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Coastal Zone Information Center 0.1 Ono tj 1v g.I 4-1 .1 A&FT 41 41, loft Ac. A v, gy of Lakes' 7 V, P',, wl' oasta I Zo ne fo m 0 I r1n a ti n r Center a n av e n t b-@%REAT LAKES BASIN FRAW ST JUL 2 -6 1976 Great Lakes Basin Fra.mework Study APPENDIX 4 LIMNOLOGY OF LAKES AND EMBAYMENTS C0,10 of Commerce tal Services Center Ubrgaj7 2,234 South Hobson Avenue SC 29405- C7 GREAT LAKES BASIN COMMISSION Prepared-by Limnology Work Group Sponsored by National'Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration U.S.:Department of Commerce Published by the Public Information Office, Great Lakes Basin Commission, 3475 Plymouth Road, P.O. Box 999, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Printed in 1976. Cover photo by Kristine Moore Meves. This appendix to the Report of the Great Lakes Basin Framework Study was prepared at field level under the auspices of the Great Lakes Basin Commission to provide data for use in the conduct of the Study and preparation of the Report. The conclusions and recommendations herein are those of the group preparing the appendix and not necessarily those of the Basin Commission. The recommendations of the Great Lakes Basin Commission are included in the Report. The copyright material reproduced in this volume of the Great Lakes Basin Framework Study was printed with the kind consent of the copyright holders. Section 8, title 17, United States Code, provides: The publication or republication by the Government, either separately or in a public document, of any material in which copyright is subsisting shall not be taken to cause any abridgement or annulment of the copyright or to authorize any use or appropriation of such copyright material without the consent of the copyright proprietor. The Great Lakes Basin Commission requests that no copyrighted material in this volume be republished or reprinted without the permission of the author. OUTLINE Report Appendix 1: Alternative Frameworks Appendix 2: Surface Water Hydrology Appendix 3: Geology and Ground Water Appendix 4: Limnology of Lakes and Embayments Appendix 5: Mineral Resources Appendix 6: Water Supply-Municipal, Industrial, and Rural Appendix 7: Water Quality Appendix 8: Fish Appendix C9: Commercial Navigation Appendix R9: Recreational Boating Appendix 10: Power Appendix 11: Levels and Flows Appendix 12: Shore Use and Erosion Appendix 13: Land Use and Management Appendix 14: Flood Plains Appendix 15: Irrigation Appendix 16: Drainage Appendix 17: Wildlife Appendix 18: Erosion and Sedimentation Appendix 19: Economic and Demographic Studies Appendix F20: Federal Laws, Policies, and Institutional Arrangements Appendix S20: State Laws, Policies, and Institutional Arrangements Appendix 21: Outdoor Recreation Appendix 22: Aesthetic and Cultural Resources Appendix 23: Health Aspects Environmental Impact Statement SYNOPSIS The appendix was designed to present in a in a few epicenters in the southern half of the logical fashion the processes that underlie the Basin. As a result of these factors, there are hydrology, hydrodynamics, biology, geology, two different inputs to the lakes. Drainage to and chemistry of the Great Lakes and upland the upper lakes generally reflects the natural lakes in the Great Lakes Basin. In establish- system and is relatively stable. Lower Lake ing criteria for the preparation of the appen- Michigan, and Lakes Erie and Ontario, by con- dix, it was felt that discourses on dynamic trast, have well-developed drainage systems processes would be more meaningful than that are out of equilibrium with the natural presentations of lake-by-lake data arrays. In- system because they carry large amounts of asmuch as natural phenomena are interre- human, industrial, and agricultural wastes lated within the environment, a minimum into the lakes. number of sensitive parameters can be used to The Great Lakes strongly influence the characterize certain processes and responses. Basin climate, which in turn affects land us- A goal of this appendix is to define those inter- age. In the vicinity of the Great Lakes the relationships so that the reader may be able to continental climate characteristic of the anticipate the nature of the responses. The northern United States is modified to a semi- scope of such a project is really beyond devel- maritime climate, and the lake effect is pro- opment in a single document. In fact, in many nounced. Coastal temperatures, precipitation, ways this one appendix includes material on and some winds are controlled by the lakes. the Great Lakes analogous to the material However, the water budget, chemistry, sur- contained in the series of appendixes that deal face disturbances, and circulation in the lakes with natural phenomena of the Great Lakes are controlled largely by the land adjacent to Basin. Therefore, emphasis had to be placed the lakes. on eonceptualization rather than data-array Concepts of water motion commonly include presentation. The extensive list of references the terms waves and currents, but they also will allow further study of specific problems. include the free and forced lake oscillations as Bedrock geometry has a strong influence on well as long- and short-term variations in lake the configuration of the Great Lakes. The bot- levels. Although the implication of surface toms of Lakes Michigan, Huron, Erie, and On- motion is extremely significant in manage- tario are almost wholly in shales. Sills that ment and development of the Great Lakes, ef- separate the lakes are mostly Silurian carbo- forts to understand these forces have been nate rocks. The more subtle physiographic made only during the past 20 years. Much has features in the Basin result from modification been accomplished, but available studies are of Pleistocene glacial debris. The distribution localized. Internal motions are also extremely of glacial debris influences the distribution important in the Great Lakes. Eddy diffusiv- and types of upland lakes. ity has probably received the most attention Distribution of population centers and land because it plays a role in dispersion of contam- uses are largely a function of physiography, inants, especially near shore. Currents detri- climate, and natural resources. The physio- mental to navigation have historically been of graphic factors have caused many of the envi- prime importance in harbor design, but with ronmental problems of the Great Lakes and increased cultural input, disposition of pollu- upland lakes that now exist. Much of the tants has also become a factor. Knowledge of northern half of the Great Lakes Basin is circulation patterns in harbors and embay- poorly drained swamp and forest with lumber- ments provides a base for aiding navigation, ing and mining as major industries. The forecasting sedimentation patterns, deter- southern half of the Basin is better drained mining flushing rates, and selecting locations and is highly developed for agriculture and for water intakes and outfalls. urban utilization. Population concentration is Knowledge of the magnitude of dissolved V vi Appendix 4 material in a lake is useful in identifying the ent enrichment and environmental imbal- degree to which pollution and natural influx ance. However, large gaps exist in our un- are affecting the lake. Present open-lake con- derstanding of production in the lakes, metho- centrations are below the standards estab- ods to control plant growth, and the effects of lished by the States, but these are averages, so plant growth and decay on the physical and the standards are exceeded locally. All the chemical quality of the lakes and on the other lakes, except Lake Superior, have had an in- elements of the biota. Zooplankton and crease of dissolved material over the period of zoobenthos are of interest primarily as indi- record, and extrapolation indicates that aver- cators of environmental quality and as part of age loads may exceed standards by the year the food chain. The literature on these or- 2000 if influx is not reduced. In addition to ganisms is extensive, but it contains large long-term changes, there are annual cylical gaps that inhibit systematic evaluation of the changes in dissolved constituents in the Great role of the faunal elements in an environmen- Lakes. Short-term variations result from dilu- tal planning context. tion, runoff, organic production, variations in Many gaps in the data base must be filled supplies, and lake thermal structure. before modeling can be fully utilized as a pri- A major factor in management of the lakes is mary tool for multidisciplinary coordination the time requir 'ed to flush or cleanse the lakes and planning. In light of the anticipated if loads are reduced. Most calculations are changes in use and quality of lakes in the next based on a mass balance and consider conser- few decades, it is imperative that forecasts vative indicators; as such they may be mis- that reflect multiuser interests be based on leading. The complex interactions of sediment, the maximum available information. biota, and water in the lakes result in storage The Great Lakes are in need of restoration. of constituents. Reduction in loading of any of With the exception of Lake Superior, the lakes these constituents most likely will cause re- show varying degrees of impairment in qual- leases from the lake bottom in an attempt to ity of the biomass and water. This degradation establish a new equilibrium and delay actual has limited the various uses of the lakes. flushing time. In the case of a constituent such Should the process of eutrophication be re- as chlorinated-hydrocarbon pesticides, one tarded significantly, the improvement of that has no natural background level and can Lakes Erie and Ontario will be obvious. How- be eliminated from use on the drainage basin, ever, the large volumes and long flushing the time estimate for complete removal ranges times of the upper lakes may preclude ob- up to approximately 400 years. Current vious improvements in the near term except treatment criteria for wastewater may be in- for embayments and restricted areas. Rapid sufficient to cause desired reductions in waste action geared to population growth and re- inflow to the lakes. sponsive to causal rather than symptomatic Bacteria other than coliform and fungi have factors is needed to halt further deterioration received little attention in the Great Lakes. and initiate future Basinwide restoration. These organisms are extremely important be- Biomanipulation, waste treatment, soil con- cause of their role in nutrient recycling, a servation, and structural design of protective process fundamental to the aging process in and regulatory devices are within existing the lakes. Phytoplankton and phytobenthos capabilities. In conjunction with Canadian au- are of critical importance to the lake ecosys- thorities and the individual water users, these tem because they support the food chain. preventive treatments should be given im- These organisms are the first to reflect nutri- mediate consideration. FOREWORD This volume constitutes a part of the Basin Nicholas L. Barbarossa; New York (infor- resource information for the Great Lakes mation) Basin Framework Study prepared by the John F. Carr; National Marine Fisheries Great Lakes Basin Commission as an initial Service step in development of a comprehensive plan Donald L. Collins; New York (liaison) for the conservation, development, utilization, Jan A. Derecki; National Oceanic and At- and management of the water and related mospheric Administration land resources of the Great Lakes Basin. It is Robert D. Hennigan; New York (informa- hoped that this study will encourage the op- tion) timum use and development of these re- Charles E. Herdendorf; Ohio sources under authority of and in accordance Gene H. Hollenstein; Minnesota with provisions of the Water Resources Plan- Dr. John A. Jones; State University of New ning Act of 1965 (P.L. 89-80) for major river York, Fredonia, New York (liaison) basin framework studies. J.H. Kuehn; Minnesota Information contained in this volume was Dr. Thomas L. Lewis; Cleveland State Uni- derived from available published sources re- versity, Ohio lating to the Great Lakes Basin and from Paul C. Liu; National Oceanic and Atmos- available unpublished files, data repositories, pheric Administration and documents maintained by State and Fed- William D. Marks; Michigan eral agencies and public and private institu- Gerald S. Miller; National Oceanic and At- tions and organizations. mospheric Administration The work group charged with responsibility William S. Miska; U.S. Bureau of Mines, for preparation of this volume was established Minnesota by the Great Lakes Basin Commission. David C. Norton; National Oceanic and At- Chairman of the group was Arthur P. Pinsak, mospheric Administration National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- Charles R. Ownbey; U.S., Environmental tration, who initiated the plan of study and Protection Agency acted as coordinator and principal editor of the Dr. Robert G. Rolan; Cleveland State Uni- appendix, with major support from Sam B. versity, Ohio Upchurch and David C. Norton. Donald R. Rondy; National Oceanic and At- . Portions of this volume were prepared by mospheric Administration principal authors as indicated by the credits at Dr. James H. Saylor; National Oceanic and the beginning of appropriate sections. Pinsak Atmospheric Administration and Upchurch prepared the draft material for Dr. EdwinJ. Skoch; John Carroll University, the introductory, applications, and summary Ohio sections. Other work group members were in- Charles M. Smith; Soil Conservation Ser- volved in providing recommendations, infor- vice, U.S. Department of Agriculture mation, and consultation concerning appendix Dr. Robert A. Sweeney, State University of format and content; and in review and com- New York, Buffalo, New York ments. The following are the work group Dr. Sam B. Upchurch; Michigan State Uni- members and their State or agency affilia- versity tions: Andrew R. Yerman, New York. Dr. Arthur P. Pinsak; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Chairman) In addition to members of the Great Lakes Dr. John C. Ayers; University of Michigan research community, all of the Great Lakes Dr. Robert C. Ball; Michigan State Univer- Basin Commission member States and agen- sity cies reviewed manuscript drafts. Comments Vii Viii Appendix. 4 from Michigan, New York, Ohio, and from the Graphic material was prepared for inclusion U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. by the Reproduction Branch, Lake Survey Environmental Protection Agency were espe- Center, National Ocean Survey, National cially helpful in attempts to develop a useful Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, De- and meaningful document. troit, Michigan. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page OUTLINE ............................ I ....................................... SYNOPSIS ................................................................... v FOREWORD ................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................ xvii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................... xxi INTRODUCTION ............................................................. xxxv I THE GREAT LAKES BASIN .............................................. 1 1.1 Location .............................................................. 1 1.2 Geology of the Great Lakes Basin .................................... 1 1.3 Basin Physiography .................................................. 5 1.4 Basin Population and Culture ........................................ 8 1.5 Basin Climate ........................................................ 10 1.6 Winds and Storms .................................................... 11 1.7 Temperature ......................................................... 12 1.8 Precipitation .......................................................... 14 1.9 Runoff ................................................................ 15 1.10 Evapotranspiration, Interception, and Ground Water ................. 15 1.11 Influence of Lakes on Basin Climate .................................. 15 2 LAKE BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY .......................................... 17 2.1 International Great Lakes Datum .................................... 17 2.2 Low Water Datum .................................................... 17 2.3 Great Lakes Drainage System ........................................ 17 2.3.1 Lake Superior ................................................. 18 2.3.2 Lake Michigan ................................................. 19 2.3.3 Lake Huron ................................................... 22 2.3.4 Lake St. Clair .................................................. 23 2.3.5 Lake Erie ...................................................... 24 2.3.6 Lake Ontario .................................................. 24 3 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................................... 27 3.1 Introduction .......................................................... 27 3.2 Pressure .............................................................. 27 3.3 Density ............................................................... 27 3.4 Thermal Properties ................................................... 28 3.4.1 Specific Heat .................................................. 28 3.4.2 Thermal Conductivity ......................................... 28 3.4.3 Viscosity ....................................................... 29 ix x Appendix 4 Page 3.4.4 Turbulent Mixing .............................................. 29 3.4.5 Heats of Fusion and Vaporization ............................. 29 3.5 Electrical Properties .................................................. 30 3.6 Temperature ......................................................... 31 3.6.1 Areal Variation ................................................ 31 3.6.2 Vertical Variation ............................................. 34 3.6.3 Daily Variation ................................................ 38 3.6.4 Seasonal Variation ............................................ 40 3.6.5 Lake Superior ................................................. 40 3.6.6 Lake Michigan ................................................. 41 3.6.7 Lake Huron ................................................... 41 3.6.8 Lake Erie ...................................................... 42 3.6.9 Lake Ontario .................................................. 42 3.7 Heated Water Influx .................................................. 45 3.7.1 Principle of Influx ............................................. 45 3.7.2 Volumes Related to Great Lakes ............................... 47 3.7.3 Effect on Lake ................................................. 47 3.7.4 Effect on Local Climate ........................................ 47 3.8 Water Transparency .................................................. 48 3.8.1 Principal Factors .............................................. 48 3.8.2 Areal Variation ................................................ 50 3.8.3 Lake Superior ................................................. 51 3.8.4 Lake Michigan ................................................. 56 3.8.5 Lake Huron ................................................... 56 3.8.6 Lake Erie ...................................................... 59 3.8.7 Lake Ontario .................................................. 63 3.9 Summary and Recommendations ..................................... 69 4 HYDROMETEOROLOGY: CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY OF THE GREAT LAKES .................................................................... 71 4.1 Introduction .......................................................... 71 4.1.1 Description and Scope ......................................... 71 4.1.2 Lake Effect ...... 71 4.1.3 Measurement Net@;O*r*@S' 72 4.2 Radiation 73 4.2.1 Total*ia ationSpectrum ..................................... 73 4.2.2 Solar Radiation ................................................ 74 4.2.3 Terrestrial Radiation .......................................... 75 4.3 Winds .......... 76 4.3.1 Lake Perimeter Winds ......................................... 76 4.3.2 Overwater Winds .............................................. 77 4.4 Air Temperature ..... 79 4.4.1 Lake Perimeter @e* e, r* 79 4.4.2 Overwater Temperature ....................................... 80 4.5 Water Temperature ................................................... 81 4.5.1 Water Surface Temperature ................................... 81 4.5.2 Temperature at Depth ......................................... 83 4.5.3 Air-Water Temperature Relationship .......................... 84 4.6 Humidity ............................................................. 86 4.6.1 Lake Perimeter Humidity ..................................... 86 4.6.2 Overwater Humidity ........................................... 86 4.7 Precipitation .......................................................... 87 4.7.1 Lake Perimeter Precipitation .................................. 87 4.7.2 Overwater Precipitation ....................................... 88 4.7.3 Weather Radar ................................................ 90 Table of Contents xi Page 4.8 Evaporation .................. 90 4.8.1 Determination of Evaporation ................................. 90 4.8.2 Evaporation from Lakes ....................................... 91 4.9 Runoff from Drainage Basin .......................................... 94 4.9.1 Surface Runoff ................................................ 94 4.9.2 Underground Flow ............................................ 95 4.10 Inflow and Outflow from the Lakes ................................... 97 4.10.1 Inflow ......................................................... 97 4.10.2 Outflow ........................................................ 97 4.10.3 Diversions ..................................................... 98 4.11 Lake Level Fluctuations .............................................. 99 4.11.1 Lake Levels ................................................... 99 4.11.2 Change in Storage ............................................. 100 4.12 Heat Budget .......................................................... 101 4.13 Water Budget ........................................................ 102 4.13.1 Water Budget Computations ................................... 102 4.13.2 Importance of Water Budget .................................. 103 5 GREAT LAKES ICE COVER .............................................. 105 5.1 Introduction .......................................................... 105 5.2 Lake Ice Genesis ..................................................... 105 5.2.1 Cooling ........................................................ 105 5.2.2 Ice Formation ................................................. 106 5.2.3 Breakup ....................................................... 108 5.3 Ice Hazards ........... .............................................. 109 5.4 Extension of the Navigation Season .................................. 110 5.4.1 Harbor Facilities .............................................. 110 5.4.2 Ship Design .................................................... 110 5.4.3 Winter Navigation ............................................. ill 5.5 fee Removal and Control ............................................. ill 5.5.1 Breaking ...................................................... ill 5.5.2 Melting ........................................................ ill 5.6 Ice Cover ............................................................. ill 5.6.1 Lake Superior ................................................. 112 5.6.2 Lake Michigan ................................................. 113 5.6.3 Lake Huron ................................................... 114 5.6.4 Lake St. Clair .................................................. 115 5.6.5 Lake Erie ...................................................... 115 5.6.6 Lake Ontario .................................................. 116 5.7 Summary .............................................................. 116 6 WATER MOTION ......................................................... 119 6.1 Surface Motion ....................................................... 119 6.1.1 Introduction ................................................... 119 6.1.2 Classification of Surface Motion ............................... 119 6.1.2.1 Surface Wind Waves ................................... 121 6.1.2.2 Long-Period Waves .................................... 124 6.1.2.3 Surges ................................................. 125 6.1.2.4 Wind Tides ............................................ 126 6.1.2.5 Seiches ................................................ 126 6.1.3 Long-Term Variation of Lake Levels .......................... 128 6.1.4 Currents at the Lake Surface .................................. 128 6.2 Internal Water Motion ................................................ 129 6.2.1 Thermally-Driven Circulation .................................. 129 xii Appendix 4 Page 6.2.2 Wind-Driven Circulations During the Density Stratified Season 131 6.2.3 Wind-Driven Circulations During the Homogeneous Season ... 133 6.2.4 Internal Waves ................................................ 134 6.2.5 Turbulence and Diffusion ...................................... 138 6.3 Water Movement in Harbors .......................................... 140 6.3.1 Introduction ................................................... 140 6.3.2 Current-Generating Forces .................................... 140 6.3.2.1 Wind-Driven Currents ................................. 141 6.3.2.2 Wave-Induced Currents ................................ 141 6.3.2.3 General Nearshore Current Features .................. 141 6.3.2.4 Water-Level Fluctuations .............................. 142 6.3.2.5 Density Differences .................................... 144 6.4 Embayments ......................................................... 145 6.5 Analytical Methods ................................................... 145 6.6 Tributary Inflow ...................................................... 146 6.7 Composite Currents and Flushing Characteristics .................... 146 6.8 Summary and Conclusions ............................................ 148 7 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREAT LAKES ............... 151 7.1 Introduction .......................................................... 151 7.2 Types of Chemical Loads ............................................. 151 7.2.1 Natural Contributions .......................................... 151 7.2.2 Cultural Contributions ......................................... 152 7.3 Sampling Methods .................................................... 152 7.4 Chemical Water Quality Criteria ...................................... 153 7.5 Chemical Associations ................................................ 153 7.5.1 Dissolved Solids ............................................... 157 7.5.2 Chloride ....................................................... 162 7.5.3 Carbonate System ............................................. 166 7.5.4 Oxygen System and Redox Potential ........................... 170 7.5.5 Phosphorus System ............................................ 177 7.5.6 Nitrogen System ............................................... 186 7.5.7 Organic Carbon Compounds ................................... 190 7.5.7.1 Pesticides ............. ................................ 190 7.5.7.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) ..................... 195 7.5.7.3 Phenol and Phenolic Compounds ....................... 196 7.5.7.4 Detergents ............................................ 196 7.5.7.5 Petroleum ............................................. 198 7.5.7.6 Organic Gases ......................................... 200 7.5.7.7 Organic Acids .......................................... 200 7.5.7.8 Cyanide ................................................ 201 7.5.7.9 Organic Carbon ........................................ 201 7.5.8 Calcium and Magnesium ....................................... 202 7.5.9 Sulfur System ................................................. 204 7.5.10 Silica System .................................................. 206 7.5.11 Iron and Manganese ........................................... 209 7.5.12 Trace Elements ................................................ 212 7.5.12.1 Arsenic (As) ......................................... 214 7.5.12.2 Barium (Ba) ......................................... 214 7.5.12.3 Boron (B) ............................................ 215 7.5.12.4 Bromide (Br-) ....................................... 215 7.5.12.5 Cadmium (Cd) ....................................... 215 7.5.12.6 Chromium (Cr) ....................................... 215 7.5.12.7 Copper (Cu) .......................................... 215 7.5.12.8 Fluoride (F-) ......................................... 216 Table ofContents xiii Page 7.5.12.9 Iodine (1) ............................................ 216 7.5.12.10 Lead (Pb) ............................................ 216 7.5.12.11 Mercury (Hg) ........................................ 216 7.5.12.12 Potassium (K) ........................................ 217 7.5.12.13 Silver (Ag) ........................................... 218 7.5.12.14 Sodium (Na) ......................................... 218 7.5.12.15 Selenium (Se) ........................................ 218 7.5.12.16 Uranyllon (UO2-2) ................................... 218 7.5.12.17 Zinc (Zn) ............................................. 218 7.5.12.18 Summary ............................................ 219 7.6 Radionuclides ......................................................... 219 7.7 Great Lakes Harbors ................................................. 221 7.8 Loads and Trends .................................................... 225 7.8.1 Historical Trends .............................................. 225 7.8.2 Current Loads ................................................. 227 7.8.3 Loading and the Physical Environment ........................ 229 7.8.4 Flushing and Future Trends ................................... 231 7.9 2ummary ............................................................. 237 8 BIOLOGiCAL CHARACTERISTICS ....................................... 239 8.1 The Bacteria and Fungi of the Great Lakes .......................... 239 8.1.1 Introduction ................................................... 239 8.1.2 Bacteria and Fungi as Normal Lake Biota ...................... 239 8.1.2.1 Nutrient Cycling ....................................... 239 8.1.2.2 Other Aspects of the Ecology of Normal Lake Bacteria and Fungi ............................................. 242 8.1.3 Bacteria and Fungi as Indicators of Pollution ................. 243 8.1.3.1 Coliform Bacteria ...................................... 243 8.1.3.2 Total Bacteria ......................................... 245 8.1.3.3 Yeasts and Molds ...................................... 245 8.1.4 Bacteria and Fungi as Pathogens .............................. 245 8.1.4.1 Salmonella and Shigella ............................... 245 8.1.4.2 Botulism ............................................... 246 8.1.4.3 Parasitic Fungi ........................................ 246 8.1.5 Actinomyeetes as Causes of Tastes and Odors in Drinking Water 246 8.2 The Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, and Periphytic Invertebrates of the Great Lakes ............. 247 8.2.1 Components of the Fauna ..................................... 247 8.2.2 Zooplankton and Zoobenthos as Environmental Indicators .... 249 8.2.2.1 Zooplankton ........................................... 249 8.2.2.2 Zoobenthos ............................................ 250 8.2.3 Faunal Gradients .............................................. 253 8.2.3.1 Lake Superior ......................................... 253 8.2.3.2 Lake Michigan ......................................... 253 8.2.3.3 Lake Huron ........................................... 254 8.2.3.4 Lake Erie .............................................. 255 8.2.3.5 Lake Ontario .......................................... 262 8.2.4 Evidence of Recent Changes in the Lakes ..................... 262 8.2.4.1 Lake Superior .... .................................... 262 8.2.4.2 Lake Michigan ......................................... 262 8.2.4.3 Lake Huron ........................................... 263 8.2.4.4 Lake Erie .............................................. 264 8.2.4.5 Lake Ontario ......... 267 8.2.4.6 Great Lakes in General ................................ 267 8.2.5 Physical Factors Controlling Distribution of Zoobenthos and Zooplankton ................................................... 268 xiv Appendix 4 Page 8.2.5.1 Depth .................................................. 268 8.2.5.2 Substrate .............................................. 271 8.2.5.3 Water Movement ...................................... 272 8.2.5.4 Temperature .......................................... 273 8.2.5.5 Light .................................................. 274 8.2.5.6 Chemical Factors ...................................... 274 8.2.6 Vertical Stratification and Diel Migrations .................... 274 8.2.7 Feeding Relations ............................................. 276 8.2.8 Reproduction .................................................. 281 8.2.9 Seasonal Patterns in Population Fluctuations ................. 282 8.2.10 Conclusions .................................................... 285 8.3 Phytoplankton, Phytobenthos, and Phytoperiphyton of the Great Lakes 288 8.3.1 Components of the Flora ....................................... 288 8.3.2 Sampling Problems ............................................ 290 8.3.3 Taxonomic Problems ........................................... 291 8.3.4 Floral Gradients in the Great Lakes ........................... 291 8.3.4.1 Lake Superior ......................................... 291 8.3.4.2 Lake Michigan ......................................... 291 8.3.4.3 Lake Huron ........................................... 292 8.3.4.4 Lake Erie. :, * * * , , I I I I * * * * , '' * - * * * * , , * * - * * * , - * * " * * - *292 8.3.4.5 Lake Ontario .......................................... 293 8.3.5 Evidence of Changes in Great Lakes Flora .................... 293 8.3.5.1 Lake Michigan ......................................... 8.3.5.2 Lake Erie .............................................. 293 8.3.5.3 Lake Ontario ....................... , 295 8.3.6 Patterns of Seasonal Change in Great Lakes.@ig* a*e*'.*.*.*' 295 8.3.6.1 Lake Superior ......................................... 295 8.3.6.2 Lake Michigan ......................................... 295 8.3.6.3 Lake Erie ............................................... 296 8.3.6.4 Lake Ontario .......................................... 297 8.3.7 Trophic Relations .............................................. 297 8.3.7.1 Primary Productivity .................................. 297 8.3.7.2 Extracellular Production .............................. 299 8.3.7.3 Relation of Standing Crop to Productivity ............. 300 8.3.7.4 Relation of Algal Production to Dissolved Oxygen ..... 301 8.3.7.5 Secondary Production ................................. 301 8.3.8 Factors that Control the Growth and Abundance of Algae ..... 303 8.3.8.1 Inorganic Nutrients ................................... 303 8.3.8.2 Phosphorus ............................................. 303 8.3.8.3 Nitrogen ............................................... 304 8.3.8.4 Carbon ......... 304 8.3.8.@ Practical Use of t@e* *L*im* it'i*n* g** N**u*t*r*ie'n*t* *C' o*n**c*e*p*t* 306 8.3.8.6 Temperature .......................................... .306 8.3.8.7 Light and Turbidity ................................... 307 8.3.9 Phytoplankton and Phytobenthos as Indicators of Environmen- tal Quality ..................................................... 307 8.3.10 Nuisance Algal Problems ...................................... 311 8.3.10.1 Interference with Recreation .......................... 311 8.3.10.2 Net Fouling ........................................... 311 8.3.10.3 Interference with Public Water Supply ................ 312 8.3.10.4 Toxic Algal Blooms .................................... 312 8.3.11 Conclusions .................................................... 313 8.4 The Nekton of the Great Lakes ....................................... 315 8.4.1 Introduction ................................................... 315 8.4.2 Lake Superior ................................................. 319 8.4.3 Lake Michigan ................................................. 319 Table of Contents xv Page 8.4.4 Lake Huron ................................................... 320 8.4.5 Lake Erie ...................................................... 320 8.4.6 Lake Ontario .................................................. 320 8.4.7 Great Lakes in General ........................................ 321 8.4.8 Summary ...................................................... 321 9 SEDIMENTOLOGY ....................................................... 323 9.1 Sedimentology of Lake Superior ...................................... 323 9.1.1 Lake Basin Morphology ....................................... 323 9.1.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments ....................... 323 9.1.3 Vertical Distribution of Bottom Sediments ..................... 326 9.1.4 Geochemistry of Sediments .................................... 327 9.2 Sedimentology of Lake Michigan ..................................... 327 9.2.1 Lake Basin Morphology ....................................... 327 9.2.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments ....................... 328 9.2.2.1 Nearshore Distribution ................................ 328 - 9.2.2.2 Open Lake Distribution ................................ 330 9.2.3 Vertical Distribution of Bottom Sediments ..................... 332 9.2.4 Geochemistry of Sediments .................................... 333 9.3 Sed 'imentology of Lake Huron ........................................ 336 9.3.1 Lake Basin Morphology ....................................... 336 9.3.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments ....................... 336 9.3.3 Vertical Distribution ofXottom Sediments ..................... 336 9.4 Sedimentology of Lake Erie .......................................... 338 9.4.1 Lake Basin Morphology ....................................... 338 9.4.2 Basin Geology ................................................. 338 9.4.3 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments ....................... 339 9.4.4 Vertical Distribution of Bottom Sediments ..................... 341 9.4.5 Chemistry of Sediments ....................................... 343 9.5 Sedimentology of Lake Ontario ....................................... 345 9.5.1 Lake Basin Morphology ....................................... 345 9.5.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments ....................... 346 9.5.2.1 Nearshore Distribution ........... I .................... 346 9.5.2.2 Open Lake Distribution ................................ 347 9.5.3 Chemistry of Sediments ....................................... 347 10 UPLAND LAKES ......................................................... 351 10.1 Introduction ......................................................... 351 10.2 Lake Formation in the Great Lakes Basin ........................... 352 10.3 Lake Processes in the Great Lakes Basin ............................ 354 10.4 Aging-The Trophic Sequence ....................................... 355 10.5 Succession in Bog and Marsh Lakes ................................. 356 10.6 Upland Lake Water Chemistry ...................................... 358 10.7 Problems Associated with Upland Lakes ............................. 359 10.8 Upland Lake Distribution ........................................... 360 10.9 Comparability of the Data ........................................... 361 10.10 Lakes in Michigan ................................................... 370 10.11 Upland Lake Data Requirements .................................... 371 10.12 Summary ............................................................ 371 11 LIMNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCE UTILIZATION .... 373 11.1 Introduction ......................................................... 373 11.2 Current and Projected Water Resource Utilization Problems ........ 373 xvi Appendix 4 Page 11.2.1 Municipal and Industrial Water Supplies .................... 373 11.2.2 Water Storage ............................................... 373 11.2.3 Shore Property .............................................. 375 11.2.4 Navigation .................................................. 375 11.2.5 Fish and Wildlife ............................................ 375 11.2.6 Recreation ................................................... 375 11.2.7 Power Generation ........................................... 376 11.2.8 Waste Disposal .............................................. 376 11.3 The Present Data Base as a Lininological Planning Tool ............. 376 11.4 International Field Year for the Great Lakes ........................ 376 11.5 Lininological Systems Analysis ...................................... 377 11.6 Lake Restoration .... :*''* ****:"**,****"""***"***"**'*""**'* 378 11.6.1 Lake Restoration Techniques ................................ 379 12 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 385 12.1 Current Status of the Great Lakes ................................... 385 12.1.1 Lake Superior ............................................... 385 12.1.2 Lake Michigan ............................................... 385 12.1.3 Lake Huron ................................................. 386 12.1.4 Lake St. Clair ................................................ 386 12.1.5 Lake Erie .................................................... 386 12.1.6 Lake Ontario ................................................ 386 12.2 Future Needs ........................................................ 387 12.2.1 Water Motion ................................................ 387 12.2.2 Hydrometeorology ........................................... 387 12.2.3 Chemistry ................................................... 388 12.2.4 Biology ...................................................... 388 12.2.5 Sedimentology ............................................... 389 12.2.6 Limnological Resource Utilization ........................... 390 LIST OF REFERENCES ..................................................... 393 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4-1 Lake Aging Classification ............................................... xxxvii 4-2 Stratigraphic Summary of the Great Lakes Basin ...................... 4 4-3 The Great Lakes Drainage Basins ...................................... 6 4-4 Summary of the Geology and Drainage Maturity of the Great Lakes and Adjacent Basins ........................................................ 9 4-5 Discharge of Major Great Lakes Tributaries ............................ 20 4-6 Great Lakes Connecting Channels, Rivers, and Diversions .............. 21 4-7 Average Perimeter Wind Speeds for the Great Lakes ................... 77 4-8 Lake-Land Wind Speed Ratios for the Great Lakes ..................... 79 4-9 Average Perimeter Air Temperature for the Great Lakes, 1931-1969 ... 80 4-10 Comparison of Great Lakes Water Surface Temperature ................ 82 4-11 Average Perimeter Humidity for the Great Lakes ...................... 86 4-12 Lake-Land Humidity Ratios for the Great Lakes ....................... 87 4-13 Average Perimeter Precipitation for the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 ........ 87 4-14 Lake-Land Precipitation Ratios for Lake Michigan and Lake Erie ...... 90 4-15 Comparison of Great Lakes Evaporation ................................ 93 4-16 Runoff-Precipitation Ratios, 1937-1969 .................................. 95 4-17 Average Runoff into the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 ........................ 95 4-18 Average Flows in Connecting Rivers of the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 ..... 98 4-19 Major Diversions in the Great Lakes Basin, 1937-1969 .................. 100 4-20 Average Levels of the Great Lakes, IGLD (1955), 1937-1969 ............. 100 4-21 Average Change in Storage on the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 ............. 101 4-22 Average Water Budget, 1937-1969 ...................................... 103 4-23 Albedo of Ice Types with Solar Altitudes and Cloud Conditions ......... 109 xvii xviii Appendix 4 Table Page 4-24 Mean Ranges of True Tide Recorded on the Great Lakes ............... 121 4-25 Lake Superior Seiche Periods in Hours ................................. 127 4-26 Lake Michigan Seiche Periods in Hours ................................. 127 4-27 Lake Huron Seiche Periods in Hours ................................... 127 4-28 Lake Erie Seiche Periods in Hours ...................................... 127 4-29 Lake Ontario Seiche Periods in Hours .................................. 127 4-30 Water Quality Standards for Great Lakes Open Water .................. 154 4-31 Linear Correlation Matrix for Flow and Chemical Composition, Raquette River at Raymondville, New York ...................................... 156 4-32 Linear Correlation Matrix for Flow and Chemical Composition, Maumee River at Toledo Harbor, Ohio ........................................... 157 4-33 Average Concentrations of Major Ions in the Great Lakes .............. 163 4-34 Lake Erie BOD and COD Values ........................................ 178 4-35 48-hour Median Tolerance Limits of Selected Fish and Cladocerans to Selected Pesticides ...................................................... 192 4-36 Effects of Six Chlorinated Pesticides on Some Beneficial Water Uses ... 193 4-37 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticide Concentrations in the Great Lakes 194 4-38 Pesticide Residues in Whole Fish from Lake Erie, 1965-1967 ............ 194 4-39 Effect of Alkyl-aryl Sulfonate, including ABS, on Aquatic Organisms ... 197 4-40 Dissolved and Particulate Organic Matter in Great Lakes Water ....... 201 4-41 Major Silicate Mineral Weathering Products ............................ 209 4-42 Trace Elements in the Great Lakes Waters ............................. 213 4-43 Mean and Coefficient of Variation of Trace-Metal Input into Lake Michi- gan from Selected Michigan Rivers ..................................... 213 4-44 Bottom Sediment Concentration of a Series of Trace Metals Contributed to Lake Michigan from the Grand River, Grand Haven, Michigan ......... 214 4-45 Chemical Parameters as a Measure of Pollution of Sediments .......... 221 4-46 Classification of Pollution of Harbor Sediments ......................... 223 4-47 Comparison of Sediment Quality at Cleveland, Ohio .................... 226 4-48 Characteristics of Dredged Material in Maumee River and Bay ......... 226 4-49 Composition of Sediment Dredged from Indiana Harbor ................ 227 List of Tables xix Table Page 4-50 "Natural Background" Concentrations and Annual Loads to the Great 228 Lakes ............................................................ ****-*, 4-51 Minimum Natural Weathering Rates of Each Great Lakes Basin ....... 228 4-52 Pollutants Contributed to Lake Michigan from Major Tributaries ...... 230 4-53 Loadings to Lake Huron ................................................ 230 4-54 Materials Balance for Lower Lakes, 1966-1967 .......................... 232 4-55 Estimated Modern Annual Loadstothe Great Lakes, Exclusive of Loading from Upstream Great Lakes ............................................ 233 4-56 Chemical Loads Used for Solution of the Chemical Budget Model ........ 235 4-57 Approximate Residence Times of Water or Chemical Constituents ...... 238 4-58 Number of Species in Major Taxa Reported in the Great Lakes ......... 248 4-59 Four Major Groups of Benthos in Lake Erie, April-August, 1967 ........ 258 4-60 Density of Benthos in Saginaw Bay in Various Years ................... 263 4-61 Abundance of Invertebrates in the Lower Detroit River ................ 266 4-62 Comparison of Zooplankton Densities, Lake Erie Western Basin, 1938- 1959 .................................................................... 267 4-63 Depth Distributions of Shallow Littoral Benthos, Lake Erie Western Basin ................................................................... 269 4-64 Mean Oligochaete Abundance at Various Depths in Lake Ontario ...... 270 4-65 Number of Species and Individuals on Various Substrata ............... 272 4-66 Sphaeriid (Fingernail Clam) Sediment Texture Preference .............. 272 4-67 Invertebrates Identified in Stomach Contents of Various Great Lakes Fishes .................................................................. 277 4-68 Reproductive Seasons of Some Great Lakes Zooplankton and Zoobenthos 282 4-69 Dominant Diaptomid Species in Lake Michigan in 1954-1955 and in 1964, and in Lake Erie in 1956-1957 .......................................... 288 4-70 Abundance of Phytoplankton in the Western Basin of Lake Erie in 1930 292 4-71 Seasonal Patterns in Phytoplankton Standing Crops, 1938-1942, in Lake Erie .................................................................... 297 4-72 Comparison of Estimates of Gross Primary Productivity in the Great Lakes ................................................................... 299 4-73 Algal and Macrophyte Food of Great Lakes Fishes as Determined by Stomach Analyses ...................................................... 302 xx Appendix 4 Table Page 4-74 Photosynthetic Rates of Cladophora Relative to Phosphorus Concentra- tion ..................................................................... 304 4-75 Phytoplankton of Oligotrophic and Eutrophic Lakes .................... 309 4-76 Approximate Trophic Distribution of Dominant Limnetic Algae in Lakes of Western Canada ...................................................... 310 4-77 Diatom Trophic-Index Values, Upper Great Lakes ...................... 311 4-78 Phytoplankton Diversity-Densities, Upper Great Lakes ................. 311 4-79 Great Lakes Basin Fish ................................................ 316 4-80 List of Species Called "Chubs" in Fishery Records ...................... 319 4-81 Summary of Mineralogical Data ......................................... 327 4-82 Average Chemical Composition of Upper Great Lakes Sediments ....... 328 4-83 Average Chemical Composition of Upper Great Lakes Sediment Intersti- tial Waters ............................................................. 328 4-84 Morphometry of Lake Erie Basins ...................................... 338 4-85 Runoff Data for Tributary Streams to Lake Erie ....................... 344 4-86 Lake Erie Bottom Sediment Chemistry ................................. 345 4-87 A Generalized Summary of Genetic Lake Types With Some of Their Physi- cal Characteristics ...................................................... 353 4-88 A Summary of Upland Lake Statistics by County for Each Planning Sub- are a .................................................................... 362 4-89 Minimum Lake Size Surveyed .......................................... 370 4-90 A Comparison of State Lake Types ..................................... 370 4-91 Survey Parameters ..................................................... 372 4-92 Relative Importance of Limnological Factors in Great Lakes Resource Utilization .............................................................. 374 4-93 Distribution of Great Lakes Studies by Area and Subject Exclusive of Taxonomic Studies ...................................................... 377 4-94 Examples of Lake Restoration .......................................... 380 4-95 Application of Lake Restoration Techniques to Specific Water Quality Problems ............................................................... 381 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4-1 Location of Major Lakes and Connecting Channels .................... 2 4-2 Stratigraphic Succession in Michigan .................................. 3 4-3 Major Tectonic Features in the Vicinity of the Great Lakes Basin ..... 5 4-4 Lithofacies of Strata at the Pre-Pleistocene Erosional Surface ......... 6 4-5 Proposed Pre-Pleistocene Drainage System in the Great Lakes Basin.. 7 4-6 Composition of Pleistocene and Recent Surficial Deposits of the Great Lakes Region .......................................................... 7 4-7 Physiography of the Great Lakes Region .............................. 8 4-8 Examples of Stratigraphic Control on the Configuration of the Basins of the Great Lakes Showing Geologic Cross Sections of Lake Superior Syncline, Michigan Structural Basin, and Western Lake Erie Basin through South Bass and Kelleys Islands ............................... 8 4-9 Principal Morainic Systems in the Great Lakes Region ................ 9 4-10 Major Categories of Land Use in the Great Lakes Basin ................ 10 4-11 Population Centers in the Great Lakes Basin .......................... 11 4-12 Wind Distribution in the Great Lakes Basin ........................... 12 4-13 Major Storm Tracks that Affect the Great Lakes Basin ................ 12 4-14 Generation of Offshore and Onshore Breezes .......................... 13 4-15 Mean Annual Temperature in the Great Lakes Basin ................. 13 4-16 Monthly Mean and Range of Temperatures in each Lake Basin ....... 13 4-17 Mean Annual Precipitation on the Great Lakes Basin ................. 14 4-18 Ratio of Average Monthly Precipitation Over Water to Average Monthly Precipitation Over Land in the Northern Lake Michigan Are-a ......... 14 4-19 Mean Annual Runoff in the Great Lakes Basin ........................ 15 4-20 Mean Annual Surface Water Loss Through Interception, Evaporation, and Infiltration as Ground Water ...................................... 15 Xxi xxii Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-21 Comparison of Equipotential and Geometric Surfaces as Survey Datums 17 4-22 Physical Characteristics of Lake Superior ............................. 18 4-23 Profile of the Great Lakes System ..................................... 19 4-24 Average Monthly Lake Levels for Lake Superior for the Period 1860-1970, and for the Period 1960-1970 ........................................... 19 4-25 Physical Characteristics of Lake Michigan ............................. 22 4-26 Average Monthly Lake Levels for Lakes Michigan and Huron for the Period 1860-1970, and for the Period 1960-1970 ........................ 22 4-27 Physical Characteristics of Lake Huron ................................ 23 4-28 Physical Characteristics of Lakes St. Clair and Erie ................... 23 4-29 Average Monthly Lake Levels for Lakes St. Clair and Erie for the Periods of Record (1860-1970, Eric, and 1898-1970, St. Clair), and for the Period 1960-1970 .............................................................. 24 4-30 Physical Characteristics of Lake Ontario .............................. 25 4-31 Average Monthly Lake Levels for Lake Ontario for the Period 1860-1970, and for the Period 1960-1970 ........................................... 25 4-32 Water Density-Temperature Relationship at Atmospheric Pressure ... 28 4-33 Relationship Between Specific Conductance and Total Cation Concentra- tions in Saginaw Bay, June 7, 1956 .................................... 30 4-34 Distribution of Sulfate and Conductivity in Saginaw Bay, June 7, 1956 31 4-35 Specific Conductance of Lake Ontario Water versus Time ............. 31 4-36 Average Conductivity in the Three Basins of Lake Erie for the Period 1960-1967 .............................................................. 32 4-37 Distribution of Mean Surface Water Temperature in the Great Lakes in May ................................................................... 33 4-38 Distribution of Mean Surface Water Temperature in the Great Lakes in August ......................... ...................................... 34 4-39 Distribution of Mean Surface Water Temperature in the Great Lakes in November ............................................................. 35 4-40 Seasonal Changes in the Thermal Structure of Lake Huron ........... 36 4-41 Lake Michigan Spring Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muskegon ......................................................... 37 4-42 Lake Michigan Summer Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muskegon .......................................................... 38 List of Figures xxiii Figure Page 4-43 Lake Michigan Autumn Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muskegon ......................................................... 39 4-44 Lake Michigan Winter Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muskegon ......................................................... 40 4-45 Daily Mean Change of Temperature for Various Water Depths Between Milwaukee and Muskegon ............................................. 41 4-46 Temperature Regime at the North and South Extremes of Lake Huron 42 4-47 Annual Temperature Cycle in Lake Superior Between Thunder Cape and Gros Cap ............................................................... 43 4-48 Annual Temperature Cycle in Lake Michigan Between Milwaukee and White Shoal ........................................................... 43 4-49 Annual Temperature Cycle in Lake Huron Between Detour Passage and Port Huron ............................................................ 44 4-50 Annual Temperature Cycle in Lake Erie Between Detroit River and Port Colborne ............................................................... 44 4-51 Annual Temperature Cycle in Lake Ontario Between Cobourg and Char- lotte ................................................................... 45 4-52 Curve Showing Relationship Between Fractional Excess Temperature and the Quotient of Plume Surface Area and Rate of Discharge ....... 46 4-53 Profile ShowingWater Transparencyin the Central Basin of Lake Erie on September 22, 1965 .................................................... 49 4-54 Percent Transparency along a Northwest-Southeast Traverse West of Ashtabula, Ohio ....................................................... 50 4-55 Vertical Extinction Coefficients for Various Wave Lengths of Light in the Great Lakes ........................................................... 50 4-56 Relationship between Secchi Disc and Mean Percent Transparency .... 51 4-57 Secchi Disc Readings, Port Wing, Wisconsin, to Two Harbors, Minnesota; July 30, and August 21, 1956 ........................................... 51 4-58 Secchi Disc Readings, Superior Harbor; September 5, 1956 ............. 51 4-59 Color Readings, Superior Harbor Area; September 5, 1956 ............. 52 4-60 Turbidity Readings, Superior Harbor Area; September 5, 1956 ......... 52 4-61 Percent Transparency of Lake Superior; Summer, 1969 ................ 53 4-62 Percent Transparency of Lake Superior; Fall, 1969 .................... 53 4-63 Standard Deviation of Transparency in Western Lake Superior; 1969 54 4-64 Mean Percent Transparency of Western Lake Superior; 1969 .......... 54 xxiv Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-65 Coefficient of Variance in Transparency of Western Lake Superior; 1969 55 4-66 Turbidity-Temperature Relationship, Silver Bay, Minnesota; September 17, 1969 ................................................................ 55 4-67 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Superior; April 13-23, 1970 ............... 56 4-68 Mean Percent Transparency of Lake Michigan; Cruise 1, May23toJune 8, 1970 ................................................................... 57 4-69 Average Secchi Disc Transparency in Saginaw Bay and Adjacent Lake Huron; June to August, 1956 ........................................... 57 4-70 Secchi Disc Transparency in Lake Huron; June, 1954 .................. 58 4-71 Secchi Disc Transparency in Lake Huron; July, 1954 ................... 58 4-72 Secchi Disc Transparency in Lake Huron; June, 1954 .................. 58 4-73 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Huron; May 11-21, 1970 ................. 58 4-74 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Huron; September 20 to October 7, 1970 59 4-75 Weight of Suspended Matter in Western Lake Erie and Relation Between Turbidity and Rate of Light Absorption ............................... 59 4-76 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During July 15-30, 1965 ............. 60 4-77 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During August 9-20, 1965 ........... 60 4-78 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During August 31 to September 10, 1965 ................................................................... 61 4-79 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During September 14-22, 1965 ...... 61 4-80 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During October 11-26, 1965 ......... 62 4-81 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During October 26 to November 9,1965 62 4-82 Average Water Transparency in Lake Erie During 1965 ............... 63 4-83 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Erie; April 6-11, 1970 .................... 64 4-84 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Erie; July 27 to August 2, 1970 .......... 64 4-85 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Erie; October 20-25, 1970 ................ 65 4-86 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Erie; December 13-18, 1970 .............. 65 4-87 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Ontario; March 31 to April 5, 1970 ....... 66 4-88 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Ontario; August 17-21, 1970 ............. 66 4-89 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Ontario; September 14-19, 1970 .......... 67 4-90 One Meter Turbidity in Lake Ontario; December 7-12, 1970 ............ 67 List of Figures xxv Figure Page 4-91 Temperature Transparency Relationship in Eastern Lake Ontario; Oc- tober 30, 1971 .......................................................... 68 4-92 Three Characteristic Records of Tempe ratu re -Percent Light Transmis- sion on Crossing the 4'C Surface Isotherm in Lake Ontario ............ 68 4-93 Annual Atmospheric Heat Budget ..................................... 73 4-94 Average Daily Solar Radiation in the Great Lakes Basin .............. 75 4-95 Mean Hourly Temperatures for Douglas Point and Paisley, Lake Huron, for the Months of March, June, and September, 1962 .................. 80 4-96 Seasonal Changes in the Thermal Structure of a Large, Deep Lake of Midlatitudes ........................................................... 83 4-97 The Relationship of Air-Water Temperature Differences in the Great Lakes .................................................................. 85 4-98 Mean Monthly Number of Days with Measurable Precipitation and Thunderstorms in the Great Lakes Basin .............................. 88 4-99 Evaporation from the Great Lakes .................................... 94 4-100 The Heat Budget of Lake Ontario ..................................... 102 4-101 Temperature Profile Through a 20 em lee Cover on Lake St. Clair ..... 107 4-102 Temperature Profile Through a 25 cm Ice Cover on Lake St. Clair ..... 107 4-103 Patterns of Early Ice Cover on the Great Lakes, with Average Dates.. 112 4-104 Maximum Ice Cover Distribution on the Great Lakes, with Average Dates 113 4-105 Ice Cover Breakup on the Great Lakes, with Average Dates ........... 114 4-106 Schematic Representation of the Envrgy Contained in the Various Lake Surface Motions ....................................................... 120 4-107 Sea Resulting from a Number of Superimposed Sinusoidal Wave Trains 122 4-108 A Typical Wave Energy Spectrum and the Corresponding Wave Profile 122 4-109 An Episode of Spectral Growth in Lake Michigan ...................... 123 4-110 Lake Level, Wind, and Atmospheric Pressure Records at Wilson Avenue Crib, Chicago, Illinois; June 26, 1954 ................................... 125 4-111 Lake Level, Wind, and Atmospheric Pressure Records at Wilson Avenue Crib; August 3, 1960 ................................................... 125 4-112 Wind Tide and Set-up on Lake Erie, AlongwithWind Speed and Direction, Recorded near Toledo Harbor Light ................................... 126 4-113 Surface Currents of the Great Lakes .................................. 129 xxvi Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-114 Development of the Thermal Bar from Winter to Full Summer Stratifica- tion .................................................................... 130 4-115 Distribution of Temperature in Lake Michigan; August 15, 1942 ....... 132 4-116 Kelvin and Poincar6 Waves in an Infinitely Long Rectangular Channel that Rotates Counterclockwise about a Vertical Axis, as in the Northern Hemisphere ............................................................ 136 4-117 Current Pattern at Calumet Harbor, Lake Michigan, During a High- Speed North or Northeast Wind ....................................... 140 4-118 Trajectories of Inflow and Outflow Currents at Little Lake Harbor with Negligible Current in Lake Superior ................................... 142 4-119 Current Velocities Resulting from Changes in Water Level and the As- sociated Wind Speed and Direction, and Atmospheric Pressure for Toledo Harbor , Ohio ........................................................... 143 4-120 Current Patterns in Muskegon Outer Harbor, Michigan, During a South- westerly Storm ........................................................ 145 4-121 Circulation Model During a Westerly Storm and Inflow at Little Lake Harbor, Lake Superior ................................................. 146 4-122 Circulation Model During a Westerly Storm and Outflow at Little Lake Harbor, Lake Superior ................................................. 146 4-123 Current Pattern at Fairport Harbor, Lake Erie, During High-Speed West or West-Southwest Wind ............................................... 147 4-124 Current Pattern at Fairport Harbor, Lake Erie, with Eastward Flowing Nearshore Currents, after Cessation of High-Speed Winds ............. 147 4-125 Current Pattern at Calumet Harbor, Lake Michigan, During Prevailing Wind and Nearshore Current Conditions ............................... 148 4-126 Seasonal Distribution of Discharge and Chemical Composition of the Raquette River at Raymondville, New York; Water Year 1960-61 ...... 158 4-127 Seasonal Distribution of Discharge, Temperature, and Chemical Compo- sition of the Maumee River at Toledo Harbor, Ohio; Water Year 1966-67 158 4-128 Changes in Total Dissolved Solids in the Great Lakes .................. 159 4-129 Ionic Strength-Specific Conductance Relationship for the Great Lakes 159 4-130 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Superior Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance .................. 159 4-131 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Michigan Sur- face Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance ............. 160 4-132 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Huron Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance .................. 160 List of Figures xxvii Figure Page 4-133 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Erie Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance .................. 161 4-134 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Ontario Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance .................. 161 4-135 Mean Dissolved Solids Concentration in Green Bay, Lake Michigan; 1963 162 4-136 Conductivity of Saginaw Bay Water on August 10, 1956 ............... 162 4-137 Dissolved Solids in Inner Long Point Bay, Ontario ..................... 162 4-138 Changes in Chloride Concentration in the Great Lakes ................ 163 4-139 Representative Distribution of Chlorides in Lake Michigan Surface Water .................................................................. 164 4-140 Representative Distribution of Chlorides in Lake Huron Surface Water 164 4-141 Representative Distribution of Chlorides in Lake Erie Surface Water 165 4-142 Representative Distribution of Chlorides in Lake Ontario Surface Water 165 4-143 Chloride Distribution in Saginaw Bay on June 21 and 22, 1956 ......... 166 4-144 Simplified Oxygen-Carbon Cycle in a Lake ............................. 166 4-145 Methyl Orange Alkalinity, Phenolphthalein (ph-th) Alkalinity, Free Car- bon Dioxide, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Temperature, and Turbidity Values in the Upper Meter of Water in the Bass Island Area of Western Lake Erie 166 4-146 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Superior Surface Water .... 168 4-147 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Huron Surface Water ...... 168 4-148 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Erie Surface Water ........ 169 4-149 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Ontario Surface Water ..... 169 4-150 Hydrogen Ion Concentration of Surface and Bottom Water in Western Lake Erie on June 23, 1963 ............................................ 170 4-151 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity in Lake Superior Surface Water .................................................................. 171 4-152 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity in Lake Huron Surface Water 171 4-153 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity in Lake Erie Surface Water 172 4-154 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity in Lake Ontario Surface Water 172 4-155 Development, Chemical Equilibrium, and Inheritance of Concentrations in Each of the Great Lakes ............................................ 173 4-156 Theoretical Sequences of Reactions Showing Oxygen Sag and Nitrogen Reaction upon Introduction of Organic Wastes ........................ 173 xxviii Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-157 Surface and Bottom Percent Oxygen Saturation in Lake Erie on July 25-29, 1960 ............................................................. 174 4-158 Surface and Near Bottom Water Percent Oxygen Saturation in Lake Erie on September 26-30, 1960 .............................................. 174 4-159 Representative Oxygen Concentrations in Lake Superior Surface Water 175 4-160 Representative Oxygen Concentrations in Lake Michigan Surface Water 176 4-161 Representative Oxygen Concentrations in Lake Huron Surface Water 177 4-162 Representative Oxygen Concentrations in Lake Erie Surface Water ... 177 4-163 Representative Oxygen Concentrations in Lake Ontario Surface Water 178 4-164 Mean and Minimum Percent Oxygen Saturation in Green Bay, Lake Michigan, During 1963 ................................................. 179 4-165 Representative Distribution of BOD in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Superior ............................................................... 179 4-166 Representative Distribution of BOD in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Erie ................................................................... 180 4-167 Representative Distribution of BOD in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Ontario ................................................................ 180 4-168 Representative Distribution of Eh in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Superior ............................................................... 181 4-169 Representative Distribution of Eh in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Huron ................................................................. 181 4-170 Representative Distribution of Eh in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Erie 182 4-171 Simplified Phosphorus Cycle in a Lake ................................. 182 4-172 State of Eutrophication for a Number of Lakes in Europe and North America ............................................................... 183 4-173 Representative Distribution of Phosphate in Lake Michigan Surface Water .................................................................. 184 4-174 Representative Distribution of Phosphate in Lake Huron Surface Water 184 4-175 Weighted Average Distribution of Phosphate in Lake Erie ............ 185 4-176 Representative Distribution of Phosphate in Lake Ontario Surface Water 186 4-177 Degree of Saturation of Surface Water of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario with Respect to Hydroxyapatite for August 22-26, 1966 ................ 186 4-178 Simplified Nitrogen Cycle in a Lake ................................... 187 4-179 Nitrogen Loading Versus Mean Depth for Various Lakes in Europe and North America ........................................................ 187 List of Figures xxix Figure Page 4-180 Representative Distribution of Nitrogen, as Nitrate, in Lake Superior Surface Water ......................................................... 188 4-181 Representative Distribution of Nitrogen, as Nitrate, in Lake Erie Surface Water .................................................................. 189 4-182 Representative Distribution of Nitrogen, as Nitrate, in Lake Ontario Surface Water ......................................................... 189 4-183 Average Concentration of Organic Nitrogen in Lake Michigan ......... 190 4-184 Phenol Distribution near Milwaukee Harbor, Wisconsin ............... 196 4-185 Number and Distribution of Oil Spills in Lake Michigan in 1967 ....... 199 4-186 Acreage Leased in Lake Erie for Oil and Gas Drilling ................. 200 4-187 Distribution of Sedimentary Organic Carbon Versus Depth in Lakes Su- perior, Michigan, and Huron ........................................... 202 4-188 Ion Product Diagram for Calcite as a Function of Temperature in the Great Lakes ........................................................... 203 4-189 Ion Product Diagram for Dolomite as a Function of Temperature in the Great Lakes ........................................................... 203 4-190 Historical Calcium Concentration Trends in the Great Lakes .......... 204 4-191 Representative Distribution of Calcium in Lake Superior Surface Water 204 4-192 Representative Distribution of Calcium in Lake Erie Surface Water ... 205 4-193 Simplified Sulfur Cycle in a Lake ...................................... 205 4-194 Changes in the Sulfate Concentration in the Great Lakes ............. 206 4-195 Representative Distribution of Sulfate in Lake Michigan Surface Water 206 4-196 Representative Distribution of Sulfate in Lake Huron Surface Water.. 207 4-197 Weighted Average Distribution of Sulfate in Lake Erie ................ 208 4-198 Activity Diagrams Showing Stability Fields of Great Lakes Water in Contact with Common Sediment Minerals ............................. 210 4-199 Representative Distribution of Silica in Lake Superior Surface Water 210 4-200 Representative Distribution of Silica in Lake Huron Surface Water ... 211 4-201 Eh-pH Diagrams Showing the Comparative Stabilities of Manganese and Iron Compounds at 25'C and I atm Total Pressure ..................... 212 4-202 Changes in Sodium and Potassium Concentration in the Great Lakes.. 218 4-203 Gross Beta Radioactivity in Lake Michigan Water ..................... 220 4-204 Gross Beta Radioactivity of Lake Michigan Bottom Sediments ........ 220 xxx Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-205 Gross Beta Radioactivity of Lake Michigan Plankton .................. 221 4-206 Lake Erie Dissolved Solids Gross Beta Radioactivity .................. 222 4-207 Lake Erie Plankton Gross Beta Radioactivity ......................... 222 4-208 Lake Erie Sediment Gross Beta Radioactivity ......,................... 222 4-209 Classification of Harbor Sediment Quality on the Basis of Chemical Com- position ................................................................ 225 4-210 Distribution of Phosphorus and Iron Along the Cuyahoga River, near Cleveland, Ohio ........................................................ 225 4-211 Dissolved Solids Loads from Great Lakes Tributaries and Apparent His- torical Range in Total Loads ........................................... 229 4-212 Monthly Variation in Composition of Lake Erie, Based on Averaged Data Collected over the Entire Lake ........................................ 231 4-313' Buildup of Chlorides from Present Concentrations Assuming a Steady Influx at Estimated 1968 Loading Rates ............................... 236 4-214 Projected Chloride Levels in the Great Lakes if All Cultural Loads are Reduced by 80% in All Lake Basins ................................... 236 4-215 Projected Chloride Concentration Decay Given 80% Reduction in Load- ing in the Chicago-Milwaukee Complex Basin, Detroit, Toledo, and Cleve- land ................................................................... 237 4-216 Time Required for Removal of Conservative Constituents in the Great Lakes, Assuming Cessation of All Input, No Sediment or Biotic Interac- tion, and Zero Background Level ...................................... 237 4-217 Nitrogen Cycle in Aquatic Environments .............................. 240 4-218 Compartments of BOD-Bacteria Exchange ............................ 242 4-219 General Life Cycle of Aquatic Actinomycetes .......................... 247 4-220 Faunal Composition of Eastern Lake Superior Biotypes ............... 254 4-221 Average Number of Amphipods and Oligochaetes; Ratio of Number Amphipods/Number Oligochaetes; and Benthos in Southern Lake Michi- gan; August to November, 1964 ........................................ 255 4-222 Mean Populations of Amphipods in Lake Huron, June to August, 1965; and in Saginaw Bay, April to September, 1965 ......................... 255 4-223 Mean Populations of Oligochaetes in Lake Huron, June to August, 1965; and in Saginaw Bay, April to September, 1965 ............ : ............ 256 4-224 Distribution of Oligochaetes in Lake Erie .............................. 256 4-225 Distribution of Chironomids in Lake Erie .............................. 257 List of Figures xxxi Figure Page 4-226 Distribution of Sphaeriids in Lake Erie ................................ 257 4-227 Average Number of Genera and Average Number of Organisms per Sta- tion in Lake Erie ...................................................... 258 4-228 Abundance of Tubificidae and Hexagenia Along a Transect from the Mouth of the Maumee River Twenty Miles into Lake Erie ............. 259 4-229 Tubificid Peaks at Maumee River Mouth Stations ..................... 259 4-230 Distribution of Oligochaeta, Tendipedidae, Sphaeriidae, Gastropoda, Hirundinea, and Trichopter and Amphipoda in Western Lake Erie in 1961 260 4-231 Distribution of Abundance of Some Macroinvertebrates in Hamilton Bay and Adjacent Lake Ontario ............................................ 261 4-232 Average Number of Diamesinae per M 2 on June 7, 1956, and Hexagenia per M2 During 1956, in Saginaw Bay . .................................. 263 4-233 Tubificid Densities in Western Basin of Lake Erie, 1951 ............... 265 4-234 Number of Tubificids per M2 in Western Lake Erie; April to August, 1967 266 4-235 Distribution of Pontoporeia and Mysis in the Great Lakes ............. 268 4-236 Depth Preferences for a Number of Benthic Species ................... 269 4-237 Relative Abundance of the Five Most Common Species of Sphaeriidae Found in the Straits of Mackinac with Respect to Depth ............... 269 4-238 Distribution of Organic Matter Versus Depth in Lake Michigan ....... 270 4-239 Comparison of Depth Distribution of Benthic Fauna, Lake Michigan 1962-64, and Lake Huron, 1965 ........................................ 270 4-240 Relationship of the Number of Pontoporeia affinis to the Depth of Sam- pling .................................................................... 270 4-241 Mean Abundance of Pontoporeia in Lake Michigan in a Series of 10 m Depth Ranges in 1931-1932 with 95% Confidence Limits ............... 271 4-242 Mean Abundance of Pontoporeia in Lake Michigan in a Series of 10 m Depth Ranges in 1964 with 95% Confidence Limits .................... 271 4-243 Samples Containing Sphaerium striatinum and Sphaerium nitidum Showing the Relationship between Median Particle Size and Depth ... 273 4-244 Vertical Distribution of Limnocalanus macrurus in Lake Michigan on August 7, 1954, and July 24, 1955 ...................................... 275 4-245 Electivity of Cladocera, Copepoda, and Rotatoria Sampled from Lake Michigan in 1967 ....................................................... 280 4-246 A Tentative Food Web in Western Lake Erie Using the Sheepshead as the Climax Organism ...................................................... 281 xxxii Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-247 Total Zooplankton Population Fluctuations for Parts of the Years 1938, 1939, 1950, 1951, 1956, and 1957 for Lake Erie .......................... 283 4-248 Seasonal Abundance of Three Major Components of the Zooplankton in Lake Erie .............................................................. 284 4-249 Seasonal Abundance of Total Copepoda in Lake Erie .................. 285 4-250 Seasonal Abundance of Total Cladocera in Lake Erie .................. 286 4-251 Seasonal Abundance of Total Rotatoria in Lake Erie .................. 287 4-252 Daily Population Densities of Cladocera Other than Leptodora ......... 288 4-253 Daily Population Densities of Cyclopoid and Calanoid Copepods Collected in the Same Location Daily in the Bass Islands Region of Lake Erie in 1950 ................................................................... 288 4-254 Tubificid Peaks at Black River Stations ............................... 289 4-255 Tubificid Peaks in Five Lake Erie Tributaries ......................... 289 4-256 Average Number of Selected Oligochaetes in Samples near Grand Haven, Michigan; May to November, 1960 ..................................... 289 4-257 Average Phytoplankton Cells/ml for All Years with Complete Records; .1920 to 1963 ............................................................ 294 4-258 Regressions of Number of Phytoplankton Cells/ml Against Years ...... 294 4-259 Seasonal Distribution of Diatoms, Green Algae, and Blue-Green Algae in the Island Section of Lake Erie, 1930 .................................. 296 4-260 Energy Flow Through Producer Trophic Level ........................ 300 4-261 Elements of the Physic al-Bi ologi c al System of Western Lake Erie, with Oxygen as the Measure of Performance ................................ 301 4-262 Hypothetical Concentrations of Some Nutrients Essential for Algal Growth, Illustrating the Concept of Limiting Nutrient ................. 303 4-263 Sources and Sinks for Dissolved Carbon Dioxide ....................... 305 4-264 Relation of Certain Climatic Factors to Phytoplankton Production in Western Lake Erie .................................................... 308 4-265 The Structure of a Natural Diatom Community; Ridley Creek, Pennsyl- vania .................................................................. 308 4-266 The Structure of a Diatom Community in a Moderately Polluted Envi- ronment; Nobs Creek, Maryland ........................................ 309 4-267 Sediment Distribution at the Surface, Lake Superior .................. 324 4-268 Sediment Distribution at a Depth of 10 cm, Lake Superior ............. 325 List of Figures xxxiii Figure Page 4-269 Environmental Boundaries and Median Phi Diameter Bottom Sediment in Eastern Lake Superior .............................................. 