONES

MUDDY SANDSTONES

CALCAREOUS CLAYSTONES

VOLCANICS
41A

....... COAL

.............

-A-.-*GAS
SHOW

9i
CL A,
CL
0
w

Figure 2. General stratigraphic column for
7
M

the Navarin Basin.

238

6CZ

TWO-WAY 11ME (seconds)
C" 4. (A
3E

z
ig
w

rn
lzo
21
0

F4
z

or
0
>
r,

A
Fr,

0
000 0 0 0 0
000 0
(199;) Hld3O

of the Amoco Nancy No. 1 well (located in the southeastern flank of the (8) Turner, R. F., Martin, G. C., Flett, T. 0., and Steffy, D. A., 1985.
Pinnacle Island subbasin (fig. 1)) encountered thermogenic gas from this Geologic report for the Navarin Basin Planning Area, Bering Sea,
interval. This gas show occurred in thin coal seams interbedded with Alaska: OCS Report MMS 85-0045: Anchorage (U.S. Department of
claystone and sandstone between 7,470 and 7,830 feet in this wen. Core the Interior, Minerals Management Service), 1,56 p.
Laboratories, Inc.,13 has rated this section as having good to excellent
potential for generating hydrocarbons, due, in part, to a high-resin (9) Micropaleo Consultants, Inc., 1985. Biostratigraphic report for the
component of the coals which is very localized in occurrence. Exxon OCS-Y-0599 No. I Redwood Prospect, Navarin Basin, Bering
Micropaleo Consultants, Inc.,14 classified the sidetrack between the Sea, Alaska: Encinitas, California, 53 p.
depths of 7,380 and 7,920 feet as being nonmarine and having a probable
Paleocene age based on palynology. A similar type and age section was (10) Geochem. Laboratories, Inc., 19 '85. Results of geochemical analyses
found in the initial hole between the depths of 7,3W and 7,920 feet. on one hundred ninety-two (192) cuttings and cores from OCS-Y-0599
TOC values from the sidetrack through the coal-bear !n& material ranged No. (Well A) - geochem. job No. 3147: Houston, Texas.
from 6.77 to 57.20 percent and averaged 19.48 percent. Hydrogen
indices measured from cuttings and sidewall cores ranged from 250 to (11) Micropaleo Consultants, Inc., 1985. Biostratigraphic report for the
429, which when plotted on a modified Van Krevelen diagram indicate Amoco OCS-Y-0639 No. 1 Danielle Prospect, Navarin Basin, Bering
the presence of type 11 kerogen within the Paleogene section. The visual Sea, Alaska: Encinitas, California, 42 p.
description by Core Laboratories, Inc.,13 of the kerogen from this
section was mostly woody macerals with only minor amounts of (12) Core Laboratories, Inc., 1985. Geochemical study of the Danielle
herbaceous (exinitic) material. These results led Core Laboratories, No. 1, Navarin Basin, for Amoco Production Company- Dallas, Texas,
Inc., to suggest that the coals "have good to excellent hydrocarbon source 116 p.
potential for both gas and liquid generation." Thermal maturity of this
540-foot interval is rated by Core Laboratories, InC.,13 to be immature (13) Core Laboratories, Inc., 1985. Geochemical study of the Nancy
based on pyrolysis Tmax of 422 to 433 *C and Ro values between 0.40 No. 1, Navarin Basin, for Amoco Production Company: Dallas, Texas,
and 0.48 percent. 150 P.

No attractive reservoir sequence has been identified anywhere in the (14) Micropaleo Consultants, 1985. Biostratigraphic report for the
Navarin Basin. Neither the Miocene sands nor the basal Tertiary sands, Amoco OCS-Y-0719 No. 1 Nancy Prospect, Navarin Basin, Bering Sea,
though present, showed favorable reservoir characteristics. The concept Alaska: Encinitas, California, 41 p.
of coarse-grained deposits flanking basement highs has not been fully
evaluated by the present drilling program. The early Tertiary-
Cretaceous basement complex sampled by the wells includes: Early
Cretaceous marginal marine fine-grained clastics, Late Cretaceous
coal-bearing nonmarine lithologies, Late Cretaceous bathyal
fine-grained clastics, aud Paleogene deep-water marine facies. Well
tests showed no favorable reservoir characteristics for this section, but it
is highly variable and should not be discounted as a potential play.

&REFERENCES

(1) McLean, Hugh, 1979. Review of petroleum geology of Anadyr and
Khatyrka Basins, U.S.S.R. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 1467-1477.

(2) Oil and Gas Journal, 1984. Soviets report Chukchi Peninsula
gas/condensate find. Oil and Gas Journal, v. 82, November 26, p. 57.

(3) Miller, D. J., Payne, T. G., and Gryc, G., 1959. Geology of possible
petroleum provinces in Alaska with an annotated bibliography by
Edward J. Cobb: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1049,131 p.
1

(4) Fisher, M. A., Patton, W. W., Thor, D. R., Holmes, M. L., Scott,
E. W., Nelson, C. H., and Wilson, C. L., 1979. Resource report for
proposed OCS Lease Sale 57: Norton Basin, Alaska: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 79-720.

(5) Meyerhoff, A. A., 1980. Petroleum basins of the Soviet Arctic:
Geological Magazine (Cambridge), v. 117, p. 101-210.

(6) Marlow, M. S., Vallier, T. L., Cooper, A. K., Barron, J. A., and
Wingate, F. H., 1983. A description of dredge samples collected in 1982
from the Bering Sea continental margin west of Navarin Basin: U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 83-325.

(7) Turner, R. F., McCarthy, C. M., Steffy, D. A., Lynch, M. B., Martin,
G. C., Sherwood, Y_ W., Flett, T. 0., and Adams, A. J., 1984. Geological
and operational summary, Navarin Basin COST No. 1 well, Bering Sea,
Alaska: OCS Report MMS 84-0031: Anchorage (U.S. Department of
the Interior, Minerals Management Service), 156 p.

240

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND IMPACT ASSESSEMENT ON THE ATLANTIC OUTER
CONTINENTAL SHELF

Darryl K. Francois

'Minerals Management Service
Atlantic OCS Region
Suite 601, 1951 Kidwell Drive
Vienna, Virginia 22180

ABSTRACT
1) Probability of contact to sensitive resources
In 1973, the Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management derived from statistics of numerous simulated
established the Environmental Studies Program (ESP) to conduct trajectories.
studies with the purpose of building a reliable database to help predict,
assess, and manage potential impacts from oil and gas development.
The ESP, now under the direction of the Minerals Management 2) The probability of spill occurrence as a function of
Service (MMS), includes a major oceanographic research effort that the amount of oil that is produced from individual
has resulted in an improvement in the understanding of ocean production sites or is transported to shore.
resources through the development of concurrent and parallel
programs of scientific research. Between Fiscal Year (FY) 1973 and 3) The location in space and time of sensitive
FY 1987, nearly $100 million were spent on studies of the Atlantic resources defined according to the same coordinate
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) environment through this program. system used in the spill trajectory simulation.

Much of the research conducted under the auspices of the ESP has The first factor relies on the environmental conditions and the spatial
emphasized the collection of data on the environmental conditions of relationship between resources and areas of hypothetical development
the. Atlantic OCS. The ESP-funded research has also been an in the region where a lease sale is to occur. The second factor is based
important source of information regarding sensitive OCS resources on historical records, updated and where appropriate, subjected to
that could be affected by oil spills. These include archaeological statistical analysis to account for recent experience. The probability of
resources, fish, benthic organisms, marine mammal and coastal birds spill occurrence is assessed for each potential spill source (tankers,
and their habitats, the migration routes and calving areas for pipelines, and platforms). The third factor is dependent on an
endangered or threatened species, and estuaries and wetlands. The inventory of sensitive resources in the sale area.
benefits of this research on the oil spill risk analysis and impact
assessment processes are examined in this paper. The primary source of data for factors one and three is the ESP. The
ESP began in 1973 under the Bureau of Land Management (BLM),
and in May 1982 it was placed under the jurisdiction of the MMS. The
INTRODUCTION purpose of the ESP is to conduct studies to build the reliable database
that is needed to help predict, assess, and manage the potential
The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act as amended authorizes the impacts of OCS development on the human and marine environment
Department of the Interior (DOI) to make Outer Continental Shelf of the U.S. Atlantic coast, shelf, slope, and rise regions. On the
(OCS) lands available for ". . . expeditious and orderly development, Atlantic OCS, it has spent nearly $100 million on studies of the
subject to environmental safeguards . . . ." To accomplish this objective environmental conditions between Fiscal Year (FY) 1973 and FY
the MMS has been directed by the DOI to conduct lease sales on the 19817.
OCS for the purpose of oil and gas exploration and development. The
MMS prepares an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for each Approved studies are funded in the form of contracts awarded to a
lease sale. Under the requirements of the National Environmental variety of qualified research groups in addition to Interagency
Policy Act, the EIS's assess the potential impact that an oil and gas Agreements, Memorandums of Understanding, and Cooperative
lease sale could have on the human, marine, and coastal environment Agreements with other Federal Agencies. Past and ongoing contracts
of the affected area. have produced numerous technical reports, maps, databases, and other
products for use in the planning and management of OCS activities.
A critical concern in the preparation of an EIS in the MMS leasing This paper provides a description of the principles behind OSRA and
program is the risk of an accidental oil spill and the extent of the program of field measurement funded by the MMS through the
environmental damage that may result. To assess the risk of spilled oil ESP that has improved the reliability of the oil spill impact assessment
contacting OCS and coastal resources, the DOI developed the Oil Spill process.
Risk

Analysis (OSRA) model in the early 1970's. This is a probabilistic HISTORICAL PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC AND
model representing hypothetical spills. Individual trajectories are METEOROLOGICAL DATABASE
derived from ocean circulation models. There have been many
improvements of the model throughout the last decade, and the results Data on ocean currents can be obtained from field measurements or
have been used for impact analysis in every lease sale conducted on the numerical models. Information available at the beginning of the OCS
Atlantic OCS. The OSRA model deals with three factors that oil and gas leasing program was obtained from drift bottle and card
essentially define the total oil spill risk to OCS resources: studies, historical current charts, the known geostrophy of the region,
and oceanographic observations. Given the complicated nature of

241 United States Government work not protected by copyright

Atlantic circulation, it was clear that the oceanographic and Several field measurement studies in addition to the NEOCSPO
meteorological database of the early 1970's provided an inadequate program were initiated in the New England region. Some of these
description of the OCS circulation regime and its variability at were U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) environmental geology studies
appropriate time scales. whose primary objective was to determine the areal extent of geologic
hazards and constraints and evaluate the geotechnical properties of
The initial response of the ESP to the inadequacy of the database was bottom and subbottom sediments on the shelf and slope. A
to propose and fund a series of environmental inventories and determination of the areal extent of some geologic hazards and
assessments for all Atlantic OCS planning areas. One of the primary constraints (e.g., scour, sand waves, and mass sediment movement)
objectives of these studies was to develop a comprehensive inventory necessitated an assessment of the seasonal and spatial variability of the
of marine environmental data for use in preparing impact assessments major sediment transport mechanisms and a characterization of the
for the development of offshore energy sources. This inventory regional bottom circulation patterns.
enabled the ESP to define areas where information was sparse and
determine what types of studies were needed to augment and enlarge Other major studies in the area were the Nantucket Shoals Flux
the existing data base. Physical oceanographic data on the water Experiment, the Larval Patch Study, and the National Marine
masses and current systems on the Atlantic OCS including regional Fisheries Services study of currents in the Northeast Channel.
and local circulation systems were assembled. Additionally, Archived National Oceanic Data Center data for the period 1975
meteorological information concerning atmospheric conditions in the through 1979 were also used. The NEOCSPO program relied on these
study areas as well as air-sea interactions was collected. sources in addition to its own field program in producing a final
1
report
Information on the continental shelf of the North and Mid-Atlantic
Planning Areas between Sandy Hook, New Jersey, and the Bay of In addition to the NIEOCSPO program between- 1980 and 1984,
Fundy was compiled in a report by The Research Institute of the Gulf another field program called the North Atlantic Slope and Canyon
of Maine (TRIGOM) and the Public Affairs Research Center (PARC) Study was conducted. The objective of this study was to investigate the
of Bowdoin College. The continental slope of the North and Mid- currents and sediment transport along the ou er shelf and upper slope
Atlantic Planning Areas was similarly described in a second survey by along the southern flank of Georges BanV. Figure 2 shows the
TRIGOM that was completed in 1976 (see fig. 1). TRIGOM location of the current meter and meteorological stations used in the
assembled information that was generated before 1975. In 1977, the NEOCSPO and North Atlantic Geological and Slope and Canyon
ESP authorized The Center for Natural Areas (CNA) to prepare a studies.
report, which provided an updated analysis of published, unpublished,
and raw data from 1972 to 1977 on the OCS from the Bay of Fundy to MID-ATLANTIC PLANNING AREA MEASUREMENT
Cape Hatteras (see fig. 1). The Department of Commerce through the PROGRAMS
Environmental Data Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) also completed a study in 1977 of the As in the North Atlantic Planning Area, environmental geologic
environment of the mid-Atlantic region. studies were conducted by the USGS in the Mid-Atlantic Planning
Area. Concurrently with the North Atlantic Slope and Canyon Study,
An inventory of information for the continental shelf of the South Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory investigated the physical and
Atlantic Planning Area between Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and biological processei of the Baltimore Canyon and adjacent mid-
Cape Canaveral, Florida, was prepared by the Virginia Institute of Atlantic slope areas
Marine Science (VIMS) (see fig. 1). In 1979, another literature survey
for the South Atlantic Planning Area that included information on the In 1983, Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) began
Blake Plateau was completed by Environmental Research & a 2-year field program known as the Mid-Atlantic Slope and Rise
Technology Inc. In 1980, a report on the Georges Bank area was (MASAR) study. The objectives of the study were to determine the
prepared under an interagency agreement between the DOI and broad scale, general circulation features on the continental slope and
NOAA (see fig. 1). A literature survey concerning the Atlantic Slope rise on a seasonal basis and to quantify the variability of these features
and Rise between 280 and 420N. was completed by Marine in the vertical and horizontal planes. Also, SAIC was to determine the
Geoscience. Applications Inc. (MGA) in 1984 in response to a need for degree to which slope/rise circulation features influence the physical
information on deepwater environments (see fig. 1). oceanography of the shelf region.

