[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]







                               Multiple Uses of the CoSstal Zone In
                               a Changing World.   Jun 25-26, 1992

                           Sponsored by: National Research Council



















                                                                  ULM



                            C@        I Afg J@- / @ /,F@,
                                                   NRC Retreat

                             "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone in a Changing World"
                                                 June 25-26, 1992

                                           National Academy of Sciences
                                    J. Erik Jonsson Woods Hole Study Center


                                                    CONTENTS



             Agenda, List of Attendees, and Workshop Assignments                       Precedes Tabs

             Paper presented by Richard Rotunno:
                    "A Synopsis of Coastal Meteorology: A Review of the                               1
                    State of the Science"

             Paper presented by Alan Blumberg:
                    "Modeling Transport Processes in the Coastal Ocean"                               2

             Paper presented by Stephen Leatherman:
                    "Coastal Geomorphology"                                                           3

             Paper presented by Richard Bopp:
                    "Rivers and Estuaries - A Hudson Perspective                                      4

             Paper presented by Douglas Inman:
                    IrTypes of Coastal Zones: Similarities and Differences"                           5

             Paper presented by Joy Zedler:
                    "Coastal Wetlands: Multiple Management Problems in Southern                       6
                    California!'


             Paper presented by Eugene Turner:
                    "Landscapes Use and the Coastal Zone"                                             7

             Paper presented by Jerry Shubel:
                    "Coastal Pollution and Waste Management"                                          8

             Paper presented by William Eichbaum:
                    "Coastal Management and Policy"                                                   9

             Discussion itern provided by Eugene Turner and Jerry Schubel
                    "Research and Development Funding for Coastal Science                           10
                    and Management in the U.S."

             Biographical Sketches of Principal Authors                                             11






                                                                      NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

                                                      COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES

                                                                      2101 Constitution Avenue      Washington, D.C. 20418

                       EXECUTIVE OFFICE                                                                                                                                202/334-3600


                                                         "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone In a Changing World" 
                                                                                         June 25-26,1992

                                                                                               AGENDA

                                                                              National Academy of Sciences
                                                                     J. Erik Jonsson Woods Hole Study Center
                                                                                          Carriage House
                                                                                      314 QuIssett Avenue
                                                                                Woods Hole, Massachusetts
                                                                                           (508) 548-3760


                       Wednesday, June 24,1992

                       8:00-9:00 P.M.                      Meeting of steering committee and available paper presenters at Study Center,
                                                            Sunporch

                       Thursday, June 25,1992

                       7:00 a.m.                            Transportation from- hotel to Study Center

                       7:15 a.m.                            Breakfast at Study Center

                       8:00 a.m.                            Welcome and Goals - M. Gordon Wolman (CGER Chair) and Karl K.Turekian
                                                            (Retreat Chair)

                       8:15 am.                             A Synopsis of "Coastal Meteorology: A Review of the State of the Science" -
                                                            Richard Rotunno (National Center for Atmospheric Research)
                       9:15 a.m.                            Modeling Transport Processes in the Coastal Ocean - Alan Blumberg 
                                                            (Hydroqual, Inc.)

                       10:15 a.m.                           Break

                       10:30 a.m.                           Coastal Geomorphology -- Stephen Leatherman (University of Maryland)

                       11:30 a.m.                           Rivers and Estuaries - A Hudson Perspective - Richard Bopp (Rensselaer
                                                            Polytechnic Institute)

                       12:30 p.m.                           LUNCH

                       1:30 p.m.                            Types of Coastal Zones: Similarities and Differences - Douglas Inman
                                                            (Scripps Institute of Oceanography)

                       1:55 P.M.                            Instructions to breakout groups and adjourn to rooms 202 and 309

                       2:00 p.m.                            Discussion of topics in breakout groups






                                        The National Research Council is the principal operating agency of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Acedemy of Engineering
                                                                                   to serve government and other organizations








                Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone In a ChangIng World'
                Jaune 25-26,1992
                Penuttimate Agenda
                Page 2


                4:30 pm.               Return to plenary meeting for discussion summaries - reports by facilitators

                6:15 p.m.              Recess

                6:00 P.M.              New England Clambake at Study Center

                8:00 P.M.              Adjourn for day and transportation to hotel


                Friday, June 26, 199

                7:00 a.m.              Transportation to Study Center

                7:15 a.m.              Breakfast at Study Center

                8:00 a.m.              Coastal Wetlands: Multiple Management Problems in Southern California
                                       Joy Zedler (San Diego State University)

                9:00 a.m.              Landscapes Use and the Coastal Zone - Eugene Turner (Louisiana State
                                       University)

                10:00 a.m.             Break

                10:15 am.              Coastal Pol lution and Waste Management - Jerry Schubel (State University of
                                       New York at Stony Brook)

                11:00 a.m.             Coastal Management and Policy - William Eichbaum (The World Wildlife Fund)

                12:15 p.m.             LUNCH

                1:00 P.M.              Conflicts in Coastal Zone Use - Edward Goldberg (Scripps Institution of
                                       Oceanography)

                1:30 p.m.              Discussion of topics in breakout groups in rooms 202 and 309

                4:30 p.m.              Discussion summaries in plenary meeting

                5:00 p.m.              Summary remarks

                5:30 p.m.              Adjourn retreat and transportation to hotel


                Saturday, June 27,1992

                7:46 am.               Breakfast at Study Center

                8:30 - 10:00 am.       Working meeting of steering committee at Study Center






                                              NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

                                   COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES
                                                  2101 Constitution Avenue Washington, D.C. 20418
               EXECUTIVE OFFICE                             NRC Retreat                                        202/334-3600
                                "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone In a Changing World"
                                                         June 25-26, 1992
                                           J. Erik Jonsson Woods Hole Study Center
                                                          Carriage House
                                                      314 Quissett Avenue
                                                 Woods Hole, Massachusetts

                                                      LIST OF ATTENDEES



               David Aubrey                                             Richard F. Bopp
               Associate Scientist                                      Department of Geology
               Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                     Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
               Woods Hole, MA 02543                                     Troy, NY 12180-3590

               Robert C. Beardsley                                      James M. Broadus, III
               
               Senior Scientist and Chairman                            Marine Policy Center
               Department of Physical Oceanography                      Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
               Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                     Woods Hole, MA 02543
               Clark 3                                                  Ken Brink
               Woods Hole, MA 02534                                     Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst.
                                                                        Clark 3
               Rosina Bierbaum                                          Brad Butman
               Oceans and Environment Program                           Chief
               Office of Technology Assessment                          U.S. Geological Survey
               Washington, D.C. 20510-8025                              Branch of Atlantic Marine Geology
                                                                        Woods Hole, MA 02543
               Alan Blumberg
               Hydroqual, Inc.                                          Nancy R. Connery
               1 Lethbridge Plaza                                       244 Old Stage Road
               Mahwah, NJ 07430                                         Woolwich, ME 04579

               Donald Boesch
               Director                                                 Craig Cox
               Center for Environmental and Estuarine                   Senior Staff Officer
                Studies                                                 National Research Council
               Horn Point Laboratories                                  Board on Agriculture
               The University of Maryland                               2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
               P.O. Box 775                                              Room HA 394
               Cambridge, MD 21613-0775                                 Washington, D.C. 20418

               Charles Bookman
               Director                                                 Paul K Dayton
               National Research Council                                Scripps Institution of Oceanography
               Marine Board                                             1240 Ritter Hall (MLRG, A-001)
               2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.                           8602 LaJolla Shores Dr.
                Room HA 250                                             La Jolla, CA 02093-0201
               Washington., D.C. 20418
                                                                                     
                                                                                   
                                                                        
                                                                        
































                          The National Research Council is the principal operating agency of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering
                                                       to serve government and other organizations








                Craig E. Dorman                                            Stephen P. Leatherman
                Director                                                   University of Maryland
                Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                       Laboratory for Coastal Research
                Woods Hole, MA 02543                                       1113 LeFrak Hall
                                                                           College Park, Maryland 20742
                William Eichbaum
                Vice President
                International Environmental Quality                        Gene E. Ukens;
                World Wildlife Fund                                        Director
                1250 Twenty-Fourth Street, NW                              The New York Botanical Garden
                Washington, D.C. 20037                                     Institute of Ecosystem Studies
                                                                           Box AB
                John W. Farrington                                         Millbrook, NY 12545
                Department of Chemistry
                Fye Lab                                                    Richard S. Undzen
                Woods Hole, MA 02543                                       Center for Meteorology and Physical
                                                                            Oceanography (54-1720
                Edward D. Goldberg                                         Massachusetts Institute of Technology
                Professor of Chemistry                                     Cambridge, MA 02139
                Scripps Institution of Oceanography
                University of California, San Diego
                La Jolla, CA 92093                                         Syukuro Manabe
                                                                           Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
                John E. Hobble                                              Laboratory
                Director                                                   NOAA
                Ecosystems Center                                          Princeton University
                Marine Biology Laboratory                                  P.O. Box 308
                Woods Hole, MA 02543                                       Princeton, NJ 08540

                Charles Hollister
                Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                       Curt Mason
                Woods Hole, MA 02643                                       NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Office
                                                                           Universal Building, Room 518
                Douglas Inman                                              1825 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
                Scripps Institution of Oceanography                        Washington, D.C. 20235
                University of California
                La Jolla, CA 92093
                                                                           Marian Mlay
                                                                           Office of Ground Water Protection
                Mary Hope Katsouros                                        USEPA
                Director                                                   401 M Street, S.W.
                National Research Council                                  Mail Code WH 550
                Ocean Studies Board                                        Washington, D.C. 20460
                2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
                 Room HA 550
                Washington, D.C. 20418
                                                                           Peter Myers
                Gary Krauss                                                Director
                Senior Staff Officer                                       National Research Council
                National -Research Council                                 Board on Radioactive Waste Management
                Water Science and Technology Board                         2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
                2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.                              Room HA 466
                 Room HA 462                                               Washington, D.C. 20418
                Washington, D.C. 20418








               Jack E. Oliver                                            Carlita Perry
               Irving Porter Church Professor                            Administrative Associate
               Department of Geological Sciences                         National Research Council
               3120 Snee Hall                                            Commission on Geosciences, Environment,
               Cornell University                                          and Resources
               Ithaca, NY 14853                                          2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
                                                                           Room HA 466
               Philip A. Palmer                                          Washington, D.C. 20418
               Dupont Chemical Corporate                                 David Policansky
                 Remediation Group                                       Associate Director
               300 Bellevue Parkway                                      National Research Council
                 Suite 390                                               Board on Environmental Studies
               Wilmington, DE 19809-3722                                   and Toxicology
                                                                         2101 Constitution Avenue,. N.W.
                                                                           Room HA 354
               Frank L Parker                                            Washington, D.C. 20418
               Professor of Civil and
                 Environmental Engineering                               Stephen Rattien
               Department of Civil and                                   Executive Director
                 Environmental Engineering                               National Research Council
               Box 1596, Station B                                       Commission on Geosciences, Environment,
               Vanderbilt University/Clemson                               and Resources
                 University     -                                        2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
               Nashville, TN 37235                                         Room HA 466
                                                                         Washington, D.C. 20-418

               Stephen Parker                                            Richard Rotunno
               Associate Executive Director                              National Center for Atmospheric Research
               National Research Council                                 P.O. Box 3000
               Commission on Geosciences, Environment,                   Boulder, CO 80307-3000
                 and Resources
               2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.                            Jerry R. Schubel
                 Room HA 466                                             Marine Science Research Center
               Washington, D.C. 20418                                    The University at Stony Brook
                                                                         Stony Brook, NY 11794-6000

               Duncan T. Patten                                          Larry L Smarr
               Director                                                  Director, National Center
               Center for Environmental Studies                            for Supercomputing Applications
               Arizona State University                                  University of Illinois at
               Tempe, AZ 85287                                             Urbana-Champaign
                                                                         151 Computing Applications Bldg.
                                                                         605 E. Springfield
                                                                         Champaign, IL 61820

               John Perry                                                Jeanette Spoon
               Director                                                  Administrative Officer
               National Research Council                                 National Research Council
               Board on Global Change                                    Commission on Geosciences, Environment,
               2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.                              and Resources
                 Room HA 594                                             2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
               Washington, D.C. 20418                                      Room HA 466
                                                                         Washington, D.C. 20418








                William Sprigg                                          Joy B. Zedler
                Acting Director                                         Biology Department
                National Research Council                               San Diego State University
                Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate               San Diego, California 92182-0057
                2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
                  Room HA 594
                Washington, D.C. 20418

                Steven M. Stanley
                Department of Earth and Planetary
                  Sciences
                The Johns Hopkins University
                Baltimore, MD 21218


                Kad K Turekian
                Silliman Professor of Geology
                  and Geophysics
                Yale University
                Box 6666
                Now Haven, CT 06511

                R. Eugene Turner
                Chairman
                Center for Wetland Resources
                Louisiana State University
                Baton Rouge, LA 70803

                Irvin L White
                Senior Director
                Laboratory Energy Programs
                Battelle Pacific Northwest
                  Laboratories
                901 D St., S.W.
                Suite 900
                Washington, D.C. 20024

                M. Gordon Wolman
                Professor, Department of Geography
                  and Environmental Engineering
                313 Ames Hall
                The Johns Hopkins University
                Baltimore, MD 21218


                Arch Wood
                ExectAive Director
                National Research Council
                Commission on Engineering and Technical
                  Systems
                2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
                  Room HA 280
                Washington, D.C. 20418








               A Synopsis of "Coastal Meteorology: A Review of the State of the Science


                                               Richard Rotunno, NCAR



               Introduction


                    According to a recent study by the Department of Commerce, almost half the U.S.
               population lives in coastal areas and so are affected by the unique weather and climate
               of the coastal zone. Under the auspices of The National Academy of Science, the Panel
               on Coastal Meteorology has just completed a study of the state of the science of coastal
               meteorology. This presentation will cover the highlights of the study by concentrating
               on the perceived major scientific problems, and opportunities for progress.
                    Coastal meteorology is the study of meteorological phenomena in the coastal zone
               caused, or significantly affected, by the sharp changes that occur between land and
               sea in surface transfer and/or elevation. The coastal zone is subjectively defined as
               extending approximately 100 km to either side of the coastline. Examples of coastal
               meteorological phenomena include the sea breeze, sea-breeze-related thunderstorms,
               coastal fronts, marine stratus, fog and haze, enhanced winter snow storms and strong
               winds associated with coastal orography. Increased knowledge of several or all of these
               is important for studies in the physical and chemical oceanography of the coastal. ocean.
               The practical application of this knowledge is vital for more accurate prediction of the
               coastal weather and sea state which affect defense, transportation and commerce, and
               pollutant dispersal.
                    The dynamical meteorology of the coastal zone may be thought of in terms of three
               subsidiary ideal problems; these three problems formed the organizational basis ofour
               study. The first problem is one where the coastal atmospheric circulation is primarily
               driven by the contrast in heating, and modulated by the contrast in surface friction,
               between land and sea. The second problem is one where the primary influence is due
               to the steep coastal mountains whose presence may induce strong along-shore winds,
               and other complex flow patterns. The third class of phenomena broadly consists of
               larger-scale meteorological systems that, by virtue of their passage across the coast-

                                                           I








                 line, produce distinct smaller-scale systems. Of course, complex reality is always some
                 combination of these idealized problems.

                 The..Atmospheric Boundary Layer

                      The transfer of heat, momentum, and water vapor between the atmosphere and the
                 lower surface (be it land or sea) is basic to these three ideal problems. As such, our study
                 begins with an.- assessment of, and prospects for improvement in, our understanding of
                 the approximately Ikm-deep layer of air adjacent to the surface called the atmospheric
                 boundary layer (ABL.) Study of the ABL is intended to reveal how the effects of surface
                 transfers are distributed upward. The best understood model of the ABL is when it
                 is the cloud-free and convective and horizontally homogeneous. However, near the
                 coast, the ABL is anything but. Stratus, fog and drizzle complicate the situation as
                 they depend on a complex interplay between cloud physics, radiation and turbulence.
                 Perhaps the most severe scientific problem is how to treat boundary layers that are
                 not horizontally homogeneous. Over, land, there is still significant uncertainty on the
                 nature of surface transfer from terrain with variation in vegetation and usage such as
                 occurs along the coast. Over the ocean, those surface transfers are determined by the
                 sea state, which in turn, is determined by the atmospheric flow, which is influenced
                 by the surface transfers, etc. This fundamental coupling has been long-recognized,
                 however there is another order of complexity over the coastal ocean because there the
                 sea state is significantly influenced by the ocean shelf.
                      Areas in need of research are:
                      * ABL processes in inhomogeneous and nonequilibrium conditions. A better un-
                 derstanding of these may lead to better surface-flux and mixed-layer scaling theories.
                      * Fundamental relationships between the ocean wave spectrum, the surface fluxes,
                 and bulk ABL properties.
                      9 Coastal marine stratocumulus.

                 Therm ally Driven Effects

                      Although the recognition of the land-sea breeze dates back to antiquity, the deeper
                 understanding needed to make accurate forecasts is still lacking. The land-sea breeze

                                                             2








                is produced by virtue of the generally different temperatures of the lan'd and sea which
                produce an across-coast, air-temperature (density) difference. After this circulation
                begins, however, it modifies the conditions that produced it; thus the difficulty in
                making precise predictions lies with the difficulty in understanding more precisely the
                nature of this feedback. The aforementioned uncertainties in our understanding of the
                ABL are certainly central problems here. Beyond the simple two-dimensional picture,
                coastline curvature, near-shore islands, different synoptic-scale wind orientation present
                important scientific problems. Perhaps the most challenging problem is the interaction
                of the land-sea breeze with cumulus convection. Issues -associated with two special
                types of thermally driven phenomena (coastal fronts and ice-edge boundaries) are also
                discussed in the study.

                    Areas identified for further study are:
                    0 Observational and modeling studies of the land-sea breeze to cover the entire
                diurnal cycle, with emphasis on improving knowledge of offshore regions.
                    e The fine-scale structure of the sea-breeze front, including the associated vertical
                motions, and internal boundary layers above complex coastlines and heterogeneous

                surfaces.

                    e Three-dimensional interactions of the land-sea breeze with variable synoptic-scale
                flow, nonuniform land and water surfaces, irregular coastlines and complex terrain.
                      Dynamical interactions of the land-sea breeze with stratus clouds, and with
                precipitating and nonprecipitating cumulus convection.
                    * Geographical distribution, spatial coverage, and modes of propagation of coastal

                fronts.

                    * Processes of heat and moisture flux from leads and polynyas.

                The Influence of Orography

                    Coastal mountain ranges can significantly affect coastal meteorology. In many sit-
                uations the coastal mountains act as a barrier to the stably stratified marine air; thus
                air with a component of motion toward the barrier at great distance must eventually
                turn and flow along the barrier. Also the coastal mountains may act like the side of a

                                                            3








                basin within which the marine air is contained; under the influence of the earth's rota-
                tion, waves known as 'Kelvin waves', may propagate along the basin-wall-like coastal
                mountain. Special boundary-layer flows are also observed under the influence of the
                coastal mountains. For example, during the Coastal Ocean Dynamics Experiment@ a
                strong along-shore jet was documented. It had a strong diurnal component as evi-
                denced by the depression on the maxine inversion near the coastal mountains during
                the day. The boundary layer structure showed interesting complexity inasmuch as the
                potential temperature was well-mixed to the inversion but the wind speed increased
                strongly through the same layer. Phenomenon that appear similar to flow separation
                in classical fluid dynamics also occur in the lee of capes and other coastline salients.
                These types of motion are important components of the meteorological problem in
                these coastal regions.
                    Areas identified for further study are:

                    ï¿½ Case studies of structure and path of storm systems modified by coastal orogra-
                phy.
                    * Climatology of synoptic regimes conducive to coastally trapped phenomena.

                    ï¿½ Methods to include coastal phenomena in numerical forecast models.


                Interactions with Larger-Scale Systems

                    As larger-scale meteorological systems move across the coast, they are affected
                by some combination of the effects discussed in the previous two paragraphs; in some
                situations, distinct subsystems, which would not exist without the coastal influence, are
                produced. Examples of these effects include cyclogenesis enhanced at the east coast of
                the U.S. as upper-level disturbances cross the Appalachians and encounter the strong
                baroclinic zone at the coast, flow along the coast in winter with strong cooling of the
                air on the landward side leading to the formation of fronts, and land-falling hurricanes

                whose low-level flows are so modified as to favor the formation of tornadoes.

                    Areas identified for further study are:
                    9 Dynamics of the local intensification of cyclone winds by coastal t     opography,
                and the resulting modification of storm intensity and motion.

                                                           4








                     9 The cause of tornadoes associated with land-falling hurricanes.
                     e The influence of the coastal heating discontinuity in the along-shore propagation

                and local intensification of coastal fronts.

                       The"influence of coastal fronts on midlatitude coastal cyclogenesis.


                Influences on the Coast Ocean

                     In general, the ocean affects, and is affected by, the atmosphere. We discuss next
                aspects of this interaction particularly important for the coastal zone (shelf waters). In
                the northern hemisphere, an along-coast wind with the coast on the left brings the sea
                into motion in the along coast direction, due    to the Coriolis effect the water motion
                is deflected away from the coast necessitating its replacement by water from Mow-
                this phenomenon is know as coastal upwelling. The water from below is colder, and in
                general is of different chemical and biological composition. The details of the cross-shelf
                transport (necessary to feed the upwelling) are poorly understood, since the ocean is
                responding to atmospheric influences over a large range of time and space scales. This-
                wind-stress data from the Coastal Ocean Dynamics Experiment (CODE) shows the
                mean and a considerable standard deviation. Also the along-shore ocean -currents may
                be highly irregular. There is evidence the some of the irregularity is due to wind-stress
                variations along and across the coastal zone.
                     Also the colder water along the coast now means there is yet another across-coast
                temperature difference that can produce changes in the atmospheric circulation, which
                can affect the ocean, etc. Interactions of this nature are important to the understanding
                of the coastal ocean, and the chenfical and biological processes occurring there.
                     Areas identified for further study are:
                     9 The coupled ocean-atmosphere processes that control the interactions between
                the wind field, ABL structure, and upper ocean.
                     9 The local physical and chemical processes governing air-sea fluxes of momentum,
                heat, moisture, particulate and gas within an inhomogeneous coastal ABL and variable

                wave state.

                      The role of remote mesoscale spatial inhomogeneities in controlling atmosphere-








               ocean dynamics in a coastal environment.

               Air Quality

                    Another important application of coastal meteorology is to the prediction of pol-
               lutant dispersal. Our study covered issues relevant to the -coastal environment. The
               highly variable winds near the coast may sweep pollutants out to sea on a land breeze,
               but then bring them back with the sea breeze. More accurate estimates of the vertical
               motion fields associated with these wind systems are critical for determining the layers
               at which the pollutant will ultimately reside (and the horizontal direction in which it
               will move.)
                    Further progress here would be helped by:
                    e Comprehensive tracer studies conducted at increasingly more complicated coastal
               sites. This would allow for evaluation, validation, and eventual widespread use of
               improved dispersion -models.
                    9 Improvedcoordination between air pollution and boundary layer field observation
               programs conducted on both sides of the li  ttoral.

               Capabilities and Opportunitiej

                    Obse rvationj

                    The present in observational network of routine in situ data is not adequate for
               most applications', The coastal rawinsondes, especially over the west coast, are very
               sparse. The buoy network is sparse and only measures conditions near the surface.
               There are transient ship reports that supplement the buoy reports.
                    As part of NOAA's observational equipment modernization will offer some im-
               provements and some degradation. NEXRAD will provide an increase         in over- water
               coverage: Doppler winds out to 150km, reflectivity out to 400 km. Returns from the
               moving sea surface may possibly be interpreted to get surface winds. No new rawin-
               sondes are planned, and some coastal sondes may be moved inland. Efforts continue
               to use passive and active satellite techniques to infer the atmospheric and sea state.
               Surface based remote sensors can give highly detailed spatial and temporal detail in
               the boundary layer.

                                                          6










                   Models

                   The emergence of high performance workstations having substantial fractions of
              the calculation speed performance and superior throughput of present day mainframe
              supercomputers will allow researchers to run regi onal models with high resolution and
              to conduct numerous sensitivity studies.

                   Human Resources

                   It is the experience of the panel members that few universities have courses in
              the meteorology of coastal zones. Related areas of meteorological instrumentation and
              observational techniques are also under-represented.
                   To improve our capabilities and opportunities the Panel recommends:
                   o The use of recently developed remote sensors to obtain detailed four- dimensional
              data sets to describe coastal regions and the upgrade of buoy and surface station
              networks to obtain quality, long-duration data sets.
                   o The on-site use -of affordable, high-performance work stations that can provide
              decentralized computations during study of local phenomena, be used to determine the
              sensitivity of coastal processes to various influences, and be used to study techniques
              for assimilating data into real-time forecasts.
                   o The increased use of conferences, short courses, and university training programs
              to encourage more scientists to explore the meteorology of the coastal zone.



















                                                        7
























                                         MODELING TRANSPORT PROCESSES
                                                IN THE COASTAL OCEAN



                                 Alan F. Blumberg', Richard P. Signell' and Harry L. Jenterl


                                                      'HydroQual, Inc.
                                                     1 Lethbridge Plaza
                                                Mahwah, New Jersey 07430


                                                  'U.S. Geological Survey
                                             Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543


                                                  'U.S. Geological Survey
                                                  MS 430 National Center
                                                  Reston, Virginia 22092


                                                       June 1, 1992

                                                     for presentation at

                                   National Research Council CGER Coastal Zones Retreat
                                                     June 25-26, 1992
                                                Woods Hole, Massachusetts








                                                                                                                         Page 1

            1. INTRODUCTION



                 As population growth and industrial development continue along the coastal zones, near-shore waters over
            the continental shelf are being subjected to increasing environmental stresses from numerous sources.
            Discharges of municipal and industrial wastes, agricultural runoff, combined sewer overflows and waste spills
            of potentially toxic substances from coastal commerce contribute collectively to a host of water quality
            problems. The eventual impact of these discharges is the result of complex interactions among the pollutant
            inputs from all sources, the various chemical forms of the constituents present in the water column and their
            associated chemical reactions with each other and the complex marine food chains which can exchange
            nutrients and other chemicals between the water column and the underlying sediment. A common element
            to the understanding of these interactions is the need to define the hydrodynamic transport processes governing
            the  movement and mixing of the constituents as forced by various hydrographical (runoff, estuarine
            circulation), meteorological (surface wind, heat fluxes), open ocean (large scale ocean circulation),
            astronomical (tides) and internal (density gradients) forcing mechanisms.


                 The circulation occurring over the continental shelf typically exhibits considerable temporal and spatial
            variability. It is characterized by relatively, large-scale alongshore current systems which have a variety of
            interannual, seasonal and daily variations. The variability in circulation from place to place is evident in
            satellite sea surface temperature images which show patchy upwelling, zones, filaments of cold water extending
            offshore, rotating eddies and other.large-scale circulation features. Processes responsible for the circulation
            -are wind driven currents and mixing which are often the dominant processes over the shelf, buoyancy effects
            which lead to plume and frontal formations, shelf-open ocean interactions where meandering offshore currents
            and mesoscale eddies can entrain much water from the shelf and tidal resonances which can produce large
            tidal current s and, intense levels of vertical mixing.


                 Observational programs have been the cornerstone of our conceptual and theoretical understanding of
            currents and water properties in coastal regions. Our knowledge has increased because of the introduction
            of moored, hydrographic, Lagrangian and satellite based observations. However, to permit a consistent view
            of th'e circulation, each of these types of observations is needed simultaneously. Consider, for example, that
            in many coastal regions, the length scales of the hydrodynamical processes are characterized by an internal
            deformation radius (Rossby radius) of 5 to 15 km and by topographic variations ranging from I to 10 Ian.








                                                                                                                    Page 2

            Motions and water properties measured at stations separated by distances much greater than these length scales
            will, in general, tend to be only loosely related to one another. Ile sampling networks of hydrographic
            surveys and current meter moorings must be chosen within the Rossby radius. For coastal domains of small
            extent this is possible; however, for large regions it is not always feasible. There are also a host of issues
            associated with obtaining observations with the proper time scales. Satellites provide excellent spatial views
            that are, unfortunately, only "snapshots" in time. Current meters are better at addressing temporal variability
            since they employ sampling frequencies that are typically 30 minutes or less; however, their spatial coverage
            is limited. It is apparent, then, that observational programs can rarely be sufficiently dense in either space
            or time to provide an adequate description of the water mass and velocity fields of an evolving three-
            dimensional piece of coastal ocean. In recent years, coastal ocean circulation models have come to be
            depended upon, when properly tested and verified, to synthesiz     e information from measurements and to
            provide a framework for investigating the basic processes of a region. As such, coastal ocean models play
            a critical role in determining how nutrients, sediment, contaminants and other water-borne materials are
            transported.


               The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the processes governing the tranSDOrt of water,
            dissolved substances and particles in the context of the design and development of a three-dimensional
            circulation model of Massachusetts Bay. The bay.is ideally suited for the purposes of this paper because its
            circulation is a complicated function of winds, tides and river inflows, and because its environmental
            problems, caused by the introduction of wastes over many years, are typical of those found off many large
            metropolitan areas.   Before the presentation of the Massachusetts Bay case study, a short discussion of
            numerical models themselves will be provided, briefly reviewing where coastal ocean circulation modeling
            is today and describing the physically, comprehensive circulation model developed by Blumberg and Mellor
            (1980) which will be used to elucidate the various transport processes in Massachusetts Bay. In the final
            section, some thoughts on the important issues of coastal ocean modelling that need to be addressed in the
            future will be put forth.








                                                                                                                   Page 3

            2. COASTAL CIRCULATION MODELING



                Significant progress has been made in the development of limited-area coastal circulation models. The
                                                                 @ :------------
            state-of-the-science has progressed to the point where programs to develop and validate a predictive system
            for the U.S. coastal ocean (Coastal Ocean Prediction Systems, 1990) are being proposed. There are now
            models being used routinely in the Great Lakes to determine water levels, currents and temperatures for
            periods going back to 30 years (Bedford and Schwab, 1990). Much of the increase in modeling activities is
            due to the availability of low cost, supercomputer resources and to the continued development of reliable
            numerical codes. Too many models exist to provide a comprehensive survey, here. The interested reader
            is referred to the monographs by Heaps (1986) and Nihoul and Jamart (1987) and to the review articles by
            Wang, et al (1990) and Blumberg and Oey (1985) for details concerning the status of coastal ocean circulation
            modeling.


                The coastal ocean circulation model developed by Blumberg and Mellor (1980) called ECOM31) will be
            used as a framework for discussing the transport processes which operate in the coastal ocean. The model
            is three-dimensional and time dependent so that it can reproduce the complex oceanographic physics present
            over the shelf. Evolving water masses, baroclinic plumes, fronts and eddies are accounted for by prognostic
            equations for the themodynamic quantities, temperature and salinity. Free surface elevation is also calculated
            prognostically so that tides and storm surge events can be simulated. Through these prognostic equations
            and the use of the full nonlinear form of the momentum equations, the processes relevant to a spectrum of
            nonlinear, stratified flows can be properly modeled. Coastal upwelling dynamics and the processes leading
            to stratified tidal rectification will be part of the simulated distributions. The vertical turbulent mixing
            processes are parameterized using the turbulent closure submodel of Mellor and Yamada (1982). This
            submodel contains non-dimensional empirical constants that are fixed by reference to laboratory data and are
            independent of particular hydrodynamic model applications. ECOMM also incorporates a a-coordinate
            system such that the number of grid points in the vertical is independent of depth so that the dynamically
            important surface and bottom boundary layers across an entire sloping shelf can be adequately resolved. The
            last model feature to note is the use of a curvilinear coordinate system, greatly increasing model efficiency
            in treating irregularly shaped coastlines and in meeting requirements for high resolution in specific local
            regions. A complete descrip    tion of the governing equations and numerical techniques can be found in
            Blumberg and Mellor (1987). The model has been used in over 30 studies which have appeared in the









                                                                                                            Page 4

           referred literature and is being exercised in an operational forecasting mode for the Great Lakes and in
           Norwegian coastal waters.