326 4-270 Sediment Distribution in Southern Lake Michigan, 1935 ............... 330 4-271 Surficial Sediments of Southern Lake Michigan; 1962 to 1963 .......... 330 4-272 Distribution of Sediment Types in Southern Lake Michigan ........... 331 4-273 Distribution of Sediment Types in Northern Lake Michigan ........... 332 4-274 Areal Distribution of Sediments in Northeastern Lake Michigan, Based on Gravel, Sand, Silt, and Clay Content ................................ 333 4-275 Bedrock Geology of Lake Huron ....................................... 335 4-276 Field Description of Lake Huron Bottom Sediments ................... 337 4-277 Areal Distribution of Major Median-Diameter Size Grades in Saginaw Bay .................................................................... 338 4-278 Bottom Types of the Straits of Mackinac and Upper Lake Huron ...... 339 4-279 Logs of Core Samples from Northwestern Lake Huron ................. 340 4-280 Bottom Topography of Lake Erie ...................................... 340 4-281 Geologic Cross Sections Through the Lake Erie Region ................ 341 4-282 Sediment Distribution in Lake Erie .................................... 341 4-283 Cross Sections of Lake Erie Bottom Sediments ........................ 342 4-284 Sediment Thickness in Western Lake Erie ............................. 343 4-285 Distribution of the Four Depositional Basins in Lake Ontario ......... 345 4-286 Nearshore Sediment Facies of Lake Ontario; Niagara to Whitby, Ontario 346 4-287 Bottom Materials along Southern and Eastern Shores of Lake Ontario 347 4-288 Distribution of Lake Ontario Bottom Sediments ....................... 348 4-289 Distribution of Organic Matter in Lake Ontario Surficial Sediments ... 349 4-290 Density of Lakes in Wisconsin by County .............................. 352 4-291 Graphic Summary of Interrelated Parameters Through Four Trophic Stages for an Ideal Lake ............................................... 356 4-292 Comparison of the Flora and Sediment Between a Hypothetical Bog and a Hypothetical Marsh ................................................... 357 4-293 Relation of Ground Water, Stream and Upland Lake Composition in Two Glacial Terrains in Wisconsin .......................................... 359 xxxiv Appendix 4 Figure Page 4-294 Relative Density of Lakes in Michigan by County ..................... 361 4-295 Generalized Slope and Relief in Michigan .............................. 361 4-296 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 1 in Terms of Percent of each . County's Surface Covered by Lakes and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 ... 366 4-297 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 2 in Terms of Percent of each County's Surface Covered by Lakes and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 10 3 367 4-298 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 3 in Terms of Percent of each County's Surface Covered by Lakes and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 .. 367 4-299 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 4 in Terms of Percent of each County's Surface Covered by Lakes and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 .. 368 4-300 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 5 in Terms of Percent of each County's Surface Covered by Lakes and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 .. 369 4-301 Distribution of Marsh and Bog Lakes in Michigan, in Terms of Percentage of Lakes of All Types .................................................. 370 INTRODUCTION Purpose lakes. The subject matter contained in this appendix is limited to the physical, chemical, This appendix synthesizes the current and biological processes that directly affect knowledge about the limnological processes of the Great Lakes and upland lakes. Atmos- the Great Lakes, and of the harbors and em- pheric and terrestrial processes are discussed bayments and upland lakes in the Great Lakes where necessary as they relate to the lake sys- Basin. tems. The gravitational, geostrophic, and The appendix also aids the development of a solar stimuli that supply energy to the natural comprehensive plan for optimum utilization of system are discussed. Finally, a discussion of water and related land areas, by doing the the relationship of geology to limnology is also following: included. (1) synthesizing the limnological data ap- The data used in this report were obtained plicable to regional planning considerations from material either in print or readily acces- (2) describing the limnological processes of sible from local, State, and Federal agencies. the Great Lakes and of the upland lakes of the Much of the available Great Lakes data are Great Lakes Basin in such a fashion that they suitable only for developing historical trends may be logically interrelated so it was necessary to be selective and work (3) identifying those regions in which in- with the data most applicable to understand- sufficient data exist for water resource plan- ing and characterizing the limnological pro- ning and defining the data deficiencies cesses. Much knowledge of large lake lim- (4) identifying those physical, chemical, nology derives from the study of other large and biological processes that are inadequately lakes and of other aquatic systems. Where ap- understood and require further study plicable, these studies are referenced. (5) defining those Great Lakes water re- source problems that exist or that may arise by the year 2020 Philosophy of Presentation (6) serving as a basic data source for the resource use and management appendixes. The Great Lakes comprise a dynamic rather than a static system, and therefore, discussions of dynamic processes are more im- Scope portant to an understanding of Great Lakes limnology than are presentations of lake-by- Discussions are restricted to the Great lake data. An understanding of the interrela- Lakes and their connecting channels. Inputs tionships of natural processes in the environ- from the tributary rivers are discussed as ment can be used to accurately predict natural point sources at the lake-river interface. Har- responses to certain processes. The goal of this bors are classified and discussed by group, so appendix is to describe these interrelation- that the reader may gain an overall un- ships to the extent that the reader may be able derstanding of the special water quality prob- to anticipate the nature of the responses. lems of harbors. Upland lakes are similarly treated, with discussions based on genetic and limnological classifications. Conventions Limnology was originally understood as the study of the organisms of an upland lake or The metric system is used in this appendix. pond and the relationship of those organisms Where possible the English system equiva- to the aquatic environment. More recently lents are expressed parenthetically. This con- limnology has been expanded to include the vention was employed because there is mixed study of the physical and chemical aspects of usage of systems of units in Great Lakes lim- XXXV xxxvi Appendix 4 nology. The majority of technical studies, in- criminantly when considering the Great cluding those of most chemical, biological, and Lakes. hydrodynamical processes, use the metric sys- The classic sequence of aging in an upland tem, while a few studies concerned with the lake is a well-understood series of stages that chemical budget, biota, and basin hydrology have been given names that reflect the food still use English units. Thus, inclusion of Eng- (energy) supply available in the lake. Thus, a lish units is justified. In tables and figures relatively deep lake that has abundant oxy- reproduced from a previously published gen, a low rate of supply of the materials re- source, no attempt was made to change the quired for plant growth (hutrients), and rela- author's selection of units. tively few individuals from a large number of taxa has been called oligotrophic, which means limited food and energy supply. As time Lake Aging and Eutrophication passes, more nutrients enter the lake from the drainage basin. Plants flourish, and upon Hopefully, this appendix will dispel the prev- death, they form organic sediment that fills in alent confusion and misinformation about lake the lake and is a source of nutrient recycling. aging in the Great Lakes and upland lakes. During this period of mesotrophy, the biota The layman tends to overreact to the ter- begins to increase in terms of numbers of indi- minology and predictions of the limnologist. viduals present, but the number of species For example, one often hears both the asser- may drop slightly. Ultimately, the lake be- tion that Lake Erie is dead and the counter comes shallow due to the accumulation of or- statement that this is not true and that, in ganic debris. The decomposition of the organic fact, Lake Erie today has more life than ever debris leads to oxygen depletion and to the before. These statements and other predic- release of nutrients to the water. At this stage tions about the Great Lakes reflect a lack of in lake aging there is much food, hence the perspective with respect to large lakes and name eutrophic lake. Life is abundant, al- often reflect a tenuous correlation of Great though the number of species present is often Lakes processes with principles derived from reduced to those tolerant of stress conditions the study of small, upland lakes. In fact, the such as low oxygen. The shallow nature of the sensitivity and the responses of the two types eutrophic pond enables the lake to become of lakes to physical and chemical processes are heated throughout, and the warmer water re- in many cases different, even though basic duces the solubility of oxygen. Decomposition physical processes are similar. of the organic sediment consumes oxygen in All lakes undergo a sequence of events that the water resulting in low oxygen levels, lead to their ultimate destruction. This natural which are toxic to many species. Therefore, aging was first described regarding upland eutrophic lakes can be characterized by lakes which, compared to the Great Lakes, are warmwater and/or low-oxygen-tolerant taxa. shallow and contain a small amount of water. The cyclic release of nutrients from the drain- Upland lakes undergo seasonal thermal age basin and from the organic sediment, cy- changes that involve most or all of the water in clic changes in water temperature, and other the lake, and contain a biota that is dependent factors lead to rapid increases and decreases on the surrounding land. The time scale is in the growth of certain of the taxa, especially completely different in the Great Lakes be- the plants. These increases and decreases in cause they contain large volumes of water, growth are reflected by phenomena such as much of which is semi-isolated from seasonal algal blooms. Finally the lake is completely thermal changes and is much less responsive. filled in with plant debris and becomes dry The large water volume allows for much as- land. The aging and destruction of the lake similation of chemical inputs without appreci- and associated changes in biota may happen able change in water quality or the biota, and without the influence of man. At most times minimizes the effects of infilling of the lake by during the natural sequence, the processes sedimentation as a major cause of deteriora- that lead to the ultimate destruction of the tion. The biota of the Great Lakes is somewhat lake are essentially balanced. Man's greatest similar to that of upland lakes, but because of impact on the aging of the upland lake is to the large volume of cold, well-oxygenated accelerate the influx of nutrients and sedi- water in the Great Lakes, there are also many ment so as to hasten the changes in the differences between the two. Therefore, the aquatic community. correlation with classical studies of small, up- Larger lakes, such as the Great Lakes, un- land lakes exists, but it cannot be used indis- dergo certain of the same natural changes in Introduction xxxvii aging as upland lakes. However, the Great adopted. According to Odum's classification, Lakes contain vast quantities of water, much those Great Lakes that develop high nutrient of which is never warmed during the sum- supplies upon aging would be termed mor- mer. Therefore, under natural conditions, phometrically oligotrophic. This indicates these lakes age differently than upland lakes. that the lakes still retain the geometric aspect The nutrients are assimilated by the great of an oligotrophic lake, although the nutrient volume of water; there is a large reservior of concentration is high. This distinction is par- oxygen, so oxygen-tolerant organisms prevail; ticularly critical when those changes in the and sedimentation is volumetrically unimpor- Great Lakes that are induced by man are tant. Upon aging, large lakes may build up given the term eutrophication. Those changes large volumes of nutrients and take on some of represent imbalances that are symptomatic of the characteristics of a eutrophic lake, but the eutrophication and ultimately may lead to volume and cold temperature of the deep some form of true eutrophication. However, at water in the lake resist aging in the upland the present time the induced changes are, for lake sense. Lake Erie is somewhat of an excep- the most part, reversible given enough time, tion to this generalization, because it is rela- and should not be considered as signifying the tively small and shallow. death of any Great Lake or major portions The term eutrophic lake, which is used in thereof this appendix for both upland lakes and the This appendix explains the biological, chem- Great Lakes where applicable, should not be ical, and physical aspects of the process of lake interpreted in the strict sense. The term de- aging in terms of the natural sequence and scribes the general state of a lake of any size, also in terms of the acceleration in nutrient when it is characterized by disruption of the enrichment, toxification, and general deterio- biota by environmental stresses such as oxy- ration caused by man. Sections 1 and 2 outline gen depletion and excess nutrient supply. In the physiography and general hydrology of this sense the Great Lakes, which are in no the Great Lakes and the Great Lakes Basin in danger of infilling, could approach eutrophy order to identify natural and man-caused in- through either natural causes or through the puts. Section 3 discusses the thermal charac- influence of man. Lake Erie and some other ter of the lakes, including some of the possible areas of the Great Lakes system that receive impacts of thermal discharges. Section 4 pollutants cannot assimilate them; so these summarizes the meteorological inputs to the waters are approaching or have reached a lakes and the effects of the lakes on the atmos- state of euptrophy, meaning that nutrient phere. Section 5 discusses Great Lakes ice supplies and biotic disruption approximate cover and its effect on Great Lakes navigation. those typical of an aging, upland lake. Odum5"-' Section 6 discusses the hydrodynamics of the presents a different classification of the system, including waves, currents, and special trophic state of upland lakes and Great Lakes physical problems associated with the water (Table 4-1) that has not yet been generally masses of the lakes. Section 7 covers the chem- TABLE 4-1 Lake Aging Classification Nutrient Concentration Depth Low High Shallow Morphomet (upland Eutrophic Eutrophy ric lakes) J\ (upland lakes) Lakes) I - I Deep Oligotrcphic (Great Morphometric Lakes) Oligotrophy SOURCE: Modified from Odum, 1959 NOTE: Arrows represent succession or aging paths for the Great Lakes and upland lakes. xxxviii Appendix 4 ical aspects of the lakes, including sediment on the Great Lakes, and lake restoration. and water chemistry, toxic constituents, and The reader is referred to the other appen- predicted chemical quality, given 'Specified dixes of the Great Lakes Basin Framework treatment alternatives. The biological impli- Study for more information on the Great cations of natural and man-induced aging are Lakes and upland lakes. Appendix 2, Surface discussed in Section 8. Sediment texture and Water Hydrology; Appendix 3, Geology and mineralogy are detailed in Section 9. Section Ground Water; Appendix 7, Water Quality; 10 summarizes for upland lakes much of the Appendix 8, Fish; Appendix C9, Commercial information given in the preceding sections Navigation; Appendix R9, Recreational Boat- for the Great Lakes. Finally, Sections 11 and ing; Appendix 10, Power; Appendix 11, Levels 12 summarize the appendix and discuss some and Flows; Appendix 12, Shore Use and Ero- important, current research and planning sion; and Appendix 18, Erosion and projects for the Great Lakes, including sys- Sedimentation, contain particularly pertinent tems analyses, the International Field Year sections. Section 1 THE GREAT LAKES BASIN Sam B. Upchurch 1.1 Location events that led to the formation of the strata during each interval. The Precambrian The Great Lakes Basin is located along the lithologic units consist of complexly folded and international boundary between Canada and faulted igneous, metamorphic, and sedimen- the United States, between 40'30' and 50'30' tary units. The majority of the Precambrian north latitude and 74'30' and 93'10' west lon- rock units are either granitic or gneissic, sur- gitude. The Basin includes portions of eight rounded by volcanic, metavolcanic, and States: Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, In- metasedimentary rock bodies. diana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Overlying the Precambrian are the New York; and the Province of Ontario. Paleozoic strata, which are largely of marine Five major lakes comprise 32 percent of the or strandline origin. Cambrian and Ordovician Basin area: Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, strata are predominantly composed of lime- Erie, and Ontario. In addition, Lakes Nipigon, stones, dolomites, and quartz sandstones. St. Clair, Nipissing, Simcoe, and Winnebago Silurian strata, composed of limestones and are important to the Basin. The locations of dolomites, are found at the surface and over the lakes and connecting channels are shown the structural arches within the Basin (Figure in Figure 4-1. 4-2). Intercalated with the carbonate strata at depth in the Michigan and Appalachian struc- tural basins (Figure 4-2), there are thick se- 1.2 Geology of the Great Lakes Basin quences of salt and gyps um/anhydrite. Devo- nian and Mississippian strata are composed of The lithologic units that underlie the Great limestones and shales, with minor thicknesses Lakes Basin affect the Great Lakes in two of Devonian salt and gypsum/anhydrite deep ways. The strata differ in their resistances to in the structural basins. Pennsylvanian strata erosion which in turn govern landform devel- are predominantly quartz-feldspar sandstones opment. Thus, the more erosion-resistant beds and shales. form uplands and interlake sills while the less The Cenozoic strata represent largely un- resistant strata form lowlands and lake ba- consolidated sediment deposited during the sins. Also, the mineralogical composition of Pleistocene epoch by a series of four major the strata governs the natural composition of glacial episodes and subsequently modified by the ground and surface waters in the Basin. post-glacial erosion and deposition that con- The lithologic units that underlie the Great tinues to the present. The Pleistocene sedi- Lakes Basin range in age from Precambrian ment consists of locally-derived material (age greater than 570,000,000 years) to Recent. eroded from the Precambrian and Paleozoic The strata can be grouped into three different strata within the Basin and from regions time -stratigraphic divisions that represent north of the Basin. completely different origins and impacts on The sedimentary rock strata were deposited the Great Lakes Basin: the Precambrian, the in more-or-less horizontal beds. During and Paleozoic, and the Cenozoic (Table 4-2). Al- subsequent to deposition of the beds, they though these three time -str atigraphic divi- were subjected to regional folding. Five major sions represent great intervals of geologic tectonic features have resulted from modifica- time, their main importance to the-Great tion of the beds. These features are the two Lakes Basin lies in the different geologic forks of the Cincinnati Arch (Kankakee and Sam B. Upchurch, Department of Geology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. 1 t9 S Up DU UTH @U,ERQ,, .01-0 ... ...... . ul e4- 0 U, N z MILWAUKEE .-EGO. TORONTO. --ONTARIO-1 10C.CSTEI A ... ... . .... B@ '@40 DETR IT CHICA TOLEDO A F' CLIEVEILAND I N D A N A/ 0' PENNSYLVANIA 0 1 0 Great Lakes Basin 3 P EISTOCENE NOMENCLATURE EPLAJ SVSTEM SERIES STAGE RIC., T C,@, 2 QUATERNARY P 0 C_ @_ z OUTCROP NOMENCLATURE SUBSURFACE NOMENCLATURE GEOL00C TIMESTRATIGRAIIHIC ROCK-STRATIGRAPHK oCK-511I.116. .1c T- FORMATION IMEMBEPI GROUP 0 SERIES GROUP FORMAT] -N- LIT- 2 V Y -. It! - 09 :s 9KIMERIDGIAN 61) LAI z z COKIWAUGH -d F. z POTTSVILLE 1-- F. 2L z z MERAIItECIM GIL- I-S ms -w I IPPIAN-DEVO IAN - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - d CHAUTWUVAW'@ T@- Ny is p .. fm @1_ LI -VER I. z zERIAN z z 0 0 C., 1, F. t-I, F. U.TERIAN WT-T 11VIR F. z 1. _T mz l@ms 11-DS 11. 2 0 CAYUGAN UJI WI_ c-, p _j 4 . @ I-` EXPLANATION 06 wim 111. z z R'A I AA _@; @ @Dl I, AU -1 VF I--- D@ ALI.A C.. WA C H.11 F. Z .. . . ... . . CINCINNATIM W_@ Z_Z < :5 - -, 1. . . . . . . . . . . 0 @1., F.h F. MONAWKIAN 0 0 -CK RMR - F4, w. C.AEIA. CMADIAN C.. 11 C-DIA. LAKI F. ST'M I J..A.Y POLIW-@@Nl 1.-- S, P@R kC _k, i rl _@LMWAN 1',, 1 FIGURE 4-2 Stratigraphic Succession in Michigan From Michigan Geological Survey, 1964 4 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-2 Stratigraphic Summary of the Great Lakes Basin Lithologyl System Wisconsin Arch Michigan Basin2 Appalachian Basin2 Recent Varying thicknesses of unconsolidated sediment. Cenozoic Pleistocene Complex accumulations of glacial, lacustrine, eolian, and fluvial debris. Textures range from coarse conglomerates to clays and silts. Debris principally derived locally, with large exotic clasts. Thickness from 0 to 1000 plus feet. Moraines and other strata containing coarse clasts are resistant to erosion. Palezoic Permian Absent May be present in Michigan Present in Allegheny Plateau structural basin. outside of basin. Pennsylvanian Absent 0 to 750 feet of continental Lithologies similar to sediment (e.g. coal, sand- Michigan Basin. Thickness stone, minor limestone). up to approximately 1300 Resistant to erosion. feet within basin. Mississippian Absent 0 to 2500 feet of marine 0 to 500 feet of sand and shale, sandstone, and minor -Shale in basin. Resistant limestone. Resistant to to erosion. erosion. Devonian Absent 0 to 5000 feet of limestone 0 to 2500 feet of shale and and shale. Evaporites at limestone. Not resistant depth in the Michigan to erosion. structural basin. Not resistant to erosion. Silurian 0 to 1500 feet of dolomite 0 to 4500 feet of dolomite, 0 to 1500 feet of dolomite, and limestone Resistant limestones, and minor shale limestone, and minor to erosion. at surface and evaporite-. evaporites. Carbonates are carbonates at depth. Carbon- resistant to erosion. ates are resistant to erosion. Ordovician 0 to 1000 feet of dolomite, 0 to 2800 feet of limestone, 0 to 3000 feet of shale and limestone, shale, and sand- shale, sandstone, and dolo- and minor limestone. Not stone. Carbonates are mite. Carbonates are resistant to erosion. resistant to erosion. resistant to erosion. Cambrian 0 to 3000 feet of dolomite 0 to 3000 feet of sandstone 0 to 1500 feet of sandstone and sandstone. Carbonates and carbonates. Resistance and carbonates. Resistance are resistant to erosion. to erosion variable. to erosion variable. Precambrian Proterozoic Keweenawan Thickness indeterminate. Complex assemblage of sedimentary, volcanic, and plutonic rocks. Resistances to erosion vary with rock type and degree of weathering. Huronian Thickness indeterminate. Complex assemblage of sedimentary, volcanic, and plutonic rocks. Resistances to erosion vary with rock type and degree of weathering. Archeozoic Thickness indeterminate. Complex assemblage of intrusive and metamorphic rocks. Resistances to erosion vary with rock type and degree of weathering. iData from Sloss, Dapples, and Krumbein, 1960. 2Michigan and Appalachian Basins are structural rather than drainage basins. (cf. Figure 4-3) Findlay-Algonquin Arches), the Appalachian Michigan Basin is a saucer-shaped structural Basin, the Michigan Basin, the Wisconsin and depositional basin with Paleozoic strata Dome, and the Canadian Shield (Figure 4-3). dipping toward the center from all directions. Precambrian rocks of the Canadian Shield are The Findlay-Algonquin Arch, on the eastern exposed across the northern third of the Great side of the Michigan Basin, separates the' Lakes Basin. Folded into the igneous and westward-dipping strata of that basin from metamorphic rocks of the Canadian Shield the southeastward-dipping strata of the Ap- are the unmetamorphosed to moderately palachian Basin. metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic Prior to the Pleistocene glaciation, the Pre- rocks of the Lake Superior Syncline. At the cambrian and Paleozoic rocks cropped out at crest of the Wisconsin Dome, granitic intru- the surface. Figure 4-4 shows the relative sive rocks crop out, ringed by Paleozoic abundances of lithologic types at the pre- sandstones, dolomites, and limestones. The Pleistocene erosional surface. The strata have Great Lakes Basin 5 The Laurentian Uplands are characterized by low-lying swamps, poorly drained areas, and occasional ranges of hills. The hills are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... underlain by resistant Precambrian rock I NORTH HURON masses, and the low areas by a thin veneer of glacial debris. For the most part the Laurentian Uplands c incide with the Cana- 0 than Shield. The Interior Lowlands are better L F T drained than the Laurentian Uplands. The ridges of the lowlands are glacial major moraines and outcrops of resistant, dipping pre-Pleistocene strata. An example of the BA51 non-glacial, resistant ridges is the Niagara Escarpment (Figure 4-7), which consists of limestones and dolomites (Figure 4-8) that dip FIGURE 4-3 Major Tectonic Features in the into the Michigan structural basin and form a Vicinity of the Great Lakes Basin more-or-less continuous ridge from the Niag- Modified from Rigp, 1960 ara region of New York and Ontario, through the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, to the Door Peninsula in Lake Michigan. varying resistances to erosion. Limestones, Bedrock geometry has a strong influence on well-cemented sandstones, and some igneous the configuration of the Great Lakes. The bot- rocks withstand erosion, while shales do not. toms of Lakes Michigan, Huron, Erie, and On- The preglacial drainage pattern (Figure 4-5) tario lie in strata that are largely shales (Fig- reflected the structural attitude of the beds at ure 4-8) and were easily eroded prior to and the pre-Pleistocene erosional surface. High- during glaciation. With few exceptions the lands developed where limestones and sills that separate the lakes are underlain by sandstones cropped out, and stream valleys resistant strata predominantly composed of developed in terrain characterized by a large limestone and dolomite largely of Silurian age. proportion of shale (compare Figures 4-4 and Figure 4-8 shows examples of differentially 4-5). Subsequent to the development of the eroded bedrock and its control on the pre-Pleistocene drainage system, glaciation geometry of the Great Lakes Basin. modified the topography by scouring and fill- The more subtle topographic features of the ing. Much of the debris remaining from the Great Lakes Basin result from modifications glaciation is locally derived and the accumula- of Pleistocene glacial features. Glacial sedi- tions are thin. Subsequent erosion has ex- ment may be divided into two general types: posed Precambrian and Paleozoic strata in morainal debris, which forms the major ridges some of the regions of thin accumulation, and and hill systems in much of the Interior Low- elsewhere the thin deposits cause the present lands, and non-morainal debris, which forms surface to reflect the pre-Pleistocene surface. much of the low-lying terrain of the Basin. The Figure 4-6 depicts the composition of the sur- non-morainal debris consists of glacio- ficial deposits of glacial and post-glacial origin. lacustrine, glacio-fluvial, and eolian sediment. Figure 4-9 shows the distribution of major morainal systems in the U.S. portion of the 1.3 Basin Physiography Basin. Where moraines intersect the lake shore, they resist erosion, form points, and The areal geology of the Basin allows sep- serve as sediment sources. The parallelism of aration of the Great Lakes and the Great moraines with lake shores is a result of the Lakes Basin into three major physiographic pre-Pleistocene drainage system, which chan- provinces (Figure 4-7). Lake Superior and the nelized ice movement and caused the borders northern third of the Great Lakes Basin are in of the ice lobes to conform to the geometry of the Laurentian Uplands Province, the re- the pre-glacial river basins. mainder of the Great Lakes and much of the Subsequent to glacial recession, the Great Great Lakes Basin are in the interior Low- Lakes Basin has been subjected to isostatic lands Province, and minor portions of the rebound (i.e., uplift of the land mass after the Lakes Erie and Ontario basins are in the Ap- weight of the ice was removed) and to acceler- palachian Plateau Province. ated stream erosion. Variations in the rate of 6 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-3 The Great Lakes Drainage Basins Lake Superior Michigan Huron St. Clair Erie Ontario Area of Drainage Basins:l Total basin areal - sq. miles 49,300 45,600 51,700 6,900 229700 27,300 Land area - sq. kilometers 127,700 118,100 133,900 17,900 58,800 70,700 U.S. basin areal - sq. miles 16,900 45,600 16,200 2,800 18,000 15,200 Land area - sq. kilometers 43,800 118,100 42,000 7,300 46,600 39,400 Canada basin areal - sq. miles 32,400 0 35,500 4,100 4,700 12,100 Land area - sq. kilometers 83,900 0 91,900 10,600 12,200 31,300 Percent of basin in U.S. 34 100 31 40 79 56 'Including connecting channels SOURCE: Lake Survey Center, NOS, Dec. 1970 CARBONATES UNDIFFERENTIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS B UNDIFFERENTIATED IGNEOUS ROCKS gj UNDIFFERENTIATED SEDIMENTARYAND METASEDAMENTARY ROCKS /8 SAND8 1 1/8 SHALE _@-W @_M @@MWM -Z@ "'M ----------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - STATUTE AUL11 FIGURE 4-4 Lithofacies of Strata at the Pre-Pleistocene Erosional Surface. Symbols represent relative proportions of beds composed of carbonates (limestone, dolomite), sand (sandstone), and shale, by thickness. Note I indicates regions of mixed metamorphic and igneous rocks. Data from Sloss, Dapples, and Krumbein, 1960 Great Lakes Basin 7 uplift and erosion have caused the drainage ...... .... patterns in various parts of the Great Lakes Basin to be in different stages of development .... . .. ... (Table 4-3). Lakes Michigan, Superior, and Huron have larger drainage basins than the . .... .. remaining lakes. In newly formed glacial ter- rain, large drainage basins have poorly de- ...... ...... veloped drainage networks. Because glacial retreat most recently exposed the drainage basins of Lakes M,chigan, Superior, and Hu- ron, and because isostatic uplift of these ba- sins has not yet reached a maximum, these ST. LAWsp SY4 drainage basins are more poorly developed. In poorly drained regions the residence time of water within the watershed is greater than FIGURE 4-5 Proposed Pre-Pleistocene elsewhere, Drainage System in the Great Lakes Basin The individual basins of the Great Lakes, From Kelley and Farrand, 1967 including Lake St. Clair, can be classified on CARB TES Z%_ SAND8 I CLAY ev 64, ..M .............. .............. -M _V FIGURE4-6 Composition of Pleistocene and Recent Surficial Deposits of the Great Lakes Region. Note I indicates regions of thin soil on Precambrian rocks. Note 2 indicates regions where soils are undifferentiated. Note 3 indicates areas of thin organic soil on Precambrian rock. From Upchurch, 1972 8 Appendix 4 the bedrock. Table 4-4 shows the resulting 0 2. classificati' n. The lake classification scheme -uren@t-ia Uplands - -- is useful in predicting water residence times in the various watersheds, the natural chemical composition of the watershed runoff, and the bathymetric configuration of the various lakes. "a 1.4 Basin Population and Culture Nk Population density and cultural develop- -0 ment are highly variable in the Great Lakes 0 Basin. The distribution of cities and towns and of land uses is a function of Basin physiog- Ly raphy and resources. Many of the geologic fac- tors discussed in the preceding sections are PIGURE 4-7 Physiography of the Great Lakes responsible for the present cultural develop- Region ment of the Basin. For example, many of the Modified from Lobeek, 1957 larger cities were established along geologi- cally formed straits or harbors, which afford the basis of bedrock geology, topography, and economic or political advantages. degree of development (maturity) of the pres- Unfortunately, these same factors have led ent drainage system. The lakes can be to many of the environmental problems faced classified as to the physiographic province in by the inhabitants of the Basin. Figure 4-10 which their basins occur, and the lithology of shows the nature of land use in the Basin. NORTH - NORTHWEST SOUTH-SOUTHEAST ISLE KEWEENAW ER ROYALE LAKE PENINSULA KEWEENAW AY BAY SUPERIOR B@AY 11 R WEST EAST GREEN LAKE MICHIGAN MICHIGAN LAKE HURON GEORGIAN SAY P"NSYLVANIAN AND '0 4 CKS, DIFFERENI OcAst sl C4 WTRI S.ALE f@ "PC @N' 41. C R P 3 WEST EAST SOUTH KELLEYS OASS ISLAND ISLAND LAKE ERIE A- FIGURE 4-8 Examples of Stratigraphic Control on the Configuration of the Basins of the Great Lakes Showing Geologic Cross Sections of Lake Superior Syncline (top), Michigan Structural Basin (middle), and Western Lake Erie Basin through South Bass and Kelleys Islands (bottom) From Hough, 1958 Great Lakes Basin 9 0 c> .0h -it 0 ONTARIO all. VL -r %* FIGURE 4-9 Principal Morainic Systems in the Great Lakes Region After Kelley and Farrand, 1967 TABLE 4-4 Summary of the Geology and Drainage Maturity of the Great Lakes and Adjacent Basins Lake Criterion W.;_._hign Superior Huron St. Clair Erie Ontario Borders Canadian shield? No Yes Yes No No No Bottom primarily in shales? Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Drainage basin minerology: A. Igneous and metamorphic minerals common ? No Yes Yes No No No B. Quartz, clay minerals, carbonates common? Yes Yes-quartz Yes-see Yes Yes Yes and clays Superior in glacial debris Drainage basin maturity: A. Small drainage basin area? No No No Yes Yes Yes B. Well developed drainage? No No No Yes Yes Yes Drainage Basin Classification Immature Immature Immature Mature (?) Mature Mature Lowland Upland Upland Lowland Lowland Lowland ILake St. Clair is situated in an intermorainal trough and bedrock has little influence on the lake. 10 Appendix 4 THE GREAT LAKES BASIN LAND USE CHIEFLY NON AGRICULTURAL CHIEFLY AGRICULTURAL Z7,1 FOREST, SCRUB, SWAMP .3'1 DAIRYING a BOG S C ST RUB,CUTOVERJORE LIVESTOCK OR GRAIN SOME GRAZING CROPPING ED URBAN AND SUBURBAN FRUITS OR TOBACCO 4b 'C ;6 pr y .... ...... ........... N 0 SO too ISCI SCALE IN MILES FIGURE 4-10 Major Categories of Land Use in the Great Lakes Basin. Heavy line separates urban and agricultural land-use area from nonagricultural area. Much of the northern half of the Basin is wet- ron, and northern Michigan) are little affected land or is forested, with tourism, mining, and by man. The drainage systems are geologically lumbering as the major industries. The south- immature and carry water that is, with local ern half of the Basin is highly developed for exceptions, adjusted to the natural system. On agricultural and urban land utilization. The the other hand, southern Lake Michigan, distinct separation in land use reflects geolog- Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario, have well- ical characteristics of the Laurentian Uplands developed drainage systems that carry large and the Interior Lowlands. amounts of agricultural and urban waste into The population distribution (Figure 4-11) the lakes. varies from an average of less than seven people per square kilometer (30/mi2) in the 1.5 Basin Climate Lake Superior basin to more than 140 per square kilometer (600/mi2) in the Lake Erie ba- The Great Lakes have a strong influence on sin. Most of the population is concentrated in the climate of the Great Lakes Basin. Section 4 the three urban complex areas on the south- will treat over-lake climate and the lake effect ern edge of the Basin: the Gary-Chicago- on adjacent land.areas in greater detail. Milwaukee complex, the Detroit-Toledo- Northern, mid-continent North America is Cleveland complex, and the Rochester- characterized by a cool, continental climate. Buffalo-Toronto complex. In the vicinity of the larger lakes, this climate Because of differences in land use and popu- is modified, and a semi-maritime climate re- lation density, the upper Great Lakes experi- sults. The interaction between the lakes and ence a different type of input than the lower surrounding land areas affects the water Great Lakes. The upper lakes (Superior, Hu- budget, water surface motions, thermal re- Great Lakes Basin 11 95* 93* 91, 89, 87' 85* 83* 79* 7 7' 75' 73' A _.. 100,000@ 300,000 300,000- 500,000 LAKE., woov 49' 9: 49* 500,000- 1, 00,000 OVER i,000,000 0 ..... 47* Kf 4 7' A% 0 A R M I C H I G N C# 45' I S C 0 N S I ,HAWPLA'M LAKE WNVr&A Q ... 43' 43' M I H 11 G A Y 0 R LAXL Sr. GLAM L L I N 0 IIS P E14 14 A. 41* 41' KILOMETERS INDIANA 0 H STATUTE MILES 1. o W W 93* 91- 89* 87* 85* 83* W 79* 77' 75' FIGURE 4-11 Population Centers in the Great Lakes Basin After Great Lakes Basin Commission, 1968 gime, and solid and dissolved constituents of wind roses of Figure 4-12, there is a strong the lakes. These factors are emphasized in tendency for the maximum wind vectors to be subsequent chapters. aligned with the long axes of the lakes. Major weather systems originate either in western Canada, or in southern and south- 1.6 Winds and Storms western United States (Figure 4-13). Those cells from the northwest usually bring less Climatic disturbances that produce winds moisture and are considerably cooler than the and storms are critical to the lake system be- southern air masses (U.S. Weather Bureau 827). cause they aid in regulating the thermal Local weather may be caused by local ther- budget of the lakes and adjacent land by heat mal gradients, and by lake effect. Local ther- dissipation or transfer; they affect precipita- mal gradients, for example, in the vicinity of a tion and the resulting water budget; and they city or other heat source, cause restricted generate waves, seiches, and surges. breezes and thunder showers and squalls. Al- Prevailing winds in the Great Lakes area though these storms are often violent, they are generally from the west (Figure 4-12), al- are of little regional importance. Lake breezes though winds come from all sectors. During are low intensity winds that result from dif- winter, winds of highest frequency of occur- ferences in surface temperatures over the rence and velocity come from the west in the lakes and adjacent land areas. The lake western half of the Basin. In the eastern half breezes usually occur on clear days when of the Basin, winter winds are most frequently there is little interference by regional pres- from the west, southwest, and northwest. sure systems. Offshore breezes occur when the Summer winds are usually from the southwest water is warmer than the land. A convection and south throughout the Basin. In all the cell develops and air over the water tends to 12 Appendix 4 FEBRUARY V MAY 7-,7 FIGURE 4-13 Major Storm Tracks that Affect the Great Lakes Basin From U.S. Weather Bureau, 1959a e/ _@77) rise, relative to that over land (Figure 4-14). Onshore breezes result from the opposite con- A dition. Lake breezes rarely extend inland for more than 2 or 3 kilometers (1.5 miles to 2 miles). @7, 1.7 Temperature AUGUST Surface air temperature greatly influences the thermal regime of the Great Lakes. In re- turn, the lakes, which comprise approximately one-third of the area of the Great Lakes Basin, act as heat sinks or sources, moderating the temperatures of adjacent land areas. Heat ex- change between water and atmosphere also governs the distribution of lake breezes; the water budget of the Great Lakes Basin 3 through evaporation and precipitation; stratification and circulation within the water NOVENBER mass; and, to a degree, the kinetics of chemical and biochemical reactions within the lakes. The lake effect includes the moderating in- ox@ fluence of the lakes on adjacent land tempera- tures. The lakes store heat more efficiently than does the surrounding land. When the sur- 4. face temperatures over the land are cooler than those over water, the lakes release heat and warm the coastal regions. Conversely, if the atmosphere over land is warmer than over water, heat is absorbed by the water and the L 40 1 coastal regions are cooled. Mean annual surface air temperatures in FIGURE 4-12 Wind Distribution in the Great the Great Lakes Basin vary from less than O'C Lakes Basin. Bars represent percentage fre- (32*F) in the north to over 10'C (50'F) in the quency of wind observed from each direction. south (Figure 4-15). The moderating effect is Each circle equals 10%. evident in the vicinity of the lakes. The interi- From U.S. Weather Bureau, 1959a ors of major peninsulas (e.g., the upper and Great Lakes Basin 13 Air Cools ;0 io 4 4 @) Total 20 Great Lakes 14 L. Superior Basin Basin C'F @0 64 Air Worms 7 Land Lake _'0 _j [21 [0 L.Michig.. L. Huron Basin Basin *C *F n-111 n 71o Air Cools t2 4 444 Lo AO 4 + 7,0 4 7,- L. E rie L.Ontorio B.s,n n=7 B-5,n n-11 -7 "F' L L -L L -L I I I I L L 'L L -L . I . . . . . I I M A. I I A S 0 N D I F . A M Jn J A S 0 N D Air Worms Month Mo th FIGURE 4-16 Monthly Mean and Range of Land Lake Temperatures in each Lake Basin. "n" is the number of stations used in calculations. FIGURE 4-14 Generation of Offshore (top) and Onshore (bottom) Breezes lower peninsulas of Michigan, and the Huron peninsula of southern Ontario) are colder than the coastal areas at equivalent latitudes. In response to the prevailing westerly and southwesterly winds, the mean annual tem- peratures on the lee coasts of the lakes tend to T____ IT___T_ be slightly warmer than on the windward to Nis F- US W,,Ih,, coasts. 2.0 B..... .. d C-ads- Latitude causes a decrease in average 40 Zia monthly temperature and in average monthly 20 30 maximum and minimum temperatures of so 40 about 10'C (18'F) from south to north within V* the Basin. Aside from gradients resulting from differences in latitude, temperatures 7.0 within each of the lake basins are comparable (Figure 4-16). Greatest variability between go 0 a temperature maxima and minima occurs dur- '00 11"" ing the winter and spring months. For exam- ple, in the Lake Superior basin the difference between average maximum and average min- 41 "W,.r Land ium temperatures ranges from 7'C to 15'C (ap- FIGURE 4-15 Mean Annual Temperature in proximately 13'F to 27'F) during the winter, to the Great Lakes Basin YC to 7'C (approximately 9'F to 13'F) during 14 Appendix 4 the summer. The small range of average summer maximum and minimum tempera- tures results from three factors: greater heat retention, when vegetation acts as a heat source; greater similarity of the water tem- 2-0- perature to the atmospheric temperature; and dominance of southerly winds. Short-term, local variations in near-surface atmospheric temperatures can be extreme. For example, intense cells of cold, arctic air .0 may lower temperatures as much as 28'C (ap- 1-0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - proximately 50'F) in the period of a day. If the lakes are'not covered with ice, the lake effect can cause as much as 11'C (200F) higher tem- peratures on the lee side of the lakes. The Basinwide temperature regime governs I I I I I I I I I I I the thermal budget of the lakes, including J F M A M J J A S 0 N D such factors as water temperature, ice season Month and extent, circulation, and structure of the aquatic community. FIGURE 4- -18 Ratio of Average Monthly Pre- cipitation over Water to Average Monthly Pre- 1.8 Precipitation cipitation over Land in the Northern Lake Michigan Area. Overwater sites were Ile aux Annual precipitation, including rainfall, Galets, South Fox Island, North Manitou Island, and Beaver Island. Overland sites were Long snow, and less important modes of transfer of Lake Dam, Minocqua Dam, Willow Reservoir, water from the atmosphere to the earth sur- and Rhinelander, Wisconsin. face ranges from less than 70 cm to more than 95 cm (28 in to 37 in) (Figure 4-17). In the southeastern and eastern portions of the creases with increased latitude because the Basin (the Adirondack Mountains and the Al- colder air masses at high latitudes cannot con- legheny Plateau) the total annual precipita- tain as much moisture as the warmer, south- tion increases to more than 120 cm (47 in). The ern air masses. The east to west precipitation uniformity of the precipitation distribution is decrease is caused by the interaction of the due to the lack of major topographic variation lakes (moisture sources), the prevailing west- in the Basin and to the uniformity of weather erly winds, and Basin configuration and ele- patterns that move into the area. vations. The prevailing winds are reduced in Precipitation decreases from the south to moisture content after having crossed the north and from east to west. Precipitation de- plains to the west of the Basin. They receive .moisture from the lakes, and precipitation amounts increase toward the east. The cooling of moisture-laden air in the Allegheny and C-... W-1-10C.. D- F- US, W,,Ih,, Adirondack Highlands triggers orographic 5-- Ald C ... di- precipitation on the southeastern edge of the .;,o . ..... Basin. During spring and summer, precipitation is 90 10 CP greater over the land than over the lakes or over leeward coastal areas (Figure 4-18). This -0 80 q is due to convection caused by over-land warming. The air convected upward over land durin g summer is cooled and precipitation forms (Kresge et al.476) . During winter, air /00.@ passing over the lakes picks up moisture and - - - - becomes unstable, especially close to shore. ____7 Therefore, during winter more precipitation J occurs over the water and the coastal areas FIGURE 4-17 Mean Annual Precipitation on than inland. The lake effect on coastal areas is the Great Lakes Basin apparent in the areal precipitation pattern Great Lakes Basin 15 C.1", 5C., 5 lp 4 -6 tp, FIGURE 4-19 Mean Annual Runoff in the FIGURE 4-20 Mean Annual Surface Water Great Lakes Basin Loss through Interception, Evaporation, and In- From Dereeki, 1966 filtration as Ground Water From Derecki, 1966 (Figure 4-17). On all of the lakes, precipitation is greater on the eastern (lee) side of the lake. enters the atmosphere; interception, the di- version of water by physical structures; and infiltration as ground water. Much of the pre- 1.9 Runoff cipitation diverted from runoff by interception Basin runoff is a function of precipitation, and infiltration is eventually returned to the amount of storage in snowpack, saturation drainage network or to the lakes themselves and storage in soil interstices, slope, channel by artificial drainage structures or subsurface storage, interception, and evapotranspira- flow. Figure 4-20 shows the difference be- tween precipitation and runoff for the Basin. tion. Variations in average annual runoff This difference is attributed to loss through (Figure 4-19) correspond to the precipitation interception, evapotranspiration, and/or in- distribution. Throughout most of the Great filtration as ground water. Water losses in the Lakes Basin, the average runoff is between 20 Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior basins cm and 30 cm (8 in to 12 in) on the windward tend to increase away from the respective portions and 30 cm to 40 cm (12 in to 16 in) on lakes. These losses probably are due to the the leeward portions of the individual lake ba- rather poorly developed drainage systems of sins. The Adirondack Mountains and Al- these lake basins. The slight increase in water legheny Plateau have higher than average loss from north to south results from evapo- runoff because of orographically induced pre- transpiration induced by longer growing sea- cipitation and increased slopes. Runoff is dis- son, higher transpiration by deciduous trees cussed in greater detail in Appendix 2, Surface compared to conifers, and higher tempera- Water Hydrology, and in Appendix 11, Levels tures in the southern half of the Great Lakes and Flows. Sections 2 and 4 of this appendix Basin. develop those aspects of runoff necessary to the limnology of the respective lakes. 1.11 Influence of Lakes on Basin Climate 1.10 Evapotranspiration, Interception, and Detailed discussions of the energy balance Ground Water and over-water climate of the lakes in sub- sequent sections will elaborate on lake effects Not all of the water that reaches the ground in the Great Lakes Basin. The lake effect is as precipitation flows into the lakes as surface pronounced. Coastal temperatures, precipita- runoff. There are four possible processes for tion, and winds are controlled by the lakes. removing water from the surface drainage The water budget, chemistry, thermal regime, system: evaporation; transpiration, the proc- and circulation of the lakes are influenced by ess by which water escapes a living plant and the interaction of land and the lakes. Section 2 LAKE BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY Sam B. Upchurch 2.1 International Great Lakes Datum --------------- Accurate measurement of lake levels is dif- ficult, yet necessary for navigation, power generation, shore use, and lake regulation. Prior to 1955, lake level elevations were de- termined using mean sea level as daturn. A It 11 However, due to the rotation of the earth and 8. 388 km variation in gravity with latitude and topog- raphy, a perfectly still lake surface is not par- allel to mean sea level (Figure 4-21). Meas- urements taken at different locations on a lake were, therefore, difficult to correlate. In 1955 the dynamic-height system, utilizing the con- cept of an equipotential surface, was adopted by the United States and Canada for use in determining lake levels. This system accom- modates the variations in lake level due to FIGURE 4-21 Comparison of Equipotential latitudinal differences in gravity (Feldscher and Geometric Surfaces as Survey Datums. A is and Berry260). Under the dynamic-height sys- a surface generated by the radius of the earth at tem all points at equivalent latitude are as- 45' latitude. B is the equipotential or level sur- sumed to have an equivalent gravitational po- face. tential, which is sought by fluid bodies such as After Feldscher and Berry, 1969 lakes. The datum used for dynamic-height measurements is called the International Great Lakes are referenced to a low water Great Lakes Datum (IGLD) and is the mean datum (LWD). LWD is an arbitrary datum for water elevation in the Gulf of St. Lawrence at each lake, selected with the purpose of simpli- Father Point, Quebec. A discrepancy in this fying calculations and interpretations from technique is that lake surfaces are not parallel navigation charts. Lake areas and volumes to the theoretical equipotential surfaces. referenced to LWD are, therefore, less than Local gravity variations are of sufficient true areas and volumes by an amount calcu- magnitude to cause measurable disparities in lated from the difference between LWD and gage measurements referenced to IGLD. the lake surface elevation. Feldscher and Berry260 have recommended adoption of the geopotential method, which accounts for local gravity variations, to elimi- 2.3 Great Lakes Drainage System nate the discrepancies in lake-level meas- urements. Lake Superior is the northernmost of the Great Lakes and is the uppermost Great Lake in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence drainage 2.2 Low Water Datum system (Figures 4-1 and 4-23). The Lake Supe- rior outlet is the St. Marys River, which flows Many of the measurements concerning into Lake Huron. Lake Michigan and Lake levels, water areas, and water volumes of the Huron are at the same level, thus they are Sam B. Upchurch, Department of Geology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. 17 18 Appendix 4 TOUR INT- L 200 FEET 0 V v, -J FIGURE 4-22 Physical Characteristics of Lake Superior Figure from Hough, 1958 Metric Standard Metric Standard Low water datum (LWD): 182.9 m 600.0 ft Maximum depth below @WD: 407 m 1333 ft Length: 563 km 350 mi Average surface elevation Breadth: 259 km 160 mi (IGLD): 183.11 m 600.37 ft Shoreline length: 4795 km 2980 mi Maximum surface elevation Total surface area: 82,100 kM2 31,700,Mi2 (IGLD): 183.63 m 602.06 ft Surface area in U.S.: 53,350 kM2 20,600 Mi2 Minimum surface elevation Volume at LWD: 12,230 kM3 2,935 Mi3 (IGLD): 179.23 m 598.23 ft Average depth below LWD: 149 m 480 ft regarded as one hydrologic entity. Surface dis- quence of varved lake sediment and till turbances on each lake change the hydraulic (Reid '643 and Zumberge 922) . The eastern basin head, causing flow reversals between the two is characterized by a north-south trending lakes. Net flow, however, is from Lake Michi- valley and ridge system. Sediment cover is gan into Lake Huron through the Straits of variable in this region and outcrops of pre- Mackinac. The St. Clair River connects Lake Pleistocene rocks are common. Huron and Lake St. Clair and the Detroit The western basin of Lake Superior reflects River flows from Lake St. Clair into Lake Erie. the Lake Superior syncline (Figures 4-3 and The Niagara River connects Lakes Erie and 4-8), a trough-like structural feature that Ontario, and Lake Ontario discharges through plunges to the northeast. Keweenawan (Pre- the St. Lawrence River. Levels of Lakes Supe- cambrian) erosion-resistant volcanic and rior and Ontario are regulated by an interna- sedimentary rocks outcrop at the surface tional board. along the western arm of the syncline. The Apostle Islands, Isle Royale, and the connect ing submarine ridge are outcrops of the same, 2.3.1 Lake Superior resistant, Precambrian strata. The eastern flank of the syncline causes the strata to be Lake Superior is the largest of the Great exposed in the Keweenaw Peninsula and in the Lakes, with a volume of 12,230 kM3 (2,935 mi3) submarine ridge that extends northward from and a surface area of 82,100 kM2 (31,700 mi 2@at the Peninsula. LWD (Figure 4-22). The eastern basin is less well understood. The lake bottom is divided into two basins The southern border of the basin is in (Figure 4-22). The Ke,7eenaw Peninsula and a Paleozoic strata. The remainder of the basin is prominent north-south ridge at a depth of 150 in the Precambrian, but is not further differ- m to 180 m (500-600 ft) separate the eastern entiated. Possibly, the valley and ridge portion and western basins.- The western basin is of the eastern basin reflects a pre-Pleistocene characterized by a comparatively smooth bot- drainage pattern that may have followed the tom, consisting of a thick (up to 120 m) se- structures of the Precambrian rocks. Lake Basin Physiography 19 LAKES M ETERS LAKE SUPERIOR FEET LAKE SUPERIOR MICHIGAN AND HWON L AKE ERIE STMARY S ST AIR AND NIAGARA 600 A R, +4 L Sr. CL AIR LAKE +1 MAXIMUM DEPTHIONTARIO sr LAwRE'm +3 212 FEET R"ER +2 +1 -SEA LE@EL - LWD 0- 0 LWD MAXIMUM DEPTHS 7W FEET -2 _3W M 925 FEET MAXIMUM DEPTH -3 804 FEET -4 MAXIMU DEPTH 1333 FEET J F M A /A J J A S 0 N D -600 - FIGURE 4-23 Profile of the Great Lakes Sys- FIGURE 4-24 Average Monthly Lake Levels tem. Horizontal distance is not to scale. for Lake Superior for the Period 1860-1970 From Rodgers, 1969 (solid line), and for the Period 1960-1970 (short-dashed line). Long-dashed lines repre- sent the monthly, all-time maximum and mini- The shoreline of Lake Superior is one of its mum lake levels. greatest resources. Throughoutthe region the coast tends to be precipitous, with sea cliffs 120 River has been diverted into Lake Nipigon and m to 240 m (400 ft to 600 ft) high and depths Long Lake has been diverted into the Aguasa-' adjacent to shore to 150 m to 270 in (500 ft to bon River. Outflow from Lake Superior is reg- 900 ft). Interspersed with these spectacular ulated in the St. Marys River. The St. Marys cliffs are small, rocky, pocket beaches. The River (Table 4-6-) drops a total distance of 7.1 in south shore of Lake Superior is characterized (23.3 ft) in a distance of 113 km (70 mi) with by wave-cut terraces and abundant sediment most of the drop at the control structure. The of sand size or greater (Adams and Kregear4). average discharge is 2,100 m3/s (74,500 cfs). Offshore slopes on the south shore are gener- ally gentle. The shore in the vicinity of Whitefish Point is characterized by shallow 2.3.2 Lake Michigan reaches composed of sand derived from nearby glacial deposits and transported into the area Lake Michigan is the third largest of the by longshore currents. Great Lakes in area and second largest in vol- Lake level is a function of total inflow by ume. The volume is 4,920 k M3 (1,180 Mi3 ) LWD. ground water, surface runoff, diversions, and The volume corrected to average lake level is over-water precipitation; and of outflow 4,924 kM3 (J'J8JMi3). Other physical data are through ground water, the outflowing river, shown in Figure 4-25. diversions, and evaporation. Local, brief vari- The bot-tom of Lake Michigan is charac- ations in level are caused by barometric and terized by three basins (Figure 4-25). The over-water wind stresses. Lake Superior southern basin is separated from the others by levels fluctuate (Figure 4-24) with a maximum a sill that extends from Sheboygan to level occurring in the early fall and a minimum Ludington. For the most part, the sill is un- level in early spring. The mechanisms that derlain by Devonian limestones with a veneer cause these variations are discussed in See- of morainic material forming the upper por- tions 4 and 6. tion of the ridge. The southern basin has a Average annual flows of major tributaries relatively smooth bottom that consists of 0 in to Lake Superior are shown in Table 4-5. to more than 90 m (300 ft) of fine-grained lake Stream discharge in the lake is highly vari- sediment over Devonian -Mi ssis sippi an shales. able, depending on the season. Absolute flow The uniformity of the bottom is due, in part, to maxima and minima show extremely large the ease with which the shale was eroded prior variations, often exceeding an order of mag- to and during the Pleistocene. North of the nitude in difference. Not all of the inflow is mid-lake sill is a second basin with an irregu- from natural runoff. Diversions from the Hud- lar floor. The basin bottom is characterized by son Bay watershed add a combined 142 M3/S outcrops of resistant Devonian limestones (5,000 cfs) of water to Lake Superior: the Ogoki separated by sediment-filled declivities. The 20 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-5 Discharge of Major Great Lakes Tributaries M an Period of Mean Period of Discharge Range Record Discharge Range Record Tributary (,3/ 3/s) (years) Tributary (m3/s) (m3/s) (years) Lake Superior Basin Lake Huron Basin (cont.) Tahquamenon River 25 4-198 14 Bighead River 4 0.2-88 8 Carp River 1 0.1-9 6 Beaver River 6 2-60 7 Trap Rock River 1 0.2-2 1 Nottawasaga River 9 0.9-267 16 Sturgeon River 23 4-439 25 Severn River 16 3-67 1 Ontonagon River 39 5-1,189 25 Muskoka River 69 0.1-368 28 Iron River 4 0.8-224 5 Maganatawan River ungaged --- Presque Isle River 8 0.6-131 22 French River 171 24-581 35 Black River' 6 0.3-419 13 Wanapitei River 34 4-295 13 Montreal River' 9 0.06-187 29 Spanish River 122 3-1,286 18 Bad River 17 1-784 27 Aux Sables River 18 2-210 47 White River' 8 0.09-178 19 Mississagi River 133 0.6-569 1 Bois Brule River 5 2-43 25 St. Louis River Lake St. Clair Basin 62 2-1,073 60 Black River 8 0.05-408 23 Baptism River 5 0.01-265 40 Mill Creek 0.02-67 Poplar River 3 0.07-53 32 Clinton River 13 ?-600 33 Pigeon River 14 0.8-312 44 Thames River 52 2-1,090 10 Kaministikwia River 58 5-575 37 Sydenham River 7 0.2-158 17 Black Sturgeon River ungaged --- Nipigon River 366 59-640 12 Lake Erie Basin Pic River ungaged --- Black River2 ungaged --- Rouge River 6 20 White River2 54 1-306 6 Huron River4 16 0.1-165 63 Magpie River 26 4-233 26 River Basin 19 0.06-365 30 Michipicoten River 70 4-688 39 Maumee River 136 0-5,098 42 Montreal River2 40 0.6-433 33 Portage River 11 0.009-326 35 Sandusky River 26 0.1-793 41 Lake Michigan Basi Huron River5 8 0.06-731 17 Black River3 0.7 0.1-24 16 Vermilion River 6 0-578 17 Manistique River 38 8-479 29 Black River 8 0-680 23 Indian River 11 0.6-57 29 Rocky River 7 0.006-606 36 Cuyahoga River 24 2-702 36 Sturgeon River 5 1-32 1 Chagrin River 9 0.08-793 38 Escanaba River 25 3-297 26 Grand River5 18 0-598 42 Ford River 10 0.7-215 13 Ashtabula River 4 0-329 36 Menominee River 88 5-935 55 Conneaut Creek 7 0.006-481 31 Pestigo River 24 2-277 14 Cattaraugus Creek 20 0..2-1,017 28 Oconto River 16 3-238 56 Cayuga Creek 3 0-248 30 Fox River 118 4-680 71 Buffalo River 22 --- Kewaunee River 2 0.1-184 1 Cazenovia Creek 6 0.07-382 28 Sheboygan River 7 0.03-202 25 Grand River2 68 9-404 10 Milwaukee River 11 0-428 53 Lynn River 1 0.08-53 8 Root River 13 3-147 40 Young Creek 1 0.04-13 1 Burns Ditch 4 --- I Dedrich Creek 1 0.04-17 1 St. Joseph River 86 12-572 37 Big Creek 7 1-306 11 Pa. Paw River 11 3-47 16 South Otter Creek 1 0.02-37 1 Black River4 3 0.6-18 1 Big Otter Creek 7 0.03-210 15 Kalamazoo River 37 2-496 37 Catfish Creek 3 0.1-162 1 Grand River 95 11-1,529 41 Muskegon River 54 9-423 45 Lake Ontario Basin White River 11 5-106 10 Eighteenmile Creek 3 --- Pere Marquette River 18 9-78 28 Genesee River 76 @0.3-974 48 Big Sable River 4 2-16 25 Oswego River 174 10-1,062 35 Little Manistee River 5 2-16 11 Sandy Creek 6 0.06-334 11 Manistee River 56 28-193 16 Black River 108 4-1,039 47 Boardman River 5 0.8-35 15 Napanee River 9 0.03-96 28 Jordan River 5 3-20 1 Salmon River 8 0.03-110 7 Moira River 30 0.4-351 50 Lake Huron Basin Trent River 97 11-456 1 Cheboygan River 22 3-46 25 Canaraska River 3 0.5-103 14 Thunder Bay River 12 3-115 22 Soper Creek 1 0.06-21 6 AuSable River4 26 --- 13 Rouge River 1 0.03-46 1 AuGres River 3 0.2-56 17 Little Don River 1 0.2-28 1 N. Br. Kawkawlin River 2 0-44 16 Humber River 5 0.03-838 17 Saginaw River ungaged --- Etobichoke River ?-24 1 Pigeon River 1 0.003-72 15 Credit River 7 0.08-317 17 AuSable River2 9 0.03-317 18 Oakville Creek 1 0.01-? 7 Maitland River 22 0.06-881 17 Bronte Creek 3 0.1-29 1 Saugeen River 55 6-896 51 Grindstone Creek 1 0.003-21 6 Sauble River 12 0.5-170 8 Spencer Creek 2 0.03-46 1 Sydenham River 3 0.03-68 28 Twentymile Creek 2 0-130 8 .'Wisconsin 2ontario 3Michigan Upper Peninsula 4Michigan Lower Peninsula 'Ohio northeastern part of Lake Michigan consists from the main lake by the Door Peninsula (the of numerous north-south trending valleys and Niagara Escarpment). ridges that are reminiscent of those in eastern The shoreline of Lake Michigan ranges from Lake Superior. Green Bay constitutes a fourth glacial debris and precipitous cliffs of pre- physiographic element of Lake Michigan. It is Pleistocene strata along the northern and a relatively shallow embayment separated western shores, to expansive sandy beaches Lake Basin Physiography 21 TABLE 4-6 Great Lakes Connecting Channels. Rivers, and Diversions St. Marys Straits of St. Clair Detroit Niagara St. Lawrence River Mackinac River River River River Length (km) 113 ------ 43 51 60 808 (m) 70 ------ 27 32 37 502 Total (m) 7.1 0 1.5 1.0 99.3 74.0 Drop (ft) 23.3 0 4.9 3.3 325.8 242.8 Average Discharge (1860-1968) (m3/s) 2,100 1,500 5,300 5,400 5,700 6,700 (cfs) 74,000 52,000 187,000 190,000 202,000 239,000 Diversions L. Superior L. Michigan L. Huron L. St. Clair L. Erie L. Ontario Welland Canal & New Chicago R. York State Canal Ogoki R. & & Calumet System Long Lake Canal None None (Welland) (NYSCS) Flow (m 3/s) 142 88 ------ ------- 198 20 (cfs) 5,000 3,100 ------ ------- 7,000 700 Effect on L. Huron & Mich- igan Levels (m) +0.11 -0.07 ------- ------- -0.03 insig. (ft) 4-0.37 -0.23 ------- ------- -0.10 it Effect on St. Clair R. Outflow 3 (m /s) +142 -88 ------- ------- 0 0 (cfs) +5,000 -3,100 ------- ------- 0 0 Effect on L. Erie Level (m) +0.07 -0.04 ------- ------- -0.10 insig. (ft) +0.23 -0.14 ------- ------- -0.32 to Effect on St. Clair R. Outflow (m3/s) +142 -88 ------- ------- -198 -20 (cfs) +5,000 -31100 ------- ------- -7,000 -700 with large dune ridges on portions of the east- tershed and subsequent release during spring ern shore. Offshore slopes are gentle in most and early summer. cases. Most of the major tributaries have low mean Because Lakes Michigan and Huron are discharges (Table 4-5). There are no diversions connected by the relatively deep Mackinac of water into Lake Michigan. Outflow from the Straits, the LWD of both lakes is the same, and Lake is through the Straits of Mackinac into the lakes are treated hydrologically as one Lake Huron and, via diversions 'at Chicago, lake. As with Lake Superior, Lakes Michigan through the Chicago River and the Calumet and Huron show cyclic fluctuations of surface Sag Canal into the Mississippi River system. levels (Figure 4-26). These fluctuations are Combined withdrawals from Lake Michigan induced by winter water retention on the wa- through the two Chicago outlets are regulated clt- C+ C+ > -t- -3 ul w @:r o e 0 0=' 4 M 0 ID 2 C-t- cl (D Iq t: '.1 11 ID 'All 00 00 Z (DZ I - :0 T@ tl cn (D + @o C+ W 0 C> Cil :4 :4 to w 74 91 M M -4 -4 -41 (D lp@ 01 c) ol C.@ C, 00 oo W Q PV 0 (o pq. '3j pq- C+ z z ff. pi (=> rA W C" C@ to -4 00 -1 t'D -1 '@o So a, C@ -4 0-1@ (D P 90 C4 w 00 w 00 --1 91 En (D C+ co to m 00 m G'Q CA oo 00 DD 0 C+ En C+ Pi @j :z C+ Z P 0- PTJ ELEVATION, REFERED TO LOY (D o (D 0 (+ cz 000 @' U' (D 0 10 DATUM(LWD) 0,0 C+ s= 0 0 m A lc@ A p PT, ID m @t m m 0 0 - t- 0- 5.,F+ ID CD 0 X- METERS C+ P -- p C+ "! C+ C+ p ul o w U2 00 ID Co (D AD Z' - (D 4 (D (D m P7. (D C+ m @L , w " - C+ (D M 0 m X, @@ m . n M 0 :3@ (D Z Z- >4 n 5 p - 0 (D 0 (D m - C+ p C+ U2 CD 0- orq C+ CO 79 (D @l (D @-3 C+ to :@ --v 'o+ t @l m p .3- -1 ;r m im- CD n @:S c+ (D M t"D 0 P N 0 C+ 0 0 Zi t'D o Z C@' n - gD. 0 :0 pq. C+ m om C+ m 0 01 p; > qQ (D Z (D V" 0 (D Cn (D (D Z a- (D eD 02 '@< C4 Z Z ::$ M 0@ @j :z - W 0 C+ (D C+ pi C+ m- 0@ z P 0 co 0-ft P1 (D C+ (D o, m m c7q of > m C+ ZO Z PV e-41 CD M . :3 @+ :3 =. Z p CD M - C+ oq CD 0 Z o p :@ 0; C+ z , p , " 0 z C+ :r P1 0 U2 O@ 0 (D @:s C+ a,0 C+ A to Z 0 p M 0 - . I w Z' co eD w &Q 't@ @j (D W 0 a ct- m z ril .4 w Z- C+ Mts 0 (D - :7, (D 0 z 0 g:w m 00 C+ M CD pi ! ' 1 1 o + 0 @l 0 0 (D m CL - C+ m o C+ W c) 0- z o Z -1v ID 0' Z Ir &OD. 03 0 C+ (D a I '-@! @ 5 (D m la. cn C+ C, FEET (D rA od m W. rA Lake Basin Physiography v STATUTE -;S C01T11K 11TER"L IIET FIGURE 4-28 Physical Characteristics of Lakes St. Clair and Erie Figure from Hough, 1958 Y Lake St. Clair Lake Erie Metric Standard Metric Standard FIGURE 4-27 Physical Characteristics of Low water datum (LWD): 174.3 rn 571.7 ft 173.3 m 568.6 ft Lake Huron Length: 42 km 26 mi 388 km 241 mi Figure from Hough, 1968 Breadth: 39 km 24 mi 92 km 57 mi Shoreline length: 272 km 169 mi 1,377 km 856 mi Total surface area: 1,113 kM2 430 Mi2 25,657 kM2 9,910 Mi2 Metric Standard Surface area in U.S.: 419 kM2 162 Mi2 12,893 km2 4,980 Mi2 Volume at LWD: 4km- 1 mi3 483 kM3 116 mi3 Low water datum (LWD): 175.8 m 576.8 ft Average depth below LWD: 3 m* 10 ft* 19 m 62 ft Maximum depth below LWD: 6 m* 21 ft* 64 m 210 ft Length: 331 km 206 mi Average surface Breadth: 294 km 183 mi elevation (IGLD): 174.77 m 573.01 ft 173.96 m 570.37 ft Shoreline length: 5,120 km 3,180 mi Maximum surface Total surface area: 59,500 kM2 23,000 mi2 Melevation (IGLD): 175.59 m 575.70 ft 174.69 m 572.76 ft Surface area in U.S.: 23,600 km' 9,100Mi2 inimum surfac Volume at LWD: 3,537 km3 849 Mi3 elevation (,GLD): 173.81 m 569.86 ft 173.08 m 567.49 ft Average depth below LWD: 59 M 195 ft *natziral depths Maximum depth below LWD: 229 m 750 ft Average surface elevation GGLD): 176.50 m 578.68 ft (27 mi) in length and has a total drop of 1.5 m Maximum surface elevation (4.9 ft). The average discharge is 5,300 M3/S GGLD): 177.49 m 581.94 ft Minimum surface elevation (187,000 cfs). (IGLD): 175.48 m 575.35 ft 2.3.4 Lake St. Clair southern basin, and the southwestern shore of the northern basin are low and have well- Lake St. Clair is not generally considered developed beaches. Areas bordered by one of the Great Lakes. However, it is usually erosion-resistant rock, such as the carbonates considered in discussions of the Great Lakes of the Bruce Peninsula, Manitoulin Island, because it is important as a link in the Great and the Presque Isle Peninsula, and by Pre- Lakes system, and is a major recreational re- cambrian rocks of the North Channel shores, source. have sheer cliffs and small,. rocky, pocket The lake has an area of 1,113 kM2 (430 Mi2) beaches. LWD and a volume of 4 kM3 (1 mi3) LWD. Aver- Water level fluctuations in Lake Huron are age depth is 3 m (10 ft) and the maximum the same as in Lake Michigan (Figure 4-26). natural depth is 6 m (21 ft). A navigation chan- Major tributaries to Lake Huron are Lake Su- nel is maintained at a depth of 8.2 m (27 ft) by perior and Lake Michigan, which flow through dredging. Other physical data are given in the St. Marys River and the Straits of Mac- Figures 4-28 and 4-29. kinac respectively (Table 4-6). There are no The lake consists of a single, heart-shaped diversions into or out of the lake. Table 4-5 basin, with its inlet, the St. Clair River, at the lists the other important tributaries to Lake center of the northeastern side. The floor of Huron and their mean discharges. Outflow the fake is in glacial till and it is bordered on the from Lake Huron is through the St. Clair north and south by moraines. Sediment car- River (Table 4-6). The St. Clair River is 43 km ried into the lake has resulted in the formation 24 Appendix 4 much attention because of deterioration in +4 lake water quality. Many of the problems of +1 - +3 Lake Erie exist because the lake is the shal- lowest of the Great Lakes and has the least 31: +2 volume. The surface area of the lake is 25,657 0 +0.5- kM2 (4,980 Mi2) LWD, and its volume is 483 km3 0 +1 (116 Mi3) LWD. Figures 4-28 and-4-29 give LWD 0 UJ other pertinent physical data on Lake Erie. 0LWD UJ Lake Erie has three major physiographic 3 inces. The western basin is a shallow plat- -1 prov -0 form separated from the central basin by an Z .5 -2 0 escarpment that extends from Point Pelee, LAKE ST.CLAIR -3 Ontario, to Marblehead, Ohio, and runs east of > -I- the islands southwest of Point Pelee. The is- -A lands at the eastern end of the western basin J F M A M J J A S 0 N D are a result of differential erosion of resistant Silurian and Devonian carbonates (Figure 4-8). The central basin is somewhat deeper +4 than the western basin and is a rather feature- +3 less plain underlain by shale. The central basin is separated from the eastern basin by a +2 sand and gravel ridge that extends south from +0.5 0 +1 the base of Long Point, Ontario, to Erie, Penn- sylvania. The eastern basin is the deepest of LU LWD 0- 0LWD the three basins and contains organic muds and silty clays. Sediment distribution is dis- 3 LU cussed in Section 9. -0.5- Z Most of the shoreline of Lake Erie consists of 0 -2 - low, marshy coast or high bluffs of clay-rich < LAKE ERIE -3 glacial sediment or shale. The strandline in > 4 these areas consists of narrow, muddy or cob- bled beaches. In areas where there is an abun- JFMAMJJASOND dance of sandy material, sandy points and bars such as Point Pelee, Long Point, Presque Isle, FIGURE 4-29 Average Monthly Lake Levels and Cedar Point have been formed. for Lakes St. Clair and Erie for the Periods of The major tributaries and their average dis- Record (1860-1970, Erie; and 1898-1970, St. charges into Lake Erie are shown in Table 4-5. Clair) (solid line), and for the Period 1960-1970 There are two diversions of water out of Lake (short-dashed line). Long-dashed lines repre- Erie: the Welland Canal and the New York sent the- monthly all-time maximum and mini- State Barge Canal. Average withdrawal into mum lake levels. the Welland Canal System is 198 m3/s (7,000 cfs). of a bird-foot delta at the mouth of the St. Clair The diversion through the New York State River. Canal System averages 20 M3/S (700 efs), an The shoreline of Lake St. Clair is low and insignificant amount. The natural outlet of marshy. The delta is a scenic, swampy area, Lake Erie is the Niagara River, which has a portions of which serve as a large wildlife ref- length of 60 km (37 mi), a total drop of 99.3 m uge. (325.8 ft), and an average discharge of 5,700 There are no major diversions into or out of m3/s (202,000 cfs). Lake St. Clair and it has only three major tributaries in addition to the St. Clair River (Table 4-5). Outflow from Lake St. Clair is 2.3.6 Lake Ontario through the Detroit River (Table 4-6). The av- erage discharge is 5,400 m3/s (190,000 cfs). Lake Ontario is the fourth largest of the Great Lakes, with an area of 19,000 kM2 (7,340 Mi2) LWD and a volume of 1,637 kM3 (393 Mi3) 2.3.5 Lake Erie LWD (Figure 4-30). The Lake Ontario bottom consists of two ba- Lake Erie has recently become the focus of sins, separated by an indistinct sill that ex- c-" (D P11 c"' m "D 0 0 ID Z (D D Eg eD C+ @V W n , W 0 gw -, " , - 8 - o It) b t I C o o io@ z , ::$ :%- ':-@ @% I'D+ + -- ol 0 -'T' :rc p " w ID 'CD m CL 0 (D C+ a (D C+ 0 4. Z I-D (D Do (D 1+ c+ 0 '1' CD EA CD CD CD C+ ft C-t- 0 0 (D o @t - z 0 0 (1) @F' < :@ p c+ (D w -e (D Z' 0 0@ @:5 n c+ (D (D 14'Z (1) 0 (D (D M 0 " , 'o CL CA C+ C+ C+ (n @;71 A rn C+ 0-3 ::r CD --1 -4 moo @00 @ooco-l @;, 0 :@ n tP, & 01 @ @' m COMC)m C. (D (D @:5 p :0 (D Q 00 PV M rA 5 w PT, m- P (D C'F o n (D - 5 o rJ2 IN 't:j C+ C't- i@ DD 0 0 Z' 04 Z 11 Z 5 (D M to im m 00 m w co -4 -1 cn n (D cn n CD A. ;@ A@ c) 00 to to cc '.0 (D lt@ PO tlD co w !'D p op') (D @3" t' 4' 0 @j C+ CA 0 90 C+- w P2 0 (Di i@' c+ w (D n 14 (D ELEVATION, REFERED TO LO (,:,) S+ CUD' ID 0 rA 'ml cc M C+ DATUM (LWD) (D X' 0 go (D M 'I cl+@ ul 0 cl METERS M Z' m m 5'0 @-@ t--' ;' (D w C) .! C+ C+ C) PT, C+ 1+ C+ C+ M 0 0 m 0 + P"ft ep. 0 0 go o '+ o C+ (D C+ o C-t- CD 0 @4 ID+ @@ C+ o (D ID+ 'I --I -,v ::r, @+ m 0W v ip. C7, '+ & W M -11 m e .1 01 X, 'I M 11. C) @3- (D , w C+ W CID (D (D 0 2@ "-C@ - -1 > 0 a' r 'n Co 0 (D 0 (D m =- C-@ ct. !@ - " p 'o m C+ C, 0 C@ ul @V ID p 0 M P C+ C-+ 0 1@11z m p n M 00 rn , @b m :zr' @@ 0 0 > :4- 0 C+ Z"m " '+ 5 C+ m to 0. '+ (D c+ c+ rp ol ID (D 0 CD 0 M m (D - -.1 Z P = 0 (D c'+ (D z C+ ICA CD (D 0 o o C+ 0 rA I m 8@ w :@ aq @l (D 0 0- " M@ (Z @;- C@* n 5 z 't 0 C@ @ 'Z :sm CD C4, @ " ;@. V eo. = -rA p C+ eo. 0 z - p 9 Z. (D a 4 CD @71 - FEET m (D (D tD - " 0 M a cn t'D I P, m Section 3 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Arthur P. Pinsak 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pressure Physical properties of water are fundamen- Although virtually all properties of water tal to the study of basin climate, precipitation, are affected by pressure it is not as significant evaporation, water circulation and waves, as temperature. Applications in the Great stratification, energy and water budgets, ice Lakes are normally in detailed density formation and decay, sedimentation, distribu- analyses related to lake circulation but not in tion of suspended and dissolved materials, use or management programs. The basic unit chemical reactions and interactions, biological is dyneS/CM2 with atmospheric pressure equal productivity, variety and distribution of or- to I million of these units or 1 bar (1,000 mil- ganisms within the environment, capability to libars). For the convenience of workable units, assimilate inputs, eutrophication, and com- atmospheric pressure is commonly expressed mercial and recreational uses. Inasmuch as in millibars and approximates 1000 millibars. these applications are universal and are de- A decibar, equivalent to approximately 11/2 lb/ veloped and treated in other sections of this in 2, is used in the measure of water density: it appendix and other volumes of the Frame- is one-tenth of atmospheric pressure and is work Study, this section will review only the essentially equal to number of meters depth. basic aspects of these properties. Each ten meters of depth then represents a The physical characteristics of water de- change of approximately one atmosphere, pend primarily on temperature and pressure. that is, 1000 millibars or 15 lb/in2. The effect of For example, density is affected by the tem- pressure on temperature of water at perature, pressure, and chemical composition maximum density reduces this temperature of the water. However, in discussing thermal approximately 0.1'C/100 meters depth. For characteristics, we cannot restrict ourselves example, under stable thermal conditions, to a general category such as actual water water at 300 meters and maximum density temperature; rather we must consider more would have a temperature of about 3.7'C in- particular factors such as specific heat, coef- stead of VC, which is the usual temperature of ficient of thermal conductivity, coefficient of water at maximum density. eddy conductivity, and latent heats of fusion and vaporization. Electrical conductance is also a significant property used in water 3.3 Density analyses. Water transparency is extremely signifi- Most compounds and elements reach their cant because it affects, through attenuation of maximum density in the solid state. Water, incident radiation, temperature, heat storage however, reaches maximum density while still and loss, photosynthesis, chemical reactions, in the liquid state at 3.98'C, and actually de- evaporation, weather modification, and lake creases in density as it cools from this temper- circulation. ature to its freezing point at O'C (Figure 4-32). Arthur P. Pinsak, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 27 28 Appendix 4 W0000 reference level under the prevailing condi- 1.00000. -------- tions of pressure and temperature. The differ- ing heights of the columns at various geo- .99980- graphic locations produce a topography or re- I lief of the water surface. From this dynamic or .99960- geopotential topography current directions .99940. and velocities can be obtained. The reference level for such determinations in the oceans is .99920- the depth at which no movement exists. The 00 1 all fact that no such layer exists in the lakes .99900. makes the application of this method ques- 99880. tionable. Thermally driven circulation is dis- cussed further in Section 6. .99860 When tributary influx is warmer than the .99840. lake water in spring and early summer, this warmer water with its dissolved and sus- .99820- pended solidsnoats across the cooler, more .99800. dense, lake water. In fall and early winter tributaries cool more rapidly than the lakes, .99780 and this denser mass plunges under the sur- face water and disperses along the lake bot- tom. 0 5 10 15 20 25 Water Temperature FIGURE 4-32 Water Density-Temperature 3.4 Thermal Properties Relationship at Atmospheric Pressure 3.4.1 Specific Heat This characteristic 'accounts for the seasonal physical changes that a lake undergoes in the Specific heat is the amount of heat required temperate zone and aids in assimilation and to raise the temperature of one gram of a sub- regeneration. In response to annual weather stance VC. Water has the highest specific heat variations that cause the water temperature of any known liquid or solid except liquid am- to range above and below VC, the Great Lakes monia. Because of this property, water can stratify with either overlying cold or warm store great quantities of heat and is relatively water, they become isothermal, they mix more resistant to short-term changes in tempera- or less completely throughout their total ture. Consequently large water bodies temper depth, and they are prevented from freezing to adjacent climatic extremes resulting in less the bottom. In winter the lakes become change on the lee of the lake than in land areas isothermal between 8'C and 4'C, and then sur- farther removed. face cooling takes place until an ice cover is formed. This aspect of density is more fully developed in Subsections 3.4 and 3.6. 