The analyses and conclusions of these inventories/assessments A system for exchanging data with other field programs in the region
illustrated the need for an ongoing program of physical oceanographic was instituted to assure creation of the most comprehensive database
and meteorologic data collection and analysis on the Atlantic OCS. possible. The principal contemporary programs with which MASAR
Consequently, several data gathering programs were planned by the was affiliated included:
ESP.
Shelf Edge Exchange Processes (SEEP), a program
NORTH ATLANTIC PLANNING AREA MEASUREMENT located off the New England slope to describe
PROGRAMS cross-shelf transport and deposition of organic
carbon.
In 1976 in the North Atlantic Planning Area, the New England Outer
Continental Shelf Physical Oceanography (NEOCSPO) program was The Microbial Exchange and Coupling in Coastal
initiated. The purpose of the NEOCSPO program was to describe the Atlantic Systems (MECCAS) program existing off
transport and dispersion processes in the region. In addition, Virginia Beach, Virginia. This program was designed
information on the general temperature, salinity, and current patterns to describe the dynamics of estuarine plumes formed
of the area was collected. This database was used to determine the by the outflow of low salinity water onto the shelf.
rate of dispersion of materials released into the Georges Bank
environment, and their travel patterns and residence times. The Warm Core Rings (WCR) Experiment off the
Identification of nutrient sources and regions of high biological U.S. East Coast was designed to determine the
productivity were also objectives of the program which continued statistical properties of WCR motion, size, shape, and
through 19791. location based on a 10-year sample set of 87 rings.

242

The Gulf Stream Meander Dynamics program off Blake Plateau region culminated in a third field program whose study
Cape Hatteras, North Carolina was area extended from 300 to 360N. in the South Atlantic Bight and the
designed to study the meandering processes of the Blake Plateau7. The objective of this study was to determine the
Gulf Stream. location of the Gulf Stream front on a daily basis and over longer time
The program of study for MASAR emphasized the Gulf Stream and periods.
associated elements (Gulf Stream rings, filaments, and similar near- Several other programs that were ongoing during the Blake Plateau
surface events). Other study elements were the Western Boundary field program enhanced the study effort (see fig. 5). The Subtropical
Undercurrent, circulation in the surface layer above the main Atlantic Climate Study, which was jointly funded by NOAA and the
thermocline (< 200 in), the shelf/slope front, and the potential Office of Naval Research studied the dynamics of the Florida current
transfer of wastes at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
3,800-m dumpsite4. Figure 3 shows the arrays used in MASAR and and its relation to north Atlantic circulation and global climate. The
Spring Removal Experiment, an extension of the Georgia Bight
program, P
affiliated programs. rimarily funded by the DOE studied the cause and effect of
A 10-year history of statistics (mean loci, lifetime and size, and the hypothesized removal route of low salinity coastal water in the
movement in the slope-water region off the U.S. Northeast coast) on vicinity of the Charleston Bump. The Florida Atlantic Coast Transport
Study (FACTS) funded by the MMS studied the frequency of filament
Gulf Stream warm core rings was generated by this study. structures on the western edge of the Gulf Stream and volume
SOUTH ATLANTIC PLANNING AREA MEASUREMENT transport between latitude 270 and 300N.7. Information from these
programs and from other background sources (i.e., National Weather
PROGRAMS Service, National Climatic Center, National Ocean Survey)
Between 1977 and 1984, SAIC conducted a multiyear program of field suppymented the database generated by the Blake Plateau program
measurement and data interpretation and synthesis in an area itself .
extending along the shore from Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral and MODELING
offshore across the shelf and Blake Plateau. This program was called
the South Atlantic physical oceanography study (SAPOS). The As stated before, one of the objectives of the physical oceanography
objectives of the program were three-fold. First, a better field programs in the South Atlantic region was to develop boundary
understanding and description of the conditions and processes (i.e., and initial value conditions for input into a numerical modeling
tide, wind, density, and the Gulf Stream) governing South Atlantic program. The ESP contracted with Dynalysis of Princeton (Dynalysis)
Bight circulation was desired. A second objective was to document to develop a numerical modeling program for the South Atlantic Bight.
and explain the spatial and temporal variability of South Atlantic Bight The MMS's reasoning was that data gathering programs on Atlantic
hydrographic conditions (i.e., temperature, salinty, density, dissolved OCS are best suited for observing and analyzing particular dynamic
oxygen, and selected nutrients). Additionally, data gathering efforts phenomena rather than determining the circulation of an entire
were designed to define the initial and boundar conditions needed for region8.
a numerical circulation modeling program . These objectives
determined the type and amount of data gathered during each year of The focus of the Dynalysis project was the area between 270 and 370N.
the program. and bounded by 73W. (see fig. 1). Dynalysis was asked to develop a
working descriptive and predictive model that would generate
The objectives of the SAPOS were aided by several other data reasonably accurate predictions of surface current velocities for input
gathering programs in the South Atlantic Bight region. The efforts of into trajectory models for use in the MMS's oil spill risk analysis
the SAPOS were coordinated with a Department of Energy (DOE) process. Dynalysis was also required to develop a capability for
current monitoring study, a BLM-funded USGS environmental determining mid-water circulation to predict dissolved and suspended
geologic study, a BLM-funded National Aeronautics and Space matter transport and near-bottom currents to predict sediment
Administration (NASA) study of sea surface transport and wave transport.
climatology, and the deployment of three offshore meteorological
buoys by the National Data Buoy Office5. Additionally, the results of A time-dependent, three-dimensional general circulation model that
a joint DOE/MMS study of oceanographic processes in the area Dynalysis had developed and used with success in the Gulf of Mexico,
during the winter/spring of 1980 and summer/fall of 1981 (Georgia Mid-Atlantic Bight, and Chesapeake Bay was used for the project.
Bight experiments I and 11) were incorporated into the SAPOS. The Density fields from the most current database possible were used to
Georgia Bight experiment focused on the shelf s response to the wind establish the initial conditions for the model. The general circulation
and Gulf Stream forcing and the coupling of flow regimes. Near the model was then run in several modes. These included a diagnostic
end of the South Atlantic physical oceanography study, a current mode where the density field is prescribed and held fixed in time, a
measuring program was instituted on the Blake Plateau. The results of prognostic (forecast) mode in which the density field is allowed to
the first year of this study were incorporated into SAPOS5. evolve dynamically under prescribed surface winds and other forcing
Current measurements made as part of the South Atlantic Bight study mechani ris, and a truly predictive mode with forecast synoptic winds
as input . The general circulation model accurately simulates the
were supplemented by the Blake Plateau bottom and mid-water evolution of the upper oceanic layer through an incorporation of
current study (see fig. 4). This program was designed to study mid- realistic vertical mixing via a second-order turbulence closure model.
water and near-bottom current and temperature variations in the It also incorporates wind and density forcing and can simulate tidal
vicinity of the Gulf Stream axis simultane!Vsly with near-bottom, shelf and storm surge processes.
edge, and Blake Plateau currents at 300N. . Data were collected for a
year to investigate seasonal changes in Blake Plateau current gatterns The open boundary conditions for the general circulation model are
and to overlap with the Georgia Bight I and II experiments . The generated by another model that uses geostrophic/Ekman equations
Georgia Bight I and II experiments were designed to study the of motion including the surface shear stress terms and is essentially a
circulation and exchange patterns occurring throughout the shelf area diagnostic technique. This Characteristic Tracing Model was
during the winter to summer transition (see fig. 4). The Blake Plateau developed under this contract and deduces the transports and currents
current study was extended for a second year to include measurements not only on the open boundaries for the general circulation model, but
along latitude 360N. with the additional objective of producing data te also in the entire region from prescribed density and wind stress fields.
determine boundary conditions for a numerical circulation model . The two models operating together describe current patterns in the
The study of the current regime and Gulf Stream dynamics in the South Atlantic Bight and throughout the entire water column. The

243

trajectories are started from points on the OCS where oil is most likely
resulting circulation model agrees well with available observations. to be found and developed, including transportation routes.
The background diagnostic currents produced can also be used in
trajectory models such as the OSRA model@. DEFINITION OF AREAS OF SENSITIVE HABITAT
The ESP authorized Dynalysis to expand the area of coverage for its If oil is spilled on the OCS, the process of determining the
modeling efforts to the entire east coast in a later phase of the environmental impacts is dependent on the location and residence
modeling program. This change was made because the earlier time of sensitive OCS and coastal resources. The ESP was designed
boundary (360N.) cut across the most dynamically active and not only to enlarge the database of oceanographic informa Ition, but
interesting features of the eastern continental shelf. The area for also to aid in the definition and delineation of these areas of sensitive
which data has been analyzed covers the coastal waters of the east OCS and coastal habitat. Baseline/benchmark studies described the
coast from 650 to 820W. and 230 to 460N., excluding an area south of status of the biological, socioeconomic, and physical environment of
300N. and east of 700W. where data coverage remains sparse. The the Atlantic OCS in the early and mid-1970's. Thereafter, numerous
Characteristic Tracing Model was modified to include the effect of research projects were initiated with the objective of increasing the
bottom stresses in the planetary potential vorticity balance. The understanding of the resources that may be affected by oil and gas
increased volume of physical oceanographic observations produced by development. The following section gives two examples of these data
the field program in the South Atlantic Bight were incorporated into gathering and assessment programs.
the general circulation model and the Characteristic Tracing Model.
The results of these refinements show that the circulation features of In the South Atlantic region, the ESP sponsored a program of study on
the east coast deduced by the modified Characteristic Tracing Model hard-bottom habitats. The South Atlantic Hard-Bottom Study
are in agreement with the first Characteristic Tracing Model and determined the ability of geophysical prospecting methods to identify
compare well with field observations. However, the modified hard-bottom habitats. Then the Ocean Bottom Survey, a part of the
Characteristic Tracing Modelproduces a more accurate picture of the Atlantic Geological Studies program, determined the occurrence and
currents on the shelf. distribution of hard-bottoms in the region.
Another objective in the expansion of the modeling effort was to The South Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study,
demonstrate the ability of the circulation models to predict event conducted by the Marine Resources Research Institute (MRRI) of the
features of the Gulf Stream such as meanders, filaments, and eddy South Carolina State government, used the information gathered by
formation. Earlier calculations did not produce the observed Gulf previous studies to conduct a three-phase study of hard-bottom
Stream frontal variability. A series of numerical experiments using the habitats. The first two phases generated a comprehensive
general circulation model were conducted to study the initiation and characterization of the benthic- invertebrate and demersal fish
evolution of these features. These experiments focused on three communities associated with nine representative hard-bottom areas
modes of external forcing for generating frontal activity. These forcing located between 30ON and 330N12.
mechanisms are 1) surface forcing by a propagating wind stress curl, 2)
changes in the intensity of the Gulf Stream, and 3) changes in the Phase III of the project was designed to gain a better understanding of
lateral position of the Gulf Stream.9. the relationship between development activity and the recruitment and
The general circulation model used in the Atlantic is an orthogonal development of invertebrate communities. Also desired was
curvilinear coordinate system model that was previously used in the information on the importance of the health of the invertebrate
Pacific Region to model circulation patterns on the California shelf9. community to the development of fish species in the region.
Both the California and Atlantic models use the coordinate system that In the North and Mid-Atlantic regions, the ESP contracted with the
can be modified to conform to coastal features, and a variable grid University of Rhode Island (URI) to conduct a Cetacean and
spacing is used to obtain high resolution in areas of interest. Turtle Assessment Program (CETAP). This program gathered data
The results of these models produce surface velocities on seasonal over a 39-month period beginning in November 1978 and continuing
time scales. Oil spill transport occurs on the order of days, weeks, and until January 1982. Information was gathered from aerial surveys,
months, rather than seasons. To account for this difference in time aircrafts and ships of opportunity, opportunistic data from individuals
scales, a second method must be used to produce surface velocities for and other researchers in the area, and special surveys. Special surveys
use in the oil spill risk analysis process. A wind drift model is used to were usually species-specific. They were organized when certain
aid in the determination of trajectories. The velocity component species were not adequately sampled, or certain areas or events were
unique or of short duration and therefore would not be sampled by
derive 'd from the Ekman spiral is removed to prevent a duplication of other survey methods.
the resultant %Nind-forcing. Winds from the historical database are
sampled at 3-hour intervals. The results of this wind model are based Once the results of an OSRA model run are presented to the MMS
on the assumption that the wind in one time-step is a random function
of the wind in the previous time-step, a first order Markov processio. analysts, these biological studies provide some of the detailed
The wind induced current is determined to be a constant percentage of information needed for impact analysis. Seasonal location of
the surface wind speed. An empirically derived wind drift factor of 3.5 endangered species and other marine mammals, as well as estimates of
percent of the wind speed is used, along with a variable deflection their populations, help to determine the likelihood and potential
angle that compensates for the effects of the Coriolis forcell. severity of impact. Information on the feeding and breeding patterns
of different species is especially important in determining recovery
Therefore, the OSRA model, as it is presently used on the Atlantic times. The same is true for the location of hard-bottom areas and the
OCS, is based on a principle that can be expressed through the sensitivity of resident species of invertebrate and demersal fish to
following relationship: contact with spilled oil.