               3. A CASE STUDY:       MASSACHUSETTS BAY


               Massachusetts La'y and Cape Cod Bay combine to form a roughly 1OOx5O kni semi-enclosed basin with
           an average depth of 35 m located in the western Gulf of Maine (Figure 1). As in many coastal regions near
           major urban areas, the bays are used for a variety of purposes: commercial and recreational fishing,
           shipping, recreational boating, swimming, and as a repository for sewage effluent and dredged sediments.
           Currently, there is considerable controversy concerning the extension of the Boston sewage outfall pipe from
           the mouth of Boston Harbor to a site 9 miles offshore. The public living around the coast of Massachusetts
           and Cape Cod Bays is concerned that Boston is improving its pollution problem at the expense of the bays,
           and that swimming beaches, shellfish beds, fishing resources, and the endangered right whale population that
           feed in the bays may be jeopardized. To address these concerns ECOM3D is being used in conjunction with
           available observations to determine the fate and transport of contaminants, nutrients, and other water-borne
           materials in the bay, including effluent from the proposed outfall site. The region covered by the model
           encompasses all of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays as well as Stellwagen Bank (Figure 2). It includes
           the Merrimack River and extends offshore to a depth of about 200 m. The resolution of the curvilinear grid
           system ranges from a minimum of .600    m near the proposed outfall site, to a. maximum of 6000 m near the
           open ocean boundary. Vertical resolution is accomplished by using 10 a-levels in the water column. Data
           for model calibration and verification was obtained during an intensive field program over the period
           1990-1991 (Geyer et a], 1992).


           3.1 Tidal Currents



               The most predictable and often the strongest currents in the bays are produced by the barotropic tides,
           which have an average range of 2.6 m. Tides are introduced into the model by forcing the open offshore
           boundaries with sea surface elevation data from a well-calibrated, lower resolution Gulf of Maine model
           (Naimie and Lynch, 1991). Comparison of modeled currents with moored current observations from the
           winter (when the.best analysis of the pure tidal signal can be made) reveals that both tidal excursions and
           orientations of tidal ellipses are reproduced well (Figure 3). Tidal excursions range from more that 12 km
           off Provincetown and in Boston Harbor, to less than 2 km in the deep central Massachusetts Bay. The tidal
           excursion at the proposed outfall is 2 km.









                 While the moored observations of tidal currents give some indication of the spatial varia
              verified at the moorings, can fill in the spatial structure, indicating regions of strong tidal gradientb
              tidal mixing fronts may form as well as indicating features unresolved by the observations (Figure 4). The
              locations of the strong gradients on Stellwage n Bank and west of Provincetown are near regions frequented
              by the endangered North Atlantic right whales (Hamilton and Mayo, 1988). Therefore, resolution of the flow
              in these regions may be important in the determination of the effects of pollution introduced into the bays on
              the whale population.


                 Because of their strength, tides play an important role in vertical mixing processes, but since they are
              periodic at 12.4 hours (theM2 constituent dominates here), they essentially displace material back and forth
              over the length of the tidal excursion w                        The exceptions are when tidal currents act in
              conjunction with the bottom topography and coastline geometry to produce strong asymmetry between ebb
              and flood. The tides have a large effect on the flushing of Boston Harbor (Signell and Butman, 1992), and
              may be important locally at the tip of Cape Cod and along the western side of Stellwagen Bank, but play little
              role in transporting material over distances comparable to the size of the bays.


              3.2 Subtidal Currents



                Observations suggest that horizontal transport of material is accomplished by advection due to the mean
              flow through the bays and the dispersive effect of sub-tidal wind-driven and river runoff events The mean
              flow generally supports the historical conceptual picture of a counterclockwise circulation (Bigelow, 1927;
              Bumpus and Lauzier, 1965; Brooks, 1985), made up of southwesterly inflow south of Cape Ann, southerly
              flow along the coast east of Scituate, and northeasterly outflow north of Race Point (Figure 5). This mean
              circulation pattern, however, is often, altered by wind and runoff events, and except at the deep stations near
              Cape Ann and Race Point, the fluctuations are typically stronger than the mean. The proposed outfall site,
              in fact, is in a region of weak mean flow, apparently west of the stronger residual current system. This
              means that material here is mixed and transported by random fluctuations of wind and runoff events rather
              than being swept away by a persistent current.     Using process-oriented modeling that examines the bays
              response to specified forcing conditions, the factors that are important for driving the mean flow and the
              low-frequency fluctuations can be determined.
              t











            1.2.1 Mean Flow



                What drives the observed counterclockwise flow through the bays? One hypothesis is that it is simply
            an extension of the coastal current that exists in the Gulf of Maine (Bigelow, 1927; Bumpus and Lauzier,
            1,965; Vermersch et a], 1979). To test this hypothesis, the model is forced with a 3 cm offshore sea surface
            slope from the coast to the 100 in isobath along the northern boundary. This slope produces a 10 cm/s coastal
            current north of Cape Ann that is comparable to observed coastal current speeds     (e.g. Vermersch, 1979).
            The simulation reveals that much of the Gulf of Maine coastal current moves southward following the
            bathymetry along the eastern flank of Stellwagen Bank, largely bypassing the bays (Figure 6).     The coastal
            current explains the observed mean flow southeast of Cape Ann and at Stellwagen Bank (stations U2, U3 and
            U6 in Figure 5), but the counterclockwise flow that the coastal current drives in the bays is much weaker
            than observed. Adding the mean wind stress of I dyne/crn@ to the coastal current forcing dramatically
            changes in the simulation of the mean flow. The mean wind is from the west, and drives a very realistic
            looking southeastward current along the coast from Boston to Cape Cod which exits the bays at Race Point
            (Figure 7). Thus remote forcing from the Gulf of Maine coastal current and the mean wind stress both play
            important roles in explai ning, the men circulation in the bays.


            3.2.2 Low-Frequency Fluctuations


               The wind direction is one factor that strongly determines the response of the bays: northwest or southeast
            winds are aligned with the long-axis of the bays, and are therefore More efficient at driving circulation than
            southwest or northeast winds (Geyer et al, 1992). When the waters of the bays are unstratified, as in winter,
            northwest winds drive strong flow downwind at the coast, which piles up    water in Cape Cod Bay, creating
            an along-bay pressure gradient (Figure 8). This pressure gradient drives return flow against the wind at depth
            (Figure 9). When the wind blows from the southwest during well-mixed conditions, the currents are
            substantially weaker (Figure 10).


               Another factor that has a major impact on the wind response is the degree of stratification. Results from
            two years of measurements near the proposed outfall show that the surface current fluctuations are strongest
            in summer, when the wind stress fluctuations are weakest (Figure 11). One hypothesis is that the wind stress
            is more efficient at driving surface currents in summer, when strong stratification. reduces the frictional









              resistance of the surface layer. Modeling the response of the bays to southwest wind
              conditions (Figure 12) reveals a much different picture than the unstratified case (Figure 1U).
              currents are often twice as large, and the circulation pattern is dramatically different. As the water moves
              offshore along the coast north of Boston, cold-nutrient rich water is upwelled as evident in the model, as well
              as in remotely-sensed images of sea surface temperature (Figure 13). Being able to model this type of
              response is especially important for understanding the proposed outfall's impact, as the outfall plume may
              be trapped in the cold, light-limited, deeper waters until it is upwelled.


                 Although the Massachusetts Bays do not have any.large rivers that discharge directly into them, the
              Merrimack River just to the north of Cape Ann plays an important role in driving their circulation, especially
              in the spring (Butman, 1975). In the absence of wind, fresh water discharged from the river mouth forms
              a surface plume which turns to the right and       follows the coast in the northern hemisphere. Thus the
              Merrimack and other Gulf of Maine rivers combine to generate a buoyancy-driven coastal current which flows
              southward off Cape Ann. Large river runoff events can drive currents with magnitudes of 20-40 cm/s in the
              bays, comparable to strong wind events.


                 Wind and river effects often interact nonlinearly, generatiT   ig extremely complex flow patterns, even for
              fairly simple forcing functions. As an example, "turning on". the Merrimack River under the influence of
              a mean wind from the west gives rise to lateral and vertical salinity gradients that act with the wind and local
              topography to yield small-scale lateral eddying structures in Western Massachusetts Bay that change markedly
              with time and -position in the water column (Figure 14). This illustrates the difficulty  with isolating different
              forcing mechanisms from field data. Often, the mechanisms cannot be linearly superimposed. Numerical
              models frequently become the only viable mechanism for analyzing the transport of material when this is the

              case.



              3.3 Outfall Plume Dynamics


                 Because of the complicated nature of the circulation in embayments; such as the one considered here, it
              is difficult to make simple calculations based on observations regarding the transport of material suspended
              or dissolved in the water column. In particular, it is clear that realistically modeling the effluent plume from
              the proposed outfall requires a three-dimensional model that actively couples the density field with the








                                                                                                                  Page 9

            circulation. Because the plume is buoyant and may enter a stratified system, the model must have the ability
            to allow the effluent to become trapped below the thermocline or to rise to the surface as determined by the
            ambient stratification.' This is critical, as the surface above and below the thermocline are often moving in
            opposite directions.   Consider the movement of a plume produced through the discharge of 15 ml/s of
            freshwater into a well mixed Massachusetts Bay with a salinity of 32 psu. A steady wind stress of I dyne/cn-O
            (about 7 m/s) yields the flow patterns shown on Figures 8 and 9 and also causes a complex plume structure
            (Figure 15). As the plume rises to the surface, it is advected northwestward by the bottom currents.
            However, as the plume approaches the surface, it is advected with the oppositely directed surface currents

            to the southeast.








                                                                                                                       Page 10

            4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS



                Our knowledge of the processes affecting the movement and mi         'xing of water masses, various chemical
            constituents and particles and our abilities to model them numerically has expa     nded considerably in the past
            five.years. Hydrodynamic models of the coastal ocean have become indispensable aids in decision-making
            relating to wasteload allocations from point sources of pollution and to the design and licensing of offshore
            structures. The models typically are at their best in predicting phenomena related to the tides and to the
            response of the waters to local forcing conditions. However, strict attention must be given to the adequacy
            of the model grid spacing because experience has shown that when the model resolution is commensurate
            with the physical process of a region, the model simulations agree best with the observations.


                it must be mentioned that the most critical factor limiting the development of truly predictive models is
            an understanding of the complex interaction between the coastal waters and those of the offshore ocean.
            Typically, coastal ocean models cover a limited region along the coast with their offshore extent ending at
            the continental shelf break. At this edge, it is necessary to introduce a boundary condition which must
            properly parameterize the influences of the ocean exterior to the coastal region being modeled. The use of

            both                                                                                      needed to determine the
          jTRE_Le@s betwee@@@@


                Advances in computer power and speed have recently made it feasible to construct and apply time--
            Varying, 3D hydrodynamic moddL_ This type of modeling, while feasible, is computationally intensive and
            puts severe constraints on the resources available for engineering analyses. What is needed are models which
            include all the important physical, chemical and biological processes yet. can be used in a time effective
            manner without significantly depleting the available computer resouices. One approach to this problem is
            through the development of g.hydrodynainic andwater quality model interfacing methodology which will
            produce coarse s          Solutinn timt- nvpl              al. transports from a. high spatial resolution, intr itidal
                                     These time and space averaged mass transport quantities should be sufficient to drive
            appropriate  segmented water quality models without loss of accuracy.


                Finally, there is a need to make   b-etLer use of available observations@ Models require data to establish
            interior and boundary conditions, to update boundary fields, to validate the model physics,and to verify the







                                                                                                                Page 11

             simulations. Current, temperature and salinity data are often insufficient for an unambiguous model
             calibration/validation and one must look at how well the water quality constituents are being modeled to
             derive a sense of the validity of the modeled transport processes. One needs to, blend the results from both
             circulation and water quality models with the available data to provide for the best estimates of how water
             and materials are transported throughout a coastal system. The data assimilation, that is, the process of this--
             blending, is undoubtably the most powerful tool presently available for extracting information and insight
             from the sparse coastal ocean data sets and the imperfect model results.








                                                                                                           Page 12

           5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS



               This work has been funded by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority through contracts with both
           HydroQual (Marine Technical Environmental Services Contract #37 to Normandeau Associates) and the U.S.
           Geological Survey. Additional support has been provided by the Massachusetts Environmental Trust, the
           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Massachusetts Bays Program, and the U.S. Geological Survey. The
           authors would like to thank Robert Beardsley for his role in motivating this paper.








                                                                                                              Page 13

            6. REFERENCES



            Bedford, K. and Schwab, D: 1990. "Preparation of Real-Time Great Lakes Forecasts," CRAY CHANNELS,
               Cray., Res., Inc., p. 14-17.


            Bigelow, H. B., Physical oceanography of the Gulf of Maine, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., 40,511--1027, 1927.


            Blumberg, A.F., and Mellor, G.L., 1980: A Coastal Ocean Numerical Model. In: Mathematical modelling
               of Estuarine Physics, Proceedings of the International Symposium, Hamburg, -24-26 August 1987
               (Sundermann, J. and Holz, K.-P., Eds.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 203-214.


            Blumberg, A.F., and Mellor, G.L., 1987: A Description of a Tliree-Dimensional Coastal Ocean Circulation
               Model. In: Three-Dimensional Coastal Ocean Models, Coastal and Estuarine Science , I (Heaps, N.S.,
               Ed). Washington, D.C. AGU, 1-16.


            Blumberg, A.F. and Oey, L.-Y, 1985: Modeling Circulation and Mixing in Estuaries and Coastal Oceans.
               Advances in Geophysics, 28A, 525-547.


            Brooks, D., Vernal circulation in the Gulf of Maine, J. Geophys. Re ., 2Q, 4687--4705, 1985.
            Bumpus, D. and M. Lauzier, Circulation on the Continental Shelf of the East Coast of Eastern North America
               between Newfoundland and Florida, American Geographical Society Serial Atlas. of the Marine
               Environment, Folio 7, 1965.


            Butman, B., On the dynamics of shallow water currents in Massachusetts Bay         and the New England
               Continental Shelf, PhD thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic
               Institution, 1975, 174 pages.


            Butman, B., M. Bothner, J. Hathaway, H. Jenter, H. Knebel, F. Manheim, and R. Signell, Contaminant
               transport and accumulation in Massachusetts Bay and Boston Harbor: A summary of U.S. Geological
               Survey studies,    USGS Open-File Report 92-202, 1992, 42 pp.









                                                                                                              Page 14



           Coastal Ocean Prediction Systems Program: 1990. Available from Joint Oceanographic Inc., Suite 800,
               1755 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington DC 20036-2102.


           Geyer, W., G. Gardner, W. Brown, J. Irish, B. Butman, T. Loder, and R. Signell, Physical Oceanographic
               Investigation of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, Technical Report WHOI-92-x (in press), Woods
               Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, 1992, 140 pp.


           Hamilton, P. and C. Mayo, Population characteristics of Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis) observed in Cape
               Cod and Massachusetts Bays, 1978-1986, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn (Special Issue 12), 1988, 203-208.


           Heaps, N. S., 197: Three-dimensional Coastal Ocean Models, Coastal and Estuarine Sciences, 4, Washington,
               D.C., AGU, 1986.


           Mellor, G.L. and Yamada, T., 1982: Development of a Turbulence Closure Model for Geophysical Fluid
               Problems. Rev. Geophys. SRace Phys., 20, 851-875.


           Nihoul, J.C.J. and Jamart, B.J., 1987: Three-Dimensional models of Marine and Estuarine Dynamics.
               Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.


           Naimie, C. and D. Lynch, Benchmark 3-D M2 and M2 residual tides for Georges Bank and the Gulf of
               Maine, Technical Report NML-91-2, Numerical Methods Laboratory, Thayer School of Engineering,
               Darmouth College,     Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 1991.


           Signell, R. P. and B. Butman, Modeling tidal exchange and dispersion in Boston Harbor, accepted to Journa
               of Geophysical Research, 1992.


           Wang, J.D., Blumberg, A.F., Butler, H.L. and Hamilton, P., 1990: Transport Prediction in Partially
               Stratified Tidal Water. J. Hydraulic Engr., jjb, 380-396.








                                                                                                       Page 15

           Vermersch, J., R. Beardsley, and W. Brown, Winter circulation in the western Gulf of Maine: Part 2.
              Current and pressure observations, J. Phys. Oceanom, 9, 786--784, 1979.





                       71 000'                                                                7-. 0000"W     43000'N


                          MERRIMAC'                                                 SO
                             RIVER






                                                    WO
                                                        CARE                       OULF OF MAINE
                                                        ANN









                                    OUTFALL
                                                       rELLWA                             PROPOSED
                  B                                                                       SANCTUARY
                  0                         MASSACHUSETTS
                  S                                           iA
                  T                                 FA Y
                  0
                  N
                                                                              7%


                                  SCI TUAT  E                                 40

                                                                     .................
                                                                                RACE POINT



                                                                                                            42000'

                            BOSTON                                 40
                                   NEW YORK                      CAPE COD BAY
                                              MANOMET,,

                               1@,WASHINGTON
                                                                0                20 KM

                                                                 Contours in meters
                                                                                   ..  COD

               Figure 1. Bathymetric map showing Massachusetts and Cape Cod Days,        present sewage outfalls in Boston
               Harbor (solid triangles), location of new ocean outfall for treated Boston sewage in western Massachusetts
               Bay (average flow about 20 ml/s), approximate boundary of the proposed Stellwagen Bank Marine Sanctuary,
               and the Massachusetts Bay Disposal Site (MBDS). The annual volume of river discharge froni the Merrimack
               is about 215 mlls and through Boston Harbor is about 10 ml/s, from Butman et al (1992).

























                                         Merrimack
                                         River










                                       Boston











                                                  10 km


                                                                    C a       e       C 0








           Figure 2. Model grid for the three-dimensional circulation model, ECOM313, of Massachusetts and Cape Cod
           Bays. The curvilinear orthogonal grid allows the mesh resolution to vary spatially, having a minimum grid
           spacing of 600 m and a maximum spacing qL6099-m. The grid spacing in the vicinity of the proposed outfall
           is roughly-ttffm. There are currently f_0 vertical cr-levels in the model, evenly spaced throughout the water
           column.














                     42.6                                                                        Modeled
                     42.5                                                               ----0      1bserved

                                                         Pro    sed
                     42.4                                Out@aoll


                     42.3



                     42.2


                                                                                                     --flace,
                     42.1        Tidal excursions shown at                                             Pol
                                 three times actual scale


                     42.0             10 CM/S

                     41.9             i10 kM


                                  -71.0        -70.8           -70.6          -70.4            -70.2           -70.0
                                                                Longitude









            Figure 3. Comparison of modeled and observed surface M. barotropic tidal currents in Massachusetts Bay.
            Shown are tidal ellipses, which indicate the observed velocities over the tidal cycle. They also represent the
            excursions water parcels would make if they moved with the tidal currents observed at the mooring. For
            clarity these tidal excursions are shown at three times actual scale. Tidal excursions are nearly 10 km off
            Rare Point, but only 2 km near the location of the proposed outfall.






                                                                                             A  a@.'


                                                                                      A



                                                                                                       60 cm/s
                                                                                                       54

                                                                                                       48
                                                                                                       42
                     Merrimack                                                                         36
                     River
                                           ................. ......
                                                                        . .... ...                     30
                                                                                                       24
                                                                                                       18



                                                                                  ...... .....
                                                                                                       12
                                                                                                        6 cm/s

                   Boston




                                                                          S






                                                               Z-@


                                       Plymouth
                                                                                              A





                                                        a       e




             Figure 4. Maximum -fid-al current speed at the surface. Currents are strongest off the tip of Cape Cod and
             in the entrances of smaller emba-yffients such as Boston and Plymouth Harbors. Stro     ra * nts in the tidal
             curr             e found on Stellwagen Bank and around the tip of Cape Cod,          coincide with regions
             where Right Whales are -must likeiy' to-td fCun'd (Hamilton and Mayo, 1988).























                          42.6
                                                                              U2               All Data
                                                                                               4-8 m
                                  .@O
                                  .@O
                                  .@O
                          42.5



                                                                                           U3
                                                 BS
                          42.4                6             BB


                                                              Iro           U6
                          42.3
                                                              SC


                          42.2
                                      Wind   Strm
                                      at
                                      BB
                                                                                           RP
                          42.1

                                                          NO,
                                                            g
                                                             0'.

                                                                                        U7
                          42.0
                                                                          MN


                          41.9   40@@ Qle@'@&Q



                                         II ....... I
                                     -71.0         -70.8          -70.6          -70.4          -70.2           -70.0
                                                                   Longitude








              Figure 5. Map showing the mean flow (solid arrow) and the low frequency variability (shown as ellipses
              centered around the tip of the mean flow) for all near-suirface (4-8 m deptli) current measurement made from
              December 1989 to September 1991. The daily averaged currents originates at the station symbol and flows
              toward any location within the ellipse. The arrows and ellipses have been scaled to correspond to the distance
              a particle moving with that current would travel in one day, Butman et al., (1992).



















                                                                                 Sea-surface
                                                                                elevation (cm)



                                                                                        3.15
                        Merrimack
                                                                                        2.61
                        River          Xl.

                                                                                        2.06


                                               ....... . ..
                                                                                        1.52


                                                                                        0.98
                                             A.
                                                                                        0.44

                      Bosto
                                                                                        0.11


                                                                                        -0.65
                                             X.

                                                                                        -1.19


                                                                                        1.73
                            10 krn

                           10  cm/s


                                    Plymouth


                                                              0 CI







         Figure 6. Modeled surface current and elevation response to the Gulf of Maine coastal current. The results
         suggest that much of the coastal current "misses" Massachusetts Bay, flowing to the east of Stellwagen Bank
         following the isobaths. The coastal current explains the observed mean flow southeast of Cape Ann and at
         Stellwagen Bank (stations U2, U3 and U6 in Figure 5).



















                                                                                Sea-surface
                                                                               elevation (cm)

                                       A
                                           K-1                                        3.60

                                     1;...                                            3.04
                     Me      ack
                           m
                     AN 7er
                                                                                      2.49


                                                                                      1.93


                                                                                      1.37


                                                                                      0.81


                                                                                      0.26
                    Boston

                                    @ii. i:N%@ Og@ X"
                                        X.                                            -0.30
                                          A.
                                                                                      -0.86


                                                    u
                                                                                      -1.42
                      Wind
                      4 rn/s
                                                 UN.
                                              ks
                                               S1.
                                            A




                       10 krn
                      10 cm/s            C a-p    e         0





           Figure 7. Modeled surface current and elevation response to Uie Gulf of Maine coastal current and the mean
           w
           -ind--stress. Adding the mean wind stress to the forcing from a coastal current dramatically improves-OFe-
           simuW_ion of the mean flow, driving a southeastward current along the coast from Boston to Cape Cod which
           exits the bays at Race Point.




















                                                                                       Sea-surface
                                                                                      elevation (cm)

                                                           &                                   4.88

                                                                                               4.11
                       Merrimack
                                                                                               3.34
                       River

                                                        .IKE                                   2.58




                                                                                               1.04


                                                                                               0.27
                    Boston                                                                    -0.50

                                                                                              -1.27


                                                                                              -2.04
                             Wind
                             7 rn/s





                          10 km

                         10 cm/s                        ..................
                                             C a P     e          0.&



   J.
                                                                                         o.






























         Figure 8. Modeled surface current and elevation'response to a wind stress from the northwest of I dyne/cm@
         (about 7 m/s) in well-mixed conditions. Tbis alongbay wind drives strong flow downwind in the shallow
         water near the coast. "Me convergence of surface water along the northern shore of Cape Cod indicates the
         presence of strong downwelling.













                                                      -4
                                                      3
                                                        CL






























                                                                   ................





                                        2L

                                          QO

     rA                                   0-


                                          Rr

                                                                     WTA






     En


     CD C) S@
     CA




                                                        Downwind   Upwind
                                          WON
                                            Ell M







                                                                    CL
                                 OL                                 0



















                                                                             Sea-surface
                                                                            elevation (cm)



                                                                                    2.56

                    Merrima                                                         1.84
                    River


                                                                                    0.38


                                                      ..........

                                                                                  -
                                                                                      35
                                                                                    0.
                                                      .... ...... ..........


                                                                                  -1.08


                                            ........ . . . . . . . . . ..
                   Boston                                                         -1.81
                                                                 'K
                                                                 ZM.
                                                                                  -2.54

                                                               g ........ .       -3.26
                                                               I

                                                                                  -3.99

                     Wind
                     7 m/s                                       .......


                                                                       ;M
                  L 4@1
                      10 krn

                                                . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
                      10 cm/s
                                      C a p   e     C   0 a




          Figure 10. Modeled surface current and elevation response, to a wind stress from the southwest of I dynelcire
          (about 7 m/s) in well-mixed conditions. The cross-bay wind drives downwind surface flow of nearly the same
          magnitude over most of the Massachusetts Bays. The currents near the coast are significantly weaker than
          those generated by the alongbay wind shown on Figure S...








                           crn/s             MEAN CURRENT SPEED AT 5 AND 23 M                              CM/S

                                                                   meart speed at 5 rn
                                                     ell           tnean speed at 23                            -6


                        4-                                                                                      -4




                        2-                                                                    0 0               -2



                                              CI 93
                        0                     A 01                                            0 a         91 a- o
                             W     89     sp  90      s 90         F  90     W     90     Sp 91       s  91


                           Degrees C     NWAN S77MSS AND         TEMPEPLAT"URE,    DWFERENCE            Dynes/cm'
                       10                                        delta T (5-23m)

                                                                 mean wind str-ess
                        8                                                          0 a


                                                                                                                -0.8
                        6-

                                    a                                              a a                          -0.6

                        4-                                                                                  a
                                                                                                                -0.4


                        2
                                                                                                          a a     0.2



                        0                                                                                        0
                             W 89         Sp  90      s   90       F  90      W    90     Sp 91       s   91






















            Figure 11. TO: Mean daily vector-averaged current speed at Station BB (Figure 5) at 5 and        23 m water
            depth (winter, November through February; spring, March through May; summer, June through August; fall,
                                                                                   0

































            September and October). Bottom:      Mean daily averaged wind stress amplitude at the Large Navigational
            Buoy and temperature difference between 5 and 23 m water depth. These data suggests that stratification is
            more important than wind in determining the strength of the near-surface current at the new outfall site.



















                                                                                           Sea-surface
                                                                                           temperature   (C)


                                                                                                  20.00

                       Merrimack                                                                  19.44
                       River
                                                                                                  18.89


                                                                                                  18.33


                                                                                                  17.78


                                                                                                  17.22

                      Boston                                                                      16.67
                             AC                                                                   16.11

                                                                                                  15.56


                                                                                                  15.00
                          Wind
                          7 rn/s
                            4@1


                            10 km

                                                             . . . . . . . . . . . .
                           10 cm/s                                  0
                                               C  a      e








           Figure 12. Modeled surface current and sea-surface temperature response to a wind stress from the southwest
           of I dyne/cm@- (about 7 m/s) in stratified conditions. From a homogeneous state, the model was run with
           M2 tides and a surface heat flux of 100 W/rn' for 12 days. The wind was imposed for the last two days of
           the simulations. The wind induced upwelling brings cold nutrient rich water from depth to the surface and
           plays an important role in primary production.















                                                        X:

                            A5
                 .i 8A             5    IT2        ALBA        20

                    J-0 I Y. 19            1
                                            .990

                                                                                     IM











                                                                    .51.




                                                                            .. .........                         X




                                                          W
                                                                 W..

                                                                                                   INA,,.X@0 -X
                                                                  X    x
                                                                                                     N
                                                                   RM


                                                                                                                M
                                                                        g
                                                                      q
                                                                                       Sk

                                                                                        X M 'M

                                                                  ..... . .........
                                     R
                   -Wi:nd'm,m

                                                                                            3E i
                                                     X-NIX-1
                                                                                 SM::
                                                             W!                                       x
                                                                                       W,
                                                                                                       M g





                                                                                            .. . .... ....

                                                                                                            .5
                                                                                                   .:[email protected]

                                                                                                         it"M


                                                                                      M
                                                                                                 N





                                                   ago


            Figure 13. Observed sea-surface temperature during a typical summer upwelling event, at 0600 on July 19,
            1990. For the preceding two days, the wind was relatively constant at a speed of about 7 m/s from the
            southwest. 17he observed surface temperature patterns are quite similar to the modeled upwelling event,
            especially along the coast (Figure 12).










                                                                                                                                                            Harbor



                                                                                                                                                                                         .... ..... ....
                          ..... ...
                                                                                          1,21






                       . . . . .. . . . .


                                                                                                                                                                                              - 002


                                      in                                         N
                   MEMO,
                       N              5% 1
                       M
                                                                   4 4@A




                                                                  io
                                                                                                               g *g
                                                                       51 Ntlk
                                                                                                                        @nx
                                                                                                                                               FOR
                                                                    i, g@, @_;ggg-ggngj                 xg-
                                                                                                                            M
                                                    4,!01







                                                                                                                                                 MA -
                                                                                                       MW                                                              i_nl',,".@@,-,Ult_


                                                                                                                                                                   Q    i4@
                   IN                                                                                                                                          a
                                                                                                                                                             'gg



                                                                                                                     ft




                                                                                                                                                                                  -
                                                                                                                                                                                   W-m
                                                                                                                                                                                   @w      zk:
                                                                                                                                                                                    0.1 i



                       Figure 15. Three-dimensional view of the plume caused by a discharge of 15 m'/s of fresh-water at the
                       proposed outfall site under well-mixed conditions. A wind stress of I dyne/cn-? (about 7 m/s) was applied
                       from the west, and shown are dilution isosurfaces of 250 and 500 after 9 days of simulation. As the plume
                       rises to the surface, it is pulled toward Boston by the bottom currents, but when it reaches the surface it
                       moves with the surface currents and is transported along the coast toward Cape Cod-.






















                                                                                                             Sea-surface
                                                                                                            Salinity (psu)



                                             . . ..... .....                                                        32.00

                                                                                                                    31.56
                                                          Z:. X @i.:.X;
                                                                                                                    31.11
               10 krn
                                                                                                                    30.67

                                                                    . . . . . . . . . .
              20 CM/S                                                                                               30.22

                                                                                                                    29.78


                                                                                                                    29.33


                                          -My.X1.                                                                   28.89


                                                                                                                    28.44

                                             ..............                                                         28.00

















           Figure 14. Modeled surface current and salinity response of western Massachusetts Bay to a runoff event from
                                                                                                             ..........





































           the Merrimack River. The Merrimack was "turned on" with a flow of 500 m3/s, a magnitude typical of a
           spring freshet (Geyer, 1992), and shown is the result after 8 days. The runoff event creates strong and
           complex currents in the vicinity of the proposed outfall site which would be difficult to resolve with moored
           instruments.
















                                COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY






                                 A Paper Presented at

                              CGER Coastal Zones Retreat
                              National Research Council
                             National Academy of Sciences

                               Woods Hole Study Center
                              Woods Hole, Massachusetts








                                          by





                                Stephen P. Leatherman
                                   A. Todd Davison
                                  Robert J. Nicholls

                           Laboratory for Coastal Research
                                University of Maryland
                             College Park, Maryland 20742
                                     301-405-4059
                                   301-314-9299 FAX





                                  June 2 5-26, 1992











                                           2

           accommodate (e.g., raise buildings to the projected higher flood

           levels); or (3) protect (build hard or soft structures). In

           areas of dense population-and highly developed infrastructure,

           protection is the preferred alternative. Hard structures are

           costly and....-inflexible, and often have environmentally and

           aesthetically undesirable effects such as loss of the

           recreational beach. Thus, beach nourishment has become the

           coastal management "tool of choice" over the last several decades

           (National Research Council, 1987; Leatherman, 1991).

               To date, over 640 km (00 miles) of U.S. coastline have been

           nourished, largely through public funding, at a total cost of

           about $8 billion (Dixon and Pilkey, 1989). Overseas, beach

           nourishment has become very popular, particularly in developed

           countries such as Denmark, the Netherlands, Australia, and Great

           Britain (Delft Hydraulics, 1987), but also in developing

           countries such as Brazil (Vera Cruz, 1972) and Nigeria (Ibe et

           al, 1991).

               The use of beach nourishment as a coastal management tool

           will probably continue its significant growth over the next few

           decades. However, the contemplated economic commitments to this

           management alternative by federal, state, and local governments

           is unprecedented.,. For-instance, in northern New Jersey a

           Congressionally authorized nourishment project proposes to

           reinstate 19 km (12 miles) of beach at a cost of approximately

           $200 million with projected maintenance costs over 50 years of

           about $300 million (Bocamazo, 1991). Similarly, the total cost











                                          3

          of the recently (1991) completed Ocean City, MD, nourishment

          project, including renourishment every four years for 50 years,

          is estimated at $342 million (Kelly, 1991).

               In spite of this increasing use, our understanding of the

          performance of beach nourishment is still poor. This lack of

          understanding is because: (1) predictive models of beach

          behavior in response to varying hydrodynamic forces are still

          relatively crude tools for engineering purposes; and (2) most

          completed projects did not.include adequate post-emplacement

          monitoring to allow for objective project assessment and

          necessary adjustment of designs. With our present understanding,

          each beach fill remains, in part, an educated experiment.

          Although many believe that there is sufficient understanding and

          inherent flexibility within the procedure to produce practical

          and successful designs (Delft Hydraulics, 1987), this confidence

          is not universally accepted.