3.4.2 Thermal Conductivity Changes in temperature and density of lake water are neither horizontally nor vertically Thermal conductivity is expressed as the uniform. AyerS,26 using a technique usually time rate of transfer of heat across a unit dis- applied to oceans, used the relationship be- tance. Even though this property is higher in tween these spatial differences and the result- water than in any other liquid, water is con- ing geopotential topography of the lake sur- sidered a poor conductor in comparison with face to estimate current direction and mag- solids. Thermal conductivity of glass is ap- nitude. Net change in length of segments of a' proximately 17 times greater than that of water column resulting from compression due water and thermal conductivity of sandstone to hydrostatic pressure of overlying water and can be as much as 45 times greater. Thermal expansion due to temperatures above or below conductivity as a mode of heat transfer in 4"C was determined. Addition of this length water is normally of no consequence in nature change to the theoretical length of the column because it is a measure of transfer through under standard conditions gives the calcu- still water, a condition that normally does-not lated height of the column above an arbitrary exist and is insignificant compared to amount Physical Characteristics 29 of heat transferred through laminar flow or ing one with laminar flow. The critical or most turbulence. Turbulent flow and laminar flow sensitive temperature other than that of are expressed in terms of the eddy coefficient maximum density is at 10'C; this is the point at which may be as much as 101 times greater which the slope of both the density and viscos- than the coefficient of thermal conductivity. ity curves change most abruptly. At a temper- The high specific heat and low thermal con- ature of 10'C and Reynolds number 310, v = ductivity impart to water its outstanding .015 cm/sec, a very low threshold velocity that capability to maintain identity of individual obviously would preclude turbulent mixing as masses and to transfer heat by movement, a significant factor below this boundary value. thereby influencing mixing, stratification, An expression based on Fick's Law, which circulation, and local climate. gives the rate of diffusion of a solute in an undisturbed solution, is commonly used for diffusion of heat by turbulent processes. It can 3.4.3 Viscosity be stated as: dO,/dt = -cp P AdOddz Resistance of a fluid to a change in form or resistance to flow, both of which could be con- This rather straightforward relationship cor- sidered as functions of internal friction, is a relates the coefficient of eddy conductivity or measure of its viscosity. This force is ex- turbulent transport (A) with change in heat pressed as dyne-second S/CM2 . As temperature storage (dOz) during a period of time (dt), tem- increases, viscosity decreases. Although .perature gradient (dOz/dz) at depth (z), specific water is most dense at about 4'C, its viscosity heat (cp), and density (p) of the water. Al- continues to increase as density decreases to though it is true that variations in cp and p are O'C. Viscosity is a relatively small physical much less than error in temperature determi- force (0.01002 dyne-secondg/CM2 at 20'C), but it nation, these two terms are significant in tur- is a significant property. The most important bulent transport inasmuch as they are the characteristic of viscosity in natural waters is controlling physical variables. The relation to that the change is not linear; rather, the gra- temperature structure is only an indirect ex- dient becomes increasingly steeper in the pression of these variables. Coefficient of tur- temperature range below 10'C and influences bulent transport is inversely related to change accelerated mixing that occurs below that in heat storage and is directly related to tem- temperature. Viscosity is a significant vari- perature gradient. The lowest values for this able in turbulent transport, stratification, and coefficient indicate the greatest degree of sta- in evaporation. bility of the water; all of these factors are exemplified in the thermocline. Conversely, the highest values indicate the least thermal 3.4.4 Turbulent Mixing stability as exemplified in the epilimnion. Turbulent mixing, considered to be the major mechanism in transfer of heat through 3.4.5 Heats of Fusion and Vaporization a large body of water, derives from physical properties of the water itself in portions other Latent heats of fusion and vaporization are than the boundary layers. The Reynolds defined as the energy required to change a number, R = p vl/A,is a geneal criterion applied substance from the liquid phase to the solid or to hydraulic properties of water that relates vapor phase with no temperature change. The density (p), velocity (v), and viscosity (g) to latent heats of fusion (80 cal/gm) and vaporiza- laminar flow and turbulent mixing. The letter tion (595 cal/gm) of water are among the high- (1) is length or depth. Laminar flow occurs est of all substances. This property exerts a below and turbulent mixing above a certain buffering effect on interactions between air critical value. A number R = 310 has been cited and water. The high energy input required for (Hutchinson 402 ) as the boundary above which vaporization coupled with concommitant turbulent mixing is initiated in a shallow lake. evaporation loss and surface cooling would Viscosity ([L) and density (p) decrease with in- preclude such a phase change in nature. How- creasing temperature, and thereby a propor- ever, at the other extreme, formation of ice can tionally decreasing velocity (v) is required to be accomplished with a mechanism for trans- maintain this threshold number. A steep tem- ferring the excess heat such as a breeze or perature gradient, therefore, could be enough great temperature difference. to produce a layer with turbulent flow overly- When atmosphere is warmer than hydro- 30 Appendix 4 sphere, heat transfer causes the lowest air to cool and uppermost water to warm. This rela- 800 - tionship represents stable atmospheric and Outer Say hydrologic conditions so any heat transfer is x Middle Bay by thermal conductivity. When atmosphere is S 700 - Inner Say colder than hydrosphere, heat transfer warms 'E the lowest air and cools the uppermost water. .22 600 - This relationship creates instability which re- sults in turbulent or eddy transfer with inten- 500 - sity directly related to temperature differ- ence. Inasmuch as the eddy coefficient can be 400 - 106 times greater than the coefficient of ther- Mal conductivity, the sensible exchange of heat 300 from hydrosphere is much more significant under unstable conditions. 200 doo 1 1.100 2.00 3.00 4.00 Total cations (a p nn) 3.5 Electrical Properties FIGURE 4-33 Relationship Between Specific Conductance and Total Cation Concentrations Conductance of electricity in water is at- in Saginaw Bay, June 7, 1956 tributed to the presence of positive and nega- Beeton et al., 1967 tive ions in solution. For all practical purposes pure water can be considered as electrically the constituents (Figure 4-34). Deviations neutral; even though there is dissociation into from this general pattern can indicate source H+ and OH- ions, this dissociation is so weak at points and sinks by emphasizing concentra- normal temperatures that it is negligible. The tion of individual constituents. The specific greater the concentration of salts, acids, or conductance and dissolved ion concentration bases in the weak solutions encountered in measured in each of the Great Lakes are in- natural waters, the greater the electrical con- creasing. On a long-term basis conductivity ductance. Thus conductance is presumed to be in the lower lakes is increasing due to the in- proportional to the ion concentration. creased cultural input in the southern portion Even though compounds ionize differently of the basin (Figure 4-35), and because dis- depending on their ionization constants, solved ion content of the lower lakes is natu- classes of water such as the Great Lakes are rally higher due to continued enrichment as similar enough in their basic composition that the water moves through the system at a rate variations in capability to conduct electricity slower than the input rate. Conductivity in the can be used to indicate variations in concen- upper lakes is increasing at a slower rate in tration of dissolved substances. For natural relation to input and volume (Figure 4-128, waters the specific conductance, expressed in Subsection 7.5.1). On a shorter time scale sea- micromhos and multiplied by a factor of 0.65, is sonal fluctuations in specific conductance also generally considered to approximate the con- occur (Figure 4-36). The greatest amounts of centration of dissolved substances in milli- dissolved solids enter the system during the grams per liter. This factor is only an average periods of heavy tributary influx in spring and because the conductance of a solution is de- fall. These disolved solids are diluted upon pendent on the type and total quantity of ions entry into the lake. Therefore, sensitivity to in solution. More precise relations can be de- change relates to volume of the receiving veloped for specific water types. The factor of body. Because vibrations after dilution in the 0.65 is applicable only with comparatively di- receiving body are so slight, the increment of lute solutions and usually increases as the change, on a short-term basis, must be calcu- total dissolved-salt content exceeds 2,000 to lated from tributary influx. 3,000 mg/l. For waters that contain significant Although the measurement is not sensitive concentrations of free acid, caustic alkalinity, to organic constituents nor to trace metals or sodium chloride, the factor may be much that may be present, specific conductance is a less than 0.65. Pure sodium chloride solution, good pollution indicator. It easily identifies for example, has a factor of 0.50. The factor for areas of high dissolved ion content which are other types of water may range to 0.80. Areal usually associated with sources of pollution so variations in specific conductance (Figure that more detailed analysis of the areas in x 0 1 'd e' dle 0r Bo Ba y IMnuny 4-33) conform generally with those of each of question may be initiated. Physical Characteristics 31 2M 2, 2W 2, 0 M 275 325-- 19 3 4. I 4 5 150 W.- 37 425 450 2 475 P 2 5 wo 41 Conductivity Q Sulfate 43 FIGURE 4-34 Distribution of Sulfate (ppm) and Conductivity (Amhos/18'C) in Saginaw Bay, June 7, 1956 Beeton et al., 1967 3.6 Temperature seasonal cycle of water temperature profiles (Figure 4-96, Subsection 4.5.2) is included in Water temperature is a characteristic of Section 4, Hydrometeorology. Mechanics of primary concern in most lake investigations. vertical temperature distribution, including a In addition to the control of biology and description of the annual cycle of density dis- chemistry of lakes it is fundamental in water tribution and thermal stratification,, are dis- storage, energy budget, lake circulation, and cussed in Section 6, Internal Water Motions. flushing and diffusion studies. A general dis- cussion of water surface temperatures, with presentation of average monthly and annual 3.6.1 Areal Variation values (Table 4-16, Subsection 4.9.1) and the Great Lakes water temperatures vary 340 1 1 1 1 1 1 primarily with latitude and lake depths. In- solation, the prime heat source, decreases 320- with increasing distance from the equator 300 - providing less heat input and consequently lower water temperatures. The lake depths, a function of lake volume, control lake heat 280 - E storage capacity. Deep lakes or deep portions :L 260- of lakes warm more slowly during the warm- ing season than shallow lakes, but because of 240- their greater heat storage capacity they cool 2201 more slowly during the cooling season thereby 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1910 causing lag in these annual cycles that results YEAR in phase differences between each of the lakes. FIGURE 4-35 Specific Conductance of Lake Because of decreasing insolation with increas- Ontario Water versus Time ing latitude, temperatures in the open-water Dobson,1967 portions of the lakes are progressively lower 32 Appendix 4 300 8D 7 13 .C 130 E a M 0 250 C 11@_ 0 > l'-- U 0 0 Z 0 196"F62-63-6+65- 66,67 westernBosin-0(06@ #-@@ Central Basin - 0 Ell a -11431- 200- Eastern Bosi I APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC, FIGURE 4-36 Average Conductivity in the Three Basins of Lake Erie for the Period 1960-1967 Weiler and Chawla, 1968 from south to north. Because of differences in obtained through systematic surveys con- storage capacity coupled with thermal prop- ducted by research vessels, and surface tem- erties of the water, temperature in the shallow peratures are obtained by satellites and by coastal waters increases offshore during win- aircraft employing remote sensing radiome- ter and inshore during summer. ters. These types ofsurveys have been in prog- Superimposed on this broad temperature ress for little more than a decade. Although distribution is the effect ofmixing ofthe water they cannot be used to establish trends, they masses induced by wind, the primary driving represent a substantial accumulation of usa- force in lake circulation. Wind-induced mixing ble water temperature data for investigation of lake water is both vertical and horizontal. of processes. Wind-driven circulation produces sinking of Studies dealing with water temperature dis- the surface water on the windward shores and tribution are relatively common. However, the upwelling of the bottom water on the lee majority of these studies are limited both in shores. Because winds in the Great Lakes Re- scope and in time. Because ofmobility ofwater gion are predominantly from the west during masses and cyclical variations these short- the warm season, sinking or concentration of period studies of restricted extent may warm water normally occurs along the east- suggest erroneous trends and projections. ern shores and upwelling of colder water oc- Mean water temperature distribution for all curs along the western shores. the lakes, based on records of several years Great Lakes water temperature records ex- were compiled by Millar .543 Results are reveal- tend back to the latter part of the nineteenth ing but are limited because they are based century, but most of these early records are only on surface or near-surface temperature. sporadic and are based on measurements No report based on in-depth measurements taken along the shores, which makes them of that might be correlated with these Basinwide little value for the construction of tempera- surface measurements is presently available. ture distribution. Open-lake measurements Millar developed temperature distributions were made initially by utilizing ships-of- by months for the entire year on Lake Ontario opportunity, but these were taken at various and for the ice-free season on all other lakes. depths depending on the draft ofthe ship. Pres- His period of record covered 1935 to 1946 for ent water temperature measurements are Lake Ontario and 1935 to 1941 for the other Physical Characteristics 33 So- @a- So- TV 1. SCALE lb 322 911-1... .0 35.3 ..... ...... @1.0 35.. 35. . 40- @EMPERATURE ad 35.5.. 'F S_ W." 5.6. T2 0.0 3a.@ j5.4. Alw_ 33 0.6 37.7 36.7 30 40 34 1.1 35 7 36 2:2 'Ll 37 2. 38 3.38 .0 0 39 3.9 @,2 40 4.4 441 1 5. 40 @7. 5 4 0 44 42 5.6 43 6.1 44 6.7 41 4 7.2 40 ....... @T 46 7.8 .6 3.5 47 8.3 48 8.9 50 10.0 j hL 51 10.6 52 1 L. 1:7' 40 53 11 54 12.2 -f 55 12.8 ";1 '@j a. 42 .0 F may FIGURE 4-37 Distribution of Mean Surface Water Temperature ('F) in the Great Lakes in May From Millar, 1952 lakes. May, August, and November (Figures temperature on the lakes occurs during mid- 4-37, 4-38, and 4-39) represent spring, sum- summer (Figure 4-38) when the lakes attain mer, and fall, respectively. highest surface temperatures. Lake Erie The range of variation in the mean water mean temperatures are rather uniform, vary- surface temperature of the Great Lakes re- ing from 220C to 23'C (72'F to 74'F). Surface flects seasonal changes, differences in temperatures on Lakes Michigan and Huron latitude, and variations in lake depths. Thus, decrease progressively northward, from 22'C during the spring warming season (Figure to 21'C (72'F to 700F) in the south to 18'C to 4-37), while most of Lake Erie and the south- 19'C (65*F to 66'F) in the north. Summer tem- ern portion of Lake Michigan exceed 10'C peratures on Lake Superior attain only 160C (50'F), Lake Superior does not indicate any (61'F) along the shore, then decrease offshore substantial warming and remains at a winter to less than 8'C (46'F) in mid-lake. temperature of approximately 2'C (35*F). In the fall (Figure 4-38), the range of varia- Much of this difference is due to the higher tion in the mean surface temperature of the heat input in the south, but also the relatively Great Lakes is reduced sharply. This is a shallow Lake Erie warms more rapidly than period of instability in which hypolimnetic deep Lake Superior. Mean surface tempera- cooling predominates. Lake Erie is still the tures on Lakes Ontario and Huron, and on the warmest of the lakes because it has the northern two-thirds of Lake Michigan, which smallest hypolimnion to supply cold water; are at intermediate latitudes and have in- most of the lake surface is at approximately termediate depths, indicate some warming, 100C (500F). Other lakes also have relatively but they rarely exceed YC (4 1'F) at this time of uniform temperature. In Lake Michigan sur- the year. face temperature varies between 90C (48*F) in The highest variation in the mean water the southeast and VC (45'F) in the southern 34 Appendix 4 to- 64- 82. 78. 76- &CALK moo 1W.. 322 A*- 56.7 so 45.6, :6.6. ,.6 1 .- . .7. 5-. 40- 'F TEMPERATURE 65.2 66, - 66.1 50 10:0 51 106 67.5 ".9. *69a 52 11.1 67. - ".7 .1 53 11.7 9 65. 70 54 12:2 55 128 7 47.6 56 13.3 57 13.9 70 5a 14.4 3 59 15.0 .0@ 60 15:6 L 65.- ;7.2 69.6 61 161 67.. 44' 62 16.7 1 7.0 7 63 7 2 @7.0 .9 64 17.8 67 . . ..... .4 .6 .1 65 8:3 1 69.0 69.2 to 69. 69. 66 189 3 67 19.4 7 .1 0 68 200: 70 2 69 -7 70 2 69 6 1 1 0 71 21:7 72 22 2 73 22:8 T2.2 74 23.3 75 23.9 T2.1 72 T34 ',74 _9 T2'7 r 43 . .... . U.9 '..'71.1 j 74 -0 T..t* T@A August FIGURE4-38 Distribution of Mean Surface Water Temperature ('F) in the Great Lakes in August F- Mill-, 1952 extreme to 6'C (43*F) in the north. In Lake 3.6.2 Vertical Variation Ontario surface temperature decreases gen- erally from east to west, from a high of approx- Vertical variation of Great Lakes water imately 9*C (48'F) to less than YC (41*F) at the temperatures depends on solar heating, tur- western tip of the lake. Lake Superior is at bulent mixing and density stratification (Fig- approximately YC (41'F) in the eastern two- ure 4-96). Winds are the basic mixing thirds and slightly more than YC in the west- mechanism, but turbulent transport created ern one-third of the lake, which contains less by physical differences related to water tem- hypolimnetic water to cool the surface during perature is responsible for overall thermal mixing. The lakes are all out of phase during structure. the heating and cooling cycles due to their dif- The Great Lakes fit the definition of a dimic- ferent volumes and locations. tic lake (Hutchinson 402) in which two complete Obviously surface temperature distribution cycles occur, one above and one beio-w the tem- during late winter has the lowest variation. perature of maximum density. Inasmuch as a The mean water surface temperatures on the lake is not homogeneous, it cannot be simply lakes vary from O'C (32'F) along the shores and characterized but rather must be depicted as other areas with extensive ice cover to approx- the sum of all its component parts. Even imately 3'C (3TF) in open water areas as- though lakes may generally be the same, the sociated with great depths. Most of the open major variables that impart peculiar charac- water attains winter temperatures of approx- teristics to each are volume, depth, and geo- imately 2'C (35'F). graphic location. A dimictic lake is relatively Physical Characteristics 35 82- so. 78. . ..... .... OCA@r 206 MI.. 41 ..... ......,".1 .'-3. N W.2 41 1.., wo. 44 .4 [email protected] hL . ..... '3A 46- TEMPERATURE 1 13 40 4:4 ".6 41 50 'T.6 '45.7 6.15.5 42 56 43 61 44 6 7 4. 45 45 7,2 46 7:8 47 83 48 89 .... ....... . . 50 10:0 51 106 4- 44' 7.9 7.6 7A 4 @6 47.6 19.9 '9.3 Novemb" FIGURE 4-39 Distribution of Mean Surface Water Temperature ('F) in the Great Lakes in November From Millar, 1952 cold in the spring; it progressively warms and cent (1533 kM3) of the total volume of Lake separates into layers until autumn, at which Huron exclusive of Saginaw Bay, Georgian time there is convergence of all layers at tem- Bay, and North Channel. During the warming peratures between 8'C and 9'C. The rate at phase following ice breakup and the spring which lower layers warm is determined by the equinox, the deep lake water is colder than VC volume-storage ratio. The basic difference in and isthus less than maximum density. The the warming pattern is that the upper level surface water warms past 4'C, becoming more from 0 to 30 meters warms significantly and dense than the deep water. This, in conjunc- then reduces to the isothermal fall tempera- tion with wind stress, causes convection and tures, whereas the temperature of the layers weak turbulent mixing. By June the turbulent below 30 meters generally peak at that time mixing has developed an isothermal condition and temperature. This basic difference relates to depth, at which time the lack of a density directly to the development of stratification differential effectively isolates the hypolim- during summer. The lake thus can be divided nion from the rest of the lake. Heat input re- into two basic elements coinciding with the strictedtothe lessdense epilimnion causesthe position of the thermocline. These elements marked summer increase in storage in this allow for realistic development of an annual layer and initiates formation of a thermocline thermal cycle. Lake Huron is used as a typical directly below the water surface. The thermo- lake to illustrate this annual vertical varia- cline depresses rapidly to about 10 meters coin- tion (Figure 4-40). In this figure, zero on the cidental with warming of the hypolimnion to ordinate represents the heat content of the temperature of maximum density. In the mid- lake at 4'C). dle of July the lake becomes stable. Excess The epilimnion comprises 40 percent (1003 heat entering the lake is transferred into the k M 3) and the hypolimnion comprises 60 per- hypolimnion only by convection and by advec- 36 Appendix 4 120- 100_ 0 80- 60- LIO - X W LU 20- X 3 -TD 0 5 0 -21) _40 - (I CE) 0- 0- 10- -60- 20- THERMOCLINE cr, 30- 40- so- 60- 70- TIME ;PAN F8R 10% ;TORAG@ DIFFE@RENTIA@ o-30M 1111 1 1111111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 31m-TD CRUISE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 J F M I A -1 M J J A S 0 N D7 FIGURE 4-40 Seasonal Changes in the Thermal Structure of Lake Huron Pinsak, 1970 tion resulting from the oscillating thermo- the total exchange during this time. The heat eline. Convection predominates; assuming an transfer increases the gradient of the ther- average gradient of 1'C/m through the ther- mocline while depressing it to 20 to 26 meters. mocline, the advection term q = kGA amounts Following the autumnal equinox the lake en- to 4 X 1014 cal/day or only about 10 percent of ters the cooling cycle. Even though heat loss Physical Characteristics 37 MILWAUKEE MUSKEGON FATH. 0- 6.0 44 4.25 4.25 4.0 8.0 0-1 1 1 . I I I I@V @@\I 20- 10 - to -30- 6.0 -40- 5.0 1425 4254.5 -20- -30- _60- 4.0 TO- -40- _a0l -Do- -so- TEMPERATURE DEGREES CENTIGRADE 60- MEAN WIND VECTOR _.'ORCE ONE OEAUFORT -120- 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 ISTATION a 3 4 5 6 ? 0 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Is 1920 MIL93 Ib 26 30 @0 5@ ob 70 FIGURE 4-41 Lake Michigan Spring Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muske- gon From Church, 1945 from the epilimnion is extreme, averaging 46 The lake then entered the stable winter phase percent during the month of October, the lake with-convective cooling of the lower portion, a cools about 17 percent during the same period. function of intensity of the winter. This condi- About 20 percent of the loss is to the atmos- tion of winter stratification persisted until the phere and 80 percent is utilized in warming warming surface water became more dense the hypolimnion. As a consequence of this than deep water at the end of March and the warming the gradient of the thermocline is lake again became weakly turbulent to depth reduced, sharply decreasing the coefficient of until the summer cycle again was initiated turbulent transport and sharply lowering the with general warming to the temperature of boundary between thermocline and hypolim- maximum density. nion to about 50 meters. A most significant as- In Figure 4-40, the heat loss during January pect of the annual thermal cycle occurs at the to June is shown by the area between the 31 beginning of November. Density of the lower m-Total Depth curve and the zero line. This portion becomes less than that of the upper. area is equal to area under the curve above the The thermocline disappears completely and zero line during July to mid-December and turbulent mixing takes place. Intensity of this truncated by the 0 to 30 in curve in November critical episode is directly related to amount of to December. Determination of the area of one heat available in the lake and indirectly re- could be used to forecast magnitude of storage lated to volume of the hypolimnion. gain or loss during the other half of the year. In the study conducted, it was observed that Vertical variation of lake temperatures in the winter cycle began at about the time of the Lake Michigan was reported by Church'42,143 winter solstice. The lower part of the lake based on 1941 to 1942 bathythermograph ob- o ed to 4*C th to wint r c ol e first week in January. Then, se vations for the autumn er and the heat loss moved across the air-water inter- spring to summer periods. Examples of tem- face until the ice sheet formed in mid-January. perature structure in spring, summer, fall and 38 Appendix 4 MILWAUKEE MUSKEGON M. FATIC 0 !66,12! D116.1 2,0.0 0- Oak -20- -30- -D -40- 8.0 20- -50- 6.0 .0 -30- -so- 70- -40- -so- 90- 1 -so- TEMPERATURE -100- DEGREES CENTIGRADE _110- _60- MEAN WIND VECTOR FORCE ONE BEAUFORT -120-- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T-T STATION 12 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Is MILE3 10 20 @O io 6b 76 FIGURE 4-42 Lake Michigan Summer Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muskegon From Church, 1945 winter (Figures 4-41, 4-42, 4-43, and 4-44) colder, less dense surface water forming a -characterize only a cross-section of Lake stratified layer. The lake can only become Michigan between Milwaukee and Muskegon. isothermal below 4'C when there is extremely However, they are similar to the seasonal strong cooling from the top that causes a fully -temperature structure in other lakes with turbulent unstable state to exist. similar depths in temperate climatic zones. During the spring (Figure 4-41), open lake -water is almost isothermal to warming water 3.6.3 Daily Variation close to shore. In mid-summer (Figure 4-42), -the lake is stratified with a pronounced ther- Lake surface water temperature responds mocline; water temperature varies from 22'C to the daily cycle of insolation, which implies (72'F) at the surface to less than 8'C (46'F) diurnal heating and cooling of the surface below the thermocline, and then decreases to layer. During summer when day is longer than .4.5'C (40'F). Effect of wind stress on the ther- night heating exceeds cooling resulting in a mocline is indicated by tilt of the thermocline net heat gain. Longer night than day in winter surface with consequent upwelling caused by results in a net heat loss. When the air is colder warm er than the water, win a westerly d. By late fall (Figure 4-43), or turbulence is E MP ERA @RE . S . RAD 7GRE E NTI E @M.AN lake stratification has deteriorated prelimi- created at the interface resulting in so-called nary to total mixing; 8'C (46'F) represents the lake effect climatic modifications. These mod- least stable condition in which a lake tends ifications are discussed in Section 4. Chureh'43 toward an isothermal state. During late win- plotted mean daily change in water tempera- ter (Figure 4-43), the lake attains its low tem- tures throughout the year at three depths in perature. In a stable winter state deepest Lake Michigan (Figure 4-45); these typify the water should be slightly less than 4'C with Great Lakes. As expected, the highest daily Physical Characteristics 39 MILWAUKEE MUSKEGON M. FATH. 07 0- 7.5 7.5 TO 7.0 .5 .0 85 7.5 10 -20- . .... . _30- -40- L__j - 2D, -so- "TO -30- 7.0 To- 5.0 4.5 - 40- _80- -go- -so- _iOO_ TEMPERATURE M@AN VAND VECTOR, FORCE ONE EAUFORT DEGREES CENTIGRADE -so- !2O_ STATION 19 @g 17 16 15 14 11 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 - MILE3 20 30 io go 70 FIGURE 4-43 Lake Michigan Autumn Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muske- gon From Church, 1945 change occurs at the surface an d decreases from the beginning of March through the be- progressively downward because the bulk of ginning of July and decreases afterwards with the heat comes through the surface. The slope of change relating to latitude (Figure greatest positive change in the surface layer 4-46). Irregularities in basic thermogram pat- takes place during the summer period of terns may appear to be local or transitory, but maximum insolation, when the temperature some features recur from year to year and are increase may attain 0.4'C (0.7'F) per day. persistent on records from different locations. Negative temperature changes usually occur For example, even though heat gain at Mac- during winter, but the greatest decrease in kinaw City, Michigan, is 10 percent less than at surface temperatures is caused by increased Port Huron, Michigan, basic features are turbulent mixing in fall when heat is trans- common to both and are evident in other ferred from the epilimnion to the hypolimnion thermograms around the lakes. The irregular- rather than from the water to the air as the ity from mid-April to mid-June is the period of lake tends toward an isothermal state. A sus- turbulent mixing during which the lake is tained wind in the first half of July (Figure trending toward a stable summer condition. 4-45)caused upwelling which reduced average Stratification after mid-June is indicated by surface temperature drastically and in- the strong smooth gradients. The peak in 65.6..o 5.5 5 5.0 MPRA'U r RE DEGREES X."GRA.E@ z;;;-j creased water temperature at the 40 m (130 ft) mid-October marks the sharp subsidence of level; the increase at the 80 m (260 ft) level was the thermocline. The sharp peak at about 8'C only moderate. This phenomenon is common in early November marks the time that the in the Great Lakes during summer. upper part of the lake has cooled below the lower with initiation of turbulent mixing In general, water temperature increases leading into the winter cycle. 40 Appendix 4 MILWAUKEE MUSKEGON M. FATH. 0 0- 1.5 1.75 2.0 125 1.5 2.175 2.7 1.5 2S 275 275 2251 5 10 - 1 12.5 12D 1 Is I_% 90 -20- _30- -40- - 2D- -so- -30- _60- TO- 40- _80- -go- so- -too- + TEMPERATURE MEAN WIND VECTOR -110- - FORCE ONE BEAUFORT DEGREES CENTIGRADE -So- 12D 11 l I I I I I 1 1 ___7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 STATION 21 20 19 Is 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 1 . . 4 3 2 1 MILES 16 20 -36 io 66 7il FIGURE 4-44 Lake Michigan Winter Temperature Distribution Between Milwaukee and Muske- gon From Church, 1945 3.6.4 Seasonal Variation in the epilimnion and indicate the maximum range of variations that can be expected in the Because water temperature at all levels water temperatures. Hypolimnion tempera- changes with the season, although at different ture lags behind the epilimnion both during rates for different depths, latitudes, and dif- heating and cooling. It is also less sensitive to ferent times of year, seasonal variation of lake short-term change. temperatures was discussed indirectly under preceding subsections. Maximum variation occurs at the surface, and the range through- 3.6.5 Lake Superior out the year is about 20*C (36'F) for the lower lakes and about 15'C (27'F) for Lake Superior. The annual variation of mean water surface The minimum range of variation of about 2'C temperature in Lake Superior (Figure 4-47), (3.6*F) occurs at great depths. between Thunder Cape and Gros Cap (Ft. Wil- Progressiorf of surface temperature through liam and Sault Ste. Marie), ranges from about an annual cycle based on a five year average of O'C (320F) to 2'C (35'F) during winter to more transects across each of the lakes (Millar 543@' than 100C (50'F) to 150C (60oF) in the open illustrates intralake relationships, but it also water during summer. In open water, the win- points out the time-phase relationships on an ter minimum temperature is reached in mid- interlake basis. It should be noted that tem- March and the summer maximum in early peratures exceed 10'C (50'F) only two months September. Along the shores these extremes in the northernmost lake as contrasted with are reached approximately a month sooner. six month duration in the southernmost lake. This northernmost and deepest of the Great Surface temperatures, although not represen- Lakes is the coldest, with offshore surface tative of total lake temperatures nor adequate temperatures exceeding 100C (50'F) only dur- for budget estimates, at least depict changes ing two months of the year. Physical Characteristics 41 G. +4140 +0.35 +0.30 +025 +0.20 +0.15 +0.10 fill I @ +0.05 -4- N "177 V -Q05 -010 40 motors 80matirs -0.15 Surfa" -0.20 1 Doc I Jon I Feb I Mar I Apr I May I June I July I Aug I S*pl I FIGURE4-45 Daily Mean Change of Temperature for Various Water Depths Between Milwaukee and Muskegon From Chureh, 1945 3.6.6 Lake Michigan 3.6.7 Lake Huron Mean water surface temperature in Lake The mean water surface temperature varia- Michigan (Figure 4-48), between Milwaukee tion in Lake Huron (Figure 4-49) along a and White Shoal (north of Beaver Island), var- north-south transect between the mouth of St. ies from a winter low of approximately 2'C Marys River and Port Huron ranges from 2'C (35'F) to the summer high of 21'C (70'F). The (35'F) during winter to 21'C (70'F) during winter minimum is generally reached during summer. The winter minimum is reached dur- early March and the summer maximum dur- ing mid-February inshore and in mid-March in ing mid-August. Water temperature exceeds the open lake. The summer maximum is 10'C (50'F) from four to five months during the reached during mid-August. Water tempera- year, for both mid-lake and coastal waters. ture exceeds 10'C (50'F) during five months in 42 Appendix 4 26 24 22 20 A 13 16 14 12 -MACKINAW CITY,'MICH. 10 8 6 4 PORT HURON, MICH.-a 2 I'S CRUISE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A-d @ 1 .1 11 1 .1 1 11 1. 1 17 F M A Vi I J J A I S 1 0 1 N D FIGURE 4-46 Temperature Regime at the North and South Extremes of Lake Huron Pinsak, 1970 -the south and approximately four months in general deepening of water to the east. The mid-lake and in the north. summer maximum occurs during the first half of August. In this southernmost and shal- lowest of the Great Lakes, water temperature 3.6.8 Lake Erie exceeds 10'C (50'F) during approximately six months of the year. The mean surface water temperature in Lake Erie (Figure 4-50), between the Detroit River and Port Colborne, Ontario, varies from 3.6.9 Lake Ontario a winter low of 2'C (35'F) to a summer high of 21'C (70'F). The winter minimum occurs pro- In Lake Ontario (Figure 4-51), between gressively later from mid-February in the Cobourg and Charlotte, mean water surface -west to early March in the east coinciding with temperature varies from 2'C (35'F) during Physical Characteristics 43 March April May June July Auquat September October N-bar Doc-b.. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Th..d., C.p. P.... So- TEMPERATURE -F T2 00 33 0:6 1 35 7 2.2 34 1 36 37 2.9 38 3.3 39 3.9 40 4.4 41 5.0 42 5.6 3$ 37.S 40 45 40 43 6.1 44 6.7 45 7.2 46 7 8 47 8@3 48 89 50 10:0 52 10.6 11-1 so 3 11 7 54 12*2 C-ib.. 55 2 8 59 56 3 57 13.9 58 14.4 15.0 60 15.6 SS whif,fi.h P- 0@:. C.P @une July Auvust No-b., Jenne.; FIGURE 4-47 Annual Temperature Cycle (OF) in Lake Superior Between Thunder Cape and Gros Cap. Solid lines indicate values based on available data. Dotted lines indicate values that were estimated. After Millar, 1952 January February March April May J... Jul 7 JLugu.t S.Pt.-b.' October N-cnbs. Decorah- Wit.' . . . . . . TEMPERATURE 37 T2 00 33 0:6 34 1.1 35 1.7 36 2.2 2.8 3.3 25 39 39 4 81-P1.9 B.- Pt.----;T- 40 @4 41 50 42 5 6 43 61 44 67 34 45 72 46 78 so 50 40 47 83 48 89 33 100 50 45 S5 2 S5 4S 3 11.7 32 '/ 35 25 54 12.2 55 12.8 13.3 31 97 13.9 58 4@4 59 15 0 60 15.6 30 61 16.I 62 16.7 63 17.2 64 7 8 65 183 35 66 18:9 -70!- 67 19.4 68 20.0 69 206 28 70 Ki 27 Mll-i- Ell, 'Jn'u.'ry M'a-b April May July Acquot Spt.-b., N.--b.. FIGURE 4-48 Annual Temperature Cycle ('F) in Lake Michigan Between Milwaukee and White Shoal. Solid lines indicate values based on available data. Dotted lines indicate values that were estimated. After Millar, 1952 44 Appendix 4 @ .!..y Fb uory Wank Ap,il May Ju.. July Auquid 8W..b., 004b. N."mbe, Doce-be, ! . . I I . .. . . . . I . . . I . . . . . I . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1- P ... 1 35 1, 40 45 50 S5 N $3 U so a 40 35 TEMPERATURE 'F C Ilk 32 00 33 0:6 34 1.1 35 17 36 2.2 37 2.8 38 3.3 39 39 S3 40 44 Th..d., Day 1.- 41 5:0 42 5.6 43 ..1. 44 6.7 45 7.2 46 7.8 47 8.3 U 48 8.9 1 50 10.0 7 -1 51 106 'k, 52 11:1 53 11.7 54 122 55 12.8 56 13.3 57 139 33 58 14.:4 59 150 60 1. 61 16.1 62 167 63 17.:2 64 17 8 .3 is 65 18.9 66 18 67 194 68 20:0 69 20.6 70 21.I I.. H.. @L LL a-.WY I I J... July Aug..t FIGURE 4-49 Annual Temperature Cycle ('F) in Lake Huron Between Detour Passage and Port Huron. Solid lines indicate values based on available data. Dotted lines indicate values that were estimated. After Millar, 1952 January F.b,..,y M-h Ay'il May J... .b.. b- D-b., 35 40 45 50 SS 60 65 70 40 33 TEMPERATURE 'F 32 0.0 33 06 34 l.: 1 13 35 1 7 36 2.2 2.8 .3 39 39 64 38 3 40 4:4 41 50 65 42 5@6 43 6.1 44 6.7 7.2 7.a 47 88:3 48 9 50 10.0 51 10.6 52 1 11. 67 53 11.7 54 12.2 55 2.8 56 13.3 57 13.9 598 14.4 5 150 60 15:6 61 16.1 62 16.7 63 17.2 64 17.8 65 18.3 66 18.9 67 19.4 68 20.0 71 69 20.6 70 21.1 72 1P-1 #Colb-, A il 'Jau."; FIGURE 4-50 Annual Temperature Cycle ('F) in Lake Erie Between Detroit River and Port Colborne. Solid lines indicate values based on available data. Dotted lines indicate values that were estimated. After Millar, 1952 Physical Characteristics 45 a&.",V rb.0a.7 Kutch Aguil May a." July A!,!71. D.Gemube. U TEMPERATURE F 32 6._0 33 06 34 1 1 35 17 36 2.2 37 2.8 38 33 39 3.:9 40 44 50 1@ 5@6 93 43 6 1 44 !.7 45 2 46 7.8 7 63 4 ..9 %40 36 1 U a 48 50 10,0 51 10.6 95 as S5 45 52 11.1 53 11.7 54 12.2 55 12.8 56 13.3 57 13.9 58 144 59 15@O 60 15.6 61 16.1 62 16.7 63 17 .2 64 .65 18.3 66 18.9 67 19.4 68 20.0 69 20.6 70 21.1 100 31 J".-,y Fh.u.,y FIGURE 4-51 Annual Temperature Cycle (OF) in Lake Ontario Between Cobourg and Charlotte. Solid lines indicate values based on available data. Dotted lines indicate values that were estimated. After Millar, 1952 winter to 21'C (70*F) during summer. The win- tendant need for large volumes of cooling ter minimum is reached during mid-February water has increased heated water influx to the along the shores and during mid-March in the point where the net effect is becoming increas- open lake. The summer maximum is reached ingly evident in localized areas. during early August in the south and mid- August elsewhere. Water temperature ex- ceeds 10'C (50'F) for approximately five 3.7.1 Principle of Influx months of the year. Influx of heated water into a receiving water body creates a discrete water mass or 3.7 Heated Water Influx "plume" whose dimensions and physical characteristics vary with the difference be- The term heated water influx used in this tween the ambient water temperature and the discussion is defined as the introduction of influx water temperature (AT), with the gen- heat into a large water or air mass intended to eral circulation pattern of the receiving water, act as a heat sink. Heated water influx is a with depth of the discharge into the re- neutral term: it does not have the positive or ceiving body, and with the velocity and volume negative connotations of terms such as ther- of the discharge. If AT is large, the plume will mal enrichment and thermal pollution. tend to be shallow with a large air-water inter- In the past, discharge of heated water into face area. If AT is small, the plume will have receiving bodies was of little interest to the less tendency to flow out over the top of the public because environmental impacts were receiving water and will therefore mix more relatively insignificant both in effect and readily. From these physical observations, it is scope. Also, p ublic interest was focused in evident that a large AT Will permit much of the other areas. However, the development of heat from the plume to be transferred directly large scale energy conversion, especially in to the atmosphere with consequent evapora- the production of electric power, with the at- tion losses instead of being absorbed by the 46 Appendix 4 1.0 0 T OT 19 N, QA' SINKING PLUMES 0.1- (AMBIENT LAKE TEMPI 5 4*C) BUOYANT PLUMES .01 lot 102 103 104 105 ids A(ft.2 V000/sec) FIGURE4-52 Curve Showing Relationship Between Fractional Excess Temperature( 0 and the Quotient of Plume Surface Area (A) and Rate of Discharge (Q) 0@ Asbury and Frigo, 1971 A. Waukegan (7/14/70, 12:30-13:37) M. Allen S. King (8/20/69) B. Waukegan (7/14/70, 14:50-16:10) N. Allen S. King (9/4/69) C. Waukegan (8/12/70, 12:00-13:57) 0. Allen S. King (7/30/69) D. Waukegan (8/12/70, 16:22-17:53) P. Allen S. King (6/5/70) E. Waukegan (8/13/70, 12:12-13:26) Q. Allen S. King (6/12/70) F. Big Rock Point (6/18/68) R. Allen S. King (6/29/70) G. Milliken (9/17/68) S. Allen S. King (7/9/70) H. Milliken (12/10/68) T. Allen S. King (7/17/70) I. Milliken (1/8/69) U. Allen S. King (8/13/70) J. Michigan City (6/26/69) V. Douglas Point (8/24/70) K. Michigan City (6128169) W. Douglas Point (8/25/70) L. Waukegan (6/30/69) receiving water body. However, if Sr is small, right or left of the outlet. In the latter two the bulk of the heat load will be diffused into cases, heating would affect chemical-biologi- the receiving water in conformance with the cal interactions within the water mass and at general circulation. Assuming equal amounts the sediment-water interface. Plume config- of heat influx, the major physical difference in uration changes constantly in response to the the effect of these two extremes on the receiv- dynamics of the receiving water body. There- ing body will be in evaporation losses. Ex- fore, influx of heated water at a given rate at a pected biological and biochemical impacts are given location may at various times lead not treated in this section. either to local thermal enrichment or to ther- The circulation pattern of the receiving mal pollution. water is influenced by the circulation of the The behavior of thermal plumes has only atmosphere above it. If the receiving water is recently come under intensive investigation. stratified, an offshore wind can create upwell- Most studies have been limited in scope and ing of cold hypolimnetie water in the area of '-xtent and have yielded data for only a specific the plume resulting in rapid offshore dissipa- or limited number of possible conditions. How- tion in the surface layer. Conversely, an on- ever, various field data and model studies shore wind can cause downwelling holding the have led to attempts at predicting thermal j G'o 'P G ."IN _1MES AMB, ENT ... TE NIP :5 4-1) BUOYANT PLUMES plume inshore. The heated water plume can plume behavior. One approach (Asbury and also be held inshore by wind stress causing Frigo22) deals with a phenomenological rela- longshore currents to deflect the plume to the tionship for predicting the surface areas of Physical Characteristics 47 thermal plumes in large lakes. A curve (Figure It is apparent that influx of heated water from 4-52) relates fractional excess temperature power development is of minor importance in (2) to the quotient of plume surface area and the total lake energy budget. However, in 0 volumetric discharge flow rate. Although this Lakes Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, total heat study was limited in scope, the curve repre- influx from power plants, steel plants, sewage sents a useful rule of thumb for predicting sur- treatment plants and other industrial devel- face areas of buoyant thermal plumes. opments may become a significant factor in the next century. 3.7.2 Volumes Related to Great Lakes 3.7.3 Effect on Lake While the volume of the receiving water in the Great Lakes Basin is fixed within narrow Although the effect of heated water influx is limits, the volume of cooling water used in the small in relation to the total lake energy generation of electric power has been increas- budget, thermal influx from a large megawatt ing at a rapid rate. Volumes necessary to meet power plant may cause severe disruption of existing and projected condenser cooling the energy balance near the point of influx. water requirements in the Great Lakes Basin For example, if a large power plant were lo- (from Appendix 10, Power) are as follows: cated on a restricted harbor or embayment Year Cubic Meter/Day (Acre Feet/Day) where circulation of the receiving water and .1965- 44,053,738 35,715 the open lake was restricted, the dispersion of 1970 66,050,387 53,548 heat to the open lake would be limited, causing 1980 128,697,603 104,337 a rise in the local ambient water temperature. 2000 402,205,758 326,074 In this instance, the harbor or embayment 2020 849,370,628 688,597 would be functioning as a cooling pond and the The cooling water requirement forecast shows influx could be considered thermal enrich- a spectacular rise, especially after 1980, but ment or thermal pollution. In fact, some older the effect of the increase will vary between power plants are located so that their cooling each of the Great Lakes. For example, if the water intakes extend into the open lake while presumption is made, using the 1980 power the heated water discharge is located within projection for each of the Great Lakes, that an enclosed harbor or embayment. The newest the total heat from the condenser cooling power plants have generally been located so water will enter the receiving water, and if the that thermal discharge is into the lake proper. average AT will be 5.55'C to 11.11'C (Appendix 10, Power), then the average cal/day energy increase per unit surface area of each lake 3.7.4 Effect on Local Climate would be: When power plants have been constructed Lake cal/cM2/day in areas where the thermal assimilation ca- Superior 0.017-0.022 pacity of the receiving water body is poor due Michigan 0.700-0.938 Huron 0.248-0.331 to poor circulation patterns, lack of climatic Erie 1.263-1.684 cooling cycles, or inadequate water volume, Ontario 0.926-1.234 the waste heat load is released directly into The relative importance of this energy in- the atmosphere rather than into the water. crease in the total energy budget of a lake may The currently popular method of infusing heat be assessed by comparing the projected Lake into the atmosphere is done by means of the Ontario condenser cooling water energy load natural draft wet-type cooling tower. As the with the mean monthly values in Lake Ontario wet-type cooling tower depends upon the of significant natural energy factors as com- evaporative process, the wet-bulb tempera- piled by Rodgers and Anderson675. ture is the theoretical limit to which the water can be cooled through evaporation. The aver- age evaporation loss for a cooling tower is 2 Item cal/CM2/day percent of the total circulating water, but this Net Radiation -7 to +415 varies with temperature ranges. What hap- Heat Stored in Lake -510 to +505 pens to this 2 percent of the total circulating Evaporation -35 to +240 water after it leaves the cooling tower has be- Net Advection -12 to +2 come a subject of major concern in the design Sensible Heat Transfer -95 to +260 and placement of these installations. .48 Appendix 4 Whether thermal discharge from a plant is Water transparency is a fundamental factor in accomplished by means of the flow-through studies of photosynthesis, biological activity, process, by use of a cooling pond, or by means chemistry of the environment, and in prob- of wet- or dry-type cooling towers, the atmos- lems concerned with radiant energy, vertical phere becomes the ultimate heat sink. If waste and lateral circulation, stratification, and heat is discharged into a large water body at a transport of material. The amount of radiant temperature close to that of the receiving energy penetrating the lake water controls body, the heat is transferred to the atmos- the production and distribution of phyto- phere at a relatively slow rate over a large plankton, which in turn controls the zoo- geographic area. If waste heat is discharged at plankton and ultimately the fish production. a temperature markedly different from that of Light attenuation is the restriction of light the receiving body, movement of heat to the transmission by any included substance. Ef- atmosphere is more rapid and localized. If fect of color, dissolved solids, and suspended waste heat is released directly into the atmos- particles on the absorption coefficient of water phere by means of a cooling tower, the rate of are all additive (Hutchinson 402 ) and the rela- transfer to the atmosphere is extremely large tionship that exists between water transpar- ,within a small geographic area. The differing ency and quantity of suspended material is methods by which waste heat is released into directly linear (Jones and WilS'437 Hutchin- the atmosphere are extremely critical to the son 402). effect on local climate. A few studies have been Transparency of the water is not constant; it made recently regarding the generation of fog fluctuates vertically, areally, and also with and icing conditions from cooling towers and time. Vertical variance is generally related to the effects of towers on clouds and precipita- thermal structure of the water mass and is a tion. Other studies have treated tower function of season. Lateral variations are effluent and lake breeze interaction (Wil- largely a result of wind stress and circulation. liamS'894 Huff et al.389). Although results of These variations occur throughout the freely these studies are inconclusive, field data indi- circulating epilimnion but are most predomi- cate that cooling tower plumes under some nant within the range of effective wave depth. circumstances lead to additional snowfall On a short-term restricted basis, transpar- under certain synoptic climatic conditions, ency reflects type and intensity of influx plus and in a nearshore area a plume could extend ability of the water mass to retain introduced naturally occurring fog from 1 to 2 miles in- material (Pinsak615). land. A comparison of heat output from cooling Studies of water transparency are generally towers and urban areas (Huff, et al .389) gives carried out as a measure of effective penetra- some insight into the relative effect of cooling tion of solar radiation. Impinging light at any tower installations: depth then is only an integrated average of the light in the entire water column from that Emission Heat Output level to the surface. Vertical variations are Location Computational Basis BTU/hr. thus nullified by this method and only Zion Towers Summer peak load 8.8 x 109 generalizations can be made. If a device is St. Louis Average yearly output 55 x 109 used to measure water transparency in situ, Chicago Average yearly output 180 x 109 the greatly detailed profiles can be applied, in . conjunction with other tools, to solution of The general lack of knowledge concerning the pertinent problems. A common means of impact of thermal influx into the atmosphere measuring light penetration into the lake by cooling towers indicates that more local and water has been the Secchi disc and more re- regional meteorological data are needed be- cently photoelectric cells with various wave- fore the climatic effect of cooling towers can be length filters. assessed. 3.8.1 Principal Factors 3.8 Water Transparency Factors which determine the amount of Transparency as applied to water relates to light penetrating water are intensity of light the property or ability to transmit light such at the surface, angle of incidence with the as direct solar radiation (sunlight), indirect water surface, dissolved materials, and sus- radiation (light from the sky), or light from an pended materials. Intensity of natural light artificial source such as an incandescent lamp. from the sun and sky at the water surface is Physical Characteristics 49 extremely variable depending upon the time 42.38* N 42.35* N 42.25* N 42.31*N 42.35* N 8 1. 61W 8 1.37*W 81 32*W 81.08*w 80.85*W of year and day, and the clarity of the atmos- 0 phere as determined by the presence or ab- sence of clouds, smoke, dust, or fog. Maximum penetration of light occurs when the sun is 0 directly overhead. At all other positions of the E BASE W sun, a portion of the incident light will be re- 2 flected. Angle of incidence changes with both 9 time of day and time of year. In addition, sur- I'_ 20 face waves will change the angle of incidence 0 _61WCN_f_iW bkVACE producing rapid changes in Lhe direction and INDEX depth of light penetration. The sun is never directly overhead in the Great Lakes so 30 r20%-j maximum penetration can never be expected. PERCENTAGE Depth of light penetration in natural water is FIGURE 4-53 Profile Showing Water Trans- further controlled by absorption and by scat- parency in the Central Basin of Lake Erie on tering with the latter being the most signifi- September 22, 1965 cant. Absorption is directly related to the Pinsak,1968 composition of the water and scattering is the actual reflection of light by the contained par- ganic material especially tends to concentrate ticulate matter. above the thermocline as settling is impeded Absorption by dissolved materials contrib- by the underlying water of greater density utes to the variations in transparency be- and viscosity. Below the thermocline settling tween pure water and lake waters of different rate is more uniform because the hypolim- composition. However, with the exception of nion is structurally more stable than the color, which has a pronounced effect, the ef- epilimnion. Suspended material may concen- fects of these dissolved materials are appar- trate near the bottom. These materials may be ently negligible. On a scale of 0 to 1000 colloidal (Welch879), or they may be due to platinum units (Hutchinson 402), the clearest transport or resuspension of materials. Pin- water gives a color of zero and the darkest of sak 615 found a direct correlation between the bog waters range up to 340. Coloring may transparency and temperature structure in. be due to materials dissolved from soil, peat, Lake Erie. The least transparency was found humus, or to organic material produced by below the thermocline and above the plankton. Circulation above the thermocline sediment-water interface (Figure 4-53). This exposes the coloring matter to sunlight where phenomenon (Figure 4-54) was observed re- it can be decomposed. The amount of color peatedly in the Corps of Engineers study of changes with rainfall and with seasonal spoil disposal effects on the Great LakeS.1112 changes. WelchI179 reports periods of maxi- The depth of light penetration into each of mum color in May-June and in November-De- the Great Lakes is generally uniform (Bee- cember. ton"), but maximum penetration does not Suspended materials, inorganic or organic, occur at the same time in all of the lakes nor is have a considerable effect on light penetra- the geographic extent of occurrence similar. tion. The more turbid the water, the less the However, wave length of light penetrating to light penetrates. Thus natural light penetra- depth varies between lakes. Red is less af- tion may be limited to a thin zone at the water fected by dissolved and suspended materials surface under extremely turbid conditions. than the other colors. Yellow penetrates to Finely divided particles of clay, silt, organic greater depths in lakes of medium transpar- material, and plankton produce most of the ency and in lakes of highest transparency the light attenuation, especially in nearshore short wavelength blue penetrates farther areas and shallow portions of the lakes. than red. In lakes with predominantly red (6000 Larger particles, especially those which have 1k) penetration, very little light of lesser wave- a higher density than the water, settle rapidly length penetrates deeper than 1 meter and are little affected by water temperature (Welch 1179). Suspended solids, dissolved solids, variations. The settling of finely divided parti- and organic material increase through the cles with densities approaching that of water system from Lake Superior to Lake Ontario. @4EFIEIIIIE WA'E BASE is greatly affected by temperature variations In Lakes Huron and Superior, transmission of and stratification. This creates a natural sep- short wavelengths (blue) predominates (Fig- aration based on size and composition. Or- ure 4-55). In contrast, the more turbid waters 50 Appendix 4 STATIONS 0 Cn uj 5 - LU 2 10- Z X 15- CL 3 5 @40----- LLJ 020- (80 0M) - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 MILES FIGURE 4-54 Percent Transparency along a Northwest-Southeast Traverse West of Ashtabula, Ohio Corps of Engineers, 1968 of Lakes Erie and Ontario transmit the longer wavelengths (orange-red) to the greater 3.0- depths. Ir Lake Erie uj 2.0 - 3.8.2 Areal Variation Uj Ix 1.0- Variations in transparency are related to W a_ areal distribution of susppnded material, @_ 0.6 - which in turn is related to particle size, com- Z W Lake Ontario position of the bottom sediment, proximity to U shore, depth of lake, currents, storm activity ZZ 0.4 - and depth of mixing caused by resulting W waves, variations in stream influx, wind- @C) borne materials, and plankton blooms. The 'L) 0.2 - Z most significant short-term variations are 5 produced by storm activity and plankton !1'- 0.4 - blooms. Spring and fall mixing of the lakes also J Lake Michigan :Z produces widespread distribution of finely di- vided materials. High volume tributary influx .x 0. 2 - LLJ also produces short-term effects. Several of these factors may occur simultaneously or in 0.4- succession. Longer-term effects may be due to \--,_@Lake @Super@ior@ continued influx as from the connecting chan- nels or waste discharge, to low density sus- 0.2- pended materials which are essentially non- settling, and to plankton such as algae. 0.4- Secchi disc and the various photocell ar- rangements used to integrate the percentage 0.2- Lake Huron of natural light transmission into a lake with depth are good for specific purposes. However, in order to examine in situ transparency and to consider the effects of vertical variations, it \.Lake Erie. \,,".Lake @Huron 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 becomes necessary to employ another means WAVE LENGTH (millimicrons) whereby a photocell and a light source are FIGURE 4-55 Vertical Extinction Coefficients lowered into the lake to produce a transpar- ('(T) for Various Wave Lengths of Light in the. ency profile. This is the approach used by Pin- 1187 lareat Lakes (o-= -loge T where T equals trans- sak'615 Duntley'230 Whitney, and Ruttner rnissivity). Beeton,1962 and Sauberer'694 and introduced by Peterson Physical Characteristics 51 14 TYq HARBORS PORT WING ------------ 10. X40. - 50. - 0 0 70. - 2 - STATIONS 0 M 2o 30 40 .0 .0 1. .0 MEAN PERCENTAGE TRANSPARENCY FIGURE 4-57 Secchi Disc Readings, Port FIGURE 4-56 Relationship Between Secchi Wing, Wisconsin, to Two Harbors, Minnesota; Disc and Mean Percent Transparency July 30, and August 21, 1956 6ata from Ruschmeyer, Olson, and Basch, 1956 (Hutchinson 402). Water transparency is meas- let light penetration to 10 meters in the open ured as a percentage of the transparency of lake. air. Secchi disc readings (Figure 4-57) from Port One problem in looking at historical data is Wing northward to Two Harbors (Rusch- the disparity in measurement techniques. In meyer, Olson, and Bosch 691) show a maximum measuring transparency a historical base natural light penetration to 8.5 m in mid-lake must rely on correlation of Secchi disc and and to lesser depths in the nearshore areas. In photocell determinations. Using empirical the Superior Harbor area (Figure 4-58) the data, a curve showing the relationship be- disc readings show low values which extend tween Secchi disc and photocell transparen- to approximately one mile outside of the har- cies was developed at the Lake Survey Cen- ter, National Ocean Survey (Figure 4-56). There is a positive correlation and the objec- tive of establishing a means for comparison of different techniques was realized. Scatter could probably be reduced by classifying ac- cording to the variables involved in these types of readings and then producing a set of curves rather than one curve. More intercomparisons are needed to corre- late various measurements of turbidity and transparency in Great Lakes water such as Jackson Turbidity Units (J.T.U.), Secchi disc, percent transparency, suspended sediment, and color. 3.8.3 Lake Superior Lake Superior has the lowest concentration of suspended solids, dissolved solids, and or- STATUTE ganic materials of all the Great Lakes. Green color (490-540 g) penetrates deepest (Figure 4-53) (Beeton50) in the vicinity of the Apostle Islands. However, Lake Survey Center inves- ....... . . tigations indicate that the Apostle Island area is not representative of the lake as a whole. FIGURE 4-58 Secchi Disc Readings (m), Su- Violet light penetrated to only 7 meters in this perior Harbor; September 5, 1956 area while Putnam and Olson 635 measuredvio- Ruschmeyer et al., 1956 52 Appendix 4 bor. As would be expected, this same area shows high color (Figure 4-59) and high tur- bidity (Figure 4-60). These turbidity config- urations and intensities in western Lake Su- perior correspond to determinations by the U.S. Lake Survey 13 years later in 1969. These later investigations, utilizing an in situ photo- cell, include all of western Lake Superior and thus put specific sites into perspective. During summer (Figure 4-61) mean water transparency based on a 30 m thick surface layer was generally high (60 to 70 percent) 0 ver the entire western basin except along the extreme west and southwestern shore. As in the other lakes, transparency decreased in the -62). fall, although to a lesser degree (Figure 4 This decrease is obvious in the more shallow areas such as the extreme western end of the lake west of the Apostle Islands. Minimum @@-ITATUTI ..... ........ .... ............ values are a result of influx near Silver Bay, Minnesota (20 to 30 percent) and near the Duluth-Superior outflow and the south shore (10 to 30 percent). The low transparency west of Silver Bay appears to correspond with the observations of "green water" during the FIGURE 4-59 Color Readings, Superior Har- period of lake stratification (AdamS3). bor Area; September 5, 1956. Color is measured Standard deviation as a measure of absolute on a 0-500 scale; 0 transparent, 500 = opaque. Ruschmeyer, et al., 1956 dispersion can be used to bring anomalous areas into focus. A large standard deviation thus indicates a wide range of transparency during a given time period which in turn is indicative of variations in the quantity of sus- pended materials in the water column. Natu- ral background standard deviation in western Lake Superior during 1969 ranged from 4 to 11 based on open lake values (Figure 4-63). Standard deviation in the western arm of the lake was consistently above background as was the mean transparency (Figure 4-64). Magnitude and gradient of change indicates fluctuations in variables that control trans- parency. Highest local anomalies are caused by a combination of both natural and man- made inputs. The coefficient of variation (standard deviation/mean) is a measure of the relative dispersion of transparency about the mean pp. value. This shows relative magnitude of change rather than actual differences at a STA articular place during the period that meas p urements were taken. It allows for direct com- parison over large areas that have anomalies of relative significance. Coefficient of variance background in the open lake ranges from 6 FIGURE 4-60 Turbidity Readings (Jackson percent to 17 percent (Figure 4-65). The open Turbidity Units), Superior Harbor Area; Sep- water area of the western arm has coefficient tember 5, 1956 of variation values higher than the back- Ruschmeyer, et al., 1956 ground range, but highest values were found Physical Characteristics 53 92* go* 89, 88* 87' 86* 850 49* 49, .,D.q Ro..pom Marathon Port Arthur r ;F.- 48' ....... r- 48* le ip,coten Grand M-i. 80- P Hbr Sil- Bay 60- 47' 7 47' .-J Houghto C.1 th Beyfi I Whit.fi.h Pt. Superior rand A.bl.nd Black Ri- M.rqu.tt M r.i. Sault St.. Mari. M.ni.i.9 CONTOUR INTERVALAO % 46* KILOMETERS 46- STATUTE MILES to to 92, 91, go* 88* 87* 86* 8 FIGURE 4-61 Percent Transparency of Lake Superior; Summer, 1969 92' 91* go* 89, 88* 87' 86, 85' 49' R.eap.rt Marathon Port Arthur 48* 48- ichipicaten Grand M.r i. P 0 Hbr Sil"r Bay 50 1013 40 47* 47' ..0- Houghto Dul th 0 a 40 B.yfi 60 Whitafi.h Pt. Superior rand A.hl.nd BI. k Ri-r Marque" M-i. Sault St.. Mari. M.ni.inq CONTOUR INTERVAL:10% 46- KILOMETERS 46* 50 o STATUTE. MILES 9'2' 91* go. 89* 88, 87' 8 85* FIGURE 4-62 Percent Transparency of Lake Superior; Fall, 1969 54 Appendix 4 92* 91* go* 89* 88* 87' 86* 85, 49- 49, Marathon Pon Arthur 48- 48* i.hipicottt. Grand Marais 10 Garg.muo 9 op Hb, Sil"r Bay 47' 47' Houghton 20 Duluth 30 Boyfi I ntons on Whitefish Pt. rend Superior A.M. 3 Black Riwr Marque" Marais CO INTOLIR INTERVAL: 5% Munising S..I1 St.. Maria 46- 46' KILOMETERS so STATUTE MILES to 0 92* 91* go* 89, 88* 87* 86* 85- FIGURE 4-63 Standard Deviation of Transparency in Western Lake Superior; 1969 92* 9'. go* 89* 88, 87' 86' 85* 49* 9* Roteport Marathon Port Arthur --50 60 48' 48, ichipicto. Grand Marais 60 P Hbr Sil-r Bay 47* .0o . 0 Houghton . 47' . d, Duluth 30 40 B.Yfi.1 r1onmion Superior 40 50 BI..k Pirer M-q-tt. rend Oafish Pt. Ashland Marais Sault St.. Marie CONFOUR INTERVAL: 10% M-ming 46* 0KILOMETERS 41-1 STATUTE MILES 0 92* gf* go* 89* 88* 87' 86* 85 FIGURE 4-64 Mean Percent Transparency of Western Lake Superior; 1969 Physical Characteristics 55 92' 91* go* 89, 88* 87* 86* 85* 49* 49' Roa.port Marathon Port Arthur 4 48' 48' i.hipiticrt.. Grand M.rai. 0 Gtirqw.. Cop Hbr SIN- Bay 47' 0 .*Do 6 Houghton. 47* Dull th 0 00 yfi I on 0 M.rq.trn. r.rd Whitfi.h Pt. A.hi..d M.r.i. Sault Ste. Maria Munismg CONTOUR INTERVAL: IU-/o -46' 46- KILOMETERS to o STATUTE MILES 50 92* 87' 66, 85* FIGURE 4-65 Coefficient of Variance in Transparency of Western Lake Superior; 1969 TEMPERATURt (-C) 6' 8. Io. 14' variations could result from intermittent re- leases of materials capable of remaining in 10- suspension, or the intermittent development of physical conditions favorable for the sus- 20- pension of particulate matter. The presence of extreme standard deviation and coefficient of 30- variation near Duluth- Superior, Silver Bay, and the Ashland embayment in comparison 40- with other harbors suggests that the dis- charge of suspended particulate material from these areas is not typical. Adjacent to the outfall from the Reserve Mining operations (Figure 4-66), a thick (30 m) 60 wedge of very turbid water was observed ex- tending into the lake on top of the thermocline. 70. The sharp top and bottom boundaries suggest TRANSPARENCY(%) a very finely divided material with a density FIGURE 4-66 Turbidity-Temperature Rela- approximating the underlying 4'C to YC wa- tionship, Silver Bay, Minn.; Sept. 17, 1969 ter. This condition is similar to that observed by Kind le 4,56 in the laboratory. Such a immediately adjacent to the shores, especially phenomenon could not occur in an isothermal along the south shore eastward from the water column. The suspended material, in Duluth-Superior outflow (greater than 1'10 addition to being trapped, causes attenuation percent) indicating that the suspended sedi- of the short wave length light and, in this case, ment load along the south shore is relatively results in the green coloration of the water. high and quite variable. Canada Centre for Inland Waters investi- Extreme fluctuations in both standard de- gated surface turbidity in central and eastern viation and coefficient of variance are indica- Lake Superior in April 1970 (Figure 4-67) and tions of variations in the quantity of sus- found it to be less than 0.5 J.T.U. Anomalous pended particulate matter in the water. Those shore areas are indicated at Ontonagon, 56 Appendix 4 92* 91* go* 89* 88* 87* 86* 85* 49' Rossport Marathon Port Arthur 48* i.hipioot.. 1.0 Grand Marais G-g.nt.. 0 9 op Sil-r Say 0.5 47* oughton V 47' Duluth B.yf. 111111 or /-ZI-n. on Superior 131-1; Ri-r Marque". rand Whitefish Pt. Ashland Marais Sault St.. M, Muri.i.9 KILOME ERS 46* 46- En- 50 0 W 00 STATUTE MILES 0 so 92* 91* 90. 89* 88a 87* 86* 85' FIGURE 4-67 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Superior; April 13-23, 1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 Thunder Bay, and Marquette. The western shallower northern portion. Because the main arm was not included in the survey. A correla- body of the lake is still isothermal at this time tion between J.T.U. and photocell transpar- of year, transparency varies little from water ency has not been established. However, the surface to bottom. The east shore from Little anomalies are evident with either technique. Traverse Bay to Mackinaw City has the high- est transparency at this particular time be- cause high clarity open lake water is being 3.8.4 Lake Michigan driven towards the shore. Transparency is low at the outflow from Green Bay into the lake. Light penetration in Lake Michigan This turbid water disperses throughout the (Beeton 50) was somewhat similar to that of water column and moves with the general lake the Apostle Island area of Lake Superior in circulation contrasting with conditions later 1958 in that the greatest transparency was in in the year when the lake is stratified and the the green (490-540 A) wavelength range (Fig- outflow from Green Bay is largely dispersed ure 4-55). A later comparison is not available. within the epilimnion over broader areas. In 1970 the U.S. Lake Survey, Corps of En- gineers, conducted limnological investiga- tions in the northern half of Lake Michigan. 3.8.5 Lake Huron Seasonal variations in water clarity conform with the general annual lake cycle as earlier Most investigations in Lake Huron have been described, with differences in distribution concerned with Saginaw Bay. Investigation of primarily influenced by basin physiography the bay and adjacent portions of southern and man-made developments. Mean trans- Lake Huron (Beeton 53) demonstrated that parency in late spring (Figure 4-68) was high- variations in transparency (Figure 4-69) cor- est in the deepest portion of the lake with relate with flow of lake water into Saginaw lower transparency in the nearshore and the Bay along the northwest shore and out along Physical Characteristics 57 the southeast shore. The pattern also matches that by AyerS26 in one of the new lakewide 6. investigations in Lake Huron which was con- ducted during 1954. In June (Figure 4-70) transparency was high in mid-lake and lower along the shore, especially in the region of Saginaw Bay and along the southeast shore. The transparency pattern was more complex in July (Figure 4_71). High transparency (16 g gz r m) water was entering from Lake Michigan F-k- while lower transparency (3 m to 8 in) water was entering from Lake Superior. Saginaw Bay water had transparency less than 3 in. The highest transparency, 19 in, was observed 14 in the open lake between Oscoda, Michigan, and the Bruce Peninsula. In August during the stable summer period (Figure 4-72), the lake was characterized by more uniform structure and a large area of clear water with G'..' H... Secchi disc readings of more than 13 m. Surveys by Canada Centre for Inland Wa- ters in May and October, 1970 (Figures 4-73 and 4-74) show surface transparency ex- pressed in J.T.U. to be uniform in mid-lake during both periods. The least transparency was observed in Saginaw Bay and off Bayfield, Ontario. Greatest turbidity (lowest transpar- 11LOMETERS ency) occurs around the periphery of the lake ST11-1 1-1 and, as could be expected, is most intense in regions of greatest runoff and in areas of wave 8'. W scour. The relative constancy in time and FIGURE 4-68 Mean Percent Transparency of space of transparency in Lake Huron reflects Lake Michigan; Cruise 1, May 23 to June 8,1970 the physiography of the lake, the bottom and 83,30, 83*00, 8 2'3 0' 8 2*0 0' 0, N - - - - - - - - 3 63 44-, 62 7 A L---- -- - 51 LAKE HUP01V A 45 24 so X@ 43 PT LOOKOUT RITY Is. 4 40 0' - Go \IjA2. 64 44'00' PT Go A SAGINAW BAY 63 'Fill o 3 11o 66 A 67 7 MILE3 A 4 3*00' _J 4 3'30' 83*301 63,00, 8,?* 30, 82*00' FIGURE 4-69 Average Secchi Disc Transparency (ft) in Saginaw Bay and Adjacent Lake Huron; June to August, 1956 Beeton, 1958 58 Appendix 4 9 0 ks 10 41 it it ID 6 -12 10 It 16 FIGURE 4-70 Seechi Disc Transparency (m) FIGURE 4-72 Secchi Disc Transparency (m) in Lake Huron; June, 1954 in Lake Huron; August, 1954 Ayers, 1956 Ayers, 1956 2 13 15 111N 14 to s."... KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES FIGURE 4-71 Secchi Disc Transparency (m) FIGURE 4-73 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in in Lake Huron; July, 1954 Lake Huron; May 11-21, 1970 Ayers, 1956 After Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 Physical Characteristics 59 A I mrAL 0 N/C B. 20 % A, _,AA 04 Al- 1 0-- "I ry ---- IGH A 110 av Ik :b J A ky 0 N 0 J 1939 1940 FIGURE 4-75 Weight of Suspended Matter in KILOMETERS Western Lake Erie (upper section) and Relation STATUTE MILES Between Turbidity and Rate of Light Absorp- tion (lower section) Chandler, 1942 FIGURE 4-74 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in ice cover. Inorganic suspended matter ranged Lake Huron; September 29 to October 7, 1970 from 50 percent to 95 percent of the total (Fig- After Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 ure 4-75). The percentage of organic matter varied with plankton blooms. Chandler found shore composition, and generally isolates that an ice cover of 40 em thickness attenuated through obvious contrasts those areas with no more surface light than 40 cm of water con- man-made influx. taining 20 ppm or more turbidity. Since the turbidity may be 20 ppm or greater for 7 months and an ice cover may be present for 2.5 3.8.6 Lake Erie months, the combined effect is to greatly limit the light penetration. On the average, surface Wright, 917 reporting on a 1929 to 1930 study light penetration correlated with turbidity as of western Lake Erie, found that portion of the follows: 8 m-5 ppm; 6 m-10 ppm; 4.5 m-15 lake to be characterized by low transparency. ppm to 20 ppm; 2.7 m-25 ppm to 30 ppm; 2.0 Most Secchi disc readings were in the 1 m to 2 m-35 ppm to 40 ppm; 1.5 m-60 ppm; and 0.8 m depth range. A seasonal change was ob- m-115 ppm. served with maximum transparency in sum- A Secchi disc survey of the western basin of mer, next lowest in fall, and the lowest in the Lake Erie in 1959 (Beeton 51) indicated low spring. The two factors listed by Verduin 857 as transparencies ranging from 1.2 m to 1.8 m contributing most to the turbidity in the west- around the islands. In the central basin disc ern basin are phytoplankton and fine silt depths ranged from 1.2 m to 10.1 m with the primarily from the Maumee River. lower values in shallow areas. In 1960 the Chandler 132 reported on the variations in western basin again had a low transparency turbidity in western Lake Erie during 1939 to with disc depth ranging from 0.6 m to 1.2 m. 1940 in which rapid changes in the depth of The majority of the disc readings were around light penetration affect the aquatic or- 7.3 m in the central basin. ganisms. Turbidity ranged from a minimum of Pinsak 615 used a photocell device to measure 5 ppm during periods of ice cover and periods of in situ transparency in Lake Erie during calm in late spring and early summer to a summer and fall, 1965. Transparency meas- maximum of 230 ppm in autumn and late win- urements, relative to 100 percent in air, were ter. Periods of high turbidity were related to made at each station and averaged from the high winds, high precipitation, or restricted surface to total depth. Spatial distribution of 60 Appendix 4 6WO 70 60- 4 70 60 A A 10 0 40 j 20 30 CLEVELAND Statim Lmdbm FIGURE 4-76 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During July 15-30, 1965 Pinsak,1968 40 so 0 50 foolow A in air) CLEVELAND L-1- A FIGURE 4-77 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During August 9-20, 1965 Pinsak, 1968 Physical Characteristics 61 40 A 0 0 0 40 0 A 0 0 0 CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 A to 100% h 0k) CLEVELAND -j A FIGURE 4-78 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During August 31 to September 10, 1965 Pinsak, 1968 0 L 10 40 0 A AO A 50 -4 0 0 ---50 A 50 0 Mi0b C TO NAL 10 % 0- 0 1pvcww -am '0- 0 to IOD% MOW) CLEVELAND SWIM LMIIM A FIGURE 4-79 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During September 14-22, 1965 Pinsak,1968 62 Appendix 4 @-20 4?0- 50 31) 40' 60 40 so CON, .. ........ 10 to 100 % In air) ;ND S101100 Lt;ClltIW 0 FIGURE 4-80 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During October 11-26, 1965 Pinsak, 1968 To Ll-:0 TO 20 '0 .0N'0UR INTERVAL: 10% (Pace I.P t-wom-y mww to 100% Moir) CLEVELAND St.fl.. L ti. FIGURE 4-81 Water Transparency in Lake Erie During October 26 to November 9, 1965 Pinsak,1968 Physical Characteristics 63 60 sediment-water interface. Stratification of suspended material persists in the hypolim- 50- Uj nion over extended periods indicating minimal a<. 4 0 circulation and is more complex in structure V) "PIS than is indicated by the temperature, whereas z @0101 < the structure in the epilimnion varies greatly. - 14 Profiles made possible by the in situ device 30 facilitate the detection of features produced 20- z by tributary influx and wave effects. 6j & U Canada Centre for Inland Waters measured owl 10- transparency of Lake Erie surface water dur- 0 ing 1970 (Figures 4-83 through 4-86). Al- JULY AUG I SEPT l OCT NOV though Jackson Turbidity Units (J.T.U.) are not compatible with other units of measure- FIGURE 4-82 Average Water Transparency ment, patterns can be compared. Low turbid- in Lake Erie During 1965 Pinsak, 1968 ity occurred in the eastern basin and deepwa- ter areas of the central basin in April (Figure 4-83). Turbidity was highest in the shallow the transparency for specific time periods western basin and nearshore areas, especially could then be related to recurring seasonal in proximity to tributary influx. The lake was variations (Figures 4-76 through 4-81). The the least turbid in late July (Figure 4-84). Tur- low transparency observed in the western bidity increased in the fall (Figure 4-85) espe- basin agrees with findings of earlier inves- cially in the western basin and along the tigators. Highest transparency in July (Figure shoreline, and continued to increase into De- 4-76) agrees with Chandler's132 1939 to 1940 cember (Figure 4-86), especially in the west- observations. A dense algal bloom in Sep- ern basin and along the southern shore. tember in the western basin could not be de- Although both the techniques used to mea- tected by the transparency meter (Figure sure transparency and the scope of these ob- 4-79) as the turbidity was high enough to mask servations have varied, the most significant the contribution by the algal bloom (Pin- point common to all of the studies is the fact sak615). Several of the cruises (Figures 4-76, that similar physical phenomena have been 4-77, and 4-78) indicated relatively high noted on a seasonal basis indicating that phys- transparency water in the offshore central ical characteristics of Lake Erie have not basin area between Avon Point and changed significantly during the past 40 year Ashtabula, Ohio, as observed by Beeton5l in period. 1959-60. This phenomenon could be observed any time the lake was stratified and a north- erly wind moved offshore water against the 3.8.7 Lake Ontario shore. Each of the three basins have different Lake Ontario, like Lake Erie, contains rela- characteristics relating to physiography. tively high concentrations of suspended and However, there is a general decrease in trans- dissolved solids. As a result, the shorter wave- parency within all three from July into lengths are attenuated more and the greatest November (Figure 4-82). Pinsak6115 concluded light penetration (Beeton50) is in the long that the low western basin transparency is wavelength range (Figure 4-55). due to tributary influx, shallow water, the na- Canada Centre for Inland Waters examined ture of the organic mud bottom, and the fact surface turbidity in Lake Ontario during 1970. that the bulk of the sediment remains in the In the spring turbidity around the periphery western basin. Seasonal increase of suspended of the lake was high compared to open water material is 40 percent in the western basin and portions because of the associated turbulence 60 percent in the central and eastern basins. and runoff (Figure 4-87). The highest turbid- Masses of high transparency water are moved ity of 10.0 J.T.U. was observed offthe mouth of primarily by wind stress within the central the Genesee River at Rochester, New York. and eastern basins and may mask or distort Surface turbidity generally decreased in the effect of tributary influx. A direct correla- summer, but then increased in late August in tion was found between transparency and midlake to the 2.0 J.T.U. range (Figure 4-88) temperature with the least transparency oc- due probably to plankton concentrations. By curring below the thermocline and above the mid-September (Figure 4-89) turbidity was 64 Appendix 4 83* 82* 81, 80* 79* L A K E L A X E o N r A R 1 0 N U R 0 N H.rnilwn Port Wall. 43' 43' Port Huron Sarni. Port Maitland Part Colborn Port St-11. Pon Bu-11 Dunkirk LAKE Detroit sr CLAIR 0 Ro 0\ -0 Kingsville Erie 42- 42' 0 -'eo. 0 ti,port Toledo CI.-I.nd Sandusky KILOMETERS Q 0 STATUTE MILES Is 0 2s to 41*1 i i - 1 41* 83* 82* 81, so- 79* FIGURE 4-83 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Erie; April 6-11, 1970 - Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 83' 82* 81* 80* 79' L A K E L A K E o N r A R 1 0 H U R 0 N Port Wall. 43*- 43- Part Huron Sarnia P.m Maitland .'t Ibo,n. Buffalo Port Stani.y Port B-11 0.5 Dunkirk LAKE Detroit sr CLA Rondemu Hbr 1.0 42* Kingsville Erie 42' A.ht.bula .,,Pori Toledo 17 1.0 Cl-litrd Lorain Sandusky KILOMETERS o STATUTE MILES 25 o 25 41* 83* 82* 81, 80, 7 FIGURE 4-84 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Erie; July 27 to August 2, 1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 Physical Characteristics 65 83* 82* 81* 80* 79* L A K E L A K E 0 N r A R 1 0 H U R 0 N Hamilton Port Wol Is 43*- Part Huron Sarnia 43* Port Maitland Port C.1b.rn. rj Port St.r1.y Port I-AKE Dunkirk D.t,oit ST CLAIR C.) 4: Ronda. Hbr 420 Kingovill 0 Eri. 42* Ashtabula airport Tol.d. Cl.-I.rd Lorain Sandus KILOMETERS 0 so STATUTE MILE S 41*1 25 25 to 41- @3' 81* 80, 7 FIGURE 4-85 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Erie; October 20-25, 1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 63* 82* 81* 80, 79" L A K E L A K E o N r A R 1 0 H U R 0 N Hamilton part Wells 13 43' 11 43* Port Huron Sarnia Pwt Maitlenwd Porn Colbor Buffalo .0 Port St.niy Port Bu-11 100 LAKE Dunkirk sr CLAIR Ronda. Hbr 42' 42* Ashtabula .0@ airport r-k @Qo -0. 1. and Lor. Sandusky A K E 0 N r A R 1 0 IparA H a @m, .11,o n Part Co'bor and: /1uk,,k KI STATUTE MILES s 1. 41* 41- 113- 82* 80* FIGURE 4-86 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Erie; December 13-18, 1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 so* 79* 76' 77* 76' 29 z . - j Ar; 6P Vinc*nt 44* 40 1.0 0.5 os V Toronto .0 -0.5 00W.90 0 -0 sod.. B.y 1.01 Little H.milton Sod- So 0 Port 11*r 449mr. Rochetr 43- 43' Port B.14.10 KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES 79* 78' 77* FIGURE4-87 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Ontario; March 31 to April 5,1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 so* 79' 78* 77' 76' P. C76 44' 44* Cobowq Toronto 2. 00..S. 01catt Sod.* 13.y H.Millon Sod.. B.) Port jWr 449... 43" 43. Port B.ff.10 Colborne I KILOMETERS w 0 STATUTE MILES L A K E E R I E 0 79* 7'. 77* FIGURE 4-88 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Ontario; August 17-21, 1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 Physical Characteristics 67 80, 79* 7a* 77* 76* 29 Arin P. V...