Uoil @ Uresidual current + 3.5(def. angle)Uwind
Where U is a velocity vector. The effects represented by the first term SUMMARY
are obtained through the Characteristic Tracing Model and the effects In the North Atlantic Planning Area, the NEOCSPO developed
represented by the second term are obtained through the statistical quantitative estimates of the amount of recirculation of the Georges
wind model. The timing of an oil spill is selected at random, and

244

Bank Gyre, showing it to be a more intens@@ and closed pattern in the associated with hard-bottoms and the extent of their dependency on
summer than in winter. The conceptual model for the general
seasonal circulation of the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank region this type of habitat. Again, this information is important in
was verified by the NEOCSPO. Drifter observations provided the determining where an impact would occur, which species would be
capability of determining the dynamics and structure of the wind- impacted, and what are likely time- frames for recovery.
driven current fields that fluctuate with periods of between 2 and 30
days. Research on submarine canyons in the North and Mid-Atlantic
identified them as regions of increased biological productivity in CONCLUSION
relation to adjacent shelf and slope areas. The active current regimes
in these canyons promote sediment transport. The uncertainty involved in determining the risk to OCS resources is
difficult to assess. The fate of oil, should a spill occur, will be a
The MASAR study provides a long-term view of shelf-break exchange function of many environmental factors, of which, wind and current
processes, which again includes estimates of seasonal variations. The conditions are the major ones. The mean cu frrent database for the
effects of submesoscale and mesoscale eddies as well as wind-driven Atlantic Region prior to 1979 was inadequate for use in numerical
currents on these exchange processes have been documented. modeling efforts. The forcing mechanisms in the area were not clearly.
Additionally, other research programs that were associated with the understood, and they were poorly modeled. The efforts of the ESP
Mid-Atlantic Slope and Rise program (e.g., MECCA, SEEP, Gulf have resulted in an improvement in the understanding of ocean
Stream Variability) have benefitted, immensely from the data resources through the development of concurrent and parallel
generated by this ESP-sponsored study. programs of scientific research. They have provided direct, long-term
current and hydrographic observations in the Atlantic Region. The
The SAPOS investigated the circulation pattern in the South Atlantic modeling component of this program makes use of this database to
Bight. Forcing by the Gulf Stream and winds are most important on model the circulation over the entire region and provides the MMS
the outer shelf. Periodic migrating meanders and associated filaments with a predictive capability. Other information-gathering programs
are Gulf Stream events that affect this region. The filaments are the have enabled the MMS to identify species that may be at risk from
primary flushing mechanism for the South Atlantic Bight. At mid- OCS development. The location of their habitats and temporal
shelf, tides and local winds have the greatest effect on current patterns. variations in habitat use have been described. Additionally, their
On the inner shelf, the density structure acts in concert with tides, in dependency on the existence of other associated species is determined.
addition to buoyancy flux from fresh water input and surface wind
stress to determine the current regime. Gulf Stream variability on the The ESP, through ongoing studies, is continuing to provide important
Blake. Plateau was analyzed by the Blake Plateau current measurement information on the physical and biological oceanography of the
study. The role of the Charleston Bump in the displacement of the Atlantic OCS. The ESP also is continuing to collect information on
Gulf Stream and the creation of meanders and eddies was outlined. the impacts of OCS development on coastal and OCS resources.
The effect of these Gulf Stream disturbances on the exchange Additionally, the proposed "Long-Range Studies Plan" ensures that the
processes of the region was investigated, and the viability of the use of ESP will continue to be a major contributor to our knowledge of the
satellite imagery to document changes in Gulf Stream position and the marine environment and the effects of OCS activities on our offshore
effect of the Gulf Stream on regional circulation and water mass resources.
distribution was demonstrated. Comparisons between wind data
gathered at coastal stations and offshore buoys were made to
determine if there is a pattern to the differences between them. REFERENCES
FACTS. extended the study of the Gulf Stream southward to the
Florida coastal regions. The periodicity of eddy events was 1. Flagg, C.N., B. A. Magnell, D. Frye, J. J. Cura, S. E. McDowell, and
determined, although the data were not sufficient to draw conclusions R. I. Scarlet. 1982, Interpretation of the Physical
regarding the role of changes in Gulf Stream transport in eddy Oceanography of Georges Bank. Vols. 1-2. Prepared for the
formation. Data from FACTS were also used to determine that BLM by EG&G Environmental Consultants under contract
nearshore small cyclonic circulation provided a possible mechanism for #AA851-CT1-39,901p.
onshore transport of materials from OCS activities. 2. Butman, B., ed. 1986, North Atlantic Slope and Canyon Study. Vols.
The oceanographic field program of the MMS has enlarged the 1-2, Prepared for the MMS by the USGS under Interagency
existing database. Data from the field programs in the south Atlantic Agreement #IA14-12-0001-30180,628p.
have been used by Dynalysis in conjunction with a general circulation
model to describe south Atlantic circulation. It was demonstrated that 3. Hunkins, K. 1983, Physical Oceanography of Baltimore Canyon and
a general circulation model using the appropriate boundary conditions Adjacent Slope, Chapter 1. in Canyon and Slope Processes
could produce a realistic pattern of Gulf Stream intrusions along the Study. Prepared for the MMS by Lamont-Doherty Geological
western Gulf Stream boundary. The diagnostic currents produced by Observatory under contract #14-12-0001-29178, pp 1 - 134.
the Characteristic Tracing Model are used for input to the OSRA
model with trajectory results being used in the oil spill risk and impact 4. (SAIC). 1987, Study of the Physical Processes on the U.S. Mid-
analysis processes. Atlantic Slope and Rise. Vols. 1-3, Prepared for the MMS by
SAIC under contract #14-12-0001-30066, 506p.
The analysis of impacts on coastal or OCS resources produced by oil
spills or the release of other pollutants is dependent, in part, on 5. (SAIQ Science Applications International Corporation. 1984,
accurate resource definition. Therefore, another objective of the, ESP South Atlantic Physical Oceanography Study (Year Five).
is to determine the spatial and temporal variability of OCS resources. Prepared for the MMS by SAIC under contract #AA851-
Representative of these efforts are the CETAP and South Atlantic CT2-61, 223p.
hard-bottom studies. In the case of CETAP, the delineation of feeding
and calving areas, as well as migration routes, serve to better pinpoint 6. General Oceanics Inc. 1983, Blake Plateau: Near-Bottom
areas at risk from an oil spill. Information on population distributions Current/Temperature Measurement on 360 N. Prepared for
of different species helps to determine which ones are most at risk and the MMS by General Oceanics Inc. under contract #AA8SI-
to identify their ability to recover from an exposure. The hard-bottom CT1-33, 188p.
study defined the occurrence and areal extent of hard-bottoms in the
South Atlantic Bight. It also determined the number of species

245

7. General Oceanics; Inc. 1986, Blake Plateau Current Measurement U.S. Department of the Interior
Study. Prepared for the MMS by General Oceanics Inc. JIM Minerals Management Service
Atlantic OCS Region
under contract #14-12-0001-29202, 427p.
-A (P 0 bile
8. (FIO) Florida Institute of Oceanography. 1986, Physical 0. 61. T3.
Oceanographic Study of Florida's Atlantic Coast Region - TO.
Florida Atlantic Coast Transport Study (FACTS). Vols. 1-3,
Prepared for the MMS by FIO under contract #14-12-0001-
30082,390p.
ME ...
9. Blumberg, A. F., H. J. Herring, L. H. Kantha, and G. L. Mellor. -4
1981, South Atlantic Bight Numerical Modeling Application. 70,,
0
Prepared for the MMS by Dynalysis of Princeton under ;z:*:
i*:;' 70
contract #AA551-CT9-32,32p 0
0
VT NH
M,
10. Kantha, L. H., H. J. Herring and G. L. Mellor. 1986, South
Atlantic Bight OCS Circulation Model, Phase 111. Prepared
for the MMS by Dynalysis of Princeton under contract #14- A
12-0001-29203, 153p. N Y
x

T
11. Smith, R. A, J. R. Slack, T. Wyant, and K. J. Lanfear. 1982, The
Oilspill Risk Analysis Model of the USGS. USGS Prof. X
Paper, no. 1227, 40p.
PA
12. Samuels, W. B., N. E. Huang, and D. E. Amstutz. 1982, An Oilspill N J
Trajectory Analysis Model with a Variable Wind Deflection
Angle. Ocean Engng., vol. 9, No. 4, pp 347 - 360.
M D D
13. (MRRI) Marine Resources Research Institute, South Carolina
Wildlife and Marine Resources Department. 1984, South
Atlantic OCS Area Living Marine Resources Study, Phase III.
0
Vols. 1-2, Prepared for the MMS by MRRI under contract V A
'316
#14-12-0001-29185.
0.
0.
14. (URI) University of Rhode Island. 1982, A Characterization of
Marine Mammals and Turtles in the Mid-and North Atlantic
NC
Areas of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf. Prepared for the
MMS by the URI under contract #14-12-0001-29163, 450p. 13.1b
x.-g.

Va,
Va. 00
SIC

EXPLANATION

0 A
El WILLIAMS and 132:
GODSHALL, 1977 CP
E] ERT, 1979
r.--.l 0
L' * A TRIGOM, 1974 300
TRIGOM, 1976 FL
El GODSHALL, 1980

MGA, 1984 CP

CNA, 1977
,wr'.
(P (P ze CP
5/88 1% V1. T;c,

Figure 1. Study areas for the series of data inventory/assessments on the Atlantic OCS

246

U,S, Depalment ol the Inte-,
Mine,als Management Se-ce
Atlantic OCS Region

720 710 700 690 680 670 660 650
N,
NH

MA North 00

42*- 420

4 1 -410
Great
SSG 0 @Q 660 650
South
ro Channel loom

100'n
400- '-200n 400--
LYDONIA CANYON
000 MOORED ARRAY Isom
Not all stations were
occupied simultaneously
CURRENT METER MOORING a PRESSURE MOORING 200M b ooo
39 CURRENT& PRESSURE SHALLOW TRIPOD Napo",
MOORINGS BOTTOM TRIPOD 390-
WIND MEASUREMENTS
I I I I I
710 700 690 680 670
14/88 J

Figure 2. Current meter and meteorological stations used in NEOCSPO and the North
Atlantic Geological and Canyon and Slope studies (Adapted from Flagg et al., 1982, and
Butman, 1986).

247

W
-4

0 0
m 0, cc 0, o" TO cm z
Fn z I
ml M, 0
An 'z m-2 0 Z
> 4 -4 :E -4
'V* Irn r,
T, r g "MI m 'o M, -4
r M mz 0 m
CD m
-1 F. -1 (a A

C-
c 0 Q
a
EL (,D -1 -<
CD
It
-4
C.)
CD C -4
02,

to 7
-4

Z, @-h 0 m co ca
O'D > >
> z m
in. rL r- ch -N
> 4.0 rA M M
CL r CD > >
-4

1* 0
10 0
00
s Im

Vp 0 t

to (a
0.

-4 .0
W @:S 04@-,
,1::$ 0

CD
0

CO.
0CD
CD
'p,00
go CL N LA c 0,
-1 00 z -4 v 0 e0om
r-n .0 g -M M- x
x . .0
Z 0 o Ch m looom
CD 'o OOM
> 0 m ca
c m z
> a. OB (D mo z x m 0 r >
C40) 0 m 0 M m
m 0,0 -4 M
M
CD > -, - S - -0
m 0 L 2 r-
0 m o z o o >
z I a 0 -4
0 z > LD m
0 w z >
I tz A
0 c
c
0
0

Ta.

U S Depadment ot the Inter-
M herals Management Se-ce
Atl,iht,@ OCS Reg-

820 810 800 790 780 770 760 750 740 730
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

360- 360
NC

350- 350

MOREHEAD CITY

WILMINGTON
340- 340
SIC 4

330- CHARLESTON -330

SAVANNA
320- -320
GA

310- -310
0
CY

300 -300

0 7150 7140
.go- BLAKE PLATEAU
STUDIES AND FACTS
CAPE
CANAVERA CURRENT METER
280- MOORINGS
FL t PEGASUS-CURRENT
N PROFILER
FORT PIERCE -200m R IES/PRESSURE MOORING
270

810 800 79
5/88

Figure 5. Current meter arrays for Blake Plateau and FACTS studies and current meter
stations from concurrent research projects (i.e. STACS, and SPREX) (Adapted from
General Oceanics Inc., 1982,1983,1986, and FIO, 1986).

249

DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES FOR OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES
IN FRONTIER AND HAZARDOUS AREAS

Richard B. Krahl
Deputy Associate Director for Offshore Operations

and

Charles E. Smith
Research Program Manager
Technology Assessment and Research Branch

Minerals Management Service
U.S. Department of the Interior

ABS7R4CT Technologies that will be used to develop, pro-
duce, and transport oil and gas in the Arctic are constantly
Much of the United States' future domestic petroleum being updated, and although some systems are well proven,
supply is expected to come from the areas offshore Alaska and the others are not. Design criteria must include provisions for
lower 48 states. Areas of highest potential are in the deep waters very low temperatures, sea ice, permafrost, seismicity,
of the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), seismically active areas off south- waves, and bottom scouring by ice ridges. Environmental
ern California, and the ice-infested waters of the Arctic. Opera- issues which must be addressed are impacts from a major
tions under any of these conditions are severe, with high develop- oil spill, effects due to marine structures as well as shore-
ment costs, and immense financial risks. Expansion into these
areas requires extensive research studies and complex engineer- based facilities, and the consequences of dredging, ice
ing solutions. Industry has historically demonstrated the ability to breakers, excess noise, and other possible hazards. Indus-
develop required technologies to meet new challenges and ad- try, however, has demonstrated its capability to use new
vances in the above areas are no exception. This paper addresses technologies for exploration in the Arctic, and this insight
some of the technological breakthroughs proposed to develop oil will prove of great benefit for developing future production
and gas operations in these frontier areas, and the concerns facilities.
expressed for the installation of platforms in seismically active
areas. Recent activities relating to the U.S. Research Commission
are covered as well.
Engineering Categories
INTRODUCTION 9 Well Control
As the pace of exploration increases in the frontier eStructural Dynamics
areas of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), questions arise eStructural Inspection and Monitoring
continually about technologies needed to safety and effi- 9Geotechnical
9Ice Mechanics
ciently develop oil and gas operations in such severe envi- *Materials
ronments. The engineering categories listed in Figure 1 9Risk Assessment
entail some of the items requiring special attention. Each eOil Spill Containment and Cleanup
of these categories has its unique, problems and constraints
which must be addressed. Experience derived from numer-
ous installations in nonfrontier areas coupled with extensive
research sponsored by both industry and Government Figure I- Engineering categories requiring special
provides a solid basis to move operations into the less attention for the development of oil and gas
benign regions. operations in frontier areas.

250 Unites States Government work not protected,by copyrigh

Industry is of the opinion that the technology exists is, the size of the recoverable resource is a key component
for developing and producing oil and gas inwater depths out for the economic feasibility of deepwater development.
to at least 3,000 feet. This does not imply that all potential
engineering and operational problems have been solved.
Uncertainties still exist and will continue to exist until Table 1. Chronolo& of Deepwater Dfilling
facilities in these water depths become operational. Areas (Taken from Reference 1)
of concern for deepwater operations relate t6well-control
procedures, laying and operating pipelines, strumming of 600- 1,001- 2,001- Over
risers because of high ocean currents, inspection tech- 1,000 ft. 2,000 ft. 3,000 ft. 3,000 ft. Total
niques, and the use of novel structures. All of these areas 1978 21 13 7 3 44
must be addressed from a technological standpoint to bring 1979 39 35 3 10 87
deepwater operations into the same realm of reliability as 1980 40 32 8 6 86
1981 31 44 4 0 79
current operations. 1982 58 37 1 5 101
1983 64 36 2 3 105
Over the last several years, millions of dollars have 1984 64 63 13 8 148
been invested in designing equipment, developing analyti- 1995 66 74 12 10 162
1%6 46 42 16 12 116
cal tools, and conducting model and full-scale field tests in 1987 33 41 16 11 101
preparation for frontier operations.