               During the 1980s, because of the actual or perceived failure

          of numerous projects, beach nourishment began receiving heavy

          criticism as an ill-advised use of taxpayers' money (e.g.,

          Gilbert). During this time, Pilkey-and others (e.g.,  Leonard et

          al, 1989) began to contradict the traditional-coastal engineering

          methods used to design and evaluate such projects. Such

          criticisms are not isolated, and many coastal environmental

          groups advocate planned retreat as the only true solution to

          coastal erosion.










                                           4

               The conclusions of Pilkey et al. have been challenged by

          many in the scientific and engineering communities (e.g., Strine

          and Dalrymple, 1989; Houston, 1991a). Nonetheless, contentions

          from the Pilkey camp have focused attention  on the lack of high

          quality monitoring of U.S. beach nourishment projects and acted

          as a catalyst for renewed research efforts. This.controversy

          places beach nourishment in the forefront of public policy

          decisions in the coastal zone.

               For governments attempting to promote taxes, bond

          referendums, or otherwise raise money for beach nourishment, or

          for those jurisdict ions that have already funded projects,

          accurate designs are essential for predicting beach fill

          longevity and maintenance requirements. The basic aim of beach

          nourishment is to advance the shoreline a given distance a nd

          hence realize all the consequent benefits such as increased storm

          protection. The impressive coastal accretion at sites where

          mining waste is dumped directly into the sea clearly demonstrates

          that if enough sand/gravel is placed on a shoreline, a

          substantially wider subaerial beach can be created (e.g., Paskoff

          and Petiot, 1990). However, beach nourishment demands

          quantitative understanding of this process, particularly what

          volume and grain size.of sand is required to attain a specific

          increase in subaerial beach width and what is the lifetime, and

          hence the renourishment frequency of that beach (e.g., Dean and

          Grant, 1989).










                                          5

               However, as characterized by numerous workers and summarized

          by Delft Hydraulics (1987), many of the present design concepts

          remain relatively untested against actual field performance: 'an

          exact forecast of the behavior of the beach fill is not possible,

          not even in the case where a large number of data of the relevant

          areas is available." Egense and Sonu (1987) reiterate as

          follows: "At the present stage of technology, beach nourishment

          is more art than science." The behavior of nourished -and natural

          beaches is subject to the same uncertainties, and Wiegel (1987)

          argues that our.present inadequate quantitative knowledge of

          natural beach processes handi caps dependable estimates on how

          well nourished.beaches will perform. From a fundamental

          perspective, future shoreline evolution will always be

          stochastic, even with complete understanding of all the

          processes, as the underlying driving forces (waves, storms, etc.)

          are themselves stochastic (National Research Council, 1990).

          Thus, probabilistic predictions of nourishment performance must

          be the goal. When combined with high precision monitoring,. this

          will provide all the information required to successfully and

          optimally plan and implement beach nourishment.

               Evaluation of beach nourishment projects requires knowledge

          of.sand.transport limits as well as delineation of the profile of

          equilibrium; these are fundamental concepts in coastal

          geomorphology (Leatherman, 1991). It is,not often appreciated

          that most of the active beach profile is submerged. The entire
         -profile must be moved seaward for nourishment to be successful.











                                          6

          Thus, the seaward limit of the active beach profile for the

          purposes of beach nourishment is a problematic but very important

          determination (Bruun-, 1986; Hansen and Lillycrop, 1988). Early

          nourishment projects did not consider the offshore profile

          (Jarrett, 1987), or if they did, utilized unrealistic slopes

          which caused excessive losses of the subaerial beach (Hansen and

          Lillycrop, 1988). Hallermeier (1981) developed a wave-based

          profile zonation, including the depth definitions; field

          observations support this recommendation.(Houston 1991b; Hands,

          1991), and the equilibrium profile concept can be applied to

          beach nourishment design (Dean, 1983; 1991). But clearly more

          field data are required, and routine post-project monitoring

          should include measuring the entire active profile to the depth

          of closure. Such basic data as time-series surveys-of beach

          profiles are difficult or impossible to obtain for most of the

          155 nourished beaches considered-by Pilkey et al. Therefore, the

          effectiveness of beach nourishment projects,-particularly actual

          versus predicted performance, is debatable, and substandard

          sources, such as the local media, have been used to declare

          project "success" or "failure".

               Another problem involved in assessing the performance of

          beach nourishment is thewidespread lack of post-project

          monitoring by independent, objective parties. It has often been

          said that having the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers monitor their

          own project4is akin to "having the fox guard the hen house".











                                          7

          This situation can be easily remedied by using the wealth of

          available talent of universities and private consultants.

               There is also frequently a lack of commitment or inability

          of project sponsors.to properly maintain nourished beaches. This

          raises important questions about the accreditation of beach

          nourishment projects, particularly when using such projects as a

          means to potentially lower 100-year flood levels and hence to

          reduce the cost of federal flood insurance. Also, many states

          now petition FEMA for funds to restore their eroded beaches after

          a coastal storm. Clearly there needs to be established criteria

          for design, maintenance and financing requirements for the

          accreditation of beach nourishment projects.

               These and other accreditation criteria (e.g., Dean and

          Grant, 1989) are probably a progenitor for the treatment of beach

          nourishment by existing state programs and by a pending federal

          erosion management program that encourages building setbacks with

          the incentives of Federal flood insurance (National Research

          Council, 1990; Davison  1992). However, long-term financial

          commitments by project sponsors; limited offshore sources of

          economical beach quality sediment; project performance

          guarantees; assurances for immediate post-storm reconstruction;

          and other problematic issues regarding accreditation of beach

          nourishment (not to mention hard structures) in determining

          erosion rates are questions which, given our present scientific

          knowledge, and the uncertainty of future political decisions,











                                          8

          cannot be easily answered. Again, this reiterates the need for'

          standardized post-placement monitoring.

               The increasingly developed character of the world's

          coastline will undoubtedly lead to increasing demand for beach

          nourishment. Hopefully this will be undertaken within the

          context of sensible management plans that plan for sustainable

          use of the coastal zone (IPCC, 1990). In addition to population

          and development pressure, accelerated sea-level rise will also

          increase the demand for beach nourishment (Weggel, 1986;

          Leatherman and Gaunt, 1989). This raises a number of new

          questions4- particularly the seaward limit of the beach profile
          over long timescales and the long-term availability of sufficient

          sand. Innovative design methods utilizing structures to

          forestall fill losses may become necessary (Weggel, 1986).

          Undoubtedly, these issues will receive considerable attention in

          the coming decades.










                                           9

                                References (incomplete)



          Bird, E.C.F., 1985. Coastline Changes - A Global Review. John
                Wiley-Intersciencel, Chichester, England, 219 pp.

          Bocamazo, L., 1991. Sea Bright to Manasquan, New Jersey Beach
                Erosion Control Projects. Shore and Beach, Vol. 59, No. 3,
                pp. 37-42.

          Bruun, P., 1986.   Sediment Balances (Land and Sea) With Special
                Reference to the Icelandic South Coast From Torlakshofen to
                Dyrholarey   River Nourishment of Shores -- Practical
                Analogies @n Artificial Nourishment. Coastal Engineering,
                Vol. 10, pp. 193-210.

          Culliton, T.J., Warren., M.A., Goodspeed, T.R., Remer, D.G.,
                Blackwell, C.M., and McDonough, III, J.J., 1990. 50 Years
                of Population Change Along the Nationfs Coasts 1960-2010.
                National Ocean-Service, NOAA, Rockville, MD, 41 pp.

          Davison, A.T., 1992. The National Flood Insurance, Mitigation,
                and Erosion Management Act of 1991: Background and
                overview   (In:) Proceedings of the National Conference on
                Beach Preservation Technology 192,. Florida Shore and Beach
                Preservation Association, Tallahassee, FL.

          Egense, A.K. and Sonu, C.J., 1987. Assessment of Beach
                Nourishment Methodologies. Proceedings Coastal Zone 187.
                American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 4421-
                4433.

          Gilbert, S., 1986. America Washing Away. Science Digest, Vol.
                94, pp. 28-35,.-.75, 78.

          Hansen, M. and Lillycrop, W.J., 1988. Evaluation of Closure
                Depth and its Role in Estimating Beach Fill Volumes.
                Proceedings Beach Preservation Technology 188, Florida Shore
                and Beach Preservation Association, FL, pp. 107-114.

          Ibe,  A.C., Awosika, L.F., Ibe,.C.E. and Inegbedion, L.E., 1991.
                Monitoring of the 1985/86 Beach Nourishment Project at Bar
                Beach, Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria, Proceedings Coastal
                Zone 191. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
                pp. 534-552.

          IPCd, 1990. Strategies for Adaption to Sea Level Rise. Report
                of the Coastal Zone Management Subgroup. Response
                Strategies Working Group, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
                Change. Rijkswaterstaat, The Netherlands, 122 pp.










                                          10

          Jarrett, J.T., 1987. Beach Nourishment      A Corps Perspective,
               U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
               Board 48th Meeting, Savannah, GA, District, pp. 1-3.

          Kelly, Jam. Gen. P., 1991. Keynote Address: America Shore and
               Beath Preservation Association Annual Meeting, October 17,
               1990, Atlantic City, NJ. Shore and Beach, Vol. 59, No. 3,
               pp. 3-6.

          Leatherman, S.P., 1988. Beach Response Strategies to Accelerated
               Sea-Level Rise. Proceedings 2nd North American Conference
               on Preparing for Climate Change, The Climate Institute,
               Washington, D.C., pp. 353-358.

          Leatherman, S.P., 1991. Coast and Beaches. In: Kiersch, G.A.,
               (ed.), The Heritage of Engineering Geology; The First
               Hundred Years; Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of
               America, Centennial Special Vol. 3, pp. 183-200.

          Leonard, L.A., Clayton, T.D., Dixon, K.L. and Pilkey, O.H., 1989.
               U.S. Beach Replenishment Experience: A Comparison of Beach
               Replenishment on the U.S. Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf of
               Mexico Coasts. Proceedings Coastal Zone 189, American
               Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 1994-2006.

          National Research Council, 1987. Responding to Changes in Sea
               Level: Engineering Implications. National Academy Press.
               Washington, D.C., 148 pp.

          National Research Council, 1990. Managing Coastal Erosion.
               National Academy Press. Washington, D.C., 182 pp.

          Paskoff, R. and Petiot, R., 1990. Coastal Progradation as a By-
               Product of Human Activity: An Example From Chanaral Bay,
               Atacama Desert, Chile, Journal of Coastal Research, Special
               issue 6, pp. 91-102.

          Pilkey, O.H., 1989. The Engineering of Sand, Journal of
               Geological Education, Vol. 37, pp. 308-311.

          Stive, M.J.F., Roelvink, J.A., and De  Vriend, H., 1990. Large
               scale coastal evolution concept. Proceedings 22nd Coastal
               Engineering Conference, Delft, The Netherlands, American
               Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 1962-1974.

          Vera-Cruz, D., 1972. Artificial Nourishment.at Copacabana Beach.
               Proceedings 13th Coastal Engineering conference. American
               Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 1451-1463,.

          Wiegel, R.L., 1987. Trends in Coastal Engineering Management.
               Shore and Beach, Vol. 55, No. 1, pp. 2-11.











         Introduction and Extended outline:




                    Rivers and Estuaries - A Hudson Perspective



                             Richard F. Bopp

                             Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

                             Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

                             June 5, 1992




         INTRODUCTION

              The perspective of this paper and the specific examples

         used for illustration reflect the fact that the principal author

         has spent much of the past fifteen years involved in geochemical

         research on the Hudson River and contiguous waters. The general

         observations should be broadly applicable to rivers and estuaries

         and provide a basis for further discussion.

             The initial announcement of the retreat proposed a goal of

         "approaching broad resource and environmental issues somewhat

         more holistically than our sometimes more piecemeal efforts."

         The Hudson is an excellent candidate for such coordination.

         Present federal research on the system includes a Superfund

         project to "reassess" the PCB problem (EPA); the New York-New

         Jersey Harbor Estuary Program (EPA); involvement in the NOAA

         National Status and Trends Program; studies of its tidal marshes

         as part of the National Estuarine Sanctuaries Program (NOAA); and

         USGS studies as part of their National Water Quality Assessment

         (NAQWA) Program. Additional research funds, on the order of a


                       L'o,      , 9-@ W k k @ 6-6-   ccpn        tAav4e@
                      -V- a--k- Ve- 4@ (- eaA- .









       million dollars a year, are supplied by a private foundation, the

       Hudson River Foundation. State and city efforts, policy and

       regulatory considerations, and active participation of
       environmental groups such as' NRDC and EDF add to the challenge of

       arriving at a holistic approach. It seems that a logical initial

       step in this direction involves a consideration of research needs

       and directions. Past experience on the Hudson suggests the

       following:



       BASIC INFORMATION

       There is a need for continuous long term monitoring of salinity

       and suspended matter concentrations. On the..Hudson there are two

       stations where suspended matter concentrations are measured daily

         both are upstream of the first dam (1).



       TRENDS AND THE'CURRENT SITUATION-

            1) Particle Associated Contaminants - A most useful tool is

       the analysis of dated sediment core sections to develop

       contaminant chronologies. More emphasis should be placed on

       analysis of "current" particle samples. These can be suspended

       particle samples or core top samples identified by their content

       of short-lived radionuclides.

            These types of studies can be useful for determining the

       response time of rivers and estuaries to pollution events, for

       locating major sources of contaminants, for tracing net particle

       transport in estuaries and for determining in situ rates and

       pathways of organic contaminant degradation. Archiving of dated










        sediment core samples is suggested.
             2) Nutrients - There is a need for greater commit0ent to

        long-term, research-based monitoring. Basic information on the

        response of the estuary to major changes in sewage treatment is

        available only as a result of creative use of piecemeal funding

        over the past fifteen years.



        RESEARCH AND REGULATION-DRIVEN MONITORING

             If undertaken, this will be a most difficult marriage.

        There is, however, significant potential for collaboration. For

        example:

             The New York City Department of Environmental Protection has

        regular cruises on the lower Hudson. Participation of research

        scientists would make more efficient use of the ship time.

             Regulation-driven monitoring practices could be altered to

        provide useful research information. Information on time of

        deposition could be obtained on sediment samples collected for

        contaminant-level monitoring; analytical procedures and sample

        sizes could be adjusted to provide some real data on selected

        contaminant inputs from sewage treatment plant effluents.

             Most of the original wetlands bordering the lower Hudson

        have been filled. Future devel opment will require groundwater

        monitoring at many of these sites. Integration of research

        studies would be a cost-effective means of providing basic

        information on coastal groundwater systems.



        OTHER SPECIFIC RESEARCH AREAS










             Gas Exchange - Models.of atmospheric oxygen inputs and

        nitrous oxide export from estuaries generally relate turbulence

        to wind speed, tidal flow, or the relatively few direct

        measurements that have been made. Recent work.in lakes using

        injected tracers shows great promise for direct determination of

        gas exchange. In estuaries, injection of freons with sewage

        treatment plant effluent may provide an extremely useful gas-

        exchange tracer.

             DOC/Colloidal Particulates - The high temperature

        catalytic oxidation technique has stimulated interest in oceanic

        DOC. In.estuaries, DOC/Colloidal Particulate geochemistry is

        rather poorly understood. We do know that it exerts significant

        influence on trace metal and organic contaminant behavior.

        Additional study is indicated particularly in the area of real

        system measurements.

             Fine-Particle Behavior in the Coastal Environment - What is

        the fate of fine particles and associated contaminants flushed

        from estuaries during high discharge events ? What fraction

        is deposited on the shelf ? Is there significant transport to

        the deep ocean ? To what extent do estuaries act as particle

        traps ? These basic and very significant questions are amenable

        to study with geochemical tracers. Some recent data on DDT-

        derived compounds in the coastal environment suggests that

        atmospheric inputs of unaltered DDT may provide a most useful

        tracer.

















                                                TYPES OF COASTAL ZONE:


                                            SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES


                                                                by
                                                        Douglas L. Inman

                                                      Center for Coastal Studies

                                                  Scripps Institution of Oceanography

                                               University of California, La Jolla, California



                        Coastal and estuarine waters are the parts of the sea that overwhelmingly dominate our
                everyday affain. 'Our rapidly expanding use of the ocean, increasing excursion upon it, and entry
                into it are mostly concerned with processes that take place in shallow water. Conversely, it is
                mostly within coastal waters that the human acts, such as waste discharge, fishing, dredging,
                mining, drilling, and coastal structures, have their greatest impact on the ocean. Accordingly,
                coastal waters and the underlying submerged lands are the areas of highest scientific interest and
                jurisdictional controversy.
                       This paper provides an overview of the world's five types of coastal zones. Their tectonic
                origins and shaping processes are compared and contrasted. An understanding of these different
                types of coasts and their nearshore processes isessential to policy making efforts.

                061192 NDUPERSONAWYMOAST20N XR12









                                                                                                                    2


              FACTORS DETERMINING COASTAL ZONE TYPES
                      The common types of coastal zone are well represented along the shores of the United
              States. These types range from the ice-push coasts of Alaska to the coral reef coasts of Hawaii
              and southern Florida and include, as well, the far more common types such asithe barrier-beach
              coasts of the Atlantic, the steep, cliff-backed coasts of the Pacific and the marginal seas type
              coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Although there are general processes that apply to all coasts, there
              are also significant differences among coastal types.
                      Theses similarities and differences stem from the influence of various processes. The
              most important of these processes are:

                      1.     tectonics

                      2.     exposure to waves, winds and ocean currents
                      3.     tidal range and intensity of current
                      4.     supply of sediment and its transport along the coast

                      5.     coastal climate
                      The position and configuration of the continental shelf and adjacent coast are related to
              the moving, tectonic plates. This geologic setting (1) and the exposure to waves (2) are the two
              most significant factors in determining nearshore processes. Waves, winds, and currents (2 and
              3) are the principal driving forces for coastal processes, and have extensively modified the coast
              by the erosion and deposition of sediment (4). Coastal climate (5) is mainly dependent upon
              latitude and the location of the majo'r ocean and atmospheric current systems. Extremes in
              coastal climate associated with latitude result in the unique aspects characteristic of arctic coasts
              in the north and coral reef coasts near the equator.
                      The tectonic and paleoclimatic processes important to the geologic setting of coasts
              operate over the largest areas and have the longest time scales. Since the large scale features of
              a coast are associated with its position relative to plate margins, plate tectonics provides a
              convenient basis for the first order classification of coasts, i.e., longshore dimensions of about
              1,000 krn (Inman and Nordstrom, 1971). Such a classification leads to the definition of three
              general tectonic types of coasts, (1) collision coasts, (2) trailing-edge coasts, and (3) marginal sea

              coasts.
                      Collision coasts are those that occur along a plate margin where the two plates are in









                                                                                                                 3

              collision or impinging upon each other (Figure 1). Tectonically this is an area of crustal
              compression and consumption. These coasts are characterized by narrow continental shelves
              bordered by deep basins and ocean trenches., Submarine canyons put across the narrow shelves
              and enter deep water. The shore is often rugged and backed by sea cliffs and.coastal mountain
              ranges; earthquakes and volcanism are common. The sea cliffs and mountains often contain
              elevated sea terraces representing former relations between the level of the sea and the land
              (Figure 2). The west coasts of South and Central, America are typical examples of collision
              coasts. Although much of the California coast is now a northward moving terrain associated with
              the San Andreas fault, this coast retains most of the characteristics of its collision history.
                     Trailing-edge coasts occur on the "trailing-edge" of a land mass that moves with the plate
              and are thus situated upon the stable portion of the plate away from the plate margins, Tbe east
              coasts of North and South America are examples of mature trailing-edge coasts. These coasts
              typically have broad continental shelves that slope into deeper water without a bordering trench.
              The coastal plainis'also typically wide and low-lying and usually contains lagoons and barrier
              islands as on the east coasts of the Americas (Figure 2).
                     Marginal sea coasts are those that develop along the shores of seas enclosed by
              continents and island arcs. Except for the Mediterranean Sea, these coasts do not usually occur
              along plate margins since the spreading center margins are commonly in ocean basins, while       the
              collision edges of plates face oceans., These coasts are typically bordered by wide shelves and
              shallow seas with irregular shorelines. The coastal plains of marginal sea coasts vary in width
              and may be bordered by hills and low mountains. Rivers entering the sea along marginal sea
              coasts often develop extensive deltas because of the reduced intensity of wave action associated
              with small bodies- of water. Typical marginal sea coasts border the South and East China Seas,
              the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Gulf of Mexico'.
                     It is apparent that the morphologic counterparts of (1) collision coasts; (2) trailing-edge
              coasts; and (3) marginal sea coasts become respectively: (i) narrow-shelf hilly and mountainous
              coasts; (ii) wide-shelf plains coasts; and (iii) wide-shelf hilly coasts. A complete classification
              would also include coasts formed by other agents such as glacial scour, ice-push and reef-
              building org anisms, adding two other types of coast: (4) arctic coasts and (5) coral reef coasts.







                                                                                                                  4


              Paleoclimate and Sealevel Chane
                      Climate, through its control of glaciation, is the principal factor leading to changes in
              sealevel. The Pleistocene Epoch is characterized by cycles of alternate cold and warm periods
              producing glacial and interglacial stages.
                     The last glacial stage known as the Wisconsinan had a maximum about,118,000 years BP.
              Since that time climate has warmed causing glaciers to melt and sealevel to rise in what is
              generally known as the Flandrian transgression (Figure 3). Tide gauge records indicate that
              sealevel. is still rising on a worldwide (eustatic) basis at a rate of about 15 cm per century
              (Barnett, 1984; National Research Council, 1987), and there is the distinct possibility of an
              increased rate of rise due to the greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide released by man in coming
              years (e.g., Emery, 1980). This continuing rise. in sealevel increases sea cliff erosion and
              produces a gradual retreat of beaches and barrier islands on a worldwide scale. If all of the ice.
              -on earth were to melt it would raise sealevel about 78 meters above present level (Barry, 1981).


                     Sealevel curves for deglaciated areas show a net emergence due to the "glacial rebound"
              associated with the removal of the ice load (Figure 4). Viscoelastic models (e.g., Peltier, 1986)
              show that uplift occurs in the areas of greatest ice loading, and that a draw-down (subsidence)
              can occur in areas marginal to the area of loading. This may explain why portions of the mid-
              Atlantic coast of the United States show relative sealevel rise of about 30 cm/century; one-half
              of this may be due to eustatic sealevel rise while the rem; ainder is viscoelastic draw-down (Figure
              4).
                     The present relatively long, near still-stand in sealevel has produced coastlines that are
              unique for the Holocene and probably for the entire Pleistocene Epoch. The sealevel has been
              relatively high during the past three to six thousand years, accentuating the broad shelves carved
              into the continental platform during this and previous high stands. As a consequence, stream
              valleys cut at lower sealevel arefilling, streams  I'near the coast are "at grade," and coastlines
              typically have long continuous beaches of sand.


              COASTAL PROCESSES
                     Similarities and differences in coastal types are most easily understood in terms of






                                                                                                                   5

               nearshore circulation cells and the budget of sediment in littoral cells. Nearshore circulation
               cells determine the path of wave-driven water circulation on a local scale of about I km on ocean
               beaches, while the budget of sediment concerns the sources, transport paths and sinks of sediment
               in a littoral cell of coastal length 10 km to 100 km.



               Nearshore Circulation

                      The interactionof surface waves moving towards the beach with other, trapped waves
               traveling along the shore produce alternate zones of high and low waves that determine the
               position of seaward flowing rip currents. The rip currents are the seaward return flow for the
               longshore currents that flow parallel to the shore inside of the surf zone. The pattern that results
               from this flow takes the form of a horizontal eddy or cell, called the nearshore circulation cell
               (Figure 5). Nearshore circulation cells are ubiquitous wherever waves break along sandy beaches,
               and the intense, concentrated, seaward flow of their rip currents is the principal cause of
               drowning for inexperienced swimmers.
                      The nearshore7 circulation system produces a continuous interchange between the waters
               of the surf zone and the shelf, acting as a distributing mechanism for nutrients and as a dispersing
               mechanism for land runoff. Offshore water is transported, into the surf zone by breaking waves
               and particulate matter is filtered out on the'sands of the beach face. Runoff from land and
               pollutants introduced into the surf zone are carried along the shore and mixed with the offshore
               waters by the seaward flowing rip currents.
                      Two important mixing mechanisms are         operative within the surf zone, each having
               distinctive length and time scales determined by the intensity of the waves and the dimensions
               of the surf zone. The first is associated with the breaking wave and its bore, which produce
               rapid mixing in an on-offshore direction. This mixing gives coefficients of eddy diffusivity of
               the order of HIXb IT where H. and T are the breaker height and period of the waves and Xb is
               the width of the surf zone. The second process is advective and is associated with the longshore
               And rip current systems in the nearshore circulation cell. This longshore mixing mechanism gives
               an apparent eddy-mixing coefficient of the order of Yv, where v, is the longshore current velocity
               and Y is the longshore spacing between rip currents. Along ocean beaches H,,X, IT and Yv, are
               about 10 0/s and 100 m/s respectively (Inman' et al 1971).









                                                                                                                  6

                       In addition, coastal circulation cells of large dimension are associated with the submarine
               canyons that cut across the shallow shelves of the world (Inman, et al., 1976). The submarine
               canyons act as deep, narrow conduits connecting the shallow waters of the shelf with deeper
               water offshore. At times strong seaward flows of water occur in the canyons, resembling large
               scale rip currents. The canyon currents produce circulation cells having the dimensions of the
               shelf width and the spacing between the submarine canyons. These strong currents in submarine
               canyons seem to be caused by a unique combination of air-sea-land interactions consisting of-
               (i) a "pile-up" of water along the shoreline caused by strong onshore winds; (ii) down-canyon
               pulses of water caused by the alternate high. and low grouping (surf beat) of the incident waves;
               (iii) a shelf seiche excited by the waves and by the pressure fluctuations in the wind field; and
               -finally, (iv) the formation of continuous down-canyon currents as the accumulated weight of the
               sediment dislodged by the currents overcomes the density stratification of the deeper water.


               Littoral Cells and the Budget of Sediment
                       A basic approach to understanding the relative importance of nearshore processes is to
               compare the sea's potential to erode the land, with the land's potential to supply terrestrial
               erosion products. Such a comparison ultimately resolves itself into the balance between the
               budget of power in waves and currents and the budget of sediments available for transport. Of
               course, this balance varies widely from, place to place and, even in the best studied areas, is but
               poorly understood. However, order of magnitude estimates can be attempted by considering the
               types of driving forces and the resulting sediment response in terms of the budget of sediment.
                      Waves move sand on, off, and along the shore. Once an equilibrium beach profile is
               established, the principal transport is along the coast. Theory and measurements show that the
               longshore transport rate of sand is proportional to the longshore stress-flux of the waves.'
                      The budget of 'sediment for a region is obtained by assessing the sedimentary
               contributions and losses to the region and their relation to the various sediment sources and



                   'The longshore stress-flux is CSY, where C is the phase velocity of the nearbreaking waves
               and Sy. is the longshore radiation stress (e.g. Inman and Brush, 1973; Inman and Dolan, 1989,
               equations 6.2, 6.3).









                                                                                                                 7

              transport mechanisms. Determination of the budget of sediment is not a simple matter, since it
              requires knowledge of the rates of erosion and deposition as well as understandifig of the capacity
              of various transport agents. Studies of the budget of -sediment show that coastal areas can be
              divided into a series of discrete sedimentation compartments called "littoral gells". Each cell
              contains a complete cycle of littoral transportation and sedimentation including sources and sinks
              of sediment, and transport paths. Littoral cells take a variety of forms, but there are two basic
              types. One is characteristic of collision coasts with submarine canyons, while the other is more
              typical of trailing-edge coasts where rivers empty into large estuaries as shown in Figure 6 (e.g.,
              Inman and Brush, 1973; Inman and Dolan, 1989).



              COASTAL ZONE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES-
                     Mixing and I   ongshore transport of nutrients, pollutants and sediment occurs in the
              nearshore circulation cells that are ubiquitous to all coastal zones. However the dimensions and
              intensities of mixing and sediment transport are determined principally by wave climate. Higher
              waves produce wider surf zones and more intense mixing and transport. In general, windward
              coasts like the Pacific coast of the United States are subject to more consistent wave action with
              seasonal variations in intensity between summer and winter. In contrast, leeward coasts like the
              mid-Atlantic coast of the United States tend to have lower levels of average wave intensity, but
              episodic interruptions by occasional severe tropical storms in summer and extratropical
              "northeasters" in winter (e.g. Inman and Dolan, 1989, p. 218). This results in more consistent
              mixing and transport process on windward coasts and more episodic processes on leeward coasts.
                     The elements in the budget of sediment may be significantly different between the coastal
              types. These differences are associated with the steepness of the continental shelf and with the
              proximity of coastal mountains and streams that debouch directly into the sea. For example,
              rivers and streams are generally important sediment sources for collision coasts whereas cliffs,
              shelf and barrier roll-over are generally more important sources along trailing edge coasts.
              Collision Coasts
                     CoHision coasts are erosional features characterized by narrow shelves and beaches backed
              by wave-cut seacliffs. Along these coasts with their precipitous shelves and submarine canyons,
              as in Califomia, the principal sources of sediment for each littoral cell were the rivers, which









                                                                                                                   8

               periodically supplied large quantities of sandy material to the coast. The sand is transported along
               the coast by waves and currents until the "river of sand" is intercepted by a sbbmarine canyon,
               which diverts and channels the flowof sand into the adjacent submarine basins, and depressions
               (Figure 6a).
                       In the San Diego region of Califomia most coastal rivers have dams -that trap and retain
               their sand supply. Studies show that in this area the yield of sediment from small streams and
               coastal blufflands has become a significant new source of sediment. It was also found that the
               cluster-storms associated with the 1982/83 El Nifio-Southem Oscillation phenomena produced
               beach disequilibrium which resulted in downwelling currents that carried sand onto the shelf
               (Inman and Masters, 1991). Normal wave action contains sand against the coast and, when
               sediment sources are available, results in accretion of the shorezone. High total-energy wave
               events cause a loss of sand from the shorezone via downwelling currents that deposit sand on the
               shelf. The downwelled sediment is lost to the shorezone when deposited on a steep shelf such
               as that off Oceanside, California (Figure 6a), or it may be returned, gradually from a more gently
               sloping shelf to the shorezone by wave action.
                       In all cases where measurements were made just before and after the 1982/83 cluster
               storm events, and the profiles were distant from structures, it was found that these storm events
               resulted in the lowest level of beach sand in the history of the observations. Using the profiles
               north of Oceanside Harbor where conditions are closest to natural and unaffected by harbor
               effects, it was found that the 38 km of the central Oceanside subcell during 1982/83 lost an
               unprecedented 33 million cubic meters of sand from the shorezone in one year! Such a volume
               represents perhaps a 50-year supply of sediment to the shorezone under normal conditions (Inman
               and Masters 1991).
                      California beaches are narrow and backed by eroding seacliffs-that in many places have
               buildings on their brink. Since a wide beach is the best protection for eroding seacliffs, a major
               problem for these coasts is finding adequate source   s of sand for beach nourishmenL
               Trailing-Edge and Marginal Seas Coasts
                      The mid-Atlantic coast of the United States with its characteristic wide shelf bordered by
               coastal plains is a typical trailing-edge coast. This low-lying barrier island coast has large
               estuaries occupying drowned river valleys. River sand is trapped in the estuaries and cannot








                                                                                                                  9

               reach the open coast. For these coasts, the sediment source is from beach erosion and shelf
               sediments deposited at a lower stand of the sea, whereas the sinks are sand deposits that tend to
               close and fill the estuaries (Figure 6b). Under the influence of rise in relative sealevel, the
               barriers are actively migrating landward in a roll-over process in which the volyme of beach face
               erosion is balanced by rates of overwash and fill from migrating inlets (e.g. Leatherman, 1981;
               Inman and Dolan, 1989).
                      The Outer Banks of North Carolina which include the Hatteras and Ocracoke Littoral
               Cells, extend for 320 kilometers and are the largest barrier island chain in the world. The Outer
               Banks are barrier islands separating Pamlico, Albemarle and Currituck Sounds from the Atlantic
               Ocean. These barriers are -transgressing 'landward, with average rates of shoreline recession of
               1.4 m/yr between False Cape and Cape Hatteras. Oregon Inlet, 63 km north of Cape Hatteras,
               is the only opening in the nearly. 200 km between Cape Henry and Cape Hatteras which bounds
               the Hatteras Littoral Cell. Oregon Inlet is migrating south at an average rate of 23 m/yr and
               landward at a rate of 5 rn/yr. The net southerly longshore transport of sand in the vicinity of
               Oregon Inlet is between one-hal  f and one million rn@lyr.
                      Averaged over the 160 krn from False Cape to Cape Hatteras, sealevel rise accounts for
               21% of the measured shoreline recession of 1.4 m/yr. Analysis of the budget of sediment
               indicates that the remaining erosion of 1.1 m/yr is apportioned between overwash processes
               (39%), longshore transport out of the cell (22%), wind@lown sand transport (18%), inlet deposits
               (10%), and removal by dredging at Oregon Inlet (11%). This analysis indicates that the barrier
               system moves as a whole, so that the sediment balance is relative to the moving shoreline
               (Lagrangian grid). Application of a continuity model   to the budget suggests that, in places such
               as the linear shoals off False Cape, the barrier system is supplied with sand from the shelf.
                      Marginal sea coasts are characterized by more limited fetch and a reduced wave energy.
               Accordingly, river deltas are more important sources of sediment than along the mid-Atlantic
               coast. Otherwise, barrier island roll-over processes are quite similar. Along both coasts offshore
               mining of sand may become important sources of beach nourishment.
               Arctic Coasts
                      Tectonically, Arctic coasts are of the stable, trailing-edge type, with wide shelves backed
               by broad coastal plains built from fluvial and glacial deposits. Tidal amplitudes are small, and









                                                                                                                 10


                                                                                                             f east
               both ice and water motion are controlled predominantly by the wind. The Coriolis effect o
               and west blowing winds result in water level increases and decreases in excegs of I meter.
                      At 70 degiees north latitude, the sun does not rise for 7 weeks in winter and does not
               set for over 10 weeks in summer. During the nine months of winter, the coast is frozen fast so
               that coastal processes are entirely cryogenic and dominated by ice-push phenomena. Wind stress
               and ocean currents buckle and fracture the frozen pack ice into extensive grounded, nearshore,
               pressure ridge systems known as stamukhi zones. The keels from the individual pressure ridges
               groove and rake the bottom plowing sediment towards the outer barrier islands. During the three
               months of summer, the ice pack withdraws from the Beaufort Sea coast forming a 25 to 50 km
               wide coastal waterway.
                      In contrast to winter, the summer processes are classical nearshore phenomena driven by
               waves and currents as shown by the beaches and barrier island chain in the vicinity of Prudhoe
               Bay (Figure 7). The sediment sources include river deltas, onshore ice-push across the shelf, and
               thaw-erosion of the low-lying permafrost seacliffs. Thaw-erosion rates of the shoreline are
               typically 5-10 nx/yr in arctic Russia and, over a 30 year period, averaged 7.5 m/yr for a 23 km
               coastal segment -of Alaska's Beaufort Sea coast (Reimnitz and Kempema, 1987).
                      The Flaxman Barrier Island chain extends westward from the delta of the Canning River.
               It appears to be composed of sand and gravel from the river, supplemented by ice-push sediments
               from the shelf (Figure. 7). The prevailing easterly waves move sediment westward from one
               barrier island to the next. Ile channels between islands are maintained by setdown and setup
               currents associated with the Coriolis effect on the wind-driven coastal currents.