* I 44' Cobourg U 44* C@' 0.5 85 Toronto Little Sd.8 Bey H.Milto' Sdu. Be Port W.11.r Roch-w 43' 43- Port Buff.10 Colborne KILOMETERS 0 to L A K E E R I E STATUTE MILES 7 FIGURE4-89 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Ontario; September 14-19,1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 so* 79' 78' 77' 76* 2a k" spe .."M 44' Caboung 44* Toronto 0.5 C- 1---- 1.0 -------- Little 5.. *dult 8.Y H.milton Sodu. B.y Port II.r .4 Rochester 4i.g.r. Fell. 43- 43' Port Buffolo Colborne KILOMETERS 2@ 0 STAT TE MILES L A K E E R I E 0 to 79' 78' 77- FIGURE 4-90 One Meter Turbidity (J.T.U.) in Lake Ontario; December 7-12, 1970 Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 1970 68 Appendix 4 TEMPERATURE-C r3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 is less than 1.0 J.T.U. except for the obvious in flux in the western quarter of the lake. During 0 (SECC I DISC 4.5@) early December (Figure 4-90) after the lake '0 had become isothermal and with the increased fall runoff, nearshore turbidity had increased with most of the nearshore areas greater than 4 (TEMPERATURE) 1.0 J.T.U. The effect of the Niagara River is pronounced at this time with turbidity greater than 5.0 J.T.U. off the mouth. An accurate definition of turbidity must come from examination to depth rather than at the surface. The transparency profile is bas- 100- ically related to temperature structure but is influenced by other factors as well. Structure is pronounced in Lake Ontario in late October (Figure 4-91). Low transparency near the sur- 130 110 face was observed at this time over large areas PERCENTAGE TRANSPARENCY of the lake. The Secchi disc transparency was FIGURE 4-91 Temperature Transparency Re- 4.5 meters, disappearing just above a zone of lationship in Eastern Lake Ontario; October 30, much lower turbidiy. Transparency was then 1970 rather uniform and high from just above the Lake Survey Center, NOAA thermocline to 95 meters where a zone of tur- bid water was lying above the bottom. As pre- viously noted, the in situ meter defines struc- ----------- ----- ----- -- ------ ------- ------------------------- ---- ------------------- - - -- 40- 0 0- 0- IDO - /TRAkPOSM ------- ---- ------ HonurAd Scob-W-I (b) P I I 0 KM 0- wo- ------ --- - --------- 50- -------------- 0_@(SICCHl DISC, 4 0- 0 - FIGURE 4-92 Three Characteristic Records of Temperature-Percent Light Transmission on Crossing the VC Surface Isotherm in Lake Ontario Rodgers, 1968 Physical Characteristics 69 tures that are not detectable on the tempera- plumes and total lake energy budgets, yet the ture curve. climatic effect of heated water influx into the Rodgers 671 observed an inverse relationship lakes is largely unknown. At the present time, between temperature and transparency in the information is not adequate to define in quan- region of the thermal bar. Low temperature titative terms the meteorological conse- open-lake water, less than VC, had high quences of the large amounts of heat energy transparency, while on the shore side of the and water vapor that are released into the thermal bar the warm water trapped the sus- atmosphere from large cooling towers. pended material (Figure 4-92). The low trans- A survey of the heated water influx parency was attributed to the growth of or- throughout the entire Great Lakes Basin ganic materials in the warmer water. Rodgers would be in order as a first step in quantifying noted that a towed transmissometer may be a management problems with respect to both highly useful tool in identifying water masses. the receiving water body and the receiving air body. Only after thermal discharges are 3.9 Summary and Recommendations measured and classified on a regional basis can intelligent and effective regional planning The thermal regime of the Great Lakes var- of waste thermal energy disposal begin. ies on a regular basis and is fundamentally the A primary factor affecting the ecological same throughout the total geographic extent. balance of the Great Lakes is transparency. Differences in thermal structure can be at- This property has a basic relationship with tributed to differences in heat input into the suspended material, light penetration, and lakes and differences in total heat storage nutrients. Transparency is also a major aes- based on volume. Winds produce anomalies thetic consideration. The physical properties such as tilting of the thermocline and con- of water provide the control. During periods of sequent upwelling and downwelling, and more stratification, circulation and movement of or less intense mixing of the surface layer. that fraction of the particulate material capa- Zones of downwelling along the east shores ble of being held in suspension is restricted are a result of the predominant westerly wina. largely to the epilimnion, with the consequent However, all these variations are only local effect of bypassing the classical sedimentation and short-term irregularities superimposed process. This fraction is composed primarily of on the basic thermal regime. The major con- organic material, which makes it even more trol on this regime is the amount of incoming significant when one considers that organic energy. The pattern remains the same; only material is regarded as the prime factor in magnitude varies in response to change in lake eutrophication. heat input. Convection or turbulent mixing is Transparency of the lakes is not uniform nor the major mechanism that distributes heat is it stable. Fluctuations may be short-term, through the lake and it is controlled largely by catastrophic, seasonal, or annual and are both variations in the basic physical properties of areal and vertical. The physiography of a lake the water. Winds are the basic mixing basin, depth and depth variations, bottom mechanism but turbulent transport created types, character and extent of influx, exposure by physical differences related to water teni- to wind fields, and thermal structure all cause perature is responsible for the overall thermal variations in transparency. Natural changes structure. adhere to a basic annual cycle with short-term During the period just prior to isothermal effects superimposed. The effects of all the mixing in a lake, the total heat in a water controlling variables are more or less predict- column varies only with the vertical distribu- able in time and space. Investigations that are tion of heat in the column. Thus, the intensity limited in duration and area studied or that of mixing that occurs is directly related to the consider effects without analyzing causes may amount of heat in the epilimnion and the ratio appear to be random or may lead to erroneous of the volume of the epilimnion to that of the management recommendations. Definitions hypolimnion just prior to the development of of the annual cycles in a lake are necessary the isothermal phase. Because the epilimnion adjuncts to shorter-term programs because is generally warmer than the hypolimnion in they form a baseline on which to superimpose the Great Lakes, hypolimnetic water will not the segments. Factors that control physical become stagnant over a long period, but properties should be better defined, and the rather can be expected to mix completely at proper time and space perspectives of problem least once a year. areas should be determined before develop- Recent emphasis in the Great Lakes has ment of any reasonable comprehensive man- been on study of the mechanics of thermal agement plan. 1) Section 4 HYDROMETEOROLOGY: CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY OF THE GREAT LAKES Jan A. Derecki 4.1 Introduction (5,473 cu. mi.) stored in the lakes, varying from 484 kM3 in Lake Erie to 12,234 kml in Lake Superior, the Great Lakes have a tremendous 4.1.1 Description and Scope heat storage capacity. Through air-water in- teraction, the lakes influence the climate over The climate of the Great Lakes Region is them and over adjacent land areas. Because of determined by the general westerly atmos- the lake effect, air temperatures are moder- pheric circulation, the latitude, and the local ated, winds and humidities are increased, and modifying influence of the lakes, Due to the precipitation patterns are modified. Although lake effect, the regional climate alternates be- these phenomena have been recognized for tween continental and semi-marine. The decades, it is only in recent years that inten- semi-marine climate is more consistent con- sive programs have been undertaken to de- tiguous to the lakes, but with favorable termine the more exact nature and mag- meterological conditions, it may penetrate nitudes of these processes. deeply inland. The Great Lakes climate and The Great Lakes moderate temperatures oM%_P110__1 hydrology are closely related. Variations in the overlying air masses and surrounding mean lake levels, and consequently lake out- land areas by acting as heat sinks or sources. flows, are controlled by the imbalance be- The process of heat exchange between the tween precipitation and evaporation. lakes and atmosphere is both seasonal and The Great Lakes drainage basin is discussed diurnal. During spring and summer, the lakes in other appendixes and a brief summary of are generally colder than air above and have a the climatic and hydrologic elements of the cooling effect on the atmosphere. During fall drainage basin is given in Section 1 of this and winter, the lakes are generally warmer appendix. The major storm tracks affecting than the atmosphere and serve as a heat the Great Lakes Region are indicated in Fig- source. However, during the winter months, ure 4-13. Distributions of mean annual values the ice cover reduces the lake effect. for air temperature, precipitation, runoff, and A daily pattern of heat exchange is water losses over the land areas of the Basin, superimposed upon the seasonal pattern. This showing latitudinal and lake-effect variations, daily pattern is produced by land-water tem- are indicated in Figures 4-15, 17, 19, and 20, perature differences. Because lakes are more respectively. The average monthly means, efficient than land areas in storing heat, lake highs, and lows of overland air temperature temperatures have a tendency to remain sta- for the individual lake basins and for the total ble, while land temperatures undergo daily Great Lakes Basin are shown in Figure 4-16. variations that are more in line with the air temperatures. When the land is warmer than water, the relatively warmer air over adjacent 4.1.2 Lake Effect land areas'tends to rise and is replaced by colder, heavier air from the lakes. When the With a total water volume of 22,813 km' land is colder, the process is reversed. This Jan A. Derecki, Lake Survey Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Detroit, Michigan. 71 72 Appendix 4 process of heat exchange produces light winds, thunderstorms. During winter, the conditions which are known as lake breezes. The offshore are reversed, and the cold, inland air passing and onshore lake breezes are illustrated in over relatively warm water becomes less sta- Figure 4-14. The direction of lake breezes is ble and picks up moisture, which encourages governed by the land-water temperature dif- snow flurries. As the winter air masses move ferences and is independent of the general at- over the lakes, the moisture that accumulates mospheric circulation. However, lake breezes in the air produces heavy snowfalls on the lee occur only during relatively calm weather and sides of the lakes, due to orographic effects of affect a limited air mass along the shoreline, the land mass. The fact is well documented rarely extending more than several kilome- that heavy snowbelt areas result from the lake ters (2-3 miles) inland. The moderation of tem- effect. These areas include Houghton on Lake peratures by the lakes affects regional ag- Superior, Owen Sound on Lake Huron, Buffalo riculture by reducing frost hazards in the on Lake Erie, and Oswego on Lake Ontario. early spring and in the fall, thus lengthening the growing season, especially in coastal areas. Examples of this effect are the cherry 4.1.3 Measurement Networks orchards of the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin and the Grand Traverse Bay area in Michigan, Basic meteorological data in the Great and the vineyards of the western Lake Erie Lakes Basin are available from regular obser- islands in Ohio. vation networks operated by the Nation- Because lake breezes have a limited range al Weather Service and the Canadian and require special conditions, the lake effect Meteorological Service. The networks consist on winds is minor. A much more important of a limited number of first order stations that effect is the considerable increase in geo- provide hourly observations for air -tempera- strophic wind speed over the lakes. This in- ture, precipitation (total and snow), wind crease is caused by reduced frictional resis- speed and direction, humidity, and duration of tance to air movement over the relatively sunshine and cloud cover. More numerous co- -nooth water surface, and by the difference in operative stations provide daily observations .,spheric stability created by air-water for air temperature and/or precipitation. Cer- @nperature differences. Recent studies indi- tain more specialized stations collect addi- c*ate that the increase in overwater wind speed tional data on solar radiation, radiosonde in- varies from approximately 15 percent in mid- formation, weather radar, and pan evapora- ummer to as much as 100 percent in late fall tion. Other regularly observed data useful in i.nd early winter. The average annual in- Great Lakes climatology include water tem- crease is approximately 60 percent. peratures recorded by municipalities at their The Great Lakes also cause an increase in water intake structures and by Federal agen- overwater humidity by releasing large quan- cies at selected lake perimeter locations. tities of moisture through evaporation. On an In addition to the regular networks, more annual basis the humidity over the lakes av- sophisticated data are collected periodically or erages 10 percent to 15 percent higher than seasonally for research on lake climatology. that over the land. Seasonal changes in These include special precipitation networks, humidity over the lake compared to that over established and operated on lake islands and land vary from a decrease of approximately 10 adjacent shorelines; synoptic surveys con- percent due to overwater condensation in the ducted by research vessels that take observa- late spring, to an increase of approximately 10 tions for the whole range of hydrometeorologic percent in the summer, 15 percent in the fall, parameters; lake towers that give rneas- and 30 percent in the winter. urements with vertical profiles for selected The Great Lakes also influence the distribu- parameters for air-water interaction studies; tion of cloud cover and precipitation. Modifica- aerial surveys by conventional aircraft for ice tion of precipitation patterns due to lake effect reconnaissance and water surface tempera- is caused by the changes in atmospheric stabil- tures, using infrared and airborne radiation ity in combination with prevailing wind direc- thermometer techniques; and weather satel- tion and topographic effects. During summer, lites that provide useful information for the the air undergoes overland warming before investigation of cloud and ice cover on the passing over the lakes. The warm air over rel- lakes. atively cold water results in the development Hydrologic data on the Great Lakes Basin of stable atmospheric conditions, which dis- are compiled and published by several agen- courage formation of air-mass showers and cies. Records of tributary streamflow to the Hydrometeorology 73 lakes are available from the U.S. Geological from appropriate water'level gage ratings Survey and the Canada Centre for Inland Wa- based on periodic current meter flow meas- ters, Department of the Environment, urements. Canada. The extent of gaged area increased substantially in the late 1930s, giving cover- age to approximately 50 percent of the Basin. 4.2 Radiation At present approximately 64 percent of the Basin is gaged; gaged areas for Lakes Supe- rior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario ba- 4.2.1 Total Radiation Spectrum sins represent approximately 53,71,66,67, and 63 percent of their respective basins. In addi- Total radiation received at the surface of the tion to surface water data, these agencies and earth consists of shortwave radiation coming the Geological Survey of Canada publish ob- directly from the sun or scattered downward, servation well records providing information and longwave radiation, emitted from the at- on ground-water conditions. However, the mosphere. Portions of the incoming radiation network of observation wells useful in deter- in both short and long wavelengths are re- mining ground-water flow to the lakes is ex- flected and additional longwave radiation is tremely limited. emitted to the atmosphere. The main radia- The Great Lakes levels and outflows are tion exchange processes taking place within available from the Lake Survey Center. Lake the terrestrial system (space -atmosphere - levels are determined from a network of water earth) are illustrated in Figure 4-93, present- level gages maintained by the Lake Survey in ing annual radiation balance, which is based the United States and the Fisheries and largely on information provided by London .503 Marine Service, Department of the Environ- The net effect of shortwave radiation is the ment, in Canada. Flows in the connecting solar heating of the earth, while longwave channels are determined by the Lake Survey radiation results in cooling. SIM SPACE T TOTAL LOWWAALVE SHORTWAVE RADIATION LOSS ALSEDO UPPER ATMOSPHERE P'1'- 60 RADIATED REFLECTED TO FROM G-OIRECT LOSS SPACE 25 CLOUDS ABSORBED ABSORBED FROM By IS SUNLIGHT ATMOSPHERE I CLOUM lox:. ABI AWMOSP ATM 25 LOWER DIRECT DIFFUSE ATMOSPHERE SOLAR 3 AMECTE SKY RADIATION RADIATION ATIO SENSIBLE LATEN HEAT REFLECTED ar HEAT 3-RAOIATION EART*:' 50 EARTH A INCIDENT RADIATION .5. 0.j. . ....... . . SOLAR (SHORTWAVE) RADIATION TERRESTRIAL (LONGWAVE) RADIATION FIGURE 4-93 Annual Atmospheric Heat Budget. Shows percentage distribution of radiation components for northern hemisphere. After London, 1957 74 Appendix 4 There is some duplication of names used for mended an average daily albedo for water sur- the same radiation components. Shortwave or face of 6 percent. The relatively low albedo for global radiation is generally referred to as open water conditions increases drastically solar radiation and both names are used inter- with ice and snow cover. Bolsenga 76 gives al- changeably in this report. Insolation is inci- bedo values for various types of ice common on dent or incoming solar radiation. Similarly, the Great Lakes. These values range from 10 terrestrial radiation is used synonymously percent for clear ice to 46 percent for snow ice, with longwave radiation, while longwave both free of snow cover, The presence of par- radiation from the atmosphere is called at- tial or complete snow cover on the ice can sig- mospheric radiation. nificantly increase these values. A regular network for measuring shortwave There is a limited network of regular sta- radiation has been established but only few of tions that measure incident solar radiation in these are in the Great Lakes Region. A regular the Great Lakes Region. The average monthly network for total radiation measurements values from these stations are shown in Fig- (shortwave and longwave) has not been estab- ure 4-94. Periods of record for the stations vary lished, since there are only a limited number of from 10 to 50 years. Based on records from the radiometers in operation at various research radiation network, the average monthly in- installations. Available information indicates coming solar radiation in the Great Lakes that the average monthly all-wave incident Basin varies from a low of approximately 100 radiation in the Great Lakes Region varies ly/day in December (winter solstice) to a high from a winter low of approximately 400 of approximately 550 ly/day in June and/or langleys per day (ly/day) in December to a July (near the summer solstice), with an aver- summer high of approximately 1400 ly/day in age annual value of about 320 ly/day. The av- June or July. erage monthly extremes for reflected solar radiation from the lakes represent from 6 to 33 ly/day (6 percent water surface albedo). 2.2 Solar Radiation Beginning in the last decade, direct overwa- ter measurements of solar radiation were in- Solar radiation is reduced by the atmos- cluded in the synoptic surveys of the Great phere before reaching the earth's surface. At- Lakes conducted by several research organi- tenuation of the extraterrestrial solar radia- zations. These measurements are generally tion is caused by scattering, reflection, and limited to the navigation season (April- absorption by gas molecules, water vapor, December), are not continuous, and are some- clouds, and suspended dust particles (Figure what biased towards fair weather conditions, 4-93). As a result of the attenuation, the in- but nevertheless they represent actual condi- coming shortwave radiation on a horizontal tions over the lakes and provide a basis for surface arrives partly as direct solar radiation comparison of the overwater and overland and partly as sky radiation (scattered down- radiation. Richards and Loewen 653 conducted ward by atmosphere and diffused through the a preliminary study of this type, which shows clouds). Sky radiation is a high percentage of that incident solar radiation over the lakes is the total incident radiation during low decli- greater than that recorded on adjacent land nation of the sun and on overcast days. stations during summer and smaller during Part of the incoming solar radiation is re- winter months. This confirms the physical flected from the receiving surface (clouds and concepts of the lake effect. Their study is lim- earth) back to the atmosphere, the amount of ited to four years of data during the April- reflection depending on the surface albedo or December periods and shows that overwater the ratio of reflected to incident radiation. A]- radiation at the beginning and end of the bedo values for a water surface depend on the period amounts to 90 percent of the overland solar altitude (angle of the sun above the hori- radiation. The overwater radiation increases zon), cloud cover, and the roughness of the gradually during spring and summer to an av- water surface, but for many practical pur- erage high of approximately 140 percent of the poses these factors can be assumed to be con- overland radiation in the late summer, then it stant for daily or longer periods. During the decreases rapidly in the fall. Lake Hefner study, AndersonI6 developed em- Other recent studies of solar radiation on pirical curves, which interpret water surface the Great Lakes include determination of the albedo as a function of sun altitude for var ious radiation balance for Lake Ontario (Bruce and cloud cover conditions. Based on results of Rodgers 1011 and Rodgers and Anderson 675). De- that study, Kohler and Parmele464 recom- termination of the total atmospheric water Hydrometeorology 75 600- CD CY Ob 400 GREAT LAKES BASIN /200- 0 JFMAMJJASOND @X 600- 600 - to Lj- 400 -)j 400 - v 4 200 STC MRIE 600- 200 CD 400- in JFM MJJASOND 0 It TT- 0 JFMAMJJASOND 200 0 JFMAMJJASOND 600 600- 600- 400- /400- 400- Co 200 200 200 0 JFMAMJJASOND 0 50NO 10 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D ow 7Y FIGURE 4-94 Average Daily Solar Radiation (Langleys) in the Great Lakes Basin Fmm Phillips, 1969 vapor over the Great Lakes Basin and deriva- the net back radiation, a longwave radiation tion of a relationship between atmospheric loss to the atmosphere (Figure 4-83). The net water vapor and surface dew point back radiation is primarily a function of the (Bolsenga 74,77 )could contribute to parame- temperature of the water surface, which con- terization of the solar radiation term. This trols emitted radiation, and the water vapor might compensate for the lack of recording content of the air, which controls atmospheric stations in the lakes. radiation. Other factors that affect the net back radiation include the emissivity of water (relative power of a surface to emit heat by 4.2.3 Terrestrial Radiation radiation), which reduces emitted radiation below that of black body (an ideal surface that Terrestrial radiation over a body of water emits maximum radiation); the reflectivity of (or over land) consists of the incident atmos- water, which controls reflected atmospheric t pheric radiation, reflected atmospheric radia- radiation; and the concentration of carbon tion, radiation emitted by the water body, and dioxide and ozone in the atmosphere, which energy released through the processes of are minor contributors to the atmospheric evaporation, condensation, and precipitation radiation. The reflectivity of a water surface (latent heat), and turbulent heat transfer for atmospheric radiation is 3 percent (Ander- (sensible heat). The net result of the incident, son 16), only about half as much as for the solar reflected, and emitted radiation components is radiation. 76 Appendix 4 The earth and the atmosphere can absorb lengths of the lakes to the winds and the lee and emit more than 100 percent of radiation, shores to the maximum lake effect. exceeding the original input from the sun. This is possible because of the so-called green- Because of the lake effect on adjacent land house effect of the atmosphere. By blocking areas, wind data from stations located around terrestrial radiation (very small direct loss to the perimeter of the lakes are of particular space), the atmosphere forces the earth sur- interest to the Great Lakes. Since more repre- face temperature to rise above the value that sentative data were not available, these data would occur in the absence of the atmosphere, have often been used in past studies as over- which in turn produces upward vertical trans- water winds, frequently without adjustment fer of both latent and sensible heat. for anemometer height or the increase in wind Terrestrial radiation may be determined in- speed over the lakes. Average monthly directly from the total (all-wave) and solar perimeter wind speeds for the Great Lakes are (shortwave) radiation measurements, but given in Table 4-7. The average annual all-wave measurements are too sparse for this perimeter wind speed generally increases purpose. Atmospheric radiation may also be from north to south, from app 'roximately 4.5 computed utilizing various radiation indices m/s (10 mph) to 5.0 m/s (11 mph). Average (temperature, percent of sunshine or cloud Imonthly wind speeds increase from the sum- cover, vapor pressure). Anderson and Baker 15 mer low of 3.5 m/s to 4.0 m/s (8-9 mph) to the present a method of computing incident ter- winter high of 4.5 m/s to 5.5 m/s (10-12 mph). restrial radiation under all atmospheric con- A summary of wind direction for selected ditions from observations of surface air tem- stations around the lakes and the St. Law- perature, vapor pressure, and incident solar rence River is presented in Figure 4-12. The radiation. Emitted radiation is determined wind roses in this figure show wind direction from water surface temperatures. Based on frequencies for the months of February, May, available information, estimates of terrestrial August, and November, indicative of the four radiation for the Great Lakes are as follows: seasonal periods. monthly incident atmospheric radiation var- ies from a winter low of approximately 300 Actual wind conditions on the lakes and fur- ly/day in December to a summer high of ap- ther inland vary somewhat from those indi- proximately 800 ly/day in June or July; re- cated by shore stations, which are affected to a flected atmospheric radiation for these varying degree by the lakes and lake-land in- months represents 9 to 24 ly/day (3 percent teraction. The perimeter weather stations are reflectivity); monthly emitted radiation from located at some distance inland, and may gen- the lakes varies from a low of approximately erally be unaffected by lake breezes, but the 400 ly/day during winter to a high of 900 ly/day stations located on the lee sides of the lakes during summer; monthly net back radiation are certainly affected by the lakes during (longwave radiation loss) is roughly 100 ly/day winds from the prevailing wind directions. throughout the year (Figure 4-100). The long east-west axis of Lake Superior is divided by the Keweenaw Peninsula, which 4.3 Winds separates the lake into two basins where winds are frequently of opposite direction. On the western end of the lake (Duluth) the winds 4.3.1 Lake Perimeter Winds are predominantly from the west and north- west during cold months and from the east and Winds are a critical factor of lake climate northeast during the warm months. On the because they provide energy for lake waves, eastern end of the lake (Sault Ste. Marie) there constitute a principal force for driving lake are predominantly easterly winds in the cold currents and shifting of ice cover, and through months and westerly winds during warm air movement provide means for the regula- months. In the middle section of the lake tion of thermal budget over the lakes and ad- (Marquette) predominant winds are from the jacent land areas by heat dissipation and northern and southern quadrants. The mean transfer. In the Great Lakes Region the global monthly wind speed at these stations varies atmospheric circulation with prevailing west- from 3 m/s (7 mph) in the summer to 6 m/s (14 erly winds is of particular importance on the mph) in the winter (for average perimeter lower lakes where it coincides with the lon- wind speeds for the whole lake see Table 4-7). gitudinal axes of the lakes, exposing the full The maximum recorded wind velocity was 41 Hydrometeorology 77 TABLE 4-7 Average Perimeter Wind Speeds fall (Wiarton, Ontario), and a large percentage for the Great Lakes (m/s) of winds along the western shore come from Lake the eastern quadrant during warmer months, Period Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario as indicated at Alpena and Bay City (Saginaw January 4.6 5.4 4.8 5.5 5.0 River Light) in Michigan. The range of 'mean February 4.5 5.3 4.4 5.5 5.0 monthly wind speed at these stations varies March 4.6 5.5 4.6 5.5 5.0 from the summer low of 4 m/s (8 mph) to the April 4.8 5.5 4.6 5.4 4.8 May 4.6 5.0 4.2 4.7 4.3 winter high of 6 m/s (13 mph). The highest vel- June 4.0 4.3 3.7 4.2 3.9 ocity recorded was 27 m/s (61 mph) from the July 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.8 3.8 southwest at Alpena in November 1940. August 3.8 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.6 September 4.1 4.3 4.0 4.1 3.8 The highest monthly wind speeds around October 4.4 4.9 4.3 4.4 4.0 the Great Lakes occur on Lake Erie, which November 4.6 5.4 4.8 5.2 4.6 also has the largest range between the December 4.5 5.3 4.8 5.3 4.8 monthly values of wind speed. The mean Annual 4.4 4.9 4.3 4.8 4.4 monthly wind speed at stations located around the lake varies from 4 m/s to 8 m/s (8-18 mph). Values are based on mean data published in 1969 for the These winds are predominantly from the following stations: western quadrant with a prevailing direction Superior: Sault Ste. Marie, Marquette, Duluth, and from the southwest, which coincides roughly Thunder Bay. Michigan: Milwaukee, Muskegon, and Green Bay. with the long axis of the lake. This fact, along Huron: Alpena, Gore Bay, and Wiarton. with the relative shallowness of the lake, Erie: Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo, and London. Ontario: Rochester, Syracuse, Trenton, and Toronto. makes Lake Erie highly susceptible to large- scale water level motions, especially at the eastern and western extremes of the lake. Be- m/s (91 mph) from the south at Marquette in cause of the prevailing wind direction, lake May, 1934. effect on the lee shores is quite pronounced Around Lake Michigan the predominant and the monthly wind speeds at Buffalo are wind direction is from the western quadrant, normally somewhat higher than at other sta- perpendicular to the long axis of the lake. Be- tions around the lake. Prevailing winds at cause of the north-south lake orientation, the some locations are from the eastern quadrant, highest seas generally coincide with strong and in the middle section of the lake (Cleve- northerly and southerly winds. Prevailing land), prevailing winds during warmer winds from these directions are reported at months shift to the north and south directions. some locations, in contrast to the general pre- The maximum velocity recorded was 41 m/s (91 dominant westerly direction. The variation in mph) from the southwest at Buffalo in prevailing winds is evident in northern Lake January 1950. Michigan where winds in Traverse City come The predominant wind direction around from the south during fall, while Green Bay, Lake Ontario is similar to that of Lake Erie, on the opposite (western) shore, is assailed by with prevailing winds during most months westerly winds. Around the southern portion from the southwest (Rochester, Trenton), of the lake prevailing winds in the spring at which approaches the direction of the long Milwaukee are from the north, while at Chi- axis of the lake. During winter months the cago they are from the southwest. The mean predominant wind direction shifts to the west. monthly wind speed at these stations varies On the northwestern end of the lake (Toronto) from 3m/s to 6 m/s (7-14 mph), which is winds frequently prevail from the west, and at similar to Lake Superior, but the annual wind times from the north. The mean monthly wind speed around Lake Michigan is higher. The speed at these stations varies from 3 m/s to 6 highest wind velocity recorded on all the Great m/s (7-13 mph). The highest wind velocity re- Lakes, 49 m/s (109 mph) from the southwest, corded was 33 m/s (73 mph) from the west at occurred at Green Bay in May 1950. Rochester in January 1950. The prevailing winds along the St. Lawrence River are paral- Winds on Lake Huron may be equally effec- lel to the river, primarily from the southwest tive on the sea state from all directions due to and secondarily from the northeast. the lake configuration. There is considerable variation in wind direction around the lake, but in general, prevailing winds are from the 4.3.2 Overwater Winds western quadrant. In some locations prevail- ing winds shift seasonally to the south during Overwater winds differ from overland 78 Appendix 4 winds, both daily and seasonally, because of lake-land wind ratios are about two, and for differences in air stability conditions and fric- stable atmospheric conditions, with air much tional resistance. Daily variation is caused warmer than water, wind speed ratio values mainly by diurnal heating and cooling, which are near one; for the adiabatic or neutral sta- are more pronounced over land areas than bility conditions values are intermediate. over water and result in larger daily wind var- Hunt's investigation was conducted mainly iations over land than over water. Seasonal for Lake Erie during navigation season variation is caused by the winter heating and (April-November), with results grouped into summer cooling effects of the lakes. The lakes the spring and fall periods. Bruce and Rod- offer less resistance to wind movement, result- gers"011 prepared a similar study for Lake On- ing in considerably higher overwater wind tario. Their investigation was extended by speeds regardless of the season. Lemire 492 who included data from some of the The highest wind speeds (one-minute wind other Great Lakes and derived monthly wind gusts) on the Great Lakes, reported from speed ratios for the spring, summer, and fall anemometer-equipped vessels since 1940, are months (March-October). Richards"' ex- listed for each lake as follows: Lake Superior, tended these ratios for the winter months 42 m/s (93 mph) from the northwest in June using partial results determined by Lemire 1950; Lake Michigan, 30 m/s (67 mph) from the and extrapolation based on the air-water tem- west-southwest in November 1955; Lake Hu- perature difference, along with limited wind ron, 49 m/s (109 mph) from the west-northwest observations on Lake Ontario. The variation in August 1965; Lake Erie, 38 m/s (85 mph) of wind speed ratios determined in these from the north-northwest in June 1963; Lake studies is shown in Table 4-8. Monthly ratios Ontario, 26 m/s (57 mph) from the west- vary from 1.2 to 2.1, with low values during northwest in November 1964. These velocities summer and high during winter, and an over- were observed during the navigation season all annual average of about 1.7. and are based largely on observations taken The effects of overwater fetch (length of four times daily during synoptic hours (0100, open water) on lake winds, besides atmos- 0700, 1300, and 1900 hours, EST). Higher wind pheric stability, were studied by Richards et speeds may have occurred during winter al.,649 who utilized wind data collected during months and at times other than synoptic synoptic surveys on Lakes Erie and Ontario. hours. Most of the shipboard wind directions Their analysis included five stability ranges listed by the National Weather Service verify (from very unstable to very stable), four wind the predominantly westerly wind direction in- speed classes (3 m/s to 8 m/s), and five fetch dicated by the perimeter stations. ranges (10 km to 65 km). They found that the The first intensive effort to determine over- lake-land wind ratio increases with the at- water winds utilized various- ships-of- mospheric instability, but the increase is most opportunity programs, which were conducted pronounced in light winds. Under very unsta- periodically and consisted initially of commer- ble atmospheric conditions (large negative air cial vessels making wind observations four temperature -water temperature difference, times daily. The data collection program has T, - Tw) the wind ratio increases gradually now been expanded to off-shore towers, buoys, from 1.4 for strong winds to 3.0 for light winds, research vessels, and research stations lo- with a 2.2 value for all winds. Under very sta- cated on small islands in the Great Lakes. Be- ble atmospheric conditions (large positive T, - cause of practical limitations imposed on Tw difference) the wind ratio increases gradu- measurement of wind data for prolonged ally from 0.8 for strong winds to 1.4 for light periods of time over the lakes, the primary aim winds, with a value of 0.9 for all winds. Thus, of wind measurement programs was to deter- under very stable conditions the lakes may mine the relationship between overland and reduce the wind speed, especially in strong overwater winds. Several studies of this type winds. The effect of overwater fetch was not as have been conducted, relating shore data with pronounced and somewhat erratic. Under un- observations from ships and islands located on stable atmospheric conditions the wind speed the Great Lakes (Hunt '397,391 Lemire '492 Bruce ratio increases with the overwater fetch, but and Rodgers,108 and Richards et al .649). only for lengths smaller than 50 km (25 nauti- The ratios of wind speed over water to wind cal miles). Under stable atmospheric condi- speed over land vary diurnally and seasonally, tions the relationship between wind ratios and and are a function mainly of the stability of the overwater fetch was highly erratic. Sum- air. For unstable atmospheric conditions, with marized results of this study are listed to- water temperature much higher than air, gether with other wind studies in Table 4-8. Hydrometeorology 79 TABLE 4-8 Lake-Land Wind Speed Ratios for the Great Lakes Hunt Lamire Richards, Dragert, McIntyre (1958) (1961) (1966) Stability Range Period Ratio Period Ratio TA_TW (-C) Ratio January 1.961 February 1.941 March 1.88 April 1.81 Spring 1.35 May 1.71 >-12.6 2.24 June 1.31 -12.5 to - 4.1 1.88 July 1.16 - 4.0 to 4.0 1.44 August 1.39 4.1 to 12.5 1.06 Fall 1.82 September 1.78 > 12.6 0.92 October 1.99 November 2.09' December 1.981 Navigation Season 1.58 1.63 Annual 1.75 1.51 lValues for winter months were extended by Richards (1964) through extrapolation. 4.4 Air Temperature Because of the lake effect and lack of direct overwater measurements for any longer period of time, various investigators used data 4.4.1 Lake Perimeter Temperature from perimeter stations to estimate air tem- perature over the lakes. The average monthly Temperature is one of the principal indi- and annual air temperatures for the individual cators of climate and exerts a large influence lakes, based on perimeter data for the 1931-69 on other climatic elements, such as precipita- period, are listed in Table 4-9. Average annual tion and evaporation. The vast water ex- temperatures vary from VC (39'F) on Lake panses of the Great Lakes moderate air tem- Superior to 9*C (48'F) on Lake Erie, with in- perature over the lakes, which in turn has a termediate values on other lakes. Average moderating effect on adjacent land areas. An monthly temperature extremes also occur on indication of the lake effect on shoreline tem- Lakes Superior and Erie, and vary from peratures is given in Figure 4-95 prepared by monthly lows of approximately -11'C and Pond '622 which compares mean hourly air -4*C (13 and 26'F) in January to monthly temperatures for March, June, and September highs of about 18'C and 22'C (65 and 71'F) in at Douglas Point, located on the eastern July, on the two lakes, respectively. shores of Lake Huron, to those at Paisley The air temperature decreases as latitude climatological station, some 20 km (12 miles) increases, being lowest for Lake Superior and inland. During late winter (March), the lake- highest for Lake Erie. Disregarding minor shore station is consistently warmer by 2'C to local variations, the average annual tempera- 4'C (3-7*F) than the inland station. This effect ture on Lake Superior varies from VC (34*F) changes gradually during spring to the sum- along the extreme northern shore to YC (41'F) mer effect, providing daytime cooling of the along the southern shoreline (see Figure 4-15). lakeshore station by as much as 4'C (7'F) and Distribution of average annual temperature nighttime warming by 2*C (3'F) in June. In the on Lake Michigan varies from approximately early fall the effect reverses again and the WC (43'F) in the north to 10*C (50'F) in the lakeshore station is consistently warmer south. On Lake Huron, the average annual throughout the day. temperature increases southward from YC to 80 Appendix 4 * F. T. values for the average conditions on the lakes 34-- 1 (Hunt,395 Powers et al.,624 Snyder'751 Rodgers 32-- 0 MARCH and AnderSon'675 Derecki '214 and Richards648). 3D---l 28---2 26---3 4.4.2 Overwater Temperature 24 -5 22 MEAN LAKE TEMPERATURE: 33* F - The difference between air temperature 20 over lake and land areas in the Great Lakes 00 02 08 10 12 14 16 Is 20 22 24 72--22 . . . I I I I I Basin has been studied by several inves- 70--21 - DOUrLAS PONT - tigators. In describing the climate of South 68--20 - PAISLEY JUNE Bass Island in western Lake Erie, Verber848 66-19 - compared island records (Put-in-Bay) with 64--18 - perimeter and inland stations and concluded -17 that the mean mid-summer temperature 62 - -16 W - -in-Bay to CL 60- (July) decreases gradually from Put 2 -15 W 58@ perimeter stations (Sandusky and Toledo) and -14 56--13 IntAN LAKE TEMPERATURE: 48-F \"4 to inland stations (Tiffin and Bucyrus) located 54- 12 within 80 km (50 miles) south of the lake. He 52+ 11 attributes the higher overlake temperatures 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 IS IS 20 22 24 to the increased solar radiation due to less 62--16 1 T precipitation and cloud cover over the lake. 60- -15 SEPTEMBER During mid-winter (January) the reverse is 58- _ 14 true, because the portion of Lake Erie around 5&--13 the island region is shallow and normally 54--12 freezes over and is largely ice covered, thus 52 11 reducing the lake effect. Although Put-in-Bay 5 10 has the highest mean July temperature and MEAN LAKE TEMPERATURE: 61-F I I . I I I the lowest mean January temperature of the 44 8 010 012 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 IS 20 22 24 five stations, its average monthly range dur- TIME (E.S.T.) ing the year is the smallest, because thermal FIGURE 4-95 Mean Hourly Temperatures for stability over the lake acts as a damper Douglas Point and Paisley, Lake Huron, for the against sudden heating or cooling. The aver- Months of March, June, and September, 1962 From Pond, 1964 TABLE 4-9 Average Perimeter Air Tempera- 8'C (41 to 47'F). The annual temperature on ture for the Great Lakes, 1931-1969 (Degrees Lake Erie increases from a low of 8'C (47-F) Centigrade) along the northeastern shore to a high of 11*C Lake (52'F) along the southwestern shoreline. On Period Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario Lake Ontario, the annual air temperature in- January -11.2 - 6.4 - 7.4 - 3.8 - 5.2 creases from 7'C to 9'C (45 to 48'F) between the February -10.4 - 5.6 - 8.0 - 3.7 - 5.2 March - 4.7 - 0.4 - 3.5 0.9 - 0.1 northern and southern shores. April 3.1 6.8 4.1 7.4 6.8 It should be noted that the air temperatures May 9.2 12.7 10.2 13.6 13.1 June 14.6 18.4 15.8 19.2 18.7 discussed above are based on lake perimeter July 18.1 21.3 18.9 21.8 21.4 stations and may be different from those rep- August 17.4 20.,4 18.7 20.9 20.3 resenting mid-lake conditions. Some differ- September 13.0 16.4 14.2 17.2 16.4 October 7.2 10.3 8.7 11.1 10.2 ence in these temperatures is introduced by November - 0.7 2.8 2.0 4.3 3.8 the land effect, which takes place not only at December - 7.7 - 3.6 - 4.2 - 1.7 - 2.8 shore stations but also in the shallow coastal Annual 4.0 7.8 5.8 8.9 8.1 waters. Furthermore, most first order perime- ter stations used to derive temperature esti- Values are based on data for the following stations: mates are located some distance inland, where Superior: Sault Ste. Marie, Marquette, Duluth, and the land effect is more pronounced. Neverthe- Thunder Bay. less, because of data limitations, air tempera- Michigan: Milwaukee, Muskegon, and Green Bay. LMARC,H Huron: Alpena, Gore Bay, and Wiarton. tures from the perimeter stations around the Erie: Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo, and London. lakes are generally used as representative Ontario: Rochester, Syracuse, Trenton, and Toronto. Hydrometeorology 81 age monthly maximum-minimum tempera- higher than water surface temperature, while ture range increases gradually inland from air temperature at Toronto displays a differ- approximately 8'C (14'F) at Put-in-Bay to ap- ent pattern and is on the average approxi- proximately 12'C (22'F) at Bucyrus, and the mately 17'C (30'F) higher than water temper- frost-free season decreases gradually inland ature. These figures are based on only three from more than 200 days to approximately 150 days of data from a single cruise, and their days. Also, the hottest days in July show magnitudes may not be valid for longer higher temperatures on mainland stations periods. Rodgers and Anderson 675 state that than at Put-in-Bay. During the winter an ice there are insufficient data to provide a reliable cover around the island region, usually form- conversion of land station temperatures to the ing in January and lasting through February, overwater air temperatures. At present, with acts as an insulator between the warm water approximately a decade of data available, this and cold air, producing enough change in the difficulty has been overcome but the conver- normal temperature pattern to make Feb- sion factors have not been developed. There ruary colder than January. On exceptional oc- are no published reports presenting overwa- casions when the lake is free of ice during ter temperatures on the lakes, other than data these two months, temperature was approxi- reports for the individual surveys. mately 3'C (5' 'F) higher. Summer temperature conditions for west- ern Lake Erie may be assumed to be indicative 4.5 Water Temperature of temperature modification by the other Great Lakes, although mid-lake modification is undoubtedly more pronounced since the is- 4.5.1 Water Surface Temperature land itself produces some effect. Winter condi- tions, on the other hand, may not be compara- The oldest sources of water surface temper- ble because other lakes have much greater ature data in the Great Lakes are the records depths and different ice-cover conditions. In a obtained at various marine structures, such as comparison of summer data for Fort William docks, breakwaters, and lighthouses. These and Caribou Island (175 miles away) made in stations were later replaced by the somewhat connection with a synoptic survey of Lake Su- more sophisticated sites offered by the intake perior, Anderson and Rodgers 14 show that air structures of the water treatment plants lo- temperature on the island is much more stable cated around the lakes. Water temperature at than and differs considerably from that at the intake stations is obtained in the coastal Fort William, on the perimeter of the lake. waters, a few hundred to a few thousand me- They state that measurements from the island ters off shore, and at depths of 3 to 15 meters (10 are extremely valuable since they represent to 50 feet) below the surface. These data obvi- an entirely maritime situation, which is ously do not represent the temperature at the caused by modification of low level air masses surface and require adjustments for open lake by the lake. However, there are only a few conditions. Initially, open lake measurements island stations measuring air temperatures were made by commercial vessels along their on the lakes and most are operated only during navigation routes, and more recently by re- the navigation season. search vessels engaged in synoptic surveys of Measurement of air temperature on lake the lakes. The latest development in measur- towers or buoys, and synoptic surveys by ves- ing surface water temperatures involves the sels initiated in the late 1950s, provide more use of airborne infrared thermometers. The reliable data by eliminating possible island ef- use of airborne radiation thermometers per- fects. Based on synoptic survey data collected mits fast and regular observations of surface by the research vessel Porte Dauphine on temperatures over large areas. Information Lake Ontario, Bruce and Rodgers 108 observed on surface temperatures is also provided by that air temperatures at 3 m (10 ft) above the satellite imagery, but in the present state of water surface are much closer to water sur- art this information cannot be used for quan- face temperatures than to land temperatures titative temperature determination. at the lake perimeter (mean of temperatures Among the earlier studies of the water sur- at Toronto and Rochester). Rodgers and An- face temperatures in the Great Lakes were derson'675 utilizing these data in the energy those by Freeman271 and by Horton and budget study of Lake Ontario, made similar Grunsky.376 In both studies -water tempera- observations and showed that air tempera- ture records from daily observations at vari- ture over water in June is about 6'C (10'F) ous harbor locations for the 1874-86 period 82 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-10 Comparison of Great Lakes Water Surface Temperature (Degrees Centigrade) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual Lake Superior Lake Survey (1944) 1904-43' 0 0 0 1 3 4 8 12 11 8 5 1 4 Millar (1952) 1935-39 - - - - 2 4 7 13 12 9 6 - - Richards & Irbe (1969) 1959-68 2 0 0 1 2 4 7 12 12 9 6 4 4 Lake Michigan Lake Survey (1944) 1904-43' 0 0 1 4 7 12 17 18 16 11 7 2 8 Millar (1952) 1935-41 - - - - 5 11 16 21 18 12 8 - - Lake Huron Lake Survey (1944) 1904-431 0 0 1 3 6 12 18 19 17 12 7 2 8 Millar (1952) 1935-41 - - - - 4 9 18 20 16 12 7 - - Richards & Irbe (1969) 1959-68 3 2 1 1 4 8 15 18 16 12 8 6 8 Lake Erie Lake Survey (1944) 1904-431 0 0 3 6 9 18 22 22 21 14 7 1 10 Millar (1952) 1937-41 - - - - 10 17 21 23 19 15 9 - - Richards & Irbe (1969) 1950-68 1 1 1 3 9 17 21 22 19 15 9 4 10 Lake Ontario Lake Survey (1944) 1904-431 0 0 2 5 9 14 18 19 17 13 7 1 9 Millar (1952) 1936-46 3 2 2 3 6 12 19 21 18 13 7 4 9 Richards & Irbe (1969) 1950-68 3 2 2 3 6 12 19 21 18 13 7 4 9 'Period shown for Lake Survey study indicates extreme limits and not actual length of data. were used as basic data. Monthly tempera- Determinations of Great Lakes water sur- tures for the individual lakes were derived by face temperatures, limited to a single lake, applying correction factors for time of obser- were made by several investigators. vations and some adjustment for open lake Church 142,143,144 analyzed water temper- conditions. atures for Lake Michigan, based on bathy- The U.S. Lake Survey1125 compiled monthly thermograph observations obtained during water surface temperatures for each lake from 1941-44 period. He showed that irregularities temperature data collected at various. loca- in the water temperature distribution are the tions by the field parties from 1904 through result of strong winds and upwelling, both of 1943. Derived values differ somewhat from which act to lower the water temperature at those given by Freeman and are considerably the surface. Another presentation of Lake different from Horton and Grunsky's values. Michigan temperatures for the summer Probably the best known and most often months is given by Ayers et al.29 Their values used Great Lakes water surface temperatures are based on synoptic surveys conducted in are those determined by Millar.543 Millar's 1955. Ayers et al.28 also determined water study is based on the data obtained from con- temperatures for Lake Huron from a similar tinuous recordings of water temperature survey conducted on that lake in 1954. The last taken by thermographs installed on the con- two studies are summarized by Ayers.25 denser intakes of steamships. Data collection Monthly water temperatures on Lake Erie are covers the 1935-46 period for Lake Ontario and given by Powers et al.624 who present a com- the 1935-41 period for all other lakes. Millar parison of long-term water intake records to developed temperature distributions on each offshore cruise data. lake by months and derived average monthly The most recent determination ofwater sur- values for each lake. Due to restricted naviga- face temperatures was made by Richards and tion, winter temperatures for lakes other than Irbe.651 Their study covers the 1950-68 period Ontario were either not available or gave in- for Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the 1959-68 sufficient coverage to derive reliable monthly period for Lakes Huron and Superior. Monthly means. Many investigators in recent years temperatures determined for each year on the have used Millar's temperatures, most fre- individual lakes were based on available in- quently to adjust surface temperatures de- formation from airborne radiation thermome@ rived for various periods from the water in- ter surveys, ship observations, water intake takes or other sources. Studies of this type stations, and subjective adjustments of mean include Hunt,395 Snyder,751 Rodgers and An- lake temperatures based on mean air temper- derson,675 and Richards and RodgerS.654 atures from shoreline stations. The subjective Hydrometeorology 83 adjustments of mean water temperatures TEMPERATURE C' were used primarily during winter months for 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 lakes lacking sufficient temperature meas- urements. A comparison of the Great Lakes mean 10 - EPILIMNION :E water surface temperatures (Table 4-10) Z shows that surface temperatures vary with 20 - TMERMOCLINE latitude and depth of the lakes. The average 30 - annual surface temperatures vary from 4'C (40'F) for Lake Superior, the northernmost 40 - 440`@.'POLIMNION and deepest lake, to 10'C (50*F) for Lake Erie, the southernmost and shallowest lake. Aver- @i age annual surface temperatures on the other lakes, with intermediate latitudes and depths, amount to 8*C (46'F) for Lakes Michigan and Huron and 9'C (48F) for Lake Ontario. The average monthly surface temperatures vary from the winter lows of 00C (32'F) on Lake Su- perior and 2'C (360F) on Lake Ontario to the 100 - summer highs of 13'C (55'F) on Lake Superior and 230C (73'F) on Lake Erie. 4.5.2 Temperature at Depth Many of the studies mentioned in the pre- ceding discussion on water surface tempera- FIGURE 4-96 Seasonal Changes in the Ther- ture also deal with the vertical temperature mal Structure of a Large, Deep Lake of Mid- distribution in the Great Lakes. Church 142,143 latitudes showed that the annual temperature of Lake Michigan undergoes four basic seasonal cycles producing further development and deepen- with distinct characteristics, namely, the ing of the thermocline. As the thermocline ap- spring warming, summer stationary, autumn proaches its maximum depth, the mixing be- cooling, and winter stationary. Because of dif- comes progressively less. The final deepening ferent latitudes and depths, the timing and occurs during summer storms with relatively duration in the lakes of these cycles are not little activity during calmer periods. synchronous, but all lakes display these four The summer stationary period is charac- basic seasonal periods. Occurrence of the terized by nearly stationary lake surface tem- periods is governed by the lake temperature- peratures in their maximum range. At the be- water density relationship. ginning of this period the thermocline de- The seasonal changes of thermal structure scends to its maximum depth, where it re- in large deep lakes of mid-latitudes, such as mains relatively stable. The establishment of the Great Lakes, are shown graphically in a strong thermocline at constant depth indi- Figure 4-96, and discussed in Section 6. As the cates that there is only a negligible transfer of warming season progresses, the top layers of heat by conduction, either above or below the water absorb heat from the atmosphere, be- thermocline. Anderson and Rodgers 14 showed coming progressively warmer, and through that the maximum depth of the thermocline conduction of heat downward and mixing in- during this period of peak heat content is duced by winds, the warm layer becomes about 15 in (50 ft) in all the Great Lakes, in deeper. The warm upper water (epilimnion) spite of marked difference in their transpar- is separated from the cold deeper water ency, configuration, size, orientation, and (hypolimnion) by the thermocline. The latitude. epilimnion is less dense and literally floats on Lake cooling begins in the fall, with sub- top of the hypolimnion. In the early stages of stantial net loss of heat resulting from the development, the thermocline is rather weak interaction of cooling and heating processes, and is easily broken down by wind action, such as radiation, evaporation, conduction, which readily mixes the thin surface layer of precipitation, and condensation. In the fully heated water with colder water below, thus developed cooling period of late fall, with 84 Appendix 4 water surface temperature substantially tures. The coastal waters are well above VC at above that of maximum density, cooling of the the surface and vertically stratified, while homogeneous surface layer proceeds rapidly, those in mid-lake are less than VC and uni- since only this layer is affected due to stability form in temperature from top to bottom in of the thermocline. At the same time, with the depths as great as 180 m (600 ft) (Church142 increased frequency of storms in this season and Rodgers 672) . The most extensive investi- the upper layer becomes deeper as well. As the gation of this phenomenon, named the ther- cooling continues, temperature of the upper mal bar, was made on Lake Ontario by Rod- layer approaches that of maximum density, gerS.673 As the warming season progresses the the thermocline becomes less stable, and the thermal bar zone moves lakeward from the wind-stirring may be complete from top to bot- shores and eventually disappears. During the tom with the destruction of the thermocline. fall cooling period the process is repeated, with Church142 indicates this critical temperature the cold temperatures moving offshore to- of the homogeneous surface layer to be 6"C wards the center of the lake. (43'F) or slightly above. In the advanced In the above discussion of seasonal temper- stages of cooling, depth exerts an important ature changes within a column of water, no control on temperatures in the lakes. With the consideration was given to any movement of loss of the thermocline the entire column of water into or out of the column due to the water becomes isothermal and further cooling normal lake currents. Actually, water tem- at the surface proceeds slowly because the en- peratures and currents in a lake are closely tire water column loses heat. related. Any lake is subject to water move- During the winter stationary period the lake ment resulting from the inflow-outflow bal- waters are again at less than maximum ance and the general water circulation in- density, but in this case the surface is colder duced by winds and geostrophic forces. Thus, than VC. In coastal areas and lakes with shal- once established, a thermocline seldom stays lower depths temperatures are gener@lly still, but fluctuates in a wave-like motion (Sec- isothermal vertically. In deep waters an in- tion 6). RodgerS672 states that the thermocline verse stratification develops, with colder moves up and down through a distance of 10 to epilimnion and slightly warmer hypolimnion. 20 m (30 to 60 ft), with wavelengths of tens of This stratification is not as pronounced as dur- kilometers. He also states that these internal ing the summer, because the downward mix- waves are seldom evident to the casual ob- ing process is aided by strong winds and con- server and their detection requires continu- vection produced by daytime heating during ous observation of temperatures at one or winter. Water temperature in the entire col- more locations within the lake. umn or the deep upper layer, whichever the Periodically, strong winds blowing steadily case, approaches freezing point on the lakes from one direction may tilt the thermocline, with extensive ice cover, and stays at about deepening the epilimnion on the downwind 2*C (36'F) on the lakes which are largely free of shore and reducing its depth on the upwind ice. Because great depths are affected, water shore. Prolonged strong winds pile up warm temperature changes during this period are surface water and produce sinking on the naturally slow. Thus, Lake Erie with its shal- downwind shore, while at the same time they low depths freezes sooner and more often than remove warm surface water and produce cor- Lake Superior, which because of its great responding upwelling of cold water from depths is capable of sustaining tremendous deeper layers on the upwind shore. Upwelling heat losses. By the same token, ice breakup on occurs frequently on the northwest shoreline Lake Erie is much faster. of Lake Ontario and the west shores of Lake Since each lake consists of a whole range of Michigan. Tilting of the thermocline can be depths, which generally increase from shallow observed from the water temperature records coastal waters to a maximum depth in mid- of municipal water intakes located on the op- lake, each lake contains water masses with posite shores of the lake. distinct thermal structures characteristic of their depth, particularly during warming and cooling periods. In the beginning stages of the 4.5.3 Air-Water Temperature Relationship spring warming period the shallow waters along the shore warm up much faster than The difference between air and water mid-lake areas, producing large horizontal surface temperatures is the primary indicator temperature gradients near the boundary be- of the atmospheric stability over the lakes. tween the warm and cold surface tempera- When the air is warmer than the water sqr- Hydrometeorology 85 tario, Hunt395 used mean values from three .8 perimeter stations (Toronto, Oswego, and Trenton) for the 1937-56 period to obtain aver- -7 N% age air temperature over the lake. Water sur- -6 1 %% face temperatures for this lake were obtained %%% by adjusting values given by Freeman '2711 .5 1125 543 U.S. Lake Survey, and Millar. In the -A same study, for the northern Lake Michigan air temperature, Hunt used St. James and -3 Beaver Island data from 1911 to 1956; water surface temperatures were obtained from rec- -2 ords in the vicinity of Beaver Island from un- J stated sources. In a study on Lake Eric, Hunt3911 used the water surface temperatures given by Freeman, U.S. Lake Survey, and Mil- 0 -1 lar, and the normal air temperatures from four perimeter stations (Detroit, Cleveland, -2 Erie, and Toledo). In a second study for Lake -3 0 tario, Rodgers and Anderson675 used Mil- lar's water surface temperatures and normal - A ev" % \ I/ %% air temperatures from Toronto and Rochester. -5 '0 In all cases except Lake Michigan, air tem- Q, LAKE ONTARIO, HUNT (1959) perature over the lakes was determined from -6 011, LAKE ONTARIO, RODGERS %% perimeter stations and may be considerably and ANDERSON (1961) -7 LAKE MICHIGAN (NORTH BASIN), different than at mid-lake, as pointed out by 14UNT (1959) Rodgers and Anderson in their study. Because LAKE ERIE, MUNT(1958) land area is more sensitive to both heating and -9 cooling, these air temperatures obtained at J F M A M i i A 5 0 N 0 perimeter stations would tend to intensify the FIGiJRE 4-97 The Relationship of Air-Water extreme conditions, being higher than at mid- Temperature Differences in the Great Lakes lake during summer and lower during winter periods. Air temperature data for Lake Michi- gan represent conditions over an island and face, the air will tend to be stable. Conversely, may be more representative. The water sur- when the air is cooler than the water surface, face temperatures, except those by Millar, the air will tend to be unstable. Thus, other were also determined mostly from perimeter things being equal, the greater the positive stations and would tend to have the same de- difference between the air and water surface ficiencies, but probably not to the same de- temperatures, the more stable the atmos- gree. Thus, the air-water relationships shown phere and smaller the opportunity for the oc- probably over-accentuate the magnitudes be- currence of overwater precipitation, high tween these temperatures. winds, and evaporation. On the other hand, The monthly values of air-water tempera- the greater the negative difference between ture difference indicate that there are four the air and water surface temperatures, the periods of prevailing atmospheric conditions more unstable the atmosphere and greater over the Great Lakes. Duration and timing of the opportunity for the occurrence of the these periods vary for different lakes, depend- above climatic processes. ing primarily on latitude. Generally, the air is Atmospheric stability over the Great Lakes normally warmer than water during spring varies appreciably during the year. The air is months of April, May, and June (also July in normally warmer than the water surface dur- northern areas), and the atmospheric condi- ing spring and colder for a somewhat longer tions are stable. During mid-summer months period in fall (Figure 4-97). Because of the of July and August the air and water tempera- shortcomings in data used for air-water tem- tures are approximately the same, thus indif- perature differences, their magnitude may ferent or adiabatic (occurring without loss or not be representative of the actual mid-lake gain of heat) equilibrium conditions exist in conditions, and considerable variation in the the atmosphere. From early fall to mid-winter magnitude shown at times for the $ame lake months (September through February) the air seems to indicate this deficiency. For Lake On- is normally colder than water and the atmos- 86 Appendix 4 phere is unstable. However, during winter TABLE 4-11 Average Perimeter Humidity for months the presence of ice and snow cover has the Great Lakes (Percent) a significant modifying effect on the air-water Lake temperature relationship. Finally, during late Period Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario winter in March (also April in northern areas) January 77 76 81 77 78 the air and water temperatures are again February 76 73 79 77 77 about the same, and the adiabatic equilibrium March 74 73 76 74 74 April 69 69 73 70 69 conditions prevail. The adiabatic equilibrium May 68 66 70 69 68 conditions occur during relatively short, June 72 69 74 70 70 transitory periods and variation in the atmos- July 74 71 74 71 68 August 76 74 77 74 72 pheric conditions during these two periods September 79 76 78 75 74 may be considerable. In contrast, the spring October 76 73 79 75 74 stable conditions and the fall unstable condi- November 78 76 83 78 78 tions present long, well-established periods. December 79 78 83 79 78 Annual 75 73 77 74 73 4.6 Humidity Values are based on mean data published in 1969 for the following stations: 4.6.1 Lake Perimeter Humidity Superior: Sault Ste. Marie, Marquette, Duluth, and Thunder Bay. Michigan: Milwaukee, Muskegon, and Green Bay. The influence of the lakes produces higher Huron: Alpena, Gore Bay, and Wiarton. Erie: Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo, and London. and more stable humidity in the Great Lakes Ontario: Rochester, Syracuse, Trenton, and Toronto. area than at similar latitudes in the mid- continent. Since warmer atmosphere is capa- An estimate of the average monthly and an- ble of holding more water vapor, the amount of nual humidity values for the individual Great water vapor present in the atmosphere varies Lakes, based on data from perimeter stations, constantly with temperature and availability is given in Table 4-11. The perimeter humidity of moisture. However, this discussion is con- for all lakes increases from a low of approxi- cerned with the relative humidity or the ratio mately 70 percent in the spring to a high of between the actual vapor pressure and the approximately 80 percent during the late fall. saturation vapor pressure at the same tem- Average annual humidity varies from 73 per- perature. Since all lakes provide large quan- cent for Lake Michigan to 78 percent for Lake tities of moisture through evaporation, the Huron, with intermediate values for other upper Great Lakes with lower temperatures lakes. and corresponding lower dew points attain Examination of records for the individual somewhat higher values of relative humidity. stations around the lakes indicates a daily var- Prevailing winds and lake breezes are impor- iation and a general northward increase in tant factors in raising or lowering humidity humidity. Based on four observations a day, values on land areas adjacent to the lakes. highest humidity normally occurs late at Humidity measurements on lake perimeters night and during early morning hours (1:00 are provided by the first order meteorological and 7:00 a.m. readings), while lowest humidity stations located around the lakes. Humidity occurs in the early afternoon (1:00 p.m. read- values at these stations are generally pub- ing). At most stations average annual relative lished for the four daily synoptic hours (1:00 humidity values for the night and morning and 7:00, a.m. and p.m.), but hourly values are readings range between 75 and 85 percent, also available. Data from these stations are with the maximum values occurring during the sole source ofcontinuous humidity records summer. The afternoon readings range be- for extended periods of time. Because of the tween 60 and 70 percent, and are lowest in the lake effect on adjacent land areas, various in- spring and summer. At most locations average vestigators have utilized these data to obtain daily range in humidity is from 5 to 10 percent estimates of humidity over the lakes by av- during winter and from 15 to 20 percent during eraging records from several perimeter sta- summer. tions. Some of the more recent studies also employed correction factors to adjust these es- timates to overlake conditions. The correction 4.6.2 Overwater Humidity factors were derived from infrequent overwa- ter measurements, similar to those used for The humidity records from perimeter sta- winds, and are discussed later. tions contain both lake and land effects and Hydrometeorology 87 TABLE 4-12 Lake-Land Humidity Ratios for TABLE 4-13 Average Perimete r Precipita- the Great Lakes tion for the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 (cm) Lake Richards & Fortin Jackson Period superior Michigan__Huron Erie Ontario (1962) (1963) January 5.5 4.8 6.7 6.5 6.8 Period 1959-1961 1959-1962 Fpbruary 4.1 3.9 5.3 5.7 6.4 March 5.0 5.3 6.9 6.5 4.4 January 1.33 1.25 April 6.0 7.3 6.5 8.5 7.2 February 1.30 1.24 May 7.6 7.6 7.0 8.2 7.5 June 9.0 8.6 7.2 8.3 6.3 March 1.21 1.22 July 7.2 7.5 6.7 7.7 7.2 April 1.14 1.04 August 8.7 7.7 7.5 8.1 7.4 May .86 .89 September 8.6 8.4 8.2 7.1 7.0 October 6.4 6.2 6.9 6.8 6.9 June 94 .94 November 6.8 6.3 7.7 7.4 7 5 July 1.09 1.10 December 5.5 4.8 7.3 6.5 7:0 August 1.09 1.10 Annual 79.8 78.1 82.3 87.7 83.7 September 1.11 1.09 October 1.15 1.14 November 1.15 1.13 Note: Based on data assembled ')v the Lake Survey Center, December 1.31 1.28 NOAA. Annual 1.14 1.12 ference in time is related to the number of daily observations, and indicates that four ob- servations a day are not sufficient to obtain are not necessarily representative of the ex- the daily humidity distribution. tensive water areas included in the Great Lakes. The major controlling factor of humid- ity is the air temperature, and temperatures 4.7 Precipitation over lake and land areas differ. Overwater humidity data are obtained either from direct overwater measurements, which are available 4.7.1 Lake Perimeter Precipitation only on an intermittent basis, or from empiri- cal relationships derived from those meas- Precipitation includes all forms of moisture urements. Such relationships combine many deposited on the earth surface from the at- of the differences between overwater and mosphere. The principal forms of precipitation overland conditions into a single correction include rain, hail, sleet, and snow, all of which factor, a lake-land humidity ratio (Richards are readily measurable. Of particular interest and Fortin'650 Jackson420). The monthly in the Great Lakes Basin is the precipitation humidity ratios derived in these studies are measured at lake perimeters. Investigations shown in Table 4-12. They indicate that on an of precipitation distribution indicate that annual basis overwater humidity is some 10 to perimeter stations show marked variation 15 percent higher than overland humidity at from precipitation further inland, and since perimeter stations. During spring, overwater direct overwater measurements are generally humidity is approximately 10 percent lower not available, it is assumed that perimeter ob- than perimeter humidity, but during the rest servations are sufficiently representative of of the year overwater humidity is higher, with overwater conditions (e.g., Freeman271). a maximum difference of approximately 30 Estimates for the average monthly and an- percent in the winter. nual precipitation on individual lakes during The average daily variation of the humidity the 1937-69 period are shown in Table 4-13. ratios presented in the studies shows high The annual precipitation varies from 78 cin humidity ratios during the night and low (30.8 inches) for Lake Michigan to 88 cm (34.5 ratios during daytime hours. The nighttime inches) for Lake Erie, with an overall average maximum occurs generally between 1:00 and for all the lakes of 81 cm (32.0 inches). Annual 4:00 a.m. and the daytime minimum occurs precipitation increases from north to south around noon. Richards and Fortin, based on and from west to east. The southward increase four daily observations, indicate lowest in precipitation is climatic, since warmer at- humidity ratios at 1:00 p.m., while Jackson, mosphere is capable of sustaining more mois- using eight daily observations, shows the low- ture, while the eastward increase is caused by est ratio at 10:00 a.m. Inspection of their the lake effect, since additional moisture is diurnal variation curves shows that the dif- supplied to the atmosphere by the lakes as 88 Appendix 4 85' 000 so* .J r 45' 450 a(r FIGURE 4-98 Mean Monthly Number of Days with Measurable Precipitation (open bars) and Thunderstorms (shaded) in the Great Lakes Basin From U.S. Weather Bureau, 1959 they are exposed to the prevailing westerly measurable precipitation and thunderstorms winds. at perimeter stations is shown in Figure 4-98. The seasonal precipitation pattern shows Highest thunderstorm frequencies occur, well-distributed and abundant precipitation along the western shore of Lake Michigan and throughout the year, although a larger por- the southern shore of Lake Erie. tion of the annual supply falls during the During the winter months precipitation in summer months, a characteristic of continen- the Great Lakes Basin is largely in the form of tal climates. The relatively high summer rain- snow. In the northern areas it generaliy con- fall is especially pronounced on the western sists of snowfall exclusively, with permanent and northern lakes. The average monthly pre- snow cover throughout the winter. In the cipitation increases from a winter low of 4 cm southern areas precipitation alternates be- to 5 cm (1.6 to 2.0 inches) in the upper lakes and tween snowfall and rainfall, with intermittent 6 cm to 7 cm (2.4 to 2.8 inches) on the lower snow cover on the ground. lakes to a summer high of 8 cm to 9 em (3.1 to 3.5 inches) on all lakes. The mean number of days per month with 4.7.2 Overwater Precipitation measurable precipitation at perimeter sta- tions increases from the windward to the lee Observations have indicated that large sides of the lakes, and also increases generally bodies of water, such as the Great Lakes, mod- from summer to winter months. Exceptions to ify the atmosphere above them, including pre- this seasonal distribution occur along the cipitation patterns. One theory explaining the western and northern shores of Lakes Michi- reduction of overwater precipitation in the gan and Superior. The number of days with summer is that the water cools the air above it. Hydrometeorology 89 However, precipitation measurements on the lake-land precipitation ratios, which indicate islands fail to confirm this in all cases. Horton that precipitation on Lakes Superior, Michi- and Grunsky376 and Verber848 suggested that gan, and Huron (Beaver Island) averages 93 reduced overwater precipitation in the sum- percent of that measured at shore stations mer may be due to less thunderstorm activ- during winter months, and 94 percent during ity. This results from the cooling effect of the summer months. For Lakes Erie (North Bass lakes, which produces a more stable atmos- Island) and St. Clair their overwater precipi- phere over the water than over surrounding tation amounts to 84 percent of perimeter pre- land areas. Byers and Braham 117 made a simi- cipitation for winter and 85 percent for sum- lar observation about Lake Michigan and mer months. However, Day205 suggests that added that in the winter the warming effect of the differences in island and shore precipita- the lakes encourages greater precipitation on tion are due to wind reduction of precipitation the lee shore than on the windward shore. gage catch at the more exposed island sites, Pearson'599 from a study of precipitation ob- rather than any real deficit in precipitation on servations by radar, found that the formation the lakes. of air-mass showers over Lake Michigan in the To study overwater precipitation a storage- summer was inhibited. type precipitation network was established in The elements affecting overwater precipita- 1952 on a number of islands in northern Lake tion in the winter are less definite. It is appar- Michigan by the U.S. Lake Survey and the ent that the warming effect of the lakes en- U.S. Weather Bureau. Based on twice-a-year courages snow flurries, but whether the pre- precipitation records from this network and cipitation is less, equal to, or more than that monthly records from Beaver Island and adja- falling on the adjacent shorelines is a matter cent shore stations, Hunt395 concluded that of controversy. Light precipitation belts on annual overwater precipitation on Lakes Mich- windward sides and heavy precipitation belts igan and Ontario averages 79 percent of that on the lee sides of the lakes are well estab- measured at perimeter stations, with monthly lished, but the quantities recorded at these values varying from 60 percent in August to 91 locations do not necessarily yield representa- percent in November. Hunt assumed precipi- tive overwater precipitation. The observed tation at the smallest, exposed island to be heavy snowfall on the lee shores of the lakes true overwater precipitation. Kohler461 ques- might be confined to the lake perimeters and tioned that assumption and indicated that the would then represent an accumulation of pre- relative catch of the island gages is highly cor- cipitation resulting from the lake-land in- related with windiness, and that virtually all teraction. The elevation of the air mass as it the differences in precipitation catches could moves from the water to the land surface, be explained by relative windiness at the gage coupled with the air movement from the warm sites. In another precipitation study of the water to the cold land during winter, combine northern Lake Michigan island network, to cause more precipitation on the lee shores. Kresge, Blust, and RopeS476 agreed with This may apply to the islands as well. Winter Kohler and used the higher measured measurements are also less accurate because amounts at both island and land gages as true snow is more sensitive to wind, increasing the overwater and shore precipitation and cor- effects of exposure, so the gages do not ade- rected the other gage records for gage expo- quately measure winter precipitation. Freez- sure. The annual overwater precipitation was ing of the lakes complicates the process fur- about the same (102 percent) as precipitation ther. from shore stations. Seasonally, overwater Recognizing the shortcomings of perimeter precipitation ranged from 3 to 10 percent less observations for estimating overwater pre- than perimeter precipitation in the summer, cipitation, several investigators derived rela- depending on the offshore and onshore winds, tionships of overwater to perimeter precipita- respectively; and 9 percent more in the winter. tion, utilizing data from islands to represent overwater conditions. However, island data In a Lake Michigan precipitation study may not be reliable for this purpose, and re- based on records from the Four-Mile Crib in sults of the studies are often contradictory. the southern tip of the lake and land gages in Based on records from Beaver Island in the the Chicago area, Changnon137 determined a Lake Michigan and North Bass Island in Lake lake-land precipitation relationship similar to Erie, Horton and Grunsky376 concluded that that derived by Hunt. Changnon's lake-land precipitation on the lakes was lower than at precipitation ratios show monthly variations perimeter stations. They calculated seasonal ranging from 78 percent in October to 95 per- 90 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-14 Lake-Land Precipitation Ratios years used in their derivations. The Upchurch for Lake Michigan and Lake Erie data are not comparable directly with other data in the table, because Upchurch used re- Lake Michigan Lake Erie mote inland gages while all others used lake Kresge, Hunt Changnon Lt @11_ Upchurch Derecki perimeter gages. The inland stations, how- (1959a) (1961) (1963) (1970) (1964) ever, indicate more correctly the lake effects 25 years 11 years 30 years 6 years 13 years Period 1911-56 1945-56 1906-62 1963-68 1920-46 on precipitation distribution throughout the January .88 .95 1.13 1.39 .95 year. February .85 .86 1.13 2.26 .89 March .81 .84 1.07 1.05 1.03 April .78 .81 1.01 .89 1.04 May .75 .87 .96 .83 1.07 4.7.3 Weather Radar June .73 .79 .93 .49 .92 July .69 .82 .90 .70 1.04 August .60 .87 .91 .64 1.03 Present methods of measuring precipitation September .74 .83 .98 1.10 .95 have many shortcomings. such as use of point October .89 .78 1.05 .96 .89 November .91 .79 1.10 1.62 1.02 measurements to represent an area, varia- December .89 .89 1.13 1.32 1.03 tions in gage catch, accuracy, effects of windi- Winter ness and exposure on the catch, and access or (Nov-Apr) .85 .86 1.09 1.42 .99 Suwner installation difficulties in remote areas on (May-Oct) .73 .83 .96 .79 .98 large bodies of water. A potentially powerful Annual .79 .84 1.02 1.10 .99 tool for eliminating some of these problems and obtaining more truly representative pre- 1Upchurch ratios are based on inland stations located 160 km west cipitation data may be the use of weather of the lake (this appendix). radar. Weather radar is applicable to both land and water areas, but it is of particular cent in January, with an annual average of 84 interest for large lakes because of gage instal- percent. lation and access difficulties. The lake-land precipitation ratios calcu- The use of weather radar for obtaining lated for Lake Erie (Derecki214) show consid- quantitative precipitation data requires erable monthly variations, without a definite climatological analysis of photographed pre- seasonal trend. Overwater precipitation was cipitation echo patterns. The process involves based on records from Pelee, South Bass (Put- use of a grid overlay on radar photographs, in-Bay), and Catawba Islands, and land pre- counting echo occurrences, and correlating cipitation on records from surrounding with measured precipitation. Current use of perimeter stations. The resultant annual ratio radar precipitation observations, although was 99 percent with monthly ratios that var- promising, is not advanced sufficiently to pro- ied from 89 percent in February and October to vide usable, quantitative data. Poor perform- 107 percent in May. ance is attributed mainly to weak radar In 1963 the U.S. Lake Survey, in cooperation equipment, which displays a decrease of echo with the U.S. Weather Bureau, modified their occurrences per volume of rainfall outward existing precipitation network in northern from the radar location, thus limiting the ef- Lake Michigan by replacing the storage-type fective range (Bruce and Rodgers'011). More gages, which were read twice a year, with pre- powerful radar equipment is required. Fur- cipitation recorders producing hourly read- ther developments in radar technology in ings. Similar gage networks were established combination with high-speed computers may in western Lake Erie in 1964 and eastern Lake provide an ideal answer to the overwater pre- Ontario in 1969. Using recorded data from cipitation measurement problem. Lake Michigan islands and land stations lo- cated some 160 km (100 miles) west of the lake (Figure 4-18), Upchurch 8011 derived lake-land 4.8 Evaporation ratios which vary from 49 percent in June to 226 percent in February, with an annual aver- age of 110 percent. 