To illustrate the technological developments that The previous record for a fixed platform, is held by
have occurred or are anticipated for operations in the deep Shell's Cognac Platform located in 1,025 feet of water, has
ocean, seismically active regions, and the Arctic, the follow- recently been surpassed by Shell's new platform,
ing information is provided. Bullwinkle, that is the world's tallest deepwater fixed plat-
form. It is located in 1,350 feet of water and.,stands 1,615
feet tall from the ocean floor to the top of the drilling rig.
Deepwater Technology The platform consists of a single-piece steel jacket with a
weight of approximately 50,000 tons. The massive struc-
Ten years ago the term deepwater referred to ture, too large for conventional launching equipment, re-
water depths greater than 600 feet; now this has been quired constructionof a specially designed 853-foot by253-
extended to water depths greater than 1,000 feet. In two foot launch barge that is being built in Karea@
recent lease sales in the Gulf of Mexico, 33 percent of the
tracts leased were in water depths greater than 3,000 feet, Recent studies indicate that steel-jacket platforms
and four tracts were leased in water depths of 10,000 feet. could be technically feasible up to a water depth of approxi-
Whil *e it is unlikely that a significant number of projects win mately 1,600 feet. However, these giant structures are
be carried out in these water depths over the next few years, subject to motions and stresses amplified by resonant
the industry has retained a strong interest in continuing to vibration, which results in an unacceptable fatigue life.
acquire deepwater tracts for future development. Deepwa- New designs are being developed to eliminate this prob-
ter exploration has not been limited only to the Gulf of lem, but it is reasonable to state that conventional jacket
Mexico. Brazil is currently conducting exploratory drilling structures are not feasible beyond this depth!
at two sites, one in 3,660 feet of water and the other at a
depth of 3,690 feet. Other countries with deepwater activity A new type of structure is being developed to
are Norway, Australia, Indonesia, Italy, Spain, Thailand, extend platform depth capabilities significantly. Known as
and the U.S.S.R. Table 1 shows the total number of compliant platforms, these Structures are allowed to move
deepwater wells drilled worldwide during each of the past in response to waves and currents, thus reducing the mag-
10 years! nitude of the load to be resisted. Figure 3 indicates the
relative sway periods of fixed and compliant platforms and
A variety of structural concepts are available for how each compares with typical wave-energy spectra.
deepwater development as shown in Figure 2. These
include conventional fixed jackets, compliant towers, ten- Compliant platforms may be classified in two
sion leg platforms, and floating production platforms. ways. The first is designated as bottom-founded. This
Many complex technical problems have been solved in would be typical of guyed towers and compliant towers.
developing workable systems, and each system has its own Exxon has installed a guyed tower, Lena, in 1,000 feet of
unique advantages and limitations. However, what may water in the GOM, and the technology is such that guyed
prove to be technically feasible may not be economical, that towers may be an efficient system down to a water depth of

:251

Which Concept Will Lead the Way in Deepwater Development?

(b)
(a)

(h)

(d)

(g)

Figure 2. Structural concepts for deepwaterplatforms: (a) Guyed Tower, (b) Floating Production System,
(c) Tension Leg Platform, (d) Articulated Compliant Tower, (e) Rigid Concrete Thpod Structure,
(f) Steel THpod Structure, (g) Rigid Steel Jacket, (h) Subsea Production System, (i) Steel Box
THpod Structure, (j) Solid Compliant Tower (figure courtesy of McDermott International).

252

add substantially to the deckload, and in turn increases the
hull displacement .3 It is this weight interaction that in-
H, - Sig. wave height Wave energy
spectra -4,000 creases the cost of TLP's and keeps them from being the
Fixed H 410 ft d most economical choice for the deeper tracks. They are
jackets Ms .- 33 ft t er TLP - 3,000 expected to be economical down to a water depth of ap-
=1,000 - proximately 4,M0 feet.
TLP -2,000.1
750 - H, - 26 ft U.
B.
500- To overcome the disadvantage of the TLP's, Float-
H. . -1,000
d) 250 -qW 20 ft ing Production Systems (FPS) technology is receiving in-
00 4 6 12 1[6 211 0 30 50 70 910 0 creased attention as an option for deepwater oil and gas op-
Natural sway period, sec. erations. An FPS facility is a floating platform held in place
Wave period, sec. by catenary mooring lines. In a typical FPS, the production
I facility is coupled with a subsea completion system where
Figure 3. Comparison of the natural swaypefiod well control is provided on the seafloor. Wells are usually
between a fixedjacketplatforin and a compliant predrilled through templates, and production is brought to
platform and their relationship to the wave energy the surface through a compliant riser system connected to
spectra for different significant wave heights. the floating vessel. Satellite well production units may be
placed at different locations with manifolds located on the
template. Currently, some 22 FPS installations are operat-
2,000 feet. The compliant tower differs from the guyed ing worldwide involving converted or purposely built sem-
tower in that it eliminates the cable system that serves as the isubmersible drilling rigs? Placid Oil Company's FPS,
support for the tower. Stability is maintained by the being installed in the GOM, will be the world's deepest
flexibility of the frame as well as buoyant chambers built facility in 1,500 feet of water. This unit is designed to support
into the frame. These types of structures could be economi- a total of 24 template and satellite wells with the satellite
cal down to 3,000-foot water depths. Both of these compli- wells located in water depths varying between 1,500 to 2,000
ant platforms are rigidly attached to the seafloor with piles feet. Since other systems become economically unattrac-
and are designed with relatively slender flexible steel frames tive with increased water depths, FPS's are considered to be
that have a natural period significantly higher than the high- the choice for future deepwater developments beyond 4,000
energy wave periods. feet.

The second class of compliant platform is basically Whereas the Placid FPS utilizes a converted
floating structures. The tension leg platform (TLP) is semisubmersible drilling unit as the production plat-
typical of this type of structure for which the technology has form, Ocean Drilling and Exploration Company engi-
been developed. The TLP makes use of excess buoyancy, neers have designed a purpose built semisubmersible
which places the mooring legs or tendons under a very high platform which is touted to be a considerable improve-
tensile load. This in turn restricts the motions of the ment over converted drilling units. Shown in Figure 4,
platform such as heave, pitch, and roll, while it allows the "Ocean El Dorado" is a symmetrically shaped, six
movement in the horizontal direction. The first commercial column semisubmersible designed to economically
application of a TLP was the Hutton Platform in the North operate in water depths ranging from 1,000 to 8,000 feet.
Sea in 485 feet of water. The first deepwater application in The unit operates at a deep draft of 180 ft. with a
the U.S. OCS will be in 1,760 feet of water on a Conoco tract displacement of 112,558 L.T. and has a top deck eleva-
in the GOM. This will be a lightweight version of the TLP tion which is 262 ft. above the bottom of the pontoons.
and will be known as a tension leg well platform. It will have The deck shape is a 12 sided polygon measuring approxi-
a displacement ofonly 18,000 tons, will not support a drilling mately 340 ft. across the flats. Depending on site specific
rig, will have limited processing capabilities, and thus win design considerations, the mooring system will consist of
serve primarily as the support for the well heads. Produc- 24 to 36 chain/wire mooring lines and will use anchors
tion will take place on a remote platform location in varing from 65 to 35 tons. With an air gap of 60 ft., the
relatively shallow water! Ocean El Dorado is designed to safely withstand the
passage of a 90 ft. high wave in conjuction with a 162
The TLP concept does suffer from a payload knot wind and 2 knot current. Further, given that the
limitation. The larger the deckload, the larger the hull unit has been designed specifically for the purpose of oil
required to provide necessary buoyancy, and the larger the and gas production, its deck load capacity, floating
moorings and foundation requirements. With increased stability, and motion characteristics are far superior to
water depth, longer tendons and risers are required which those of semisubmersible drilling units. Having been

253

provided with full drilling capability, simultaneous and delicate component of a floating production system and
drilling and production operations are possible on the must be designed and analyzed with the hull as a unified
Ocean El Dorado. Typically, drilling would be done system. Regardless of the type of platform deployed or riser
using a conventional subsea stack lowered through the configuration used, the array of risers has distinctly differ-
moonpool. The vessel would first position itself vertically ent physical properties and tension requirements, and the
over the well location using the mooring system and set a platform will move relative to the various components.
permanent guidebase on the seabed. Therefore, interferencebetween risers, risers and platform,
and risers and mooring lines becomes of paramount impor-
It would then drill the well using a subsea stack and tance in the design and operation of floating platforms.
a drilling riser. After setting the 7 inch production casing,
the stack and drilling riser would be removed and the well
tied back to the vessel's tensioning system using a 9 5/8 inch Arctic Technology
riser enclosing the 7 inch protective casing. Approximately
30 wells could be individually drilled and tied back in this The technology for Arctic oil and gas development
manner, thus eliminating the need for a massive seabed is still in its infancy, even though great strides have been
template. All completion and workover operations would made since the Prudhoe Bay oil discovery in 1969. The ca-
be at deck level using conventional surface controls., pability to conduct exploration operations in this area has
been demonstrated, and the first offshore oil production
The compliancy of the production platform re- from the American Arctic, the Endicott Oil Field, has
solves the problem of resisting large loads due to the action begun. However, year-round operations in other than
of waves and currents, but complicates the design and nearshore areas are still a few years in the future. The
operation of marine riser systems. This is the area of most industry's technical capability to explore and produce in the
need for future technological developments. The compli- Arcticvaries with a number of factors, but mainlywith water
cations arise from the fact that marine risers are a critical depth.-' Figure 5 indicates some of the numerous structural

OCEAN
EL DORADO -

FEATURES:

SEMI SUBMERSIBLE DESIGN
LOW MOTION RESPONSE
CONVENTIONAL PRODUCTION
FULL DRILLING CAPABILITY
HIGH DECK LOAD CAPACITY
SUPERIOR STABILITY
WATER DEPTH RANGE -
1,000 TO 8,000 FT

PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS:

OPERATING DRAFT: 180 FT
MAIN DECK: 336x353 FT
TOP DECK ELEVATION: 262 FT A.B.L.
MOORING: CHAIN / WIRE
24 - 36 LINES
VARIABLE DECK LOAD: 10,000 L. T.

Figure 4. ODECO El Dorado Platform.

254

CONVENTIONAL DRILLSHIP

SSDC (SINGLE STEEL DRILLING CAISSON)

CIDS (CONCRETE ISLAND DRILLING SYSTEM)

CONVENTIONAL SEMISUBMERS16LE

CONVENTIONAL JACK-UP RIG

SFA CE

STEEL-CAISSON-RETAINED ISLAND (ESSO)

TARSIUT CONCRETE-CAISSON-RETAINED ISLAND

GRAVEL ISLAND

SACRIFICIAL,BEACH ISLAND
SEA CE

SEA CE SANO8AG-R9TAINED ISLAND

MOBILE ARCTIC CAISSON (MOUKRAQ) CONICAL DRILLING UNIT (KULLUK)

Figure 5. Offshore exploratory dfilling structures used in the Arctic.
=A=

@IG
N

-E

255

concepts that have been used, to date, for exploration. By a number of responsibilities to the Commission. These
using water depth as the limiting factor, current and future include (1) recommending an Arctic research policy and
technological developments are more easily related. priorities, (2) cooperating with the Interagency Arctic
Research Policy Committee (IARPC) on development of
For water depths between 0 to 100 feet, the current an integrated 5-year plan for Arctic research, (3) recom-
technology is adequate for both exploration and produc- mending ways to improve logistic support of Arctic re-
tion. The basic types of systems used include earth-filled search,.(4) handling of the information and data resulting
islands, caisson-retained islands, and submersible drilling from Arctic research, and (5) coordinating U.S. Agency
vessels. Submersible drilling vessels, such as the Concrete programs on Arctic research.6
Island Drilling System (CIDS), are typical of structures
developed for these depths. The same three basic structural In the 4 years since passage of the Act, consider-
types may be used as well for production. able progress has been achieved in meeting the
Commission's goals. A comprehensive 5-year Arctic re-
The technology for water depths between 100 to search plan has been prepared by the IARPC and steps are
200 feet is less defined and is currently being developed. currentlybeing; taken to implement the plan and the priority
Two types of drilling concepts are possible for this water research it recommends.7 By autumn 1988, a document,
depth depending on the ice thickness to be encountered. "Five-Year Implementation Plan," is to be published. This
The first type would be a large conical gravitystructure, such document will further discuss and amplify the recommen-
as the Arctic Cone Exploratory Structure (ACES), and the dations and will describe the efforts of the Government to
second type would be a floating drilling vessel, such as the carry them out. The IARPC Plan consists of three major
Gulf Canada's KuHuk.1 For production, a large fixed technical sections. The Atmospheric and Oceans section
structure will be required, but towing it to the site and instal- emphasizes initiatives on sea ice and biological productiv-
lation may present a new set of problems. ity. The Land section focuses on natural resources, engi-
neering challenges, and research to improve understanding
For depths greater than 200 feet the only currently of how land environments respond to natural variation and
available technology would be a floatingdrilling system, and human-induced changes. The section on People relates to
because of large ice forces possible at these depths, this sys- their health, economics, and social environment and his-
tem may not be feasible. If it is possible to use a floating tory.$
system for exploration, then a subsea production system
would be an option for producing the field. The industry is The IARPC, in consultation with the ARC, has
gaining experience with subsea production systems, but a developed and adopted a U.S. Arctic Research Policy,
significant amount of work and field use outside the Arctic which includes an identification of U.S. interests and a
will be required before deploying such a system in the statement of goals to carry out these interests. This re-
Beaufort Sea. search direction was used to put forth the 5-year Arctic
research plan, and a matrix of the research priorities are
Arctic subsea soils present yet another environ- shown in Figure V The preparation and publication of the
mental problem for both structures and pipelines. Struc- Research Policy and the Plan are only the beginning on an
tures and pipelines that rest on the sea bottom must have a implementation process. The IARPC is conducting meet-
firm foundation, and because of the presence of permafrost ings on a regular basis to coordinate the research being con-
in the Arctic, the soils are much more difficult to work with. ducted by Agencies within the U.S. Government, and are
New technologies are being developed to keep the soil encouraging the focus to be placed on the priority subjects.
frozen to maintain a firm base for the massive structures
necessary to withstand the large ice forces and to protect A dominant theme that has emerged from the
pipelines required to transport the product from offshore Committee's efforts, thus far, is the need for long-term
sites to shore facilities by encasing them in a protective baseline data. While the collection of such data is not
frame. generally considered to be research, it forms a needed base
for ftiture research efforts and is essential to understanding
U.S. Arctic Research Commission global change. Stable funding and logistics support is
required if these long term data bases are to be acquired
Because of the vast potential for mineral recovery and maintained. A workshop on Arctic data requirements
in the Arctic Region, the Congress of the United States necessary to address long-term needs was held this spring
created the Arctic Research Commission (ARC) under the (1988) by the LAPRC.
Arctic Research and Policy Act of 1984. This Act assigned