               Coral Reef Coasts

                      These coasts result from the biogenic activity of the fringing reefs which in turn depend
               on special latitudinal conditions. The configuration of the reef platforms themselves incorporates
               the nearshore circulation cell into a unique littoral cell (Figure 8). The circulation of water and
               sediment is onshore over the reef and through the reef channels and offshore out the awa's. The
               awa's. are equivalent to the rip channels on the sandy beaches of other coasts (Inman et al, 1963).
                     In the unique situation of coral reef coasts, the corals, foraminifera, and calcareous algae
               are the sources of sediment. The overall health of the reef community determines the supply of
               beach material. Critical growth factors are light, ambient temperature, and nutrients. Turbidity









              and excessive nutrients are deleterious to the primary producers of carbonate sediments. On a
              healthy reef, grazing reef fishes bioerode the coral and calcareous algae and bontribute sand to
              the transport pathway onto the beach.
                      The beach acts as a capacitor storing sediment transported onshore by *e reef-moderated
              wave climate. It buffers the shoreline from storm waves, and releases sediment to the awa's.
              In turn, the awa's channel runoff and turbidity away from the reef flats and out into deep water.
              Where the reef is damaged by excessive terrigenous runoff, waste disposal, or overfishing, the
              beaches are imperiled.


                                                       REFERENCES




              Barnett, T.P., 1984, "The estimation of "global" sea level changes: a problem of uniqueness",
                 Jour. Geophysical Res., v. 89, n. C5, p. 7980-7988.

              Barry, R.G., 1981,  "Trends in snow and ice research", EOS, v. 62, n. 46, p. 1139-1144.

              Curray, J.R., 1965, "Late Quaternary history; continental shelves of the United States", p. 623-35
                 in H.E. Wright, Jr. and D.G. Frey (eds.), The Quaternary of the United States, Princeton Univ.
                 Press, 922 pp.

              Emery, K.O., 1980, "Relative sea levels from tide-gauge records", National Academy of Sciences,
                 Proc., v. 77, n. 12, p. @6968-6972..

              Inman, D.L., and B.M. Brush, 1973, "The coastal challenge", Science, v. 181, p. 20-32.

              Inman, D.L., and R. Dolan, 1989, "The Outer Banks of North Carolina: Budget of sediment and
                 inlet dynamics along a migrating barrier system", Jour. Coastal Research, v. 5, n. 2,
                 p. 193-237.

              Inman, D.L., and P.M. Masters, 1991, "Budget of sediment and prediction of the future state of
                 the coast", Chapter 9 (105 pp.) in State of the Coast Report, San Diego Region, Coast of
                 California Storm and Tidal Waves Study, v. 1, (Final Report, Sept 199 1), U.S. Army Corps of
                 Engineers, Los Angeles District, Chapters 1-10, v. 2, Appen, A-I (earlier draft 90-6).

              Inman, D.L., and C.E. Nordstrom, 1971, "On the tectonic and morphologic classification of
                 coasts", Jour. of Geology, v. 79, n. 1, p. 1-21.

              Inman, D.L., W.R. Gayman, and D.C. Cox, 1963, "Littoral sedimentary processes on Kauai,




                                                  fic Science, v. 17, n. 1, p. 106-130.                        12
                a sub-tropical high island", Paci

             Inman, D.L., C.E. Nordstrom and R.E. Flick, 1976, "Currents in submarine canyons: an air-sea-
                land interaction", p. 275-310 in M. Van Dyke et a] (eds.), AnnualReview ofFluidMech., v. 8,
                418 pp.

             Inman, D.L., R.J. Tait and C.E. Nordstrom, 1971, "Mixing in the surf zone", Jour. Geophysical
                Res., v. 76, n. 15, p. 3493-3514.

             Klein, W.H., & J.S. Winston, 1958, "Geographical frequency of troughs and ridges on mean 700
                mb charts", Monthly Weather Rev., v. 86, p. 344-58.

             Leatherman, S.P., (ed), 1979, Barrier Islands firom the Gulf of St. Lawrence to th       e Gutf of
                Mexico, Academic Press, New York,_325 pp.

             Leatherman, S.P., (ed), 1981, "Overwash Processes", Bench       mark Papers in Geology, v. 58,
                Hutchinson Ross Publ. Co., Stroudsburg, PA, 376 pp.

             National Research Council, 1987, Responding to changes in sea level, National Academy Press,
                Washington, 148. pp.

             Peltier, W.R., 1986, "Deglaciation-induced vertical motion of the north American continent and
                transient lower mantle theology", Jour. Geophysical Research, v. 91, n. B9, p. 9099-9123.

             Reimnitz, E. and E.W. Kempema, 1987, "Thirty-four-year shoreface evolution at a rapidly
                retreating Arctic coastline", p. 161-164 in T.D. Hamilton and J.P. Galloway (eds), Geologic
                Studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey during 1986; U.S. Geological Survey Cir.
                998.


             Van Straaten, L.M.J.U., 1965, "Coastal barrier de
                                                                  posits in South- and North Holland .
                Mededel. Geol, Sticht., Nieuwe Serie n. 17, p. 41-75 (reprinted p. 171-217 in M.L. Schwartz
                (ed.), 1963, Barrier Islands, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg, PA, 451 pp.)









                                                     FIGURE CAPTIONS



               Figure I., Schematic illustration of the formation of a collisi'on coast and a tmiling-edge coast.
                   Representative of section from the East Pacific Rise (spreading center) through the Peru-
                   Chile trench off South America at 35' South Latitude (from Inman and Nordstrom, 1971).
               Figure 2. Definition sketch for coastal zone nomenclature. The type of coa@s't is related to its
                   relative position on the moving plates of the tectosphere; wide-shelf plains coasts (a) and
                   narrow-shelf mountainous coasts (b) are characteristic of the east coast (trailing-edge) and
                   west coast (collision edge) of the Americas, respectively (after Inman and Brush, 1973).

               Figure 3. Late Quaternary fluctuations in sealevel. Solid line is the "generalized" sealevel curve
                   (from Curray, 1965); dashed line is detailed curve (from Curray, 1960, 1961). Tree ring and
                   Uraniurn/Thoriurn dates give greater age than the radiocarbon ages for these curves. Recent
                   studies indicate the glacial maximum was 21,000 ( ""TH/ 1U) years BP with a sealevel
                   lowering of 121 ï¿½ 5 rn (400 ï¿½ 16 ft) (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1990).

               Figure 4. The predicted Tate of uplift(+) and subsidence (-) in cm/century resulting from
                   Laurentide deglaciation according to the viscoelastic model of Peltier (1986).

               Figure 5. Schematic diagram of nearshore circulation cell consisting of onshore transport by the
                   breaking wave, longshore transport in the surf zone and offshore transport by seaward
                   flowing rip currents. Floating and suspended material is deposited on the beach face by (a)
                   wave runup and by (b) water percolating through the beach sand (after Inman et al., 1971).

               Figure 6. Sediment source, transport paths and sinks for typical littoral cells along (a) collision
                   and (b) trailing-edge coasts. Arrows show sediment transport paths; dotted arrows indicate
                   occasional on and offshore transport modes.
               Figure 7. Fla'xman Barrier Littoral Cell extending from Brownlow Point off the Canning River
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               Figure 8. Schematic diagram of      littoral cells along a fringing reef coast (after Kapaa Reef,
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                             Coastal Wetlands: Multiple Management Problems In Southern California

                                                                        by

                                               Joy B. Zedler, Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory

                                                            San Diego State University

                                                       for the June 1992 CGER Retreat on

                                             "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone In a Changing World"




                                                                 Introduction


                            California's 1973 Coastal Act was one of the nation's earliest attempts to plan for the coexistence of

                   multiple coastal users. However, lack of support from recent governors, budget cuts, and intense

                   population pressure have eroded Califomia7s status as a leader in coastal zone management. Multiple uses

                   are now resulting. in multipleconflicts (Table 1), and estuarine wetlands are particularly threatened. The

                   federal government has shown little interest in California estuaries. In fact, only two have been included in

                   EPA's National Estuary Program: San Francisco Bay, and Santa Monica Bay, and only 4 of the 19 National

                   Estuarine Research Reserves are on the Pacific Coast; of these Elkhorn Slough and Tijuana Estuary are in

                   California. The limited interest in Pacific Coast wetlands extends to research support as well. It has been

                   suggested that managemen    t models can be based on East Coast research and relationships and then

                   modified to fit the West Coast (Sutherland 1991). This idea needs to be questioned.

                           Southern Calffomia estuaries have sever al unique qualities. The estuaries are small and isolated.

                   The variability of various environmental factors (annual rainfall, timing of rainfall, storm intensity, and

                   streamf low) is very high. Catastrophic events have lasting impacts on coastal wetlands. For example, Mugu

                   Lagoon (near Santa Barbara) recently lost 40% of its low-tide volume due to flood-deposited sediments

                   (Onuf and Quarnmen 1983). Periodic El Niho events raise sea levels and increase storm frequencies.

                   Coastal dunes are sometimes washed into the estuaries, especially where stabilizing vegetation has been

                   denuded. At Tijuana Estuary, the shoreline has'retreated 300 ft since 1852, with major erosion during the

                   1983 El Niflio storms (Williams and Swanson 1987).









                              Hydrologic features are also'unusual. Freshwater discharge greatly influences the accumulation of

                     sand from long-shore sediment transport processes in southern California. Estuarine inlets have a

                     tendency to close, and the size of the tidal prism determines their ability to stay open to tidal flushing.

                     Where watersheds are highly modif ied (disturbed soils and vegetation), erosion and sediment inflows can

                     greatly redu-ce tidal prisms. Increased freshwater inflows cause native salt marsh vegetation to be replaced

                     by brackish invaders (Zedler and Beare 1986).

                             Finally, southern California has lost most of its coastal wetland habitat. In California as a whole, 91 %

                     of the wetland area (coastal + inland) has been converted to other uses; this is the nation's highest loss rate

                     (Dahl 1990). On the coast, only about a fourth of the historic acreage is left, and much of it is in San

                     Francisco Bay. Most of the -26 wetlands in southern California have some protection as habitat reserves.

                     However, all have been reduced in size and are disturbed to various degrees. In the San Diego area, salt

                     marshes have declined drastically. The acreage of tidal salt marsh in Tijuana Estuary, San Diego Bay and

                     Mission Bay is only 13% of its historic area (San Diego Unified Port District 1990). With all these habitat

                     losses and damages, biodiversity is at risk. The State of California recognizes 10 coastal animal species as

                     endangered or threatened with extinction (Dept. of Fish and Game 1989). The California Native Plant

                     Society considers 17 coastal wetland plants as rare.

                             This paper discusses two problems in southern California, both of which have aspects that are

                     unique to the region. The first concerns wastewater management. Because municipal water supplies are

                     imported from well outside the region, the release of treated effluent to streams threatens the hydrologic

                     regime of coastal rivers and downstream estuaries. The second problem is mitigation. The region lacks the

                     sites that are needed for mitigation projects, and there are no proven methods for replacing habitats used by

                     endangered species. The paper ends with a consideration of the adequacy of the research base for dealing

                     with these issues.




                                                             The Wastewater Issue

                             The 100+ estuaries along Calffornia's 11 00-mile-long coast receive strearnflows in pulses, due to

                     the region's Mediterranean-type climate with winter rainfall and summer drought. Under natural conditions, it


                                                                     2










                    is likely that streams had minimal flow in summer. In the San Diego region, dams reduce winter streamf lows

                    and wastewater discharges increase summer strearnflows to coastal estuaries. Filling to build roads across

                    the estuaries has reduced tidal prisms and increased chances of inlet closure. In general, the impact of

                    development has been to decrease tidal influence and increase freshwater inflow, both by increasing the

                    volume of fresh water discharged to the coastal wetlands and by prolonging the period of streamf low.

                            This region continues to grow very rapidly; more 85,000 people moved to San Diego in1987, and

                    growth rates were just as high in 1988 and 1989. Development is moving inland, and it is becoming more

                    expensive to discharge wastes to ocean ouff alls. It has been proposed that the wastewater be treated and

                    discharged to coastal streams for reuse in irrigation downstream during the dry season. The California

                    Regional Water Quality Control Board (San Diego Region WQC13 1988) projects discharges of 10-30 million

                    gallons per day of treated wastewater for 10 coastal rivers over the next 25 years. It is uncertain how much of

                    the flow would reach coastal wetlands, but certainly during the wet season, the wastewater discharge would
                    exceed irrigation *demands.

                            It is now recognized that changing the hydrology from intermittent to continuous flows will affect

                    coastal water bodies and endangered species habitat. The coastal wetlands are usually saline to

                    hypersaline ecosystems. A concern that is peculiar to semi-arid regions is salinity dilution, which occurs

                    when intermittent streams that normally provide seasonal freshwater to coastal lagoons become year-round

                    rivers due to wastewater discharge.

                           Some effects of dry-season flows to coastal wetlands have been documented. Weknowthat

                    prolonged periods of freshwater influence can force the replacement of saft marsh habitat (which is

                    endangered species habitat) tq brackish marsh (which is not) (Zedler and Beare 1986, Beare and Zedler

                    1987). Continuous freshwater flows also eliminate the marine invertebrates and shellfishes that are native to

                    many coastal lagoons. At Tijuana Estuary, the numbers of fish and macroinvertebrate species have been

                    reduced substantially since 1986; numbers of Individuals have dropped by an order of magnitude; and size

                    distributions are markedly aftered-4orclarn s, only young-of4he-year can be found, indicating that larvae are

                    available to settle in the estuary, but rarely survive to reproductive age (Nordby and Zedler 1991).

                    Experimental tests of the effect of salinity dilution on fish and invertebrates have demonstrated that low


                                                                   3










                      salinity causes mortality, especially Of molluscs (Nordby, Zedler, and Baczkowski, unpub. data). Detailed

                      experimentation with California halibut shows that growth of juveniles is impaired by lowered salinity and that

                      impacts are greatest on the smallest and youngest individuals (Baczkowski 1992). Thus, modifications to

                      the seasonality of strearnflow (i.e., the semi-arid hydrology) of the region are seen as significant impacts,

                      beyond the more general problems of nutrients and toxic materials that are carried in wastewater.

                               Decision makers are aware of the negative impacts of year-round inflows, and plans are underway to

                      recover much of the treated effluent downstream for use in irrigation. There would still be spills and excess

                      water during the wet season. Unfortunately, the ilmpacts of excess freshwater discharge, of greater

                      volumes of freshwater inflow, and of increased nutrient loadings to coastal water bodies are only generally

                      predictable.

                               Raw sewage from Tijuana: The City of Tijuana includes large urban areas that are not on sewer,

                      and wastes are discharged as raw sewage to Tijuana River. About 13 million gallons per day were released

                      to Tijuana River and Tijuana Estuary between about 1986 and 1991 (Seamans 1988, Zedler et al. 1992). As

                      in other regions, wastewater inflows carry unwanted materials into estuaries. What is unique In this case is

                      the high concentration of pollutants, both because of lower per capita water use (concentrated wastewater)

                      and fewer controls on contaminant loadings (industrial discharges).

                              The nitrogen and phosphorus that enter the Tijuana Estuary are of largely of wastewater origin.

                      Mexican sewage contains over 25 mg/l nitrogen and greater than 10 mg/I phosphorus. We have shown that

                      Tijuana Estuary is nitrogen limited, and that macroalgal blooms are stimulated by wastewater inflows (Fong et

                      al., 1987). Studies of heavy metals in Tijuana Estuary showed that surface water samples contain mean

                      levels of 69 ppb cadmium, 55 ppb chromium, 281 ppb nickel, and 321 ppb lead (Gersberg et al. 1989). The

                      lead level is relatively high. The sediments of the estuary, which may act as a sink for heavy metals,

                      contained up to 1.7 ppm cadmium, 25 ppm chromium, 14 ppm nickel, and 59 ppb lead, Hot spo           ts of

                      contamination do exist in the estuary.

                              Short4errn solutions and long-term plans have been developed. In fall 1991 the raw sewage was

                      diverted to a holding lake in the US, held briefly and then pumped to San Diego's sewage treatment plant




                                                                       4









                     during off hours. However, the pumps were shut down during rain storms in winter 1992 and failed for one

                     week in May 1992. The short-term solution is a band-aid approach.

                              A long battle has been waged over who would pay for wastewater treatment at the border. The City

                     of San Diego did not want to pay for treatment of "international waste." But the City did want a treatment

                     plant that would serve new developments on the US side. The federal government, in turn, did not want to

                     pay for local infrastructures. The compromise was to build two sewage plants, a 25 MGD plant to handle

                     Mexico's sewage and a much larger plant to be built by the City of San Diego to treat local wastewater. To

                     handle the effluent from both plants, a 12-foot-diameter oulf all is being constructed to carry up to 300 MGD

                     of wastewater to the ocean. This outfall would cross Tijuana Estuary and damage a 200-foot-wide swath of

                     endangered species habitat during construction. Mitigation is proposed. An alternative tunnel is being

                     planned; the outfall pipe could go under Tijuana Estuary at greater construction cost. It is not clear that the

                     estuarine biota could sustain the damages of either construction project, even with mitigation efforts.

                             Management and policy needs. The region faces dwindling water supplies and burgeoning

                     effluent. The need for long-term solutions is obvious. Year-round reuse of water would obviate the need

                     for a destructive ocean outfall. Year-round reuse would also solve problems both at the source (San

                     Francisco Bay Delta, where freshwater inflows are needed to sustain the biota of the Bay) and. at the disposal

                     site. The drinking of wastewater that is produced and treated in California is permitted only if it has passed

                     through a groundwater aquifer. The concern is apparently the potential for transmission of viruses. Further

                     research on the safety and acceptability of total recycling is needed.

                             Second, treated wastewater could be used to construct wetlands.         Freshwater wetlands could

                     subsidize habitat for estuarine birds; at the same time, they would improve water quality entering the

                     estuaries. In San Diego County, freshwater bulrush (Scifpus validus) wetlands have a particularly high

                     capability for nitrogen removal, with greater than 90% reduction of total nitrogen at 5-6-day hydraulic

                     residence times (Gersberg et al. 1986). Constructed wetlands are also capableof removing both bacterial

                     and viral indicators of pollution with a removal efficiency of nearly 99.9% for poliovirus (vaccine strain;

                     Gersberg et al. 1987).




                                                                        5










                              Since augmented inflows are detrimental to the region's estuaries, these constructed wetlands

                     could be engineered to discharge treated wastewater in pulses that would minimize negative impacts (i.e.,

                     salinity dilu!ion) on the downstream estuary. Recent experimentation with pulsed-discharge regimes

                     (alternating impoundment and discharge) demonstrated that both metal and nitrogen removal rates could be

                     increased by twice-daily impoundment and discharge (Sinicrope et at. in press, Busnardo et al. in press).

                     Several additional benefits might also occur. More nitrogen would be removed through enhanced

                     denitrification; more metals would be immobilized through precipitation in the sediment; there might be

                     fewer problems with mosquitoes due to the more dynamic hydrology. It appears that the problem of

                     augmented freshwater inflows could be lessened (although not eliminated) by using pulsed -d ischarg e

                     wetlands to reduce the impact of salinity dilution and improve the quality of effluent entering the coastal

                     wetlands. Th  e potential'for using constructed wetlands to manage wastewater in southern California needs

                     to be explored.



                                                               The Mitigation Issue

                             The principal value of southern California's coastal wetlands is habitat and its role in maintaining

                     biodiversity. Several species are dependent on our estuaries (including plants and animals, invertebrates

                     and vertebrates, and both resident and migrant species). Three endangered birds and one plant species

                     depend on coastal wetlands that cover less than 25% of their historic area and that are far from pristine.

                     Despite laws that protect wetlands and endangered species, regulatory agencies still permit habitat

                     alterations if mitigation plans promise compensation. Lost habitat is usually "replaced" by restoring

                     disturbed wetlands, with a net loss of wetland acreage and often a decline in habitat quality (Zedler 1991).

                             The National Environmental Policy Act [40 CFR Part 1508.20(a-e)] defines mitigation as avoiding,

                     minimizing, rectifying, reducing, eliminating or compensating for impacts to natural resources. Wetland filling

                     is regulated by the Clean Water Act, Section 404, which requires a permit for filling of or disposing dredge

                     ,spoil into wetlands. Filling is allowed for water-dependent uses (e.g., port facilities), and where there is "no

                     practicable altemative," providing that impacts are mitigated. Welland mitigation usually involves restoration

                     or enhancement of disturbed wetlands. Rarely does it involve construction of new wetland habitats from


                                                                     6









                    nonwetlands. Whether restoration, enhancement, and construction measures can preserve coastal

                    diversity remains a major question.

                            Mitigation projects In progress. The Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach propose to fill

                    2400-2500 acres of nearshore habitat by the year 2020 to expand port facilities. Several mitigation projects

                    have been proposed, and at least one (at Anaheim Bay/Seal Beach National Wildlife Refuge) has been

                    implemented. A second (374 acres of dredging at Batiquitos Lagoon) has reached the Final EIR/EIS stage.

                    Environmentalists believe the dredging is excessive and that it suits the Ports'needs for mftigating fish

                    habitat more than the lagoon's need for enhancement. The project is currently in Iftigation.

                           Some projects are not water-dependent, but permits are still possible in southern California. A

                    current proposal by the Cfty of San Diego is to relocate and expand an existing sewer pump station within an

                    interticlal salt marsh. The specific sfte was recently shown to support the largest population of an annual

                    plant (Lasthenia glabrata) that is considered sensitive. Mitigation would be proposed. However, the native

                    distribution, population dynamics, habitat requirements and reproductive characteristics of this rare plant

                    have not been studied.


                           Highway  s are usually not permitted in wetlands, but most of southern Callifornia's coastal wetlands

                    are interrupted by three roadways (interstate Hwy 5Pacific Coast Highway, and the Santa Fe Railroad).

                    There are continual plans to widen these roadways, with associated impacts on the remaining wetiand

                    resources. Along San Diego Bay, the salt marsh was recently damaged by three federal projects: the

                    widening of a freeway, a new freeway interchange, and a new flood control channel. The US Fish and

                    Wildlife Service determined that three endangered species were jeopardized by the projects, and

                    compensatory mitigation was required (see next section).

                           The basic problems wfth mitigation in southern Calif omia are that 1) there isn't enough coastal

                    acreage to satisfy the demand for mitigation projects; 2) too much wetland habitat has already been lost and

                    several species are threatened with extinction; 3) even the most disturbed wetlands provide some support

                    for threatened species, so that changing a degraded habitat into a mitigation site causes further negative

                    impacts; and 4) we don't understand how these degraded wetlands function. In addition to these problems,

                    the research that has been done to assess the functional equivalency of restored and natural wetlands


                                                                  7










                    indicates that we do not yet know how to recreate endangered species habitats. To date, the process of

                    mitigation has been an attempt to offset losses, but the policy breaks down at several levels, including

                    planning, site selection, and project implementation.
                            An attempt to compensate for lost endangered species liabitat: The San Diego                  Bay

                    mitigation was a habitat conversion. Disturbed high marsh/transition was converted to low marsh for a

                    federally endangered bird (the light-footed clapper rail). Prior to excavation, the mitigation site may have

                    supported the Belding's Savannah sparrow, a bird on the state endangered list. No biological inventory was

                    required or conducted to document existing values of the mitigation site.

                            Research is continuing to assess the functional equivalency of restored and natural wetlands of San

                    Diego Bay. In 1985, 8 saft marsh islands were constructed as habitat for an endangered bird. Over a two-

                    year period (1987-89), eleven attributes of the mitigation site were compared with those at an adjacent

                    natural marsh. There were deficiencies in soils (Langis et al. 1991), plant growth (Zedler, in press), and

                    marsh invertebra tes (Rutherford 1989). Sampling of soils and vegetation continued through 1992, and

                    improvements were minimal, giving little evidence that the site will eventually support the target species, the

                    light-footed clapper rail.

                            Compared to reference marshes, the sediment was sandier and had little organic matter. With less

                    soil organic matter, there was less energy and nitrogen for microbial mineralization and less energy for

                    nitrogen fixation. With lower nitrogen inputs, pI ant growth was limited and foliar nitrogen was lower. With

                    lower plant production and lower quality plant biomass, the detrital food chain was probably impaired, as

                    indicated by lower abundances of invertebrates in the epibenthos. Five years after construction, the best

                    sites (areas with highest plant cover) provided less than 60% of the functional value of the natural reference

                    wetland (Zedler and Langis 1991). More recent research shows that canopy architecture (cordgrass height

                    and density) differed for the planted marshes (which do not support clapper rails) and natural marshes. Tall

                    plants are needed to support nesting and provide protection from aerial predators. Transplanted marshes

                    have few plants over 60 cm, while most stems in natural marshes exceed 60 cm (Zedler, in press). This

                    appears to be a major reason why the marsh islands are not yet used by the light4ooted clapper rail.




                                                                   8









                             It should be possible to acceler ate development of these ecosystem p  rocesses, using scientific

                     knowledge and experimentation at existing mitigation projects. Current policies are not sufficient to protect

                     against extinction. Research is underway to find soil amendments and enrichment schedules that will

                     produce taller, denser oordgrass in a shorter period of time. Preliminary experiments with straw, alfalfa and

                     inorganic nitrogen fertilizers show that nitrogen addition can improve plant growth (Gibson 1992). However,

                     after 2 years, the canopy architecture is not yet equivalent to that of natural marshes. Continued research

                     and repeated applications seem to be necessary.

                             Management policies and Issues. It has not yet been shown that damages to endangered

                     species habitat can be reversed or that lost wetland values can be replaced. Replacement of functional

                     values is slow and incomplete. Yet, policies have not been changed to reflect the inadequacy of mitigation

                     projects. Permits are still being granted with the promise that habitat can be replaced. Several federal

                     policies are not appropriate for the southern California situation.

                              Mitigat ion priorities. Federal mitigation policy (EPA and COE Memorandum of Agreement)

                     recommends that restoration be given priority over the creation of new wetlands from upland. This policy

                     makes sense in some places, such as prairie potholes that are drained and farmedand no longer function as

                     wetlands. Restoration of former potholes is more likely to provide the correct hydrology than excavation of

                     potholes from natural upland. However, where damaged wetlands still perform critical functions, an in

                     southern California, this strategy is doubly damaging-4irst, the-restoration site is altered without knowing

                     what existing values were lost; second, there is a net loss in wetland area.

                            - Mitigation ratios and "net loss of acreage and function." The recommendation that mitigators

                     restore 2-4 times the area they damage is a good idea. However, it is not sufficient where endangered

                     species habitats are concerned. Since even the disturbed wetlands have valued functions, the use of a 2:1

                     mitigation ratio,(i.e., restoration of 2 acres of marsh for every 1 acre lost) does not fulfill the policy of no net

                     loss of wetiand area. Instead, there is a net loss of 1 acre of wetland area. Only the creation of wetland from

                     non-wetland areas can replace lost wetland acreage. Lower functional value of restored or created wetlands

                     does not compensate for lost endangered species,habitat. Even if 3:1 or 4:1 compensation is required, a

                     larger area of unusable habitat will not replace the functional value of one acre that is critical to the


                                                                    9










                    endangered population. At the very least, agencies should require assessment of the functioning of the

                    mitigation site prior to and after improvements, plus "up-front" mitigation, with "success" achieved and

                    documented prior to destruction of the development site.

                              Sediment removal: Most restoration projects in southern California involve excavation of

                    sediments that have accumulated from coastal watersheds or former fills. However, sediments may

                    ultimately be needed to offset sea level rise. Most agencies lack policies that require consideration of

                    accelerated rates of sea level rise in their long-term planning.

                              Dredge spoil disposal. Off-site disposal of fine sediments is extremely costly and may be

                    environmentally damaging to the disposal site. A proposed solution for disposal of fine sediments at

                    Batiquitos Lagoon is to bury them in situ, but excavating the underlying sand and using it for beach

                    replenishment. However, this would extend the time period of the disruption of biota of Batiquitos Lagoon,

                    and temporary stockpiles of spoils would aff ect nearby coastal areas. Regional plans for sediment disposal

                    are needed, with an emphasis on finding beneficial uses of the material (e.g., capping toxic waste deposits).

                             Research policies: NOAA's Coastal Ocean Program proposes to develop a conceptual model of

                    estuarine habitat function based on East Coast models (Costanza et'al. 1990). The objective is to "relate the

                    location and extent of seagrass and salt marsh habitats to the production of living marine resources in an

                    estuary or region" (Sutherland 1991). Although this program has provided some support for the soil

                    amendment experiment in San Diego Bay, most of the.funding has been for research in East and Gulf Coast

                    habitats. The applicability of production models to southern California management issues concerning

                    endangered species habitats is questionable. Research funding agencies need to recognize the unique

                    attributes of Pacific Coast ecosystems and to reevaluate the geographic distribution of their funding efforts.



                                The Status of Research on Coastal Southern California Ecosystems

                           In November 1991, the Caldomia State Sea Grant Program sponsored a workshop on *Research

                    Needs for Restoring Sustainable Coastal Ecosystems on the Pacif ic Coast" at the Estuarine Research

                    Federation (ERF) meetings in San Francisco (Williams and Zedler 1992). The consensus was that

                    ecosystem research on Pacific estuaries lags behind that on Atlantic and Gulf Coast estuaries by several


                                                                 10










                    decades. Even basic data on California estuarine wetlands (size, type, historic condition) are unavailable.

                    Little is known of the habitat requirements of Pacific estuarine species, including plants, fishes and wildlife.

                    For plant species that have been studied, such as Saficornia virginica and Spartina foliosa, we still do not

                    have data on belowground dynamics. For these and other unstudied species, we lack data on dispersal

                    mechanisms, reproductive strategies, and genetic structure. Estuarine food webs have not been

                    elucidated and feeding relationships have not been quantif ied. The research needs are numerous, as

                    indicated by attendees at the recent national workshop (Table 2).