4.8.1 Determination of Evaporation The monthly precipitation ratios derived in the above studies are tabulated in Table 4-14. Evaporation from the lakes is the loss of Monthly ratios given by Hunt395 and by water from the lake surface to the atmosphere Kresge et al.476 represent values from in the form of water vapor. Considering lake smoothed annual graphs, while those ofothers and land areas of the Great Lakes Basin, two- are arithmetic averages for the number of thirds of the water supplied by precipitation is I Hydrometeorology 91 lost by evaporation. Evaporation losses from for any appreciable period of time are almost the water surface of the lakes, where the sup- exclusively restricted to the perimeter land ply of moisture is continuous, are substan- stations, which may be and often are not rep- tially higher than from the land and amount to resentative of open-lake conditions. Varia- approximately three-quarters of the overwa- tions in air stability that affect both wind and ter precipitation. Thus, it is readily apparent vapor pressure are essentially diurnal in that evaporation has a great effect on the character over land and seasonal over water. availability of water and on the heat budget of The required adjustments for perimeter data, the lakes, since evaporation is basically a cool- or lake-land ratios for wind and humidity have ing process. been made in recent years and are being im- There is no direct method to measure evap- proved as more overwater data are collected. oration from large water bodies. Since the ac- Thus, the mass transfer method of computing tual evaporation losses are dependent directly evaporation from the Great Lakes holds great on meteorological factors, it is possible to de- promise for the future. Its primary advantage velop methods that use hydrologic and is the elimination of the main objections of the meteorologic data and permit determination water budget method, namely, uncertainties of evaporation losses from the lakes with ac- with respect to ground water and dependence ceptable accuracy. These methods include of computed evaporation on large factors, such water budget, mass transfer, energy budget, as inflow and outflow from the lakes. evaporation-pan observations, atmospheric The energy budget method requires deter- humidity budget, and momentum transfer. mination of the energy exchange between a The first four of these methods have been used body of water and the atmosphere, which in- to compute evaporation from the Great Lakes. cludes such factors as the net solar and atmos- The water budget method consists of solving pheric radiation, conduction of sensible heat the water budget or mass-balance equation, to the atmosphere, energy utilized by evap- described at the end of this section, for the oration, net advective energy, and energy unknown evaporation component. All other storage within the body of water, disregarding major components of the water budget neces- some minor heat sources or sinks (chemical, sary to compute evaporation frrm the Great biological, exchange with bottom sediments). Lakes are either measured directly or can be The water loss is determined from the related estimated from related measurements. This is energy or heat loss by evaporation. Detailed the only direct method of computing evapora- discussion of various terms comprising the tion estimates and has been used in various energy budget and its practical application is studies to provide control for other methods, presented by Anderson .16 However, in the which require determination of empirical con- Great Lakes this method has been used in- stants. Evaporation, as determined by the frequently because of the difficulty in obtain- water budget method, is a residual of several ing data on energy components. large factors and includes the errors of these A convenient and inexpensive method of ob- factors, which may affect the computed evap- taining evaporation estimates, although fre- oration values considerably. Care must be quently questioned on theoretical grounds, is exercised to reduce these errors to a minimum that of evaporation-pan observations, which by using all available data and considering the utilize observed water losses from evapora- effects of the lakes on some of them, such as on tion pans and experimentally determined overwater precipitation. pan-to-lake relationships. The ratios of pan The mass transfer method of computing evaporation to lake evaporation, or pan coeffi- evaporation is a modified application of Dal- cients, vary depending on pan characteristics. ton's law, where evaporation is considered to An extensive investigation of the relation- be a function of the wind speed and the differ- ships between pan and lake evaporation was ence between the vapor pressure of saturated reported by Kohler et al .462 air at the water surface and the vapor pres- sure of the air above. A summary of the theoretical development of the mass transfer 4.8.2 Evaporation from Lakes method and a review of the equations de- veloped by various investigators is given by To compute evaporation from the Great Anderson et al. 17 The more promising of these Lakes various investigators have used one or equations were tested by Marciano and Har- more of the four methods described above. The beck.512 The problem in applying this method water budget and mass transfer methods were to the Great Lakes is that climatological data used most frequently. There are only two 92 Appendix 4 known studies which utilize the energy budget mass transfer equation by introducing approach. The evaporation-pan observation monthly wind and humidity ratios for adjust- method has also been used infrequently. Re- ing data obtained from land stations. In previ- sults obtained by various investigators often ous studies wind data from perimeter stations differ considerably, especially for shorter, were being adjusted to overwater winds based monthly periods. Some of this variation is nat- on seasonal periods. Because of data limita- ural, reflecting variability of evaporation be- tions, most studies mentioned above employed tween the various periods of record involved, inconsistent periods of record to determine but some of it, especially in extreme cases, is various factors of the mass transfer equation. due to computation procedures and inac- In some of them, the average evaporation val- curacies of basic data. More recent determina- ues are based on only a few years of record, tions use better basic data and should be more which is much too short to establish reliable accurate. long-term trends. The first mass transfer de- Among the earliest methods used to deter- termination of evaporation with consistent mine evaporation from the Great Lakes is that periods of record for all factors was made for of evaporation-pan observations. Henry341 Lake Ontario by Richards and RodgerS.654 concluded that the ratio of evaporation from This study was extended to include other lakes floating pans to land pans was approximately bordering on Canada by Richards and Irbe.6511 0.5 and used this ratio to estimate lake evap- Evaporation studies by the energy budget oration. Hickman 355 described experiments in method conducted on the Great Lakes are lim- which water temperature in the pan was ited to Lake Ontario (Bruce and Rodgers,108 maintained at the lake surface water temper- and Rodgers and Anderson675). The results of ature, and the pan-lake ratio or pan coefficient these studies are practically identical. The au- was assumed to be 1.0. The latest estimates of thors concede that their estimates are high evaporation from the lakes by this method due to inaccuracies of data used, and they dis- (U.S. Weather Bureau11211) give pan coefficients cuss the possible errors. Continuing research ranging from approximately 0.75 in the south- on interaction between the atmosphere and ern areas of the Basin to 0.80 in the northern lake surface should enable more direct evalua- areas. The above studies give annual evapora- tion of the energy exchange factors, reduce tion estimates, without breakdown into sea- their dependence on empirical relationships, sonal or monthly amounts. and improve the accuracy of evaporation es- The water budget is one of the traditional timates determined by the energy budget methods of determining lake evaporation method. (RuSSell,692 Freeman,271 PettiS,605 Hunt,395 Evaporation from the Great Lakes varies Brunk,"" and Derecki 213,214). In some studies with latitude and depth. The warmer, lower (Hunt, Derecki) precipitation from perimeter latitudes provide greater evaporation oppor- stations was adjusted by lake-land ratios to tunity, and the lake depths govern heat stor- represent overwater conditions. Others used age capacity. The influence of lake depths is unadjusted perimeter precipitation. Later mainly seasonal. Deeper lakes warm and cool studies showed that Hunt's reduction was more slowly, retarding the seasonal low and probably too extreme, resulting in somewhat high evaporation losses. The depths of the lower evaporation than indicated by most of Great Lakes coincide with latitude; Lake Su- the other recent studies for Lake Ontario. Be- perior is deepest (410 in) and Lake Erie is the cause Lakes Michigan-Huron have a common shallowest (65 in), while the centrally located outlet (St. Clair River), water budget determi- lakes have approximately similar inter- nations for these lakes can be made only for mediate depths (230 to 280 m). Thus, evapora- both lakes as a single unit. tion from the lakes increases from north to Probably the first mass transfer determina- south, being lowest for Lake Superior and tion of Great Lakes evaporation is that given highest for Lake Erie. The centrally located by Freeman271 who used a relatively simple lakes, Michigan, Huron, and Ontario, have in- formula similarto those used in all subsequent termediate evaporation rates. Great Lakes mass transfer studies. Other The average evaporation values for individ- evaporation studies, mostly of Lake Ontario, ual lakes, obtained in some ofthe better known which employed mass transfer methods are or more recent studies mentioned in the pre- those by Horton and Grunsky,376 Hunt,395 ceding paragraphs, are listed in Table 4-15. Kohler,461 Snyder,751 Bruce and Rodgers,108 The table also shows the methods used, the RichardS,6411 Richards and RodgerS,6-14 and source, and the periods ofrecord, although, for Richards and Irbe.6511 RichardS648 modified the methods other than water budget and the last Hydrometeorology 93 TABLE 4-15 Comparison of Great Lakes Evaporation (Centimeters) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Kay June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual LAKE SUPERIOR WATER BUDGET Freeman (1926) 1921-25 8.9 7.9 6.6 5.8 0.3 0.3 1.5 -0.3 3.3 5.3 7.9 9.7 57.2 Derecki (1965) 1939-59 8.9 6.6 5.8 -0.8 -1.0 -1.0 -0.5 2.8 5.8 6.9 9.7 9.7 52.8 MASS TRANSFER Freeman (1926) 1900-24 9.1 8.4 6.9 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 4.3 7.1 6.9 8.1 56.4 Snyder (1960) 1921-50 7.6 6.4 4.8 1.8 -1.8 -5.8 -7.4 -0.5 5.6 6.4 6.9 8.4 32.3 Richards & Irbe (1969) 1959-68 11.7 9.1 5.8 1.5 1.0 -3.6 -8.1 -4.1 3.3 6.4 10.4 12.2 45.7 LAKE MICHIGAN MASS TRANSFER Freeman (1926) 1900-24 7.6 7.1 4.1 2.3 1.5 1.8 7.9 9.9 9.1 8.6 6.6 6.6 73.2 Snyder (1960) 1921-50 7.6 6.6 4.1 1.0 -2.3 -3.0 3.0 7.9 9.9 8.6 6.9 7.6 57.9 LAKES MICHIGAN-HURON WATER BUDGET Freeman (1926) 1915-24 8.4 2.8 4.3 3.6 -0.3 -0.3 0.5 4.8 9.7 10.4 10.2 10.7 64.8 LAKE HURON MASS TRANSFER Freeman (1926) 1900-24 7.9 7.9 5.1 2.0 2.0 2.5 7.9 0-2 9.1 7.1 6.1 7.1 74.9 Snyder (1960) 1921-50 7.9 6.9 4.3 1.3 -1.5 -2.8 3.3 8.3 9.9 8.1 6.9 8.4 61.2 Richards & Irbe (1969) 1959-68 11.9 8.9 4.6 -0.8 0.0 -2.0 0.5 5.1 8.6 11.4 11.7 11.7 71.6 LAKE ERIE WATER BUDGET Freeman (1926) 1951-24 4.6 2.8 12.7 -3.8 0.0 0.8 4.8 11.4 13.7 15.0 12.2 9.1 83.3 Derecki (1964) 1937-59 5.3 1.5 1.5 0.0 1.0 2.8 9.4 13.7 16.0 13.7 12.2 7.1 84.3 MASS TRANSFER Freeman (1926) 1900-24 6.4 6.6 2.,B 3.6 1.9 7.4 17.0 18.3 16.0 13.5 7.1 6.1 106.4 Snyder.(1960) 1921-50 6.6 5.1 2.5 1.3 2.0 4.6 9.4 12.2 12.7 10.9 9.7 8.9 85.9 Richards & Irbe (1969) 1950-68 5.6 4.1 1.3 -3.0 5.8 7.6 7.1 11.2 14.2 15.7 13.7 7.6 90.9 LAKE ONTARIO WATER BUDGET Hunt (1959a) 1934-53 6.1 3.0 1.8 1.0 0.5 -0.5 2.8 7.9 9.7 11.4 10.4 9.7 63.8 Morton & Rosenberg (1959) 1934-52 8.1 5.8 2.0 2.0 1.3 0.5 4.6 10-2 10.7 11.7 11.4 11.2 79.5 MASS TRANSFER Freeman (1926) 1900-24 6.6 6.6 4.1 2.5 0.8 2.8 9.4 13.0 11.7 10.9 6.1 6.1 80.5 Hunt (1959a) 1937-52 7.1 5.6 5.6 2.0 0.0 0.3 4.8 6.4 9.7 8.1 7.1 6.1 62.7 Snyder (1960) 1921-50 7.9 6.9 4.3 1.5 -1.5 0.3 5.8 10.2 10.7 9.4 6.6 7.6 69.6 Richards & Irbe (1969) 195G-68 9.7 7.4 4.3 -1.8 1.0 0.3 4.8 8.1 10.9 9.1 8.9 8.9 71.6 ENERGY BUDGET Rogers & Anderson (1961) 1958-60 12.4 8.9 5.1 0.5 -1.8 0.0 11.7 8.9 10.2 9.4 10.9 10.7 86.9 NOTE: Energy budget and mass transfer studies (except Richards & Irbe, 1969) used variable periods of record for various factors involved. mass transfer study (Richards and Irbe '651) from the Great Lakes amounts approximately these periods are only approximations. Re- to 65 cm (25 cm (25 in.) The following are esti- sults of most studies show reasonable agree- mates of annual evaporation for the individua 'I ment between different computations. lakes: Superior, 55 cm (21 in.); Michigan- The average long-term seasonal variation of Huron, 65 cm (26 in.); Erie, 85 cm (33 in.); and evaporation from the Great Lakes is shown in Ontario, 70 cm (28 in.). These estimates were Figure 4-99, presented as smoothed graphs based on several studies and should be consid- based on studies indicated in Table 4-15. ered as indicators of the long-term average Lakes Michigan and Huron are included in a value. During individual years annual evap- single graph, because of common water budget oration may vary considerably from the long- computations and limited determinations by term values listed above. other methods. The available information in- Seasonally the low evaporation normally oc- dicates that the evaporation from these lakes curs in the spring, wl@en the water tempera- is similar and compares with that of Lake On- ture is close to or even below the dew point tario. In view of the latitude and depth dis- temperature of the air. These low evaporation tributions of these three lakes, this similarity rates vary from slight evaporation to conden- appears to be quite reasonable. sation. With rising water temperatures evap- The long-term average annual evaporation oration increases until it reaches the high 94 Appendix 4 7 ground-water zone. Although interflow 16- reaches the streams with more delay than di- ANNUAL EVAPORATION -6 rect surface runoff, the two are difficult to dis- SUPE RIOR -55-(21 i.) tinguish, and together are referred to as sur- IA MICH - HURON - 65-126-1 face runoff. The infiltration capacity of soils ERIE - 85-133i,J ON TAR 10 -70-128in) -5 varies widely depending upon precipitation 12 It factors such as intensity, duration, and type of It precipitation, and soil factors such as antece- 10 dent soil moisture, type of soil, shape and slope of the basin, and vegetation. During winter 0 months, the ground is usually frozen, and 28 3 Y: interflow is reduced to the periods of ground 6 It thaws, but surface runoff still occurs during % /0 2 intermittent snowmelts. Basin hydrology is A It considered in Appendix 2, Surface Water Hy- drology. Water which infiltrates into the soil is transmitted downward to the ground-water table and becomes a part of the ground-water EVAPORATION CONDENSATION reservoir. Ground-water flow is discussed later in this section. -2 . . . . . .. . j The storage of water on the drainage basin JAN, MAR@ MAY JUL. SEP. NOV. JAN. in whatever form, be it ground water, channel MONTHS storage, or snowpack, is a fundamental hydro- FIGURE 4-99 Evaporation from the Great logic factor of runoff delay. Natural regula- Lakes. The smoothed lines are based on several tion by upland lakes and artificial regulation studies from 1926-1969. by man-made reservoirs and control struc- tures are also common in the basins of all the evaporation season, which for most lakes is in Great Lakes. Lake regulation delays, pro- the fall, when the water temperature is con- longs, and diminishes the peak runoff by stor- siderably above the dew point temperature of ing water during periods of high runoff. the air. Because of its great depth and tre- Runoff is measured at gaging stations on mendous heat storage capacity, highest evap- many of the tributary streams and together oration from Lake Superior occurs in the late with measured flows in connecting rivers is fall and early winter period. The long-term av- the most accurate data in the hydrologic cycle. erage values of the highest monthly evapora- Unlike measurements of other components, tion vary from approximately 9 cm (3.5 in.) for which sample only points within an area, Lake Superior to 15 cm (6.0 in.) for Lake Erie. gaged runoff effectively integrates the entire These high evaporation rates, coupled with area about the point of measurement. How- low air temperatures, cause rapid dissipation ever, runoff data contain some uncertainties, of heat from the water surface. With the but these are considered to be random. Errors sharply falling water temperatures, evapora- may be introduced in the measurement of tion begins to decrease. runoff, particularly during winter months due to ice effects, and by extrapolating the gaged runoff to the nearby ungaged areas to obtain 4.9 Runoff from Drainage Basin coverage for the entire drainage basin. Routine computations of the total average surface runoff to the lakes are not made by any 4.9.1 Surface Runoff agency associated with the Great Lakes, but runoff estimates have been made in the course Water enters the lakes from the drainage of hydrologic studies. The values of runoff pre- basin mainly through the tributary streams. sented in this report were obtained by direct When rainfall exceeds the infiltration capac- areal extrapolation of the available gaged ity of the soil the excess water reaches the streamflow records to the nearby ungaged tributary streams either as direct surface areas, and summation of the total runoff runoff or as interflow. Interflow is defined as amounts from individual basins of the tribu- that water which percolates through the soil tary streams within each lake basin, which in above the phreatic or permanently saturated turn were combined to obtain total runoff from Hydrometeorology 95 TABLE 4-16 Runoff- Precipitation Ratios, TABLE 4-17 Average Runoff into the Great 1937-1969 Lakes,1937-1969 Lake Period Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario Runoff in cm depth on lake surface January .49 .47 .43 .55 .55 Period Superior Michigan Huron Erie2 Ontario February .50 .66 .48 .68 .55 January 3.4 4.3 5.5 8.2 13.2 March .61 .62 .75 .86 .95 February 2.9 5.1 5.2 8.9 12.5 April 1.01 .61 .93 .63 1.13 March 3.8 6.4 8.4 14.1 22.8 May .85 .42 .67 .35 .60 April 8.6 9.2 12.7 12.8 30.3 June .46 .26 .37 .19 .34 May 9.8 7.2 10.2 7.2 17.7 July .36 .24 .27 .12 .20 June 6.5 5.2 6.1 4.2 9.2 August .26 .18 .18 .08 .15 July 4.5 3.9 4.2 2.4 5.7 September .28 .18 .16 .08 .16 August 3.6 3.1 3.0 1.5 4.4 October .40 .28 .28 .13 .25 September 3.6 3.2 3.0 1.3 4.6 November .44 .32 .33 .20 .34 October 3.7 3.7 4.1 2.0 6.5 December .52 .44 .43 .40 .48 November 4.2 4.1 5.3 3.3 9.8 Annual .52 .39 .44 .35 .48 December 3.7 4.2 6.0 5.9 12.8 Annual 58.3 59.6 73.7 71.8 149.5 1Includes diversions into Lake Superior (about Scm/yr - the entire drainage area of the Great Lakes. 2140 m3ls). See DIVERSIONS. Similar methods were employed in previous Excluding drainage area of Lake St. Clair. studies (Freeman,271 Horton and Grunsky,376 Pettis, 1.05 Hunt395). Results obtained by vari- piration. Similarly, the Lake Superior basin, ous investigators generally differ somewhat with the lowest precipitation, has a high runoff because of different periods of record and because of the reduced water losses in the varying coverage of the gaged tributary area, north. High runoff in the spring accounts for which increases steadily. Peakrunoff to all the 30 to 40 percent of the annual amount. lakes usually occurs in the early spring as a The importance of surface runoff to the hy- result of melting snow augmented by rainfall drology of the Great Lakes depends not only on and lack of growing vegetation. The low point the absolute magnitude of flow but also on the usually occurs in the late summer. relative magnitude of runoff with respect.to To facilitate comparison with other compo- surface area of each lake. Runoff represents nents of the hydrologic cycle, such as precipi- one-third to one-halfofthe overland precipita- tation or evaporation, runoff values are fre- tion and is almost equal to overwater precipi- quently given in units of depth over respective tation on all the lakes except Ontario, where areas, and this practice is retained in this re- runoff is almost twice as high. The average port. Runoff distribution on the drainage runoff values for monthly and annual periods, basin is shown in Figure 4-19. Comparison of expressed in centimeter depth on the lake sur- runoff with the corresponding overland pre- face, are listed in Table 4-17. Average annual cipitation for both monthly and annual runoffduring the 33-year period (1937-69) var- periods, expressed as runoff-precipitation ied from 58 cm (23 in.) for Lake Superior to 150 ratios, is shown in Table 4-16. These rat-jos cm (59 in.) for Lake Ontario, 60 cin for Lake indicate that average annual runoff dd'ring Michigan, 74 cm for Lake Huron and 72 cm for the period from 1937 to 1969 represents from Lake Erie. The annual value for Lake Supe- 35 to 49 percent of the overland precipitation, rior includes approximately 5 cm (2 in.) from while average monthly runoffs vary from a the Ogoki and Long Lake Diversions, which high of 113 percent in the spring to a low of 8 are channeled and measured in the tributary percent during the summer. The substantial streams, while Lake Erie runoff excludes differences in the retention of precipitation on streamflow tributary to Lake St. Clair, since it the basins of the individual lakes are due is measured in the Detroit River and thus be- primarily to higher evapotranspiration comes part ofthe inflow to that lake. The aver- losses in the south, but other factors such as age monthly runoffvaried from a high of30 cin infiltration capacity of soils, forest cover, land (12 in.) during April on Lake Ontario to a low of cultivation, and urbanization, also affect the 1.3 cm (0.5 in.) during September on Lake Erie. relationship between runoff and precipitation. Although precipitation on Lake Erie is among the highest and is comparable with that of 4.9.2 Underground Flow Lake Ontario, runoff into Lake Erie is low be- cause of the high water losses by evapotrans- Underground flow from ground water 96 Appendix 4 reaches the lakes by percolation, either di- reaches the lakes mainly through ground rectly through the lake bottom or through water and not through surface streams. They tributary streams. Since most streams in the also state that there are numerous instances Great Lakes Basin derive their base flow from of watershed leakage from one drainage basin ground water, the underground flow reaching to another and probably from the higher-lying the lakes through tributary streams is mea- drainage basins directly into the lakes. Based sured and considered with the surface runoff. on these considerations, they concluded that Thus, direct contribution from ground water the summer runoff to the lakes estimated from to the lakes is of primary interest to the lake measured streamflow may be less than the hydrology. Depending on the geohydrologic actual runoff by an amount exceeding 13 cm (5 characteristics of the system and the water in.) on the lakes, but in their study they as- levels in lakes, the underground flow could be sumed the underground flow to be zero. Hunt either into or out of the lakes. acknowledges a possibility of a considerable There is very little information on the un- underground flow between Lakes Erie and derground flow in the Great Lakes Basin, par- Ontario, due to the very large potential head ticularly on direct ground-water supplies, and between them. He investigated this matter knowledge in this field should be expanded. and concluded that there is no appreciable The evaluation of direct underground flow re- ground-water flow into Lake Ontario, and that quires ground-water profiles, which can be de- what flow might exist is probably steady rived from a network of observation wells lo- throughout the year. cated around the lakes. There is only a handful In some hydrologic studies underground of wells located within 15 km (10 mi.) of the flow was estimated by various forms of water lakes, and wells located further inland may be budget computations. RusselJ692 estimated poor indicators of ground-water flow. In addi- monthly amounts of water entering the lakes tion to lake perimeters, special attention from underground sources, which resulted in should also be concentrated on any areas the annual values 65 cm (25 in.) on Lake Supe- where, because of geologic structure, rior, 83 em (33 in.) on Lakes Michigan-Huron, ground-water divides may be significantly dif- 51 cm (20 in.) on Lake Erie, and 130 cm (51 in.) ferent from topographic divides. on Lake Ontario. However, Russell did not dis- There are many geological studies of tinguish between ground-water flow into ground-water conditions for specific areas of streams and ground-water flow directly into the Basin. However, these studies cover rela- lakes, so values listed above include base flow tively small areas (one section of a lake basin) of streams. PettiS605 estimated direct un- and are not related directly to the un- derground flow into the upper lakes as 42 cm derground flow into or out of the lakes. They (16 in.) to Lake Superior and 58 cm (23 in.) to are approached from the geological point of Lakes Michigan-Huron. Pettis also states that view and consider areal geology, water use, a considerable part of a large underground economics of water development, and the water body in the northern part of the State of usual ground-water data obtained from ob- Ohio has a definite motion towards Lake Erie. servation wells, pumping tests, and chemical In contrast to the high underground flow analysis. Thus, they reveal only limited infor- claimed by the above investigators, Berg- mation, which is not readily adaptable to large strom and Hanson 62 computed inflow to Lakes areas encompassing one or more lake basins. Michigan-Huron from the ground-water Large area hydrologic studies dealing with sources to be approximately 0.5 cm (0.2 in.). ground water are more important for the un- They suggest that the actual discharge along derground flow aspect. Because of the varying the shore could be several times that given geologic and climatic conditions over such above, but the amount would still be relatively large areas, estimation of the underground small, and probably less than the error inher- flow into any one lake is very difficult, and ent in extrapolation of runoff, lake evapora- ground-water data are not sufficient to de- tion, and precipitation. Snyder751 indicates termine this flow by direct methods. that there are underground outflows from In most hydrologic studies underground Lake Superior and Lakes Michigan-Huron flow was considered negligible and assumed to that amount to approximately 22 cm (9 in.) and be zero (Freeman '271 Horton and Grunsky, 376 5 cm (2 in.) on these lakes, respectively. He also Hun t'395 Morton and Rosenberg'56 I Der- suggests that there are underground inflows ecki 214) . Horton and Grunsky state that there is to Lakes Erie and Ontario of approximately 19 a marginal belt around the perimeters of cm (8 in.) and 8 cm (3 in.), respectively. Snyder Lakes Michigan and Huron, from which water bases his indicated groundwater flow on the Hydrometeorology 97 differences in evaporation estimates com- extremely important in studies of the hy- puted by mass transfer and water budget drologic cycle. methods. Widely divergent opinions on the amount and direction of underground flow to the Great 4.10.2 Outflow Lakes leave the subject in a state of con- troversy. For example, PettiS605 claims the The outflow of each of the Great Lakes is the underground inflow to Lake Superior is 42 cm quantity of water flowing from a given lake on lake surface per year and Snyder751 indi- through its natural outflow river and through cates an outflow from the same lake of approx- man-made outlets. As a factor in the hy- imately 22 cm. It is apparent from the cautious drologic cycle of the lakes the outflow of any wording and the conflicts that exist in the pre- lake, including that through man-made diver- ceding studies that the estimates are little sions, represents the water yield of the entire more than conjectures. basin above the point of outflow measure- ment. The outflow from Lake Superior through the St. Marys River has been artificially con- 4.10 Lake Inflow and Outflow trolled since 1922 by a gated dam structure, which allows diversions for the generation of power. Release of water through the control 4.10.1 Inflow structure and for the generation of power is made in accordance with a regulation plan, The inflow to any of the Great Lakes is the designed to maintain the level of Lake Supe- quantity of water supplied by the lake above, rior within specified limits. modified by the local inflow to the connecting The outflow from Lakes Michigan-Huron river. Local inflow is usually less than one-half through the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers, percent of the total flow and generally is dis- which together with Lake St. Clair constitute regarded in computing lake outflows and the the natural outlet of these lakes, is controlled corresponding inflows to the lakes below. largely by the level of Lake Huron at the head However, the Lake Huron outflow and Lake of the St. Clair River and the level of Lake Erie Erie inflow normally differ by approximately 2 at the mouth of the Detroit River. No man- percent and occasionally the difference is made control of this flow exists, except for the much higher. Therefore, flow at the head of St. fixed remedial control provided by the dikes Clair River is used to determine outflow from constructed in the lower Detroit River to com- Lakes Michigan-Huron, while the flow of the pensate for the effects of deepening the navi- Detroit River is used to obtain inflow to Lake gation channels in that river. These compen- Erie. The importance of inflow to the lakes sating controls do not regulate lake levels. increases progressively in descending order However, they are designed to provide the through the lakes. The smaller lower lakes are same net discharge capacity in the rivers as affected by these flows to a much greater ex- existed before the improvements, so that the tent than the upper lakes. Inflow to Lakes levels upstream are maintained. The naviga- Michigan-Huron is of the same order of tion improvements in the St. Clair River, in- magnitude as the overwater precipitation, but cluding some works recently completed, cause in Lakes Erie and Ontario, it is an order of a lowering of the levels of Lakes Michigan- magnitude greater. During the period of hy- Huron, and remedial works are being evalu- drologic study, 1937-69, the average annual in- ated. In the winter period ice normally slightly flow was equivalent to 60 cm (24 in.) for Lakes reduces the open water flow of the St. Clair Michigan-Huron, 640 cm (250 in.) for Lake and Detroit Rivers. Erie, and 927 cm (365 in.) for Lake Ontario. The The outflow from Lake Erie through the variation in the annual inflow during this time Niagara River is controlled largely by the had a range of approximately 40 em (15 in.) for level of Lake Erie at the head of the river and Lakes Michigan-Huron, and approximately the level of the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool 240 em (95 in.) for Lakes Erie and Ontario. above Niagara Falls. If the diversions of water Thus, in the lower lakes the variation in the from the Chippawa-Grass Island Pool for the annual inflow is three times greater than the generation of power are not compensated for, average annual overwater precipitation. Be- they can lower the levels of Lake Erie. How- cause of the magnitude and fluctuation of the ever, a submerged weir was constructed dur- inflows to the lower lakes, accuracy of inflow is ing the period 1942-47 at the downstream end 98 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-18 Average Flows in Connecting The range in the average monthly flows was Rivers of the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 (m3/s) approximately 700 m3/s (25,000 efs) for the St. - Marys and Niagara Rivers, and 1,300 m3/s St. St. St. (45,000 cfs) for the other rivers. The difference Period Marys Clair Detroit Niagara Lawrence between the high and low annual flows during January 1,980 4,420 4,620 5,240 6,230 the 33-year period varied from approximately February 1,980 4,250 4,420 5,240 6,230 1,400 m 3/s (50,000 efs) on the St. Marys River to March 1,940 4,810 4,960 5,320 6,400 April 2,020 5,130 5,270 5,640 6,830 2,000 m 3/s (70,000 efs) on tfie Detroit River. The May 2,180 5,240 5,350 5,920 7,020 relatively large variations in flow of the St. June 2,310 5,350 5,410 5,950 7,190 Clair and Detroit Rivers, in comparison with July 2,450 5,410 5,490 5,830 7,140 August 2,570 5,440 5,490 5,720 79000 other rivers, are due primarily to ice retarda- September 2,550 5,380 5,440 5,580 6,770 tion of winter flows. October 2,510 5,320 5,380 5,470 6,570 The importance of outflow to lake hydrology November 2,430 5,270 5,300 5,470 6,460 December 2,110 5,130 5,240 5,470 6,460 increases progressively with downstream lakes. The average annual outflows (river Annual 2,250 5,100 5,200 5,570 6,690 flows and diversions), expressed in units depth on the lake surface, represent 86 cm (34 in.) on of the pool, as the initial phase of the remedial Lake Superior, 139 cm (55 in.) on Lakes works designed in part to counteract this ef- Michigan-Huron, 706 cm (278 in.) on Lake Erie fect. Presently, a gated control structure ex- and 1,077 cin (424 in.) on Lake Ontario. Varia- tending partially into the river from the tion in the annual outflow during the period of Canadian shore provides compensation for the study had a range of approximately 50 em (20 power diversion, which was increased by the in.) for Lakes Superior and Michigan-Huron, 1950 treaty between the United States and 190 cm (75 in.) for Lake Erie, and 300 cm (120 Canada. This second control structure is lo- in.) for Lake Ontario. cated downstream and runs parallel to the Numerous studies of the connecting river weir. flows have been made. These studies have The outflow from Lake Ontario through the analyzed the effects on flow equations of reg- St. Lawrence River since 1958 has been imen changes, formation of ice, weed retarda- largely con trolled by the release of water tion, and water temperatures. Detailed dis- through the Iroquois Dam near Iroquois, On- cussion of outflows is given in Appendix 11, tario. Beginning in April 1960 the release of Levels and Flows. Flow equations and the water has been made in accordance with a means of revising them when channel changes regulation plan, which provides for weekly occur, and turbine ratings used to compute flow changes throughout the year. Thus, Lake flows through power structures are generally Ontario levels are fully regulated and are in- well established. As a result, data on the flows dependent of any channel changes or diver- in the connecting rivers of the Great Lakes are sions. Prior to the construction of the Iroquois considered to have a greater accuracy than for Dam in 1958, the Galop Rapids, a short dis- any other hydrologic factor, except the change tance downstream from Ogdensburg, New in lake storage. York, constituted a natural weir, the flow over which was controlled substantially by the level of Lake Ontario. 4.10.3 Diversions The average monthly and annual flows of the outflow rivers for the 1937-69 period are Water diversions in the Great Lakes Basin listed in Table 4-18. Prior to 1957 the flows of may be broadly divided into two types: outside the St. Clair River were based on published rec- diversions, which take water into or out of the ords of combined St. Clair-Detroit River system; and inside diversions, which retain flows, since the flows in both rivers were con- water entirely within the system. Diversions sidered to be essentially equal. During the of water into the Basin have the effect of rais- period of study, annual flow from the St. ing water levels of the lake into which the di- Marys, St. Clair, Detroit, Niagara, and St. verted water is discharged and the levels of Lawrence Rivers averaged 2,250 m3/s, 5,100 the lakes downstream through which the di- m 3/s, 5,210 m 3/s, 5,580 in 3/s, and 6,680 m 3/s (79, verted water must pass on its way to the sea. 180, 184, 197, and 236 thousand cfs), respec- Diversions of water from the Basin have the tively. Low flows occur in the winter and high converse effect on the levels of the lakes at and flows in the summer, with a progressive delay downstream from the point of diversion. Di- of the summer highs in the upstream rivers. versions from one point to another within the Hydrometeorology 99 Basin may have no effect on the lake levels if outside diversions, the inputs to Lake Supe- within the same lake basin; or, if not compen- rior and the output from Lake Michigan, is to sated for, diversions may lower the levels of increase the supplies to Lake Michigan-Huron the lake upstream and temporarily raise the and the downstream lakes by approximately levels downstream. The temporary rise in 54 m3/s (1,900 cfs). levels downstream is due to increased dis- The diversion of water through the Welland charge rates while the levels of the lake above Canal, from Lake Erie at Port Colborne to drop to adjust to the larger outlet capacity due Lake Ontario at Port Weller, includes water to the diversion. The rate of adjustment in used in the DeCew Falls power plant, which lake levels decreases exponentially with time, amounts to most of this diversion, plus diver- and the period of adjustment depends on the sions for navigation purposes. The total Wel- size of the lake involved and the capacity of its land Canal diversion amounts to approxi- outlet. For example, Lakes Michigan-Huron mately 198 M 3/S (7,000 cfs), which is equivalent reach 90 percent adjustment in approximately to approximately 25 cm (10 in.) on the Lake seven years and Lake Erie in less than one Erie surface per year. year (BajorunaS35a). The New York State Barge Canal withdraws There are five major diversions in the Great water from the Niagara River at Tonawanda, Lakes Basin (Figure 4-1): the Ogoki and Long New York, for navigation purposes, but the Lake Projects divert water into Lake Supe- water diverted into the canal is returned to rior; the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal di- Lake Ontario at Oswego, New York. The verts water out of Lake Michigan; and the Barge Canal diverts approximately 31 M 3/S Welland Canal and the New York State Barge (1,100 cfs) during the navigation season. Since Canal divert water from Lake Erie and Niag- 1956 there has been no diversion during win- ara River into Lake Ontario. All other diver- ter months. sions presently in existence on the St. Marys, The average monthly and annual flows dur- Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers divert ing the period of study, 1937-69, for the major water from one point to another within the diversions described above are listed in Table same river and with remedial structures have 4-19. Annual values listed in the table are no effect on lake water supplies and lake somewhat different from the normal values levels. presented in the discussion because of periodic The Ogoki and Long Lake Projects divert variations from the normal. water into Lake Superior from the Albany River drainage basin in the Hudson Bay wa- tershed. The Ogoki diversion diverts water 4.11 Lake Level Fluctuations from the Ogoki River into the Nipigon River. The Long Lake diversion diverts water from Long Lake at the head of the Kenogami River 4.11.1 Lake Levels to the Aguasabon River. These diversions have increased the supply of water to Lake The elevations of the water surface of the Superior by an average rate of approximately Great Lakes are tied to the mean sea level at 142 m3/s (5,000 cfs), which is equivalent to ap- Father Point, Quebec, on the Gulf of St. Law- proximately 5 em (2 in.) on the lake surface per rence. This plane of reference, established year. especially for the Great Lakes in 1955, is called The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, along the International Great Lakes Datum. The with the Calumet Sag Canal, a branch which average monthly and annual lake levels for connects with Lake Michigan south of Chi- the 33-year period, 1937-69, are given in Table cago, diverts water from Lake Michigan 4-20. These levels are based on mean lake level through the Des Plaines and Illinois Rivers to tabulations published by the Lake Survey, the Mississippi River. This diversion, com- and represent records from master gages, monly referred to as the Chicago diversion. each lake having a single master gage located represents the amount of water diverted from at a strategic point. Approximate water sur- Lake Michigan for navigation purposes and face elevations of the lakes are 183 m (601 ft.) for domestic use by the City of Chicago. The for Lake Superior; 176 m (578 ft.) for Lakes total diversion from the lake at Chicago Michigan-Huron; 174 m (570 ft.) for Lake Erie; amounts to 88 m3/s (3,100 cfs), which repre- and 75 m (245 ft.) for Lake Ontario. sents an annual amount of water exceeding 2 Of primary interest in lake hydrology are cm (about 1 in.) on the surface of Lakes the variations of lake levels caused by the Michigan-Huron. The net effect of all three changing volume of water in the lakes. These 100 Appendix A TABLE4-19 Major Diversions in the Great Lakes Basin, 1937-1969 (Cubic Meters per Second) Ogoki Long Lake Chicago Welland N. Y. State Project Project Diversion Canal Barge Canal into into out of from L. Erie fromNiagara R. L. Superior L. Super or L. Michi an to L. Ontario to L. Ontario Period 1943-691 1939-69@ 1937-691 1937-694 1937-695 January 94 35 90 160 9 February 75 35 88 162 9 March 65 29 85 162 4 April 67 28 95 170 22 May 148 54 99 177 31 June 216 65 107 178 31 July 152 48 110 172 31 August 121 39 114 181 31 September ill 34 105 180 31 October 105 33 91 182 31 November 120 36 85 181 31 December ill 35 98 170 16 Annual Average 115 39 97 173 23 1Period of record starts in July 1943. Since 1945 total amount of Ogoki and Long 2Lake diversions has averaged 142 m3/s (5,000 cfs). 3Period of record starts in July 1939. 3 Since 1938 total diversion (navigation plus domestic pumpage) has averaged 88 m /s (3,100 cfs). However, higher flows were authorized on two occasions by the U. S. 4Supreme Court. 3 Since 1950 total diversion (navigation and hydropower) has averaged 198 m /S 5(7,000 cfs). 3 Since 1929 during navigation season this diversion has amounted to 31 m /s (1,100 cfs). Since 1956 there has been no diversion during winter months. volumetric changes are generally referred to TABLE 4-20 Average Levels of the Great as lake level fluctuations and apply to the en- Lakes, IGLD (1955), 1937-1969 (Meters) tire lake. They involve time periods of suffi- cient duration to allow absorption of any local Superior Michigan-Huron Erie Ontario t at at at short-period variations, so that entire water Period Maraquette Harbor Beach Cleveland Oswego surface can be assumed to be level. The local January 183.00 176.01 173.66 74.40 short-period variations, classified as water February 182.93 176.01 173.68 74.42 level disturbances, do not involve volumetric March 182.89 176.02 173.76 74.50 April 182.92 176.09 173.92 74.71 changes but displacement of water level May 183.04 176.19 174.03 74.85 caused primarily by winds and variations in June 183.13 172.26 174.07 74.92 July 183.20 176.32 174.06 74.88 barometric pressure. Water level disturb- August 183.23 176.30 174.00 74.77 ances are discussed in Section 6, while detailed September 183.23 176.25 173.90 74.64 discussion of lake levels is given in Appendix October 183.20 176.19 173.79 74.51 November 183.15 176.13 173.70 74.44 11, Levels and Flows. December 183.08 176.08 173.68 74.42 The water level fluctuations represent stor- Annual 183.08 176.15 173.85 74.62 age or depletion of water in the lakes. Seasonal fluctuations undergo a relatively regular cy- 4.11.2 Change in Storage cle; high levels usually occur in the summer and low in the winter. The change in storage on the lakes for any Hydrometeorology 101 TABLE 4-21 Average Change in Storage on reduce possible effects of short-term water the Great Lakes, 1937-1969 (Centimeters) level disturbances (Quinn '635a Quinn and, - Todd635b). 1 Michigan- 3 4 The coordinated average change in storage Period �Rperior Huron 2 Erie Ontario for monthly and annual periods on each lake January -6.7 -2.1 0.6 0.9 during the 1937-69 period is shown in Table February -5.2 0.0 2.4 3.4 4-21. Since the change in lake storage is March -2.1 4.0 14.0 15.2 primarily a seasonal phenomenon, the long- April 9.1 11.3 15.5 21.3 term annual values should be small due to May 11.3 8.2 6.4 11.0 balancing of rising and falling lake levels, as June 8.8 6.7 1.8 0.3 July 4.0 0.9 -4.3 -7.6 indicated in the table. The average seasonal August 1.8 -3.4 -8.5 -12.8 change in storage varies with latitude. The September -1.8 -5.8 -10.7 -13.4 lower lakes have rising lake levels during win- October -4.9 -6.7 -9.4 -10.7 ter and spring, and falling lake levels during November -5.8 -4.6 -4.9 -4.3 December -8.5 -5.8 0.0 -1.8 summer and fall. This distribution is delayed by approximately one month on Lakes Annual 0.0 2.7 2.9 1.5 Michigan-Huron and by a full season (3 months) on Lake Superior. The highest aver- Note: Change in storage determined from 10-day age monthly rise was approximately 11 cm on means (5 at end and 5 at beginning of fol- Lakes Superior and Michigan-Huron, 16 em on lowing month) by averaging records from the Lake Erie, and 21 cm on Lake Ontario; the 1 following gages: highest average monthly decline was approx- Thunder Bay, Duluth, Michipicoten, Marquette, imately 8 cm for Lake Superior, 7 em for Lakes 2and Pt. Iroquois. Milwaukee, Ludington, Mackinaw City, Harbor Beach, Michigan-Huron, 11 em for Lake Erie, and 13 3Thessalon, and Goderich. em for Lake Ontario. During individual years 4Cleveland and Port Stanley. the variation in annual and monthly change in Oswego, Kingston, Cobourg, Toronto, Port Weller, lake storage may be considerable. In extreme and Rochester. cases this range may exceed several times the highest average monthly change in storage on given period is determined from the change in each lake. lake levels. Mean lake levels for several days The change in storage discussed above in- are used for the determination of beginning- cludes volumetric changes, which are affected of-period levels. This minimizes the effect of by water density variations. A mass of water external forces such as winds or barometric expands or contracts as it is heated or cooled. pressure. The mean level of a lake at any given The amount of expansion or contraction de- time is determined by averaging recorded pends on the change in temperature and depth levels of several gages, situated at points to which this change becomes effective (ther- around the lakes in a pattern selected to pro- mocline depth). Investigations of the thermal vide good approximation of the whole lake expansion of water in the Great Lakes indicate level. that thermal expansion is insignificant and In recent years, the gage patterns used for may be disregarded (Hunt'395 Derecki 214). determination of lake storage have been coor- - dinated by the Lake Survey and Canadian 4.12 Heat Budget agencies to provide consistent values in both countries. These gage patterns consist of five The interaction of the various climatic and gages for Lake Superior, six gages for Lakes hydrologic elements results in heating and Michigan-Huron and Ontario, and two gages cooling processes within the lakes. Some proc- for Lake Erie. Each determination is based on esses take place at the lake surface and are ten days of recorded levels (five at the end of transmitted through the water body while one month and five at the beginning of the others produce heat changes by mixing of the next month). This determination period is water masses. Meteorological factors such as rather long for the beginning-of-month levels. radiation, air temperature, precipitation, and In other determinations four (two plus two) or evaporation affect surface temperature, while two (one plus one) days were normally used. winds contribute to the deepening of the sur- The most recent determination is based on two face layer. Hydrologic factors such as runoff, days of recorded levels (one at end and one at inflow, and outflow cause temperature beginning of month), employing more gages changes by horizontal movement of water weighted by the Thiesson polygon method to mass. 102 Appendix 4 HEAT ABSORBE = conduction of sensible heat to or OR LOST By + 400 Qh LAKE ONTARIO from the atmosphere GAIN Q, = energy utilized by evaporation - 0 Qt = energy storage within the body of Loss water. - -400 The heat budget for Lake Ontario, the only ABSORBED lake for which such determination has been SOLAR RADIATI - +400 made (Rodgers and Anderson '675 Bruce and 1@ Z Rodgers,108 and RodgerS672), is presented in 0 1@ Figure 4-100. The largest energy change is .6 produced by the absorption and loss of heat by LONG-WAVE 200 the lake water mass; the lake gains heat dur- RADIATION LOSS ing spring and summer months and loses heat in the fall and winter. The radiation processes EVAPORATION 0 produce both gain and loss of heat; the lake d absorbs heat from solar radiation and loses _200- heat through the longwave radiation ex- SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER change between water surface and atmos- phere. Evaporation cools the water surface -200 and produces heat loss, except during spring when slight condensation produces small heat J I F I M A I M J I J A S 1 0 1 N D gain. The transfer of sensible heat to the at- MONTH OF THE YEAR mosphere results from the air-water tempera- ture differences; the lake surface is cooler FIGURE 4-100 The Heat Budget of Lake On- than air and gains heat in the spring and tario summer, and the process is reversed in the fall From Rodgers, 1969 and winter. The net effect of all these proc- esses is to produce heat gain during the spring-summer period and heat loss during The heating and cooling processes are sum- fall and winter months. marized in the heat budget of the lakes, which The heat budgets for the other lakes would represents the amount of energy gained or lost follow generally similar patterns, although by the lakes during various temperature the amounts of energy contained in various changes. There are five basic energy or heat processes would differ depending on the hy- processes affecting the Great Lakes. The four drometeorological conditions on each lake. major processes include energy produced by The accuracy of heat budget presented for radiation, sensible heat transfer to or from the Lake Ontario may be sufficient to indicate atmosphere, heat loss by evaporation, and general trends for various energy processes, energy storage within the lake. A fifth process but evaporation studies show that accuracy of net advected energy may be important lo- should be improved for successful application cally, especially at the mouths of the inflow to the solution of practical problems. This was rivers and near the effluents of sewage dis- one of the objectives of the International Field posal or cooling water from power plants. Year for the Great Lakes, an intensive field However, this process has very little effect on observation program conducted on Lake On- the total heat content of the lakes because tario in 1972. such inflows with substantial difference in temperatures are relatively small. The energy exchange may be expressed by the equation: 4.13 Water Budget 0. + Qv = Qb + Qh+ Qe + Qt where Q, = net solar radiation (incident 4.13.1 Water Budget Computations 0 L 77@n_r -1 _@ minus reflected) Qv = net advected energy (heat due to The water budget of the Great Lakes is an water input minus output and accounting of all incoming and outgoing wa- snow melt) ter, such as inflow and outflow by the rivers, Qb= net terrestrial radiation (emitted supply from and storage in the ground, over- minus atmospheric) water precipitation, evaporation, and varia- Hydrometeorology 103 TABLE 4-22 Average Water Budget, 1937-1969 (Centimeters) Balance Water Supply Waterloss StoraRe Needed Lake P R 1 0 E LS B Superior 80 58 0 86 55 0 -3 Michigan-Huron 80 67 60 139 65 3 .0 Erie 88 72 640 706 85 3 6 Ontario 84 150 927 1,077 70 2 12 P + R + I - 0 - E AS = �B P = precipitation on the lake surface R = runoff from drainage area (surface and underground) I = inflow from the upstream lakes 0 = outflow to the lake below E = evaporation from the lake surface AS = change in storage of water in the lake B = balance needed NOTE: Diversions are included in runoff, inflow, or outflow, where applicable. Evaporation values are the long-term estimates, not necessarily applicable to.this 33-year period. tion of water storage in the lakes. These water tion of these factors for each lake. The differ- budget factors are interrelated in the hy- ences needed for balancing of the major fac- drologic cycle, which is composed of a per- tors represent a combination of any possible petual sequence of events governing the de- ground-water flow and cumulative errors in pletion and replenishment of water in the Ba- estimating other factors. For most lakes these sin. The Great Lakes water budget may be differences are quite small for the average an- expressed by the equation: nual values, and are well within the limits of P + R + I = 0 + E -t AS error. The largest difference, for Lake On- tario, is approximately equal to 15 percent of where P = precipitation on the lake surface precipitation or evaporation, 8 percent of R = runoff from drainage area (sur- runoff, or 1 percent of inflow or outflow. For face and underground) shorter monthly periods and for individual I = inflow from the upstream lakes years, the percent differences should increase 0 = outflow to the lake below significantly, because the effect of compensat- E = evaporation from the lake surface ing reduction of random errors would be AS = change in storage of water in the smaller. lake (plus if storage increases, Further studies pertaining to the water minus if decreases) budget of the Great Lakes should be directed In practical applications the water budget towards elimination of existing gaps in pres- equation may be modified by eliminating all ent knowledge, improvement of data collection factors that are negligible or not applicable to networks, comparability of measurement ac- individual lakes (e.g., inflow for Lake Supe- curacies for various factors, development and rior). Factors other than those listed may also implementation of new measurement meth- be included. For example, runoff and ground ods, and closer coordination of these efforts in water may be treated separately, and diver- both countries. sions may be included as a separate factor. The average annual water budget for the 1937-69 period is shown in Table 4-22, which 4.13.2 Importance of Water Budget contains groupings of water supply, water losses, lake storage, and algebraic accumula- Lake levels and outflows of the Great Lakes 104 Appendix 4 effectively integrate all other components of studies and investigations (e.g., Freeman '271 the water budget and are of primary interest Horton and Grunsky, 376 U.S. Congress- to lake users. However, growth of the popula- Senate 817,821) . Knowledge of the magnitudes tion and economy of the area has resulted in and variations of the individual water budget an increase in and diversification of demands components is needed for the improvement of for lake water, and the competition for its use forecasts of lake levels and outflows, for the is increasing rapidly. Use of the lakes for navi- refinement of lake regulation plans, and for gation, water power, municipal and industrial determination of the effects of diversions into water supplies, sanitation, irrigation, fish and and out of the system. Because of the vastness wildlife, recreation, and other riparian inter- of the Great Lakes, changes in lake levels take ests frequently results in conflicting demands, place rather slowly and advanced information some of which are detrimental to water qual- on the expected stages is of great interest to ity. To provide optimum utilization and pres- navigation, hydropower, and for shore protec- ervation of the lakes, a thorough understand- tion. For Lakes Superior and Ontario, the only ing of the entire hydrologic cycle of the system lakes presently regulated, accurate forecasts is necessary. are even more important to permit planning The importance of the water budget to lake for the most beneficial operation of the reg- water resources has been recognized in many ulating structures. Section 5 GREAT LAKES ICE COVER Donald R. Rondy 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Lake Ice Genesis The Great Lakes are located directly on a The winter or ice season on the Great Lakes path of major storm systems (Figure 4-13) can be classified into three phases: cooling which generate a variety of weather patterns. phase, ice formation phase, and breakup or Air temperature is the most important factor fragmentation phase. affecting ice formation. The temperature range across the Great Lakes Basin is illus- trated by a comparison of the January 5.2.1 Cooling monthly mean temperature at Cleveland and Duluth. At Cleveland, Ohio, on the south shore Many factors determine the severity of an of Lake Erie, the January mean temperature ice season and among the most important are is -2.5*C (27.5'F), and at Duluth, Minnesota, on the amount of thermal energy stored in the Lake Superior, it is -12.9'C (8.8'F), a differ- mass of water and the rate at which convective ence of more than 10'C. These wide differences mixing takes place. At the end of the summer in temperature also account for variations in the lakes are fairly well stratified and usually the severity and the length of the winter sea- contain a well-developed thermocline. As the son which in turn determine the length of the air temperature drops below the water tem- ice cover period. The winter period, which is perature, the fall cooling phase begins. The related to the ice season, is generally consid- cold air in contact with the water cools the ered to begin when the daily average air tem- water and the density differences due to perature first drops to O'C and lasts until it thermal stratification are reduced, thus allow- again rises above freezing. This period is dif- ing wind-induced mixing to penetrate deeper ferent for each lake and varies from 82 days at and deeper into the water mass. When the Cleveland to 150 days at Duluth. For compari- water column is isothermal at VC (39'F), den- son, the mean number of days during which sity differences are so slight that wind- minimum temperatures are O'C and below var- generated turbulence and convective mixing ies from 119 days at Cleveland to 191 days at keep the water column fairly well mixed and Duluth. The mean date of the first O'C temper- isothermal. This fall turnover ceases at tem- atures in the autumn also has a considerable peratures below 4'C. As the water tempera- range and varies from September 24 at Duluth ture continues to fall stratification again oc- to November 2 at Cleveland. In the spring the curs which limits deep mixing by wind action. average date of last O'C temperature varies Heat loss at this time affects only the thin, top from April 21 at Cleveland to May 22 at layer of water and consequently this surface is Duluth. Although the period of daily average much more responsive to temperature fluctu- temperatures below freezing is as long as 150 ations. days at Duluth, the ice season is considerably During a cooling period a large lake of sub- shorter. It usually begins in late December stantial depth is warmer than the air. This and continues until early April with the actual causes currents of warmed air to rise from the length of season changing from lake to lake. lake surface and allows cold air to move onto Donald R. Rondy, Lake Survey Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Detroit, Michigan. 105 106 Appendix 4 the lake from shore. The result is that the shal- are formed on the Great Lakes. The first is the low offshore waters are cooled more rapidly ice formed by the rapid freezing of surface than the central lake areas. If the air tempera- water in the absence of wind and snow. This is tures are not low enough and the heat lost by a smooth homogeneous cover called sheet ice direct radiation is not great enough to remove and is the strongest and purest form of lake the heat faster than it is conducted upward ice. The second is a form made of fused indi- through the water column, then the central vidual ice pieces. This type of cover is produced lake area may never reach the freezing point. by the breaking up and refreezing of thin or The heat storage capacity of the lake then be- newly formed sheet ice. Snowfall on the lake comes a function of its area and depth and the surface during initial ice formation also con- position of the thermocline reflects the tributes to this type of ice cover. The ice amount of stored heat. These two factors de- forme4 by these two conditions, fusing and termine when the lake will become isothermal snowfall, is generally referred to as and ultimately when an ice cover will form. agglomeratic ice. The agglomeratic ice has a more complex character than sheet ice. It generally contains 5.2.2 Ice Formation ice of various ages combined with snow masses that have been welded together by new lake After the surface water of the lake has ice. This ice is usually formed when weather cooled to the freezing point and the latent heat allows the breakup of a thin, young ice sheet. of fusion, i.e., heat required to melt or freeze a The broken, drifting ice is forced together, be- unit mass of ice without a change in tempera- comes fragmented again, is reconsolidated by ture, has been given up, crystallization begins. wind and wave action, and then refreezes dur- Ice begins to form along the shore and ice nee- ing the next cold spell. During the ice season dles branch out over the water surface. The ice there may be many freeze-breakup cycles and needles spread until the nearshore surface is snowfalls, each of which add to the intricacy of covered with a thin ice layer. The extent of this the agglomeratic ice. When a heavy snow falls ice layer depends on existing meteorological on the lake surface and the water is not warm conditions. The ice needles extend rapidly over enough to melt it, it forms a water-saturated the surface if the water is supercooled (a liquid snow blanket. This snow blanket is broken up cooled beyond its nominal freezing point). If it by waves and forms snow or slush balls or is not supercooled, the ice layer gradually snow-slush pans, which, upon freezing, are in- grows out from shore until the surface has cluded in the ice cover. The pans are generally become covered. The supercooling of water is circular in shape and have raised rims due to possible if the lake is undisturbed, but if wind contact with one another. and current cause agitation, it is almost im- In the development of the ice cover the same possible to cool the water much below O'C. ice structure often reappears consistently in Another factor that tends to limit supercool- the same location, particularly in bays and ing is the latent heat of fusion. When the protected areas where shoreline configuration supercooled water freezes it releases 80 is a dominant factor in exposure to wind calories of latent heat per gram. This release stresses. of heat raises the temperature of the sur- Any appreciable accretion of ice cover on the rounding water and rapidly brings it to O'C. lakes first occurs in the sheltered bays and The quantity of supercooled water on the lakes harbors and in a narrow fringe along the must therefore be quite small. As the stored shoreline. Parallel ridges of shore ice are usu- heat passes up the water column and through ally found alongshore as the ice fringe de- the ice by conduction, the ice gradually be- velops. The parallel ridges are usually re- comes thicker. ferred to as ice foot formations and are the The building of an ice cover is a very complex result of freezing spray from the surf zone and procedure and many hydrometeorological fac- consolidation of drift ice and slush. The ice foot tors influence its formation. However, ice for- mass builds on the perimeter of large bodies of mation, and ice thickening in particular, is water that remain ice-free far into the winter controlled mostly by air temperature. The re- season. moval of heat from the ice surface by conduc- Once the ice cover is established, it thickens tion, radiation, evaporation, and the presence through accretion from below. By this process of snow is also very important in the ice forma- the ice thickens at the ice-water interface and tion phase. the rate of ice growth is determined by the There are two general types of ice cover that temperature gradient through the ice. Exam- Ice Cover 107 Lake St. Clair Lake 51, Clair Ice Observation Ice Observation Ice Thickness Vs. Temperature Ice Thickness Vs, Temperature :oring4'1 No Snow Cover Borin * I-:i No Snow Cover .rint;- I Borin:* 2- Borin g Xt 3- X J Snow Cover Bo,ing* 3-X Snow C over aoring'&4-D Air Temp. -II'C 0300 Boring* A-0 Air Temp. -13'C(9'F) 'F -F Ice Surface 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 16 18 20 22 2A 26 28 30 32 r Ice Surface X 0.05 0 2 0.05 X Cl 2 3 3 0.10 0 X 4 0.10 0 4 0 X 5 X 5 0.15 0,15 . 6 6 X 2 0-20 st 0,20 - 8 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -A -3 -2 -1 0 1 9 Ice Temperature -C 0,25 FIGURE 4-101 Temperature Profile Through -9 -8 7 -6 -5 -4 3 -2 -1 0 1 a 20 cm Ice Cover on Lake St. Clair. Samples Ice Temperature T taken at 8:00 pm, February 2,1965. Air tempera- ture was -13'C (9'F). FIGURE 4-102 Temperature Profile Through a 25 cin Ice Cover on Lake St. Clair. Samples ples of this temperature gradient (Figures taken at 8:15 pm, February 4,1965. Air tempera- 4-101 and 4-102) indicate a temperature dif- ture was -11'C (13-F). ference between the ice-water interface and the ice-air boundary on snow-free ice of ap- areas is the result of lake effect, orographic proximately 8'C. The insulating effect of the influence, and prevailing winds. The snowfall snow cover is illustrated by the increase of the factor affects the ice cover in two basic ways. ice surface temperature under only a few First, it controls the thickness of the ice cover inches of snow. The temperature difference by acting as an insulator between the air and through snow-6overed ice was reduced to ap- ice surface and effectively reduces the tem- proximately 5'C. Ice forms a protective shield perature gradient through the ice. Secondly, against wave action and tends to reduce heat the weight of the snow cover depresses the ice, loss to the atmosphere. By limiting the quan- causing fractures and cracks that allow water tity of heat lost from the water mass, protec- from below, which is under pressure, to flow to tion is also given to temper ature-sen sitive the ice surface and flood and wet the overlay- biota. During the period of ice cover, water ing snow. When this water and wet snow temperatures range from O'C at the ice-water freeze, a whitish ice mass, which is generally interface to nearly VC at the deep-lake bot- called snow ice, is formed. In areas of large tom. snow accumulation snow ice is a major part of Another factor that affects ice thickness, in the structure of both sheet ice and agglomera- addition to air temperature, is snowfall. This tic ice types. factor is particularly important in the Great The stages of ice formation are defined by a Lakes Region where the mean annual series of terms, many of which have been bor- snowfall varies from 91 cm to 254 cm. Annual rowed from sea-ice terminology. The more fre- X 0-.0 X 0 accumulation of snowfall during severe win- quently used terms for the various stages of ters is more than doubled on the south and the ice cycle include: east shores of Lake Superior, the southeast- (1) New ice is a general term for newly ern end of Lake Erie, and the eastern end of formed ice which includes frazil, slush, ice Lake Ontario. Extensive snowfall in these rind, and pancake. 108 Appendix 4 (2) Frazil ice is fine platelets of ice sus- also result from the direct absorbtion of solar pended in the water. This is the first stage of radiation in the vicinity and contact with freezing and gives an opaque appearance to warm air. When the air temperature rises the water surface. above freezing, the snow cover and upper por- (3) Slush is water-saturated snow floating tions of the ice sheet are melted first, causing as a viscous mass on the water surface after a pools or puddles of melt water to form. A heavy snowfall. unique feature of these melt water puddles is (4) Ice rind is a thin, elastic crust of ice that when they are refrozen, they turn a bril- formed by the freezing of slush or frazil on a liant sky-blue color. The blue color has been quiet surface. Ice rind is easily broken by wind attributed to the scattering of light by the or waves. slight differences in the concentration of the (5) Pancake ice is circular pieces of newly ice molecules. The deeper the blue color, the formed ice, from .5 m to 3 m in diameter, with purer the ice. Any impurities in the ice can raised rims caused by the pieces striking to- perceptibly alter the color. gether due to wind and wave action. Continued warm weather causes melting (6) Fast ice is ice that is generally con- along the crystal boundaries forming a loosely tained in the location where it was originally bound ice mass. Lake ice crystals are gener- formed. It may attain a considerable thickness ally in a pronounced columnar structure. Lake and is found attached to shore or held in place ice in this stage of melting is generally called by islands, shoals, or structures. candle ice. A unique feature of this ice type is (7) An ice foot is narrow ice fringe that is that the slightest blow from almost any object attached to and parallels the shore. It is un- will cause it to break into the characteristi- moved by low, winter water levels and remains cally long columnar crystals. after the fast ice has gone. Solar radiation is the principal source of (8) Pack ice is a general term used to in- heat gained by the ice cover. The albedo of the clude areas of ice other than fast ice. It isdi- surface, expressed as a ratio of reflected to vided by size, age, arrangement, and concen- incident radiation, determines the quantity of tration. This term includes ice fields, ice floe, radiation absorbed. Bolsenga 76 (Table 4-23) cake, and brash. found that snow-covered ice has a total albedo (a) An ice field is a collection of floes that of 67 percent, slush ice 41 percent, and clear exceed 5 nautical miles. lake ice 10 percent. The higher albedo of (b) An ice noeis a basic term usually used snow-covered ice emphasizes the insulating for a single piece of pack ice. effect of snow cover. In this case it shields the (c) A cake is ice fragments up to 11 m underlying lake ice from solar radiation. across. There is usually more rapid melting along the (d) A brash is small ice fragments up to 2 shore of the lakes because the darker, m across. sediment-contaminated shore materials ab- (9) The melt stage incorporates the last sorb a greater amount of solar radiation be- stage of the ice cycle during which melting cause of their reduced albedo. occurs. The melt stage includes puddles, thaw The water over the ice has a much higher holes, and rotten ice. ability to absorb heat from solar radiation, (a) Puddles are an accumulation of melt which is critical to the melting ice cover. As water on the ice due to melting snow and/or pools of water collect on the ice and open water ice. appears in the cracks and leads between the (b) A thaw hole is a circular open hole in floes, the effect of solar radiation becomes the ice that is a further development of pud- greater. Radiant heat energy also has the abil- dles. ity to penetrate to the interior of the ice mass (c) Rotten ice is an advanced stage of dis- and cause selective internal melting. With the integration of any ice type where the ice has melting along shore and the seasonal spring become honeycombed in the course of melting. rise of water levels, it is possible for the ice cover to sever any shore restraints and be- come a free floating body. In this free floating 5.2.3 Breakup condition it is highly susceptible to wind and waves acting in the open water areas. The ac- The effect of the spring warming trend is to tion induced by wind and current breaks up fragment and melt the ice cover. In general the ice cover and mixes it with warm subsur- the melting process takes place at the expense face water, which aids in the melting and ulti- of the heat of the surrounding water, but it can mate removal of the ice. Ide Cover 109 TABLE 4-23 Albedd of Ice Types with Solar Altitudes and Cloud Conditions Albedo Solar Altitude Ice Types M (degrees) Cloud Cover Clear Lake Ice 10 37 Clear Refrozen Pancake 31 32 40% Altocumulus Slush 41 38 100% Cirrostratus Brash (snow between blocks) 41 40 100% Cirrus & Cirrostratus Snow Ice 46 32 50% Cirrus & Cirrostratus Snow Covered Ice 67 41 100% Cirrostratus SOURCE: Bolsenga, 1968. 5.3 Ice Hazards period on the Great Lakes is the flooding po- tential of tributary streams and the formation An important aspect of the ice season and of of ice jams and ice dams in the connecting the breakup period in particular is the poten- channels. The southern lakes, Erie and On- tial destructive ability of the ice cover. Both tario in particular, tend to cause flooding of the lake ice cover and the ice in the connecting their tributary rivers and streams. The poten- channels and tributary streams can be de- tial for flooding exists when a number of condi- structive, but each has its own unique effect. tions have been met. There must be an exten- Because of the large, ice covered areas on sive ice cover on the lake at the river mouth, the Great Lakes, the thermal expansion and the tributary must be ice covered, and there contraction of the ice sheet during the season must be an unseasonably warm period to start ' can be considerable. As the air temperature the breakup and ice movement. The warm drops the ice sheet contracts, developing weather causes runoff into the streams, rais- cracks which fill with water and refreeze. ing their levels and accelerating the breakup When the temperature again begins to rise, and movement of the stream ice cover. The ice the warming of the ice surface causes the ice drifts downstream but is prevented from mov- sheet to expand and to generate considerable ing out into the lake by the lake ice. The drift- pressure. This pressure is relieved in two ing river ice is stopped and begins to accumu- ways: the ice sheet fractures and forms cracks late in an upstream direction where it could and thrust lines where one floe overrides possibly form jams. There appears to be a crit- another and creates a thrust or pressure ridge ical flow velocity where the drift ice will be along the line of fracture; or pressure is re- forced under the established ice cover and lieved by a linear movement of the ice sheet. travel downstream until stopped by flow con- This linear movement causes a shoreward ditions and/or obstructions. When the drift ice shift of the ice that can cause considerable is stopped, ice dams begin to build at narrows damage to shoreline structures and facilities. and constrictions in the channel. These ice During the breakup period, vast fields of dams retard flow and flooding results. The drift ice can be moved shoreward under wind flooding conditions are usually relieved by pressure and have been known to move hun- water pressure destroying the ice dams. dreds of feet inland and literally bury shore Ice bridges at the entrances to the connect- installations. As the shoreward moving ice en- ing channels and rivers of the Great Lakes counters obstructions, it disintegrates, form- must be continually observed for possible ice ing heaps and piles of broken and crushed ice dam formations. Ice dams at these points can that sometimes reach heights of 7 in or more create hydraulic pressure that becomes and occur in widely scattered areas. There ap- dangerous to downstream facilities, particu- pear to be three prerequisites to the ice pile larly if the hydraulic pressure is released in a formation: an extensive area of drift ice that is short time period. The failure of the ice dam well into the candling stage of melting; a and its resulting surge, together with the ice it gently sloping beach with a relatively smooth carries downstream can cause considerable bottom; and a very strong wind. damage. There are a number of areas on the Another aspect of the thaw and breakup Great Lakes where potential danger from ice 110 Appendix 4 jams and ice dams exists. The most critical off Buffalo Harbor from shipping until late in area is in Lake Huron at the entrance to the the spring. . St. Clair River and at the lower end of the river A number of government agencies are cur- in the vicinity of Algonac, Michigan. The head rently working on environmental problems re- of the Detroit River in Lake St. Clair and the lated to the extended season. They are exam- island area in the lower river are also trouble ining these external influences in order to spots. Another area that has special problems identify the immediate problems and to de- because of its location, is the Niagara River termine the long-term effects. Gorge below the falls. One other area that is a The extension of the navigation season is by potential trouble spot is the Sugar Island area no means an easy task and successful opera- of the St. Marys River. Longer and longer tions are presently dependent on Coast Guard navigation seasons keep the river ice broken ice breaker activities. As economies, equip- up and the drift ice becomes a flooding threat ment, and cargoes that can more easily with- because it is likely to form ice jams. With most stand the rigors of winter shipping are intro- of the danger and damage potential occurring duced, the navigation season will be extended. during breakup, this phase of the ice season is The problem of winter navigation can be di- as important as the cooling or ice formation vided into'three general parts; harbor stages. facilities, ship design, and winter navigation. 