256

performed to determine the intensity and characteristics of
seismic ground motion. Factors considered in the studies
NATIONAL ISSUES IN THE ARCTIC include the active faults existing in the region, the type of
faulting, the maximum magnitude of earthquake that can be
generated by each fault, the regional seismic activity rate,
0 Z
2
the proximity of the site to the potential source faults, the
attenuation of the ground motion between these faults and
0 A
0 the platform site, and the soil conditions at the site.
z Z ti
0
P Z -specific determination of
2 In lieu of a lengthy site

x
8 t R the intensity and characteristics of seismic ground motion,
UPPER ATMOSPHERE AND the MMS permits the use of defensible standardized spec-
NEAR EARTH SPACE PHYSICSVI V I I V I
ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES tra applicable to the region of the installation site when such
to PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL spectra reflect those site-specific conditions affecting fre-
0) OCEANOGRAPHY V V
LU
Ma) MARINE LIFE SCIENCES quency content and energy distribution.
a UJ V V V
GLACIOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
0 GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS When using the "time history" method for struc-
X < PERMAFROST RESEARCH tural analysis, the MMS requires that at least three sets of
,,Z
W. 0 ARCTIC ENGINEERING
< F_ ground motion time histories be used. These may consist
LU <TERRESTRIAL A D FRESH-
U)Z WATER SIOL CY of recorded or constructed (synthetic) earthquake time
LU
CC MEDICINE AND HUMAN
BIOLOGY histories. The manner by which they are used must account
SOCIAL AND ULTURAL
RESEARCH for the potential sensitivity of the structure's response to
ECONOMICS variations in the phasing of the ground motion records.
Ground motion descriptions are required to consist of three
components corresponding to two orthogonal horizontal
Figure 6. Matrix of major research priorities. 77ze tick directions and the vertical Idirection.
marks indicate which research fields have high priority As a second level of verification, some platform
in relation to the national issues. 77zey are arranged designs are required to demonstrate sufficient reserve
with the physical sciences on the top and the biological capacity to prevent collapse, though not local failure, of the
and social sciences at the bottom. This does not platform under a rare, intensive earthquake. One of the
imply any order ofpfiorily. (raken from Reference 8) most difficult factors to be considered in designing or
verifying offshore platforms in an active seismic area is the
effect of earthquake loading upon both the structure and
Earthquake Hazards the soil. For deepwater facilities, the soils are subject to high
hydrostatic pressure, which affects their seismic response.
The occurrence of earthquakes poses a hazard to Therefore, data from instruments that record seismic
offshore facilities unless appropriate engineering counter- ground motion onshore cannot be used directly for predict-
measures are employed. To provide an adequate degree of ing offshore structural responses. However, seismic off-
safety at an affordable cost requires a knowledge of the shore ground motion records are scarce, and lacking a
energy properties of earthquakes, the influences of soil better alternative, onshore data are often used without
conditions on ground motion, and the dynamics of struc- consideration of their applicability to the offshore environ-
tures that are moved by ground shaking. In verifying the ment.
design of platforms that may experience seismically-in-
duced loadings, the Minerals Management Service (MMS) The MMS has initiated two research projects to
requires that dynamic analyses of the structure be per- better understand the effects of earthquake loading on the
formed using earthquake motions appropriate to the site in dynamic response of an offshore platform. The Seafloor
question. Joint and member stresses from a "strength SeismicData Studyproject is beingconducted by the Sandia
level" analysis must remain within allowable limits. The National Laboratories to obtain and analyze seafloor earth-
motions can be described by applicable ground motion quake motion data for seismically active areas off southern
@
V
Sv,/

records or by response spectra consistent with the recur- California. The program is focusing its efforts on the use of
rence period appropriate to the design life of the platform. the Seafloor Earthquake Measurement System (SEMS) to
For design purposes, preferably, site-specific studies are collect and store seafloor seismic events.

257

Figure 7 is a diagram of the SEMS concept and from an instrumented structure offshore Japan will also be
illustrates the major subsystems and their interfaces. The used in the study. It is hoped that these studies can attest to
Data Gathering System (DAGS) coIlects data from the using the ability of present day standards to accurately
Sensor Package, which contains the seismic sensors (accel- predict platform responses and, if necessary, to propose
erometers) and magnetometers. The Command and Re- changes to the standard to make them more reliable.
cording System (CARS) is a portable shipboard unit that
provides the operator interface with DAGS. The CARS
records the data sent from DAGS on a digital cassette tape CONCLUSION
recorder for subsequent analysis. The Buoy Repeater
Station (BRES) is a portable acoustic transmitter/receiver This paper has highlighted the major technologies that have
station that interfaces CARS with DAGS. The BRES takes been or are currently being developed to open the deep
commands from CARS and relays them to DAGS. Con- ocean and Arctic to offshore oil and gas operations. It has
versely, BRES receives data from DAGS and transfers not been possible to present a complete account of afl the
them to CARS. All three subsystems are controlled by simi- technologies, such as subsea production systems, well con-
lar microcomputers. trol procedures, or oil spill and containment procedures
that must supplement platform developments in order to
proceed in a reliable manner; however, developments are
progressing in these areas as well. Industry has historically
CARS demonstrated the ability to develop required technologies
to meet the needs arising from a need to move into new
areas of resources. Because of the extensive research being
ACOUSTIC TRANSDUCER conducted by both Government and industry and the con-
tinual accumulation of frontier area experience, the future
holds much promise for the development of these areas.

ACOUSTIC
WAVES REFERENCES

'Offshore Rig Newslette Vol. 15, No. 2, Offshore Data Services,
Houston, Texas, February 1988.

ACOUSTIC SEAFLOOR 2Tubb, M., "Gulf of Mexico: Recovering from a Year of Inactivity,"
TRANSDUCER GAGS Ocean Indust October 1987.

PRO13E 31-angewis, C., "The Gulf of Mexico-Newest Proving Ground for Deep-
SENSOR PACKAGE water Technology," Ocean Indust May 1987.

4"Resurgence Seen for Gulf of Mexico," Petroleum Engineer Intema-
SEISWC WAVES Lional, February 1988.

5Utt, A E., "Sea lee Forces and the State of Technology of Offshore
Arctic Platforms," Journal of Petroleum Technolo January 1985.

ft-'he United States: AnArcticNation' Report of the U.S. Arctic Research
Figure 7. Subsystems of SEMS conceptfor obtaining Commission to the President and Congress of the United States of
and recording subsea seismic events. America, U.S. Arctic Research Commission, National Science Founda-
tion, Washington, D.C., January 31, 1987.

7United States Arctic Research Plan Report prepared by Interagency
As an adjunct study, a project entitled "Seismic Arctic Research Policy Committee, Washington, D.C., July 1987.
Response Analysis of Offshore Pile Supported Structures" SArctic Research of the United States 'Vol. 1, Interagency Arctic Re-
is being conducted by the University of California, San search Policy Committee, National Science Foundation, Washington,
Diego, to assess the reliability of current state-of-the-art D.C., Fall 1987.
computational pile/soil interaction models used to predict 9National Issues and Research Priorities in the Arctic Polar Research
the amount of energy transmitted to a platform. Seismic Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., July 1985.
accelerograrnswillbe obtainedfrom SEMS unitslocated on
the seafloor and from onboard adjacent instrumented
platforms. Data that Tokai University recently obtained

258

Offshore Leasing Boundaries Along the Receding Alaskan Coastline

Stanley Ashmore

Minerals Management Service, Alaska OCS Region
Leasing and Environment Office
Anchorage, Alaska 99508-4302

ABSTRACT to 3 miles from the coastline of those states.
This legislation left unanswered the many ques-
Natural coastal processes and complicated legal tions about how such a line would be projected
questions present difficult resource-management from an irregular and dynamic coastline. The U.S.
problems for oil leasing in the Alaskan Arctic Supreme Court interpreted this law as incorpora-
Ocean. The Beaufort Sea is eroding the Alaska ting the provisions of the 1958 Convention on the
coastline at an average rate of almost 3 meters Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone (1964)15
per year, and offshore islands are migrating U.S.T.(pt.2) that were applicable to an ambulatory
shoreward at an even more rapid rate. The coastline. That is, as the coastline changes, the
Federal/State offshore-leasing boundary follows baselines from which to measure the 3-mile
the retreating coastline shoreward. In addition, territorial sea change. Since many questions
various interpretations of laws and court deci- regarding the interpretation of the 1958 Conven-
sions allow several different versions of the tion had little--if any--precedent, and the lands
boundary to be drawn from the same data. Coopera- involved were potentially so valuable, many
tive shoreline surveys are conducted by the State offshore-boundary issues were resolved only after
and Federal Governments resulting in major mapping protracted litigation. Today, one major suit is
projects utilizing a series of tide stations, still pending before the Supreme Court: United
survey control, and aerial photography. The States vs. Alaska, Original, No. 84.
resulting data are being used to establish
boundaries, update nautical charts, and provide In theory, the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)
information for scientific studies. boundary is determined by locating the most
seaward, or "salient," points along the * coastline
and using these points to project the 3-nautical-
1. INTRODUCTION mile offshore boundary. There are exceptions,
however. For example, in the case of a bay or a
Disputes between the Federal Government and the rivermouth, a straight line is drawn across the
various coastal states over the location of mouth. The salient points and associated straight
Federal/State offshore boundaries have consumed lines from which the boundary is projected are
the energies of lawyers and surveyors for many termed the baseline. Rules for when arcs are used
years and have left managers of oil and gas and when straight lines may be drawn are based
resources without the security of knowing exactly primarily on the provisions of the Convention on
which submerged lands fall under their jurisdic- the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone. The
tion. Along the Alaskan Arctic coast, where the State of Alaska and the Federal Government
State and Federal Goverments have been in litiga- presently are not in agreement on a variety of
tion over their common boundary since 1979, the legal issues regarding the application of the 1958
questions of law are complicated by a very convention. As a result of differing interpreta-
unstable shoreline. The disintegration of the tions of the application of international rules in
permafrost coastline has become increasingly rapid the vicinity of the Beaufort Sea, the ownership of
in the last few years, as the area of @ seasonal some acreage leased to oil companies will be
open sea has increased and allowed a number of resolved only when the Supreme Court hands down
severe storms to make significant morphological its decision in United States vs. Alaska. This
changes. The solution to this problem appears to case will have important ramifications for many
be in the cooperative establishment of a permanent offshore areas, not just the Beaufort Sea.
fixed boundary that is not tied to an ambulatory
shoreline.
3. THE BASELINE STABILITY PROBLEM

2. DETERMINATION OF OFFSHORE BOUNDARIES According to recent studies by the U.S. Geological
Survey, the western Beaufort Sea is the most
In 1953, the Submerged Lands Act (43 U.S.C. actively eroding coastline in the United States.
1301-1315) granted to the states the rights to the Excluding the Colville River Delta, shoreline
natural resources of submerged lands generally out retreat from 1950 to 1980 in the western Beaufort

259 United States Government work not protected by copyright

averaged 2.5 meters per year and in some areas 6. SHORELINE RECONNAISSANCE
approached 18 meters per year.. On the other hand,
accretion rates near the mouth of the Colville In all areas that are scheduled for lease, an
River Delta are as high as 20 meters per year. aerial reconnaissance is conducted to compare the
Since the offshore Federal/State boundary moves existing shoreline with available nautical charts
with changes in the shoreline or baseline, the and other source materials. During this process,
leasing line is subject to frequent change in this the State and Federal representatives determine to
area. While some may assume that lease boundaries what extent there is agreement on salient points.
are fixed, there is no guarantee that the lessor Where there is disagreement, corrective surveys
would not change by virtue of court action because are recommended. All prospective salient points
of shoreline realignment. are documented with 35-mm still photography
(nonphotogrammetric) and videotape.

4. THE VERTICAL-DATUM PROBLEM
7. SHORELINE SURVEYS
The U.S. -Supreme Court recognizes mean lower low
water (MLLW) to be the vertical tidal datum The areas recommended for survey are reviewed by
defining the location of salient points. This the BWG for priority and available funding. The
means that acceptable shoreline surveys must show type of survey recommended depends on the nature
the MLLW line so that arcs and closing lines can of the differences observed during reconnaissance.
be properly projected. This cannot be done with If the problem is area-wide, a planimetric map is
complete accuracy along the Bering, Chukchi, and proposed showing both mean-high-water (MHW) and
Beaufort Sea coastlines of Alaska, because there MLLW lines. This type of approach requires
are no permanent tide stations and no long-term photogrammetric flights to be coordinated with the
tidal record from which to compute- a datum. In desired stages of tide. Combined with the
order to account for all lunar effects, at least accompanying tide-gauging and photo-control work,
19 years of continuous tide records are required. this approach is expensive. The advantage is that
In northern and western Alaska, the longest record the product can be valuable to more than one user.
is for less than 2 years. In the Beaufort Sea$ The NOS has used the data from past projects of
the problem is complicated by the fact that the this nature to update the shoreline on nautical
range of astronomic tide during open water is less charts. The by-products, such as a densified
than one-half foot, while the meteorological horizontal control net and tidal benchmarks left
effects frequently exceed 5 feet. In addition, at the tide-gauging sites, provide much needed
the behavior of tides during the 9 months that the survey data to aid other development. Almost the
Beaufort Sea is frozen is different from that entire Alaskan Beaufort Sea shoreline has been
exhibited by the tides during the brief open-water photogrammetrically surveyed at least once since
periods. Surveys must, however, be done during 1979, and.approximately one-half the shoreline has
open water because the shoreline is impossible to been surveyed twice since that time.
locate,at other times.
If the problem is of limited scale, a simple on-
the-ground topographic survey tied to tidal
5. THE FEDERAL/STATE BOUNDARY PROJECT benchmarks could suffice. Small barrier-island
features along the Beaufort Sea coast near Pitt
By the fall of 1983, it had become obvious to Point have been surveyed in this manner.
State and Federal managers that Alaska's offshore-
boundary problems could not be solved in the near
future by improved surveys alone or by continued 8. OUTLOOK FOR THE BOUNDARY PROJECT
litigation. Thus, the Federal/State Boundary
Project was organized to,aid in the collection of The goal of the Alaska Federal/State Boundary
data on which each could base its determination of Project, when established in 1983, was to save
a leasing boundary and, at the same time, to make money by working cooperatively in gathering
the best use of survey capabilities and determine factual data and determining areas where no
where agreement could be reached upon the location disagreements existed. This goal has been largely
of the boundary. Officials from the Alaska achieved.
Department of Natural Resources; the U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, Minerals-Management Service; Several U.S. Senate bills have been introduced
and the U.S. Department of Commerce, NOS; with over the years to allow the Attorney General and
occasional participation by other agencies, the Interior and Commerce Departments, when in
constitute the Boundary Working Group (BWG), which agreement with the various states, to establish a
is the operational committee of the project. The fixed boundary. None of these bills have become
BWG, equally funded by MMS and the State of law., The boundary in the Beaufort Sea between Icy
Alaska, holds periodic meetings where project Cape and the Canadian Border could, however, be
objectives, plans, and operations are formulated. fixed by judicial decree under present Supreme
Lease schedules, physical data, available funds, Court litigation. Under a recently passed law--
and agency directives are all considered by the the OCS Lands Act Amendment of 1985--if a point is
BWG in planning field operations. The BWG decreed by coordinates in a final decree of the
fieldwork can be divided into three major cate- Supreme Court, the point will remain fixed, at
gories: shoreline reconnaissance, shoreline least until superseded by another decree.
surveys, and tide stations.