                                                                  Conclusion

                           The uniqueness of Pacific coastal wetlands requires a regional approach to research and

                    management. Whereas the nutrient content of freshwater entering East and Gulf Coast estuaries needs to

                    be controlled, in southern California the amount and timing of discharges must also, be managed in order to

                    maintain native vegetation and associated fauna. It is not sufficient for managers to worry only about the loss

                    of fish and shellfish habitat, because endangered species are often jeopardized by wetland loss in southern

                    California. Management models cannot be derived by extrapolation from data of East and Gulf Coast

                    estuaries, where inflows are more predictable and where plants and animals are moretolerant of brackish

                    water.





                                                                 References

                    Baczkowski,S. 1992. The effects of decreased salinity on juvenile California halibut, Paralichthys

                           califomicus, M. S. Thesis, San Diego State University.

                    Beare, P.A., and J-B. Zedler. 1987 Cattail invasion and persistence In a coastal saft marsh: the role of

                           salinity. Estuaries 10:165-170.

                    Busnardo, M. J., R. M. Gersberg, R. Langis, T. L. Sinicrope, and J. B. Zedler. In press. Nitrogen and

                           phosphorus removal by wetland mesocosms subjected to different hydropedods. Ecological

                           Engineering.










                     Costanza, R., F. H. Sklar, and M. L. White. 1990. Modeling coastal landscape dynamics. Bioscience 40:91 -

                              107.


                     Dahl, T. E. 1990. Wetlands losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's. U.S. Department of the Interior,

                              Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 21 p.

                     Dept. of Fish and Game. 1989.. 1988 Annual Report on the status of California's State listed threatened and

                              endangered plants and animals. Resources Agency, Sacramento, 129 pp. plus April 1989

                              revisions.


                     Fong, P., R. Rudnick!, and J. B. Zedler. 1987., Algal community response to nitrogen and phosphorus

                              loadings in experimental mesocosms: management recommendations for southern California

                              coastal lagoons. Technical report to SANDAG, San Diego, California.

                     Gersberg, R.M., B.V. Elkins, S.R. Lynn, and C,R. Goldman. 1986. Role of aquatic plants in wastewater

                              treatment by artificial wetlands. Wat. Res. 20:363-368.

                     Gersberg, R.M., S.R. Lynn, R. Brenner, and B.V. Elkins. 1987. Fate of viruses in artificial wetlands. Appl.

                              Environ. Microbiol. 53:731-736.

                     Gersberg, R. M., F. Trindade, and C. S. Nordby. 1989. Heavy metals in sediments and fish of the Tijuana

                              Estuary. Border Health V:5-1 5.

                     Gibson, K. 1992. The effects of soil amendments on the growth of an intertidal halophyte, Spartina foliosa.

                              M.S. Thesis. San Diego State University.

                     Langis,  R., M. Zalejko, and J. B. Zedler. 1991. Nitrogen assessments in a constructed and a natural salt

                              marsh of San Diego Bay, California. Ecological Applications 1:40-51.

                     Nordby, C.S., and J. B. Zedler. 1991. Responses of fishes and benthos to hydrologic disturbances in

                              Tijuana Estuary and Los Penasquitos Lagoon, California. Estuaries 14:80-93.

                     Onuf, C.P., and Quarnmen, M.L. 1983. Fishes in a California coastal lagoon: Effects of major storms   on

                              distribution and abundance. Mar. Ecol. 12:1 A 4.

                     Rutherford, S. E. 1989. Detrftus production and epibenthic communities of natural versus constructed salt

                              marshes. M.S. Thesis, San Diego State University.




                                                                     12









                   San Diego Regional Water Quality Control Board. 1988. Staff report on stream enhancement and

                           reclamation potential 1988 through 2015. San Diego.35 pp.

                   Seamans, P. 1988. Wastewater creates a border problem. Journal of the Water Pollution Control

                           Federation. 60:1798-1804.


                   San Diego Region Water Quality Control Board. 1988. Staff report on stream enhancement and

                           reclamation potential 1988 through 2015. San Diego.35 pp.

                   San, Diego Unified Port District. 1990. South San Diego Bay Enhancement Plan, Vol. 1, Resources Atlas.

                           California State Coastal Conservancy, Oakland.

                   Sinicrope, T. L., R. Langis, R. M. Gersberg, M. J. Busnardo, and J. B. Zedler. In press. Metal removal by

                           wetland mesocosms subjected to different hydroperiods. Ecological Engineering.

                   Sutherland, J. 1991. NOAA Coastal Ocean Program Estuarine Habitat Program. Proceedings of a

                           Workshop of Principal Investigators, Horn Point, Md. NOAA COP, Silver Spring, Md. November

                           1991 Drift.

                   Williams P. B., and M. L. Swanson. 1987. Tijuana Estuary enhancement: Hydrologic analysis. California

                           State Coastal Conservancy, Oakland.

                   Williams, S. L., and J. B. Zedler. 1992. Research needs for restoring sustainable coastal ecosystems on the

                           Pacific Coast. California Sea Grant College. La Jolla, -California. 10 p.

                   Zedler, J. B. 1991. The challenge of protecting endangered species habitat along the southern California

                           coast. Coastal Management 19:35-53.

                   Zedler, J. B. In press. Canopy architecture of natural and planted cordgrass marshes: Selecting habitat

                           evaluation criteria. Ecological Applications.

                   Zedler, J.B., and P.A. Beare. 1986. Temporal variability of salt marsh vegetation: the role of low-salinity

                           gaps and en vironmental stress, Pp. 295-306 in D. Wolfe, ed. Estuarine variability. Academic

                           Press, New York.

                   Zedle r, J. B., and R. Langis. 1991. Comparisons of constructed and natural salt marshes of San

                           Diego Bay. Restoration & Management Notes 9(l):21-25.




                                                                13










                  Zedler, J,, C. Nordby, and B, Kus. 1992. The ecology of Tijuana Estuary: A National Estuarine Research

                          Reserve. NOAA Off ice of Coastal Resource Management, Sanctuaries and Reserves Division,

                          Washington, D.C. 151 p.

















































                                                              14









                                    Table 1.      Major Uses of the Southern California Coast and

                      Ports: The    Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach occupy San Pedro Bay. To expand their role
                      as the major Pacific Rim shipping center, they propose to fill -2400 more acres of shallow
                      subtidal habitat by the year 2020.
                               Problems: Nearshore fish habitat will be filled. Mitigation to compensate for lost
                               habitat is mandated, but there are no nearby sites where compensatory habitat
                               restoration or construction can occur, because all the historic sites have been filled       and
                               urbanized.


                      Marinas: Many former wetlands have marinas. There is constant pressure to increase the
                      number of boat slips for San Diego's growing population and its substantial tourism industry.
                      America's Cup generated further expansion.
                               Problem: Marina development impacts eelgrass beds and associated fisheries (e.g.,
                               California halibut). No studies have documented the functional value of natural eelgrass
                               beds or of mitigation sites where eelgrass has been transplanted. Since so much
                               eelgrass habitat has been destroyed, and since eelgrass is a clonal species,
                               transplanted selgrass beds may lack genetic diversity.

                      Urbanization: Most of the coast above mean high water is urbanized.           Were it not for a
                      military base (Camp Pendleton), the 120-mile coast between Los Angeles        and San Diego would
                      be one continuous urban strip. The San Diego Region now has 2.5 million people, with
                      approximately 2 million more in adjacent Tijuana, Baja California. The growth rate is variable
                      for the  San Diego area, but newcomers averaged 85,000 per year from 1987-89.
                               Problems: There is no buffer zone between urban areas and coastal habitats. Urban
                               run-off degrades coastal water bodies; noise, lights and human activities occur
                               immediately adjacent to endangered species habitats. There is constant pressure to
                               *use" wildlife preserves.

                      Military bases: San Diego grew up around the Naval Base on San Diego Bay. There is also a
                      Marine Corps Recruit Training Depot on San Diego Bay and a Marine Base (Camp Pendleton) in
                      northern San Diego County. There are military airfields at Tijuana Estuary (helicopters) and
                      Miramar Naval Air field Oets), which is just north of San Diego.
                               Problem: It is not known whether coastal military bases are releasing contaminants.
                               Contaminants from anti-fouling paints (e.g., tributyltin, copper) are known to be a
                               problem at the Navy harbor.
                               Problem: San Diego -Bay must be dredged to maintain ship channels.
                               Problem: Helicopters practice about 950 take-offs and landings per -day, with flights
                               directly over the Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve.

                      Airports: Tijuana, San Diego, Long Beach, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara all have
                      commercial airports. San Diego's airport is entirely surrounded by high-cost housing,
                      commercial, and military land uses. Various alternatives are under consideration for major
                      expansion.
                               Problems: Expansion in situ would encroach on the Marine Corps Recruit Depot and
                               increase noise levels for nearby residents. Relocation to Miramar Naval Airfield would
                               interfere with military activities. Locating a new airport adjacent to the international
                               border (adjacent to Tijuana's airport) would increase flights over Tijuana and have
                               planes taking off and landing over a National Estuarine Research Reserve. All U.S.
                               users of the airport live north of the latter site; travel to and from the airport would
                               be maximized, with most people having to drive through San Diego to reach the airport.






                                                                     Table 1









                     Agriculture: Minimal agricultural efforts are carried out along the coast; however, there
                     are agricultural activities in the Tijuana River Valley, several areas of floriculture inland of
                     coastal lagoons, and vegetable farming on the marine terrace at Camp Pendleton.
                              Problem: Non-point source pollutants and irrigation runoff flow into coastal wetlands.
                              Algal blooms and fish kills are possible impacts.

                     Recreation: Sandy beaches offer many recreational opportunities. Mission Bay Park is
                     billed as the "world's largest urban water-recreation park" (1,888 acres), Formerly shallow
                     subtidal and wetland habitat, the park was constructed by dredging embayments and building
                     islands. The area now supports water skiing, jet skiing, sailing, rowing, canoeing, kayaking,
                     swimming, sunbathing, and passive nature appreciation. At Tijuana Estuary, horse trails are
                     heavily  used by equestrian clubs and rental operations.
                              Problems: Incompatible uses are crowded into small areas. Noisy boats and jet
                              skiers have negative impacts on those seeking quiet. Accidents occur--in Mission         Bay,
                              jet skiers and boaters collide; at Tijuana Estuary, hikers get kicked by horses. It      is not
                              easy to eliminate incompatible users. A model airplane club that was located within the
                              Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve was ruled as incompatible, when
                              planes repeatedly crashed at an experimental research site. But, it took over 5 years
                              and considerable expense to evict them, even though their lease had expired.

                     Research and Education: These activities take place at several habitat remnants along the
                     coast. Visitor Centers occur at Tijuana Estuary, San Diego Bay, and at some of the north
                     County lagoons. Tijuana Estuary is a research reserve, but it is managed by the California
                     Department of Parks and Recreation, which does not have a research mandate.
                              Problem: Intensive use is damaging to native habitats and species; yet trails are
                              desired 'for interpretive purposes. Most habitats are used by sensitive species, so
                              there is no good place for interpretive or recreational facilities. Blinds are often
                              suggested, but homeless people and undocumented migrants on their way north are
                              attracted to such structures.


                     International Border: Every day, hundreds of undocumented immigrants cross the border
                     at Tijuana, Mexico. The traffic flows on many undesignated paths, many of which cross
                     through or near endangered species habitat, such as the beach areas where California least
                     terns nest.
                              Problems: Many of the immigrants walk, wade, and swim through Tijuana Estuary.
                              They damage the habitat, as does the Border Patrol force, whose job it is to pursue and
                              arrest them. Nests of endangered birds are damaged.

                     Gravel and sand extraction: Coastal rivers have been mined for both sand and gravel
                     These materials are highly valued in a region undergoing rapid development. An extraction
                     company has developed an ambitious proposal to remove the surface 180 feet of the highlands
                     at the US-Mexico Border, to sell the sand and crush the cobbles to make gravel.
                              Problem: These highlands are an important buffer between Tijuana River Valley and
                              the metropolis along the Mexico border. Eliminating these bluffs would have serious
                              impacts on the integrity of the National Estuarine Research Reserve. The long-term
                            @extraclion period (>10 years) would disrupt endangered species habitat throughout the
                              valley. It is estimated that there would be more than 1 truck per minute transporting
                              sand or gravel, plus the construction and operation of a rock crusher.










                                                                   Table I









                      Coastal reserves: Coastal wetlands comprise a small but important acreage along the
                      coast, since they support many species that are threatened with extinction. Several sites have
                      been set   aside for various conservation purposes. Tijuana Estuary is a National Estuarine
                      Research Reserve; it includes a State Park and a National Wildlife Refuge for endangered
                      species.   At San Diego Bay, the Sweetwater Marsh is a National Wildlife Refuge. At Mission
                      Bay,' the Kendall-Frost Reserve is owned by the University of California and is set aside for
                      research. North 'of San Diego, there are several coastal lagoons that are ecological reserves;
                      the Calif. Department of Parks and Recreation owns Los Pehasquitos Lagoon; the County of San
                      Diego owns San Elijo Lagoon, and the California Dept. of Fish and Game owns Buena Vista Lagoon.
                      Private   holdings include large parts of. Agua Hedionda Lagoon (San Diego Gas & Electric) and
                      Ballona   Watland near the Los Angeles Airport (-250 acres, Maguire Thomas Partners).
                                Problem: No single agency manages the region's wetlands. Yet migratory birds and
                                mobile fishes and invertebrates are often the management target. Several species that
                                are unique to the region are threatened with extinction. Tijuana Estuary supports 24
                                sensitive plant and animal species, yet the management of these populations is not
                                easily coordinated within the region.
                                Problem: California's 91% loss of historic wetland area indicates that further
                                extinctions will occur. E. 0. Wilson's island biogeography model predicts that 50% of
                                the species will be lost when 90% of the habitat is eliminated.
                                Problem: It is extremely costly to purchase wetland remnants for the public. The
                                Famosa Slough was recently purchased by the City of San Diego (20 acres for $3.5
                                million) for a nature reserve and for public interpretation. This site had a development
                                plan but it would probably not have received a Section 404 permit. Near Santa
                                Barbara, public agencies paid over $340,000 per acre toacquire a 4-acre parcel
                                adjacent to Carpinteria Marsh for purposes of restoration. This filled site was
                                developable land.
                                Problem: Proposed changes in the wetland delineation guidelines would seriously
                                impair habitat conservation efforts. The higher elevations of coastal marshes support
                                rare and endangered plants (the salt marsh bird's beak) and insects (mudflat tiger
                                beetles). With increased rates of sea level rise, the upper marsh and transition
                                habitats must be available for the landward migration. EPA calculates that a half meter
                                rise by the year 2100 is probable--this would eliminate 65% (6,441 square miles) of
                                the wetlands of the contiguous US.
                                Problem: Restoration plans are designed to meet the needs of mitigators, rather than
                                what may be most functional at the site or most needed in the region. No program has
                                been developed to assess the quality of each habitat type in the region, to assess losses
                                by habitat type, or to determine the habitat needs of the region. Almost all mitigation
                                planning is done on a piecemeal basis.
                                Problem: Much of the wetland 'area that remains in the region is publicly owned, but
                                no single agency owns-all the reserves. Management is accomplished on a site-by-site
                                basis.




















                                                                     Table 1










                       Table 2.     RESEARCH        PRIORITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE PACIFIC ESTUARIES
                                                       (from Williams and Zedler 1992)

                        This list is divided into four subject areas of equal importance: conservation of biodiversity,
                physical processes, water quality, and restoration. The categories were ranked by workshop participants
                with (1) designating a higher and (3) a lower priority. The tally below represents the mean ranking by
                fifteen respondents.


                Conservation of Blodlverslty Research Needs

                1.27    Habitat function determinants
                                 structural (marsh edge, canopy height)
                                 functional (productivity, trophic support)
                1.30    Habitat requirements/habitat specif icity of organisms
                                 primary determinants of habitat utilization (trophic/reproduction requirements)
                                 structure (e.g., habitat heterogeneity, canopy height)
                                 function (e.g., productivity)
                1.42    Population dynamics
                                 genetic structure & diversity
                                 minimum viable population sizes
                                 community development processes (rates, rate-limiting processes)
                                 belowground vegetation processes
                1.89    Linkages between communities & habitats
                1.90    Trophic dynamics
                                 food web analysis
                                 emergent insect communities
                2.02    Exotic species biology
                                 dispersal mechanisms
                                 competitive effects
                                 trophic effects
                2.09    Habitat inventory
                                 determination of estuarine acreage and habitat types
                                 'community-profiles'on sites with long-term database
                21      Endangered species biology
                2.65    Effects of rare events


                Physical Processes Research Needs

                1.23    Hydrology
                                 effects of altered hydrology
                                 effects of vegetation
                                 eff ects of marsh morphology (channel vs. overmarsh flow)
                                 effects of alternating wet-dry cycles
                                 models
                1,78    Erosionlaccretion responses
                                 role of organic vs. inorganic matter in accretion
                                 integration with hydrological effects
                                 sediment supply processes
                1.97    Model of salinity dynamics (modal & extreme)
                2.22    Effects of anticipated sea level rise
                2.36    Marsh morphology
                                 role of extreme events
                                 comparisons between marsh types





                                                             Table 2










                  Water Quality Research Needs

                  1,51      Nutrient dynamics
                                     process rates
                                     budgets
                                     organic matter accumulation & decomposition rates
                                     effects of alternating wet-dry cycles
                                     effects of altered hydrology
                  1.53      Criteria for vegetation
                  1.71      Urban runoff
                  1.81      Impacts of development
                  1.90      Treatment strategies



                  Restoration Research Needs

                  1.17      Inventory of projects and monitoring
                  1.29      Habitat architecture
                                     habitat size to sustain minimum viable population sizes & functionality
                                     habitat heterogeneity
                                     landscape linkages & corridors
                                     buffer zone requirements
                  1,59      Site selection criteria
                                     identification of potential sites
                                     consideration of regional habitat biodiversity
                                     urban problems
                  1.65      Monitoring & evaluation of success
                                     assessment & standardization of functionality evaluation criteria
                                     assessment of appropriate temporal scales of monitoring
                                     assessment critieria. for urban projects where no natural sites remain for
                            comparison
                                     assessment of structure (e.g., canopy height) as surrogates for function
                  1.94      Methodology
                                     identification of desired initial conditions
                                     establishment of desired initial conditions
                                     independent tests of design strategies
                                     acceleration of functional development trajectory
                                     incorporation of effects of rare/stochastic events in design
                  2.48      Economic evaluation of adequacy of mitigation/restoration options as compensation for loss



















                                                                    Table 2







              DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION




                                                 Background Paper:

                          Workshop on "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone in a Changing World"






                                    Landscapes and the Coastal Zone




                                                        by






                                                   R. E. Turner

                                Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, and,

                                              Coastal Ecology Institute

                                             Louisiana State University

                                           Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803











              I I June 1992







            DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                      2





                  "Each shade of blue or green sums up in itself a structure and a history, for each

                  lake is a small world, making its nature known to the larger world of the dessert

                  most clearly in its colour. These little worlds of turquoise, set among -red, brown,

                  grey and white rocks, are not independent of the dry landscape around them. ....In

                  the quality of this scene, accentuated by the foetid sulphurous water that lies at the

                  bottom of the lake, may be traced the whole life of the surrounding country" (G. E.

                  Hutchinson, The Clear Mirror 1936)



            Introduction

               Scientists, and particularly managers, often look at the coastal zone without referring to the

            larger landscape in a quantitative way. A conspicuous management practice illustrating the

            dichotomy between the landscape scale of examination and management action involves permit

            decisions. The typical Federal Section 404 permit is eval uated and issued -one permit at a time,

            without serious consideration of the cumulative effects of many permit decisions, thus thwarting

            the apparent intent of several Federal and State resource management legal instruments (e.g.

            Bedford and Preston 1988, Gosselink et al. 1990). The influence of landscapes and landscape-

            scale changes may originate either in situ or far from the immediate area of concern and in often

            unappreciated ways. The theory of island biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson 1967) is one

            example of a fruitful quantitative analysis of how the size, relationship and shape of landscape

            patches affect species distribution. Process-orientated landscape studies are, in. contrast, rare. It is

            my purpose here to illustrate various landscape interactions of coastal ecosystems and thereby

            encourage integrated analysis and management.



            Estuarine Variability in Lhe US

               The geomorphology of US estuaries varies enormously, and this variability influences

            estuarine functions. Examples of estuarine variability are in Figure 1. The drainage basin size,







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                                 3



                water surface size, freshwater turnover time, and water:marsh ratio varies by several orders of

                magnitude from the Maine estuaries around the coast to the state of Washington. Estuarine
                functions are strongly influenced by this variability, which is, of course, overlain with seasonal,

                annual and daily cycles. For example, as estuarine flushing time decreases, the likelihood of water

                pollution problems increases. Fisheries are often limited by wedand area through either refuge or

                food limitations (e.g. Turner 1992, Turner and Boesch 1987, Figure 2). We know from

                freshwater studies that landscape pattern may influence bird distributions (Figure 3; Brown and

                Dinsmore 1986). Examples of area:species relationships for coastal communities are less

                frequently documented than for terrestrial ecosystem, perhaps because of the variability of

                estuarine flushing. This variability makes data collection an d analysis more difficult. However,

                some of the earliest studies of species colonization and turnover were done on mangrove islands

                (by D. Simberloff and colleagues) and the principles should be generally applicable to the coastal

                zone. Habitat diversity does appear to be related to habitat area, for example (Figure 4).

                    One cannot easily clone landscapes as in the usual scientific experiment. However, when

                accomplished, the results may be dramatically illustrative (e.g. Schindler 1977, Likens 1992).

                Comparisons between landscapes units are often fruitful, and modelling has a role. Some the

                clearest cases of landscape scale influences comes from documenting recent changes and the cause-

                and-effect conclusions based on strong inferences. Three case studies of landscape changes are

                briefly discussed below. In one case (Everglades) the influence of variable water flow patterns are

                discussed. The second case (Mississippi River) illustrates the probable role of changing riverine

                nutrient flows and consequences to the continental shelf ecosystem. The third example (coastal

                Louisiana) discusses the indirect impacts of many small dredge and fill permit decisions - an in situ

                change - on wetland losses.



                Case History: South Florida Hydrolop-ic Chan2es

                   The ecosystems of south, Florida ale very sensitive to the fluctuations and duration of soil

                moisture, flooding, and drying cycles. They are also nutrient-poor systems, especially for







                 DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                              4



                 phosphorus (e.g. Ornes and Steward 1973). The natural water balance, in turn, is driven by

                 seasonal and longterm rainfall, evaporation, plant transpiration, belowground seepage, land

                 elevation, soil infiltration and natural channel flow. Water movement from Lake Okeechobee

                 (aprox. +5 m msl) southward for 70 miles towards the Miami area (aprox. +2 m msl) is sensitive

                 to the elevation gradients. Water movement eastward was formerly only through the coastal ridges

                 at high water stages. The westward movement is impeded by sandy ridges averaging about +8 m
                 msl on the western border of the Everglades Agricultural Area (south of Lake Okeechobee). High_
                 water is a flood problem for the 3 million residents near Miami, and low water is a threat to the

                 water table and freshwater supplies.

                    Man has been altering this ecosystem for most of this century. The history of Florida's

                 development (see Table 1), particularly south Florida, began with a simple interest to drain the

                 excess water and then to occupy the land for agriculture. It soon became evident that the

                 limitations of excess water were also matched by the problems of water scarcity. What at first was

                 a plan to drain the swamp by the state, became a complex water management scheme involving

                 local, regional, state and national agencies. A diversity of perspectives, priorities and monies

                 accompanies this complexity. It is a difficult area to manage because it includes a National Park,

                 which is a conservation zone with'site-specific and exclusive land use regulations. Human

                 enterprises are inherently interested in stable water supplies, whereas the Everglades ecosystem is

                 very responsive, and requires, fluctuating water supplies. These land use changes have led to the

                 loss or destruction of about one-half of the natural Everglades ecosystem through either direct

                 habitat loss or the indirect influences of development. In particular, water movement thro ugh and

                 within the naturally- defined ecosystem has been modified through land use,land drainage, and both

                 water diversions and storage (e.g. in 1990 there are more than 1,400 miles of canals, 65 major.

                 spillways, and hundreds of water control structures; Figure 5). Compared to the 1900 conditions,

                 plant coverage is vastly reduced or changed (e.g. Steward and Ornes 1973a, b; Hagenbuck et al.

                 1974), local weather patterns may have been altered, and there is increased coastal saltwater







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                                   5



                intrusion, and fire; animal populations dependent on plants and their predators/decomposers have

                been put at risk (Tables I and 2).

                    Some specific effects of the altered hydrology are: (1) exotic species are now in the Everglades

                National Park (e.g. Australian pine (Melaleuca sp.), Brazilian pepper, hydrilla, water hyacinth,

                cajeput, walking  catfish, pike killifish, and several species of cichlides); (2) soil subsidence and

                water level declines since 1900 through much of the ecosystem are measured in feet, not inches

                (Alexander and Crook 1973); (3) agricultural fertilizers leak to downstream ecosystems; (4) fires

                are more frequent (e.g. Stephens 1969); (5) perhaps a dozen species are endangered or threatened

                by extinction whose recovery is compromised by the altered hydrologic cycles; (6) significant

                legal issues arise over the allocation of water resources and the quality of that water; (7) the long-

                term sustainability of drained agricultural lands is in doubt; (8) saltwater intrusion is a threat to

                urban water supplies; and, (9) changes in animal populations occur for those species dependent on

                plants and their predators/decomposers.



                Case History: Missi  ssippi River Watershed Nutrient Additions

                    The Mississippi River watershed is 41 % of the area of the contiguous 48 states (Figure 6). In

                terms of length, discharge and sediment yield, the main river channel is the third, eighth and sixth,

                respectively, largest river in the world (Milliman and Meade 1983). The river has been shortened

                by 229 Ian  in an effort to improve navigation and it has a flood control system of earthwork levees,

                revetments, weirs, and dredged channels for much of its length that has isolated most riverine

                wetlands from the main channel and left them drier.

                    Changes in three indicators of water quality were documented by Turner and Rabalais (1991)

                and are presented here: phosphorus (as total phosphorus), silicon (as silicate), and dissolved

                inorganic nitrogen (as nitrate). All three are important nutrients for freshwater and marine

                phytoplankton growth and production. The pervasive relationships between phosphorus and

                freshwater phytoplankton communities is well-established (e.g., Schindler 1977 1988,

                Vollenweider and Kerekes 1980). Diatoms, an important food species for freshwater and marine







               DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                               6



               fish and invertebrates, require silicon to build their tests. Schelske et al. (1983, 1986) proposed

               that increased phosphorus loading in lakes stimulated diatom production with the subsequent loss

               of silicon (as diatom tests) when deposited in sediments. Eventually a new steady-state silicate

               concentration develops in the water column where diatoms are less numerous and their growth is

               silicon-limited. Nitrogen often acts in concert with phosphorus to regulate phytoplankton

               communities in freshwater ecosystems, and may often be the dominate nutrient limiting

               phytoplankton of estuarine and marine communities (e.g., Valiela 1984, D'Elia et al. 1986, Harris

               1986).

                   The mean annual concentration of nitrate in the lower Mississippi River was about the same in

               1905-06 and 1933-34 as in the 1950s, but has subsequently doubled (Figure 7). The mean annual

               concentration of silicate was about the same in 1905-06 as in the 1950s, and then declined by 50%.

               The concentration of silicate increased from 1985 to 1988, whereas the concentration of nitrate

               decreased slightly in the same period. Although the concentration of total phosphorus appears to

               have increased since 1972 (the earliest records we could find), the variations between years are

               large and the trends, if they exist, are not clear.

                   The silicate:nitrate atomic ratios in the lower Mississippi River for this century have changed as

               the concentrations varied. The sihcate:nitrate atomic ratio was about 1:4 at the beginning of this

               century, 1:3 in 1950, and then rose to about 1:4.5 over the next ten years, before plummeting to

               around 1: 1 in the 1980s.

                   The seasonal patterns in nitrate and silicate concentration also changed. There was no

               pronounced peak in nitrate concentration earlier this century, whereas there was a spring peak from

               1975 to 1985 (Figure 8). A seasonal peak in silicate concentration, in contrast, is no longer

               evident. There was no marked seasonal variation in total phosphorus for 1975 to 1985.

                   The likely causal agent of these changes is the widescale and intensive use of nitrogen and

               phosp horus fertilizers, which reached a plateau in the 1980s. The current consumption of

               phosphorus fertilizer use in the US is stable, but increasing throughout the world (Figure 9).

               There is a direct relationship between annual nitrogen fertilizer use and nitrate concentration in the







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                              7



                river (Figure 10). The predicted indirect relationship between phosphorus fertilizer use and silica

                concentration in the river is also observed, per the implications of the hypotheses of Schelske et al.

                (1983, 1986).

                    The combination of changes in nitrate, phosphorus and silicate has almost certainly influenced

                the coastal marine phytoplankton community (in particular, a decline in diatom abundance), if not

                led to increased phytoplankton production, especially if the community is nitrogen limited, as many

                coastal systems are thought to be. It is not clear, however, if larger or more severe hypoxic: zones

                have formed in bottom waters offshore (Rabalais et al. 1991) as a result of these riverine water

                quality changes. The effect of the probable decline in diatom abundance, a likely source of the
                organic matter fueling oxygen consumption rates in offshore hypoxic zones, may ha@e been

                compensated for by increased abundances of other algal types, especially flagellates.

                   These changes are important to understand, if only because nitrogen is commonly thought to be

                limiting phytoplankton growth in coastal and oceanic waters (e.g. Harris 1986, Valiela 1984). The

                abundance of coastal diatoms is influenced by the silicon supplies, whose Si:N atomic ratio is

                about 1: 1 (the Redfield ratio). Diatoms out-compete other algae in a stable and illuminated water

                column of favorable silicate concentration. When nitrogen increases and silicate decreases,

                flagellates may increase in abundance (Officer and Ryther 1980) and form undesirable algal

                blooms. In particular, noxious blooms of flagellates are becomi ng increasingly common in coastal

                systems. Zooplankton, important diatom consumers, and a staple of juvenile fish, are thus

                affected by these nutrient changes in a cascading series of interactions. Furthermore, where

                eutrophication occurs, hypoxia often follows, presumably as a consequence of increased organic

                loading. Supportive evidence of this benthic-pelagic coupling is the observations of Cederwall and

                Elmgren (1980) who demonstrated a rise in macrobenthos around the Baltic islands of Gotland and

                Oland, which they attributed to eutrophication, a known event (Nehring 1984).

                    However, not all coastal systems are nitrogen limited (e.g., the Huanghe in China is

                phosphorus limited; Turner et al. 1990), nor is changing nutrient loading the only factor

                influencing phytoplankton growth (Skreslet 1986). Marine phytoplankton may also respond in







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION



                various ways to nutrient additions introduced gradually or suddenly, with changing flushing rates

                or salinity, and with cell density (Sakshaug et al. 1983, Sommer 1985, Suttle and Harrison 1986,

                Turpin and Harrison 1980).

                    Management of eutrophication on a national scale has not sufficiently integrated freshwater and

                estuarine systems. The national freshwater policy is to control phosphorus, and is based on the

                numerous excellent laboratory and field studies of the stimulatory effect of phosphorus on

                freshwater ecosystems. However, the analysis and management of nitrogen limited coastal

                systems is becoming more complicated as the eutrophication modifies the transition zone between

                phosphorus and nitrogen-limited aquatic ecosystems. A national policy in common to both

                freshwater and coastal systems is sewerage treatment. But, as is shown for the Mississippi River

                (Turner and Rabalais 1991), the terrestrialsystem is very leaky, and treatment does not mean a

                reduction of loading to the estuary via water and precipitation. So a second understated issue,

                therefore, is that sewerage treatment upstream does necessarily equate to controlling nutrient

                loading to downstream estuaries.

                    A third point is that mitigation of nutrient applications seems a less prudent management policy,

                compared to an outright reduction in use. The ecosystem is simply too leaky to control all nutrient

                flows between the application site and estuary.


                Case HistoEy: Louisiana Coastal Wetland Dredge and Fill

                    Dredging is a conspicuous human activity affecting Louisiana's coastal wetlands, is principally

                related to oil and gas recovery efforts, and results in large areas of canals and residual spoil

                deposits, or'spoil banks'(80,426 ha, equivalent to 6.8 % of the wetland area in 1978; Tumer

                1990; Baumann and Tumer 1990; Figure 11). The aggregate length of these sp      oil banks in

                Louisiana is in the neighborhood of 12,000 miles and to remove all of them would cost about as

                much as to build three river diversions, that is, about $500 million.