5.4 Extension of the Navigation Season 5.4.1 Harbor Facilities One other important aspect of the early ice The majority of lake shipping is engaged in season on the Great Lakes is the effect on bulk trade which require changes in opera- commercial navigation. In the past the ship- tional techniques and the winterization or ping season usually came to an end about the modification of loading-unloading equipment middle of November and did not begin again in order to adapt it for the extended naviga- until late March or mid-April. There have been tion season. The cargo itself may have to recent successful attempts to extend the ship- change its form to enable winter shipments to ping season on the Great Lakes, particularly be made. The production of taconite pellets through the St. Marys River and the Straits of from low grade iron ore is an example of a form Mackinac. change that lends itself well to winter ship- Once closed by ice, some ports are not again ment. The problem of harbor icing must be opened to shipping until early May. Few com- controlled or eliminated so that vessels can mercial vessels travel the lakes year-round. move freely to and from their berths and load- Automobile and railroad ferries cross Lake ing docks. Michigan throughout the year and a few oil tankers, with Coast Guard assistance, travel the length of the lake. The Straits of Mackinac 5.4.2 Ship Design are crossed by a railroad ferry in a year-long operation and there is some shipping between Because of the bulk trade, Great Lakes ships the ports of Toledo and Detroit through most are purposely designed to handle the most of the winter. However, many areas create dif- cargo at the least expense. They are long, low, ficulties for navigation and require ice break- narrow beamed, or shallow draft, and have a ing operations in the spring before lake com- blunt bow. The bow configuration in conjunc- merce can begin. The most difficult of these tion with the driving power does not lend itself areas are the St. Marys River and Whitefish to passages through heavy ice. Many ocean- Bay. Other critical areas include the Straits of going cargo vessels now enter the Great Lakes Mackinac and the island area of northern and these ships with their ocean travel hulls Lake Michigan and the lower St. Clair River- are somewhat better suited for winter opera- Lake St. Clair-Detroit River waterway. An tions. If winter-long navigation becomes a re- early ice cover on Lake St. Clair causes jam- ality, modification of the lake vessels will be a ming in the channels above the lake and drift necessity. One additional problem to be solved ice in the Detroit River causes problems in the is that of superstructure icing. This icing adds island area of the lower river. The extreme many hundreds of tons to vessel weight and eastern end of Lake Erie is another problem reduces the stability factor in the open lake. area. The prevailing winds and currents con- The increased load of the ice could also cause centrate drift ice in this area and tend to seal problems in the shallow connecting channels. Ice Cover 111 5.4.3 Winter Navigation dusting time. In areas where late heavy snowfalls are not unusual, a second applica- Many of the navigation aids are removed for tion of dusting material is often necessary. the winter, making vessels dependent on only Dusting acts to reduce an ice cover by surficial. the remaining year-round aids. This causes and internal melting. Surficial melting is navigation problems that become critical in caused by the absorption of solar radiation by the narrow, restricted connecting channels. the dust particles which create melt puddles. Extreme caution is also necessary when These puddles in turn absorb radiation and traversing extensive ice fields to insure that cause the ice surface to become pitted. Inter- any shifting of the field does not move the ship nal melting proceeds as the dust particles melt over shoal areas. down into the ice cover creating many needle- like tubes of water which cause the ice to be- come honeycombed. The absorption of heat 5.5 Ice Removal and Control and the resulting melting loosens the ice crys- tal bond and speeds the breakup of the ice Much information is available on methods to cover. control or remove ice cover. There are two Melting from the bottom of an ice sheet is basic techniques: breaking and melting of ice. usually accomplished through the use of a bubbler system or a thermal check valve. Both systems are used to increase the movement of 5.5.1 Breaking heat from the bottom regions of a body of water to the surface. These two systems cause Breaking is usually accomplished by ships vertical currents to transport the warmer with ice breaking capability and to a limited deep waters to the surface. The bubbler uses extent by explosives. These are brute force small air bubbles rising to the surface to start techniques but are valuable under particular these vertical currents in motion and the circumstances. The use of ice breakers to con- check valve relies on differential tempera- trol ice and aid navigation is presently the tures to promote the same action. The bubbles most practical for great distances and large and vertical currents obviously stop at the ice areas. Explosives, although useful in special surface, but the momenitum of the vertical situations, are generally undesirable and currents is transferred to the horizontal direc- have a harmful effect on the ecosystem. tion spreading radially and symetrically at the surface. The water surface at the ice-water interface must be, by necessity, at O'C (32'F) 5.5.2 Melting and when the vertical currents reach the ice surface they sweep away the cold water and The technique of melting can be divided into replace it with the warm water from below. two separate classes: melting at the surface This method, then, leads to a large effective ice through the use of chemicals and dust; and melting rate. melting from the bottom of the ice sheet utiliz- ingbubbler systems and thermal check valves. The use of chemicals to melt ice and snow is 5.6 Ice Cover not generally used on lake or river ice cover, but dusting has been used to reduce albedo The location of the Great Lakes in the tem- and to conduct heat (solar energy) to the ice or perate zone together with their great water snow cover. Materials used in dusting include volume insures that the freezing period is not coal dust, cinders, fly ash, and sand. Successful long enough nor severe enough to cause a materials are those that for the most part are lakewide, solid, stable ice cover to form. Unlike inert, but their effect on the environment Arctic regions, the ice cover on the lakes does should be thoroughly evaluated. Dusting is not remain from year to year, but it is formed, best carried out from aircraft because of the accumulated, broken up, and melted in a large areas involved and the relatively inac- single season. cessible locations. Weather conditions are the A simple sequence of ice formation rarely deciding factor when choosing the optimum occurs on the lakes because of the variable time to dust. Dusting is most effective when weather conditions that prevail during the air temperatures are near freezing or higher. winter months. Extremely low air tempera- Periods of high temperatures and signs of tures may occur for a number of days allowing natural breakup are good indicators of prime an extensive, but thin, ice cover to form. The 112 Appendix 4 95* 93* 91, 39* 87* 85* 83* 79' 77' 75* 73* 49* ICE COVER LEGEIM 49* 10 tenths concentration 7 9 tenths concentration 4 6 tenths concentration JANUARY 20 30 1 3 tenths concentration 47. open water 47' JANUARY 25 FEBRUARY 5 CP JAN. 25 FEB. 5 43' JANUARY 25 FEBRUARY 5 'k. 43* JANUARY 5-15 JANUARY 15 25 41' - KILOMETERS 41* STATUTE MILES L 93' 91* 89* 37* 85* 83' 81' ?9* 77* 71. FIGURE 4-103 Patterns of Early Ice Cover on the Great Lakes, with Average Dates cold spell may be followed by warm weather few centimers to a meter or more in protected and strong winds, and consequently the thin areas. A lake-ice thickness of 1.27 m was re- ice cover is broken up and concentrated on a ported in the Duluth area of Lake Superior. As lee shore or melted in the lake by upwelling the ice cover forms in shallow protected bays, warm water. The effects of winds, currents, and builds out from shore, wind and wave ac- and upwelling upon the ice cover causes its tion break it up. The broken ice is reconsoli- areal extent and distribution to change dated to form floes and fields that move out rapidly. Large lake-surface areas also influ- into the lake and sometimes cover as much as ence the ice cover by causing it to react to 90 percent of the surface area. Figures 4-103, water level fluctuations. Water level changes 4-104, and 4-105 illustrate typical patterns of tend to keep the ice in a fluid state and make it ice distribution, accretion, and breakup across more susceptible to wind and current action. the Great Lakes Basin. The dates of various Ice cover on the Great Lakes is made up of stages of the ice season are also indicated. ice of various ages and types, but it acts as a lee cover on the Great Lakes is affected by homogenous ice sheet as long as air tempera- many hydrometeorological factors, but each tures remain below freezing. Long fetches lake has its own characteristics that affect ice across the lakes allow the wind and wave formation and distribution. forces to attain considerable strength and cause the ice cover to undergo almost constant changes. As the ice cover moves and changes, 5.6.1 Lake Superior it rafts and forms ridges that in some areas reach a height of 7 m to 8 m and are grounded This lake, the largest and deepest of the on the bottom 9 m to 14 m below the surface. Great Lakes, has an extremely large heat Lake-ice thickness normally varies from a storage capacity. Winds, waves, and currents Ice Cover 95* 93* ql* $9, 87* 85, 83' 79* 77* 75* 73' 49' ICE COVER LEGEND 49' 10 tenths concentration 7 9tenths concentration 4 6tenths concentration MARCH 25 APRIL 5 1 3tenths concentration 47* open water 47' 3' MARCH 20 30 45* - 45* . . . . . . . . . . MARCH 10-20 43' MARCH 15 25 43' JANUARY 20-30 28 FEBRUARY 20 KILOMETERS 41* . W,-- @Xom STATUTE MILES ir-'. 'W 93* 91, 89* 87* 85, 83' 811 79* 77* 75* FIGURE 4-104 Maximum Ice Cover Distribution on the Great Lakes, with Average Dates acting together with the stored heat energy mately 150 days, gives Lake Superior the have a more pronounced effect on the ice cover greatest ice cover of all the Great Lakes. Ice than on any other lake. Upwelling currents thickness in excess of 1 m in the harbors along change the extent and distribution of ice, and the north shore is common. cause melting wherever they come in contact The composition of the ice cover ranges from with the ice cover even though air tempera- fast, thick, winter ice and areas of consolidated tures are below freezing. young ice, rind, and pancake, to vast areas of Under normal climatic conditions the period pack ice. The pack ice is made up of fields and of ice formation begins in January and con- floes of drifting brash and cake. Normally the tinues to maximum accumulation in the last ice covers 60 percent of the surface area and week of March. The areas other than harbors during seasons of severe cold has been esti- that have the first extensive ice formation are mated to cover 95 percent of the lake surface. the bays along the north shore, the Apostle This vast ice surface covers approximately Islands area, and the lower St. Marys River. 77,000 kM2 (30,000 Mi 2) . The ice thickness, sur- Ice cover progresses until the shallows along face area, and ice season length make the dis- the lake perimeter are covered. In some areas position of ice cover on Lake Superior the most the perimeter cover extends many miles out similar to ice cover in the Arctic regions. into the lake. That area of the lake located between Stannard Rock and Caribou Island in the easteri basin is generally ice free except 5.6.2 Lake Michigan for isolated areas of drift ice. The dates of the greatest areal extent of ice cover will, in gen- Lake Michigan, because of its north-south eral, vary from March 25 along the south shore orientation and 480 km (300 mi) length, may to April 5 along the north shore. The northern have ice formation and deterioration happen- location and the ice season duration, approxi- ing simultaneously. For example, the March 114 Appendix 4 95, 93* 91* 89, 87* 85* 83* 81. 79* 77* 75* 73- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T-7 ICE COVER LEGEND 49, 49, 10 tenths concentration 7 9 tenths concentration 4 6 tenths concentration APRIL 1 10 1 3 tenths concentration A, open water 47' 47' -1 -A. MARCH 25 APRIL 5 45* 45' - MARCH 15-25 43- 43' MARCH 20 30 FEB. 25-MAR. 5 February 25 MARCH 5 41' - KILOMETFRS 41' STATU@@E MILES'w 93* 91, 891 87* 85* 83* 811 79* 77* FIGURE 4-105 Ice Cover Breakup on the Great Lakes, with Average Dates monthly mean air temperature ranges from ing floes along the shore, and even during a 2.5'C (36.5'F) at Benton Harbor, Michigan in mild season, the drift ice is consolidated and the south to -3.20C (26.2'F) at Escanaba, can extend from shore out into the lake a dis- Michigan in the north. With this temperature tance of 16 km to 24 km. The distribution of ice, range it is evident that ice can be melting in particularly pack ice, is primarily governed by the south and forming in the north. wind and current patterns. The period of extensive ice formation begins The ice thickness on Lake Michigan varies about the last week of January and continues considerably and generally ranges from 20 cm until around the third week of March. Under to 25 em at Chicago Harbor to more than 76 em normal conditions the greatest extent of ice in Little Bay de Noe. The Straits and island cover occurs between March 15 and March 25 area usually present formidable ice ridges, and covers 40 percent of the lake surface. The some having depths as great as 9 in, which first ice formation i's in Green Bay and Little become hazardous for shipping during Bay de Noe, located in the northwest portion of breakup. Many harbors along the Michigan the lake. These areas are protected from the shore are closed to shipping for short periods warming effect of the deep lake and are the of time because of concentrations of drift ice at first to cool and produce an ice cover. As the ice their entrances. This drift ice is sometimes season progresses, the Straits of Mackinac consolidated to a depth of over 2 in and can be and the shallow areas north of Beaver Island penetrated by only the most powerful vessels. begin to collect an ice cover. The ice forms and accumulates in a southerly direction with a relatively rapid buildup along the Fox Islands 5.6.3 Lake Huron and a slower growth rate around the southern perimeter. The circular surface current pat- The orientation and patterns of ice forma- terns of the southern basin distribute drift- tion on Lake Huron are quite similar to those Ice Cover 115 of Lake Michigan, however, the temperature on the east side of the lake in the Mitchell Bay differences between the north and south are area. Ice cover accumulates much faster in the not as great. Average March temperatures eastern half of the lake and, because of winds vary from approximately VC (34'F) at Port and currents, the western side of the lake is Huron on the southern end of the lake to the last to become ice covered. At breakup the -3.40C (25.9'.F) at Mackinaw City on the western side is the first area to be cleared of Straits. Lake "Huron also has large areas that ice. The lake becomes ice covered early in the are protected from deep lake currents. These season, generally dur*ing the last of January, areas are the North Channel, which is one of however, it has become completely covered in the first areas to become ice covered, and early January a number of times. During the Georgian Bay, which tends to react to ice for- period of greatest ice cover, the distribution mation as an individual lake. Georgian Bay varies from thick, fast ice in the bays and pro- has the characteristic accumulation of shore tected areas to heavy, consolidated floes of ice and ice cover in the bays and harbors. As brash and cake in the mid-lake shipping chan- the winter progresses the growth of the ice nel. The head of the Detroit River is usually ice cover extends towards the middle areas. Lake free the entire season except for minor jam- Huron proper has three areas that form and ming when drift ice becomes concentrated in accumulate extensive ice cover early in the the area. An early ice cover on Lake St. Clair season: the Straits in the north, Saginaw Bay, also poses a potential navigation problem for and the soutliern basin in the Port Huron commercial shipping because the vessels must area. stay within the narrow dredged channel in the During a normal ice season, 60 percent of the lake. lake becomes ice covered during the period The breakup period of the Lake St. Clair ice March 20 to March 30. At the time of greatest cover is relatively short. As breakup progres- ice cover fast ice covers the Straits area east- ses, winds and currents move the drifting ice ward to Bois Blanc Island, Thunder Bay at to the entrance to the Detroit River where Alpena, Michigan, and Saginaw Bay out to strong river currents move it out of the lake Charity Island. The southern basin, because of and downstream. The lake is usually ice free in the water current patterns, collects large early March. amounts of drifting ice that may become heav- ily concentrated at the entrance to the St. Clair River near Port Huron. The remainder of 5.6.5 Lake Erie the lake usually contains extensive areas of drifting floes, brash, and cake with the deep Lake Erie reacts rapidly to seasonal tem- central area remaining almost ice free. The perature changes, and due to its shallow lake clears rapidly of ice in the spring and usu- depth, it is the most thermally unstable of the ally by April 5 only the North Channel, the Great Lakes. Because of the rapid response to Straits of Mackinac, and Saginaw Bay contain air temperatures the lake can accumulate a any extensive ice cover. considerable ice cover in a short period of time. Lake Erie develops the most extensive ice cover of any of the Great Lakes; however, be- 5.6.4 Lake St. Clair cause of its thermal instability, the develop- ment of the ice cover from year to year is Lake St. Clair usually is not included in the highly variable. Great Lakes system, but its strategic location Lake Erie first produces an extensive ice between the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers cover in the shallow, western basin and in the makes it important. This lake has an average Long Point Bay area to the east. The ice cover depth of only 3.4 in with the deepest points begins to accumulate in early January and is located in the dredged shipping channels. The usually at its maximum by the last week of depth and small surface area of Lake St. Clair February. cause it to react quickly to wind conditions and This lake in the Great Lakes system is sub- air temperature changes. The prevailing jected to temperatures that fluctuate from winds, currents, and inflow from the various above to below freezing during the winter channels of the St. Clair River affect the ice months, and these fluctuations have a consid- cover and its distribution to a considerable de- erable effect upon the ice cover. In mid- gree. January daily average air temperatures at Early ice formation generally occurs in An- Cleveland, for example, have been recorded as chor Bay, along the St. Clair Shores area and high as 10'C (50'F). These high temperatures 116 Appendix 4 soften the ice and the induced stresses due to Any extensive ice cover formation does not thermal expansion are relieved mostly by appear until late January and is confined fracturing. The fractures and expansion mostly to the east end of the lake. Under nor- cracks make the ice cover more susceptible to mal conditions the greatest extent of ice cover the action of wind, currents, and waves. Under occurs near the middle of March and occupies the influence of currents and winds the ice 15 percent of the lake surface. During the cover shifts causing rafting and pressure period of maximum ice cover, the ice is concen- ridges to form. Pelee Passage on the western trated mostly in the northeast portion of the end of the lake, the south shore from Fairport, lake at the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. Ohio, to Sturgeon Point, New York, and the The ice cover is generally composed of fast ice vicinity of Buffalo are areas of the lake where which extends from Henderson Bay to Prince extensive rafting and pressure ridges are gen- Edward Bay. Adjacent to the fast ice edge are erated. During a winter season with normal large areas of drift ice that generally extend temperatures it is possible for the lake to be- from Lakeport on the Canadian side to Mexico come 95 to 100 percent ice covered. Bay on the eastern shore. Throughout the The ice cover during the period of greatest season shore ice accumulates and then breaks extent is made up of various ice types and con- loose and drifts off. A large ice run in the Niag- centrations. The western basin contains ara River can discharge large quantities of ice heavy winter ice which, because of the block- into Lake Ontario. The ice collects around the ing effect of the islands, tends to stay in place river mouth and at times the coverage can be for the season. The area of the lake located extensive. between Sandusky, Ohio, and Erie, Pennsyl- The prevailing winds and currents tend to vania, generally contains vast floes and fields confine and concentrate the ice cover at the of pack ice of differing concentrations. Quite northeastern end of the lake and at the ap- often there are bands of lesser concentrations proaches to the St. Lawrence River. The lake and even open water along the north shore of is generally ice free early in April except for this central area. The eastern basin usually isolated drift ice and ice in some protected contains large, extensive areas of consolidated bays. floes that are concentrated by the prevailing winds and currents. There have been winters where winds from the west have caused a 5.7 Summary water setup that tilted the lake surface and caused a difference in water levels between The location of the Great Lakes system is in Buffalo and Toledo of more than 4 m. The ef- an area of varied winter weather patterns and fect upon the ice cover of this wind and wind- temperature differences. Monthly mean tem- caused setup is to break up and clear the cen- perature differences of 10'C or more across the tral areas of ice and concentrate it along the Great Lakes are not uncommon. The number south and east shores. Most of the lake be- of days with minimum temperatures below comes ice free shortly after breakup which oc- freezing varies from 119 days at Cleveland, curs at the end of February or the beginning of Ohio, on the south shore of Lake Erie, to 191 March. The broken drifting ice is concentrated days at Duluth, Minnesota, on western Lake by winds and currents in the eastern end of the Superior. The period of ice cover is consid- lake and may remain in the Buffalo area until erably shorter than this and in general begins early May. in late December and continues until early April, with the actual length changing from lake to lake. 5.6.6 Lake Ontario The ice season is classified into three gen- eral phases: cooling phase, ice formation Lake Ontario has the smallest surface area phase, and breakup or fragmentation phase. of all the Great Lakes, but it has a mean depth The cooling phase begins when the air tem- that is second only to Lake Superior. The com- perature drops below that of the water. As the bination of small surface area and great depth water is cooled and wind-induced mixing pene- gives this lake a very large heat-storage ca- trates deep into the water mass, the water pacity causing it to respond slowly to changing approaches isothermal conditions. When the air temperatures. This response to climatic water mass reaches highest density at 40C change is reflected in the amount of ice cover (39'F) further cooling causes the surface- produced, which is less than the amount pro- water layers to become stratified and prevent duced in any of the other Great Lakes. deep mixing. Ice Cover 117 The heat-storage capacity of the lake is a Commercial navigation on the Great Lakes function of its area and depth, and the position is also affected by the ice cover. In past years of the thermocline reflects the amount of the navigation season usually ended in mid- stored heat. These factors determine when the November and did not begin again until March lake becomes isothermal and, ultimately, or April. More recently the navigation season when an ice cover forms. has been extended through January and has The ice formation phase begins when the been quite successful. Early spring navigation water surface has cooled to the freezing point is difficult because of ice conditions, and many and the latent heat of fusion has been given areas require ice breaking operations before up. Ice forms along the shore and ice needles commerce can begin. Problems encountered branch out over the water surface. The extent during winter navigation can be divided into of the first ice cover depends upon existing three categories: harbor facilities, ship design, meteorological conditions, but ice formation and navigation. and thickening are controlled mostly by air Basically there are two techniques for the temperature. control or removal of the ice cover. The tech- Two general ice types are formed on the niques are classed as breaking and melting. Great Lakes. One is a smooth homogeneous Breaking is usually accomplished through the cover formed by rapid freezing in the absence use of ice-breaking ships and, to some extent, of wind and snow and is called sheet ice. The explosives. Ice breaker operations, however, other is made up of snow and various ice types are still the mainstay of winter and early fused together and is referred to as spring navigation. Of the techniques used in agglomeratic ice. melting the ice cover, dusting and bubbling The ice cover forms a protective shield have received the most attention. The princi- against wind waves and their mixing action ple of dusting is to reduce the surface albedo and retards heat loss to the atmosphere. The and to conduct solar energy to the ice or snow retardation of heat flow also gives a certain cover. Successful materials used in dusting in- protection to vegetation and fish life. The 'lude coal dust, cinders, fly ash, and sand. temperature gradient under the ice cover Dusting is most effective when air tempera- ranges from O'C at the ice-water interface to tures are near O'C or higher. The bubbling VC at the deep lake bottom (Figure 4-96). technique releases bubbles from a perforated The breakup or fragmentation phase of the pipe located in deep water. As the bubbles rise they generate vertical currents which trans- ice season begins with the spring warming port the warm deep waters to the surface. This trend. The breakup is a complex procedure action sweeps away the cold surface waters that causes fragmentation and melting of the and replaces them with warm water from be- ice cover. low. This method can be used to prevent ice The melting process takes place at the ex- formation or to control the extent of the ice pense of the heat of the surrounding water, cover. from absorption of solar radiation, and from The winter period in the Great Lakes area is contact with the warm air. The absorption of not long nor severe enough to cause a heat causes melting along the crystal bound- lakewide, solid, stable ice cover to form. The ice aries. This forms a loosely bound ice mass that cover on the Great Lakes is a combination of is generally referred to as candled ice. various ages and types of ice but acts as a When melt water collects on the ice and open homogeneous ice sheet as long as air tempera- water appears, the effect of solar radiation be- tures remain below freezing. comes more pronounced. In fragmenting, the Each of the lakes has its own hy- ice sheet is first reduced to vast fields of drift drometeorological factors and Characteristics ice then to smaller floes and finally to brash that cause ice thickness to vary from a few and cake which is quickly melted by wind- centimeters to a meter or more. These charac- induced upwelling. teristics also influence the areal ice coverage The shoreward movement of the ice sheet is which during a normal winter varies from 15 always a potential danger to facilities during percent on the surface of Lake Ontario, 40 per- both formation and breakup. It can also cause cent on Lake Michigan, 60 percent on Lakes flooding due to ice dam formation in tributary Superior and Huron, and up to 95 percent on streams and connecting rivers. Lake Erie. Section 6 WATER MOTION Paul C. Liu, Gerald S. Miller, and James H. Saylor 6.1 Surface Motion. which caused severe damages, intensified the demand for further studies. One example oc- curred in June 1954 when an unexpected surge 6.1.1 Introduction of water along the Chicago shoreline of Lake Michigan drowned seven people (Harris 314). In Water motions at the lake surface are gen- November 1966, during an early winter storm, erally designated under the broad term the SS Daniel J. Morrell, a 177 in (580 ft) ore "waves." There are, however, a number of di- carrier, northbound on Lake Huron, was bro- versified physical processes that can be ken in half and sunk. The waves which caused categorized as surface motion of the Great this disaster were reported to have grown Lakes. These processes include wind- rapidly to more than 6 in (20 ft) under an ex- generated surface waves, free and forced lake tremely variable wind from northwest oscillations, and short- and long-term lake through northeast with gusts more than 28 level variations. m/s (92 ft/s) (Swope780). Surface motions are important to at least The study of surface motions in the Great three operating interests in the Great Lakes: Lakes has much in common with similar navigation, shore protection, and hydroelec- studies in the oceans; therefore advances in tric power development. A knowledge of oceanography have stimulated many relevant surface-wave characteristics is essential in es- studies on the Great Lakes. The lakes repre- tablishing design criteria for lake vessels, sent a compromise between open ocean and harbor breakwaters, and offshore structures. laboratory models and provide a favorable Wave action is the primary agent responsible place for exploratory or definitive experi- for shore erosion and is a factor in deposition of ments. The Great Lakes are ideal for the study material in navigation channels. The need for of wind-wave generation, growth, and decay, safe and economical navigation routes for ves- since the fetch can be well defined, the scaling sels requires development of wave climate problem is relatively simple, and little swell charts. Long-period waves such as seiches and activity exists. storm surges affect the safe operation in har- bors and embayments, and long-term lake level fluctuations play a significant role in 6.1.2 Classification of Surface Motion navigation, water supply, and power storage capacity. The various motions at the lake surface can Although interest in surface phenomena in be classified in a number of ways. BajorunaS36 the Great Lakes was shown as early as the defined two general classes. One class con- seventeenth century (BajorunaS36), only dur- cerns long-term variations assuming a level ing the past twenty years have efforts been water surface; the other class includes those made to acquire a more detailed understand- processes that occur while the volume of water ing of the surface motions. One reason for the in the lake remains constant. The predomi- increased interest was the unusually high nant number of surface motion studies fall lake stages in the early 1950s. In the following into the latter class. years a number of notable surface motions, Fluctuations of the lake surface contain Paul C. Liu (Subsection 6.1), Gerald S. Miller (Subsections 6.3 through 6.8), James H. Saylor (Subsection 6.2), Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and At- mospheric Administration, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 119 120 Appendix 4 Period 24 12 5 30 1 hr hr min sec SK OAK Won bond _-'VL_Transi'XW - ; . Infrogravity Latrognvity I Waves i Long period waves --+-Gravity @t-Copillarywoves--Vv@ woes Primary m systems, earthquake disturbing force --nA-SUn. Moon -Wi.d- ------- Vk.- Primary Coriolis force- tension---V%,- restoring I force Gravity 7;@ Ui 166 lCr5 164 16, 16, lop 101 10, Frequency (cycles per second) FIGURE4-106 Schematic Representation of the Energy Contained in the Various Lake Surface Motions From Kinsman, 1965 short periodicities of a few seconds as well as erally covers the whole lake swells rarely oc- longer periods. One useful classification of cur. surface motions frequently used in oceanic Waves with periods between 30 seconds and studies is by period, the time it takes for two 5 minutes are classified as infragravity waves. successive crests (or troughs) to pass the ob- The class includes long swell, surf beats, and server. Figure 4-106 presents a schematic rep- nearshore water level oscillations. Although resentation ofthis classification. In the figure, these infragravity waves were first recog- the relative energy contained in various sur- nized in shallow water in ocean-wave studies face motions are plotted with respect to their more than twenty years ago, their presence corresponding wave periods (Kinsman4511). has not yet been explained satisfactorily Surface motions with the shortest periods (Munk567). are capillary waves or ripples that are control- Long-period waves, including seiches, led mainly by the surface tension ofthe water. surges, wind tides, and astronomical tides, The ripples have very short wavelengths and have periods of5 minutes to 24 hours. With the appear as fine corrugations on the slope of exception of astronomical tides, the long- longer waves. Compared with other processes, period waves are primarily generated by capillary waves and ultragravity waves with meteorological forces. A storm wind and an periods less than 1 second play a less signifi- intense barometric pressure gradient can cant role in lake surface motion. produce a variety of disturbances at the lake Waves with periods between 1 and 30 sec- surface. Numerous studies have been con- onds are known as gravity waves. The band of ducted on the theoretical and empirical fea- wind-generated gravity waves (Figure 4-106) tures of these long-period waves in the Great contains more wave energy than any other Lakes. band. Gravity waves in the oceans generally The astronomical or true tide is caused by occur in two states, wind waves and swell. the gravitational attraction of the moon and Wind waves, generated by wind, are charac- sun acting upon the water mass of the lakes. teriz ed by an extremely random, turbulent The true tides recorded on the Great Lakes form and have periods of 1 to 10 seconds. Wind have a mean range of 0.03 m (Table 4-24), a waves degenerate into swell as they travel very small value in comparison to the more from the generating area to a relatively calm pronounced fluctuations of the lake surface in region. Swells have longer periods, and are response to meteorological factors. Astronom- more regular in shape than wind waves. In the ical tides are therefore generally considered to Great Lakes where the generating area gen- be negligible in the Great Lakes. Water Motion 1,21 TABLE 4-24 Mean Ranges of True Tide Re- between 1868 and 1874. Reviews of these early corded on the Great Lakes investigations of wind waves along with more recent developments can be found in many Reference Lake Station Mean Range publications (Sverdrup, et al.,774 DeFant'208 Graham (1860) Michigan Chicago 0.045m Kinsman,458 and PhillipS607). Harris (1907) Michigan Chicago & 0.043m The increased interest in wave studies in Milwaukee recent years was stimulated by the need to Dohler (1964) Erie Port Colborne 0.030m forecast ocean waves during the 1940s. Sver- Dohler (1964) Erie Kingsville 0.043m Dohler (1964) Ontario Toronto 0.018m drup and Munk775 developed one of the ear- Dohler (1964) Ontario Kingston 0.012m liest forecasting methods. Their method was Dohler (1964) Huron Port Huron 0.012m revised by Bretschneider 17,81 and evolved into Dohler (1964) Superior Sault Ste. Marie 0.030 m the well-known Sverdrup-Munk- Bret- schneider (SMB) method. By applying this All the above surface motions occur with no method, Saville 704 '701 hindcasted waves for volumetric changes in the lakes. For those Lakes Michigan, Erie, and Ontario for the processes with periods greater than 24 hours, period 1948 to 1950 using synoptic weather the volume of water in the lakes can no longer charts. A similar work for Lakes Michigan, be considered as constant. The volumetric var- Huron, and Superior for the period of 1965 to iations for longer time periods result from cyc- 1967 was conducted by Cole and Hilfiker. 1111a In lical climatological changes. These long-term the absence of more realistic data, these hind- lake level variations, including annual, sea- cast wave data represent an immediate source sonal, and monthly fluctuations, are of inter- of Great Lakes wave information. est in controlling and regulating the lakes, in A major advance in the study of wind waves, correlating lake surface with climate changes, the introduction of the wave spectrum con- and in predicting future lake behaviors. cept, has emerged from the concurrent studies Currents at the lake surface, which are not of Darbyshire, 1116 and Neumann.575 A widely necessarily of periodic nature, are also of used spectrum method of wave forecasting, interest in the study of Great Lakes surface the PNJ method, was further developed by motions. These currents are usually wind- Pierson, Neumann, and James.611 Originally generated and tend to follow certain seasonal derived from statistical analysis of stochastic circulation patterns. Most available studies on signals, the wave spectrum concept is based on surface currents have endeavored to assess the assumption that the random sea surface at these patterns. any instant can be considered as the sum of many sinusoidal waves having different lengths, heights, and directions. Figures 4-107 6.1.2.1 Surface Wind Waves and 4-108 present two well-known illustra- tions of this concept. In Figure 4-107, each The most evident and most common surface layer represents a series of sine waves and the waves in the lakes are those generated by sea surface is the result of all these layers wind. However, there are few studies of wind superimposed together. In Figure 4-108, a typ- waves in the Great Lakes. The present discus- ical wave record is resolved into 14 different sion therefore draws from a combination of sine waves. The wave spectrum shown in the Great Lakes and oceanic-wave studies. upper part of the figure gives the description The study of surface wind waves, as the of the wave energy distribution in terms of study of other sciences, has been pursued em- wave frequency. This spectral description pirically and theoretically. An empirical study thus presents a general and useful characteri- attempts to establish wind and wave relation- zation of the surface wind waves. The basic ships from observed data. A theoretical study wave parameters, wave height and period, can endeavors to develop a quantitative un- be determined from the wave spectrum. derstanding of wave generation and growth The realization of the advantage and impor- which can be verified by empirical data. The tance of spectral representation of wind waves use of these two methods for investigatin.o, has led to numerous attempts to formulate a waves goes back to the 19th century. Steven- spectral equation. Such an equation is essen- son in 1850 formulated an empirical relation- tial in developing a computerized numerical ship between wave height and wind fetch from scheme for forecasting waves. As wave observations at several British lakes. A spectra are of a directional nature, it is cus- theoretical model of wave growth, known as tomary to represent a directional spectrum, the Kelvin -Helmholtz model, was developed S(oj,O), as the product of a scalar or one- 122 Appendix 4 Energy Spectrum Ll C 39 441@' 1 3 579 1113 frequency I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 44-7 10 @@42@j 11 \_.' \_J 12 13 components of waves FIGURE 4-107 Sea Resulting from a Number A n of Superimposed Sinusoidal Wave Trains \V - - From Bascom, 1964 U dimensional spectrum, S(co), and a directional actual wove profile wave-spreading function, Dw(O); thus S((o,O) = S((o)D.(O) FIGURE 4-108 A Typical Wave Energy Spec- where the wave-spreading function at radian trum and the Corresponding Wave Profile frequency, oi, satisfies the condition After King, 1959 f.2' D.(O) @ dO = 1 (2) As empirical data on directional spectrums equation was obtained from an analytic func- are extremely meager, formulations of D.(O) tion for the joint probability distribution of are scarce. Most of the effort has been directed wave heights and periods. The equation re- toward deriving S(co) from application of the quires a specific height and period statistic to curve-fitting process to the available data. determine the spectrum. Pierson and Mos- Two major spectral equations developed by kowitz's equation, derived for fully developed Bretschneider88a and Pierson and Mos- seas using the similarity theory of kowitZ 61 0 are of the form: Kitaigorodski '458a requires only knowledge of S(Q = p(O-5 exp [q&)-4] (3) the wind speed to estimate p and q. In connec- tion with a study of Great Lakes wind waves, where p and q are dimensional parameters de- LiU501 developed an empirical spectral equa- pendent on the wind field. Bretschneider's tion for fetch-limited deep-water wind waves Water Motion 123 fm 0.175 Sec.*' energy, in seconds, TO can be obtained from 3- the following relations: I/f=O.lrO sec.-- Hs = 1.74 x 10 -2 '13/24 U.2 (5) 9 f=0,125 sec-, T, = 0.73 F,1/3U* (6) 9 During the International Field Year for the Great Lakes 1972, Lake Survey Center meas- ured directional wave spectra in Lake Ontario and developed the spreading function, D.(O), in order to estimate the full spectrum, S(., 0), aIMEt .4 for more generalized application. 4 Idr@sa,6' at While empirical correlations between wind and wave parameters can be obtained from actual observations and measurements, the problem of determining how the energy in the wind is transferred to the waves still remains. Several conjectured mechanisms characterize 07 08 09 Ib h hr the present state of wind wave theory. Signif- 29 Oct 65 icant progress in theoretical wind wave devel- opment came in the late 1950s when the reso- nance and shear flow instability models were WIND llipS608 S,54 LEGEND TIME DATE DIRECTION developed by Phi and Mile I respec- 07 1., 290,165 200 tively. Both models deal with the central ques- 00 1. 29 Oct 65 200 09 111 29 Oct 65 200 ----- 10 hr 29 Oct 65 195 tion of pressure distribution on the water sur- It - 11 hr 29 Oct 65 195 face under the action of an invariably turbu- _0 02 Q4 - 0..61 QB lent wind. Phillips' theory indicated that the FREOUENCY(HI) pressure fluctuations produced in turbulent air are advected across the water surface by FIGURE 4-109 An Episode of Spectral the wind. Thus, waves can be initiated on a Growth in Lake Michigan smooth water surface by resonance between pressure fluctuations in the air and free modes S(o)) = (0.4g2/F,'/'.') exp. [-5.5x103(g/U-F.1/3@)4] (4)0f oscillation of the water surface. Miles' theory, on the other hand, was formulated on where g is the acceleration due to gravity, the assumption that momentum and energy Fo=gF/U.2 is the dimensionless fetch parame- are transferred from the wind to the existing ter with respect to fetch, F, and friction wind waves by the instability of the mean shear velocity is U-. The data used in deriving equa- flow in the air. These two models are com- tion 4 were recorded at a tower near Muske- plementary as the resonance mechanism pro- gon, Michigan, during the fall of 1967 (LiU501) vides for initial wave generation, while the and from previously published laboratory and shear flow mechanism provides for the main- oceanic observations (Liu501). For wind fields tenance and growth of the waves. Phillips607 with sufficient duration, the equation pro- and Mile S542 have reformulated the duces reasonably good results in estimating mechanisms to provide a combined Phillips- actual wave spectra. Figure 4-109 shows a set Miles model. Numerous laboratory and field of spectral growth patterns with respect to experiments indicate that the model un- fetch computed using equation 4 for a wind derestimates the actual wave growth by one speed of 20 m/s at the 10 m level. order of magnitude. The study of Lake Michi- The application of equation 4 requires gan wind waves by Liu5OO was no exception. knowledge of fetch F, and friction wind veloc- Further development of the wind wave ity U-. Since U- is not as readily available a theory is required for the determination and parameter as wind speed Ulo, Li U 501 used an estimation of the energy transfer due to non- approximate relation of U. = U10 (Ulo 2/gF)'/' linear interactions. Hasselmann325 discusses With a known fetch in m, and U* in m/s, the the theoretical derivations of the various a, significant wave height, H,, in m, and wave processes on nonlinear interactions. The re- period, T,,,, corresponding to maximum wave sults, however, are complicated, and some 124 Appendix 4 processes are poorly understood. Future ad- timer '559 and Miller .544 Systematic reviews of vances in the theory of wind waves depend knowledge of long-period waves up to the early largely on the further understanding of the sixties were presented by Bajorunas '36 and physical environment, which in turn depends Mortimer .557 on additional observations. Available data for The theoretical aspect of these studies is the Great Lakes are far from adequate. Ex- generally based on the linearized, vertically tensive measurements, including all the integreated hydrodynamic equations which meteorological factors and the directional take the form spectrum of waves, are needed. Only extensive exploratory and definitive measurements will 0(hu)- fhv = -gh Lq _ h Opa + 1 (Y., - Y.b) (7) verify, revise, and enhance the necessary at ax ax theoretical developments. 0(hv) - fhU = (YY@ - YYb) (8) _ghL - h apa + at ay f. ay 6.1.2.2 Long-Period Waves 49,q +@ (hu) + @_(hv) e (9) at ax ay The long-period waves, sometimes called long waves, are those oscillations in lake level where x and y are horizontal rectangular that have periods of a few minutes to a few coordinates; u and v are corresponding veloc- hours. Three kinds of long-period waves are of ity components; f. is the water density; pa is importance in the Great Lakes. They are the atmospheric pressure, h is the depth of the surges, wind tides, and seiches. The three lake, g is the acceleration due to gravity; Y.., terms, which represent three different surface Yys andyxb, YYbare the components of surface motion processes, are sometimes incorrectly wind and bottom stresses; f is the Coriolis pa- used. In the present discussion, surges refer to rameter, where f = 2 fl sin (h, with (A as the forced lake-level oscillations that result from latitude and fl the earth's angular speed; and atmospheric pressure gradients combined q is the height of the free water surface above with strong winds; wind tides are forced oscil- the mean lake level. lations that result from wind only; and seiches Equations 7, 8, and 9 are basic equations are the free oscillations of the lake surface applicable to all of the long-period wave pro- that continue after the external forces that cesses. Several assumptions have been made caused the initial oscillation have ceased to in deriving these equations. The amplitude of act. the long waves has been assumed to be small The first of the many studies of Great Lakes compared to the depth of the lake, and the long-period waves were done by Denison 210 horizontal scale of the waves is assumed to be who studied the effects of wind and pressure large compared with the lake depth thereby on Lake Ontario. However, the majority of lit- justifying the neglect of nonhydrostatic pres- erature has appeared since 1950. The Lake sure forces and nonlinear acceleration terms. Michigan surge of June 26, 1954, was studied Furthermore, the lakes are assumed to be in- extensively by Freeman and BateS,272 Ewing compressible and homogeneous, hence density et al. '251 HarriS,314 and Platzman .617 Jeles- variations are neglected. The latter assump- nianski425and Donn 221 studied other surges in tion is generally untrue because the Great Lake Michigan. Platzman 617 developed a Lakes do develop thermal stratification. How- numerical method which has been applied to ever, long-period waves at the lake surface are surge prediction in the southern basin of Lake primarily transient external waves, and den- Michigan (Irish,415 and Hughes390). A regres- sity variations play a relatively minor role. In sion model for surge prediction was applied to most studies the Coriolis forces in equations 7 Lake Erie by Harris and Angelo.317 Wind tides, and 8 are neglected. which are particularly prominent on Lake Even with all of these assumptions as well as Erie, have been studied by Keulegan '452 Har- the linearization, equations 7,8, and 9 are still riS,316 GillieS,2117HUnt,397Verber '1152 Irish and not readily applicable because the atmos- Platzman , 416 and Platzman .616 Studies of pheric pressure gradient, wind stress fields, seiches in the Great Lakes were conducted by and bottom stresses have yet to be deter- HarriS,316 Hunt and Bajorunas '399 Verber '1152 mined. At the present only empirical approxi- Housley,3'4 Platzman and Rao '618 Rockwell,670 mations are available for these parameters. and Simpson and Anderson .740,741 Studies of Much additional work will be needed before long-period waves using spectral analysis the linearized theory can be effectively opera- were done by Platzman and Rao '620 Mor- tive. -a;)14 sijoijoD aq4 papaj2au 4nq `6 Pue 'S 'L suOI4 -aead J73UOI4UA.TaSqoxej!tuis Ajasiaaad uo paseq -enba 2uisn satpn4s uoipipaad a2ans o4 UOR u4up jo 4unotuv a2avI Ajquz)p;),oxdun uv saamb -nq!a4uo;) quv4jodtui uv aP'UW L11UUtUZ4L'I11 -0.1 41 Sla luia@SAS uolplpaad jvuoi4uaado W3 o4 -quno;)au o4ui uaNv4 aau Ispage PU0J'.1aAaMOq'40UUU;) JaPOU1 SILIt *s4jnsaj poo2 U0143oua.1 PUL, 2uIJvO1qS St- 11atA st, Ituo44oq a3lul SIqvuo"aa q4jtA apa aNej ui so2ins tujo4s atJ4 jo Sqdux2odo4 aq4 uaqtA ,paads aq4 uutJ4 papao;)aj aq4 o4 japotu siq4 pallddt, Iola2uV 4uu4jodmi aaotu jo Allunba aq 11yA dtunf aans PuV s'J-'L'H -spaoaaa a2ans Is-ed jo a2palmou3i -said aq4 jo U014v4uwao aL14" 4vq4 papnl;)uoz) aq4 uo 4uapuadap si 4etJ4 japoux uoi4aipaid vies'-LMH Ispaads junba Alivau 4v aJR SaAetA jvuoissaa2aa u padoJOA0P ... 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A 4%. o . ..... . iv, d3aso334 3%, Is 810 3nN3AV NOSI @33@ @1 391's 2 _.zi wil oo 6o . .. .. ----- POT uOWN t97vA4 126 Appendix 4 Because of the west-southwest to east- northeast orientation, Lake Erie is particu- larly vulnerable to the wind tide excitation by prevailing southwesterly winds (Figure 4-7). Irish and Platzman416 studied extreme wind tides on Lake Erie for the 20-year period 1940 to 1959 and found that a set-up in excess of 3 m (9.8 ft) can be expected once every 2 years. The 7o - largest recorded wind set-up on Lake Erie was 4.2 m (13.8 ft). While attempting to identify those meteorological conditions associated with wind tides, Irish and Platzman 416 found FIGURE 4-112 Wind Tide and Set-up on Lake that the resonant coupling involved in the Erie, Along with Wind Speed and Direction, Re- energy transfer from atmosphere to lake sur- corded near Toledo Harbor Light. The arrows face does not contribute significantly to set-up indicate wind direction from its source. magnitude. This suppression of the resonance From Miller, 1969 was later theoretically corroborated by PIatzman.6111 There are no wind tide studies available for 6.1.2.4 Wind Tides lakes other than Erie at present. Baj orunaS 36 estimated that, for a given wind, the set-ups Wind tides are generally considered to be excited on Lakes Michigan and Huron are 25 synonymous with storm surges. While the percent of the magnitude of Lake Erie set-up, term storm surge is usually used for oceanic and those on Lakes Superior and Ontario are studies, the term wind tide is used on lakes. only 17 percent. BajorunaS36 gave two criteria to distin@uish between the surges discussed in the previous section and wind tides: wave length and dura- 6.1.2.5 Seiches tion of buildup time. Wind tides always have a single wave with a length double that of the A wind tide will persist as long as the wind fetch in the wind direction, while surges have stress is sufficient to maintain the water gra- waves of shorter lengths. A wind tide takes dient. As the wind stress decreases, the stable hours to reach equilibrium, while surges only surface of the wind tide cannot be sustained, need a few minutes to build up. The amount of and a seiche results. Seiches are long, free os- rise in water level produced during a wind tide cillations with periods determined by the is known as wind set-up. The difference be- geometry and the depth of the lake as well as tween the Buffalo and Toledo water levels in the mode of the standing wave. Figure 4-112 Lake Erie during October 15-18, 1966, is an shows a seiche following the Lake Erie wind example of wind tide and wind set-up (Figure tide of October 16, 1966. After the initial water 4-112). level disturbance which was due to a strong In the simplest case of a wind tide with con- southwest wind, the wind speed subsided and stant wind speed and direction and constant the wind direction switched to northeast, lake depth, the inclination of the lake surface while the fluctuations of water levels at both can be obtained from equation 10, ends of the lake continued. an Y.. Y.b (10) One of the frequently studied aspects of ax f g (h+7)) seiches in the Great Lakes is the longitudinal where Y, free oscillations. This can be attained observa- ., and YIb are acting in opposite direc- tionally by spectral analysis of water level tions and the depth h is replaced by h+-q to records and theoretically by numerical inte- consider greater wave amplitudes. As men- gration of the hydrodynamical equations. For tioned earlier, the stresses in equations 7, 8, a long channel of uniform width and variable and 9 are not clearly understood, so empirical approximations are used to determine the depth, the linearized, one-dimensional equa- wind set-up. HUnt397 studied the dependence tions can be obtained from equations 7 and 9 of wind stress upon wind speed and thermal by neglecting the earth's rotation and the ex- stability of the atmospheric boundary layer, ternal forces, which give and derived working relations applicable to 0(hu) + gh _tl_ = 0 (11) Lake Erie data. at ax Water Motion 127 TABLE 4-25 Lake Superior Seiche Periods in TABLE 4-28 Lake Erie Seiche Periods in Hours Hours Computed Observed Computed Observed Rockwell Housley Fee milTe-r Platzman Platzman Mode (1966) (1962) (1969) (1970) et al., Hendrickson (1968) et al. Mode (1965) One-dim. Two-dim. (1965) 1 7.19 8.20 8.10 8.80 2 4.30 4.10 4.90 3.80 1 14-08 13.92 14.37 14.38 3 3.29 2.70 3.80 1.90 2 8.92 8.56 8.41 9.14 4 2.84 ---- ---- 3 5.70 5.70 5.53 5.93 5 2.24 ---- 4 4.11 4.14 4.03 4.15 5 3.69 ---- 3.62 ---- TABLE 4-26 Lake Michigan Seiche Periods in TABLE 4-29 Lake Ontario Seiche Periods in Hours Hours Computed Observed Computed Observed Mortimer Rockwell (1966) Mortimer Rockwell Simpson, et al., Hamblin Mode (1965) Closed Open (1965) Mode (1966) (1964) (1968) 1 9.08 9.09 8.83 9.00 1 4.91 5.41 5.40 2 4.90 4.92 4.87 5.20 2 2.97 2.48 2.38 3 3.57 3.58 3.53 5.70 3 2.15 ---- ---- 4 2.88 2.91 2.85 3.10 4 1.63 5 2.40 2.42 2.37 2.50 5 1.29 ---- ---- TABLE 4-27 Lake Huron Seiche Periods in where f is the oscillation frequency, and equa- Hours tion 15 can be given in terms of the indepen- dent variable x by Computed d [h dn ] + (27Tf)2 M7) = 0 (15) Endros Rockwell Tx dx 9 Mode (1908) Closed Open The normal modes of oscillation can then be obtained by applying the finite difference 1 6.12 6.71 6.49 method to equation 15 together with the con- 2 4.80 4.57 figuration of the lakes. Tables 4-25 through 4-29 summarize the 3 3.18 3.13 available information on the first five modes of 4 2.66 2.60 longitudinal free oscillations for each of the Great Lakes. Fair agreement has been ob- 5 2.26 2.24 tained between observed and computed periods and among different investigators. Only computed periods are available for Lake Huron (RockweII670). 0(hu)+ 0-0 0 (12) Platzman and Rao 620 examined the effect of at at neglecting earth rotation and frictional forces in arriving at equations 11 and 12, and found Upon the cross differentiation, the con- no significant effect on the period of any lon- tinuity equation can be written as gitudinal mode. Similar conclusions were also 1 a2,q obtained by Miles and BaJJ542a in a theoretical [h "" ] = 0 (13) study of a circular lake with a parabolic bot- ax ax g at2 tom shape. Both of the authors infer that If harmonic oscillations for free surfaces are earth rotation transforms the lowest longitud- assumed, which is appropriate for a closed ba- inal mode into an amphidromic wave, i.e., the sin, write high water rotates about the lake in a coun- terclockwise direction. This amphidromic na- 77(xit) = R, [-q(x) exp (i z7r ft)] (14) ture, however, was not detected in analyses of 128 Appendix 4 data from Lake Michigan (Mortimer559), and found evidence of the existence of an eight- Lake Ontario (Hamblin3O9). year cycle'from spectral and auto-correlation Hendrickson340 attempted a two-dimen- analyses. If such a long-term cycle could be sional study of Lake Erie free oscillation by ascertained, development of accurate long- solving term lake level predictions would be more as- sured. The effects of the hydrologic cycle on a 49 a 0 j + L2@11)1 0 (16) - [h -1 4. @'-' [h2-71 lake storage, and hence levels, were discussed Ox ax Oy ay 9 in Section 4. which is the two-dimensional equation analogous to equation 15. The results offered some insight into the two-dimensional charac- 6.1.4 Currents at the Lake Surface teristics of the lake's oscillation. The effect of earth's rotation remains unexplored. The first Discussion so far has concentrated on five modes computed from equation 16 (Table periodic surface motions. Aperiodic motions, 4-28) are in fairly close agreement with the notably currents, are also induced at the lake one-dimensional results. surface. The study of surface currents in the Great Lakes has been confined to determina- 6.1.3 Long-Term Variation of Lake Levels tion of seasonal or persistent circulation pat- terns. The classical drift bottle study of Har- rington '313 for warm months as reproduced by Long-term variation of lake levels refers to Millar543 (Figure 4-113), is still one of the most the volumetric changes of the lakes wherein complete and comprehensive studies of sur- the water surface is assumed to be level. Lake face currents in the Great Lakes. Ayers, et level rises with increasing volume and falls al.2' and Johnson 432,433 studied surface cur- with decreasing volume. The main factorsthat rents in Lakes Michigan and Huron and found affect these variations are precipitation, that seasonal patterns are generally similar to evaporation, runoff, as well as other man- made and geological changes. Brunk, 110,112 Harrington's earlier study. A concise review Laidly, 180 Richard S,646,647 and Verber 1112 dis- was given by Hough .3110 cussed the various effects of these factors over As the seasonal surface currents are mostly the Great Lakes levels. related to, and maintained by the prevailing In general, the most regular variation in wind over the lakes, the wind also produces lake levels is the annual cycle (Figures 4-24, wind-drift currents at the lake surface. The 4-26, 4-29, 4-31). This cycle varies from low direction of the wind-drift current in the Great water in the late winter to high water in mid- Lakes is approximately 30'to 45'to the right of summer. Amplitude of the cycle differs from the wind due to the Coriolis force. The evi- lake to lake and varies from year to year. The dence of this directional relationship between following discussion given by RichardS647 of- wind and wind-drift currents was illustrated fers a clear and concise description of this by AyerS27 in a drift bottle study. Dynamics of phenomenon: wind-drift currents, as explained by the Ekman Rising water levels come in the spring and early theory, have been studied extensively in the summer: (i) after the snow-melt and spring floods, (ii) ocean (Sverdrup et al .,774 Neumann and Pier- when precipitation is at its greatest, (iii) when son 576). ground-water levels are highest, and (iv) evaporation Another kind of lake surface current of rates are lowest (due to the low water temperature). By contrast, falling water levels come in the fall and interest is the wave-drift current. Wave-drift winter; (i) when evaporation rates are highest, (ii) currents are formed from the unclosed orbital when ground-water levels are lowest, (iii) when pre- motion of water particles during the passage cipitation is at its lightest, and (iv) when most of the of waves. This unclosed orbit traverses an winter's precipitation on the watershed is locked up by snow. open curve that induces gradual advancement of the water particles with the passage of each One of the unresolved questions lies in the wave and thus results in a net current in the detection of long-term periodieities of Great direction of wave propagation. As discussed Lakes levels. For years efforts have been previously, the energy transfer from wind to made to identify a pattern of long-term varia- water is intricate and not fully understood; tions. Cycles of seven, eleven, and ninety years the presence of wave-drift currents further have been postulated (Verber 852 ) but there is complicates the boundary condition. No also strong doubt by some as to the existence measurements are available concerning the of long-term periodicities. Laidly4110 and LiU500 wave-drift currents in the Great Lakes. Water Motion 129 Is- so- ?so @0. ----------------- ------- N= 45. 0 A 0 go. as- go- FIGURE 4-113 Surface Currents of the Great Lakes After Harrington, 1895 6.2 Internal Water Motion process occurs in fall, with water in the shal- low, coastal zone cooling more rapidly than water in the deep, central parts of the lake. 6.2.1 Thermally Driven Circulation The formation of ice in shallow coastal waters while the central portions of the lakes are ice An idealized summary of the annual cycle of free is further evidence of this phenomenon. water density distribution in deep lakes in- The importance of differential heating of volves development and decay of thermally surface lake water to the present discussion is differentiated layers or strata. RodgerS671,674 the existence of thermally driven lake water showed that the heating of surface water in circulation, which is much more complicated spring was not uniformly distributed across than the simple convective overturns dis- the surface of Lake Ontario. Instead, he found cussed previously. The thermally driven cir- that warm water forms initially in the shallow culations were modeled theoretically by depths along shore and spreads gradually to- Huang.387 The most general of Huang's circu- ward the deeper parts of the lake basin (Figure lation patterns applies to the lengthy inter- 4-114). The boundary between warm, less vals of summer heating and winter cooling dense inshore water and cold, still isothermal during which the water density at the lake lake water was marked by intense horizontal surface is greatest over the deep basins and temperature gradients and also color differ- decreases monotonically as the water depth ences. Deeping and lakeward growth of the decreases toward the coasts. The horizontal shore-bound warm water was found to be as- circulation pattern during these intervals sociated with the development of a thermo- consists of counterclockwise currents encircl- eline behind the advancing warm front. Rod- ing the deep basins. These are geostrophic gers termed this early stage in thermocline currents representing a blance between hori- development the "thermal bar." A similar zontal pressure and Coriolis forces. A similar, 130 Appendix 4 SURFACE TEMPERATURES MID-LAKE, N-S TEMPERATURE SECTIONS 0 3 2 50. < 2*C 2 100. 26-29 APRIL, 1965 ISO. 2DO- 0 6/) *C 50 t 4, 100 17-20 MAY, 1965 150 200 0 3-4C 0 14 12 3 to 50 1 0 6 '4- 4 ............ #2 14 7-10 JUNE. 1965 ISO 2DO 12 to 13_ ........... 14 12 so. .... .. 14 ............ ........ too. 28-30 JUNE, 1965 150. < 4-C 200. METRES FIGURE 4-114 Development of the Thermal Bar from Winter to Full Summer Stratification. Shading indicates areas of maximum density. From Rodgers, 1966 Water Motion 131 but clockwise, circulation pattern results from stress. In shallow water and in water that is early spring heating and early fall cooling, density stratified, the net transport is directed when the surface water density is least over at some lesser angle to the right of the wind the deep basins and increases monotonically stress. During conditions of low wind stress, as the water depth decreases. These intervals wind-driven circulations cause small pertur- are much shorter in duration than the inter- bations in the thermal currents driven by dif- vals during which counterclockwise circula- ferential heating or cooling of the lake surface. tion prevail. Counterclockwise circulation is Sustained periods of high wind stress associated with divergence (upwelling) along thoroughly mix the surface layers, destroying the coasts and convergence (sinking) over the the horizontal temperature gradients and deep basins, while clockwise circulation creating a configuration that approximates a exhibits convergence along the coasts and di- two-layer model. vergence over the basins. Huang also studied With establishment of the summer density the circulation associated with the condition stratification, the direct effects of wind-driven of intense horizontal thermal gradients mixing and circulation are confined to the separating coastal and offshore waters. The upper layer (Figure 4-115). When a homogen- current patterns in this case are more com- eous upper layer is formed, stability will be plex, but they represent relatively short-lived great at its lower boundary; there the eddy phenomena in the annual cycle of lakes. viscosity is small and further increase in the Huang demonstrated a close correlation be- thickness of the homogeneous epilimnion is tween the computed thermally driven current impeded, although the thickness may be much patterns and the observed currents in Lake less than that of the layer in which a wind Michigan. The circulation pattern during a current should normally develop. Further in- long season of strong density stratification, crease in epilimnion thickness due to mixing which is characterized by an almost isother- across the density discontinuity at the ther- mal, warm epilimnion overlying an isothermal mocline must be very slow. There are no avail- hypolimnion of near maximum water density able estimates of the time required for the has not been modeled using only thermbd con- wind current to penetrate to the depth that it siderations. would have reached in homogeneous water. If the wind decays, heating at the surface may again decrease the surface water density, but as soon as the wind starts to blow, a new 6.2.2 Wind-Driven Circulations During the homogeneous layer is formed. With light Density-Stratified Season winds this may result in the formation of a new layer at the surface, so that two thermoclines Circulations driven by wind stress on the and three homogeneous layers are observed. water surfa-ce are superimposed on -ther- More typically, however, the wind mixes the mally driven currents. The wind stress is ap- entire epilimnion and a new homogeneous proximately proportional to the square of the density is attained. This process increases the wind speed and the stress is transmitted density difference between the two layers and through the water column by friction. The ef- further retards mixing across the thermo- fect of the wind stress is to drive a net trans- cline. Therefore the most stable stratification port at some angle to the right of the wind is achieved in late summer just before the direction in the northern hemisphere. In start of fall cooling of the surface. homogeneous deep water, Ekman (in Sver- With wind currents confined to the upper drup, et al .774) showed that surface currents layer, the epilimnetic water mass is trans- were directed 45'to the right of the wind stress ported at some angle to the right of the wind if the effects of the earth's rotation are taken stress. This fact is of considerable importance into account and if the eddy viscosity is inde- because the transport of the surface layers by pendent of depth. With increasing depth the wind plays a prominent part in the generation angle of the current flow to the right of the and maintenance of lake current. Boundary wind stress increases in a regular fashion, so conditions and converging or diverging wind that at some depth termed the "depth of fric- systems must cause in certain regions an ac- tional resistance," the flow is exactly opposite cumulation of less dense epilimnetic waters the wind stress. At this level the current speed and in other regions an upwelling of denser is approximately 1/23 that at the surface, and hypolimnetic waters from subsurface depths. the net transport of water in depths above this The wind currents cause an altered distribu- level is directed 900 to the right of the wind tion of mass and therefore an altered distribu- 132 Appendix 4 MILWAUKEE MUSKEGON M. FAM 0 0 20,0 -10 120 200 - 4 180- 8.0 8. 00 -20- ------------- _10- 8,0 6.0 _30- 6. 50 -40- 20- -50- -30- Go- TO- -40- _80- -90- _50- TEMPERATURE -100- DEGREES CENTIGRADE _110- MEAN WIND VEGTOR _60- FORCE ONE BEAUFORT 120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 ISTATION is IT 16 15 14 13 12! 11 10 9 a 7 6 5 4 3 MILES 10 2.0 ao io 6 76 FIGURE 4-115 Distribution of Temperature (OC) in Lake Michigan; August 15, 1942. Observed from a ferry, Milwaukee-Muskegon transection. From Church, 1945 tion of pressure, which can exist only in the generate secondary geostrophic currents presence of certain relative currents. flowing parallel to the coast. The normal wind The coasts of the lakes impede wind trans- currents are closely associated with the pre- port resulting in the pileup of warm epilimne- vailing wind patterns over the lakes and lead tic water along the coast toward which the to semi-permanent, intense geostrophic cur- wind current flows. Since all motion at the rents along the lake coasts. These currents shore must be parallel to the coastline, a con- have been called "coastal jets" by Csanady 171a vergence must be present offshore causing and others. The normal current patterns may sinking and an accumulation of the less dense be quickly altered by changes in wind inten- epilimnetic water. A divergence must occur off sity and direction. Ayers et al .29 described the opposite coast, where the surface water is modifications of the Lake Michiian circula- transported offshore, which results in upwell- tion due to intervals of sustained northerly ing of cold, denser water from the subsurface winds that interrupt the prevailing southwest- layer. Observations show that the regions of erly air flow. In spite of the fact that the intense upwelling and sinking are restricted semi-permanent, baroclinic coastal currents to relatively narrow strips that parallel the are conspicuous features of lake circulation coasts of the Great Lakes (Mortimer 558), while and are closely associated with wind-driven vertical excursions of the thermocline are convergence and divergence of lake water, the much less over the deeper portions of the lake internal structure of these currents is ex- I'D @MEA F1 basins. The altered density distribution must tremely complex and varies greatly from day be associated with relative currents that to day. This complexity is shown dramatically exhibit a balance between horizontal pressure in the closely spaced observations made by and Coriolis forces. Since the pressure gra- Csanady and PAde. 173 dients are most intense in the coastal strips The relatively small dimensions of the lake and directed essentially normal to the basins in comparison with the dimensions of coastline, wind currents in the epilimnion weather systems means that the effects of the Water Motion 133 lake coasts are much more important in caus- amplitude internal waves occur at the density ing accumulations or depletions of epilimnetic discontinuity and these internal waves cause waters than are the effects of converging or currents flowing in both the upper and lower diverging wind systems. Therefore, it is not layers. In spite of these additional currents in surprising that there has been much interest in summer, the winter isothermal water is determining the response of lake models to characterized by stronger deep currents. uniform wind stresses acting on the lake sur- The stress of the wind acting on the lake face. For application to the density-stratified surface and variations in atmospheric pres- season, a two-layer model is a most reasonable sure tilt the water surface. Return flow near configuration for investigation. the lake bottom is retarded as the wind cur- rents are driven into shallow water near the coasts, so that the wind tilt most likely does not consist of a uniform slope between the 6.2.3 Wind-Driven Circulations During the downwind and upwind coasts, but instead the Homogeneous Season gradients of height are largest in narrow strips paralleling the coasts. The gradients of During conditions of homogeneous lake pressure thus established must be associated water the wind currents penetrate much with absolute currents representing a balance deeper than when the water column is between Coriolis and horizontal pressure stratified. Ekman derived an empirical rela- forces. These geostrophic currents thus tend tion for the "depth of frictional resistance"; it to preserve the wind-generated current pat- is terns even after the wind decays. The result- D = 7.6 W (sin o)-112 (17) ing current patterns would therefore exhibit most intense and persistent currents in nar- where D is' the frictional resistance depth in row strips parallel to the shore, with less in- meters, W is the wind speed in meters per sec- tense circulations characterizing the confor- ond, and 0 is the latitude. For moderate wind mal currents necessary in the interior lake speeds the wind currents penetrate consid- regions. erably deeper than 20 or 30 meters, which is an Winter circulation responds more quickly to average depth for the upper layer during changes in the wind stress than does summer summer stratification. Strong winds with circulation, since only minor redistribution of speeds of 10 meters per second or greater occur the water mass is required in homogeneous frequently on the lakes during late fall and water to adjust to the newly applied stress. In winter, and during such intervals the wind contrast, adjustment to the applied wind currents must extend to bottom depths. In stress in summer requires extensive shifting homogeneous water one would expect a more of the upper layer water mass. In either case, fully-developed Ekman wind-drift layer, with the newly applied stress must first destroy the the water transport directed at right angles to geostrophic currents associated with earlier the wind stress. Continuity requires a second wind patterns that persist following wind de- Ekman layer along the bottom of the lake, cay. Circulation during the density-stratified with flow opposite to that of the surface layer. season is, for these reasons, more persistent Observations of these Ekman layers have not and closely related to the prevailing winds, been reported. The deep penetration of wind while circulations during the unstratified sea- currents in homogeneous water promotes ef- sons are shorter-lived and more closely related fective mixing of the entire water column. The to the existing wind. In this connection, it effectiveness of wind stirring results in cool- should also be remembered that the wind ing of all lake water below the temperature of speeds are generally greater on the lakes dur- maximum water density in winter, and in ing the season when the water mass is not warming above this temperature in spring be- density stratified and that this fact plays an fore the process is retarded by density stratifi- important role in maintaining homogeneous cation. conditions. A part of the difference in wind In the deeper parts of the lake basins, one speeds results from the stable stratification in would anticipate that the current speeds will the air over the lakes in summer, when the be greater during homogeneous lake water water surface is relatively cool; and the un- conditions than during conditions of density stable stratification of the air over the water stratification. Observations supporting this during winter, when the lake surface is rela- idea were reported by Verber. 