260

Protectors of Federal interests have argued that a
fixed boundary will permanently deprive the
Federal Government of submerged lands that result
from an essentially nationwide retreat of shore-
lines. This is particularly true along the
Alaskan Beaufort Sea, where the coastline appears
to be in severe disequilibrium. Resource managers
argue, 6wever, that a known boundary is necessary
for an orderly leasing program. The decision to
fix the Alaskan Arctic Ocean boundary will
probably be made in the near future.

261

DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS OF DCF COMPUTER MODELS FOR EEZ MARINE MINING

Timothy J. Mac Gillvray

U. S. Minerals Management Service
Office of Strategic and International Mineralsi
Vienna, Virginia 22180

ABSTRACT the continental United States or its hold-
ings (such as Johnston Island). The model
The U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS) itself should adequately address the quan-
within the Department of the Interior is titative geologic estimates of potential
responsible for administration and regula- resources/reserves within that area (i.e.,
tion of minerals extraction and develop- the "mineral endowment" of any given Fed-
ment done under public lease on the Outer eral area), and apply the correct engine-
Continental Shelf (OCS). Traditionally, ering and economic/tax/financial variables
these activities have focused on mineral in order to estimate the return from that
fluids (oil & gas). With the 1983 Presi- potential mineral extraction. Further,
dential Proclamation establishing the U.S. the model should be unbiased, statistically
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the MMS has accurate and incorporate parameters that
been given the task of promulgating devel- affect evaluation of those marine minerals.
opment of nonenergy solid minerals offshore
(for example, cobalt-rich manganese, titan- This last factor is particularly important
ium, phosphorites, placers). This paper since most often any single Federal tract
focuses on initial formulation and analysis offered for exploration and development
of computer models that incorporate dis- will have a "menu of minerals" contained
count cash flow (DCF) methodology to be within it, rather than a massive deposit of
used by MMS as a tool to assist in deter- only one strategic mineral. There will be
mination of estimated fair market value exceptions to this, of course; therefore
for a variety of nonenergy marine minerals any computer model must be able to ade-
in the Federal Exclusive Economic Zone. quately address both instances.

Within the general area of ocean minerals To accomplish this task, the MMS has taken
mining, the United States currently has no several different approaches which, when
11 offshore hard minerals industry" similar integrated, should be able to estimate
to those found in several foreign countries fair market value for virtually all stra-
and few "off-the-shelf" discount cash flow tegic and critical minerals found in the
computer models directly applicable to the OCS-EEZ. One of the initial approaches
OCS-EEZ Federal submerged lands where non- taken since the inception of the Office of
energy marine minerals may be recovered. Strategic and International Minerals (OSIM)
Development of such a model is required was to formulate joint Federal-State Task
for Federal evaluation of minerals prior Forces with interested coastal States.
to allowing private industry timely accom- The first joint endeavors for the EEZ were
plishment of research, exploration, and the Interior-Hawaii and Interior-Gorda
ultimate development of the EEZ strategic Ridge Task Forces formed in 1984. The
and critical minerals. Simultaneously, the latter was formed co-jointly with the
MMS must strive to ensure receipt of fair States of California and Oregon, with par-
market value of those minerals by the U.S. ticipation from the Navy, Corp of Engine-
ers, NOAA, EPA, and the Interior bureaus
Any DCF computer model officially used by of U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Mines,
the MMS, then, must necessarily properly and Fish and Wildlife Service plus the Fed-
incorporate geologic, engineering, and eral co-chair from MMS. Subsequent to 1984
economic parameters while also providing a other joint Task Forces for offshore mar-
sound rationale for estimating marine min- ine minerals included the States of North
eral values prior to public leasing. The Carolina, Georgia, Alaska, and the Gulf
overall objective of any DCF computer model States of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
must be the aggregate economic appraisal, and Texas.
or valuation, of the nonenergy marine min-
erals within specific areas offshore from

1
Former OSIM location from 1984 until 1988 was in Long Beach, California.

CH2585-8/8e/oooo-262 $; @1988 IEEE

In each of these individual Task Forces, Discount Cash Flow (DCF)
either one specific marine mineral or sev- Variable Parameters
eral minerals are being reviewed for po-
tential extraction and development. For Mining Data
example, the author previously has served
as the Federal Co-chairperson for two dif- Average Water Depth Average Ore Depth
ferent joint OCS-EEZ Task Forces -- both Average overburden Depth Matrix Density
Georgia and North Carolina. In the off- Overburden Density Average Mining Depth
shore Georgia Task Force, there are two Average Stripping,Ratio
principal marine minerals being considered, Maximum Stripping Ratio
each of which is different in sale, pro-
cessing, and ultimate usage. Titanium, Operating and Recovery Data
found in both the ilmenite and rutile ores
offshore, has a far different development Number Days Operational Total Cycle Time
strategy than deposits of phosphorite, Mechanical Availability Total Load Time
which are also quite extensive in breadth Mining Recovery (%) Mineral Grade
as well as quality of P 20 content [9]. In Production Hours per Year
North Carolina, however, aeveral minerals Number Days Lost (annually)
exist, yet currently only the phosphorite
deposits appear to be marginally recover- Capital Costs of Project
able at some time before the turn of the
century except in the most optimistic Barges & Tugs Matrix (ore) Dredge
cases [2]. Onboard Plant Ove rburden Dredge
Beneficiation Plant Artificial Islands
In each of the above cases, however, the Pipelines Vessel Berths Calcination
official Task Force found it suitable to Scalping Plant Flotation Plant Docks
have outside contractors complete initial Water Supply Waste Disposal
economic feasibility studies (EFS) before [whichever combination of items that apply]
the MMS considered the area for environ-
mental evaluation or ultimate public leas- Operating Costs
ing. Similarly, each area has had differ-
ent expressions of interest by private in- Federal/State Royalties Lease Fees
dustry in potential offshore development Port Authority.Fees Insurance Fees
of its marine minerals. Each resulting Pre-production Permits Subcontract Fees
EFS had to develop a DCF model to address other Exploration & Development Costs
the questions of mineral value offshore
from each State. Further, the MMS has Indirect and Non-operating Costs; Other
issued offshore exploration permits to two
different firms in the Georgia area, while Engineering Overhead Accounting Costs
not firm has sought a similar permit for Depreciation Depletion Amortization
phosphorites offshore North Carolina. Taxes Interest Payments Storage Costs
Other joint Task Forces, however, have had Security Costs Spare Parts/Inventory
no EFS completed; for example, the Interior Individual Mineral Price(s)
and State of Alaska endeavors have concen- Rate of Change of Price - individual mined
trated on proceeding with any required en-
vironmental work prior to public lease sale
since offshore recovery of gold in the The listing above is by no means intended
state of Alaska waters already exists. to be definitive -- indeed, there are sev-
eral alternative scenarios in which each
Regardless of the initial approach taken by of those variables could be used or not
the separate joint Task Forces around the depending on the exact strategic marine
United States, an evaluation of each of the mineral being examined, the sea conditions,
nonenergy marine minerals must take place the procedure used for extraction, any
[6]. That evaluation, done with the pri- onboard chemical treatment, and the aggre-
mary assistance of a DCF computer-model for gate physical plant and its economics [1,2,
the various offshore minerals must consider 4,5,8,and 91. For example, there appear to
physical parame 'ters, such as quantity, be only two fundamental types of dredges
quality, and location of ore bodies, and that are both feasible and economic in off-
also engineering and economic variables shore usage -- the suction head dredge and
such as tax rates, price, depreciation, de- the cutter head dredge. Each of these has
pletion, equipment usage and replacement, different specifications and different
and fees. economics in its usage.

The following is a list of variable param- in any case, the objective of the DCF model
eters that should be included in any DCF usage must remain to provide the decision-
model to accurately address offshore marine maker the most reliable, statistically un-
minerals extraction and development evalua-- biased results of overall economic apprais-
tion: al which integrates both the physical and

263

engineering/economic parameters. In most costs, timing, and perhaps most of all,
minerals cases today, the DCF rate of re- differences in the actual marine minerals
turn on investment (aka DCFROR) is the themselves on each Federal offshore tract.
methodological approach used to provide
that kind of minerals evaluation (both off- In reviewing several attempts at accurate
shore and onshore). Indeed, this'author's development of cost models for deep ocean
experience has been that every major firm mining, it is noted that the Texas A & M
operating in energy and nonenergy minerals study [4] concluded that "terms, condi-
has some type of DCF model that allows tions, and restrictions of licenses and
cash flows, cumulative cash flows, and DCF permits for ocean mining are currently be-
rate of return measurements. Most of those ing generated. These terms, conditions
computer models incorporate DCF methodology and restrictions have an economic impact
and use or have used models that have an on any mining venture." [4, p. 1081.
internal random number generator (of some Since an economic impact could possibly
type) within them to allow unbiased, auto- result, the MMS has directed certain of
mated "Monte Carlo" repetitive passes for the previously cited joint Task Forces to
variable parameters which cannot be specif-. issue contracts under competitive bid for
ied as single point values. For example, economic feasibility studies, as well as
maximum overburden thickness may vary from the promulgation of offshore regulations.
some minimum to maximum on any given tract. This has been done under the authority of
Thus, different statistical tests may have the OCS Lands Act, section 8(k)[6,p.138].
to be performed (internally) by the DCF
model in order to describe as accurately Separately, Interior's Bureau of Mines has
as possible the physical dimensions of the been using an excellent computer model for
entire marine mineral deposit [6 and 71. undiscovered mineral deposits known as
ROCKVAL, which combines specific probabil-
The following table reflects A hypothetical ity estimates of geologists, mining engin-
"mix" of nonenergy marine minerals which eers, and mineral economists within a
potentially could be extracted from the statistical simulation package which has
offshore Georgia EEZ area (excluding phos- automated Monte Carlo passes. Their model
phorites). It also shows the estimated is designed to account for most of the
tonnages, prices, and potential revenues variables cited in this paper, although it
from the Georgia EEZ "menu of minerals" does not appear to account for explicit
[91: offshore variable parameters -- such as
flotation plant, types of dredge mining
Selected Marine Minerals.- Georgia EE utilized, sea transportation costs, and
Annual % of Sale Price complex onboard chemical treatment. Addi-
Mineral Tonnes Total $/tonne tions of such variables, however, are pos-
sible, as their model is programmed in
Ilmenite 601,750 74.19 $ 46 FORTRAN 77 and is adaptable for inclusion
Rutile 40,600 .5.01 430 of additional multiple variables.
Leucoxene 81,460 10.04 385
Zircon 72,250 8.91 248 Three other separate DCF models have been
Monazite 15,040 1.85 570 completed (or are being completed) by dif-
ferent organizations for offshore marine
811,100 100.00% mineral evaluation. First, the NOAA
Office of Ocean & Coastal Resources Man-
Mineral Annual Revenue % of Tot. Rev. agement's Ocean Minerals and Energy Divi-
Ilmenite $ 27,680,500 26.88 sion has been developing a fairly unique
.DCF model (in Basic). Called the Seabed
Rutile 17,458,000 16.95 Minerals Project Finanical Analysis Compu-
Leucoxene 31,362,100 30.45 ter Program (SMPFAP) their program is in
Zircon 17,918,000 17.40 three separate model's (all interactive on
Monazite 8,572,800 8.32 any.PC).. Jugel [3] has been the principal
,person involved in testing, developing and
As shown above, titanium (from both rutile debugging the models, and the three pack-
and ilmenite ores) constitutes almost 80% ages are designed for annual depreciation
of the estimated mined product, but would deductions, loans analysis, and DCF analy-
contribute less than half of the total sis. Each part may be used-separately,
revenues. while this result (estimated) although all three may be integrated to
would normally be expected where dollar- address a single marine minerals deposit.
per-tonne market prices vary to such a Finalization of these models is ongoing.
large degree, any DCF computer model must
be able to properly account for such a The NOAA model may be initially used where
variance. Put differently, any DCF model borrowing capital (obviously from sources
which presumes to address fair market value external to the project/company) requires.
of marine minerals must have within it the separate, but accurate, calculations prior
ability to integrate differences in price, to attempting integration into a DCF model