                    There are strong and probably partially reversible cause-and-effect relationships between

                wetland losses and these hydrologic changes. Canals and spoil banks are the most likely cause of







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                             9



                at least 30-59% of Louisiana's coastal wetland losses from 1955 to 1978 (51,582 ha/yr, or

                0.8501olyr; Turner and Cahoon 1987). Wedand losses may be due to either direct or indirec

                impacts of spoil banks and canals. Sixteen percent of these wetland losses resulted from the J=

                impacts,of dredging wetlands.into open water and spoil bank; at least 14.- 43% of these wetland

                losses were the result of the indirec impacts of spoil banks and canals on tidal water movement

                into and out of the wetlands. About 13% of the direct wetland losses were due to agricultural and

                urban expansion into wetlands. Indirec impacts result from the: (1) longer wetIand drying cycles,

                even in semi-impounded wetlands, as a consequence of altered water movements into and out of

                the wetland. The lengthened drying periods promote soil oxidation and subsequent soil shrinkage

                (Table 2). Flooding events may also lengthen behind spoil banks (Table 2), presumably as a

                consequence of water being trapped behind the spoil bank once water enters overland during very

                high tides; (2) lower sedimentation rates behind spoil banks in any wetland type, probably

                because of the reduced frequency and depth of tidal inundation (Figure 12); (3) Increased

                waterlogging of soils and that then changes soil chemistry. Plants may become stressed to the

                point where growth reduction or even die-back occurs (e.g. Babcock 1967; King et al. 1982;

                Wiegert et al. 1983; Mendelssohn et al. 1987). In addition, the spoil banks consolidate the

                underlying soils. Water movements belowground are thus decreased, both because of the reduced

                cross-sectional area and the reduced permeability of material beneath the levee.

                   The combined effects of sediment deprivation, increased wetland drying and lengthened soil

                flooding result in a hostile soil environment for plants. The death of plants reduces sediment

                trapping amongst the plant stems and accumulation of plant material at the soil surface and

                belowground. Small, shallow ponds may form and enlarge due to scouring under even light

                winds. The practical consequence of these causal mechanisms is a strong direct relationship

                between wetland losses and canal density on a local and coastwide basis (e.g. Turner and Rao

                1990; Figure 13).







                 DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                               10



                 Summa!Z@

                     Landscapes are a functioning legacy of many broad influences, including geology, climate,

                 biological evolution, etc. Landscapes are more than reactive parts that can be understood and

                 managed in isolation from each other. The relationship of edge:whole, size, fragmentation, and

                 human use is reflected in the ecological functions of the parts and of the whole. We must learn to

                 live with the fact that humans are changing landscapes in a multitude of ways. The details may

                 appear as a painting by Cezanne viewed with a magnifying glass - the colorful tones and textures

                 of oil or pastels. But the painting quality, the forms, and impressions, are intended to be

                 considered from further away. Both the natural and managed coastal zone parts must be viewed in

                 this context. Individual permits and the individual species are like the small bruslistrokes. They

                 are required for the whole picture, but the picture quality does not completely emerge unless there

                 is a broad and encompassing whole view. Coastal zones must be viewed not only from close-up,

                 but from a distance. Most management excludes that land    scape view. The consequences of many

                 small decisions tends to be overwhelming, consistent with the acceptance of the fallacy of multiple

                 uses. Landscape fragmentation and loss of functions will result in the absence of that broad view.

                 This is the history of landscapes (e.g. Hoskins 1970). However, as with a Cezanne painting, the

                 bruslistrokes can be changed and managed, one by one, to result in a more masterly painting, and

                 probably will be most likely accomplished with less arrogance about our abilities to substitute

                 intense manipulation for the multitude of natural interactions.








                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                              11



                References Cited
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                   in south Florida: U. S. Natl. Park Service PB-231 939.
                Anon, 1948. Soils, geology, and water control in the Everglades Region. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta.
                   Bull 442.
                Babcock, K. M. 1967. The influence of water depth and salinity on wiregrass and saltmarsh
                   grass. Unpubl. Ph.D. Diss. School Forestry and Wildlife Management, Louisiana State Univ.,
                   Baton Rouge. 109 pp.
                Baumann, R. H. and R. E. Turner 1990. Direct impacts of outer continental shelf activities on
                   wetland loss in the central Gulf of Mexico. Environmental Geology and Water Resources
                   15:189-198.
                Bedford, B. L. and E. M. Preston (eds.) 1988. Cumulative effects on landscape systems of
                   wetlands. Environmental Management Volume 12(5).
                Brown and Dinsmore 1986. Implications of marsh size and isolation for marsh bird management.
                   J. Wildlife Management 50:392-397.
                Cahoon, D. R. and R. E. Turner 1989. Accretion and canal impacts in a rapidly subsiding
                   wetland. H. Feldspar marker horizon technique. Estuaries 12:260-268.
                Cederwall, H. and R. Elmgren 1980. Biomass increases of benthic macrofauna demonstrates
                   eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Ophelia, Suppl. 1:287-304.
                Davis, J. H., jr. 1943. The Natural Features of Southern Florida; especially the vegetation, and
                   the Everglades. Florida Geol. Surv. Geol. Bull. 25. Tallahassee. 311 pp.
                D'Elia, C. J., J. G. Sanders and W. R. Boyton 1986. Nutrient enrichment studies in a coastal
                   plain estuary: Phytoplankton growth in large-scale, continuous cultures. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
                   Sci. 43:397-406.
                Gosselink, J. G., G. P. Shaffer, L. C. Lee, D. M. Birdick, D. L. Childers, N. C. Leibowitz, S.
                   C. Hamilton, R. Bournans, D. Cushman, S. Fields, M. Koch, and J. M. Visser 1990.
                   Landscape conservation in a forested wetland watershed. Bioscience 40:588-600.
                Hagenbuck, W. W., R. Thompson and D. P. Rodgers 1974. A preliminary investigation of the
                   effects of water levels on vegetative communities of Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge,
                   Florida. U.S. bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. PB-231 611.
                Harris, G. P. 1986. Phytoplankton Ecology: Structure, Function and Fluctuations. Chapman
                   and Hall, New York.
                Hoskins, W. G. 1970. The Making of the English Landscape. Pelican Books, London.
                Johnson, R. A. and J. C. Ogden 1990. - An assessment of hydrological improvements and
                   wildlife benefits from proposed alternatives for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' general







               DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                         12



                  design memorandum for modified water deliveries to Everglades National Park. U.S. Park
                  Service, unnumbered document. 97 pp.
               King, G. M., M. J. Klug, R. G. Wiegert and A. G. Chalmers 1982. Relation of soil water
                  movement and sulfide concentration to Spartina altemiflor production in a Georgia salt marsh.
                  Science 218:61-63.
               Klein, H, J. T. Armbruster, B. F. MePerson and H. J. Freiberger 1973. Water and the south
                  Florida environment. U. S. Geol. Survey PB-236 951.
               Likens, G. E. 1992. The Ecosystem Approach: Its Use and Abuse.- Vol. 3, Excellence in
                  Ecology, Ecology Institute, Oldendor/Luhe, Germany.
               MacArthur, R. H. and E. 0. Wilson 1967. The theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton Univ.
                  Press, Princeton, NJ.
               Mendelssohn, 1. A. and K. L. McKee 1987. Spartina alterniflora die-back in Louisiana: time-
                  course investigations of soil waterlogging effects. J. Ecology Vol. 76:509-521.
               Milliman, J. D. and R. Meade 1983. World-wide delivery of river sediment to the ocean. J.
                  Geol. 91:1-21.
               Nehring, D. 1984.- The further development of the nutrient situation in the Baltic proper. Ophelia,
                  Suppl.3:167-179.
               Neill, C. and L. A. Deegan 1986. The effect of Mississippi River delta lobe development on the
                  habitat composition and diversity of Louisiana coastal wetlands. Am. Midland Nat. 116:296-
                  303.
               Officer, C. B. and J. H. Ryther 1980. The possible importance of silicon in marine
                  eutrophication. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 3:83-91.
               Ogden, 1. C. and R. A. Johnson 1992. Ecosystem restoration in Everglades National Park: A
                  prerequisite for wildlife recovery. unpublished document.
               Ornes, W. H. and K. K. Steward 1973. Effect of. phosphorus and potassium on phytoplankton
                  populations in field enclosures. U.S. Natl. Park Service PB-231 650.
               Parker, G. C., G. E. Ferguson, S. K. Love and others 1955. Water resources of southeastern
                  Florida. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1255. 965pp.
               Rabalais, N. N., R. E. Turner, W. J. Wiseman, Jr., and D. F. Boesch 1991. A brief summary of
                  hypoxia on the northern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf: 1985-1988. J. Geol. Soc. (London)
                  Sp. Publ. 58:35-47.
               Sakshaug, E., K. Andresen, S. Mkklestad and Y. Olsen 1983. Nutrient status of phytoplankton
                  communities in Norwegian waters (marine, brackish, and fresh) as revealed by their chemical
                  composition. J. Plankton Res. 5:175-196.







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                            13



                Schelske, C. L., E. F. Stoermer, D. J. Conley, J. A. Robbins and R. M. Glover 1983. Early
                   eutrophication in the Lower Great Lakes: New evidence from biogenic silica in sediments.
                   Science 222:320-322.
                Schelske, C. L., D. J. Conley, E. F@ Stoermer, T. L. Newberry and C. D. Campbell 1986.
                   Biogenic silica and phosphorus accumulation in sediments as indices of eutrophication in the
                   Laurentian Great Lakes. Hydrobiologia 143:79-86.
                Schindler, D. W. 1977. Evolution of phosphorus limitation in lakes. Science 195:260-262.
                Schindler, D. W. 1988. Detecting ecosystem response to anthropogenic stress. Can. J. Fish.
                   Aquat. Sci. 44 (suppl.):435-443.
                Skreslet@ S. (ed.) 1986. The Role of Freshwater Outflow in Coastal Marine Ecosystems.
                   Springer-Verlag, New York. 453 pp.
                Sommer, U. 1985. Comparison between steady state and non-steady state competition:
                   Experiments with natural phytoplankton. Limnol. Oceanogr. 30:335-346.
                Stephens, J. C. 1969. Peat and muck drainage problems. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Proc. J. Irr.
                   Drainage Div. v. 95:285-305.
                Steward, K. K. and W. H. Ornes 1973a. Assessing the capability of the Everglades marsh
                   environment for renovating wastewater. U.S. Natl. Park Serv. PB 231652.
                Steward, K. K. and W. H. Ornes 1973b. Investigations into the mineral nutrition of sawgrass
                   using experimental culture techniques. U.S. Natl. Park Serv. PB 231609.
                Suttle, C. A. and P. J. Harrison 1986. Phosphate uptake rates of phytoplankton assemblages
                   growwat diff6rent dilution rates in semicontinuous culture. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43:1474-
                   1481.
                Swenson, E. M. and R. E. Turner 1987. Spoil banks: Effects on a coastal marsh water level
                   .regime. Estuarine and Continental Shelf Science 24:599-609.
                Tebeau, C. W. 197 1. A History of Florida. U. Miami Press, Coral Gables, Fla.
                Turner, R. E. 1990. Landscape development and coastal wetland losses in the northern Gulf of
                   Mexico. American Zoologist 30:8  9-105.
                Turner, R. E. 1992. Coastal Wetlands and Penaeid Shrimp Habitat. pp. 97-104, In: R. H. Stroud
                   (ed.) Conservation of Coastal Fish Habitat.
                Turner, R. E. and D. F. Boesch 1987. Aquatic animal production and wetland relationships:
                   Insights gleaned following wetland loss or gain. Pp: 25-39; JL: D. Hooks (ed.), Ecology and
                   Management of Wetlands.'Croon Helms, LTD, Beckenham, Kent, UK.
                Turner, R. E. and D. R. Cahoon (editors) 1987. Causes of Wetland Loss in the Coastal Central
                   Gulf of Mexico. 3 Vol. Final report submitted to Minerals Management Service, New Orleans,
                   LA. Contract No. 14-12-001-30252. OCS Study/MMS 87-0119. 536 pp.







               DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                         14



               Turner, R. E., N. N. Rabalais and Z.-N. Zhang 1990.  Phytoplankton biomass, production and
                 growth limitations on the Huanghe (Yellow River) continental shelf. Cont. Shelf Res. 10:545-
                 571.
               Turner, R. E. and Y. S. Rao 1990. Relationships between wetland fragmentation and recent
                 hydrologic changes in a deltaic coast. Estuaries 13:272-28 1.
               Turner, R. E. and N. N. Rabalais 1991. Water quality changes in the Mississippi River this
                 century and implications for coastal food webs. Bioscience 41:140-147.
               Turner, R. E. and N. N. Rabalais 1992. Geomorphic variability of US estuaries. Manuscript.
               Turpin, D. H. and P. J. Harrison 1980. Cell size manipulation in natural marine, planktonic,
                 diatom communities. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:1193-1195.
               Valiela, 1. 1984. Marine Ecological Processes. Springer Verlag, New York.
               Vollenweider, R. A. and J. Kerekes 1980. The loading concept as a basis for controlling
                 eutrophication: philosophy and preliminary results of the OECE iprogramme on eutrophication.
                 Prog. Wat. Technol. 12:5-38.
               Weller, M. W. and L. H. Fredrickson 1974. Avian ecology of a managed glacial marsh. Living
                 Bird 12:269-291.
               Wiegert, R. G., A. G. Chalmers and P. F. Randerson 1983. Productivity gradients in salt
                 marshes: the response of S12artina alterniflora to experimentally manipulated soil water
                 movement. Oikos 41:1-6.







           DRAFT  NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                  15



                        100000.          Estuarine -Drainage (km)

                         10000-

                          1000-


                           100
                         10000.             Water Surface (km)

                          1000*'

                           100

                             10.
                                                            JJL
                                    Freshwater Turnover/yr
                         10000

                          1000

                           100


                            10
                              IUHIL "1111111MM            1111111 1 1 11 11
                           100.1

                            10.
                           0.1                              --- Tj' .......
                           0.01    Wetland/Water Surfac   -e
                               0   20    40     60    80    100 120
                               NE                GOM             NW
                                         Estuary Number


          Figure 1. Variations in the morphology of US estuaries.







             DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                               16


















                                     1
                                        7
                                      0

                           Shrimp    106.                   0
                           Yields
                            kg/yr 105.              %
                                                 W

                                        41
                                     10
                                        10 3      10 4.       105        106
                                         Area  of vegetated estuary (ha)



                Figure 2. The relationship between intertidal vegetation and penaeid shrimp yields from the

                        estuaries of the northern Gulf of Mexico (adapted from Tumerand Rabalais

                         1992).





               DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                       17




















                    12-
                           R2    0.73



                     6.

                z




                     0.
                      0           400.          800          0                    so                   100
                                       .No. Pools                        % Open Water


                   Figure 3. Species richness of birds in freshwater ponds in relationship to cover-water
                            ratios expressed as (1) the number of pools in the emergent marsh, and, (2) the
                            percent open water. (Adapted from Weller and Fredrickson 1974).






               DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                      18

















                                     80.





                                  0  40
                                  L

                                  E

                                  z
                                       0,
                                                          5,               6
                                            Area of Deltaic Lobe
                                                    (log 10 ha)


                   Figure 4. Habitat number vs size of the Mississippi River deltaic coastal plain (adapted
                            from Neill and Deegan 1986).






               DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                     19










































                   Figure 5. The hydrology of south Florida around 1900s (left) and presently (right).






                   DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                                                20
























                                                    ..........................








                                                                                   ..........















                         Figure 6. The dr    ainage basin of the Mississippi River.







          DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                  21




















                      160.             1986
                                        t        9 St. Francisville, La.,
                                 koo 0009        0 New Orleans, La.
                                 0 00
                                    0
                      80'.    04401 to
                                0 -4            00           1905
                                  0

                   L
                   41             0               %
                   P-
                   z           0



                        60           120          180           240
                                       Silicate Pq atil

             Figure 7. Average annual nitrate and silicate concentration in the lower Mississippi River.
                     The data are from U.S. Geological Survey and the New Orleans Water Board.
                     Further details are in Turner and Rabalais (1991).







             DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                        22



















                      160



                      120-

                                                                        1 1975-BE
                       oo.


                  ca                                                    01905-6
                  L-   40.                                              *19S5-59
                  .P-                                                   m1933-5
                  z

                        0
                        J    F  M A    h J J A        S D    N   D All
                                          Month                    Months


               Figure 8. Seasonal nitrate concentrations in the lower Mississippi River. A +/- I standard
                        error of the mean is shown. Further details are in Turner and Rabalais (1991).







            DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                          23

















                            Nitrogen                    Phosphorus
                           Africa                  10
                  CL.    Ok. America
                  L.     0 Asia
                  0      v Europe
                  Z      v-0ceania
                  E20                               5




                     01                             0
                     1950        1970        1990 1950         1970        1990



              Figure 9. World and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer consumption since 1950. Further
                       details are in Turner and Rabalais (1991).






              DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                           24






                   120    Y=0.0078x- 1.65".
                          R2=0.7   4

                     so




                    40


              Z
                      0i
                      0              4000             8000             12bOo'
                                       N Fertifizer (1000 mt/yr)


                  200'.





                   100.

                          Y=-0.02 I x+212
                          R2
                            .=0.79



                      0                                                 6000
                                     P Ferti I i zer   1000 mt/yr)


               Figure 10. The relationship between fertilizer use and water quality at St. Francisville, La.
                          Top: Nitrogen (as N) fertilizer use in the U.S. and average annual nitrate
                          concentration from 1960 to 1985; Bottom: phosphorus (as P205) fertilizer use
                          in the U.S. and average annual silicate concentration at St. Francisville, La.,
                          from 1950 to 1987. Further details are in Turner and Rabalais (1991).
                                                  I* @16*t







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                          25





                                                                                                                 17@


            "A'









                                               j




                  N












               18"














                                                 IF









                                        Lae v     (6


                   Figure 11. Aerial photograph of Louisiana coastal wedand. The dredged canals are usually
                               straight and the spoil is piled alongside in a,continuous line.







             DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                            26














                                     Hydrologically Restricted Areas
                                loo-
                                 80 -                            HR #1
                                                             E2 HR #2
                                                  n.s.
                                 60-
                             0

                                 40-

                             eR  20-

                                  0
                                    Four League          Calm ron
                                        Bay    Lafourche          Lafine




                Figure 12. Vertical accretion rates in four hydrologically restricted areas (HR #1 and HR
                         #2) compared to control sites nearby. Data were normalized to the control site
                         values (100%). A  by the bar indicates a statistically-significant difference
                         between the hydrologically-restricted site and the control site. Adapted from
                         Cahoon and Turner 1989.







                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                          27

















                             0.3

                    0

                    "D       0.2
                          L                                                 %

                             0-1
                                                     go      *0


                                0            ........................................................................................ ........................... . .............................

                                  0                                0.65                                 0.1
                                                    Canal Area/Wetland Area



                  Figure 13. The relationship between canal. density and indirect wetland loss rates (wetland
                               change excluding the area lost to canals and development). Area calculations are
                               for changes within 7 1/2'quadrangle maps from 1955 to 1978 for the St.
                               Bernard, Barataria Bay and Terrebonne Bay estuaries. Only areas with more
                               than 25% wetland in the quadrangle maps are included. Total area included
                               413,000 ha.







                  DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                                  28




                  Table 1. Drainage issues in South Florida (based mostly on Davis 1943 and Parker et al 1955,
                                          Anon 1948, Stephens 1969, Tebeau 1971).


                  pre 1920's          unregulated waterlevel in Lake Okeechobee. Lake size larger than present,
                                          filled more of its basin, and wider fluctuations in water level than presently.
                                          Water did not overflow until >20.5 msl, and over the southern rim. When
                                          water flowed the lake, the Everglades were already wet before the overflow
                                          in late summer or early fall.


                  1940                peat fires more frequent, soil oxidation even to bare rock is obvious, concern
                                          about relationship of 1935 and 1939 freeze and bow air temperature is
                                          related to water level


                  1950                the St. Lucie Canal and Caloosahatchee Canal and River system are artificial
                                          outlets diverting water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic and Gulf of
                                          Mexico, respectively. Rainwater is major source of water for Everglades.
                                          Saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer below msl is evident (e.g.
                                          Dade County).


                  1970s               coastal ground-water levels significantly reduced from the 1940s (e.g. Klein
                                          1973); Big Cypress waterflow changed from slow, prolonged southward
                                          sheetflow overland to accelerated and shortened-period runoff through canal
                                          system; water quality problems (e.g. algal blooms) in Lake Okeechobee.
                                      The 'rainfall' plan went into effect guaranteeing water to the Everglades on a
                                          regulated basis


                  1990                more than 1,400 miles of canals. Cattails found on 6,000 acres of Loxahatchee
                                          Wildlife Refuge (WCA- 1) and another 24,000 acres show elevate
                                          phosphorous levels; various restoration efforts underway, including the
                                          restoration of the Kissimmee River Basin;
                                      annual flow distribution in Shark Slough (the a principle,'water entry point into
                                          the Everglades National Park) changed from a m Ixed east/west pattern, to
                                          almost exclusively western slough (Johnson and Ogden 1990).
                                      Lake Okeechobee water levels now 12.6 to 15.6msl, compared to +18 to 20'
                                          msl at the turn of the century; flow over the southern rim is vastly restricted








                  DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                                    29



                  Table 2. Some consequences of r     ecent hydrologic changes to south Florida coastal communities.


                  Species                   Natural Conditions           Recent               Notes

                  1. Area:                          100%         36% urban/agriculture
                                                                    32% impounded
                  2. Hydrology                                      12% overdrained
                   ohydroperiod:                  gradual                shorter
                   -water height:                 seasonal     higher in impoundments
                                                                  seasonality reduced
                   -Atlantic diversions:            minor                major
                  3. Alligator                                                                                uter model,
                   -population size:              178,000               116,300               based on comp
                                                                      (1971-1982)             M. Fleming, unpublished
                   -percent occurrence:             7 91,                 19%
                   -of nest flooding:
                  4. Five wading birds,          77-93,000               9,850                Ogden and Johnson 1992
                   nesting in central-           (1931-40)             (1980-89)
                   south Florida:

                  5. Wood stork
                   *nesting success:                78%                   21%                 Ogden and Johnson 1992
                                                 (1953-61)             (1962-89)
                   -colony formation:               87%                   10%                 Ogden and Johnson 1992
                   in Nov/Dec                    (1953-69)








                DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION                                                              30
















                                   Table 3. Changes in hydrologic regime of a semi-impounded saltmarsh
                                   (from Swenson and Turner 1987).

                                                                           Cgntrol      Serni-Impounded
                                   Flooding
                                          number events per month            12.9               4.5
                                          event length (hours)               29.7             149.9

                                   Drying
                                          number events per month            11.6              4.00
                                          event length (hours)               31.2              53.9

                                   Mean Water Level (cm; annual average)     1.71              3.99
                                   Volume Eichange (m3/m2 wetland surface)
                                          aboveground                        0.15              0.06
                                          belowground                        0.09              0.04

















                      COASTAL POLLUTION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT






                                         A Discussion Paper
                                               (Part 1)
                                   Prepared for the CGER Retreat..
                        Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone in a Changing World
                                          25-26 June 1992
                                      Woods Hole Study Center

                                            J.R. Schubel
                                        e Sciences Research Center
                                    The University at Stony Brook
                                    Stony Brook, NY 11794-5000






                                "The Future Ain't What ft Used To Be."

                                                     Yogi Berra









                                        Acknowledgements:
              I thank Doreen Monteleone, Chongle Zhang, Jiong Shen, Andrew Matthews
             and Kristen Romans for their assistance in preparing this paper.












                                             INTRODUCTION


               This paper was. prepared as  a background paper for the National Research
               Council's CGER Retreat on "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone in a Changing
               World." In it I describe the major problems facing the coastal zone
               throughout the world and in the U.S. and review some of the priorities
               identified by the research and environmental management communities.

               In the oral presentation I will concentrate on suggest ions for improving our
               understanding of the processes that characterize the coastal zone and
               society's impacts on it, and on how we might improve the use of science to
               conserve and, where necessary, to rehabilitate the coastal zone and its living
               resources. I have chosen this strategy not only because the litany of
               problems and a@ssociated research needs of the Coastal Ocean are well
               documented, but because I am convinced that scientists must do a far better
               job of applying what we know if we expect to improve the condition of the
               Coastal Ocean and the.climate for funding for the kinds of basic research
               that are needed. The issues I raise are not all thoroughly documented and
               statements often are not substantiated. The paper and the presentation are
               intended to Provoke discussion.



               W11AT ARE THE MAJOR PROBLEMS OF THE WORLD'S COASTAL OCEAN?


               The Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspec       ts of Marine -Pollution
               (GESAMP), an advisory group. to the United Nations, periodically assesses
               the problems of the World Ocean. In their most recent report (1991) they
               pointed out that while man's "fingerprints" are found throughout the World
               Ocean. the open ocean is still relatively clean. but that there are serious
               problems in the Coastal Ocean. The report states:

                    "In contrast to the open ocean, the margins of the sea are
                    affected almost everywhere by man, and encroachment on
                    coastal areas continues worldwide. Irreplaceable habitats are
                    being lost to the construction of harbors and industrial
                    installations, to the development of tourist Jac       ilities and
                    mariculture, and to the growth of settlements and cities... If 1 eft
                    unchecked, this will soon lead to global deterioration of the
                    marine environment and of its living resources."

               GESAMP (1991) summerized the major problems of the World Ocean as
                    (1). nutrient contamination,
                    (2). microbial contamination of seafood,
                    (3). disposal of debris (particularly plastic debris),








                      (4).  occurrence of synthetic organic compounds in sediments
                            and in predators at the top of the marine food chain,
                      (5).  oil in marine systems, mainly the global inpact of tar balls
                            on beaches and the effects of spills in local sheltered
                            areas, and
                      (6).  trace contaminants such as lead, cadmium and mercury
                            when discharged in high concentrations.

               They added that radioactive contamination is a public concern. They did not
               consider items.(5) and (6) above to be particularly important globally. In the
               sununary of their findings, they stated:

                      -We conclude that, at the start of the 1990s, the major causes of-
                      immediate concern in the environment on a global basis are
                      coastal development and the attendant destruction of habitats,
                      eutrophication,. microbial contamination of seafood and beaches,
                      fouling of the seas by plastic litter, progressive build-up of
                      chlorinated hydrocarbons, especially in the tropics and sub-
                      tropicsand accumulation of tar on beaches."

                      ... not enough attention is being given to the consequences of
                      coastal development, ... actions on land continue to be taken and-
                      executed without regard to consequences in coastal waters."

               The GESAMP assessment is a global assessment of the entire World Ocean
               and its coastal component. It's clear that their concern for the future of the
               World Ocean is concentrated on the threats to the margins.


                   WHAT ARE THE MAJOR PROBLEMS OF THE U.S. COASTAL OCEAN?

               Each year the 23 coastal states, jurisdictions and interstate commissions
               must report, for their.estuarine waters, degradation that has reached the
               point that estuarine areas no longer fully support designated activities.

               In the most recent State Section 305(b) repor    t to the U.S. Environmental
               Protection Agency, the 23 coastal states, jurisdictions and interstate
               commissions reported that
                                 *  nutrients accounted for 50%1 of the total
                                    impaired area of estuaries.
                                 0  pathogens accounted for 48% of the total
                                    impaired area, and
                                    organic enrichment/low D.O. accounted for
                                    29% of the total impaired area.


               1 The percentages total more than 100% because more than one stressor contributes to impairm ent of
                 an area.







                                                      2









               The states cited municipal wastewater discharge as the most extensive
               single source of pollution to their estuarine waters. It accounted for 53% of
               the total impaired area.          Non-point sources may have be-en
               underrepresented in.their assessment.

               It is clear that the problems of the U.S. Coastal Ocean, and,the causes of
               those problems, are similar to those of the coastal zone of the rest of the
               world. The first order problems are eutrophication, pathogens, and habitat
               destruction. All are caused primarily by an increasing population and their
               waste disposal practices and by changing land use patterns.


                                    POPUIATION AND ITS EFFECTS

               The earth's population is now estimated to be nearly 5.5 billion and is
               projected to grow tomore than 10 billion by the year 2050. Throughout the
               world, approximately half of all people live in coastal regions.

               The increasing world population and the preferential settlement in coastal
               regions will only exacerbate the problems of the Coastal Ocean. Since 95%
               of the projected population growth will come in developing countries --
               countries with little or no infrastructure to manage human and industrial
               wastes -_ the most serious coastal zone problems will be in developing
               countries.

               Throughout the United States, nearly half of the population lives within 50
               miles of the coasts of the oceans and the Great Lakes. Population in U.S.
               coastal areas has increased by about 30 million people over the last three
               decades and this growth.accounts for almost half the total U.S. population
               increase over that period. The U.S. coastal population is expected to
               continue to increase, although at reduced levels (Culliton et al.. 1990). By
               the year 2010, the coastal population of the U.S. is projected to increase by
               almost 60%. Within coastal regions, people will continue to cluster near
               estuaries.

               Estuarine and coastal areas not only are among the Nation's most populous
               areas, they also are among   Ithe nation's most densely populated areas.
               Population densities are highest in the counties of the Northeast and Pacific
               regions of the U.S. which together account for 28% of the nation's total
               population. The Northeast region, which extends from Virginia to Maine, is
               the most densely populated of the 5 regions (NE, SE, GL, GOM, Pacific). It
               contains 18 of the 25 most densely populated counties in the entire U.S.,
               and 6 of the Nation's 7 leading states in coastal county population. The
               distribution of population in the U.S. is shown graphically in Figure 1.

               As population in coast  al regions grows. the Coastal Ocean loses. The
               greatest losses will occur in developing countries unless preventive
               measures are taken quickly.



                                                    3








                The Joint Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
                (GESAMP) wrote in 1991:

                              "The exploitation of the coast is largely a reflection of
                              population increase;' accelerating urbanization, greater
                              affluence andfaster transport -- trends that will continue
                              throughout the world. Controlling coastal development
                              and protecting habitat will require changes in planning
                              both inland and on the coast, often involving painful social
                              and political choices."

                As the GESAMP report points out, protecting coastal habitat will require
                planning not only on the coast, but inland as well. For some estuaries, such
                as Chesapeake Bay, that planning must extend throughout much of the
                drainage basin. In others, such as Long Island Sound, the area of terrestrial
                influence is more constrained and planning and management can be
                concentrated in the coastal zone. For e        *ach coastal system, the zone of
                influence of human activities needs to be. identified and become the- basic
                planning and management unit.

                According to Goldberg (1990), tourism accounts for about 10% of the
                world's gross national product. In many developing countries tourism is the
                main source of income. In coastal countries much of the tourism is
                dominated by water-related activities. Some of these same developing
                countries are experiencing the world's most rapid population growth rates.
                Few have the resources -- fiscal and technical -- needed to construct,
                maintain and operate the infrastructure needed to handle the wastes,
                particularly the human wastes, of their burgeoning populations. Typically,
                sewage is discharged raw into near coastal waters causing a serious public
                health threat to bathers. and to those who consume raw or partially cooked
                shellfish. The potential for major epidemiological outbreaks is high and
                growing.

                There are other environmental impacts of discharging raw or improperly
                treated sewage into coastal waters. particularly into bays.. estuaries and
                lagoons. The added nutrients can produce eutrophic conditions leading to
                loss of submerged aquatic vegetation. to shifts in plankton assemblages, to
                degradation of coral reefs. and in the extreme. to hypoxic or even to anoxic
                conditions. The most popular beaches and coastal environments and the
                tourists they attract are increasingly at risk.

                The coastal areas at greatest risk are in developing countries. They can and
                should be identified now and steps taken to assist those countries in
                protecting them. Priority should be given to protecting those coastal areas
                that are still in good condition. Preventive environmental medicine is a far
                more effective and less costly strategy than restorative environmental
                medicine.






                                                        4









                                 SOME TRENDS IN U.S. COASTAL WATERS

               A widely held perception is that the Coastal Ocean is in rapid decline. Let's
               review quickly some of the data on contaminants and pathogens for U.S.
               estuaries.


               Contaminants
               A 1990 report by NOANs National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program
               summarizing six years of data on chemical contaminants in sediment and
               tissues states "... it appears that, on a national scale, high and biologically
               signiftcant concentrations of contaminants measured in the NS&T Program
               are limited primarily to, urbanized estuaries. In addition, levels of those
               contaminants have, in general, begun to decrease in the coastal U.S."

               Even the higher levels in urbanized estuaries "... are generally lower than
               those expected to cause sediment toxicity, and among the NS&T sites,
               biological responses to contamination, such as liver tumors in fish or
               sediment toxicity, have not been commonly found." "... most contaminants
               measured in the NS&T Program may be decreasing. F_xcept possibly for
               copper, there is little evidence that they could be increasing."