849 However, tively warm. dur-Ang the density-stratified season, large In summary, the stress of the wind blowing 134 Appendix 4 across the water surface is the principal c2 = ILL P-P, (18) source of energy driving lake circulation. Sec- 277 p+p ,ondary, absolute, geostrophic currents are where L is the wave length and g is the gravi- -generated by stress tilting of the lake surface. These secondary currents represent a balance tational constant. These are short waves be- between Coriolis and horizontal pressure cause the two layers are of infinite thickness, forces. In addition, during the season of den- so the wave length L is always negligible in sity stratification, relative geostrophic cur- comparison. If p' is the density of air and p the rents are generated by wind stress tilting of density of water, the equation gives the phase the thermocline surface and by accumulations speeds of ordinary short (deep water) surface or depletions of upper layer water. Geo- waves, since p' is very small relative to p. Sur- strophic currents persist following decay of face waves can therefore be thought of as the wind stress, and lead to persistent circula- internal waves on the air-water interface. tion patterns. Wind-induced currents are mod- Short internal waves at the interface between ified by thermally driven circulation that re- two layers of water propagate much more sults from differential heating or cooling of the slowly than surface waves of the same wave- surface waters. Thermally driven circulation length, since in the lakes (or oceans) p' is al- may be a dominant force in shaping current ways very nearly equal to p. patterns during the spring and fall periods of If the density stratification of a fluid is sta- rapid surface heating and cooling. ble, a parcel of the fluid displaced from its den- sity varies from that of the surrounding fluid. In returning to its equilibrium level, the par- 6.2.4 Internal Waves cel will acquire momentum which causes it to overshoot the equilibrium position and there- Wind and other forces acting on the surfaces fore to oscillate in periodic manner about the of the Great Lakes generate surface waves level from which it was displaced. The fre- with a wide range of periods as explained ear- quency of the oscillation depends upon the in- lier in this section. These wave periods vary tensity of stratification. Such oscillations are from less than one second for capillary waves normally referred to as "stability oscillations" to many hours for oscillations involving an en- or as Brunt-Vdisdlii waves. The Brunt- tire lake surface. The characteristics of waves Vdisdld frequency (N) is approximately which occur on the surface of a lake are essen- N 2 = (g1p) ap/&Z (19) tially independent of the lake's internal den- sity structure, and their maximum vertical where p is the displaced fluid density, Op/&z is displacement occurs at the water surface. the vertical gradient of density (the assump- Waves for which the vertical displacement de- tion being made that the density varies only creases exponentially with depth are termed with depth), and g is the gravitational con- short waves, while waves for which the verti- stant. The maximum vertical density gradient cal displacement decreases linearly with determines the maximum frequency of the depth, being zero at the bottom, are termed stability oscillations. This represents a long waves. theoretical high-frequency limit for short Internal waves may occur in stratified internal waves. water within which the density varies with Observations of Brunt-Viiisiihi waves in depth. Internal waves are characterized by Lake Michigan were reported by Mortimer, et having their greatest vertical displacements al.560 They found that the maximum frequency at the density discontinuity or at some inter- of the observed waves closely approximates mediate depth where the amplitude can the theoretical frequency limit estimated from greatly exceed the amplitudes of waves on the the density profile. These waves should al- free surface. Internal wave theories were first ways be present when the lake waters are developed for stratified fluids consisting of stratified; their almost universal occurrence two homogeneous layers and later extended to in stratified ocean waters has been well the general case of progressive internal waves documented. in heterogeneous water. The origin of Brunt-Viiisiilii waves is not In a system consisting of two layers of infi- fully understood; however, any mechanism nite thickness, the lower layer of density p and capable of displacing parcels of a stably the upper layer of density p', waves at the stratified fluid would tend to originate them. interface surface between the two layers will Unstable shear flows at the thermocline sur- have a phase velocity c as given by face are a possible source. Water Motion 135 Long (shallow water) internal waves are If walls are inserted across the channel to also possible at the interface between two form a closed rectangular basin of large water layers of differing density. Internal long length-to-width ratio, a good approximation of waves are analogous to long waves which the shape of Lake Michigan can be attained if occur on the air-water interface. If two-layer the length of the basin is five or six times stratification is considered and effect of the greater than its width. Exact analytic solu- earth's rotation is neglected, the phase vel- tions that satisfy the boundary conditions are ocities for surface and internal long waves are not possible with present techniques, but solu- obtained from the equations tions that nearly satisfy the boundary condi- 2 tions can be built for this situation by ci g (h+h') (20) superimposing an infinite number of standing 2 ghh' p-p' Kelvin and Poincar6 waves (Lauwerier41111). c2 h+hl P (21) For example, the longest period surface seiche of Lake Michigan takes the form of a standing Kelvin wave, with the wave crest rotating in a where el is the surface (air-water interface) counterclockwise manner around the perime- wave speed, C2 the internal wave speed, h the ter of the lake. layer depth, and the primes refer to the upper Internal Kelvin waves are essentially edge layer. Surface long waves in the Great Lakes waves, with amplitudes that decay exponen- have received considerable attention from tially away from the coast and are negligible numerous investigators. These waves consist more than four or five kilometers offshore. of surges, seiches, and tides in the usual ter- Only internal Kelvin waves propagating minology. Internal long waves (long refers to northward along the eastern coast of Lake the description of those waves whose wave- Michigan have been observed; southward lengths are large compared to the total depth travellingwaves alongthe western shore have h+hl) have received much less attention, with, not been detected. knowledge of their characteristics being ac- Extensive studies of internal waves and quired in only recent years. These waves have water currents were conducted by the U.S. been studied most thoroughly in Lake Michi- Public Health Service during 1963 and 1964 gan, but a few scattered observations in the (Verber"51). An important result of these in- other Great Lakes indicate that the wave vestigations was the discovery that a large characteristics are similar in all of the lakes. amount of the internal wave energy is concen- Consider solutions of the linear, shallow- trated in waves that have frequencies very water wave problem in an infinitely long ree- near the local inertial frequency (2 sin 0 revo- tangular channel which rotates coun- lutions per day, where 0 is the latitude). Waves terclockwise (as in the northern hemisphere) with frequencies near the inertial frequency about a vertical axis. The choice of a model were so dominant during the density- configuration is somewhat arbitrary, but a stratified season that many of the current good case can be made for considering an infi- meters moored in the open lake recorded little nite channel. The channel contains water that other than inertial period, clockwise rotations is density stratified in a two-layer configura- of current velocities. Internal Poincar6 waves tion. Solving the long-wave equations in such have frequencies (o-) given by the relation a model configuration gives two classes of pos- orl = fl + el (12 + k2) (22) sible time-periodic waves, Kelvin and Poincar6 2 waves (Figure 4-116). These linear (normal where f is the inertial frequency (about 10-4 mode) waves can occur at both the water sur- radians per second in Lake Michigan), C2 is the face and at the internal density discontinuity. internal wave speed given previously (equa- The speed of wave propagation at the surface tion 21), and 1 and k are transverse and lon- is much faster than at the internal density gitudinal wave-numbers of the internal oscil- boundary, and the surface waves are analog- lations, respectively. For conditions represen- ous to the longitudinal (Kelvin) and trans- tative of maximum density stratification verse (Poinear6) seiches, which are the long- which occurs in late summer, the internal wave normal modes in a closed basin that does wave speed is about one-half meter per second. not rotate about a vertical axis. Although Kel- Long-wavelength internal Poincar6 waves vin and Poinear6 waves are derived from con- therefore have frequencies which are very sideration of an infinite channel model, these near the local inertial frequency. Mortimer558 wave forms approximate the observed wave demonstrated that the inertial period oscilla- forms in Lake Michigan (Mortimer 557,558). tions of lake thermoclines are indeed as- 136 Appendix 4 OVA tA t IL t 'qtL tA vi I Ski r NILE AO%%ts O%tA Itc EtAl r 9L FIGURE 4-116 Kelvin and Poincar6 Waves in an Infinitely Long Rectangular Channel that Ro- tates Counterclockwise about a Vertical Axis, as in the Northern Hemisphere Water Motion 137 sociated with long internal Poincar6 waves, admit the possibility of resonant interactions with modes of odd transverse wave-numbers, 1 between three waves. In such a resonant trio = 7r/L, 1 = 37r/L and so on, where L is the width of waves, the wave energy is exchanged com- of the channel dominating the wave structure. paratively freely between the waves in a He suggested that the waves may be gener- periodic fashion, although the period of the ated by wind stress tilting of the thermocline energy exchange is considerably longer than surface, which, after the wind calms, oscillates the period of any individual wave in the reso- in a superposition of the various normal nant triad. The non-linear analysis shows that modes. Odd transverse wave-numbers would all of the longitudinal surface modes of oscilla- be favored because the stress depresses the tion are coupled together in such a resonant thermocline on the downwind coast of the lake, manner, so that any particular oscillation and elevates it on the other coast. which is set in motion with an initially finite However, there are several characteristics amplitude is unstable. It interacts in a reso- of internal Poincar6 waves that are not well nant manner with all other possible longitudi- explained by Mortimer's generation theory. In nal long waves and its energy is transferred to the first place, each interval of high wind these other oscillations. Thus, if a particular stress should initiate a new internal wave re- finite -amplitude wave is generated, for exam- gime, since it is unlikely that the applied stress ple, by the decay of a wind set-up, the individ- would be in phase with the existing internal ual wave may not be discernible in records of waves. This is not shown by the observations, water surface elevation for more than a few since internal waves of near inertial fre- complete oscillations, but this does not neces- quency can be traced without interruption in sarily imply that the wave energy has been periodicity for very long duration, sometimes dissipated by friction. More likely, a consider- for several weeks or months (Malone 510). Also, able portion of the wave energy has been for long waves propagating on the surface of a transferred throughout the entire spectrum of two-layer configuration, the motions in the possible longitudinal, shallow-water waves. two layers are in phase, with the slip between Mortimer's559 spectral analyses of water sur- layers being small (though not zero). Internal face elevations confirmed the existence of the waves, on the other hand, propagate with the first eight longitudinal modes in Lake Michi- motions in each layer exactly out of phase. The gan, with energy distributed in the modes in a internal waves should therefore dissipate regular pattern. The external forces setting much more rapidly due to internal friction the oscillations in motion are usually confi- than surface waves, but the observations gured such that the initial wave energy is con- imply just the opposite, with surface waves centrated in the modes with very small wave- decaying in just a few days while the internal numbers. In this connection, estimates of bot- waves persist much longer. It might be argued tom friction coefficients in the Great Lakes, that there are no frictional losses as the two which have been based on the rate of water layers flow in opposition to each other, amplitude decay of finite-amplitude oscilla- but this argument is not supported by obser- tions when their occurrence is discernible vations. On the contrary, a velocity shear be- throughout several periods of oscillation, are tween layers is an often-discussed mechanism probably unreliable. for the generation of the short wavelength Non-linear analysis also shows that the sur- stability oscillations considered previously. In face, longitudinal waves can be resonantly this connection, it is also important to remem- coupled with internal Poincar6 waves, but ber that the interface between layers is not as only with internal waves of odd transverse sharply defined as it is in a system such as oil wave-numbers. The intensity of the interac- floating on water. The interface is diffuse, tions decreases as the transverse wavelength being represented by a thermocline with a decreases. Frequencies of the internal waves thickness on the order of five or ten meters in predicted from non-linear theory thus are in which the temperature gradient is often close agreement with the observational data nearly constant. (Mortimer558). It is also important to note that Considering the effects of the non-linear resonances are not possible between three terms in the equations governing shallow- internal Poincar6 waves of near inertial fre- water motions in an infinite channel, Saylor 710 quency, so that following excitation, these showed that the relatively rapid decay of sur- internal waves propagate independently of face wave amplitudes may result from causes each other. All internal Kelvin waves, on the other than frictional dissipation. Quadratic other hand, interact resonantly with each non-linear terms in the governing equations other in the same manner as do the surface 138 Appendix 4 waves, so that in comparison with internal waves have frequencies clustered about the Poincar6 waves, the internal Kelvin waves are frequency of stability oscillations, which de- relatively unstable. Thus, the Kelvin waves pends solely on the local vertical gradient of are short-lived phenomena, while the Poin- water density. Long internal waves, which are car6 waves are very stable. large in amplitude and long-lived, have fre- Resonance with internal Poincar6 waves quencies clustered about the local inertial fre- requires that the difference between the wave quency. Although the properties of internal frequencies of two surface waves approximate waves have been observed principally in Lake the inertial frequency. This condition is satis- Michigan, the few observations reported from fied by at least several pairs of adjacent the other Great Lakes show sufficient simi- wave-number, longitudinal surface oscilla- larities to indicate that the same mechanisms tions in Lake Michigan. Identification of the are operable in all. pair (or pairs) of surface waves involved in the interactions requires knowledge of the lon- gitudinal wavelengths of the internal waves, 6.2.5 Turbulence and Diffusion and these wavelengths are not known at pres- ent. Laminar flow connotes a state in which The investigations of non-linear wave reso- layers of fluid move in an orderly manner such nance utilize an infinitely long, rectangular that random local fluctuations of velocity do channel model of a Great Lake that rotates not occur. The physical properties of water at counterclockwise about a vertical axis (as in rest or in laminar flow are described in terms the northern hemisphere). The wave forms de- of parameters such as dynamic viscosity, dif- rived from solution of the linear, shallow- fusivity, and conductivity, but rarely are these water wave equations in such a model config- parameters applicable to motions in lakes or uration closely resemble the observed wave oceans. The molecules of a fluid move at ran- forms in Lake Michigan, even though the lake dom and an exchange of molecules takes place is essentially a closed basin and longitudinal between layers. Therefore, an exchange of wavelengths are confined to a discrete set of heat occurs if the molecules of adjacent layers possible oscillations. In such studies the shape are of different temperatures; diffusion takes of the model basin appears to play a significant place if the dissolved substances vary in con- role as indicated by the investigations of centration in space; an exchange of momen- Csanady 172 and Birchfield '67 who studied the tum occurs if layers differ in velocity. The response of a circular model of a Great Lake to rates of transfer depend upon the local gra- a suddenly imposed wind stress. In a circular dients of temperature, concentration, and vel- basin model, with parameters that are appro- ocity, and upon the coefficients of thermal priate to Lake Huron, the Kelvin wave re- conductivity, diffusivity, and viscosity, re- sponse cannot occur at the water surface. All spectively. These physical characteristics of surface waves are Poincar6 waves that do not the fluid depend upon temperature, concen- seem to adequately describe the lake's surface tration, and pressure and can be determined oscillations. In addition, solution of the initial experimentally. value problem in a two-layered circular basin Turbulence prevails and a random motion of does not predict large amplitude internal water parcels is superimposed on the mean Poincar6 waves of near inertial frequency at flow in lakes or oceans. The character of the the density discontinuity. However, the solu- turbulence depends upon many factors, such tion does predict a large, quasi-static response as the mean velocity, the velocity gradients, of the thermocline surface to the applied wind and the properties of the boundary surfaces. stress. Maximum thermocline displacements In turbulent flow, the exchange of properties are confined to narrow coastal strips about 4.5 between adjacent layers is not limited to the kilometers in width. Similar quasi-static re- interchange of molecules, but instead fluid sponses are derived by considering the effects parcels of various dimensions are exchanged of a suddenly imposed wind stress on a two- between layers, carrying with them their layered, infinite channel model; and, in this characteristic properties. In this sense, an in- case also, the amplitudes of the internal Poin- stantaneous picture of fluid velocity or of car6 waves of near inertial frequency are other parameters would present a most com- much smaller than those observed. plicated pattern as evidenced by the complex In summary, internal waves always exist in patterns measured with instruments de- the Great Lakes during conditions of vertical signed to record the turbulent fluctuations. water density stratification. Short internal Most instruments, however, are designed to Water Motion 139 measure the mean properties, such as current eddy viscosity is normally several orders of velocities or water temperature averaged over magnitude greater than vertical eddy viscos- several minutes or hours. Since it is impossible itY. to measure instantaneous water currents and The distinction between vertical and lateral temperatures in space, it follows that gra- turbulence in the lakes becomes particularly dients cannot be determined and there is, significant when the lake waters are density therefore, no basis to apply the coefficients of stratified, because the stratification affects thermal conductivity, diffusivity, and viscos- the two types of turbulence in a different ity as measured in the laboratory to processes manner. With stable density stratification, in the lakes. If only the average gradients can random vertical motion is impeded. Parcels be measured, another approach must be made displaced upward are heavier than the sur- to describe the lake processes. rounding water mass and tend to sink to their For the case of laminar flow the coefficient original level, while parcels displaced down- of viscosity, P, is defined by the relation ward are lighter and tend to rise. Thus, work T, = V dv/dn (23) must be expended against gravity for a water parcel to change levels, and the vertical tur- where T., is the shearing stress exerted on a bulence is greatly reduced. At the thermocline surface of the unit area, and dv/dn is the shear vertical turbulence may be almost entirely velocity normal to this surface. For the case of suppressed, and the eddy viscosity is very turbulent flow, a coefficient of eddy viscosity, small. Stratification effects on lateral turbu- A, is defined in a similar manner: lence are negligible because the lateral mo- T, = A dV/dn (24) tions take place along surfaces of equal den- sity. where now dv_/dn represents the shear of the The same reasoning is applicable to thermal mean velocities normal to the surface. The conductivity and to diffusivity. The momen- numerical value of eddy viscosity depends tum transfer between layers results from an upon the intensity of the mass exchange be- exchange of mass, and the rate of exchange is tween layers, and the intensity of exchange expressed in terms of the eddy viscosity. depends upon such factors as the mean vel- Therefore, when dealing with eddy conductiv- ocities, the velocity gradients, and the charac- ity and eddy diffusivity, it is reasonable to as- ter of boundary surfaces. This numerical sume that the rate of heat or solute transfer is value also depends on how the "average" vel- also proportional to the mass transfer, as well ocities are determined, i.e., upon the spatial as to the gradient of the property being trans- distribution of the observations and upon the ferred. This is normally expressed by setting lengths of time to which the averages refer. the coefficients of eddy conductivity and dif- The definition of eddy viscosity is based on the fusivity equal to rA, where, for conductivity, r concept that parcels that leave one layer carry is a factor which depends upon the specific to the adjacent layer the average momentum heat of the liquid and upon the manner in of the layer they just left. Momentum of a par- which the heat is transferred to its surround- cel is transferred to the adjacent layer so that ings and A is the coefficient of eddy viscosity. the parcels obtain the mean velocity of their In unstratified water, the mechanism is usu- new surroundings before again changing ally pictured as one in which the transferred layers. Thus, eddy viscosity is an expression parcel breaks down into smaller and smaller representing the transfer of momentum. This elements, and where the heat is ultimately transfer is increased by turbulence, as evi- transferred by molecular conduction. In this denced by the fact that the eddy viscosity is case the momentum and heat of the displaced many times greaterthan the molecular viscos- parcel are eventually evened off to those prop- ity measured in the laboratory. erties in its new environment, and the factor r Eddy viscosity can be determined only by is simply equal to the specific heat of the fluid examination of its effects on the mean motion (for water, r is nearly one). In the case of stable of the water. It is convenient to distinguish stratification, the heat of the displaced parcel between two types of turbulence, vertical and may not be equalized with its new surround- lateral. Vertical eddy viscosity results from ings as rapidly as the momentum is trans- the comparatively slight random motions in a ferred by collision, so that the coefficient r is vertical plane, while lateral eddy viscosity re- considerably less than the fluid's specific heat. sults from the exchange of water masses due Observations of eddy viscosity and conductiv- to the existence of large-scale horizontal ed- ity have confirmed that this is the case. Simi- dies. Observations have shown that lateral lar reasoning applies to the eddy diffusivity, 140 Appendix 4 METERS configuration, width of the opening, tributary 0 -0 1000 WOO influx, and location in the lake system. Harbors are designed with the prime pur- pose of reducing waves and currents within the harbor to some acceptable level. Naviga- tion and water quality interests are fre- quently at odds because barriers must be constructed to minimize adverse currents and waves in harbor areas. This frequently results in reduced flushing rates and, hence, a sharp drop in water quality within the harbor con- fines. Calumet Harbor on Lake Michigan is one example. Strong northeasterly storm winds generate intense currents that flow southward through the gap between break- FIGURE 4-117 Current Pattern at Calumet waters, thus causing navigation problems Harbor, Lake Michigan, During a High-Speed (Figure 4-117). Although closing the gap North or Northeast Wind would eliminate adverse currents, closure From Saylor, 1964 would also reduce flushing of the harbor (Saylor711). and under normal conditions the diffusivity is In order to optimize navigational safety and the same as the conductivity. Lateral eddy water quality, a complete knowledge of local conductivity and diffusivity are unaffected by and open lake currents and the changes in stratification, and in water they equal the currents and sedimentation patterns due to eddy viscosity. coastal structures is necessary before mathe- Eddy diffusivity has received the most at- matical models that relate currents to their tention in Great Lakes investigations, since causative forces and harbor geometry can be diffusion plays as important role in the disper- derived. Resulting design criteria will bring sal of contaminants introduced into the lakes, about improved utilization, decrease costly mainly along the coasts. Stratification effects maintenance, increase safety to navigation, are pronounced, and the Great Lakes are good and improve water quality. model oceans for studies of the mixing coeffi- During the last several years, circulation cients. patterns in selected harbors on Lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior have been studied in an attempt to relate observed circu- 6.3 Water Movement in Harbors lation to the main causative forces. The har- bors vary greatly in design, size, and exposure to current-generating forces, and hence apply- 6.3.1 Introduction ing results from one harbor to another is usu- ally difficult. Little theoretical work has been Knowledge of the circulation patterns in done, and the present state of knowledge is embayments of the Great Lakes provides a still in the descriptive stage. basis for controlling currents adverse to navi- This review describes the main causative gation, predicting sedimentation patterns, de- forces that are pertinent to circulation devel- termining flushing rates, and selecting loca- opment, the circulation patterns and flushing tions for water intakes and waste outfalls. characteristics of selected harbors and em- Currents detrimental to navigation have long bayments, and those conclusions and recom- been recognized and steps to alleviate such mendations that can be drawn from these in- currents have been implemented either in vestigations. harbor design or through modification to existing harbors. With the marked increase in industrial, human, and vessel waste dis- 6.3.2 Current-Generating Forces charged into or near many commercial and recreational harbors, a pollution hazard has There are four primary forces that cause developed and determination of the flushing currents in harbors: wind stress, which in- rates of contaminants is an additional impor- cludes pure wind drift and wave-induced cur- tant consideration in harbor design. Flushing rents; water-level oscillations; density cur- rates depend on factors that vary with harbor rents; and tributary inflow. The first three Water Motion 141 phenomena have been discussed in terms of of water transported shoreward by waves open lake characteristics in the preceding must be compensated by a hydraulic current subsections so only their presence in and ef- flowing lakeward. Thus the mass transport fect on the harbor and embayment environ- caused solely by waves is relatively low com- ment will be discussed. pared with other processes. Waves approaching a shoreline at an angle undergo changes in velocity, height, length, 6.3.2.1 Wind-Driven Currents and direction. As the waves impinge on the shallow nearshore area, they are refracted The transfer of momentum from wind to and tend to conform to the bottom contours. water at the air-water interface and the fric- However, the waves usually break at a slight tion between moving layers within the water angle to the shore resulting in a longshore produce pure wind-driven currents. Although component of motion commonly known as lit- the momentum transfer mechanism is not toral or longshore currents. These currents fully understood, the ratio of the current speed are effective in moving masses of water and to wind speed has been empirically deter- sediment along the shore. Although numerous mined to be approximately 0.03 for winds to 15 attempts to theoretically predict longshore m/s (34 mph) (Keulegan 452). current velocities have been made, there is According to the Ekman theory, in a deep still no adequate solution (Galvin2111). homogeneous ocean the surface currents are directed 45' to the right of the surface stress and the mass transport is directed at right 6.3.2.3 General Nearshore Current Features angles to the stress. Currents in shallow water are directed at a lesser angle. On Lake Michi- Nearshore currents play a major role in de- gan, Saylor 71-1. found that currents outside the termining circulation patterns in many Great nearshore area are directed 15' to the right of Lakes harbors. Saylor 701 '71 ' noted several the wind. general features of the nearshore current Saylor 709 observed that during onshore or structure at all locations on the Great Lakes offshore winds, surface movement in the coast- where nearshore currents have been mea- al waters is in the direction of the wind stress, sured: mid-depth currents are nearly parallel to the (1) Wind-driven currents are generally of shoreline, and continuity is maintained by re- higher speed during onshore winds than dur- turn flow near the bottom. Strong onshore ing offshore winds, illustrating the effect of winds generate a boundary region near the sheltering by the coast and of limited overwa- shore in which the currents at all depths flow ter fetch. parallel to the shoreline. This boundary region (2) At a fixed depth below the surface the increases in width with increasing wind speed. current speed increases with increasing dis- When the wind parallels the shoreline, the tance from shore because of the effects of bot- nearshore current speed is greatest, and the tom friction in shallow water. current direction may be uniform from surface (3) During periods of strong wind, a well- to.bottom. defined variation of current speed with depth The ability of winds to generate surface cur- exists, with the highest speeds observed at or rents inside a harbor is impaired by the very near the surface due to wind stress and lowest limited fetch. Howi@ver, the wind is often of speeds near the bottom. sufficient strength to drive the surface water (4) During periods of strong winds parallel out of the harbor, and continuity is main- to the shore, the ratio of the surface current to tained by inflow near the bottom. that of wind speeds is close to the 0.03 value determined by Keulegan.452 Saylor709 observed that for winds of 6 m/s (13 6.3.2.2 Wave-Induced Currents mph) or greater, full response of the nearshore currents to the applied wind stress is gener- As the wind blows over the water surface, a ally achieved in one hour or less. The rate of portion of the energy transmitted to the water decay of coastal currents after cessation of is manifested in the form of waves. Water par- strong winds varies with location and is ap- ticles do not traverse a closed path, but instead parently closely related to the open-lake circu- follow an open orbit. This orbital motion re- lation and the lake depth. As a case in point, sults in a mass transport in the direction of Saylor 708 observed that near Little Lake Har- wave propagation. Along a shore, the amount bor westerly and northwesterly winds over 142 Appendix 4 eastern Lake Superior generate strong eastward-flowing coastal currents that reach steady state conditions in approximately two hours. After cessation of the winds, the cur- rent persists for days with only a slight de- crease in speed after the first day. This eastward-flowing nearshore current pattern coincides with the dominant current pattern in the open lake in this region (Harrington, 313 Ragotzkie 636) . Near Harbor Beach, Lake Hu- ron, strong southward-fl owing currents, in re- sponse to strong north winds, decay very rapidly after cessation of the wind. This southerly flow is opposite to the prevailing current pattern in this part of the lake (Har- rington,313 Ayers et al.28). Saylor709 also noted FIGURE 4-118 Trajectories of Inflow and Out- that nearshore currents in Lake Erie decay flow Currents at Little Lake Harbor with Neg- rapidly, probably due to the shallowness of the ligible Current in Lake Superior From Saylor, 1966 lake. Nearshore currents are an important natu- ral flushing agent in harbors of the Great Lake Erie, there is a mean current of about 15 Lakes. Therefore, harbor circulation studies cm/see (0.5 fps) per foot of amplitude at Buf- must include not only measurements of near- falo, increasing to 21 cm/sec (0.7 fps) through shore currents, but also a knowledge of open- constricted areas. Conneaut Harbor, Lake lake circulation and its effect on current-decay Erie, located near the nodal areas for both the rates. Open-lake currents and their temporal, uninodal and binodal longitudinal seiches, ex- and spatial variation are not well documented. periences strong reversing seiche currents A comprehensive long-term program of con- across the harbor entrance. When the seiche tinuous measurements of all influencing pa- currents are added to the wind-generated sur- rameters is necessary to adequately describe face currents and longshore currents due to and predict open-lake circulation. waves, the cross-entrance currents can be- come detrimental to navigation (Hunt and Ba- jorunas399). 6.3.2.4 Water-Level Fluctuations Although the narrow, restricted openings into many harbors provide protection from Although astronomical tides in the Great waves, periodic temporal changes in water Lakes are small, temporal changes in mean level result in large hydraulic heads that fill water level in the form of wind tides, surges, and empty the harbors and cause strong, re- and seiches are effective current-generating versing currents through the harbor en- mechanisms. These short-term water-level trances. These water level effects are, of changes in the lakes are defined and charac- course, most pronounced in harbors located terized in preceding subsections. near antinodes, the point where the vertical Currents due to seiches are at maximum water-level change is a maximum. Housley384 across the nodal section. At the node, water reported that hazardous currents in the en- movement is entirely horizontal and con- trance channels of Duluth-Superior Harbor tinuity requires that the water flow through are caused by flows into and out of the harbor the nodal section to compensate for the change in response to several modes of the longitudi- in water volume passing from one end of the nal seiche of Lake Superior. Saylor7011 meas- lake to the other. If the water depth is much ured inflow and outflow through the channel less than the wave length, the maximum vel- to Little Lake Harbor, Lake Superior, after an ocity through the nodal section can be esti- extended period of light offshore winds and mated by negligible lake currents. The circulation pat- V = (gh)l 12 H/h (25) terns, which result from seiching action, are shown in Figure 4-118. Similarly, Toledo Har- where V is the velocity, (gh)1.12 is the wave vel- bor, located at the western end of Lake Erie, ocity, H is the seiche amplitude, and h is the experiences highly variable currents, due in water depth. For example, Platzman and part to large water level fluctuations that Ra0620 found that, for the first seich mode in frequent this shallow lake. Figure 4-119 is an Water Motion 143 100 200 7 110 40 0.8 - 0.4 - 0 -0.4 - 20 10 - 0 - -1010 '0@o 1000 00 12 00 12 ou 12 00 2 NOV 1966 3 NOV 4 NOV FIGURE 4-119 Current Velocities Resulting from Changes in Water Level and the Associated Wind Speed and Direction, and Atmospheric Pressure for Toledo Harbor, Ohio. The arrows indicate wind direction from its source. From Miller, 1969 example of the current direction and speed Because of the rapid response of the harbor, associated with a positive wind tide (increased the velocities of the reversing currents are water level) followed by a large negative wind controlled mainly by these shorter-period os- tide, and finally seiches (Miller 544) . Harbor cillations. For example, Saylor 709 observed current velocities during wind tides or that reversing currents speeds of 0.6 m/sec (2 meteorological disturbances are highly un- fps) were associated with oscillations of one- predictable and it is only after the initial dis- hour period and 0.1 m (0.3 ft) height in Little turbance decays into seiches that the currents Lake Harbor. Using the above observations become quasi-tidal, and past water-level records, current speeds A small harbor responds rapidly to water up to 2 m/sec (6.6 fps) are possible through the level fluctuations. For example, Little Lake entrance to Little Lake Harbor. An explana- Harbor, Lake Superior, responds fully to oscil- tion of these shorter-period oscillations is not lations with periods of 15 minutes or longer clear. In the case of Little Lake Harbor, (Saylor 709). In addition to the easily recogniz- Saylor 708 concluded that these short-period able first several modes of a lake seiche, oscil- waves are normal modes of the lake surface lations with periods ranging from 15 minutes since once a particular period of oscillation is to two hours persist in many harbors. In excited, it persists for some time. Racine Harbor and Muskegon Harbor on No oscillatory motion toward and away from Lake Michigan, Saylor711 observed 10- and the shore due to standing waves transverse to 12-minute period water level oscillations, but the shoreline was observed (Saylor708) indicat- fluctuations with periods of less than 20 min- ing that water level fluctuations have little utes were absent offshore. effect on nearshore currents. 144 Appendix 4 A combination of seiche-induced reversing (4) Harbor disturbances may occur when currents through a harbor entrance and near- no atmospheric disturbance passes the im- shore current flow across the entrance provide mediate area of the harbor. a good natural flushing mechanism. During Saylor7011 also found that large amplitude, each seiche cycle, a quantity of water flows out short-period oscillations at Little Lake Harbor of the harbor, is carried away by the nearshore were often uncorrelated with local weather. current, and replaced by lake water during the The last two characteristics imply that the inflow portion of the cycle. energy of the disturbance may be communi- Harbors may also possess resonant oscilla- cated to the lake at some distance from the tions. When a periodic excitation is applied at harbor and transmitted to the harbor in the one of the free or natural periods of the harbor, form of a water level disturbance in the lake. the motion will increase to an amplitude de- From these observations, Harris theorized termined by the damping of the system. This that atmospheric disturbances give rise to a phenomenon is termed resonance. Free oscil- wide spectrum of disturbances on the open lations will result if the harbor is considered to lake and, by resonance, selected periods are be open ended with a reflecting boundary at amplified within a harbor. If this hypothesis is the other end, and if the length of the basin is correct, forecasting short-period disturb- such that the wave travel time is an odd- ances, and therefore currents, will not be integer multiple of one-quarter of the wave feasible since the records show that, though period (Sverdrup, et al .774) . The resonant there is some connection between meteorolog- periods can be approximated by Merian's for- ical fluctuations and lake-level fluctuations, mula for open-ended basins, the relation is not simple or direct. T = 4L/nl,'rg--d (26) where L is the length of the basin, n is the 6.3.2.5 Density Differences mode, g is acceleration due to gravity, and d is the water depth. Since the harbor areas are Density differences in the harbor areas are small, the resonant period of the fundamental mainly due to inflow from tributaries that mode lasts a few minutes. have different temperatures or chemical com- In a resonant basin oscillation, all the in- positions than the receiving water, and also to coming wave energy is concentrated in one local heating and chemical loading. The differ- standing wave system with resulting buildup ences in density result in stratification. In of large amplitude vertical and horizontal stratified water, the exchange of fluid across water movements at the antinodes and nodes. the region of greatest density change (ther- This horizontal motion verifies the impor- mocline or chemocline) is inhibited. Current tance of seiches in harbors. For example, a directions in the two layers may be opposite, two-minute period wave 10 cm (0.3 ft) in hence, the dispersion of wastes can be con- height would cause a 2 in (4 ft) horizontal trolled to a limited extent in time by adjusting movement with an average velocity of about 3 the height of outfalls so that wastes are dis- cm/s (0.1 fps). Sources of these harbor disturb- charged into the stratum that will most suit- ances may be winds piling up water at the ably disperse or assimilate the waste. coast, longer-period lake.seiches, reflection of Saylor 711 observed two distinct harbor circu- wind waves, or meteorological disturbances. lation patterns in Muskegon Outer Harbor, Raichlen 639 reviewed recent advances in har- Lake Michigan, depending on the presence or bor resonance theory. absence of stratification. During spring the HarriS316 studied water level records from temperature of the Muskegon River water is many Great Lakes harbor sites and observed as much as 8"C (1 4F) warmer than the receiv- short-period oscillations with the following ing water, and the river outflow through the characteristics: harbor is thus confined to the upper layer. The (1) All harbors in the same area tend to colder, more dense lake water flows into the become excited at approximately the same harbor and circulates in eddies at either side of time. the harbor. The degree of cold water intru- (2) The characteristic period appears to be sion depends on the magnitude of the outflow- different in each harbor. ing current. Summer and fall water tempera- (3) The harbor disturbances may occur as tures are more nearly the same, and during much as an hour or two before or after the offshore or light onshore winds, the circula- apparently associated atmospheric disturb- tion is governed by the northward -flowing ance passes the harbor. nearshore current. Saylor 711 also observed Water Motion 145 tensive studies are as yet lacking. From three -day lakewide surveys, Ayers et N separate one al .28 found two patterns of circulation in S aginaw Bay. In late June, there is surface inflow along the north side, and the prevailing west winds combined with the Coriolis force tend to deflect the outflow onto the southern shore. During the later summer months, the entire surface moves out of the bay with a z compensating bottom inflow. Beeton and Hooper,56 treating the bay as a typical estuary and using the Saginaw River water as a V tracer, determined that it would take 113 days for a one-day accumulation of river water to MUSKEGON OUTER move through the bay during peak river dis- MARBOR S CURRENT AT 1.3 M charge, and 186 days with annual average 10 CM/ CURRENT AT 5M river flow. From an investigation in Chequamegon Bay, an elongated bay on Lake Superior, FIGURE 4-120 Current Patterns in Muskegon Ragotzkie et al. 6311 concluded that when the Outer Harbor, Michigan, During a South- bay is thermally stratified, the physical pat- westerly Storm From Saylor, 1964 terns are analogous to the patterns in a mod- erately stratified estuary, with the aperiodic that during intense southwest storms, an ap- offshore winds replacing the astronomical tide preciable surface current flows into the north- as the predominant flushing mechanism. ern half of the harbor due to wind stress @nd Water level oscillations cause inflow and out- waves (Figure 4-120). The lower-layer return flow in the bay, and when combined with hori- current flows out through the harbor entrance zontal currents across the mouth of the bay, almost at right angles to the incoming surface they provide an additional natural flushing current. action. If the embayments of the Great Lakes do behave in a similar fashion to estuaries, then 6.4 Embayments the principles derived for estuaries are appli- cable, at least during times of thermal stratifi- Circulation studies in embayments have cation. usually been included only as a part of larger lake circulation programs. Because of their sheltered water, shallow depths, and sur- 6.5 Analytical Methods rounding dense population, embayments, like harbors, have water quality problems. The Circulation patterns in harbors are deter- Rochester Embayment is one example. Many mined by the breakwater configuration, and of the same current-ge n e rating forces and the strength and direction of tributary and their complex interactions active in harbors coastal flow resulting from the complex in- also pertain to embayments. Water level teractions of various current components. The measurements taken within an embayment strength and direction of coastal flow is dif- tend to be complex. Because sloping beaches ficult to model mathematically because of the are good reflectors for waves and due to con- number of variables necessary to adequately cavities in coastlines, a portion of the energy describe the functional relationships. entering an embayment may become trapped. Saylor707 used two methods to hindcast the Repeated reflections result in complex stand- direction of coastal flow at Harbor Beach, ing waves which may achieve resonance. Lake Huron, from wind and observed harbor Hence, a harbor located in an embayment has circulation data: the first method utilized data additional oscillations due to the embayment taken directly from the wind rose; the second boundaries. This adds to the total complexity method consisted of examining the wind track of describing long-period waves in specific lo- drawn from four-hour-average wind vectors. cations. The wind rose showed that, for the period Several embayments have been referenced sampled, 80 percent of the winds were from in studies of circulation and pollution, but ex- directions that cause northward-flowing 146 Appendix 4 --------------------------------------------- ------------ ------------------- ------------------ 6---------- 3 --------- ------ -1 ----------------3 ------------------ -- ----- ---------------- V____ - ------------ @/ ------ ----------- -------- ----------- -----------3----------- ------------ ---------- It METERS METERS 1 40 CM/S@ 0 50 100 200 1 40 CM/S FIGURE 4-121 Circulation Model During a FIGURE 4-122 Circulation Model During a Westerly Storm and Inflow at Little Lake Har- Westerly Storm and Outflow at Little Lake Har- bor, Lake Superior From Saylor, 1966 bor, Lake Superior From Saylor, 1966 nearshore currents or the winds were not suf- tained, the amount of water that passes out of ficiently strong to change the current pattern. the harbor during any period must equal the Hence, the ratio of northward harbor circula- inflow from the river during the same period. tion to southward circulation was 4 to 1. Using The current speed due to discharge can then the observed relationship of current flow be given by through the harbor to wind speed, duration, V = Q/A (27) and direction, the second method yielded a hindcasted circulation for each four-hour where V is the current speed, Q is the river interval. Taking into account the approximate discharge, and A is the cross-sectional area. one-hour lag between wind shift and response, Outflow from most tributaries varies sea- this method produced a ratio of northward to sonally with maximum discharge during southward harbor circulation of 2.8 to 9. The spring runoff and during high precipitation difference in the ratios computed from the two periods. During these times, river inflow methods was attributed to the high percent- dominates the harbor circulation regime by age of northerly winds over 9 m/sec (20 mph). forcing a continuous outflow through the har- Since the wind-track technique takes wind bor openings. For the greater part of the year, speed into consideration, Saylor considered it tributary discharge is nominal and other to be more representative of actual conditions. forces dominate the current regime, although Knowledge of the circulation patterns gen- inflow still results in a small, net outflow com- erated by coastal currents from either direc- ponent. tion gives valuable information about the proper placement of intakes and outfalls. For example, Saylor 707 states that, from the ob- 6.7 Composite Currents and Flushing served circulation patterns and the computed Characteristics ratio, the power plant located near Harbor Beach can expect to recirculate a portion of its Currents at any location, particularly in own discharge and a portion of another com- harbors of the Great Lakes, nearly always pany's effluent approximately 75 percent of consist of a complex mixture of different the time. current-generating forces. The effect of these forces is seen in Little Lake Harbor by compar- ing circulation patterns due to water level os- 6.6 Tributary Inflow cillations only, as discussed earlier (Figure 4-119), with patterns obtained when near- Numerous Great Lakes harbors are located shore currents were also present (Figures at the mouths of tributaries, and the net lake- 4-121 and 4-122). Strong eastward-flowing ward flux due to inflow provides an important currents along the shore are driven by the natural flushing mechanism. Because a mean dominant west and northwest winds. The state of volume equilibrium must be main- small harbor size permits a rapid response to Water Motion 147 --- --------- --------------------8------ . . ......... 6---- -------------- 4 ------------ 40 C@,S@ 2 1 .5 cw" 2 METERS METERS - .00 0_250 500 10 0 FIGURE 4-123 Current Pattern at Fairport FIGURE 4-124 Current Pattern at Fairport Harbor, Lake Erie, During High-Speed West or Harbor, Lake Erie, with Eastward Flowing West-Southwest Wind Nearshore Currents, after Cessation of High- From Saylor, 1964 Speed Wind From Saylor, 1964 water level oscillations with periods of 15 min- created by longitudinal seiches in the lake and utes or longer. Currents due to water level changing wind directions. Eastward-flowing oscillations combined with the effects of the nearshore currents, due mainly to the prevail- nearshore currents, create an eddy to the east ing westerly winds, dominate in this region of of the west breakwater. Lake Erie. Because of the relatively long fetch Because of man-made fills on either side of and shallow water in the outer harbor, direct the channel, Toledo Harbor is not affected by wind stress produces an eastward-flowing longshore currents as are many of the other current in the outer harbor that is compen- Great Lakes harbors. However, large am- sated for by inflow through the navigation plitude, temporal water level fluctuations channel (Figure 4-123). Upon cessation of the are frequent in Lake Erie. The reversing-type strong westerly winds, the current in the har- currents created by these oscillations are mod- bor reverses and flows westward in the outer ified by inflow from the Maumee River. The harbor, then out through the entrance (Figure river inflow prolongs the ebb portion of the 4-124), and an eddy forms lakeward of the east seiche-current cycle and enhances the current breakwater. Northeasterly winds produce a speed. During the flood portion of the cycle the pattern similar to that shown in Figure 4-124. opposite occurs. When river discharge be- The circulation patterns show that Fairport comes great, the reversing characteristics of Harbor has a rapid flushing time under most seiche currents may disappear entirely. wind conditions because of the harbor design Wind stress usually does not produce appre- and the interaction of nearshore and wind- ciable currents within harbors because of lim- drift currents. ited fetches. However, wind stress and/or den- Calumet Harbor, Lake Michigan, also has sity differences can result in oppositely di- unrestricted communication with Lake rected currents in some Great Lakes harbors. Michigan. Unlike Fairport Harbor, the inner On one occasion in Toledo Harbor, for example, harbor area has very poor flushing charac- the surface current was lakeward at 15 cm/sec teristics. The prevailing circulation is con- in response to a 7 m/sec wind while at the 4.5 in trolled by the clockwise current pattern in depth the flow was upstream at 10 cm/sec. Al- southern Lake Michigan. The currents, flow- though the wind-driven current is confined to ing northward along the shore, do not pene- the upper layer, it may constitute an impor- trate the harbor but flow around the end of the tant flushing mechanism. breakwater and continue north (Figure Fairport Harbor, Lake Erie, does not ex- 4-125). The inner harbor is practically stag- perience inflowing and outflowing currents nant; the only flushing mechanism is the slow caused by water level oscillations because of reversing currents through the breakwater the nearly unrestricted communication with opening. Lake Erie (Saylor 71 1). However, reversing Unfortunately, many of the harbors on the currents flowing parallel to the shoreline are Great Lakes are located in natural enclosures 148 Appendix 4 METERS Quantitative functions relating current- 6 -660 16,00 woo generating forces to current velocities and patterns are obviously lacking. The difficulty in obtaining comprehensive relationships is compounded by a tack of knowledge about the generation, propagation, and decay of the in- dividual forces responsible for current forma- tion. 6.8 Summary and Conclusions Investigations of harbor circulation pat- terns conducted in the Great Lakes have iden- tified the primary causative forces as direct FIGURE 4-125 Current Pattern at Calumet (pure wind drift) and indirect (wave induced) Harbor, Lake Michigan, During Prevailing wind stress, water level oscillations, tributary Wind and Nearshore Current Conditions discharge, and density differences. From Saylor, 1964 Nearshore currents, consisting of both pure wind drift and wave-produced longshore cur- with only small openings to the lake. If these rents, exhibit several features common to harbors have negligible flushing by tributary many locations investigated: drainage, physical factors do not play a large (1) The wind-driven currents are generally role in dilution, dispersion, or removal of pollu- stronger during onshore winds than during tants, and stagnant water results. Wheatley offshore winds, and the currents attain a Harbor on Lake Erie is an example of a small maximum velocity, about 3 percent of the wind harbor with such problems (Steggles and speed, when the direction parallels the shore. Thon 759). (2) At a fixed depth, the current speed in- Water level disturbances, their height and creases with increasing distance from shore. period, cannot be routinely predicted with suf- (3) During strong winds, the highest current ficient accuracy to determine current velocity. speeds are found at the surface and near the However, if nearshore currents are negligible bottom. and water level changes and tributary dis- (4) The current near the coast parallels the charge can be considered the primary causa- shoreline. tive forces, such as in Toledo Harbor, then (5) Full response of the coastal currents to another approach can be taken. Since the rate an applied wind stress is generally achieved in of change in water level, rather than height one hour or less. alone, is responsible for strong currents, Mil- (6) The decay time of nearshore currents is a ler 544 used the rate of water level change and function of the prevailing current patterns in the current speed to obtain a current velocity the open lake and of the water depth. Near- equation for Toledo Harbor: shore currents are an effective flushing V = 6 + 100 Q/A-8Ah (28) mechanism for many Great Lakes harbors. In harbors with restricted openings, water where V is the mid-channel current velocity level fluctuations cause a filling and emptying (cm/sec), Q is the river discharge (m3/sec), A is of the harbor, and create significant currents the cross-sectional area (M2) , and Ali is the through harbor entrances, particularly those water level change (cm) at the Toledo Harbor harbors located near an antinode. Long-wave gage during a 15-minute interval. A one-hour, climate varies from locale to locale. Short- moving-average technique to filter out high period disturbances (5 minutes to 2 hours), for frequency variations and a factor necessary to which an adequate physical explanation is convert from the near-channel edge, where lacking, have been observed at several loca- the measurements were taken, to mid-channel tions. Open lake disturbances can cause reso- speeds were used. The large scatter in the rate nance within a harbor when certain conditions of water level change with respect to current are met. speed, the empirical correction factor for mid- Tributary inflow through harbors is an ef- channel conditions, and the omission of wind- fective natural flushing mechanism, espe- stress effects, may contribute to possible inac- cially during high runoff and precipitation curacies. periods. Continuity requires that the amount Water Motion 149 of inflow be compensated by an equal outflow. the complexity and multiplicity of the causa- Because discharge from most tributaries is tive phenomena and the temporal and spatial highly variable, the flushing rates are not con- variations of the phenomena. sistent. Definition of circulation patterns in harbors Water density differences in harbors are and embayments requires monitoring of many usually created by water of a different tem- parameters for a complete analysis. Advances perature than the lake water flowing into the in the area of localized circulation necessi- harbor and by heating of the shallow near- tates a knowledge of lake circulation, diffusion shore areas. The resulting stratification de- and mixing, wind- and wave-induced near- termines,eirculation patterns. shore currents, water level oscillations, and Flushing rates depend on factors that vary density differences. Future research should with harbor dimensions, configuration, and concentrate on developing workable mathe- location. Many harbors are located in natural matical models of the important physical protected areas with only a small opening to processes and verifying these findings by the lake where the physical forces are negligi- means of the observed circulation. Prediction ble; hence the water is quite stagnant. of circulation patterns, flushing times, and Analytical techniques have seen limited ap- sediment transport directions will aid in plication. The difficulty in deriving analytical elimination of adverse currents and improve methods is partly mathematical and partly in water quality through efficient flushing. Section 7 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREAT LAKES Sam B. Upchurch 7.1 Introduction Temporal and spatial changes in water stituents that are evolved by the weathering chemistry, regional distribution of chemical of naturally occurring soils and bedrock, and constituents, and general sources of chemical are combined with organic solutes and solids loading are discussed in this section. Sources derived from and by biota of the drainage ba- and sinks for chemical constitutents are re- sin. These constituents are transported to the lated to buffering by both inorganic equilibria lakes by surface runoff, precipitation, and and organic assimilation. A conceptual model ground water. relates inorganic and organic chemical loads The weathering of soils and rock is essen- in the lakes to chemical weathering in the tially a titration process (Garrels and Macken- drainage basins, known chemical loads, and zie 284) where chemical equilibria. A simple chemical budget C02 + H20 + soil or rock mineral (29) relates water chemistry in each lake to the dissolved ions + degraded minerals + HCO-3 entire Great Lakes system, and assists in the evaluation of the consequences of discharging The amount of bicarbonate (HCO-3) in natural effluents into the lakes. water is, therefore, a measure of the amount of weathering. The completeness of the reaction depends on the nature and abundance of the 7.2 Types of Chemical Loads reactants and products, the temperature, and the residence time of the water at the weather- Chemical influx into a lake from an adjacent ing site. Under appropriate conditions the na- drainage basin can be characterized by the ture of the products from weathering of a following scheme: known rock or soil can be predicted. The follow- (1) natural contributions ing are common sources and their weathering (a) inorganic runoff products: (b) organic runoff (1) basic igneous and metamorphic rocks (c) precipitation and atmospheric fallout and associated soils-K+, Na+, Ca +2' Mg+2, Fe +2' (d) ground water Fe +3' Cl-, HC03, So 42, So 42, HIS'011 Si02 (2) cultural contributions quartz, minor degraded clay minerals (a) agricultural runoff (2) acid igneous and metamorphic rocks (i) inorganic and associated soils-K', Na+, Ca +2 , HCO-31 (ii) organic H4SiO41 Si02 quartz, degraded clay minerals (b) municipal-industrial discharge (3) shales and clay-rich soils-K+, Na+, (i) inorganic Mg+2, Ca +2 , HCO-3, SO-42, H4SiO4, degraded clay (ii) organic minerals (c) precipitation and atmospheric fallout (4) limestone, dolomite, and associated (d) ground water soils-Ca +2' Mg+2 , HCO-3, So 42, minordegraded clay minerals. Other inorganic constitutents also occur in 7.2.1 Natural Contributions natural runoff, but are quantitatively of less importance. For example, phosphate released Natural contributions include those con- to the water by weathering is removed from Sam B. Upchurch, Department of Geology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. 151 152 Appendix 4 the water by the biota and cycled through the 7.3 Sampling Methods ecosystem. Organic constituents in natural runoff are Several sampling problems are unique to poorly understood. They consist of animal the Great Lakes. Because of the high level of wastes, dissolved and particulate humic sub- urbanization adjacent to the lakes, detailed stances produced by decomposition of plant data on the distribution of constituents are material, and particulate plant and animal required. The size of the lakes makes syn- debris. Lange 4114 showed that fulvic acid, a chronous sampling throughout a lake logisti- humic substance, is capable of stimulating cally impossible, unless permanent instru- growth of blue-green algae. JerneloV,431 Mek- ment platforms are employed. An approxima- nonina,531 and Cline et al.152 have shown that tion of the static, synchronous view of a lake is humic substances may be of great importance usually made by occupying sampling sites in the mobilization and transport of trace scattered throughout a lake over a period of metals. Other organic constituents in natural days or weeks. These views, erroneously called runoff are less common, because they are also synoptic surveys, are subject to considerable removed from the system through metabolic error due to short-term climatic stresses, wind and photochemical reactions. set-ups, flood discharge, winter ice cover, and diurnal and longer-term variation in biochem- ical uptake and release. The reader, therefore, 7.2.2 Cultural Contributions is cautioned that the synoptic surveys pre- sented in this and other reports reflect tran- Cultural contributions consist of chemicals sient conditions that do not occur synchro- that are either indirectly washed or dis- nously, and should be consideredto represent charged directly into the lakes. Agricultural the average condition of the lake rather than wastes consist of inorganic (e.g., phosphates, the condition at a specific time. nitrates, ammonia, lime) and organic (e.g., or@ The water column is not homogeneous, ganic fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes) especially during periods of stratification constituents that are washed from drainage and/or flood discharge. Consequently, one areas into streams and lakes. Municipal- should be aware of the vertical position of industrial discharge consists of a complex samples and, if average lake values are given, array of wastes that include industrial waste, the number of samples at each site and the municipal sewage, inputs from commercial vertical distribution of those samples. and recreational boating, fallout from the at- Much of the data used to show historical mosphere, and storm-sewer discharge. The trends in the composition of the waters of the constituents that are discharged into the Great Lakes are taken from analyses at near- lakes are many and varied. However, a few of shore stations and public water intakes (Bee- current concern are plant nutrients; toxic ton 411). These data may reflect higher concen- metals; hydrocarbons, including petroleum trations than actually exist in the open lake products, pesticides, and phenol; and oxidiza- because they were collected near sources of ble organics that deplete oxygen from the sys- tem. pollution or in areas isolated from the open Cultural inputs do not relate to rock or soil lake by coastal currents, physical barriers, or type. These inputs are a function of land use thermal barriers. and activity. Fortunately, major sources of Analytic techniques are varied and are sub- cultural input have been identified, so their ject to rapid technological advances. Older impact on the system can be evaluated. data may not be comparable to more recent Precipitation carries airborne natural and data because of changes in methodology. The cultural constituents that may be present as accuracy and precision of all data vary with aerosols, dust, or gases. Ground water also sampling technique and analytical method. A serves as a natural and cultural source of discussion of analytic techniques and their ac- chemicals to lakes. The salt and anhydrite/ curacies is given in Standard Methods (Ameri- gypsum beds under the Michigan structural can Public Health Association et al.10). basin (see Section 1) contribute an unknown This review of Great Lakes chemistry as- amount of sodium, calcium, chloride, and sul- sumes that similar data can be correlated and fate to the lakes. As deep well injection and that, although synoptic surveys do not show waste disposal become more prevalent, cul- actual lake conditions, they do show sources tural loads through ground water will in- and kinds of chemical constituents and their crease. general distribution patterns. Chemical Characteristics 153 7.4 Chemical Water Quality Criteria 7.5 Chemical Associations All of the Great Lakes States have estab- Inputs into the Great Lakes differ, depend- lished water quality criteria for the Great ing on the lithology of the bedrock and soil and Lakes based on designated uses that include on cultural development in each drainage ba- domestic water supply, fish and wildlife, rec- sin. Correlation analysis of several years of reation, and industrial water supply. Most chemical data from the Raquette River of New have adopted the U.S. Department of Health, York (Table 4-3 1) shows the relationship of the Education, and Welfare 829 Public Health Ser- constituents of a natural stream that drains a vice standards for drinking water with certain Precambrian igneous and metamorphic ter- modifications. The Public Health Service rane. The Raquette River has little cultural standards and the States' standards for Great development in its basin. Positive correlations Lakes open water are given in Table 4-30. with flow volume suggest that the contained Rigor of the standards depends on the desig- load is a product of natural weathering, and nated use, the natural quality of the water increased runoff is accompanied by flushing of body, and the need for specific controls. The the constituents derived from the drainage criteria applied to the open lakes are based on basin. Calcium, potassium, sodium, pH, silica, the quality required to minimize the costs of and bicarbonate are positively correlated, in- treatment, to prevent consumption of toxic or dicating that they are derived from dissolu- harmful constituents, and to control locally tion of silicate minerals. The negative correla- important inhibitors to water quality. Where tion between pH and chloride indicates that specific legislation was not needed, the States hydrochloric acid or some compound contain- opted for the Public Health Service standards ing hydrogen ions and chloride may be added in conjunction with the general criteria to to the river as an unnatural constituent. The limit deleterious or harmful, unspecified con- negative correlation between pH and iron is stituents. explained as an equilibrium phenomenon in- Constituents cited in the water quality volving the solution of iron compounds at low standards are silver (Ag), alkalinity, arsenic pH (see Subsection 7.5.11). NO-,, Cl-, S0,2 , and (As), boron (B), barium (Ba), carbon HCO73 are positively correlated with each other chloroform extract, cadmium (Cd), chloride and with all cations except iron. The strengths (CI-), hexavalent chromium (Cr+6), copper (cu), of the correlation coefficients indicate that dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen (DO), calcium and magnesium, sodium and potas- fluoride (F-), filterable iron (Fe soluble), hard- sium, and pH and bicarbonate are closely re- ness, cyanide (CN-), herbicides (including lated and can be considered as groups. 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; and 2,4,5-TP), methylene blue The Maumee River drains a limestone- active substances (MBAS), filterable man- dolomite terrane that is characterized by ganese (Mn soluble), ammonia (NH,), nitrate heavy agricultural and industrial use. A corre- and nitrite (NCr3 and NO-2), oil, phosph .orus (P), lation analysis (Table 4-32) of several years of a number of pesticides, hydrogen ion (ex- water quality data indicates several interest- pressed as pH), phenol, radioactivity, ing associations. High sodium and chloride selenium (Se), sulfate (S0,2), turbidity, uranyl correlation are due to the use of salt. Strong ion (UO-,,), and zinc (Zn). The sources of infor- positive correlations between specific conduc- mation on specific and general State water tance, a measure of the total dissolved solid quality standards are the Minnesota Water load, and nitrate' ' sulfate, and chloride indi- Pollution Control Commission,5411 Wisconsin cate that they are more important as balanc- Department of Resource Development, 907 ing agents in an industrial-agricultural re- Michigan Water Resources Commission '540 Il- gime than in a natural regime where bicarbo- linois Sanitary Water Board,405 Stream pollu_ nate balances the cations. tion Control Board of the State of Indiana,766 Groups and systems to be discussed are: Water Pollution Control Board of the State of (1) dissolved solids Ohio,1170 Pennsylvania Sanitary Water (2) chloride Board,601 and New York Department of (3) carbonate system Health .517 (4) oxygen system (5) phosphorus system Water quality standards for the harbors and (6) nitrogen system embayments of the Great Lakes and for the (7) organic carbon compounds upland lakes of the Great Lakes Basin are dis- (8) calcium and magnesium cussed in Appendix 7, Water Quality, and in (9) sulfur system the references cited above. (10) silicon system Continued on Page 157 154 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-30 Water Quality Standards for Great Lakes Open Water' Parameter USPHS2 Minn.3 Wis.3 Mich.3 Ill.3 Ind.3 Ohio Pa. N.y.3 Ag 0.05 --- --- --- --- --- 0.05 --- Alkalinity 30-400 --- --- --- --- --- --- or 5004 As 0.05 0.01 --- --- --- --- 0.05 --- --- B 1.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Ba 1.0 1.0 --- --- --- --- 1.0 --- --- Carbon Chloro- 0.15 0.2 --- --- --- --- --- --- form Extract Cd 0.01 0.01 --- --- --- --- 0.01 --- --- Cl- 250 50 --- MA5: 50 AA5: AA: --- --- --- (MA = 10 Year Cone. Year Cone. where i-9-7-0 -9 Y97-0 -9 present 1980 10 1980 10 cl- 10 1990 11 1990 11 2000 12 2000 12 SDV5: 15 SDV: 15 through 1970 through 1970 Cr+6 0.05 Trace --- Normally not --- --- 0.05 --- --- detectable SV5: 0.05 Cu 1.0 Trace --- --- --- --- --- Dissolved 500 500 MA: 500 200 AA: AA: MA: 500 MA: 500 --- Solids SV: 700 Year Cone. Year Cone. SV: 750 SV: 750 179-7-0 _T6_5 T97-0 Y6-5- 1980 172 1980 172 1990 179 1990 179 2000 186 2000 186 SDV: 200 SDV: 200 through 1970 through 1970 Dissolved MA: @4.0 >7 >80% of Present at AA: >90% of AA: >90% of >5.0 during MDV: >5.0 Trout Waters Oxygen SV; 73.0 _1 Oct. to saturation all times saturation saturation at least 16 SV: >4.0 >5.0 31 May SV: @5 in quantities SV: >80% of SV: >80% of hours of Ron-Trout >5 other No change to prevent saturation saturation any 24-hour waters iimes >1 nuisance. period >4.0 Cold water, SV: >3.0 intolerant fish: >6 Warm water, intolerant fish: >4 and DA: 5 0.8 1.74 1.5 --- AA: 1.0 AA: 1.0 2.0 --- --- SDV: 1.3 SDV: 1.3 Fesoluble 0.3 0.3 --- --- AA: 0.15 AA: 0.15 --- 0.3 --- SDV: 0.30 SDV: 0.30 Hardness <300 to 50 --- --- --- --- --- --- -@OO 5 CN 0.20 Trace Normally not SDV: 0.025 SDV: 0.025 0.2 --- detectable SV: 0.2 Herbicides 0.1 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- MRAS 0.5 0.5 --- --- AA: 0.02 AA: 0.02 --- 0.5 SDV: 0.05 SDV: 0.05 MNsoluble 0.05 0.05 --- --- --- --- --- NH3 0.05 (as N) Trace --- --- AA: 0.02 AA: 0.02 --- --- --- (as N) (as N) SDV: 0.05 SDV: 0.05 (as N) (as N) N073 N02 10 (as N) 45 --- --- 0.4 (Total N) 0.4 (Total N) --- Oil Virtually Trace --- No visible Substantially Substantially --- --- --- absent film, no free of visi- free of visi- globules ble, floating ble, floating oil oil P Should not --- --- --- AA: 0.03 AA: 0.03 --- --- --- lead to SDV: 0.04 SDV: 0.04 nuisance (as POO (as POO algae or coagulation problems Chemical Characteristics 155 TABLE 4-30(continued) Water Quality Standards for Great Lakes Open Water' Parameter USpHS2 Mino.3 WiS.3 Mich.3 111.3 Ind.3 Ohio Pa. N.y.3 Ph 0.05 0.05 --- --- --- 0.05 --- --- Pesticides6 PH 6.0 - 8.5 6.5 - 8.5 6.0 - 9.0 6.5 - 8.8 AA: 8.1 - 8.4 AA: 8.1 - 8.4 DA: 6.5 - 8.5 7.0 - 9.0 6.5 - 8.5 no change DA: 7.7 - 9.0 DA: 7.7 - 9.0 SV., 5.0 - 9.0 '0.5 Phenols 0.001 Trace --- MA: 0.002 AA: 0.001 AA: 0.001 --- --- 0.005 SV: 0.005 SDV: 0.003 SDV: 0.003 Radioactivity (PC/l): Gross 1000 --- --- 1000 1000 Ra226 3 --- --- --- --- --- --- Sr90 10 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Se 0.01 0.01 --- --- --- 0.01 --- --- SO-2 4 250 250 --- --- AA: AA: --- --- --- Year Conc. Year Conc. f97-0 -2-4 T970 24 1980 26 1980 26 1990 28 1990 28 2000 30 2000 30 SDV: 50 SDV: 50 through 1970 through 1970 Turbidity --- 5 No objec- None of other None of other --- --- --- tionable, than natural than natural unnatural origin that origin that turbidity will cause will cause substantial substantial visible con- visible con- trast with trast with natural natural appearance appearance of wat er of water U03 5 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Zn 5 5 --- --- --- --- --- --- Designated Drinking Domestic Fisheries & Domestic Public Water Municipal Public Water Aquatic Life Ontario U.e. Wat.r Consump- Recreation Water Supply Supply Water Supply Supply Water Supply Domestic tion Municipal Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Recreation Consumption Fisheries Water Sup- Water Supply Water Supply Water Supply Water Supply Navigation Bathing & Recrea- ply Recreation Commercial and Recreation Aquatic Life Waste Agriculture tion Shipping Fish, Wild- Sport Fishing Warm-Water Recreation Assimilation Ontario & Erie Industrial Industrial life & other Recreation Fisheries li;.ret Consump- Consump- Aquatic Life Boating tion tion Agricultural Fishing Waste Assim- and Industrial ilatiorn Commercial Consump- tion Transports- tion Sewage Dis- posal Industrial Waste Dis- posal 'Maximum allowable concentrations in mg/l, unless otherwise designated. 2United States Public Health Service. 311nIess otherwise stated, the open lake water within this State shall conform to the Drinking Water Standards of the U.S. Public Health Service (1962). The USPHS standards are given at the head of each column. 4Depends on local, natural water concentrations. 5AA = Annual Average; MA = Monthly Average; SDV = Single Daily Value; SV = Single Value at Any Time; DA = Daily Average 60nly the USPHS has pesticide standards which are: Aldrin, 0.017; Chlordane, 0.003; DDT, 0.042; Dieldrin, 0.017; Endrin, 0.001; Heptachlor, 0.018; Heptachlor epoxide, 0.018; Lindane, 0.056; Methoxychlor, 0.035; Org. Phos. + Carbamates, 0.1; and Toxaphene, 0.005. 156 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-30(continued) Water Quality Standards for Great Lakes Open Water' General Standards (wh.r. adopted) Minnesota (1) No untreated sewage or treated sewage with pathogenic organisms shall be discharged. (2) No dis charge that will create nuisance conditions, including floating solids, scum, oil, discoloration, odor, gas evolution, sludge, slime, or algae. Wisconsin (1) Substances that yield objectionable deposits shall not be present in quantities that will cause nuisance conditions. (2) Floating debris, oil, scum, or other material shall not be present in such mounts as to cause a nuisance. (3) Materials producing color, odor, taste. or unsightliness shall not be present in such quantities as to cause a nuisance. (4) No substance will be present in quantities harmful or toxic to human, animal, plant, or aquatic life. Michigan (1) Toxicants should not exceed 1/10 of 96 hour TLm from continuous flow bioassay. (2) Material producing objectionable turbidity, color, deposits, or injury to human, fish, wildlife, or aquatic life may notbe present in quantities sufficient to create a nuisance. (3 ) Nutrients originating from cultural sources shall not cause growths of algae, weeds, or slimes that are injurious to the designated use. Ohio (1) Shall be free of substances attributable to municipal, industrial, or other discharges that will settle to form putrescent or other objectionable sludge deposits; that will produce color, odor, or other conditions in such degree as to create nuisance; or that will singly or in combination with other chemicals, be toxic or harmful to human, animal, plant, or aquatic life. (2) Shall be free of unsightly or deleterious floating debris, scum, oil, and other floating materials attributable to man. (3) Toxic substances will be less than or equal to 1/10 of the 48 hour TLm, unless otherwise limited. Pennsylvania (1) Shall be free of substances attributable to municipal, industrial, or other waste discharges in concentration or amounts sufficient to be Inimical or harmful to water uses to be protected or to be harmful to human, animal, plant, or aquatic life, including, but not limited to, oil, scum, and other floating materials; toxicants; and substances that cause odor, taste, or discoloration. New York (1) Any water receiving sewage, industrial wastes, or other waste discharges shall not be impaired for best use of water in any other class by reason of such wastes. (2) No readily visible floating or settleable solids or sludge deposits attributable to sewage, industrial wastes, or other wastes. (3) All sewage or waste effluents will be disinfected. (4) No wastes that, alone or in combination, produce odor, color, oil, or other deleterious conditions will be present in quantities sufficient to cause nuisance. (5) No toxic or other deleterious wastes will be present in such quantities as to be injurious to fish life or be unsuitable or unsafe for drinking water, or unsuitable for any other best usage as designated. TABLE 4-31 Linear Correlation Matrix for Flow and Chemical Composition, Raquette River at Raymondville, New York 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Parameter Flow Si02 Fe Total Ca +2 Mg +2 Na + HC03 S04' Cl- N03 Spec. Cond. PH Units M3/s mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/1 mg/1 mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l ijmohs -- Mean 107 8.25 .226 16.9 6.01 2.50 .85 71.9 9.37 1.43 1.01 141. 6.9 Standard 37.1 2.74 9.74 8.34 3.38 .74 .28 42.7 1.98 0.03 0.300 64.8 .3 Deviation 1.0 -0.53' 0.54 0.65 0.45 0.58 -0.41 0.56 0.62 1 .100 .057 0.40 0.40 0`59 2 1.00 -0.43 2 3 1.00 0.96 0.70 '0.63 1.00 0.99 0.44 4 1.00 0.64 .0.73 0.97 0.97 0.49 5 1.00 0.49 0.71 0.43 0.72 6 1.00 0.65 0.70 7 1.00 0.302 0.38 2 0.99 0.402 8 1.00 0.46 -0.60 0.36 2 9 1.00 0.41 10 1.00 0.38 2 11 1.00 0.42 12 1.00 13 'Underlined values are significant at P 99%, others at P = 95% 2Determined for n 48, all other pairs determined for n = 26 SOURCE: Upchurch, 1972 Chemical Characteristics 157 TABLE 4-32 Linear Correlation Matrix for Flow and Chemical Composition, Maumee River at Toledo Harbor, Ohio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + 72 -3 Parameter Flow Na HC03 S04 Cl N03 P04 Spec. Cond. pH Units m3/s mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l Mean 109. 23.7 153. 83.5 34.2 13.0 1.23 536. 7.4 Standard 8.55 6.75 37.0 24.9 8.17 11.3 1.36 105. .4 Deviation 1.00 0.56' 1 1.00 0.91 2 1.00 0.82 0.43 0.85 0.37 3 1.00 0.36 0.72 0.97 0.36 4 1.00 0.46 5 1.00 0.36 0.67 0.54 6 1.00 7 1.00 0.42 8 1.00 9 'Underlined coefficients are significant at P = 99%, others at P 95% n = 45 SOURCE: Upchurch, 1972 (11) iron and manganese 7.5.1 Dissolved Solids (12) trace elements (13) radionuclides Knowledge of the total load of dissolved ma- Several of these groups are important because terial in a water body is useful in identifying they affect water quality and the chemical the degree to which natural weathering and loads in the Great Lakes. cultural inputs affect water chemistry. Dis- Loading from the tributaries of the Great solved solids characterize the total load de- Lakes is highly variable (Upchurch807). rived from dissolution of minerals in the tribu- Streams that drain areas of igneous and tary drainage basins, bottom sediments, plus metamorphic bedrock generally carry lower cultural input from municipal, industrial, and chemical loads than streams from shale and rural waste discharge. Therefore, dissolved limestone-dolomite terranes, because weath- solids serve as a useful index for monitoring ering rates of silicate minerals are slower than the progress of lake aging. those of calcite and dolomite and because Average dissolved solid concentrations of igneous and metamorphic terranes in the the Great Lakes are shown in Table 4-33. The Great Lakes Basin are generally less habit- present concentrations are below the stand- able owing to poor drainage. Figures 4-126 and ards set by the Great Lakes States (Table 4-127 show the temporal distribution of 4-30). However, the averages are close enough selected constituents in the Raquette River at to the standards that individual values most Raymondville, New York, for water year probably exceed the standards at times. 1960-61 and in the Maumee River at Toledo Dissolved solid loads in all of the lakes ex- Harbor for water year 1966-67. The chemical cept Lake Superior have increased over the loads are so variable with time that average period of record (Figure 4-128), indicating pro- compositions cannot characterize the stresses gressively greater influx of dissolved con- placed on the environment. stituents. Extrapolation of the historical 158 Appendix 4 I-El.-E DISCHARGE E SPECIFIC co.D, o D1$CH-E $ Ec"Ic COND 300 SSUSPE DED OUDS 15 ---------- D1110-D J D SOUDS So ED .........................r...... ------------------------------------------------ ------ of --------I------------------------------- --------- P", _J__J OCT DEC JAN FEB IAR APR MAY IUI @G SEP FIGURE 4-126 Seasonal Distribution of Dis- lo charge and Chemical Composition of the Raquette River at Raymondville, New York; Water Year 1960-61 CCI 101 DEC JIN FEB I.R API 'u. U. trends for the lakes indicates rapid increases in dissolved solid concentrations with average FIGURE 4-127 Seasonal Distribution of Dis- compositions exceeding the standards by the charge, Temperature, and Chemical Composi- year 2000 if no action is taken. tion of the Maumee River at Toledo Harbor, Specific conductance is a measure of the Ohio; Water Year 1966-67 ability of water to conduct an electrical cur- rent. Since ionic constituents serve as electri- cal conductors, specific conductance as a in Amhos/cm by a factor that varies from 0.5 to measure of the total ionic strength (Figure 0.9 (see Section 3), depending on the ionic 4-129) is also an index of dissolved ion content strength of contained constituents. The rela- in water. Efficiency of the solution as a con- tionship between conductivity or ionic ductor varies with the nature of the ions pres- strength and dissolved solids makes this easily ent. In areas where natural weathering pre- measured characteristic useful in limnological dominates, bicarbonate, the major anionic studies. Specific conductance of Lake Superior product of the weathering process, and the ca- is low (Figure 4-130). The major sources of dis- tions sodium, potassium, calcium, and mag- solved material are Duluth and the St. Louis nesium, contribute to the conductivity. Ca- River drainage basin, Marathon and the Black tions in cultural effluents require an anionic and Pic River drainage basins, Marquette, and constituent to maintain electrical neutrality in the Thunder Bay drainage basin. The most the solution. Anions in the solution are aug- obvious variations in surface distribution of mented by bicarbonate through equilibrium dissolved material are the movement of mate- with the atmosphere or other sources in order rial lakeward from Duluth, the zone of high to maintain electrical neutrality. The concen- conductance that extends southward from tration of total dissolved solids may be esti- Thunder Bay, the plume extending eastward mated by multiplying the specific conductance from Marquette. The great volume of Lake Chemical Characteristics 159 "I Superior provides much assimilative capacity; 200 the volume of dissolved solids is so low that TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS diffusion is not altered during periods of ISO stratification. ERIE The conductivity data of Beeton and Mof- 160 - o ONTARIO fett58 in Lake Michigan (Figure 4-131), indi- c!) cate that the Chicago-Gary area is the major 140 - MICHIGAN source of dissolved solids in that lake. Average inshore dissolved solid concentration in 1962- 120 - 63 was 175 mg/l (86-810 mg/l range) and the HURON offshore concentration was 155 mg/l (100-240 IGO - 300 80 - _0 + SUPERIOR SO - 0 200 z NI) 0 + 40 - ERIE 0" HURON MICHIGAN ONTARIO 100 20 - SUPERIOR 1, 2 3' 4 5 1890 1900 1910 1920 YEAR 1930 1940 1950 1960 u IONIC STRENGTH x 10 -3 FIGURE 4-128 Changes in Total Dissolved FIGURE 4-129 Ionic Strength-Specific Con- Solids in the Great Lakes. Circled points are the ductance Relationship for the Great Lakes. Data average of 12 or more determinations. Solid averages (x) are given for each lake. From left to lines are Beeton's; dashed lines are extensions right the lakes are: Superior, Huron, Michigan, of Weiler and Chawla's data. Ontario, and Erie. After Beeton, 1965; Weiler and Chawla, 1969; Kramer, 1964 From Beeton and Chandler, 1963; Kramer, 1964 A KIL ETERS STATUTE MILES !'77. T - <96 >94 P 9 qb* 2 qN 96 9@ Q 9A .4%. 92 92- N,,-- C. o. qt, 9 ERIE (j)@DWARI@0 N '5 FIGURE 4-130 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Superior Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance (jxmhos) Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/18-8/8/68 and 7/27-8/9/69 160 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES L @i V6 25@ J- (30, IV 160 -200 225 & 0 00 C.) 04 rV 0 220 0 CD FIGURE 4-132 Representative Distribution b of Dissolved Solids in Lake Huron Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conduc- 0 tance (gmhos) KILOMETERS Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 812-8117/66 STATUTE MILES FIGURE 4-131 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Michigan Surface sources of dissolved solids in Lake Huron are Water Through the Measure of Specific Conduc- Saginaw Bay, and to a lesser extent Thunder tance (/zinhos) Bay and Georgian Bay. The cross section in Data from Beeton and Moffett, 1964 Figure 4-132 suggests that water with slightly higher conductivity can be found along the bottom on the eastern side of the Lake Huron basin, but the lake was stratified during that mg/l range) (Federal Water Pollution Control time. The chemical gradient may be attributed Administration 1135) . Green Bay (Figure 4-135) to influx of water with a slightly higher dis- and Traverse Bay have average dissolved sol- solved solid load from Georgian Bay or to ids concentration of 183 mg/l (132-179 mg/l downwelling along the eastern shore. Saginaw range) and 190 mg/l (105-745 mg/l range), re- Bay (Figure 4-136) constitutes a major source spectively. Both bays locally affect loading in of dissolved material (Allen ;7 Beeton et al .59) Lake Michigan. These effects are related to with high concentrations along the shores of lake circulation near the bays. the bay. Lake Huron shows the influence of the rela- Lake Erie has the highest dissolved solids tively high conductivity water from Lake content of any of the lakes (Table 4-33). The Michigan and low conductivity water from major sources of dissolved material are the Lake Superior (Figure 4-132). The major Detroit River, Toledo and the Maumee River Chemical Characteristics 161 KILOMETERS 70 100 STATUTE MILES 2LO 20 '0 Go V- C Co. 0-0., Z.Z ORK "00 z 260- z A 0 T.J. z z cl-l-d FIGURE 4-133 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Erie Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance (/.4mhos) Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/9--9/20/65 KILOMETERS F-Fmq@ "I ----I A 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 @76 STATUTE MILES 2@ 278 280 25m 0 275- 275 270 270 '275 0 A I I sl@ lll@ ROcheste, el.'k Niagafa Falls sy-.