264

for cumulative cash flows. Also as a sep- rate of return measurements, allows users
arate submodel, the annual depreciation to specify startup years, and permits sel-
deductions allow the user to select a ection of debt-to-equity ratios to be used
property that is best suited to the miner- in any calculations. Although this DCF
als project at hand. The user may then ob- model was a fairly good attempt into an
tain an automatic printout of whichever area where there are extremely few models
class of asset depreciation range he or she available off-the-shelf commercially, this
has selected (3-, 5-, 7-, 10-, 15-, or 20- model was designed for a single marine
year property) and may change the life mineral and its attendant locational costs
class through interactive prompts. In the and plant design were directed toward that
DCF portion, net present values, payback final product. Thus, it was deemed to be
periods, DCFROR (internal rate of return) somewhat less than adequate for multiple
are co-jointly addressed, and the user may mixes of marine minerals offshore where
(again, interactively) select either con- alternative prices and costs exist (such
stant dollar or escalated dollar alterna- as exists typically throughout the EEZ).
tives. An additional feature that enhances
this model is the interactive prompting The third DCF model not developed within
after the initial calculations which permit Interior or its bureaus has been done by
a full-scale sensitivity analysis so the Zellars-Williams (Z-W) in response and
user may alter any individual cash flow in under contract to the joint Interior-
any given year, change the period of min- Georgia EEZ Task Force in 1988 [9]. The
eral recovery, or perhaps best of all Z-W DCF model has several interesting
allow the user to return all data to,a specifics which allowed a greater latitude
different computation option. in DCF model utilization for offshore min-
erals. Designed for multiple offshore
There are five different options for any nonenergy minerals, it is a more generic
given DCF calculation in the NOAA model. model than others examined.
These include (1) NPV + payback and
profitability index measures at 0% and Z-W initially began by recognizing the ex-
four pre-selected standard rates; (2) all tensive, raw database which existed in
of (1), plus a single user specified rate; various locations (e.g., Woods Hole Ocean-
(3) zero percent and a user specified rate ographic Institute, U.S. Geological Survey
only; (4) DCFROR (Internal Rate Of Return) Atlantic Marine Geology Branch, U.S. Bu-
only; and (5) IROR, plus (1), (2), or (3) reau of Mines Minerals Availability Divi-
above. These options provide the user a sion, Georgia State University). Given
large degree of flexibility in approach, that large database, and given the large
especially when combined with the constant menu of marine minerals that might prove
or escalated dollar options. While not as to be economically feasible.offshore Geor-
yet finalized, the NOAA model shows sta- gia, they chose Advanced Revelation as the
tistical accuracy and excellent flex.ibil- appropriate software package -- especially
ity for marine minerals calculations. since it is user friendly and may be ex-
panded or edited easily for greater data
Another major DCF offshore marine model assembly.
development was completed by a private
consulting firm under competitive contract In their offshore mining development scen-
to the joint Interior-North Carolina OCS- ario, Z-W correctly derived large amounts
EEZ Task Force in late 1987 (2]. Their of data from the various sources. These
model, composed of interactive modelization included offshore hopper dredge costs from
and separate cost centers with auxiliary the Bureau of Mines open file report for
spreadsheet listings, gives a fairly com- heavy minerals (placers)[8], and phosphor-
plete listing of all capital expenditures, ite data from MMS, Bureau of mines, and
costs, and fees that would reasonably be the previously cited reports [1,21. Pre-
anticipated for a marine mining project. vious studies had given strong indications
Although fully interactive, it is less so- of extensive heavy mineral deposits off-
phisticated since it does not allow statis- shore Georgia, but database utilization
tical Monte Carlo passes in any of the var- and manipulation.were important in order
iable parameters. The user must.have ei- to integrate such diverse data properly.
ther a valid single point value,.which is
known in advance to be "the" value, or Several separate DCFROR analyses were con-
complete separate offscreen calculations ducted for their four major phosphorite
prior to entering values into the model. scenarios, and Z-W used their model find-
ings to determine the optimum marine min-
Printed results of this model's calcula- eral extraction that could economically
tions, which only included offshore phos- occur in this area. They also conducted
phorites, are accurate. Cash flows appear several alternative DCF runs for the heavy
to be procedurally handled correctly (with. marine mineral cases, and it is interest-
borrowed capital or internal sources of ing to compare the variable parameters in
funds). The model also provides internal each of these different cases.

265

In the first instance (phosphorites), the them. This distinction allows the Z-W
DCF model as specified by Z-W begins with approach to be easily adopted to multiple
production, price, and total revenue for marine minerals usages where valuation for
each year of the project life. Allowance deposits is sought by the owner -- no
is also made for several potential years matter whether the owner is the State Gov-
of the pre-production period which nor- ernment, Federal Government, or private
mally occurs in minerals extraction cases parties. This DCF model correctly amalga-
whether offshore or onshore. All produc- mates all variable parameters cited in the
tion costs, both direct and indirect, are text, fully accounts for all costs from
then listed -- again, for every year of whatever source, properly addresses cash
the project. Separate line listings for flows,' specifies all DCFROR's at alterna-
total yearly cash costs, total yearly in- tive rates with final net present values,
direct costs, and total yearly production and provides a complete minerals project
costs follow the previous breakdown, and 'picture' of all revenues and costs in
a separate line item is shown for 'token' every year. Thus, this model appears to
cash flow (defined in their model to be be one of the most complete done to date.
yearly revenues less all production costs).
Next, investment follows, all scheduled in CONCLUSION
the pre-production years, together with
construction capital and interest during As cited in a recent article by John Smith
construction. and this author [61:
During the production years that follow, The program that is being developed
the project analysis by Z-W correctly re- by MMS/OSIM provides for a case-by-
flects principal dollars, principal repay- case examination of lease proposals
ment, any interest charges for capital based on industry interest, and
(which could be either internal or exter- national and local needs. These
nally borrowed capital), and working capi- needs include reducing our import
tal listings for every year of the project.. dependence on strategic and critical
Gross cash flow (after investment) is then minerals...
computed, with the required adjustments of In order to meet this challange, minerals
depreciation, depletion,, and taxes. Sep- in the Federal EEZ ultimately must be
arate listings for yearly taxable income, leased and developed. Offshore mining of
applicable tax rates, total yearly income nonenergy marine minerals, both sand and
tax, and net income after taxes are also gravel, placers and others has been ongo-
reflected. Lastly, the Z-W model shows ing in foreign countries for several years
yearly cash flows, yearly cumulative cash with continuing technological and infra-
flows, the DCFROR as a percentage of,total structure development. We are seeing the
investment,,and the net present value at beginnings now of a similar U.S. industry;
whatever discount rate had been selected for example, the interest in offshore
together with the summed final NPV dollar Alaska placers and the public lease sale
value for the entire mineral project. now scheduled for July, 1989 there.
while each of the above parameters is Development of a DCF minerals model for
variable both uniquely and over time, it valuation purposes would facilitate the
is the direct production costs where we development of those marine minerals.
would expect to see differences in any
economic model-building for various marine
Review, examination, and several man-month
minerals. The Z-W DCF model complies with periods of testing DCF computer models
those expectations, and correctly reflects described herein have been conducted. In
that ultimate sales of P20 5 phosphate re- order for the MMS to officially utilize
quires costs be incurred for beneficiation (on a confidential, fair market valuebasis
rinsing, vessel loading, and handling and similar to other models) any DCF model for
storage. Their model correctly.specifies offshore marine minerals, that model must
each of those, yet it is 'dynamic' in that necessarily incorporate minimal statisti-
it moves forward for the heavy mineral cal sophistication for unbiased accuracy
placers (in this case, the titanium-bearing in results, as well as proper integration
ilmenite and rutile ores), and conducts a of both physical and engineering/economic
similar DCF analysis for them. variable parameters similar to those cited
Examining a comparison of the two Z-W DCF in this paper. Several such models appear
models, which are virtually the same, it promising, yet they must be subjected to
may be seen that the heavy mineral costs sensitivity testing, statistical review,
for on-board processing (wet mill) and and must ensure utilizable, unbiased
platform processing (dry mill) and slurry results for the decision-maker.
transport costs are all present, while the
unnecessary beneficiation costs for phos-
phorites have been properly replaced by

266

REFERENCES

1. BETE, Inc., and Blue, Johnson & Asso-
ciates, 1988, Phosphate Rock Econ-
omics: A Multiclient Report: Cal-
ifornia, 39 p.

2. Development Planning and Research
Associates, Inc., 1987, The Econ-
omic Feasibility of Mining Phos-
phorite Deposits of the Continen-
tal Shelf Adjacent to North Caro-
lina: Kansas, 250 p.

3. Jugel, M. Karl, 1987, Discounted Cash
Flow Analysis (DCFA) Program: U.S.
Department of Commerce, NOAA,
office of Ocean and Coastal Re-
source Management, Ocean Minerals
and Energy Division, Wash., D.C.,
44 p.

4. Magnuson, Allen H., Flipse, John E.,
Brown, Francis C., and Andrews,
Benjamin V., 1985, Economic Anal-
ysis of Deep Seabed Mining Systems:
Effects of Production Rate, Infla-
tion and Depletion Using a Revised
Financial Model: Texas A.& M
University, College Station, Texas
109 P.

5. Nyhart, J.D., Antrim, Lance, Capstaff,
Arthur, Kohler, A.D., and Leshaw,
Dale, 1978, A Cost Model of Deep
Ocean mining and Associated Regu-
latory Issues: Mass. Institute of
Technology, MIT Sea Grant Program,
Cambridge, Mass., Report MITSG 78-
4, 164 p.

6. Smith, John B., and Mac Gillvray,
Timothy J., 1988, Developing A
Regulatory Framework for Leasing
Minerals on Submerged Federal .
Lands: Marine Mining Journal, v. 7,
pp. 137-148.

7. Stermole, Franklin J., and Stermole,
John M., 1987, Economic Evaluation
and Investment Decision Methods:
sixth ed., Golden, Colorado, 479 p.

8. U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987, An Econom-
ic Reconnaissance of Selected Heavy
mineral Placer Deposits in the U.S.
Exclusive Economic Zone: Open File
Report 4-87, 112 p.

9. Zellars-Williams, Inc., 1988, Final
Report: Resource Assessment Study
for Georgia offshore Minerals:
Lakeland, Florida, 224 p.

267

MINIMIZING ANCHORING IMPACTS DURING CONSTRUCTION
OF OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS FACILITIES

by Mary Elaine Dunaway
Senior Environmental Scientist, Minerals Management Service
Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region, Los Angeles, California

and Phillip Schroeder
Petroleum Engineer, Minerals Management Service
Santa Maria District Office, Santa Maria, California

ABSTRACT Special requirements may be added to a given
project by MMS to mitigate identified
Reviewing the development proposed for the Point environmental impacts. In the case of the Point
Arguello Field offshore California, one of the Arguello Field platforms, several special
largest domestic oil fields discovered since requirements were added to the letters of
Prudhoe Bay, has been a challenging exper ' ience approval to minimize potential impacts to
for Minerals Management Service scientists. Due biological and fishery resources.
to the many unusual environmental conditions in
this area, special precautions had to be taken to DESCRIPTION OF THE POINT ARGUELLO FACILITIES AND
minimize environmental impacts and maximize IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL/ENGINEERING
operational safety. This paper describes the CONSTRAINTS
steps taken to identify impacts, develop
requirements, and evaluate their effectiveness In 1982 Texaco and Chevron submitted development
for one aspect of the permitting of the Point plans to MMS for the installation of three Point
Arguello facilities. our experience clearly Arguello Field platforms (figure 1). These
shows that cooperation between biologists and platforms were proposed to be installed in
engineers, and government and industry is the 400-675 feet of water and connected subsea to a
best way to assure that the final project is one system of consolidated offshore and onshore
which meets the concerns of all parties and is pipelines. Ultimate destination was proposed to
completed with a high level of quality. be an onshore processing facility 20 miles from
the central platform. Design capacity of the
consolidated lines for the field and surrounding
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE area is 250 thousand barrels of wet oil per day
and 120 million standard cubic feet of sour gas
The Minerals Management Service (MMS) is the per day. The Point Arguello Field is a giant
agency within the Department of the Interior domestic oil field with primary recoverable
responsible for the management of mineral reserves estimated at 300-500 million barrels of
resources on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) in oil. Installation of the platforms and pipelines
accordance with the OCS Lands Act of 1953 as to produce this field was proposed to commence in
amended in 1978. The primary responsibilities of 1985 and continue through 1991. Production.
the MMS relate to the leasing of offshore Federal operations would be expected to last 30-35 years.
lands for oil and gas exploration and to the
oversight of the subsequent drilling and Several environmental and engineering constraints
development activities. Other functions of the were identified in MMS's review of the project.
MMS include collection of royalties from oil and The first constraint identified was the presence
gas leasing and production, and leasing of of numerous hard substrate features. These
offshore Federal lands for hard mineral features, scattered throughout the area,
extraction. interested both biologists and engineers.
Government biologists had predicted in 1980 that
WS reviews each proposed exploratory drilling or these features might harbor sensitive communities
field development project both for engineering and had required several biological surveys. To
soundness and for potential impacts to the better understand the biology of the hard
environment. MMS employs specialists in many substrate features, site-specific surveys were
scientific fields including biologists, required lease-wide prior to exploration and were
meteorologists, social scientists, geologists, required along both platform and pipeline
and petroleum engineers to review varied aspects corridors prior to submittal of development
of each project. Once approved, these projects plans.
are inspected on a routine basis by petroleum
engineers and technicians located in the MMS A total of five site-specific biological surveys
District Offices. Their job is to ensure were conducted in the Point Arguello area between
operations are conducted in a safe and 1982 and 1984. Both remotely controlled vehicles
environmentally sound manner and. overall, to (RCV's) and manned submersibles were used to
ensure compliance with MMS regulations. collect over 100 hours of color video and several

268 United States Government work not protected by copyright

LEGEND

0
Statute Miles

t Pt. Arguello Field Platforms

Point Argueffo Pt. Arguello Field Pipelines

alo
CHEVRON)

Ph4formilv"
IP o In
Hwvest
(TEXACO)

ftrmose
(CHEVRON)

_LML

Figure 1. Location of Point Arguello Facilities Offshore Santa Barbara County.

hundred photos of the deep water communities. were identified which were predicted to be 25
Manipulator arms attached to the submersibles years or older.
collected rock, sponge, and soft-coral samples
for species identification. The goal of these. The presence of the features was of interest to
surveys was to characterize the biological the Chevron/Texaco engineers also, for the
communities and determine their sensitivity to features provided a unique pipelaying challenge.
proposed development activities. Results of the To define the extent of the features and identify
surveys indicated that, generally, the features other potential geological hazards or
located in the 300-400 feet water depth range and constraints, several high resolution geophysical
shallower were found to be predominantly sediment surveys were conducted by each operator. Shallow
covered and exhibited younger, "disturbed" subsurface, information associated with faulting,
communities [1, 2. 3]. Scientists speculate that the location of possible gasified sediments, and
these features are periodically covered and shallow gas Izones were also inferred from the
uncovered by sediments,due to seasonal storms or geophysical surveys. Soil borings and sediment
river runoff. A few smaller, but higher relief cores were taken along the pipeline route and
features located near Texaco's proposed platform laboratory tested to determine foundation
and one large feature located south of Chevron's characteristics, soil strength, and the potential
northern platform, proved to be of the most for liquefaction. All these parameters as well
biological interest [1, 4]. These features in as installation, seismic, and environmental
600-700 feet of water were found to be free of loading on the pipeline were consi 'dered in the
sediment, possibly either due to prevailing development of pipeline design and route
currents or natural shapes of the features, and selections. However, the layout of the hard
they exhibited longlived, diverse, biological substrate features in the vicinity of proposed
communities. Several sponges and red gorgonia platform sites made selection of four