               The chemical measured in the NS&T Program are metals (Cd, Cr, Cu. Pb,
               Hg, Ag and Zn) and organic compounds (tDDT, tCdane, tPCB and tPAH).
               The NOAA Status and Trends sampling sites are intended to be
               representative"; hot spots are avoided.

               Pathogens
               The National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) classifies shellfish-
               growing waters to protect public health. It is a cooperative program
               involving states, industry and the federal government. Since 1983, the
               NSSP has been administered through the Interstate Shellfish Sanitation
               Conference (ISSC). The NSSP requires states to classify shellfish-growing
               waters according to approved protocols into four categories: Approved.
               Conditionally Approved. Restricted and Prohibited.

               Data from 1985 and 1990 are summarized in Table 1. The pollution sources
               affecting shellfish-growing areas in 1990 are summarized in Table 2.

               The data in Table 2 indicate the effects of coastal development on
               classification of shellfish-growing areas between 1985 and 1990. According
               to NOAA (1991) the largest increases in closures are attributed to urban
               runoff increasing from. 23 to 38% of harvest-limited waters. The acreage
               adversely affected by septic systems increased from 22 to 37%. NOAA
               attributed the increasing effects of septic systems to the continuing growth
               of tourism and vacation homes. The impacts of boating rose from 11 to
               18%.







                                                     5











                Nutrients
                I am unaware of any systematic summaries of the trends of nutrients in U.S.
                coastal waters. I expect that levels in many estuaries are increasing,
                primarily because of increased populations. In Long Island Sound, over the
                past 50. years the non-point source input of nutrients from agriculture has
                declined, but the non-point source input from creeping suburbanizatio        *n- has
                increased. Over the same period, the point source inputs from New York
                City treatment plants has been relatively stable, but not point sources in
                coastal counties bordering the Sound have increased significantly. Over-
                enrichment of Long Island Sound by nitrogen is considered by the Long
                Island Sound Study to be the most important hazard to the Sound
                ecosystem.. In 1991 New York and Connecticut signed a pact to cap nutrient
                inputs at 1991 levels and to work to decrease the input. To maintain
                nutrient inputs to the Sound at 1991 levels -- levels which are already too
                high -- a significant investment will be required in the future -- even in a
                region that now has one of the slowest population growth rates in the
                Nation. Schubel and Pritchard (1991) estimated that in the year 2050, it
                would require an additional removal of 20-25% of the nitrogen to honor the
                1991 cap.

                The Top 10 Pollutants in Estuaries
                Figure 2 shows the State Section 305(b) assessment of the top 10 offenders
                (pollutants) of the Nation's estuaries in terms of their contributions to total
                impaired area. .-The sources of pollution are shown in Figure 3.

                One Person's List of the 11 Worst (Most Degraded) Estuaries and Near
                Coastal Regions
                If pressed to come up with the "Big 11" of the          nation's most degraded
                estuaries and coastal regions based on: (1) levels      of pollutants in bivalves
                (clams. oysters, mussels) and sediments, (2) hypoxia/anoxia. (3) depleted
                and closed fisheries, (4) prevalence of fish diseases, (5) areas closed to
                shellfishing, (6) areas closed to swimming, and (7) warnings concerning
                consumption of fishery products, the following would make my UNRANKED
                list of coastal areas of greatest concern:

                                         Boston Harbor
                                         Narragansett Bay
                                         Buzzards Bay
                                         Western Long Island Sound
                                         Baltimore Harbor
                                         Upper Chesapeake Bay
                                         Hampton Roads/EIizabeth River (Chesapeake Bay)
                                         Lower Mississippi and inner delta
                                         Galveston Bay
                                         San Francisco Bay
                                         Portions of Puget Sound




                                                        6














                       WHAT RESEARCH PRIORITIES HAVE BEEN EDENTIFIED?

              Most of the  most serious problems of the Coastal Ocean are fairly well
              documented. There are few surprises. In this section we consider briefly
              the extent to which research priorities reflect these problems.

              Over the past two decades there have been a series of workshops to identify
              the research  "needs" for estuaries and near-coastal waters. Often these
              workshop retreats were held in idyllic spots; they always included many of
              the leading scientists. Whether the workshop was held on Block Island,
              Catalina Island, or Long Island, whether it was in North Carolina or in East
              Anglia (UK), the lists of research priorities were remarkably similar. This is
              not surprising; the problems of the coastal zone are pervasive and
              persistent, and many of the particpants were repeaters. What is surprising
              is the lack of improvement in the richness with which the specific
              questions have been formulated, and the evolution of the research programs
              to attack them.

              The results of some of these workshops are summarized in Table 3 using a
              U.S.A. Today, "McPaper" format. The consensus on priorities. is clear. If
              another workshop were held in 1992-- and I'm not advocating it -- the list
              would differ little. If a workshop were to be held, it could more profitably
              concentrate on a single priority issue of long-standing, such as
              eutrophication, state the research problems more richly and give more
              specific guidance for formulation of a research program to advance the level
              of our understanding. It should be structured to build partnerships with
              decision makers, from the outset, to utilize the new knowledge.

                          SOME POTENTLAL EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARAMG

              While the major direct effects of global warming on the coastal ocean will
              not be on "coastal pollution and waste management" there may be some
              indirect effects. And, since I have the floor...

              Sea Level
              Half of the world's population lives in coastal regions, many of which are
              already under stress. Eustatic sea level has been rising for approximately
              the past 18.000 years. Regionally. the rate of rise of sea level may be either
              greater or less than the world-wide average because of regional isostatic
              adjustments. An increase in the rate of rise of sea level because of global
              warming will have its greatest impacts on low lying coastal areas already
              subject to flooding. As much as 20% of the.Earth's population lives on lands
              that would likely be inundated or dramatically changed. Bangladesh and
              Egypt are among the nation's most vulnerable to a rise in sea level. But, they
              are not alone.





                                                   7








              An interesting example of a nation that would be impacted are the Maldive
              Islands. This archipelago of about 1190 small islands lies approximately
              6100 krn southwest of Sri Lanka. Most of the nation rises only 2m above sea
              level. In 1987 Maldive's President Maamoon Abdul Gayoom went before the
              U.N. General Assembly and described his country as 'an endangered nation."
              He pointed out that the Maldivians "did not contribute to the impending
              catastrophe... and alone we cannot save ourselves."

              Tidal wetlands may be one casualty of an increase in the rate of rise of sea
              level. Wetlands -- particularly youthful wetlands -- are able to maintain
              themselves in a rising sea either by building vertically by trapping sediment
              and organic detritus or by moving landward. In many developed coastal
              areas. the lateral migration of wetlands has been halted by shoreline
              structures and by coastal construction. In others, the supply of sediments
              has been reduced because of better soil conservation practices and
              construction of reservoirs.

              Titus (1990. 1991) stated that if current management practices continue
              and if sea level rises as projected, most of Louisiana's wetlands could be lost
              in the next century. These and other reports have indicated that a 1m rise
              in sea level by the year 2100 could drown 25-80% of all U.S. coastal
              wetlands.

              Salt water intrusion into coastal aquifers and greater penetration of salt
              water into estuaries may threaten drinking water supplies.

              Increased Frequengy and Intensily of Storms
              Because of the large concentrations of people in coastal areas, risks to life
              and property because of coastal storms are already high and will increase
              with population and sea level rise. According to NOAA, a conservative
              estimate of the average economic costs of coastal hazards in the U.S. is about
              $2 billion/yr. However, Hurricane Hugo. alone, caused more than $9 billion
              in property damage and economic losses within the U.S. and its possessions.

              If global warming causes a rise in sea level and increases the frequency and
              intensity of storm activity, flooding and storm damage to low-lying coastal
              areas will, of course, increase with an increased loss of property and human
              lives. Damage would be particularly great in delta regions of South Asia.

              There will be other impacts of an increas     e in storm activity on coastal
              regions; most bad, a few perhaps good. Coastal infrastructure will be at
              greater risk: sewage treatment plants, airports, power plants, and even the
              subways of some coastal cities. for example. Increased storm activity also
              could increase the disturbance of contaminated sediments and the
              mobilization of contaminants. On the positive side, increased wind mixing
              of coastal waters by greater storm activity might alleviate the effects of
              hypoxia in some areas such as Long Island Sound and the Ne   w York Bight.




                                                    8










                              SOME OVER-LOOKED PROBLEMS/PROCESSES

               A number of coastal problems /processes have not received an appropriate
               level of attention. These include:       non-point sources, including the
               Atmosphere: pathogens; eutrophication: and the manipulation of river
               discharges on coastal ecoystems. Because of limitations of space and
               because land-derived non-point sources are beginning to receive far more
               attention, I will restrict my comments to atmospheric inputs and to the
               manipulation of river discharges.

               You may be wondering how the latter relates to my assigned topic -- "coastal
               pollution and waste management." According to GESAMP (1991). "marine
               pollution means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of
               substances or energy into themarine environment (including estuaries)
               resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources, hindrance
               to marine activities including fishing, impairment of quality for use of
               seawater and reduction of amenities." In this case, salt is the pollutant: it
               comes from the ocean, but man allows more of it to enter because of
               manipulation of the hydrologic cycle. As fresh water inflows are decreased,
               salt penetrates farther into estuaries destroying low salinity habitat.

               Manipulation of River Discharge: -A Looming
               One set of problems which has received too little attention and which may
               become more serious in the future are the effects of manipulation of river
               discharge on estuaries and near-coastal waters. If global climate change
               results in regional scale changes in precipitation patterns, in those -areas
               where precipitation decreases, the coastal environment may be the big
               loser. When the value of water is high and when there is not enough to go
               around, as in California, the coastal environment has not competed
               successfully in the water allocation game.

               The U.S. continues to have a voracious appetite for water. While it'does not
               lead the world in any of the reported categories of water use (public,
               industry, electric cooling and agriculture), in the aggregate the U.S. has the
               highest per capita water use and the highest total water use of all countries.
               China is second in total water use and Canada is second in per capita water
               use.


               A small number of rivers dominate the discharge of water to the World
               Ocean. One river, the Amazon, accounts for more than one-third (34.6%) of
               the total water discharge of all the world's rivers. The Congo River ranks
               second with 6.9% of the total. Twenty-one of the world's rivers account for
               more than 90% of the total discharge: four for mo re than 50%.

               The human activity that has the greatest effect in reducing the discharges of
               water and sediment by rivers has been the construction of dams and
               reservoirs. They have also affected the pattern and timing of discharges. - In
               Africa and North America, 20% of the total discharge is regulated by


                                                    9








              reservoirs, in Europe 15% and in Asia -- excluding China -- 14% is
              regulated. Only in South America and in Australasia are human impacts on
              river regimes relatively minor. According to Croome et al (1976), "Some
              ten percent of the world's total streamflow now is regulated by men, and by
              the year 2000 it is probable thet about two-thirds of the total discharge will
              be controlled."

              While the prediction of Croome et al. may be an over-estimate -- and I
              believe it is -- the regulated fraction of the world's river discharge will
              increase and changes in regional precipitation patterns could have an
              influence.

              The most intensive period of dam-building activity was between 1945 and
              1971 when more than 8,000 major dams were built outside of China
              (Beaumont 1978). The year of peak activity was 1968 when 548 dams were
              commissioned. Beaumont's (1978) data do not include China which in 1982
              accounted for more than 50% of all the world's dams, most of which were
              constructed after 1950 (Schubel, et al. 1991). The U.S. ranks second in
              total number of dams, Japan third.

              Reservoirs also trap sediment which would normally be carried downstream
              to coastal areas. Prior to construction of the Hoover Dam (1935). for
              example, the Colorado, discharged between 125-250 million t.y-1 of
              sediment to the Gulf of California. In the decades after closure of the dam,
              the discharge dropped to only about 100,000 t.y-1       to 0.05 - 0.1% of pre-
              dam levels (Meade et al. 1990).

              Construction of dams on the Missouri nearly eliminated the discharge of
              sediment of the Missouri to the Mississippi River -- its major source of
              sediment.    Partly, as a result of this. the sediment discharge of the
              Mississippi has fallen to less than half of what it was before 1953 (Meade et
              al. 1990).

              The Aswan High Dam on the Nile River is perhaps the most striking
              example of the effects of a dam on the sediment and water discharges of a
              major river. After closing of the dam in 1964 the sediment discharges of
              the Nile to its delta dropped from an average of more than 100 million t.y-1
              nearly to zero. The delta has been eroded and fisheries have collapsed.
              The reductions in discharge of freshwater and sediment to estuaries and the
              reductions in the variability of freshwater inputs have effects on physical,
              chemical and geological processes of estuaries and on their ecosystems. As
              competition for fresh water increases, the needs of estuaries will be
              weighed against the needs -- real and perceived -- of humans for water for
              drinking and domestic use, for agriculture. for cooling water, for electric
              generating stations and for industry.        In the absence of compelling
              arguments, estuaries will lose. They will be unable to compete successfully
              in the marketplace for freshwater unless the rules are changed to place a



                                                    10







               greater emphasis on the public trust doctrine and on the importance of
               preserving estuarine habitats.

               Perhaps the Precautionary Principle is the place to begin.                  The
               Precautionary Principle can be stated in terms of the need to take a cautious
               approach to any actions that might degrade the environment and @Its living
               resources even before a causal link has been established unequivocally. -The
               Precautionary Principle has to apply in all situations, not just in those where
               high priority activities are not threatened. If the Precautionary Principle
               were a guiding principle in the allocation of fresh water from the
               Sacramento-San Joaquin system in California, it is difficult to see how
               further diversions would be considered even in the absence of an
               unequivocal causal link between diversion and adverse effects on ecosystem
               values and functions in the low salinity portion of the estuary.

               In the 1981 National Symposium on Freshwater Inflow, Rosengurt and
               Hayes (1981) stated "Direct experience and the published results of the
               effects of water development abroad, all point to the inescapable conclusion
               that no more than 25-30% of the natural outflow can be diverted without
               disastrous ecological consequences." Their observation was based upon
               studies of rivers entering the Azov, Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Seas.
               In the same report, Clark and Benson (1981) state "Comparable studies on
               six estuaries by the Texas Water Resources. Department showed that a 32%
               depletion of natural fteshwater inflow to estuaries was the average maximum
               percentage that could be permitted if subsistence levels of nutrient
               transport, habitat maintenance, and salinity control were to be maintained."
               Again in that same report Bayha (1981) indicated that results of studies by
               the Cooperative Instream. Flow Service Group of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
               Service "square well" with the observations of Rosengurt and Haydock.

               The 25-30% criterion for maximum allowable reduction in natural riverflow
               does not have widespread acceptance among scientists or decision makers.
               According to Herrgesell et al. (1981) discharge of freshwater into San
               Francisco.B,ay has been reduced by approximately 50% since the 1800s.
               Other sources put the reduction at 70%. Some have predicted that inflows
               could be reduced to 10-15% of pre-diversion levels by the year 2000. Even
               with the major reductions that have already occurred, estuary managers and
               scientists face a formidable challenge in convincing the State Water Control
               Board that further reductions cannot be tolerated.

               Clark and Benson (1981) suggested establishing optimal salinity regimes and
               associated hydrologic. regimes within estuaries. Bayha (1981) pointed out
               that although estuarine needs are included among instream uses, few
               instream flow studies have actually incorporated an analysis of estuarine
               inflow. requirements to ensure estuarine ecosystem values and functions.
               'The San Francisco Estuary Program is developing the scientiflc basis for. a
               salinity standard to conserve low salinity habitat and living resources. The
               standard would take the form of an upstream seasonal limit for the position









              of the 217oo near-bottom isohaline (Schubel et al. 199 1). Even the discussion
              of a salinity standard has created concern.

              The Atmosohere -- An Underestimated Source of Contaminants to the
              Coastal Zone?
              The atmosphere may be underestimated as a source of a number of
              contaminants to coastal waters. particularly in urban areas such as Long
              Island Sound. While data specific to Long Island Sound atmospheric
              loadings are limited, preliminary estimates indicate that for a number of
              contaminants (Cu, Pb, Zn, PCBs, PAHs) direct atmospheric deposition on the
              Sound may be of the same order of magnitude as the inputs from point and
              non-point sources. For example, analysis of atmospheric deposition rates of
              a variety of contaminants on high marshes bordering the Sound suggest that
              the atmosphere supplies (1) 90% of all Pb, (2) 35% of all Zn, and (3) 70% of
              all the Cu supplied to the Sound from all sources (Merkle and Brownawell,
              in press).

              The implication is that for some urban coastal areas, -the Clean Air Act may
              be more important than the Clean Water Act in reducing the levels of a
              number of contaminants.


                                 ON THE NEED FOR NEW PARADIGMS

              This will be the topic of my oral presentation and I will distribute copies of
              my notes at the Retreat. My working hypothesis is that without new
              paradigms for research aid for research in support of coastal management,
              the future of the Coastal Ocean   at least its inshore portions  is bleak.





















                                                    12













































               Figure 1. Distribution of Population in the U.S. by Region
                          (Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis, Harvard)










                  Table 1. Distribution of Classified Estuarine Waters,
                                   1985      and 1990


                                                                    Percent Classified






                                                                          90::     85     90,
                        Region        85    @90:     85             85

                        North
                                      87    :69,     10     29,       1             2
                        Atlantic


                        Middle
                        Atlantic      82     7.9..   11    -13...:    3     ..4.1   4      4

                        South
                                      75     71      22     21        3    :@:.4   <1      4
                        Atlantic


                        Gulf of
                        Mexico        54     48      24     34       17    16       6       1

                        Pacific       42     53      40     31       18    11       1      5

                        Total         69     63      19     25        9     9       4      3
                                   /4           74e                                 N
                                                                                                IZI/






                 Table 2. Pollution Sources Affecting Harvest-Limited Acreage, 1990 a,b

                                                  North          Middle;:@@.. South             Gulf of.           Pacific     Nationwide
                                                Atlantic         Attantic.      Atlantic        Mexico
                                               Acres                        Olt                      S::
                                                                Acres.      o Acres %           Acre               Acres %     :@Acres        %

                Point Sources

                Sewage Treat Plants             238     67               57   374 44            97541.127          75     25   2,307          37

                                                                                                          6:       0
                Combined Sewers                 21         6             20       0        0    211,                      0    .:457          7

                                                                                                                               1,015     :16
                Direct Discharge                   1    <1      84::@:.     7:    5        1    9201-:@::.25(      6      2
                Industry                        21         7   223...1.120     180         21   522 ,    14        129    42   1,077,         17


                Nofipoint Sources
                Septic Systems                  91      26   @123::@     11    288         34 1,763- 48-:@:;       57     19   2,322          37

                Urban Runoff                    75      23   :@-'655:@   58,  290 34 1,276           :35;          110    36   :21412    .38

                Agricultural Runoff               5        3  130        12     233        28   301:      :8       41     13     718          11

                Wildlife                        19         7 :412;::::   10-   306 36. 11111:5          30.,'.:.'. 39     13   19597_@.       25

                Boats                           55      17     353       31     146        17   507     @141:      47     15   1, 113


                Upstream Sources

                Sewage Treat Plants               2        1   104       9        9        1 1,174      32         45     16   1,3  34        21

                Combined Sewers                   0        0      .5     <1       0        0    134       4        0      0.         0        2

                Urban Runoff                      3        1    72       6        8,       1    793      22        43     14     918          15

                Agricultural Runoff               0        0      1      <1       0        0    435      12        0      0      436          7

                Wildlife                          0        0    28       2      35 4            210        6       0      0       273         4


                a. Acres are times 1,000; % is percent of all harvest-limited acreage in region.
                b. Since the same percentage of a shellfish area can be affected by more than one source, the percentages
                  shown above cannot be added. They will not sum 100.















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                        References


                        ASLO 1990. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Estuarine Research Federation, and Southern

                        Association of Marine Laboratories, 1990. At the Land-Sea Interface: A Call for Basic Research. Joint Oceanographic

                        Institutions Inc., Washington, D.C. 30 p.


                        CRC 1983. Cronin, L.E. (Ed.), 1983. Ten Critical Questions for Chesapeake Bay in Research and Related Matters.

                        Chesapeake Research Consortium, Maryland. 156 p. plus appendix.


                        Hudson River Foundation 1984. Limburg, K.E., C.C. Harwell, S.A. Levin (Eds.), 1984. Principle for Estuarine Impact

                        Assessment: Lessons Learned from the Hudson River and Other Estuarine Experiences. Cornell University, New York.

                        75 p.


                        MSRC 1990a. Schubel, J.R. and D.M. Monteleone, 1990. Critical Problems of New York's Marine Coastal Zone: A

                        Preliminary Selection. Marine Sciences Research Center Working Paper No. 44, Ref. No. 90-11. Three Sections.


                        MSRC 1990b. Bokuniewicz, H., 1990. Towards a Framework for Research in Estuaries: The Report of a Workshop
                        held at the Marine Sciences Research Center (MSRC), State University of New York at Stony Brook, New York.

                        MSRC Working Paper #40, Reference #90-5.














                        NASULGC 1986. National Association of State Universities. an'd Land Grant Colleges, Marine Division, Estuarine

                        Committee, 1986. On the Importance of Estuarine Research.


                        NERC 1982. National Environment Research Council, 1982. Research on Estuarine Processes. Report of a
                        Multidisciplinary Workshop held at the University of East Anglia on 14-17 September 1982. 31 p.


                        NOAA 1986. N     ational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1986.., Coastal Marine Research Plan. Draft

                        11/13/86. 8p. plus appendix.


                        NRC 1977. National Research Council, 1977. Estuaries, Geophysics, and the Environment. National Academy of

                        Sciences, Washington, D.C. 127 p.


                        NRC 1983. , National Research Council, 1983. Fundamental Research on Estuaries: The Importance of an

                        Interdisciplinary Approach. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 79p.


                        NSF 1974. Hammond, D.E. (Ed.), 1974. Recommendations for Basic Research on Transfer Processes in Continental

                        and Coastal Waters: An Essential Ingredient for Predicting the Fate of Energy-Related Pollutants. A Report to the
                        National Science Foundation Submitted by the Participants in a Workshop held at Block Island, Rhode Island. July 23-

                        25, 1974. 34 p.














                       Sea Grant 1984. Copeland, BI, K. Hart, N. Davis, and S. Friday (eds.), 1984. Research for Managing the Nation's
                       Estuaries: Proceedings of a Conference in Raleigh, North Caroline. Sponsored by the National Sea Grant College
                       Program and the National Marine Fisheries Service. UNC Sea Grant College Publication UN@C-SG-84-08. 420 p.









                                            LITERATURE CITED

               Bayha, K., 198 1. Overview of freshwater inflow. In: Proceedings of the
                      National Symposium on Freshwater Inflow to Estuaries, vol. 2, pp.
                      231-247.

               Beaumont,. P.,   1978. Man's impact on river systems: a world-wide view.
                      Area, vol. 10, pp. 38-41.

               Clark, J. and    N. Benson, 1981. Summary and Recommendations of
                      Symposium. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Freshwater
                      Inflow to Estuaries, vol. 2, pp. 523-528.

               Croome, R.L., P.A. Tyler, K.F. Walker, and W.D. Williams, 1976. A
                      limnological survey of the River Murray in the Albury-Wodonga area.
                      Search, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 14-17. -

               Culliton, et al.. 1990. 50 years of Population Change along the Nation's
                      Coasts, 1960-2010. NOAA, Strategic Assessments Branch, Ocean
                      Assessments Division, National Ocean Service, Rockville, MD. 41 p.

               Goldberg, 1990. Protecting the Wet Commons. Environmental Science and
                      Technology. vol. 24, pp. 450-454.

               Herrgesell, PL., D.W. Kohlhurst, L.W. Miller, and D.E. Stevens. 1981. Effects
                      of freshwater flow on fishery resources in the Sacramento-San Joaquin
                      @estuary. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on Freshwater
                      Inflow to Estuaries, vol. 2, pp. 71-118.

               Joint Group of Experts of the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
                      (GESAMP), 1991. The State of the Marine Environment. Blackwell
                      Scientific Publications, Oxford Press. 146 p.

               Meade, R.H., T.R. Yuzyk, and T.J. Day, 1990. Movement and storage of
                      sediment in rivers of the United States and Canada. In: Wolman, M.G.,
                      and H.C. Riggs (eds.), The Geology of North America, vol. 0-1. Surface
                      Water Hydrology. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America.

               Merkle, P.B. and B.J. Brovmawell (in press). A Weather Driven Fugacity
                      Model of the Atmospheric Deposition of Semivolatile Organic
                      Compounds to Aquatic Environments. Environmental Science and
                      Technology.

               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Status and.
                      Trends Program, 1990. Coastal Environmental Quality in the United
                      States, 1990: Chemical Contamination in Sediment andTissues. 34 p.

               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service,
                      Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment, Strategic Assessment







                    Branch, 1991. The 1990 National Shellfish Register of Classified
                    Estuarine Water. 100 p.

              Rosengurt, M. and 1. Haydock, 1981. Methods of computation and ecological
                    regulation of the salinity in regime in estuarine and shallow seas in
                    connection with water regulation for human requirements.
                    Proceedings of the national symposium on freshwater inflow to
                    estuaries, vol. 2. National Technical Information Service, Washington,
                    D.C., pp. 474-506.

              Schubel, J.R., Y. Eschet, C. Zhang, J. Shen and R. Nino-Lopez. Human
                    Effects on the Discharges of Water and Sediment by the World's
                    Rivers:   An Overview.      Marine Sciences Research Center, State
                    University of New York. Stony Brook, NY 11794-5000. 45 p.

              Schubel, J.R., and D. W. Pritchard, 1991. Some Possible Futures of Long
                    Island Sound. Marine Sciences Research Center Working Paper 55,
                    Reference 91-17, 34 p. plus figures.

              Titus, James G. 1990. Greenhouse effect, sea level rise and land use. Land
                    Use Policy 7(2):138-153.

              Titus, James G. 1991. Greenhouse effect and coastal wetland policy: How
                    Americans could abandon an area the size of Massachusetts.
                    Environmental Management. Nov/Dec.













              Coastal Manaqement and Policy

              WM Eichbaum


              June 1, 1992


                   This paper is one of several prepared for a retreat on

              coastal zone is-sues sponsored by the NRC Commission on

              Geosciences, Environment, and Resources. A number of papers

              discuss focused technical aspects of the coastal zone such as

              ocean circulation and coastal meteorol ocjy, and others deal with

              broader subjects such as: 1. coastal wetlands, coastal/nearshore

              littoral.systems; 2. land useand the coastal zone; and 3.

              coastal pollution and waste management. The topic of this paper

              "Coastal Managment and Policy" inevitably touches on aspects of

              each of the others. In an effort to minimize the duplication of

              discussion, I will specifically address three topics which are

              generic in nature. The first concerns the question of how we are

              organized to provide governance of the coast. Second, I will

              discuss several problems this system encounters as it translates

              science into policy. Finally, I touch upon the question of how

              human values and expectations affects the problem of coastal

              managment. In the conclusion I will offer a suggestion for

              improving the development of policy for the coast and its

              management.













              1.  The Governance System



                   Perhaps the most salient feature about coastal governance in

              the United States is the extraordinary degree to which it is
              fragmented.1 This fragmentation exists in two dimensions which

              have important ramifications.



                   In consequence of our federal system of government and a
              concurrent fierce attachment to local authority, coastal

              governance is divided among at least three levels --- federal,

              state, and local. (Increasingly, the international agenda adds a

              significant additional level of authority for coastal matters)

                      In some instances the governanceauthority is exclusively

                   hjjd primarily at only one level of government. For

                   example, land.use controls in the interest of flood or

                   erosion managment generally are exclusively exercised, if at

                   all, at the local level, while management of navigational

                   systems is largely a federal responsibility.

                   * other instances are found where authority may be

                   simultaneouslX and sej2arately exercised by two levels of

                   government. For example, in many states, activities to


                   1. There are a number of intellectual or policy efforts to
              overcome this fragmentation. They include such ideas as
              integrated permitting and inspection and sustainable development.


                                                                              2








                   regulate development in wetlands are carried out by both

                   the states and the federal government.

                      There are models of governance which provide for the

                   delegation of authority. from one level of government to

                   another. Thus, the Federal Clean Water Act provides for

                   delegating most federal authority to the states, and this

                   has been done in many regions of the country.

                      In some circumstances the same resource may be regulated

                   by a different level of government de2ending upon the

                   geograghical region of the coastal zone in which it is

                   located. Many species of fish are regulated pursuant to a

                   federal system when located offshore, but the same species

                   (and individual) may be regulated by state authorities when

                   it migrates to fresh water rivers.

                      Authority may exist at different levels of government

                   with respect to a particular issue depending upon

                   function being Rerformed regarding that issue. Thus, the

                   resp onsibility for constructing domestic sewage treatment

                   plants is generally at the local level, while the

                   responsibility for setting minimum standards and (until

                   recently) raising the necessary funds was a federal one.



                   In addition there are any number of ways in which these

             three levels may choose to combine in order to regulate or manage

             a particular coastal resource or activity. Two or more states,

             perhaps with the federal goverment arid/or local authorities., may


                                                                              3








              join together in an interstate compact to create new authorities

              to manage a particular resource or activity. This has been

              common for interstate bodies of water and for regional port

              facilities. They may also reach more informal arrangements which

              are designed simply to assure a high degree of coordination of

              multi-jurisdictional activities --- the Chesapeake Bay Program is

              a classic example.



                   The subject-matter, or issue,-fragmentation of coastal

              gove rnance adds further complexity. Responsibility for various

              substantive-issues is always widely distributed among a very

              la rge number of government organizations at every level. The

              extent of this fragmentation is well known and need not be
              repeated.- There are, however, several characteristics that are
              worth mentioning.

                   * In many cases this dispersal of authority is not crisp.

                   There tends to be a certain gradation in responsibility from

                   one agency to the next. For example,, while EPA is clearly

                   responsible for non-point source water quality issues and

                   also manages the nation"s national estuary program,, the

                   Department of Commerce through NOAA and Coastal Zone

                   Management Act responsibilities also has non-point source

                   water quality functions, as does the Department of

                   Agriculture through the Soil Conservation Service. The

                   blurring of authorities and responsibilities as one moves

                   from the core function of one agency to that of another can


                                                                              4








                   have the disadvantage of diffusing authority. On the other

                   hand, it can also allow for competition among agencies to do

                   a good job.

                      Even where governments have attempted consolidation in

                   order to eliminate fragmentation of governance, success has

                   been rare. Very large organizations with a multiplicity of

                   missions tend to be internally diffuse. Furthermore, it is

                   simply not possible to combine everything. Recognizing

                   these short-comings, the tendency during the early nineteen-

                   seventies to create "super" agencies seems to have ended. A

                   notable exception is the' recent effort of California to

                   create a unified Department ofthe Environment. Even within

                   that strengthened Department, water.quality management

                   responsibility is geographically divided among a number of

                   very stron g regional water boards. And, coastal managment

                   Rer se is located in the separate Resources Department.



                   The foregoing had largely focused on a discussion of the

              fragmentation problem within and among the executive branch of

              governments. It is important to note that, at least at the

              federal level,, theproblem of fragmentation within the

              legislative branch of government in also severe. There are  well

              over thirty subcommittees of the Congress responsible for matters

              relating to the coastal environment.








               II., Using Science to Inform Policy and Action



                    while fragmented systems of governance have contributed

               mightily to the current poor managment of U. S. coastal

               resources, the many problems associated with properly focusing
               science on the policy choices has been as harmful. The problem

               of the relationship between science and policy is not unique to

               the coast and has been extensively.treated by a number of

               authors. The essential question is how to organize scientific

               information in a fashion which is understandable to policymakers

               and which compels an effective management response even though

               the information itself is imperfect. There are some peculiar

               aspects of the coastal marine environment which make this

               problems even more severe. They do bear some discussion.



                   in the first instance, most of what goes on in the marine

               envi ronment is invisible to all but the most sophisticated and

               dedicated investigator. This invisibility condition makes it

               almost impossible for the citizen or policynaker to have any

               intuitive sense of the actual condition of the resource as it

               may be described by the scientific community. Lacking this, a

               sense of reality and even urgency, where warranted, is missing.

               A useful comparison between the effects of invisibility of the

             @marine environment and visisbility in the terrestrial

               environment is found in the Chesapeake Bay. During the decade of

               the nineteen-eighties, over 80  of the bay's submerged aquatic


                                                                              6








               grasses died. Scarcely anyone noticed. Imagine the public

               reaction if 80 % of the forest resources of the Bay's watershed

               had died during the decade. Lack of visibility of marine

               processes also means that sometimes what is observed can be

               -distorted far beyond the actual importance which the observed

               event may have scientifically. Thus the washing up of a

               relatively small number of syringes on the beaches of New Jersey

               during the slimmer of 1988 crystalized a public impression which

               may have been far removed from the scientific reality.