269

unobstructed pipeline corridors difficult, even the construction activity, it could be expected
without consideration for other geological or that a considerable area could be cumulatively
environmental constraints. Additionally, impacted by anchor scarring if special
archeological interpretation of the geophysical precautions were not taken. Likewise, scars on
records identified three potential cultural soft sediments would not be expected individually
resource sites containing relief that also to impact commercial fishermen, but given the
required avoidance. number of anchoring events, a significant
cumulative impact could occur if care was not
In addition, environmental review of the exercised to minimize'scarring.
installation activity identified potential
conflicts with the commercial fishing industry. Nevertheless whatever measures were taken to
These conflicts would result if anchor scarring minimize impacts to the environment, they could
from the installation left the area untrawlable not compromise the overall safety of the pipeline
for some extended period of time. MMS's study of operation. A pipelaying operation in deep water
anchor scarring in other areas indicated that alone is an extremely complicated procedure in
scarring was linked to the-clay sediment type the best of conditions; MMS did not want to risk
found at certain locations. However, excessive the integrity of the line, and its susceptibility
anchor scar lengths may also have been a factor. to future leaks, in our attempt to minimize
Though the soil type at the Point Arguello sites predicted impacts to the environment.
was silt rather than clay, MMS was still
concerned that the pipeline activity ' create In developing conditions of approval, MMS had to
minimal anchor scarring and avoid unnecessary also consider the enforceability of each
impacts to commercial fishermen. requirement. Each measure needed to be an item
t@hat could be readily sighted or monitored in an
The oceanographic conditions in the Point onsite inspection, or could be monitored through
Arguello field area also warranted detailed review of data collected at the site. With these
study. Wave heights,averaging 3 to 5 meters with ideas in mind, the following conditions were
periods of 5 to 10 seconds have been included in the MMS Letter of Approval to each
documented [5], and winds greater than 20 knots respective operator:
occur 10-15 percent of the time [6]. These
conditions have the potential to increase anchor (1) Submit detailed anchoring plans. The
scarring as well as magnify the stress to the corridors for anchor placement during
pipeline during installation. Under favorable installation procedures shall be selected to
barge orientation (barge heading directly into minimize impacts to hard bottom features and
prevailing sea), wave height in excess of 10 feet cultural resources to the maximum extent
would require curtailment of the pipelaying possible.
operations. Based on the historical
oceanographic data and curtailment plan submitted (2) Submit an Operations Curtailment Plan,
by operators, it was anticipated that up to 50% which lists conditions (weather and other
of actual field time would be spent waiting for constraints) under which pipelaying operations
oceanographic conditions to improve. will not proceed.

FORMING A MITIGATION STRATEGY ._(3) Conduct post-installation geophysical
surveying over the area of operation and
MMS's review of this project encompassed every submit a side scan sonar mosaic with survey
aspect of the proposed activity from fabrication results.
of the platform jackets, to installation of the (4) Propose permanent mooring locations
facilities, and operation over the life of the intended for consolidated use by supply and
field. However, one of the most challenging crew boats servicing the platform over the
areas in the review of this project was the life of the project. Mooring sites shall be
balancing of safety and environmental constraints selected to minimize impacts to hard bottom
for the installation of the offshore facilities. features.
The concern common to all of the environmental Detailed explanations of these measures and the
constraints identified was the need to carefully corrective actions to be taken by MMS if not
set anchors in fixed locations to avoid bottom followed were contained in the decision document
anomalies and minimize slippage during placement accompanying the Environmental Impact Statement
or removal, which might lead to scarring.
known as the Record of Decision. These measures
allowed MMS to oversee the pipeline installation
Avoiding cumulative.impacts from anchor scars was through monitoring anchor drag and tension, and
the primary focus. Impacts on the hard monitoring the location of anchors with respect
substrate from a specific anchor, while it could to the identified anomalies and hard substrates.
have locally significant impacts in the immediate MMS could also ensure that operations were
area, would not be considered regionally curtailed whenever meteorological or oceano-
significant given the actual area of the total graphic conditions might impair safety of the
anchor impact. However, given the proximity of activity, or increase seafloor impacts.
the platforms and pipelines to the features, and
the 1,5UO to 2,000 anchoring events expected from

270

INSTALLATION PROCEDURES Platform installations with the derrick barges
produced significantly fewer anchoring events
The initial development plans for the Point than the pipelaying operations. This is
Arguello Field called for the installation of 3 primarily because the lay barge utilizes the
drilling and production platforms and approx- anchors to move along the pipeline route during
imately 37 miles of associated subsea pipeline. installation. Also, only one pipeline is laid at
Installation activities commenced in June 1985 a time, so for each corridor, the lay barge made
and continued off and on through October 1986. two separate passes. In general, lay barge
Pipelaying operations were conducted during a anchoring events tend to increase with decreasing
5-month period between June and October 1986. water depth in order to maintain appropriate
Conventional installation equipment and methods anchor scope to water depth ratios. The derrick
were utilized during the emplacement of all barges, on the other hand, redeployed anchors
project components. only when necessary to move or change
orientation. A typical derrick barge anchor drop
Temporary seafloor disturbances associated with consists of a depression where the anchor hits
pipelaying 'operations are unavoidable. However, and of an associated gouge or scar (typically as
through an orchestrated effort, these impacts much as 50-60 feet long) as the anchor is pulled'
were limited to the identified soft bottom areas and set. When the anchor is retrieved, any
with only a few excepti -ons. To accomplish this, additional scarring is avoided by pulling the
it was necessary for operators to convey the anchor either vertically or in a direction
environmental significance of the area and the opposite from which it was set.
importance of proper anchor handling to their
contract field personnel. Routine MMS Long anchor scars occur when the anchor drags due
inspections were conducted to further ensure that to insufficient sediment strength or due to the
oersonnel aboard the installation barges and type of operation. A lay barge sets up a number
attendant anchor handling vessels utilized the of anchor spreads and moves by pulling against
Anchor Impact Mitigation plans. them. The constant pulling generally causes much
longer anchor scars than simply mooring a vessel
Accurate positioning of anchors was obtained by over a fixed position, as with a derrick barge.
coordinating the actions of the anchor handling
vessels with the onboard positioning systems
provided by marine surveyors. This was POSTCONSTRUCTION SURVEYING RESULTS
accomplished by the use of a radio positioning
system, which provided continuous position of the MMS has found that one of the most effective
anchor handling vessel in relation to the lay techniques to ensure compliance with our
barge and objects on the seafloor. The requirements is to require postconstruction
repeatability of these systems varies, but most surveys and reports that show exactly what was
are within 20-50 feet. Depending on envi- done in the field. In particular, our
ronmental conditions and water depth, the requirement for a side scan sonar mosaic of the
relative position between the anchor on bottom area after construction has proved to be an
and the mobile positioning equipment at 'the excellent tool for installations such as this
surface may vary by up to 150 feet. Thus, it was one. The mosaic provides a picturelike image of
possible to place an anchor with an accuracy of the seafloor clearly depicting scars, debris, and
plus or minus 200 feet from a specific point. other features remaining on the seafloor after
the construction.
The placement and retrieval of anchors were
accomplished utilizing winches on the anchor At the time of writing of this paper, not all of
handling vessels and pennant lines attached to the survey results and data were available.
the anchors. This arrangement allowed the Postconstruction mosaics have been completed for
anchors to be pulled and replaced in a vertical the Hermosa to shore segment [7], which was the
direction, thereby, minimizing additional longest line, and preliminary information has-
seafloor scarring and anchor drag. been reviewed for the Harvest to Hermosa pipeline
route and platform sites [8]. MMS expects to
At times during the pipelaying installation, it complete its review of the remaining survey
was necessary to anchor near or pass anchor within a few months. The following is based on
cables over hard bottom areas. In this case, the a review of these surveys.
anchors were lifted off of the sea bed up to just
below the anchor handling vessel. The lay barge A total of 1,085 anchor drops were made for the
would then increase tension on the anchor cable Hermosa to shore pipeline installation [7]. The
pulling the anchor and anchor handling vessel density of drops in shallow water (less than 150
back to the barge. Once at the barge, the anchor feet) was probably three or four times that along
handling vessel then headed out away from the the majority of the pipeline route. There is
barge in the direction of the new desired anchor also a higher density near the platform, partly
location. This operation of pulling the anchor because of the other pipeline construction
all the way up to the barge before running out to associated with Platforms Harvest and Hidalgo.
its new location tended to keep anchor cables The'postconstruction survey report identified 682
straight and reduced the tendency for cables to bottom anomalies with 414 (60.7%) of the
drag on the seafloor. anomalies identified as anchor scars, 32

271

depressions as possible anchor scars, and I of the behavior of anchor scars in the deeper
,disturbed seafloor anomaly as a probable anchor ocean environment. It has also allowed MS an
scar (8]. They also mapped 83 cable drag marks opportunity to evaluate new types of mitigation
(individual or zones) associated with anchoring. and determine their applicability for future
The other anomalies were construction features projects.
(i.e., pipelines, tap valves, probable mooring
cables), isolated small outcrops, and Anchor scar longevity is thought to depend on the
unidentified objects. Three magnetic anomalies surficial sediment type and the intensity of the
were also found that were not associated with the degradation process. These two variables are
recent construction projects. related because coarser grained materials exist
in higher energy environments, whereas clays
In the nearshore sandy environment, 250 anchors exist in much lower energy environments.
were dropped in waters less than 150 feet deep Therefore, in most areas, anchor scars in deeper
but only 5 scars (2%) remained in 1987. The area waters associated with finer grained material
around this portion of the pipeline, which was should degrade more slowly while s.carring in the
buried through the surf zone, was impacted by nearshore, higher energy, environment would be
numerous construction activities in addition to erased rapidly. As expected, fewer scars were
laying the pipelines. Based on this information, observed in the nearshore sand environment than
anchor scar longevity in this environment is in the deeper water. We now have more evidence
believed to be measured in weeks or a few months. to suggest that the bathymetrically dependent
surficial sediment distribution mapped by surveys
Review of this information shows that the can be used to predict anchor scar longevity.
greatest number of anchor scars are short and
that the number of anchor scars declines with Anchor scars in any water depth in this area
increased length. One-third of the scars are offshore Point Arguello should be considered
less than 100 feet long and almost 80% are less temporary based on the results from these
than 500 feet. Only 4% of the scars are longer surveys. Less than half of the anchor scars were
than 1,000 feet. This breakout indicates that, evident from the pipelaying activity from Hermosa
for the most part, conditions were fairly normal to shore when the survey was conducted less than
for the construction activity, with sufficiently 2 years after the construction. Also, virtually
strong sediments for a good anchor bite, no long no anchor scars from the Platform Hermosa
storm periods to cause anchor drag, and no installation are visible on the 1987 data (2-year
excessive dragging during retrieval (9]. time period).
Along this longest segment from Hermosa to shore, The mitigation as proposed and performed was
six anchor scars were found to contact hard successful in mitigating impacts to biological
bottom areas out of the 1,085 anchors that were resources without compromising the safety of the
dropped (0.6%). Considering that only three of operation. It had been anticipated that the
these crossed a major portion of an outcrop, and anchor impact mitigation requirements placed on
all were in the vicinity of the heavily the operators could result in increased
constructed area around Platform Hermosa, this is installation time and weather induced delays, and
a remarkably low incidence of impact. However, contribute major additional expenses. It was of
to determine the extent of potential hard bottom concern to MMS that the additional time required
habitat impacted, on February 10, 1988, an RCV to accurately position anchors in moderate seas
survey was undertaken on three mapped anchor might also result in prolonged installation
scars and a cluster of cable scars in about 280 induced stresses on the pipeline. These stresses
feet of water. Despite a number of passes over were carefully monitored and calculated in the
the area, no anchor, cable scars, or other field and at no time were they determined to
unnatural bottom disturbances were observed. exceed allowable levels. In addition, the
This report found that the bottom consisted of orchestrated efforts to minimize anchoring
firmly packed silt and mud with evidence of impacts did not result in significant additional
ground swell, surface ripples, and sanding. installation time nor expense. It became
apparant during installation that welding of
The preliminary results from the postconstruction pipeline joints on the lay barge and maintaining
survey over the Harvest to Hermosa pipeline route a stable pipeline at the touchdown point with the
identified 277 anchor and 200 cable scars [8]. ocean floor were more sensitive to sea conditions
The mosaic indicates that anchor scars are as than the operations associated with anchor
much as 10 feet wide and 100 feet long. The placement.
cable scars, in contrast, are probably less that
1 foot across and extend as much as thousands of As shown in the preliminary postconstruction
feet long. Anchor scars are as much as several surveying results, impacts to the hard-substrate
feet deep, whereas cable scars appear to be only features appear to be extremely small. We expect
inches deep. additional surveying results to confirm this.
The cause of the three anchors that strayed onto
the hard substrate is believed to result from a
CONCLUSIONS mapping error, rather than an operational error.
Also, based on the distribution of the scars on
The Point Arguello project pipelaying and the soft bottom, the relatively short lengths,
subsequent surveying have increased our knowledge the type of bottom sediments, and the fairly

272

rapid degradation of scars, little, if any,
impact is expected to bottom trawl fishermen.

We believe that much of the success of this
installation is due to the conscientiousness of
the operators in recognizing the environmental
concern and accepting the challenge to overcome
it. This type of mitigation requires a high
level of coordination between biologists and
engineers, government and industry. Projects
such as the Point Arguello development
demonstrate that operations are compatible with
the environment when everyone works together.

REFERENCES

1. Dames and Moore. Site-Specific Marine
Biological Survey Leases P-0446, -0447.
-0450, -0451, and -0452 Southern Santa Maria
Basin Area, for Chevron U.S.A. Inc. 1982.

2. Dames and Moore. Site-specific Marine
Biological Survey, Chevron Platform Hermosa
Project for Chevron U.S.A. Inc. 1983.

3. Dames and Moore. -Site-specific Marine
Biological Survey for Platform Hidalgo and
Corresponding Pipeline for Chevron U.S.A.
Inc. 1984.

4. Nekton. Site-specific Faunal Character-
ization Survey for Platform Harvest, Lease
OCS-P 0315 for Texaco, USA. 1983.

5. URS. Environmental Impact Statement/ Report
for the San Miguel Project. Prepared for
Minerals Management Service, County of San
Luis Obispo, California State Lands
Commission. 1986.

6. MMS buoy data. Data taken from buoy
stationed at Point Conception through MMS
study contract funding, Information from
fiscal year 1982-3. 1983.

7. MOS-Hermosa. Report of Seabed Survey,
Offshore Oil and Gas Pipelines from Platform
Hermosa to Pt. Conception by Meridian Ocean
Systems. 1988.

B. MOS-Harvest. Postconstruction survey of 8"
gas and 12" oil Harvest pipelines conducted
by Meridian Ocean Systems. 1988.

9. Chevron U.S.A. Analysis of the Post-
construction Survey and Report by Meridian
Ocean Systems. 1988.

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