                   Secondly, the actual science of the coastal environment is

               extraordinarily complex. Crucial processes take place in the

               atmosphere, on the land, and within the water. They may be

               immediate, a watershed away, or, as in the case of El Ninjo, half

               a world-away. They can be physical, chemical, biologic, or some

               combination of the three.   Much about these relationships is not

               well known. In addition to the extreme complexity of the natural

               systems, the possible ways in which human activities can intrude

               are even more complex. They range across the full conduct of

               economic and recreational life not just in the coast but

               throughout the watershed, from pollution, to fisheries, to

               development in flood plains, to habitat destruction for homes, to

               materials used such as pesticides for agriculture.  The sum is

               hugely complicated and it has only been in the last ten years
               that society has really begun to think of the total interaction
               in anything like a science-based systems way. This  inevitably


                                                                               7








               means that for some time to come, most questions about the nature

               and causes of the problems of the marine environment will be

               answerable in onlythe most tentative and perhaps inconclusive

               terms. This poses serious problems to policy-makers seeking to

               allocate scarce resources as well as to the public which is

               looking for the certainty of environmental protection.



                    Finally, the inherent complexity of the marine environment

               and its relationship to land-based activities, makes the problem

               of cumulative impacts especially severe. All too often adverse
               environmental consequences take place far in the future as a

               result of a large number of relatively minor activities. often

               the eventual adverse environmental event is dramatic in nature

               and nearly irreversable. For example, it is difficult to assess

               the impact on the coastal environment of the conversion of any

               individual farm or wood lot to a tract housing complex. Yet,

               there are numerous instances where sidespread conversions across

               a region have resulted in the general decline of coastal

               resources, and specifically, perhaps the loss of important

               shellfish resources.



                   Just as governance has been fragmented, the practice of the

               science of the marine environment (as much other environmental

               science) has been fragmented and myopic. For science to be most

               effective in the face of uncertain knowledge, it needs to

               develop information from an wide a range of disciplines as


                                                                               8








              possible and search for the integrating themes which begin to

              illuminate paths for action. For a variety of reasons, this kind

              of science is neither valued by the academic community nor often

              sought by the government.






              III. Public Values and Roles




                   There is no single public nor is there a uniform set of

              values regarding the coastal environment. While there is great

              diversity, a common driving interest can be seen. That common

              interest is Ua2. various parts of the public will tend to

              define their objective for management in terms of whether the use

              they make of the coastal environment is protected. Fishermen and

              seafood consumers will want to be assured that seafood is safe to

              consume. Surfers and swimmers will want to be certain that it is

              safe to swim in the water. Those who appreciate the enjoyment of

              the marine environment, such as bird watchers, will want to know

              that the ecological system is healthy and viable. Commercial and

              recreational fisherman will expect that the productive quality of

              the marine environment is protected.

                   In 9111smary the public will have the following objectives:
                      fish and shellfish which are safe to consume;

                      water which is safe to come into contact with;

                      a healthy ecological system; and

                      a productive ecological system.


                                                                               9










                   The foregoing suggests that there is not a simply stated set

              of public objectives for coastal environments. This diversity is

              a reasonable situation since there are divergent perspectives

              depending upon the viewpoint of the particular participant in the

              discussion. No view can be seen as wrong when analyzed from the

              stance of its own interest and the societal values which it seeks

              to advance or protect.   However, the very fact of the variety of

              interests and sources of threats suggests one basis of a complex

              process of risk analysis and priority setting.



                  A factor which further complicates this already murky

              picture is that the mix of these various values changes

              constantly with time. Values held by particular interests can

              change-and the relative importance which is ascribed to different

              values by society can change. In addition,-the objective factual

              setting will evolve. scientific understanding and technological
              capacity do grow. Choices about risk will vary. The net result,,

              however, during this century, has been a steadily growing body of

              knowledge about the extent to which the environment is being

              damaged and steadily growing public demand for improved levels of

              environmmtal protection.



              IV. Conclusion

                  There are severe consequences flowing from this fragmented

              and complex system of governance. Of course, there are the usual


                                                                              10








              problems of waste, duplication of effort, lack of coordination on

              common problems, and conflicting political agendas. While

              serious, these are not the most important consequences of the

              current fragmentation of coastal governance. More important

              problems are:

                      a collective failure to identify the most important

                   threats to the quality of the coastal environment;

                      failure to design a responsive management strategy which

                   allocates scarce resources to the most critical problems;

                      occassional massive attention to a high-profile condition

                   which, even when resolved, will still not solve the

                   identified coastal problem;

                      an inability for public attention to focus on one

                   political entity as responsible and accountable for the

                   improvement of the coastal environment; and

                   * a distortion of science with the result that the clarity

                   of positive actions becomes murky.

              In essence, this all means that: 1.) unwise actions are often

              taken; 2.) responsibility and accountability for the wise

              management of coastal resources is diffuse; and 3.) the process

              is often inaccessible to concerned publics.



                   There have been a limited number of efforts to improve this

              situation. At the federal level, the only significant attempt

              was the enactment of the Coastal Zone Management Act in 1972. It

              can'be argued that this statute provided the opportunity for the


                                                                             11








              federal government to initiate a process of forging at the state

              level a system of governance which would meld the disparate

              functions into a coherent whole. However, this opportunity was

              generally missed as the federal program only sought to achieve a

              state co astal program designed around a system of loosely

              coordinating various authorities. The result has been that

              separate authorities remain dominant and that common actions are

              still lacking.



                   Solutions to these problems can be found through

              implementation of a governance strategy based on the concepts of

              integrated coastal management. In brief, integrated coastal

              management is a methodology which identifies important scientific

              and human-value issues on an ecological basis, compares the

              risks posed, and develops risk management options which

              effectively allocate scarce resources to the most important

              problems. This dynamic  process is action oriented and iterative

              with refinements being based on monitoring, research and

              institutional responses.



                   The first stop in actually implementing such a strategy

              would be to identify a single governmental entity to be assigned

              with the actual responsibility of assuring that integrated

              coastal management is carried out. This does not mean that all

              governmental functions must be combined in one "superagency." In

              highly complex or geographically widespread situations, it may


                                                                             12








              mean that new coordinating bodies need to be established. In

              either case, in order to be effective the responsible entity

              should have the following authorities: planning for integrated

              coastal management; monitoring for environmental results;

              coordinating of budgets; and data management.








































                                                                             13





                 DRAFT - NOT FOR CIRCULATION



                                                  Background Paper:

                            Workshop on "Multiple Uses of the Coastal Zone in a Changing World"



                                  Research and Development Funding for
                                      Coastal Science and Management

                                                     in the US






                                                          by





                                                     R. E. Turner
                                   Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, and,
                                                Coastal Ecology Institute
                                               Louisiana State University
                                             Baton Rouge, Louisi ana 70803

                                                         and

                                                     J. R. Schubel
                                             Marine Science Research Center
                                       State University of New York at Stony Brook
                                                Stony Brook, New York











                 11 June 1992





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                    Introduction

                           It is an indisputable conclusion that coastal ecosystems are important to society, yet marly
                    are stressed and require remedial action, and conserving the remaining values is unpredictable. It
                    is not surprising, therefore, that various strategies and planning exists to achieve the desired goals
                    for these systems. However, after decades of much work and financing, these goals are still
                    elusively sought in the case of most coastal systems. While old pressures continue, new ones
                    arise (e.g. aquaculture, eutrophication and sea level rise), yet the natural attributes and 'controlling
                    circuitry' are still incompletely understood. Two activities are still necessary: the development of
                    new knowledge, and, the application of that knowledge.

                           Both scientists and engineers (S&E) are involved in these two activities. It is the purpose

                    of preparing this material to examine important funding patterns and cross-sectoral interactions

                    among government, education and industry. This is done to help evaluate and devise

                    recommendations affecting how we - managers, administrators, scientists and engineers - may

                    more usefully contribute professionally. We used mostly national statistical parameters because

                    coastal scientists and engineers are obviously not a distinctive tribe, professionally isolated from

                    either their inland peers or offshore colleagues.

                    Where are the Coastal Scientists and E

                           Coastal scientists and or engineers (S&E) cannot be defined as easily as chemists or

                    physicist, which are from more traditional discipline interests. Coastal fields tend to -be.

                    interdisciplinary, may include management, and are limited to the coastal zone (which is itself

                    undefined). Traditional societal surveys may therefore not recognize all significant participants.

                    An-American Geophysical Union (1986) occasional survey (others in 1969 and 1975) of ocean

                    scientists and engineers was used here as an indicator of the total number of coastal S&E, and, as a

                    descriptor of their geographic distribution.

                           In 1986 there were 6,000 people includ  ed in the AGU survey, which compares to the

                    national S&E manpower of 400,358 (NSB 199 1), or 1.5 % of the national S&E workforce.

                    Eighty-five percent were in the coastal states, whose geographic distribution is described in various





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                    ways in Figure 1. There are significant numbers of coastal S&E in all coastal states. The density
                    per population is highest in the northeast and northwest coastal sectors (upper panel), and density
                    per shoreline length (from the World Almanac) is highest in Maine, Alaska, and the southeastern

                    US and Gulf of Mexico (middle panel). There are eleven institutions with more than 50 S&E

                    among the 25 coastal states (lower panel). There is a ten-fold range from minimum to maximum in
                    all values. There are obvious centers of concentration spread broadly within all regions of the US.

                    All states appear to have a minimal core of S&E working in the coastal zone, however it is defined.

                    National Science and Engineering Issues

                           Coastal scientists and engineers are less than 10 % of the total US S&E manpower and

                    their sectoral addresses (per above) are not obviously different from the rest of the national S&E

                    workforce. National statistics may provide information, therefore, about the activities and

                    resources of coastal S&E.

                           National indicators of science and engineer funding and manpower have increased

                    tremendously since WW2. In 1940 there were 330 Ph.D.s per I million people older than 22

                    years. By 1966 that ratio climbed to 778: 1,000,000, in 1970 it was 1587: 1,000,000, and 2000

                    per million in 1990 (Stephan and Levin 1991). In 1976, S&E employment was 2.4 % of the

                    workforce, but in 1986 it was 3.6 %. The growth of US baccalaureate and first professional

                    degree has increased about 4.8 % annually since 1900. The new workforce is being trained today,

                    but apparently not in sufficient quantity to meet modest projections for national needs. Various
                    reviews (e.g. -Pool 1990,. Atkinson 1990, NSB 199 1) suggest an "annual supply-demand gap of

                    several thousand scientists and engineers at the Ph.D. level, with the shortage persisting well into

                    the 2 1 st century." (Atkinson 1990, p. 427), as an aging faculty retires, as the student population

                    bulges, and if historical S&E employment growth continues. Employment growth for S&E,

                    however, is not projected to remain steady, but to rise.

                           What is the support for the present and future graduate students? Where will we. find those

                    young S&E for work in the coastal zone?





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                            In 1969 there were 80,000 S&E graduate students supported by Federal funds (Table 1).

                    In 1980 and 1990 the federal support changed from 44,590 to 52,875 students (18.5 % rise),

                    respectively, and 20 % of the total were supported on federal funds. Meanwhile, the student

                    population rose to more than 267,621 students and the S&E workforce increased 50 %. The

                    number of environmental students (I to 1.5 % of the total) has declined in the past 10 years. From

                    1980 to 1990 total S&E expenditures increased 130 % in current dollars, and 51 % in constant

                    1982 dollars. Those dollars not only paid for basic salaries of a more experienced workforce, but

                    increasingly sophisticated equipment amidst the growth of larger projects. In other words, in the

                    past decade: (1) the dollars for R&D and S&E workforce rose together, (2) student support rose

                    slower than total support, and, (3) the average project size per potential investigator has gone

                    down. One consequence is that education of graduate students may be compromised. One cannot

                    (or should not) turn students loose without supervision and they need resources to be trained.

                           The experience at NSF reflects these changes. The proposal success rate at NSF has gone

                    from 38.5 % in 1981 to around 30 % in 1990 (Palca 1990). The average grant size has dropped

                    from $68K in 1985 to $61.7 in 1989 (1989 dollars). Individual investigators accounted for 57 %

                    of the research budget in 1991 budget compared to 68 % in 1980. Although centers are often

                    blamed for the lack of small science, only 4.5 % of the NSF research budgets go to research

                    centers. The change in average grant size has not gone unnoticed. Dalrymple (1991) quoted the

                    V. Bush report (1945) setting up the NSF: "New products and processes are founded on new

                    principles and conceptions which, in.turn, are developed by research in the purest realms of

                    science". The concern is twofold: (1) that directed science compromises undirected science, and,

                    (2) that big multi-investigator projects compromise the productivity of the smaller, often single-

                    investigator projects. The resolution of these issues affects how coastal zone science and

                    management will proceed. There are urgent pleas to have scientists actively involved in the process

                    of setting priorities (e.g. Kaarsbe rg and Park 199 1) for a shrinking budget.

                           However, even if funding increases in the near future, it is unlikely that we win return to

                    the days immediately following WW2, when it was.said that "under present conditions, the ceiling





                                                                                                                 5


                    on R&D activities is fixed by the availability of trained personnel, rather than by the amounts of
                    money available" Steelman 1947, p.22). Unfortunatel , both funding and manpow'er appear
                                                                            y

                    limiting in the years ahead and the S&E community should prepare for strenuous discussions about

                    the relative merits of big and small science, and of directed vs undirected research. In the midst of

                    these changes appears the complicating (and compromising) growth of 'ear-marked' funds for
                    R&D, otherwise known as 'pork barrel' projects. In 1983 there were 3 of these projects worth

                    about 16 million (Figure 2). By 1990 the amount rose to nearly 500 million. An Office of Science

                    and Technology Policy analysis for 1991 appropriations bills identified 492 projects totaling 810

                    million. For comparison, this is equal to 44 % of the NSF budget, and 6 % of the national

                    educational R&D budget. Scientists and engineers should be wary of this development, as it is a

                    substitute for merit review. Merit review must be effective and acceptable to be a plausible defense

                    against pork barrel funding.

                    Research Product Ouality

                           There are three major performers of research: government, industry and education    al

                    institutions. Government laboratories have a reputation for project management, monitoring and

                    immediate problems over publication; educational, laboratories for a 'publish-or-persish'

                    reputation; and industry for garnering funds necessary for either profit or proprietary interests and

                    for a rapid response and 'on-time' performance, etc. These three sectors have legitimate

                    viewpoints and functions that a national research and development policy should be matched with,

                    goal for function.

                           T"he educational community clearly excels at developing new information. Two

                    demonstrations of this are discussed here. Analyses of frequently cited papers in ecology and

                    oceanography are provided by McIntosh (1989) and Garfield (1987), respectively. The most

                    frequently cited papers, indicators of highly useful scientific contributions, am dominated by

                    authors residing or working with educational institutions (Table 2). More than 95 % of all 'classic'

                    papers are from these institutions. Officer et al. (198 1) provided a different type of analyses for

                    selected estuarine publications. They concluded that "the academic community has produced most





                                                                                                         6


                  (77 %) of the refereed research literature on estuaries -- evidence of the importance of academic
                  sources of new knowledge," done on somewhere between 31 to 37 % of the available funding. A
                  more complete quantification of 1,200 S&E publications for 1984 (NSB 1987) indicates that 61 %
                  of all articles arose from educations institutions (Table 3; article number was proportioned

                  according to all aut hor's addresses). This educational contribution was done on 9 % of the

                  funding, and was 14 % of the average dollar spent per article generated. In other words, the

                  quality and quantity of educational research publications compares very well to all other sectors.

                         What is the preference of the other sectors for working with each other on new

                  information? The overwhelming preferences is for collaboration with co-authors at educational

                  institutions (Table 4). The strongest preference across sectors was for federal scientists to work

                  with scientists in the educational sector where nearly half of all articles from federal laboratories

                  were co-authored with educational sector co-authors.

                  Terminus

                         Coastal science and management are not particularly overwhelmed with useful data and

                  more data are required to address the newly arising complications of increased population, limited

                  resources and complex management milieus. New scientific and engineering contributions are

                  heavily weighted towards educational R&D contributions. The present R&D funding environment

                  is stagnating, and threatened by looming manpower shortages and is very competitive. These

                  factors are beginning to place a strain on the S&E community which is becoming increasingly

                  vocal about the instability of funding for individuals, the size individual project funding, and the

                  distribution of funding towards fewer and larger projects. Some see fields that are becoming

                  11 overcrowded with 'risk avoiders'more worried about their next grant" (Stephan and Levin 1991).

                  The federal government is becoming less involved in R&D research in terms of the percent

                  funding, publication, and student support.

                         It has been suggested elsewhere that it is appropriate for student support from federal

                  sources to be doubled (J. Vaughn, The federal role in doctoral education" a policy statement of the

                  American Association of Universities, D.C. Sept. 1989). Doing that without depleting the other





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                    R&D resources would have the longterm effect of increasing the labor pool in future years and to

                    support higher education which does significant amounts of the research.

                            Partnerships with.the educational R&D sectors should be encouraged. ne R&D activity of

                    the educational sector is of high quality, high quantity and relatively inexpensive compared to other

                    sectors. Federal: educational linkages are pretty good, but not with all sectors. We must be careful

                    co-mingling the different institutions so as not to compromise the qualities of each by confusing the

                    functions of each, which are not the same. University scientists are not natural resource managers,

                    but teachers, even scholars, and technically astute. The political demands of government service
                    require skills that are not taught on class field trips or-in the research laboratory. Time spent by

                    government on management and administration is time not available to develop, assimilate and

                    synthesize new information. Industrial R&D activities are more sensitive to profit, etc. What we

                    do not know is how much more overlap of activities is desirable. The partnerships of the next few

                    years should be interesting, in that regard, and attempted gradually.

                            There are some conspicuous differences between research in the coastal zone and elsewhere

                    that should be mentioned. Research in the coastal zone is more parochial, in some ways, than in

                    blue water oceanography, for example. In forest research there is an open competition for funds

                    that is sometimes lacking in coastal zone research. The role of the research community in proposal

                    review by the former has a greater role in determining quality than the estuarine research, for

                    example. Socio-political aspects tend to be more influential in deciding what questions should be

                    asked and how to manage an estuarine project. Although the pressure is somewhat understandable

                    given the multiple and often conflicting views of estuarine management, the result is often 'quick

                    and dirty'R&D projects and an undue influence of opinion about sometimes very sophisticated

                    scientific and technical issues. Good analyses can lay out the options and their implications

                    without involving a policy choice; good policy decisions cannot be made without good analyses.

                    A recent example Of the effe ct of an absence of good analysis is the debacle over redefining

                    wetlands in the absence of scientific judgement (Kusler 1992, Sipple 1992). In this example,
                    scientific judgements were phased out in favor of policy outcomes suiting an exclusively political





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                   agenda. Second, it is worth repeating that good analyses do not usuall y come quickly, and that

                   simple plans of actions are usually just that - simplistically inappropriate. The short-attention spans

                   of managers and pol'iticians amidst S&E untrained in policy makes for a treacherous liaison

                   between what is an artificial division of 'basic' and 'applied' R&D. It isa particularly daunting

                   challenge to derive the essentially interdisciplinary programmatic thrusts necessary to answer the

                   management questions within the coastal zone. Third, unstable financial resources will not be as

                   effective as long-term support. Excellence requires stability (but not entrenchment). Meeting the
                   immediate needs of management compromises achievement of substantial gains over the lodg haul.



                   References Cited

                   American Geophysical Union 1986. U.S. Ocean Scientists and Engineers. Am. Geophy. Union,

                     Washington, D.C.

                   Atkinson, R. C-. 1990. Supply and demand for scientists and engineers: A national crisis in the

                     making. Science 248:425-432.

                   Bush, V. 1945. Science, The Endless Frontier: A repo   rt to the president on a program for postwar
                     scientific research. (National Science Foundati.on, Washington, D.C., reprinted May 1980).

                   Dalrymple, G. B. 1991. The importance of "small' science.     EOS. Trans. Am. Geophy. Union

                     72:1, 4.

                   Garfield, E. .1987. Which oceanography journals make the biggest waves? Current Contents

                     48:3-11.

                   Kaarsberg T.M and R. L. Park 1991. Scientists must face the unpleasant task of setting priorities.

                     Chronicle of Higher Education. Feb. 20, 199 1, A52.

                   Kusler, J. 1992. Wetlands delineation: An issue of science or politcs? Environment 34:7-11, 29-

                     37.

                   McIntosh, R. P. 1989. Citation classics of ecology. Quarterly Review of Biology 64:31-49.

                   National Science Board 1987. Science and Engineering Indicators - 1987. U.S. Government

                     Printing Office. Washington, D.C.





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                  National Science Board, 1991.Science and Engineering Indicators - 1991. U.S. Government

                    Printing Office. Washington, D.C.

                  Officer, C. B., L. E. Cronin, R. B. Biggs, and J. H. Rhyther 1981. A perspective on estuarine

                    and coastal research funding. Environmental Science and Technology. 15:1282-1285.

                  Palca, J. 1990. NSF: Hard times amid plenty. Science 248:541-543.

                  Pool, R. 1990. Who will do science in the 1990s? Science 248:433-435.

                  Sipple, W. S. 1992. Time to move on. National Wetlands Newsletter 14:4-6.

                  Steelman, J. R. 1947. Science and Public Policy. U.S. Government Printing Office.

                    Washington, D.C.

                  Stephan, P. and S. G. Levin 199 1. Research productivity over the life cycle: Evidence for

                    American scientists. Am. Economic Review 81:114-132.





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                     Table 1. Changes in support for Scientists and Engineers (S&E) and graduate

                     students in 1969, 1980 and 1990. The 1969 data is from Atkinson (1990).

                     Other data is from NSB (1991, p 252). Dollars in current dollars.
                     Graduate S&E Students            1969            1980         1990
                       to Education
                     Federal sources (no.)           80,000        44,590         52,875
                     All Sources (no.)                  -          215,354        267,621
                     % Federal                          -          20.7 %         19.7%
                     Environmental Students (no.)       -            3,442         2,939@
                     % Environmental Students           -           1.6 %          1.1 %

                     Research and Developmen
                      to Education
                     Federal (billion $)               1.6           4.1            9.3
                     All Sources (billion $)          2.2            6.1            16.0
                     % Federal                      71.9%            67%           58%





                                  cuA t.,IM@ULATION                                                      I I









                   Table 2. Addresses of authors of 'classic'joumal papers in ecology and oceanography. WH and

                   SIO are scientists whose mailing address is Woods Hole, Massachusetts and Scripps Institute of

                   Oceanography, California, respectively. Scientists living there may, or may not, have an academic

                   affiliation at the time of the article publication data.

                                               us                                       Foreign
                                  WH/SIO Educ.        Govt.    Induatry           Educ.        Govt.

                   Source

                   McIntosh 1989     5         61        2        1                 32           6

                   Garfield 1987     22        4         0        0                 2             1
                   non-core journals

                   Garfield 1987     10        5         2        0                 7            5
                   core journals


                   Totals            37        70        4        1                 41           12







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                    Table 3. Expenditures (millions) and cost per article published by sectors for 1984. Adapted from

                    data in NSB 1991, p 308, and NSB 1987, p 286. R&D=Research and Development.

                    FFRDC=Federally funded Research and Development Center.


                                        R&D $              %                              %
                                       (Millions)      funding           articles      articles     $1000/article


                    University           8,617              9           30,988            61             278
                    Non-profit           3,000              3           5,803             11             517
                    FFRDC                3,150                          1,970             4             1,599
                    Federal             11,572             11           8,898             18            1,301
                    Industry            74,800             74           2,930             6            25,529

                    Total               101,139           100           50,599            100           1,999







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                   Table 4. Percent cross sectoral (Education, Industry, Non-profit, Federally Financed

                   Research and Development Centers, and Federal) authorship of journal articles published in

                   1984. The items in bold are the two most frequent cross-sectoral associations for the

                   authors in that sector. Adapted from data in NSB 1987, p 277.


                                                               Prim= Authors
                                   Educational      Industj:y.    Non-profit           EFRDC      Federal

                   Co-Authors
                   Educational          77             24             53                 37          48
                   Industry              3             64              3                  6          4
                   Non-profit            7               3            36                  2          5
                   FFRDC                 2               3             1                 49          2
                   Federal              10               6             8                  5          42






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                                       0.2-           Coastal S&E per 1000 population


                                        0.1
                                       0.0    11 11 lin n n nl@@UJr,,,Mp
                                                                                         120

                                              krn coastline per S&E
                                        10

                                     E-




                                         01,                                          _1L


                                             #1 nstitu io ns with > 9 S&E
                                                     or 9 >50
                                       10-

                                     co
                                      A







                                         0

                                                              >
                                                          MQ2@,zWVU-J.-<M, V(>
                                                              STATE

                  Figure 1. Geographic distribution of ocean scientists and engineers in the US coastal states. Top:

                  coastal S&E per state population (1990 census data). Middle: Coastal S&E per Ian tidal coastline.

                  Bottom: Number of coastal S&E per state. 7be height of the bar indicates more than 9 reside at

                  one address. AYindicates mom than 50 reside at one address (maximum of one in any one

                  state). Data are from a 1986 survey of scientists and engineers (AGU 1986).






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                         1000-


                                                                                            13
                                      ONSB 1985
                                      0 Savage 1969
                                      oCordes 1991
                          500-
                                      13 OSTP 1991




                             0.       1960                 '198'5                 '199'0
                                                            Year

                Figure 2. Ile rise in non-competitive, or 'earmarked' funds disbursed outside agency initiated

                requests. (adapted from data reported in NSB 1991). Note: the 1991 NSF budget was $1.954

                billion, and the total research and development funds for educational institutions in 1988-9 was

                $13.5 billion.











                                           BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION




               ALAN F. BLUMBERG is a principal scientist and leader of the bydrodynamics group at
               HydroQual, Inc. He received his B.S. in physics from Fairleigh Dickinson University, an
               M.A. and Ph.D. in physical oceanography from the Johns Hopkins University, and
               postdoctoral training at Princeton University. His areas of interest are in estuarine and
               coastal ocean hydrodynamic modeling, the analysis and interpretation of physical
               oceanographic data and the development of transport predictions for problems
               associated with a host of water quality issues. He has published over 75 journal articles
               and reports in these areas. Dr. Blumberg is very active with the American Society of Civil
               Engineers and is currently chairman of the Computational Hydraulics Committee.


               RICHARD F. BOPP is Associate Professor of the Department of Earth and
               Environmental Sciences of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He received his B.S.
               in Chemistry from MIT and his Ph.D. in Geological Sciences from Columbia University.
               As a member of the research staff at the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, he
               worked primarily on the Hudson River and nearby estuaries and coastal systems. His
               research focused on the development of contaminant chronologies, the geochemistry
               of organic pollutants and nutrient cycling. From 1990-91, he served as Science Officer
               on the Hudson River PCB Project at the New York State Department of Environmental
               Conservation.


               WILLIAM M. EICHBAUM received his B.A. from Dartmouth College, and his LLB.
               from Harvard Law School. He specializes in environmental law and public policy and
               is currently a Vice President of International Environmental Quality of the World Wildlife
               Fund in Washington, DC. Prior to his work there, he held posts, including
               Undersecretary, Executive Office of Environmental Affairs, Commonwealth of
               Massachusetts, and Assistant Secretary for Environmental Programs at the Maryland
               Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Mr. Eichbaum is a member of the
               Chesapeake Critical Area Commission, the National Environmental Enforcement
               Council of the Department of Justice, the Coastal Seas Governance Project, the
               Patuxent River Commission, and the Environmental Law Institute. He was a member
               of the National Research Council Committee on Institutional Considerations in
               Reducing the Generation of Hazardous Industrial Wastes, and Committee on Marine
               Environmental Monitoring. Currently he serves on the NRC Committee on Wastewater
               Management for Coastal Urban Areas.









                EDWARD D. GOLDBERG is Professor of Chemistry, Scripps Institution of
                Oceanography, University of California at San Diego. He received the B.S. and Ph.D.
                in Chemistry at the University of California at Berkeley and the University of Chicago,
                respectively. His present research interests include the marine chemistries of the
                platinum-group elements and the nature and reactions of the colloidal state
                components in seawater. He is the author of 'The Health of the Oceans", Black
                Carbon in the Environment' and "Coastal Zone Space: Prelude to Conflicts", the latter
                in press by UNESCO. He strongly advocates that the oceans can play a substantial
                role in waste management.


                DOUGLAS L INMAN is Professor of Oceanography and founding Director of the
                Center for Coastal Studies, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of
                Califorriia, San Diego. During his more than thirty years of teaching at Scripps and
                research in many areas of the world, he has pioneered the field of beach and
                nearshore processes. He is a Guggenheim Fellow, and he has served as a UNESCO
                Lecturer in Marine Science in a number of countries. Dr. Inman is the author of over
                one hundred scientific publications, was technical director for the Orbit Award winning
                film, IrThe Beach: A River of Sand" and has received the American Society of Civil
                Engineers "International Coastal Ei4gineering Award" (1988) and the "Ocean Science
                Educator Award" (1990) from the Office of Naval Research.

    It
                STEPHEN P. LEATHERMAN is the director of the Laboratory for Coastal
                Researchand professor of geomorphology in the Department of Geography at the
                University of Maryland, College Park. He received his B.S. in geoscience from North
                Carolina State University and a Ph.D. in environmental sciences form the University of
                Virginia. His principal research interests are in quantitative coastal geomorphology,
                coastal geology and hydraulics, and coastal resources management. He has
                authored and edited 8 books and published over 100 joumal articles and reports on
                storm-generated beach processes, barrier islands dynamics, and sea level risk
                impacts on coastal areas. Dr. Leatherman was an author of the 1987 National
                Research Council report on "Responding to Changing Sea Level: Engineering
                Implications" and served on the NRC Committee on Coastal Erosion Zone
                Management.


                RICHARD ROTUNNO holds a Ph.D. in geophysical fluid dynamics from Princeton
                University. Since 1980, he has been at the National Center for Atmosphedc Research,
                where he is presently a Senior Scientist. His'research interests include: The fluid
                dynamics of tornadoes and tornado-bearing thunderstorms, squall line thunderstorms,
                tropical cyclones, the sea breeze, orographically modified flow, and fronts and
                cyclones. He was the chair of the National Research Council's Panel on Coastal
                Meteorology.








               JERRY R. SCHUBEL holds a B.S. from Alma College, a M.A.T. from Harvard
               University, and a Ph.D. in oceanography from Johns Hopkins University. His areas of
               research include estuarine and shallow water sedimentation, suspended sediment
               transport, interactions of sediment and organisms, pollution effects, continental shelf
               sedimentation, marine geophysics, and thermal ecology. Currently, he is the Director
               of the Marine Sciences Research Center, and Dean and Leading Professor of Marine
               Sciences at SUNY Stony Brook. He also is a State University of New York
               Distinguished Service Professor. He was the senior editor of Coastal Ocean Pollution
               Assessment, and chairman of the Outer Continental Shelf Science Committee for the
               Department of Interior Mineral Management Service. He is a member of the New York
               Academy of Sciences, and a past president of the Estuarine Research Federation. He
               was a member of the National Research Council's. Committee on Marine
               Environmental Monitoring. He is currently a member of the Marine Board and serves
               on the Committee on Wastewater Management for Coastal Urban Areas.


               R. EUGENE TURNER is Professor, Coastal Ecology Institute, and, Department of
               Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana State University. He received a B.A.
               degree from Monmouth College (111.), a M.S. degree from Drake University (Biology),
               and a Ph.D. from the University of Georgia (Ecology). His principal research interests
               are in quantitative coastal ecology and biological oceanography. He is Chairman,
               Intecol Wetlands Working Group, serves on several national committees, and is active
               in scientific matters concerning scientific aspects of coastal environmental
               management. He is presently a member of the NAS/NRC Marine Board, Habitat
               Committee, Co-Chair of the EPA Gulf of Mexico Habitat Committee, Book Board of
               AGU, and Editorial Board Wetlands Ecology and Management.


               JOY B. ZEDLER holds a Ph.D. in botany (plant ecology) from the University -of
               Wisconsin. Since 1969 she has been at San Diego State University (SDSU) and is
               currently a professor of biology at SDSU and director of the Pacific Estuarine -
               Research Laboratory. Her research interests include salt marsh ecology; structure
               and functioning of coastal wetlands; restoration and construction of wetland
               ecosystems; effects of rare, extreme events on estuarine ecosystems; dynamics of
               nutrients and algae in coastal wetlands; and the use of scientific information in the
               management of coastal habitats. She recently worked on a compilation of literature
               on the creation and restoration of wetlands for the U.S. Environmental Protection
               Agency. Dr. Zedler was appointed as a member of the Water Science and
               Technology Board July 1991.











































































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