- G-d 11 1-d C-h FIGURE 4-134 Representative Distribution of Dissolved Solids in Lake Ontario Surface Water Through the Measure of Specific Conductance (jimhos) Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 162 Appendix 4 N n. 11`7 71@ A 0..,. 18 188 ....... ... FIGURE 4-136 Conductivity (/Amhos) of Sag- inaw Bay Water (at 18'C) on August 10, 1956 From Beeton et al., 1967 .0 TURKEY ST WILLIAMS POINT LAKE ERIE @@sand bar FIGURE 4-135 Mean Dissolved Solids Con- ro centration (mg/1) in Green Bay, Lake Michigan; 1963. The letters n.s. mean not sampled. From Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968c '-6ftl' \> 7 basin, the Grand River basin of Ohio, the Cleveland area and Cuyahoga River basin, OTTOHAW and that portion of Ontario between Long POINT Point and Port Colborne. The highest conduc- tivity water occurs inshore (Figure 4-133). FIGURE 4-137 Dissolved Solids in Inner Long Conductivity and dissolved solids distribution in Lake Erie have been summarized by many Point Bay, Ontario From Berst and McCrimmon, 1966 studies, including those by Kramer,468 Ander- son and Rodgers,13 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,834 and Weiler and the Oswego River, Toronto, and the northern Chawla. 876 Numerous studies have been done shore of the lake from Port Whitby eastward on harbors and smaller embayments in Lake (Figure 4-134). Erie. Berst and McCrimmon65 described the dissolved solids in Inner Long Point Bay, On- N tario (Figure 4-137). Other such studies are 7.5.2 Chloride reviewed in Subsection 7.7, Great Lakes Har- bors. Chloride (CI-) is the only commonly occur- Dissolved solid load is high in Lake Ontario ring aqueous constituent in freshwater sys- because this lake receives most of its water tems that can be considered conservative. from Lake Erie. Important sources that can be Conservative constituents do not combine identified are the Niagara River, Oswego and with other aqueous or solid phases and are not Chemical Characteristics 163 TABLE 4-33 Average Concentrations of Major Ions in the Great Lakes Ontariol Eriel Huroni Michigan2 Superiorl Ca (mg/1) 40 37 28 32 13 M9 (mg/1) 8 8 7 10 3 Na (mg/1) 13 12 3 3 1 K (mg/1) 1 1 1 1 1 S04 (119/1) 29 26 17 16 4 Cl (mg/1) 28 25 6 6 1 HC03 (mg/1) 113 113 96 130 51 F (mg/1) 0.12 0.11 0.07 0.1 0.32 Alkalinity (mg/1) 93 92 79 113 52 Dissolved Solids (mg/1) 194 198 118 150 52 pH 7.9 8.1 8.0 8.0 7.8 lFrom Weiler and Chawla, 1969. 2From Kramer, 1964. 40 atmospheric aerosols, and natural weathering of minerals. IU11411IR MICHIGAN Because of ease of determination and the 30 HURON conservative nature of chloride, it has been OINTIARIO extensively used in the Great Lakes as an 0 index of pollution (Tiffany and Winchester,801 20 - Tiffany et al.802 ) and to demonstrate the tem- ERIE poral distribution of chemical loading (Bee- ONTARIO ton '48 Ownbey and Willeke '594 Ownbey and 10 - Kee,593 Weiler and Chawla, 1177 O'Connor and MICHIGAN Mueller,583 Upchurch and Robb8110). Chloride .* _1H U R 0 N ions can be fixed by exchange processes on ............. . clay minerals (Grim 304), so chloride is not abso- 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1 0 lutely conservative. However, ion exchange YEAR reactions involving chloride do not appear to FIGURE 4-138 Changes in Chloride Concen- be quantitatively important; thus, lakewide tration in the Great Lakes. Solid lines represent balances of chloride are valid. Figure 4-138 Beeton's data fit; dashed lines are revisions by shows the increase in chloride concentration Weiler and Chawla. in the Great Lakes during the past 100 years. Data from Kramer, 1964; Beeton, 1965; Weiler and Chawla, 1969 Lake Superior has shown no historical buildup in chloride. Chloride has increased slightly in Lakes Michigan and Huron and greatly in removed from the system by chemical precipi- Lakes Ontario and Erie since about 1910. Ef- tation, absorption or adsorption on mineral fects of chloride loading on lake composition surfaces, metabolic processes, or chelating. are discussed in Subsection 7.8. ERIE NIA Consequently, chloride is used as an index of Chloride levels are extremely low in Lake chemical loading and buildup, and as an indi- Superior (Table 4-33), although high chloride cator for the location of sources and sinks of mine waters are released to the lake at several nonconservative material. Chloride originates places. Spain et al .755 and Spain and An- from many sources, including street salting, dreWS754 found a mean chloride concentration oil field brines, chloride compounds used by of 177 mg/l in Torch Lake, a lake that receives industry, additives to cleaning compounds, mine drainage and is a tributary to Lake Su- 164 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS Z ;i@ 10 Tu M STATUTE MILES 40 1. A 0 -T- C. 25@ V IV dk" 0 4 -4 10 41. 0 0 5 6.5 7.5 FIGURE 4-140 Representative Distribution of Chlorides (mg/1) in Lake Huron Surface KILOMETERS Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-9117/66 STATu'rE MIL-ES FIGURE 4-139 Representative Distribution occur, are major problem areas. Ground water of Chlorides (mg/1) in Lake Michigan Surface near Lake Michigan at Manistee also poses a Water chloride threat with up to 2000 mg/l. Data from Beeton and Moffett, 1964 Ludington has also been identified as a source of chloride loading. The Federal Water Pollu- perior. In Portage Lake, a part of the tion Control Administration 835 indicates Keweenaw Waterway, Spain and his col- minor chloride influx into Lake Michigan from leagues used chloride and natural fluores- Green Bay and Traverse Bay. The average cence as tracers and were able to identify chloride concentration in the immediate vicin- water contributions from Lake Superior, ity of Green Bay, Wisconsin, in the summer of Torch Lake, and the tributaries to Portage 1964 was 13 mg/l. A major shortcoming of Lake. The runoff cycle is a major factor in the chloride studieg is illustrated in these reports rate of chloride influx. for Green Bay and Traverse Bay: unless a con- A chloride loading problem is rapidly de- tinuous source of chloride is present, summer veloping in Lake Michigan (Ownbey and Wil- ehloride concentrations represent minimum leke 594) . Among the sources of chloride that level. In the Great Lakes Basin street salting can be identified from areal distribution (Fig- is a major contribution that is added only in ure 4-139) are Green Bay, Milwaukee, the winter. Chicago-Gary, and the reaches from Benton Lake Huron chloride loadings are domi- Harbor to Muskegon and from Little Sable nated by inflow from Lake Michigan and Point to Frankfort. The Manistee River and Saginaw Bay (Figure 4-140). Other possible Lake Manistee (Childs 1141), where concentra- sources are at Goderich and Grand Bend, On- tions up to several hundred milligrams per liter tario. Chloride in Saginaw Bay (Figure 4-143) Chemical Characteristics 165 KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES L N.4w. C- 20 20 40 40 t 0 c- -@26 26 26 E'.. '212 z Z@ 22 Sb z c,* T@ft Ilk g 5 01 0 z z FIGURE 4-141 Representative Distribution of Chlorides (mg/1) in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/66 KILOMETERS I k-4 0------ 4 i L 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 �R STATUTE MILES 20 0 20 40 60 b 0 V 'Ib 0 sw. I Rochester z LOC1,00, Niaga- Falls Syracuse G-d 1,1..d D FIGURE 4-142 Representative Distribution of Chlorides (mg/1) in Lake Ontario Surface Water Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 166 Appendix 4 75 I Az 4. 7- 7- 50. /ry 4oo to SecrWS DIM 1110 M to FIGURE 4-143 Chloride Distribution (mg/1) in No Saginaw Bay on June 21 and 22, 1956 From Beeton et al., 1967 r.0 is derived from the brine fields in the wa- tershed of the Saginaw River and from the FIGURE 4-145 Methyl Orange Alkalinity, Midland, Bay City, and Saginaw urban com- Phenolphthalein (ph-th) Alkalinity, Free Car- plex. This high chloride water is diluted with bon Dioxide, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Tempera- Lake Huron water in Saginaw Bay but main- ture, and Turbidity Values in the Upper Meter tains its identity along the western coast of of Water in the Bass Island Area of Western Lake Huron to the St. Clair River. Lake Erie. Secchi disc readings are in centimet- Because the volume of Lake Erie is low and ers. From Chandler, 1942 the industrial-urban development is high, chloride concentration is relatively high. The Detroit River is a major source of chloride in Lake Erie (Figure 4-141). Other significant sources are Toledo and the Maumee River Cleveland, the Grand River, and the industrial region from Lorain, Ohio, to Erie, Pennsylva- ........ .. . .. . .. . ma. ................... ... .......... ... ...........- Lake Ontario reflects the loading from Lake Eq.ilib6- Eq..1i . ......... .... Erie and contributions from Toronto- Hamilton, Ontario, and.it receives mean con- centrations of about 160 mg/1 from the Oswego C Coi A q..... 2 and Genesee Rivers in New York (Figure 0 4-142). Subsection 7.8 contains additional chloride loading data. P,.d.-,,.. . ......... ........... R.d-o- 7.5.3 Carbonate System U. III nogonici@@i The system that includes the interaction of ............... . .......... water and carbon dioxide is one of the most important chemical life-support systems. Car- FIGURE 4-144 Simplified Oxygen-Carbon bon dioxide, a required ingredient for photo- Cycle in a Lake synthetic activity, is present in the lakes in Chemical Characteristics 167 varying amounts. Sources of carbon dioxide tation of calcite and the carbonate buffering are exchange with the atmosphere, oxidation process is discussed in Subsection 7.5.8. of organic material, respiration, and mineral Many of the organisms in the lakes that are weathering. considered aesthetically or economically im- Carbon dioxide is highly soluble in water portant have low tolerances to pH fluctua- and forms several aqueous compounds. The tions. For example, fish production appears following aqueous reactions involve exchange best within a pH range of 6.5 to 8.4 (RudolfS6117) with atmospheric carbon dioxide: and plankton production is optimal between CO, + H,O = 112COI (30) 7.5 and 8.4 (Chandler 131). Because of the na- ture of the equilibria within the carbonate H,CO, H+ + HC03 (31) system, high or low pH may cause imbalances HC03 H+ + CO 32 (32) in other constiuents vital to aquatic life and water quality. Equilibrium relationships within the system Because carbon dioxide is a plant nutrient, are controlled by water temperature, pres- simple equilibrium relationships between sure, atmospheric carbon dioxide pressure, elements of the carbonate system rarely hold and association with reactive solids such as in natural waters (Verduin '856 SechrieSt727). the mineral calcite (CaCO3). Verduin showed that the rate of photosyn- It is simple to measure pH, the negative thesis per unit plant volume was essentially logarithm of hydrogen ion activity, and pH the same during winter and summer. How- anomalies can be used to identify imbalances ever, because of the differences in standing in the carbonate system. However, pH by itself crop, carbon dioxide fixation averaged 68 cannot be used as an indicator of the viability jLmoles absorbed per liter of water per day at of the life-support system. Alkalinity (essen- 23*C decreasing to 10 Amoles at O'C. Carbon tially H2CO3, HC03 or bicarbonate, and CO 32) is dioxide equilibration with the atmosphere is also needed. negligible compared with changes in the water Bicarbonate is the dominant naturally oc- column, thus necessitating a near balance be- eurring anion in the lakes because chemical tween C02 production by respiration and C02 weathering of naturally occurring substances metabolism by photosynthetic autotrophs. often includes carbonic acid (H2CO3) as a ti- Disruption of this balance may be a factor in trant: the accelerated eutrophication occurring in H2CO1 + mineral = HC03 + (33) the Great Lakes. Kuentzel478 and Tang and degraded mineral + dissolved ions Bhagat7115 suggested that increased contribu- tion of biogenic C02 from respiration of the Bicarbonate concentration is reflected in con- organisms that degrade sewage (Subsection ductivity, dissolved solids, and hardness. In 7.5.4) may now be the limiting factor in eu- limestone and dolomite terranes aqueous trophication. Chandler 133 described the tem- reaction with C02 causes the pH and hardness poral variation of alkalinity, pH, and oxygen to increase, reducing the wetting ability of (Figure 4-145) over the span of a year 1939-40). cleansers and causing boiler scale after evap- His data show the interaction of oxygen and oration. In pollution studies, pH, bicarbonate, the carbonates. During the winter months hardness, and alkalinity are used to identify mixing and oxygenation occur, alkalinity and areas where highly reactive substances are pH are relatively low, and free C02 is high. being released. Reequilibration with the at- During the summer, with increased tempera- mosphere, with aqueous carbonate species, ture and stratification, oxygen is reduced, and and with reactive sediment, and dispersion pH and alkalinity increase. produce rapid assimilation of effluents with The distribution of pH in the lakes indicates undesirable carbonate loads. sources of abnormal acid or basic waste dis- The carbonate cycle in the Great Lakes is charge and the degree of equilibration of the part of a complex biochemical system (Figure carbon system with the atmosphere and sedi- 4-144) that is characterized by equilibrium re- ment. Lake Huron and the lower lakes have lationships with other chemical constituents increasingly higher pH, which probably repre- and is vital to plant and animal life. Much of sents equilibration with the carbonate miner- the bottom sediment can act as a buffer on the als present in the lake sediments. Sources of carbonate system. The most abundant carbo- acid discharge in Lake Superior (Figure 4-146) nate buffering mineral is calcite (CaCO3), are along the Minnesota shore, the Thunder which limits pH fluctuations by precipitation Cape area of Ontario, Batchawana Bay, and or dissolution. The dissolution and/or precipi- the region near Black River, Michigan. All of 168 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS ST.TU;'E MIL"ES J4 1 9 .7 75-\ 7.9 70 FIGURE 4-146 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Superior Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/18-8/8/68 and 7/27-8/9/69 A A KILOMETERS - - - - -- STATUTE MILES these areas are characterized by mining activ- ity and the low pH may reflect acid mine wa- ter. During the synoptic survey represented in 25M _L Vigure 4-147, Lake Huron was thermally stratified. A distinct chemocline existed, with higher pH water in the epilimnion. The higher pH above the chemocline indicates that the water in the epilimnion is more nearly in equilibrium with the atmosphere and carbo- nate minerals than that of the hypolimnion. Lake Michigan data are insufficient for de- termination of the areal distribution of pH. In Lake Erie pH show the effects of increased equilibration with the atmosphere and carbo- nate minerals (Figure 4-148). High pH in the vicinity of Cleveland suggests an influx of basic constituents. The principal areas of lower pH water in Lake Ontario (Figure 4-149) are near Oswego, the Toronto -Hamilton coast, and the area around Oshawa, Ontario. Part of the difference in pH between surface and bot- tom water observed in the lakes is due to at- mospheric interaction. However, Hartley et a1.322 show that high pH water on the surface CL of the western basin of Lake Erie is a result of additions near the mouth of the Detroit River (Figure 4-150). Due to the buffering capacity of natural waters, pH is not useful for identifi- FIGURE 4-147 Representative Distribution cation of pollution sources. The primary use of of pH in Lake Huron Surface Water pH is in determining reaction paths in systems Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-8/17/66 that are dependent on pH. Chemical Characteristics 169 KILOMETERS 40 w a 100 STATUTE MILES N.".. Fell. 0 20 10 60 0 C ,&b.100 Wb 4 E- 712 z 1,:E 10 4** z ew &- r 9 Toledo 21 j xI 01 0do R8 0 r,d FIGURE 4-148 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/66 KILOMETERS A 20 0 20 40 a STATUTE MILES ao 0-4 P-" 20 0 20 40 60 82 25M 0 49 cd J 'Fir Q F@Ocheste, 1 Niagara Falls Syracuse FIGURE 4-149 Representative Distribution of pH in Lake Ontario Surface Water Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 170 Appendix 4 Alkalinity is more useful than PH because it represents the products of reactions involving hydrogen ions and CO,. Alkalinity of the lakes (Figures 4-151 through 154) increases downstream suggesting equilibration with carbonate minerals. High alkalinity indicates possible influx of material with a high carbo- 472 nate content. Kramer discussed the ten- dency toward carbonate, silicate, and phos- phate equilibria downstream in the lakes and showed that Lake Erie is nearest to equilib- -155). rium of the five Great Lakes (Figure 4 Distribution of alkalinity supports Kramer's PH -7. conclusion. 9 =. r- pH 7.5.4 Oxygen System and Redox Potential Dissolved oxygen is required for the metabolic activity of most aquatic organisms. The solubility of oxygen in water is low and is dependent upon pressure and temperature. Oxygen is more soluble in cold water than warm, so hypolimnetic water normally serves as an oxygen reservoir. Oxygen replenish- ment is dependent on exchange with the at- mosphere and on photosynthetic activity (Figure a-144). Therefore, deep water is oxygenated only when the lakes are un- stratified. In the summer the hypolimnion deoxygenates in varying degrees relative to biological and biochemical demands. Bacteria H 9.. I=Z 1H PH and oxidizable organic constituents are more efficient at removing oxygen from water than most macro-organisms, so the introduction of sewage or other easily oxidized material en- courages development of oxidizing bacterial FIGURE 4-150 Hydrogen Ion Concentration populations, increases dissolved oxygen de- (PH) of Surface (upper figure) and Bottom mand, and accelerates oxygen depletion in re- (lower figure) Water in Western Lake Erie on lation to volume of the hypolimnion. Toler- June 23, 1963 From Hartley et al., 1966 ances to low oxygen levels vary, but most Great Lakes fauna cannot tolerate extremely low levels. measuring percent saturation the oxygen Five characteristics are commonly used to level is related to the total amount of oxygen describe the oxygen system: that can be contained by the water at a specific (1) Dissolved oxygen concentration is a temperature, air pressure, and ionic strength. measure of the amount of elemental oxygen in Percent saturation and oxygen activity are the system. indices of the capability of a water mass to (2) Oxygen activity is a measure of the free support a well-balanced aquatic community. oxygen available for metabolic activity and (4) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a does not include complexes or combined forms measure of the removal of oxygen from water ofoxygen. by organic material. This oxygen removal is (3) Percent saturation of oxygen is more accomplished by four mechanisms: meaningful than oxygen activity or dissolved (a) oxidation of carbonaceous material oxygen concentration because the solubility of (b) oxidation of nitrogen compounds oxygen in water is a function of water temper- (c) oxidation of sulfur compounds ature, the partial pressure of oxygen in air, (d) oxidation of easily oxidized inorganic and the mineral content of the water. By compounds Chemical Characteristics 171 KILOMETER STATUTE MILES .q 46- 4A-r-'T-T 46 AA 2) AA AA Ab .0 b, CP 4 FIGURE 4-151 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity (mg/1) in Lake Superior Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/18-8/8/68 and 7/27-9/9/69 KILOMETERS 7-- A' In polluted water the first three mechanisms 716 STATUTE MILES are most important. BOD as such is not a pol- lutant, but oxygen is used up by this process 7- that could otherwise be available to macro- 75- organisms. Therefore, high BOD, if it is not J- complemented by oxygen replenishment, can cause harm by disruption of the food chain and c, deterioration of the normal ecosystem. 70 (5) Chemical oxygen demand is a measure- 110 ment, expressed in terms of the oxygen equiv- 5 alent, of the material that can be oxidized by a strong chemical oxidant. It differs from BOD in that BOD is a measure of the amount of organic material that can be oxidized while COD is a measure of the total amount of mate- rial that can be oxidized. A useful concept for relating dissolved oxy- gen to BOD is the. oxygen sag curve (Bartsch so and IngraM42). In a stream, which is linear as compared to a lake, and with known rate and A flow characteristics, the relationship of BOD and available dissolved oxygen can be com- puted mathematically. If BOD exceeds the oxygen replenishment rate, deoxygenation 1 -7 CO occurs (Figure 4-156) and the biota suffers. Survival of the biota depends on magnitude of BOD and the time required to reoxygenate the water. The same processes that operate in streams operate in the lakes, but are much FIGURE 4-152 Representative Distribution more difficult to characterize in a lake. Fac- of Alkalinity (mg/1) in Lake Huron Surface tors that affect BOD in a lake include depth Water and stratification, atmospheric pressure, Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-8/17/66 water movement, turbulence, temperature, 172 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS N,,ga- FIlls STATUTE MILES o 2o Go o C."." 90--@ loo, v E- , LITT z z z 01 4 0 7oled. z 0 FIGURE 4-153 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity (mg/1) in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/65 KILOMETERS A 20 0 20 40 60 so 1 0 STATUTE MILES P-4 20 0 20 40 60 T 25M 89 Alp 02 49 90 % Rochest., ON Z LoCk- 4 Ni agara Falls S racuse G-d 1,1 d FIGURE 4-154 Representative Distribution of Alkalinity (mg/1) in Lake Ontario Surface Water Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 Chemical Characteristics 173 oxygen demand is effective. Thorstenson and SUPERIO Mackenzie 797 studied migration of pore-water P.,ti.l R.H. ONTARIO chemicals in the sediments of Harrington x R, y's HURON p-tial quil. Sound, Bermuda, and concluded that annual pa,tki eq.il. LRIE cme x R. exchange with the overlying water may take conc x Rh place to depths as great as 1 m into the sedi- .10 total equil. ment. BOD is retarded by low temperatures, MICHIGAN conc x R so the maximum oxygen demand occurs in partial 9equil. co@c x R. warm water, such as harbors, shallow em- bayments, and shallow portions of the lakes. In the process of biogenic oxidation, C02 (which is required for photosynthetic activity) FIGURE 4-155 Development, Chemical is produced. Excessive algal production is an Equilibrium, and Inheritance of Concentrations indication of an excessive rate of eutrophica- in each of the Great Lakes. The "R" refers to the tion. Thus, BOD may be directly linked to eut- ratio of total evaporation per area per time to rophication (Kuentzel; 478,478a Tang and precipitation per area per time. From Kramer, 1964 Bhagat7115) , although upland lakes would be more susceptible than the Great Lakes. The oxidation-reduction or redox potential D (Eli) is used to determine the potential of an 0 20 0 environment to oxidize or reduce material. A Oxidation is a loss of electrons (e.g., F`0@-- 18 Z\T4 OXYGEN SAG Fe 3) and reduction is a gain of electrons, so 16 the oxidation-reduction potential measures MODEL 14 the direction that electrons flow between a 12 water sample and a reference hydrogen elec- - 10 600 trode. If the Eh is negative, compounds will be reduced, while positive Eli indicates a ten- 0 8 DO- dency to oxidation. In inorganic systems the 6 OXYGEN VO free energies of the reactions determine the 4 SURPLUS OXYGEN OXYGEN Eli. If organic activity is present, then the 2 -BOD- DEFICIT SURPLUS metabolic process controls Eh. For example, certain bacteria have the ability to oxidize or- 0 ganic wastes at the expense of other TIME oxidation-reduction reactions in the system, and the environment becomes a reducing en- vironment. Oxygen availability is a major fac- 0 a 0 B tor in controlling Eli. Other factors that gov- ern Eli are free energies of reaction, metabolic Z 0 NITROGEN REACTION activity, and pH of the system, so Eli repre- V) SERIES sents a combination of inorganic and 2 \A metabolic reactions. 0 0 The importance of Eli is evident when the NH3 1403 _*1 interaction of tributary and lake water in a NO polluted harbor is considered. If compounds 0. that are easily oxidized (e.g., sulfites, organic -TIM seWag e) are introduced, the bacterial and in- organic oxidation of these compounds forces FIGURE 4-156 Theoretical Sequences of reduction of compounds with lower oxidation Reactions Showing Oxygen Sag (A) and Nitro- potentials. The subsequent consumption of gen Reaction (B) upon Introduction of Organic oxygen at a higher rate than reaeration hin- 0 YGEN @DEF ICIT 0 0 P Wastes ders complete oxidation of the materials that are easily oxidized. The wastes that are not light penetration and nutrient supply to the oxidized in the confined area of the harbor photosynthetic autotrophs, and quantity of remain as potential sites for oxygen consump- introduced wastes. Sediment permeability tion and electron removal until buried or and organic content control the depth below transported to a less restricted area. The re- the sediment-water interface to which the sultingwaste, which has a negative Eli, causes 174 Appendix 4 IM. SO. 4 41 .1 1,6 70 01 o 90 I. SO r -LE OF MILES STATUTE MILES SO 0 5 15 2 MILES 0A.S SO IM, ING J -,FF MILES FIGURE 4-157 Surface (upper figure) and FIGURE 4-158 Surface (upper figure) and Bottom (lower figure) Percent Oxygen Satura- Near Bottom Water (lower figure) Percent Oxy- tion in Lake Erie on July 25 to 29, 1960. Dots gen Saturation in Lake Erie on September 26 to indicate sampling stations. 30, 1960 From Anderson and Rodgers, 1966 From Anderson and Rodgers, 1964 problems such as methane and acetylene gas pounds) of oxygen (Commoner 161). Therefore production, and bottom and water quality cultural inputs alone cannot account for the degradation if transported into cleaner envi- annual oxygen deficit. The answer lies in the ronments. accumulation and decay of material that is not Oxygen in Great Lakes water has been consumed or decomposed in the water column thoroughly studied and regions of oxygen de- and in turn increases BOD and oxygen con- pletion have been identified. The only major sumption. Anderson and Rodgers" show the open lake region in the Great Lakes where deoxygenation dramatically (Figure 4-158). oxygen depletion is known to be critical is in Thermal stratification leads to rapid oxygen the central basin of Lake Erie (Figure 4-157). depletion near the bottom of Lake Erie be- Carr 124 and Carr et al. 126 concluded that in- cause volume of the hypolimnion is small, and termittent low oxygen levels have been pres- the oxygen cannot be effectively replenished. ent in the central basin since the late 1920s. An additional impact of low oxygen is the re- The low oxygen levels occur. during periods of lease of nutrients that had been previously stratification when BOD in the low volume removed from the system by sediment interac- hypolimnion exceeds available oxygen. Mate- tion. The release of nutrients accelerates algal rials balance studies of BOD material entering production and further deoxygenation, thus Lake Erie indicate that the oxygen demand in creating a cyclical flux of materials that can the lake exceeds the BOD of this material. The become self-sustaining. annual organic waste load into Lake Erie has The other Great Lakes have not had a BOD equivalent to 82 million kilograms (180 deoxygenation problems as yet because million pounds) of oxygen whereas a recent supplies of oxygen in their hypolimnions period of oxygen depletion had an estimated greatly exceed demand. Continued release of deficit of 122 million kilograms (270 million BOD materials and nutrients in the other Chemical Characteristics 175 A A KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES r A I 102 -t) 10a. @_l 10 06 0 -106 /IE71 10-7 FIGURE 4-159 Representative Oxygen Concentrations (percent saturation) in Lake Superior Surface Water Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) lakes could cause problems similar to those in vironmental variations or inadequate sampl- Lake Erie in the future. ing, they indicate the rapidity with which the Oxygen depletion is also a problem in a few system can develop oxygen demands, if condi- of the Great Lakes embayments (Figures tions are appropriate. The extreme difference 4-159 through 163). Oxygen depletion occurs in oxygen demand of water and sediment due at the southern end of Green Bay where circu- to the concentration of organic debris by lation is restricted. A 1963 survey by the sedimentation is also illustrated. FWPCA 835 showed an average DO saturation Biochemical oxygen demand is highly vari- of 52 percent in the southern part of Green able in the other Great Lakes as well as in Bay. The minimum recorded saturation dur- Lake Erie. Lake Superior BOD is extremely ing 1963 was zero (Figure 4-164). None of the low (Figure 4-165). However, Duluth, Silver other major embayments have serious oxygen Bay, Grand Marais, Thunder Bay, Marathon, depletion problems. Michipicoten, the Tahquamenon River, and BOD data are not available for all of the the Apostle Islands are regions of local high Great Lakes and their embayments. Studies BOD loadings. Data for Lake Michigan are in- have largely been restricted to harbors and sufficient for a map showingregional BOD dis- sewage outfalls. The FWPCA 1113,834 made a re- tribution. The average BOD of inshore water connaissance in 1963 and 1967-68 of Lake Erie for Lake Michigan in 1962-63 (FWPCA S35) BOD and COD levels along a longitudinal was 1.4 mg/l, with a maximum of 8.6 mg/l. traverse of the lake (Table 4-34). The COD data BOD levels in Traverse Bay on Lake Mich- are of particular interest because they indi- igan for the same period range from 0.6 cate significant changes in the load of oxidiza- mg/l to 1.7 mg/l, with an average of 1.2 mg/l. No ble material in the lake. In the central basin, data are available for Green Bay. Highest water COD increased 20 percent and sediment BOD values in Lake Erie occur in the Detroit demand decreased 25 percent. In the eastern River, Toledo Harbor-Maumee River, the basin water COD and sediment COD increased middle of the central basin off Cleveland, Erie by 10 percent and 70 percent, respectively. Al- Harbor, Dunkirk Harbor, and the head of the though these changes may reflect natural en- Niagara River (Figure 4-166). The concentra- 176 Appendix 4 Ck* QA loe 8.0- oW J. I. 5. G. Be, C) 01 *q'i 40P I oe c- 90 100, o m C - - - - t'C-H'(3!N- c." INDIANA s-1. El-n Bend KILOMETERS L 11 ;@-@ h., @ STATUTE MIL7S 8o Go FIGURE 4-160 Representative Oxygen Concentrations (mg/1) in Lake Michigan Surface Water Data frorn Beeton and Moffett, 1964 Chemical Characteristics 177 KILOMET A tion of high BOD materials in the central basin ERS 9 STATUTE MILES is a major factor in the severe deoxygenation 17 in that region. The BOD of Lake Ontario sediments is essentially as high as that of 25@ Lake Erie sediments (Figure 4-167). Volume -L of water in the hypolimnion prevents regional IV 115 deoxygenation. Lake Ontario sources of BOD are the Toronto-Hamilton area, the Niagara 0 River, and the region near Sodus Bay, New York. Eh data from the lakes are as scarce as BOD data. A large number of observations have been made in harbors and restricted areas but only Lakes Superior, Huron, and Erie have synoptic data for an entire lake (Figures 4-168 '4P through 4-170). Negative Eh values are in- frequent in Lakes Superior and Huron. They occur primarily near harbors and are indica- tive of municipal waste loading and possibly mine drainage. Lake Erie had extensive areas 0- of negative Eh during the synoptic survey represented in Figure 4-170. The extensive negative Eh values in the sediment corre- spond with high organic loads and indicate the areal extent of the pollution problem. X 7.5.5 Phosphorus System Nutrients required by green algae include FIGURE 4-161 Representative Oxygen Con- B, C, Ca, Cl, Co, Cu, Fe, H, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, N, centrations (mg/1) in Lake Huron Surface Water Na, 0, P, S, Si, V, Zn, and certain vitamins. Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-8/17/66 Phosphorus is most often the controlling nu- KILOMETERS L STATUTE MIL6E'S .0 0 20 'L. 0 Q co, z L_.@K z ON" A 8.5 91 0 _T_ ci \ ali , C-9 0 FIGURE 4-162 Representative Oxygen Concentrations (mg/1) in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/65 178 Appendix 4 A A KILOMETERS 10- - -7- 9 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 10 5 STATUTE MILES F- P-M E!---N ---I 12.5 20 0 20 40 60 25m 0 V q 0 A SW. ll@ 0 Rochester z LoCkoo, Niagara Falls sy'a@... G-d 1. ..d D FIGURE 4-163 Representative Oxygen Concentrations (mg/1) in Lake Ontario Surface Water Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 TABLE 4-34 Lake Erie BOD and COD Values Water Sediment Average Maximum Minimum Average Maximum Minimum Year (mg/1) (mg/g) BOD Total Lake 1.10 --- --- --- --- --- 1967-68 Western Basin 1.7 4.1 0.4 1.6 2.9 0.9 1967-68 Central Basin 1.0 2.7 0.0 1.9 3.1 1.0 1967-68 Eastern Basin 1.2 2.5 0.2 1.9 3.1 1.0 1967-68 COD Total Lake 7.36 --- --- --- --- --- 1967-68 8.53 --- --- --- --- --- 1967-68 Western Basin 10.4 29.0 1.1 63.5 96.0 6.0 1963-64 9.8 18.9 5.5 66.1 85.8 39.1 1967-68 Central Basin 7.1 16.0 3.1 55.7 91.0 3.0 1963-64 8.6 11.9 5.2 41.0 78.9 7.9 1967@68 Eastern Basin 7.4 27.0 4.7 27.8 79.0 1.0 1963-64 8.2 11.0 6.1 48.1 77.0 33.3 1967-68 SOURCE: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968e Chemical Characteristics 179 91LOMETERS J. STATUTE MILES oq Q.) Q1 rJ.3 Q3) rV 0 oe 4 Q2 0 02 0.1 FIGURE 4-165 Representative Distribution of BOD (mg/1) in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Superior Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) averages of data from May to November, 1968 and 1969 -d S trient in the production of phytoplankton. The only natural source of phosphorus is limited weathering of phosphatic minerals in the 10' 104 drainage basin. Therefore, in juvenile undis- 72 T9 turbed ecosystems phosphorus compounds are scarce and the growth of plants and animals is 108 limited by the phosphorus availability. Con- 7-1 sequently, phosphorus compounds would be 411C immediately assimilated by plants as they be- came available through weathering (Figure 4-171). After phosphorus is in the food chain a N portion of it is conserved and recycled from /95 producer to consumer to decomposer to pro- ducer. Consequently, considerable recycling of M...... phosphorus takes place in the biotic commu- nity. 83 If there is no limitation on algal production by nutrients or other factors, then increased 88 primary production and nuisance algal blooms 0 AB ZONE 3 result. Overproduction of algae leads to in- 231 creased turbidity, increased oxygen demand 80 when the algae decompose, loss of valuable consumers such as predacious fish, and con- sequent degradation of over-all water quality. Increased productivity is a natural phenome- non in the eutrophication cycle and is usually visually evident in upland lakes. The use of 52 phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-rich de- 1 4 4 tergents has obviated the limitation of phos- W phate on primary productivity and has accel- FIGURE 4-164 Mean (upper number) and min- erated eutrophication in many lakes and riv- imum (lower number) Percent Oxygen Satura- ers. Control of the eutrophication process tion in Green Bay, Lake Michigan, During 1963 necessitates knowledge of the effects of nutri- Data from Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968c ents on algal production. If phosphorus is the 180 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS 2L P---u 1-1 ___j 0 20 10 w so !00 STATUTE MILES 60 Niagara Falls wa@a Vi- ll C-. s, w .50 P-1 11 sassaaa 0.25- 0.5 ().7 5 asslassassa. c as --0.75 - - - - - - - - - 0. 5 0* -aso. 00 5 %-05-, E I..' Az @ z a- w .4w 1 0 alliass,ass-ossassissassa-sass-sass Iz qS0 -1-1 Js a- 0 z ol 001, z FIGURE 4-166 Representative Distribution of BOD (mg/1) in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Erie Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/65 A KILOMETERS 14 8 1 1-4 basil -.4 A 6 6 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 STATUTE MILES 0 I P-1 lass-1- 2 A 20 0 20 40 60 25m 6 A a b 6 9 61-as- 12 Swill, ROchest, L,Kkoo, Niagara Falls al. Syrac.se .0 FIGURE 4-167 Representative Distribution of BOD (x10-1mg/1) in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Ontario Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 Chemical Characteristics 181 KILOMETERS STATU17E Was 17 ev FIGURE4-168 Representative Distribution of Eh (mv) in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Superior Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/18-8/8/68 and 7/27-a/9/69 KILOMETERS .1-% _ limiting nutrient, then this knowledge must STATUTE MILES include the phosphorus cycle (Figure 4-171), methods of reducing phosphate wastage in ag- riculture and domestic consumption, and methods of removing the excess phosphatic material already present in a lake. The Water Quality Committee on Nutrients 0 in Water 1171 has summarized the sources and b forms of phosphorus. The natural sources of 02 phosphorus are the relatively insoluble apa- 200 tite minerals, especially hydroxyapatite (Calo(OHMP04M, fluorapatite (Ca,OF2(CO4),) and a few other relatively rare minerals. These minerals are slowly weathered, provid- 6 ing a small but steady supply of phosphorus to surface waters. Soluble orthophosphate and condensed or complex phosphates are added to the surface water by man and by other living organisms. In water, phosphorus occurs as orthophos- phate (Po 431 HP0 42H2P04_',H3P04), inorganic complex or linear condensed phosphates (pyrophosphate-P207 4, HP207 1, H2P2072, -5 HIP207 H4P207; tripolyphosphate-P3010, H 0_', H 0-3 0-2 -1 P3 10 2P3 10, H3P3 10, HX1010, H,P,01,), inorganic-ring condensed phosphate (tri- metaphosphate-P3093, HP3092' tetrameta- I phosphate-P,O -4, -3, 12 HP4012 organic or- thophosphates (sugar phosphate esters- FIGURE 4-169 Representative Distribution glue ose-6-phosph ate, fructose-6-phosph ate; ofEh (XJ04MV) in the Bottom Sediments of Lake deoxyribonucleic acid; phospholipids; inositol Huron phosphates), phosphoamines (creatine phos- Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-8/17/66 phate, phosphoproteins), and organic con- 182 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS L 'i STATUTE MILES 20 a Go IT -1. S, 0 0 .0 -A D"'. t @00 Z @ 2@K t A" _000 Z' 21 0 Z S..d.- 0 1 ... I..d FIGURE 4-170 Representative Distribution of Eli (mv) in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Erie Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/65 phosphate; total phosphate includes soluble as well as all particulate phosphorus compounds. The difference between total soluble and solu- ble orthophosphate is designated organic D-11 phosphorus and is primarily polyphosphate. ph-@ Orthophosphate is the form most readily utilized by plants and is a measure of the phosphorus available for primary production. P04-s"i Total phosphorus reflects the total load of Hydr phosphorus in the water body, which is impor- F.(.0 D. 'i tant when considering the introduction of wastes to the water. The form that phosphate FIGURE 4-171 Simplified Phosphorus Cycle takes in water is pH dependent. The most im- in a Lake portant forms occurring in pH range 5 to 9, which would include Great Lakes waters, are densed phosphates (adenosine-5-triphos- H2PO41 and HP041 (Water Quality Committee phate; coenzyme A) (Water Quality Commit- on Nutrients in Water 871). tee on Nutrients in Water871). One of the most important properties of Phosphorus occurs in the lakes most com- many inorganic and organic phosphorus com- monly as orthophosphate and polyphosphates. pounds is the ability to form complexes and Other phosphorus compounds, such as the chelates with cations. It is for this reason that condensed phosphates, hexametaphosphate, phosphates are added to detergents and water and tripolyphosphate from detergents, are softening chemicals, where they are intended rapidly hydrolized to orthophosphate in waste to complex calcium and magnesium. Condi- treatment plants and in natural waters tions are appropriate for the formation of (Shannon and Lee;7211 Heinke336). Orthophos- complexes in natural waters. However, little phate, soluble phosphorus, and total phos- work has been done to determine the impact of phorus are most often reported in the litera- such complexes on the mobility of metals such ture on the Great Lakes. Juday, et al.441 intro- as calcium, magnesium, iron, and trace metals duced the terms total and soluble (ortho-) in natural waters. Chemical Characteristics 183 100, Phosphate is removed from lake water by bW11-1 P W.@M i---95%P- four major processes: so - (1) sedimentation of organic detritus (2) adsorption by ferric hydroxide (Fe (011)) F-.hk M. (3) ion exchange on clays (4) precipitation of hydroxyapatite. EIM; (2) ,.G . . .......... . . . . . 0 Sedimentation of organic debris was discussed 01 17'... 107- .......0) in Subsection 7.5.4. It entails overproduction Z 01iW11Wh1C of organic materials which die and settle to the ..... .... .*..'.....": M I -H U@. 05 - bottom. Unless decomposed, the organic de- 9 b tritus retains the phosphorus metabolized in growth. The adsorption of phosphate on ferric i . . . . . . hydroxide gel is discussed in Subsection 7.5.11. . . . . . . . . . .b0.. 19M If Eh is positive and oxygen is present, ferric T, 01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. .. I @ I I hydroxide precipitates and adsorbs phos- 5 10 so 100 Wo phate. A drop in dissolved oxygen and a nega- MEAN DEPTH (.) tive Eh causes release of phosphate to the wa- FIGURE 4-172 State of Eutrophication for a ter, and hence, nutrient enrichment. Grim 304 Number of Lakes in Europe and North America. discussed the anion exchange capacities of Lakes represented include Aegerisee, Switzer- clays with respect to phosphate. The impor- land (A); Lake Annecy, France (An); Baldegger- tance of anion exchange on clays needs to be see, Switzerland (B); Lake Constance, Austria, better understood as it may be of great impact Germany, Switzerland (Bo); Lake Fures, Den- in the Great Lakes. If the concentrations of mark (F); Greifensee, Switzerland (G); Hallwil- calcium and orthophosphate are high enough, ersee, Switzerland (H); Lake Geneva, France, inorganic phosphatic minerals, such as hydro- Switzerland (L); Lake Mendota, U.S.A. (M); xyapatite (Ca,,(PO,),;(OH)2) may precipi- Lake Malaren, Sweden (Ma); Moses Lake, tate (Subsection 7.5.8). Regardless of the U.S.A. (Mo); Lake Norrviken, Sweden (No); mechanism by which phosphorus is removed Pfaffikersee, Switzerland (P); Lake Sebas- from a lake, Hynes and Greib 104 and Gumer- ticook, U.S.A. (S); Turlersee, Switzerland (T); man 307 have shown that an equilibrium condi- Lake Tahoe, U.S.A. (Ta); Lake Vanern, Sweden tion exists between water and sediment, and (V); Lake Washington, U.S.A. (W); Zurichsee, reduction of soluble phosphate input to a lake Switzerland (Z); Lake Erie (E); and Lake On- will be accompanied by a concomitant release tario (Ont). of soluble phosphate from the sediment. This Modified from Vollenweider, 1968; reproduced by 1JC, 1969 is likely to extend the effects of excess nutrient loading for some years after loading from the Lakes Erie and Ontario with and without drainage basins has been abated. The degree phosphate loadingeontrol, as suggested by the of phosphate release from sediment depends International Joint Commission '4011 are also on texture, bioturbulence, sediment chemis- shown in Figure 4-172. try, and sedimentation rates (Thorstenson With continued phosphate loading, disrup- and Mackenzie 797). tion of the ecosystem by overproduction of Assimilative capacity of a large lake relates algae becomes a cyclic phenomenon. Introduc- to the volume of water available for dilution of tion of phosphorus stimulates algal growth. an effluent. Consequently, the assimilative Occurrence of an algal bloom increases turbid- capacity of the Great Lakes is large. Lake ity, and light availability then becomes a limit- depth is a significant factor when the waters ing factor to further algal production (Azad are enriched by nutrients because a large por- and Borchardt3) . Turbidity during periods of tion of the volume of a shallow lake is available high runoff is also a limiting factor (Curl 174). for photosynthetic activity and accelerated After consumption of available phosphate or eutrophication (Figure 4-172). The ranges loss of light, production decreases and the given in Figure 4-172 for Lake Norrviken and algae die and decompose. Those algae that de- Lake Mendota represent the ranges in histori- compose near the surface release phosphorus cal data for those lakes and are typical of most to the system. The deposited organic material lakes with similar characteristics that receive creates a high BOD that deoxygenates the wa- cultural wastes. Using Vollenweider's"64 cri- ter. If deoxygenation is sufficient, the phos- teria for trophism in lakes, Lake Erie is pres- phate adsorbed on ferric hydroxide sediment ently eutrophic and Lake Ontario is meso- is released along with the phosphate from the trophic. The possible trends in trophism of decomposition of algae. Release of phosphate 184 Appendix 4 W 83' 82' W Id- G 0 a U cl oil 20 o@ 44' o H. B-.h B-Y rly 25 KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES KILOMETERS FIGURE 4-174 Representative Distribution S;ATUT'E MILES of Phosphate (mg/1) in Lake Huron Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-8/17/66 FIGURE 4-173 Representative Distribution uti.lization, and legislation to protect the lakes of Phosphate (Xj0-3Mg/l) in Lake Michigan Sur- from excess phosphorus loading must be pro- face Water Data from Beeton and Moffett, 1964 vided to reduce phosphorus input. The Inter- national Joint Commission 4011 and various for algal decomposition and sediment equilib- interest groups in the Lake Erie basin have ria may induce a new cycle of algal production. recommended from 80 percent to complete re- Subsequent algal blooms depend upon the moval of phosphate from sewage wastes by interplay of nutrient release and solar radia- tertiary treatment. A ban on detergents with tion, which is a function of depth, season, and phosphatic surfactants. has been effected in turbidity. some areas, although there is danger that The only way to stop the phosphate-algae other, more toxic surfactant or chelating cycle is to stop phosphate input to the lakes. agents that can mobilize heavy metals may Natural regulation has been effective in some replace phosphate. Canada and several local regions where swamps and bogs occurring at governments in the United States have al- the mouths of phosphate -enriched tributaries ready initiated programs to rid detergents of trap sediments and nutrients before they phosphate, and such legislation is pending reach the lake. The filling of swamps such as in several States. Kuentzel478 questioned has taken place in the Maumee drainage basin the efficacy of phosphorus control as a reduces the impact of natural regulation. mechanism to combat eutrophication in the With increased use of phosphate and loss of Great Lakes on the basis that phosphorus natural regulation, improved waste treat- storage and release from the sediment may ment management, reduction of phosphorus reduce effectiveness of phosphorus control. Chemical Characteristics 185 83' 82, 81* 80* 79* L A K E L A K E 0 N T A R / 0 H U R 0 N He Lt.. P*rtW*Ile 43*@ 43* Pori Hur*n Sarni. Part Maitland Part C.1ba- Buffalo Part St.My Part Du,kirk LAKE Detroit SY, CLAIR 4: Rands. Hbr King-ill. Q, 42* 20 42' Ashtabula airport Toledo Clit-land Lar.i. Send sky KILOMETERS 0 so STATUTE MILES 0 25 SO 41* _83* 82* 8,* 80, 73' FIGURE 4-175 Weighted Average Distribution of Phosphate (XJ0-3Mg/J) in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 5/25-6/14/67 Phosphorus release from sediment certainly ment and nonphosphatic detergents may be occurs. However, the technology to control feasible solutions to the phosphate problem. phosphorus is well advanced and, in the ab- However, all known sources of nutrients sence of other proven control alternatives, should be assessed. waste treatment control is currently the best Lakes Erie and Ontario are subject to the and most cost-effective treatment alternative. greatest stress from phosphate input. Suther- The major sources of phosphate in the Great land, et al .770 and Kramer 469have shown that Lakes are the metropolitan areas (Figures phosphate concentrations are periodically 4-173 through 176). The rapid hydrolysis of high enough to approach saturation with re- phosphate from detergents and assimilation spect to hydroxyapatite. Figure 4-177 shows of phosphate by the biota and sediment cause the log ratio of equilibrium product for hy- phosphate concentrations to decline rapidly droxyapatite to actual ion product with posi- away from their sources. Consequently, it is tive numbers indicating super saturation. only in restricted embayments and areas of Western Lake Erie is supersaturated and overloading of phosphate that significant other regions near urbanized areas approach phosphate concentrations occur. Notable re- saturation. No authigenic hydroxyapatite has gions of phosphate overloading are near Chi- yet been found in the lakes. Snow and cago, Green Bay, Saginaw Bay, Detroit, To- Thompson 750 compared the saturation of Lake ledo, Long Point, Buffalo and the Niagara Erie with respect to hydroxyapatite to River outlet, Toronto, Cobourg, and Oswego. plankton abundance and found increasing The majority of these sources are urban areas, plankton concentration with increase in @y- rather than agricultural. If the main sources droxyapatite saturation. From these data it of phosphate are urban, then sewage treat- appears that algal production and adsorption 186 Appendix 4 A - KILOMETERS 0025--'- 2704-1@0 20 40 60 80 100 0025 25 STATUTE MILES 00 r 20 0 20 40 60 25M I 75 0jo 12s A 7 2 5 CIZ) I S". Rochester Niagara FaUs 61.4 Syracuse G-d I.O."'d D FIGURE 4-176 Representative Distribution of Phosphate (XJ0-3Mg/l) in Lake Ontario Surface Water. Map and cross section contour interval are different. Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 9/2-8/7/66 LAKE ONTARIO 0 on ferric hydroxide and not hydroxyapatite equilibria may be the mechanism by which 0 phosphorus is removed from water in Lake Erie. 0 7.5.6 Nitrogen System 0 a LAKE ERIE Nitrogen is a nutrient that, in excess quan- tities and with no other nutrient limitation, D stimulates aquatic growth and accelerates -3 eutrophication. The atmosphere is approxi- A 72 mately 80 percent nitrogen. This source is generally not used directly by aquatic or- T ganisms but serves as a potential source of nitrogen in the natural system through bac- terial or algal conversion to nitrogen com- FIGURE 4-177 Degree of Saturation of Sur- pounds (Figure 4-178). Nitrogen is readily face Water of Lake Erie (top) and Lake Ontario available and is therefore not a limiting factor (bottom) with Respect to Hydroxyapatite for for organic growth in unpolluted systems. The August 22-26, 1966. Positive values represent use of nitrate (NOV), nitrite W02-9, and am- supersaturations; negative values represent monia (NH4+1) compounds in agriculture, in- undersaturated conditions. Numbers are logio dustry, and domestic activity has increased (equilibrium product/ion product). the influx of nitrogen into the Great Lakes. From Kramer, 1967b When combined with increased loadings of Chemical Characteristics 187 .......... .................. .......... . .......... = A -,ph,,i':: W Ed. 40- N.- D. (664) /G1 w.0 h. I 611116,1 A19,1 F-d- ............ z' 20- ............. ..... .... ................ .... ......... Pl Ni-d, 8-.6. H. XM .......... ...... ............ -lo- N.- (N.I.) 6 @W 6-6.1 & f. D.... E- sy"ll,di' E Ag .fiC' BY F..d- A . ................... . . .. ................... ................... .......... 2- .................. .............. . . . . . ..Z D. 6 Th- . ........... 3 5 lo 2() GO 100 200 Boo MEAN DEffH FIGUftE 4-178 Simplified Nitrogen Cycle in a Lake. See Figure 4-217 for amplification of the FIGURE 4-179 Nitrogen Loading Versus general rule in the nitrogen cycle. Mean Depth for Various Lakes in Europe and North America. The dots with slanted lines refer phosphorus and other nutrients, increased ni- only to inorganic nitrogen. Lakes represented trogen influx accelerates the trophic devel- include Aegerisee, Switzerland (Ae); Bal- opment. deggersee, Switzerland (Ba); Lake Constance, The nitrogen cycle (Figure 4-178) is complex. Austria, Germany, Switzerland (Bo); Western Bacteria and phytoplankton fix most of the Lake Erie (W. Erie); Lake Erie (Erie); Lake- nitrogen as protoplasm. Decay and excretion Geneva, France, Switzerland (Le); Greifensee, yield amino acids, ammonia, and nitrites. Bac- Switzerland (Gr); Hallwilersee, Switzerland teria and fungi are responsible for the amino (Ha); Lake Malaren, Sweden (Ma); Lake Men- acid-ammonia-nitrite-nitrate conversions dota, U.S.A. (Mend); Moses Lake, U.S.A. (Mo); (Figure 4-156). Exchange with the atmos- Lake Norrviken, Sweden (Norrv); Lake Ontario, phere, influx of nitrogenous material from U.S.A. (Ont); Pfaffikersee, Switzerland (Pf); shore, assimilation by the biota, and loss of Lake Sebasticook, U.S.A. (Seb); Lake Tahoe, nitrogenous material through sedimentation U.S.A. (Tahoe); Turlursee, Switzerland (Tu); and outflow regulate the lake nitrogen budget. Lake Vanern, Sweden (Va); Lake Washington, Because of sedimentation of organic debris, U.S.A. (Wash); and Zurichsee, Switzerland (Zu). nitrogen accumulates in the lake system. To From Vollenweider, 1968 characterize the relative importance of the various states of the nitrogen cycle, analyses photic zone is critical to the rate of lake aging, for nitrogen compounds may include al- the relation of nitrogen loading and mean buminoid (proteinaceous) nitrogen; organic depth (Figure 4-179), as noted by Vollen- nitrogen including proteins, amino acids, weider, 864 becomes significant in trophic de- polypeptides, and others; ammonia (NH3); ni- velopment. Shallow lakes have less water trate (N03% nitrite (N02-'); and molecular available for dilution of nitrogen compounds nitrogen (N2). The conversion of reduced to and their photic zone for plant production is a oxidized nitrogen compounds is rapid in the larger percentage of the total volume. Great Lakes and the process is analogous in Greeson 301 summarized the minimum ni- many ways to oxygen sag in streams (Figure trogen requirements for algal growth and re- 4-156). When a reduced form of nitrogen, production from the literature. The described either organic nitrogen, ammonia, or nitrite, is minimum requirements range from trace introduced to the receiving water, oxidation quantities to 5.3 mg/l. Water quality standards takes place. The conversion from organic ni- for Great Lakes water reflect these indefinite trogen to ammonia to nitrite to nitrate may be limits. Few States have adopted numerical, made either inorganically or biologically by limits for inflow water, but instead require nitrifying bacteria. The roles of bacteria and that no nutrient be discharged in great phytoplankton in the nitrogen cycle are dis- enough quantity to cause nuisance conditions cussed in Section 8. and that the Public Health Service Drinking Since the relative volume of water in the Water Standards be met. Because nitrogen 188 Appendix 4 KILOMETERS A STATUTE MILES L 3 @3 le NONE 05- 0.5 DETECTED 1.0 b __1__0.5 FIGURE 4-180 Representative Distribution of Nitrogen, as Nitrate (nig/1), in Lake Superior Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/18-818168 and 7/27-8/7/69 sources are difficult to control (e.g., nitrogen is that, depending on phytoplankton abundance available from the atmosphere), it is generally and light penetration, fixation rates can be felt that control efforts should be directed to high. Dugdale and Dugdale also noted that the other nutrients such as phosphorus. For presence of combined inorganic nitrogen example, the International Joint Commis- (N03_1 and NH4+') inhibited atmospheric ni- sion4O8 suggests that phosphorus rather than trogen fixation. If this is true, then reduction nitrogen input be controlled because, among of nitrogen inputs into the Great Lakes could other reasons, "appreciable quantities of read- be offset by atmospheric fixation. However, ily assimilable nitrogen compounds (nitrates the presence of phosphate and micronutrients and ammonia) are delivered directly to the stimulates nitrogen fixation (Dugdale and lakes in precipitation . . ." and ". . . during Dugdale 228 and Goering and Nee SS290). So it is time of nitrate deficiency in surface waters possible that control of phosphorus input and some blue-green algae can utilize N2 derived other nutrients could limit the extent to which from the atmosphere as a source of nitrogen." atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed, and the In Lake Erie and southern Lake Michigan total nitrogen budget might then be reduced where quantities of phosphorus are stored in by control of nitrogen loss from the drainage the sediments, release of phosphorus from the basins. In a study of contributions of nitrogen sediment may reduce the immediate benefits to Lake Ontario from several drainage basins of phosphorus control. Therefore, even limited in the vicinity of Toronto, Ontario, Neil et al .573 control of nitrogen from agricultural and in- concluded that, with the exception of March dustrial sources may be a deterrent to algal and April when runoff is greatest, urban con- production. tributions of nitrogen exceed rural by approx- The process of atmospheric nitrogen fixa- imately 10 to 1 (34,000 lbs N/Mi2/ yr for rural tion has been extensively studied in Lake sources). The urban effluent can be treated, Mendota, Wisconsin, and Pymatuning Reser- and Neil et al. 573 estimated that, for the To- voir and Sanctuary Lake, Pennsylvania, using ronto area, 87 percent of nitrogen influx into the stable isotope N15, (Dugdale et al .229 and Lake Ontario can be removed by sewage Dugdale and Dugdale 228). Their studies treatment. showed that measurable fixation occurs and Nitrogen is assimilated rapidly in the Great Chemical Characteristics 189 KILOMETERS 20 0 20 STATUTE MILES L 07 20 60 F.H. 05 Co. Der ,t z LITT z z 0 TWed, 0 Z z --- 0 FIGURE 4-181 Representative Distribution of Nitrogen, as Nitrate (ing/1), in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/65 KILOMETERS F-FR-Prr- * -------4 1 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 STATUTE MILES F-Tz;;r- P-4 1 ---1 20 0 20 40 60 d' a- op .08 .06 0 10 06 0 "Al. V, .12 1 5".t. A" POchester Niagara Falls @-t Syracuse G-d [,..d D FIGURE 4-182 Representative Distribution of Nitrogen, as Nitrate (xlVing/l), in Lake Ontario Surface Water Data from Canada Centre for Inland Waters (1969) cruise 8/2-8/7/66 190 Appendix 4 ganic nitrogen components in Lake Michigan (Figure 4-183) during 1964, and found slightly higher concentration in the upper layers, especially during the summer and fall. Since organic nitrogen excludes ammonia, nitrates, 0.071 0.09 FRANKFORT and nitrites, it is reasonable that higher or- 6 0.093 ganic nitrogen in the photic zone represents KEWAUNEE 0,073 0.0199 0 biosynthesis. 0.098 7.5.7 Organic Carbon Compounds 0'106 LUDINGTON 0.062 0.092 The subsections describing carbonate and SHEBOYGAN 0.073 0.074 oxygen cycles pointed to the significance that organic carbon compounds may have on the 0.065 ecosystem. High BOD creates competition with the biota for oxygen. In the presence of MUSKEGON metabolic activity many organic carbon com- pounds are metastable,and as they oxidize, they contribute to the oxygen demand of a system. Some organic carbon compounds are 0.120 0.= 0.129 HOLLAND toxic (pesticides, phenols, detergents) or phys- RACINE 0.1103 0. 1*00 0.0*82 ically destructive and unsightly (petroleum products, crude oil). The organic carbon com- 0.oSo 0.094 0.123 SOUTH HAVEN pounds that are of environmental concern at WAUKEGA N 0.105 0.070 0.093 present or may require investigation and ac- 0.098 ST. JOSEPH tion in the future include pesticides, 0.112 0 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), phenols, 0 0.065 .0860.089 detergents, petroleum, organic gases, organic CHICAGO acids, and cyanide. The ecological importance KILOMETERS of these eight classes of organic-carbon com- STATUTE MILES pounds and the distribution of total organic carbon are reviewed below. Many of these sub- FIGURE 4-183 Average Concentration of Or- stances are considered to be deleterious to the ganic Nitrogen in Lake Michigan. Upper aquatic environment and water quality number represents the concentration (mg/1) in standards have been adopted for a few of them the upper 20 meters; lower number represents (Table 4-30). Other substances are poorly un- the concentration below a depth of 20 m. derstood and require research before their From Robertson and Powers, 1968 impact on the Great Lakes environment will be understood. Lakes; therefore, steep concentration gra- dients occur in the vicinity of nitrogen sources (Figures 4-180 through 182). Nitrogen may be 7.5.7.1 Pesticides chemically stratified in the lakes. Lower val- ues above the chemocline, which corresponds Perhaps more than any other organic pollu- with the thermocline, may reflect uptake by tants, the pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, phytoplankton; or the higher concentrations fungicides, defoliants, algicides) threaten the below the chemocline may indicate release of success of the ecosystem, including man. nitrogen by decomposition of nitrogenous or- Many of the commonly used pesticides are not ganic debris. Robertson and PowerS667 and readily degraded in natural environments. Howard et al.385 support the observation that They tend to persist and are distributed over algal production causes the low nitrate con- wide areas by water and wind. Primary pro- centrations above the chemocline. Nitrogen ducers assimilate the toxicants and, as the fixation by blue-green algae (Howard et al .3115) producers are consumed by organisms higher occurs at least from June through November in the food chain, the toxicants are passed on in Lake Erie during periods of wide variation and may be concentrated by a process called in turbidity, temperature, nutrients, and solar "biological magnification" (Woodwell;916 radiation. Robertson and Powers studied or- Peterle 602). Many species concentrate toxi- Chemical Characteristics 191 cants in fatty (lipid) tissues. It is possible for The water quality criteria for pesticides lethal concentrations to accumulate in those (Table 4-30), used in the Great Lakes Basin are tissues, and, when the lipid material is assimi- poorly defined, and consist of restrictions on lated in the absence of external food, death use of certain pesticides and adherence to the may occur (Federal Water Pollution Control drinking water standards of the U.S. Public Administration 831). The concentration of tox- Health Service. 1129 A convenient measure used icants by biological magnification is especially in some States is the median tolerance limit evident in fish and shore birds. For example, (TLn). This is the dose required to kill 50 per- fish kills (Federal Water Pollution Control cent of individuals of a given species within a Administration 1130) and gull fatalities (Hickey given time, usually 48 to 96 hours. To allow a et al .354 ) have been directly related to pesticide margin of error, water quality criteria are buildup in tissues. In 1969, 34,000 Lake Michi- usually set at. 1 of the TL. of a particular fish gan coho salmon were confiscated by the U.S. species. Tables 4-35 and 4-36 show the TL. Food and Drug Administration because DDT values for selected aquatic organisms treated residues from 13 ppm to 19 ppm were consid- with pesticides. Certain of the pesticides are ered unsafe (International Joint Commis- extremely toxic. For example, only 3 11gll of sion 408). Some animals assimilate toxicants aldrin, 10 Ag1l of chlordane, 9 /ig/l of DDD, 2.1 that inhibit reproduction. Decreases in nest- gg/l of DDT, or 18 jig/l of lindane (benzene ing success in certain shore birds have been hexachloride) reach the TLm for rainbow directly attributed to DDT (Hickey et al.; 354 trout, which is a relatively resistant species. Wurster and Wingate910). High pesticide levels Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are de- reduce calcium metabolism and affect hor- graded slowly (Table 4-36), and when in ani- mone production, which result in fragile egg mal tissue the pesticides can reach toxic levels shells and non-viable eggs. Predators, includ- by intake exceeding metabolism and excre- ing man, can consume organisms that concen- tion. Therefore, even though TL. values are trate toxicants and receive a debilitating or not approached. toxicity may be induced. lethal dose. Wurster919 and Menzel et al. 532 ob- Several processes degracle the persistent served that DDT and other chlorinated hydro- pesticides; photolysis is known to induce deg- carbons reduce the photosynthetic activity of radation of DDT under certain conditions some species of marine phytoplankton, espe- (Plimmer et al.621). The ecological conse- cially when cell concentrations are low. If this quences of the photo-oxidation products of phenomenon is widespread in the Great chlorinated hydrocarbons are unknown, and Lakes, large segments of the food chain could they may contribute to the stresses on the be disrupted. In fact, Wurster suggests that ecosystem that are now attributed to the hard selective destruction of the food chain may pesticide. partially explain the emergence of normally Several mechanisms can remove hard uncommon phytoplankton species, and the ac- (non-biodegrad able) pesticides from the water companying nuisance algal blooms of eu- column in addition to assimilation by the trophic lakes. biota. For example, sodium humate increases The tolerance of organisms to toxic coin- the solubility of DDT in water as much as pounds cannot be defined specifically. For twenty times, and humic acid, which is essen- example, the potential dangers of toxication tially insoluble in water can sorb appreciable from pesticides increases with temperature. amounts of 2,4,5-T (Wershaw et al .882). Using Consequently, toxicant loading limits must sediment from several upland lakes in Wiscon- account for differences in the physical system sin, Lotse et al .505 showed that lindane is ad- during summer and winter. The tolerance of sorbed by sediment. The amount of uptake de- each organism differs, and to evaluate the ef- pends on the type of insecticide, pH, tempera- fects of toxicant release on the aquatic ecosys- ture, clay content, and organic content. Har- tem, all taxa in the system should be consid- tung and Klinger 323 found a significant corre- ered. Little is known about the synergistic ef- lation between sedimented oil and DDT in the fects of pesticides and other chemical con- Detroit River that suggests that oil residues in stituents. To be meaningful, toxicant loading sediment may cause partitioning and removal limits must account for synergism, and this of chlorinated pesticides from water. The requires studies of the tolerances of taxa in above studies indicate that pesticides are po- the climate and chemical environment of the tentially available to the water column and receiving water. Needless to say, this is an biota by desorption or by sediment ingestion enormous task in the discipline where little by bottom feeders. Consequently, the removal data exist. problems discussed in Subsection 7.5.5 may 192 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-35 48-hour Median Tolerance Limits' of Selected Fish and Cladocerans to Selected Pesticides in Water Pesticide Cladoceran TLm(jjg/l) Fish TLm(jjg/l) INSECTICIDES Abate --- Brook trout 1,500 Aldrin Daphnia pulex 28 Rainbow trout 3 Benzene hexachloride Daphnia pulex 460 Rainbow trout 18 (lindane) Carbaryl (sevin) Daphnia pulex 6.4 Brown trout 1,500 Carbophenothion Daphnia magna 0.009 Bluegill 225 (trithion) Chlordane Simocephalus 20 Rainbow trout 10 serrulatus DDD (TDE) Daphnia pulex 3.2 Rainbow trout 9 DDT Daphnia pulex 0.36 Bass 2.1 Dieldrin Daphnia pulex 240 Bluegill 3.4 Dichlorvos (DDVP) Daphnia pulex 0.07 Bluegill 700 Endrin Daphnia pulex 20 Bluegill 0.2 Heptachlor Daphnia pulex 42 Rainbow trout 9 Malathion Daphnia pulex 1.8 Brook trout 19.5 Parathion Daphnia pulex 0.4 Bluegill 47 Rotenone Daphnia pulex 10 Bluegill 22 Toxaphene Daphnia pulex 15 Rainbow trout 2.8 HERBICIDES, FUNGICIDES, DEFOLIANTS, & ALGICIDES Aquathol --- Bluegill 257 Copper Sulfate --- Bluegill 150 2,4-D, PGBEE Daphnia pulex 3,200 Rainbow trout 960 2,4-D, BEE --- Bluegill 2,100 2,4-D, isopropyl --- Bluegill 800 2,4-D, butyl ester --- Bluegill 1,300 2,4-D, butyl + --- Bluegill 1,500 isopropyl ester Dalapon Daphnia magna 6,000 --- 2 Diquat --- Rainbow trout 12,300 Endothal, copper Rainbow trout 290 Endothal, --- Rainbow trout 1,150 dimethylamine Hydrothol 191 --- Rainbow trout 690 Silvex, PGBEE Daphnia pulex 2,000 Rainbow trout 650 Silvex, isoctyl --- Bluegill 1,400 Silvex, BEE --- Bluegill 1,200 Sodium arsenite Simocephalus 1,400 Rainbow trout 36,500 serrulatus 148-hour TLm, static bioassay, micrograms per liter. Data from Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968a). 2Very low toxicity apply to hard pesticides. Cessation of inputs Several studies in the Great Lakes suggest into Great Lakes water may not be reflected that detoxification of hard pesticides by bac- by rapid decreases in the amount of pesticides teria and algae may be an important process in in the biota because of the reserves of pes- ridding the lakes of hard pesticides. Lesh- ticides stored in sediment and organic com- niowsky et al.494 described the removal of plexes. aldrin from Lake Erie water by flocculent bac- Chemical Characteristics 193 TABLE 4-36 Effects of Six Chlorinated Pesticides on Some Beneficial Water Uses Fish and other Stock and wildlife Pesticide aquatic life watering Domestic water supplies Aldrin Fish - 96 hr. TL, Rats LD50, 39 - 66.8 mg/kg Man - LD50, 5 g/70 kg 0.00013 - 0.05 mg/l Birds LD50, Appx. 4-14 mg/kg Acute and chronic effects Chironomus larvae - 8 hr. 0.023 mg/l Sheep and Cattle - 0.5 lb/acre on alfalfa, no reaction Lymnaeid snails - 24 hr. 4.8 mg/l Lindane Fish - threshold 0.01 - 0.02 Rats - LD50, 600 mg/kg Man - LD100, 0.6 g/kg (Gamman BIIC) mg/l, -20 hr TL100, 0.5 mg/1 Birds - LD50, 60-400 mg/kg Bad taste and odor - Plankton - inhibited growth 20 pg/l (persists 2 years) 5 mg/1 DDT Fish - toxic dose 0.001 - 5 Rats - LD50, 250 mg/kg Man - LD100, 30 g/70 kg mg/l Chickens - LD50, 1,300 mg/kg Taste and odor (MPC) Daphnia - 64 hr TLM 0.001 mg/l Birds LD50, 300 - 500 mg/kg 0.2 mg/I Chironomus larvae - 0.001 mg/l Dieldrin Fish - 96 hr. TLm 0.008 - 0.04 Rats LD50, 37-87 mg/kg Man - LD50, 5 g/70 kg mg/l Squirrels, rabbits, woodchucks Chironomus larvae - 8 hr. TLm exhibited toxicity to small 0.007 mg/l dosages Daphnia - 50 hr. immobilization Birds LD50, 35-50 mg/kg 0.330 mg/1 Endrin Fish - 96 hr. TLm 0.0006 - 4.2 Rats LD50, 7.3 - 48 mg/kg Non-persistent mg/l, highly toxic Dogs 6 weeks LD100, 10 mg/kg Daphnia - 50 hr. immobilization 0.352 mg/l Rabbits - LD50, 7 - 10 mg/kg Birds - LD50, 5 - 15 mg/kg Heptachlor Fish - 96 hr. TLM 0.019 - Rats - LD50, 90 mg/kg Moderately persistent (Refined chlordane) 0.230 mg/1 Birds - LD50, 125 - 400 mg/kg Daphnia - 50 hr. immobilization 0.058 mg/1 SOURCE: Pressman (1963), reproduced in Johnson et al., (1967). teria. These bacteria, either Flavobaterium or ticides are also entrained by winds during crop Protaminobacter and Bacillus, form flocs that spraying and are carried hundreds of miles are capable of adsorbing and concentrating before being deposited by rainfall or aeolian aldrin. The resulting sediment can serve as a sedimentation (FroSt277). Basinwide legisla- reservoir for pesticide release at some future tion may not suffice to totally control this type time. Algae are known to detoxify certain of pesticide input into the Great Lakes, so chlorinated hydrocarbons, especially lindane. Federal action is necessary. Care must also be The Great Lakes algae, Chlorella and Cha- taken that the alternatives selected do not mydomonas, were shown to metabolize lin- sanction pesticides that are as harmful as dane in the laboratory (Sweeney777). He sug- chlorinated hydrocarbons. For example, many gested that algal metabolization may account of the substitutes for DDT are organo- for the relatively low levels of lindane as com- phosphates, which are toxic to mammals and pared to other pesticides in the Great Lakes, many lower animals. At present only Michigan and Pennsylvania Pesticide levels in the Great Lakes are low control pesticide usage in the United States (Table 4-37). Since pesticides are widely used portion of the Great Lakes Basin. These con- in the Great Lakes Basin, it appears that a trols, and similar ones in Ontario, limit the combination of dilution, sediment interaction, types of pesticides used, but do not exclude all biological flocculation or detoxification persistent pesticides. Since runoff is a major (Leshniowsky et al.; 494 Sweeney 777), and biotic source of pesticides in the lakes, basinwide assimilation account for these low levels. controls must be established. Significant The Green Bay drainage area is a fruit grow- amounts of chlorinated hydrocarbon pes- ing region, so chlorinated hydrocarbon pes- 194 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-37 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticide Concentrations in the Great Lakes (mg/1) Hepta- Year of Hepta- chlor Determination Location Dieldrin Endrin DDT DDE DDD Aldrin- chlor Epoxide BHC & Reference St. Lawrence R., 0.003 P ND P ND ND ND ND ND (A) Massena, N. Y. ND ND ND ND 0.010 ND 0.031 0.017 ND (B) Lake Erie, ND ND ND ND ND ND ND IND ND (A) Buffalo, N. Y. ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.002 ND (B) Maumee R., ND ND 0.087 0.015 ND P P ND ND (A) Toledo, 0. 0.023 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND (B) Detroit R., ND ND ND ND ND P ND ND ND (A) Detroit, Mich. 0.018 ND ND 0.008 ND ND 0.015 P ND (B) St. Clair R., ND ND ND P ND ND P ND ND (A) Port Huron, Mich. ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND (B) Lake Michigan 0.007 0.006 P ND ND ND ND ND ND (A) Milwaukee, Wisc. 0.003 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND (B) Lake Superior P ND P P ND ND ND ND ND (A) Duluth, Minn. ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND (B) P=Presumed present, based on inconclusive chromatographic evidence ND=None detected (A)=Data collected in 1964, by Weaver, et al., (1965) (B)=Data collected in 1965, by Breidenb-ack-,-et al., (1967) TABLE 4-38 Pesticide Residues in Whole Fish from Lake Erie, 1965-1967 Pesticide concentration mg/kg fresh weight Number of Number of p,p-DDE Total Species fish analyses Method' Dieldrin o,p-DDT p,P-DDD p,p-DDE p,p-DDT p,ptDDT DDS2 Alewife 27 6 H -- .13 .69 .32 .44 .76 1.59 6 S .14 -- -- -- -- .99 ---- American smelt 8 1 H -- .22 .19 .27 .60 .87 1.28 1 S .04 -- -- -- -- .72 ---- 1 E -- -- -- -- -- -- .84 Brown bullhead 7 1 H -- .00 .11 .06 .04 .10 .21 1 S .00 -- -- -- -- .18 ---- I E -- -- -- -- -- -- .34 Emerald shiner 6 2 H .15 .75 .44 .21 .65 1.55 1 S -- -- -- -- .03 ---- Gizzard shad 9 2 H -- .02 .26 .08 .17 .26 .53 2 S .08 -- -- -- -- .30 ---- Freshwater drum 12 2 H -- .12 .42 .22 .25 .48 1.01 2 S .04 -- -- -- -- .32 ---- 2 E -- -- .54 Goldfish 2 1 E .70 Spottail shiner 9 3 E .25 Stonecat 2 1 E .28 Walleye 47 5 H -- .12 .61 .40 .38 .79 1.52 5 S .09 -- -- -- -- 1.75 ---- 27 E -- -- -- -- -- -- 1.01 White bass 3 1 H -- 23 -22 .50 .94 1.44 1.89 1 S .04 -- -- -- -- 1.32 ---- White sucker 3 1 H -- .00 .11 .10 .16 .26 .37 1 S .02 -- -- -- -- .19 ---- Yellow perch 212 4 H -- .06 .32 .28 .38 .65 1.03 4 S .05 -- -- -- -- .57 ---- 22 E -- -- .75 IH-homogenized; S saponification; E ether extraction 2DDD + DDE + DDT SOURCE: International Joint Commission, 1969b, Vol. 2, p. 115 Chemical Characteristics 195 ticides are commonly found in the aquatic en- minimum values obtained in Lake Ontario vironment of this area. Biological magnifica- were 0.03 mg/kg DDE in the muscle of a female tion is easily demonstrated here and the con- black crappie and 68.90 mg/kg DDE in the sequences of pesticide loading are already evi- testes of a male northern pike. dent. Johnson et al.435 estimated that in 1962, The Great Lakes Fishery Commission sum- 134,279 pounds of chlorinated hydrocarbons marized DDT levels in the Great Lakes fish as were used in the Green Bay watershed. The follows (International Joint C OMMiS Sion 4011): primary pesticides used were DDT and deriva- 1. Great Lakes fishes contain significant quan- tives (87 percent), aldrin (9 percent), and diel- tities of DDT residues as high as 10.4 mg/kg in chubs drin (2 percent). Hickey and Keith 353 and Hic- (Coregonus hoyi); even higher concentrations have key et al. 354 found high levels of pesticides in been observed by OWRC in the testes of a male north- Green Bay and adjacent Lake Michigan sedi- ern pike in Lake Ontario. 2. DDT levels in Lake Michigan fish are two to ment in 1963 and 1964. Even deep water mud five times higher than in fishfrom other Great Lakes. contained an average 0.014 mg/1 of DDT, DDE, 3. DDT levels in eggs and fry of rainbow trout and DDD (wet weight basis). In the same area and Coho salmon from Lake Michigan are similarly biological magnification was indicated by two to five times higher than in eggs and fry of these species from Lake Superior and Oregon. higher levels in the biota. For example, the 4. Death of 700,000 Coho fry hatched from eggs crustacean Pontoporeia affinis contained 0.41 produced by Lake Michigan Coho displayed the same mg/i; oldsquaw ducks contained 0.44 mg/l, and characteristics as did the death of fry exposed to le- whitefish contained 0.54 mg/l. Clearly, there is thal DDT levels; fry produced from eggs taken from a concentration of pesticides in the biota over Lake Superior and Oregon Coho did not suffer un- usual losses during development. water or sediment levels. Other organisms 5. Moribund fry from Lake Michigan Coho had that contained hard pesticides include significantly higher DDT levels than surviving fry alewives (3.3 to 4.2 mg/1), whole chubs (4.5 mg/1), from Lake Michigan. whitefish muscle tissue (5.6 mg1l), and gulls (20.8 mg/l in brain, 98.8 mg/l in breast muscle, and 2441 mg/l in body fat). Mortalities of shore 7.5.7.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) birds as a result of the high pesticide levels are well documented in the Lake Michigan area. PCBs are a series of compounds formed by Keith 444 concluded that chlorinated pesticides substituting chlorine atoms for one or more were responsible for fatalities of adult and hydrogen atoms on the biphenyl molecule. juvenile gulls and egg non-viability in the They have low vapor pressures, low water sol- Green Bay area. The buildup of pesticide ubility (maximum solubility is approximately levels in the food chain in the Green Bay area 0.2 mg/l at atomospheric temperatures), high is evident. Examination of pesticide levels in dielectric constants, and are miscible with fish from Lake Erie from 1965 to 1967 by the most organic solvents. Consequently, PCBs Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and Michi- are used as coolant-insulation fluids in trans- gan State University (International Joint formers; ballasts for fluorescent fixtures; Commission4O8) (Table 4-38) support the con- plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride films and cept of biological magnification. The Ontario wire coatings; additives to high temperature Water Resources Commission (OWRC) (Inter- oils, hydraulic fluids, and lubricants; additives national Joint Commission 4011) analyses of fish to epoxy paints; protective coatings for wood, from Lake Erie and Lake Ontario are similar metal, and concrete; additives in carbonless to those in Table 4-38 and show significant reproducing paper; and for impregnation of concentration of pesticides in fish. The OWRC fiber insulation in wiring (Gustafson 3011). data are of special interest because they show, PCBs were first discovered in the environ- to a limited degree, in which tissues DDE is ment in Sweden in 1966 and in the United concentrated. Mean DDE concentrations in States in 1967. They are widespread and are Lake Erie fish ranged from 0.03 mg/kg in the known to occur in the food chain, water, and ovaries of a yellow perch from the western sediment. Like the hard pesticides, PCBs are basin to 4.70 mg/kg in the ovaries of a yellow persistent and are subject to biological mag- perch from the eastern basin. In most cases nification. They are toxic if taken in sufficient DDE was 3 to 10 times as concentrated in the doses and chronic toxicity can occur after ac- gonads as compared to muscle tissue. Lake cumulation over a period of time. Acute toxic- Erie fish generally contained less than 1 ity is approximately the same as with other mg/kg DDE. Similar data were taken by the chlorinated aromatic compounds and the de- OWRC in Lake Ontario where DDE levels gree to which organisms are affected varies. usually ran less than 2 mg/kg. Maximum and Gustafson 318 (1970) found that acute PCB tox- 196 Appendix 4 icity is a minor problem. PCBs are only slightly toxic to fish, while certain aquatic inverte- brates are somewhat more sensitive (shellfish, oysters, and shrimp) or insensitive (insects). Chronic toxicity is a problem, however. By It biological magnification and retention in the food chain, PCBs can reach fatal or debilitat- ing levels in most consumer organisms. In this respect, PCBs are similar to DDT. . . . . . . . . . . Unlike DDT, PCBs have only recently been 1101111", IN 11 @.V found worldwide at dangerous levels. This is . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: primarily because they are not intentionally ... ..... applied in large quantities over wide areas like 4VOW DDT. PCB s occur in industrial wastes, and are accidentally introduced to streams and lakes in small quantities. Although remote areas are not subject to PCB loading, wind and water transport have made PCBs nearly ubiquitous. PCBs have been identified in the Great Lakes (Gustafson 308). However, lack of data precludes evaluation of the extent of PCB loading and potential danger to the ecosystem. 4 - Immediate action should be taken to deter- mine the PCB content of the Great Lakes sediment, water, and biota; toxicities to the LEG E. G Uo/I biota; and sources of PCBs. 7.5.7.3 Phenol and Phenolic Compounds 3-4 Phenols and associated compounds can occur as natural or cultural imputs in the FIGURE 4-184 Phenol Distribution near Mil- Great Lakes system. Phenols are hydroxy de- waukee Harbor, Wisconsin rivatives of benzene, produced naturally in Data from Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968c minor quantities by algae, but are introduced into the system primarily as industrial waste and a generally detrimental effect on the products from oil refineries, coke plants, plas- chemical system (Federal Water Pollution tics plants, and some other chemical plants, Control Administration 831). Phenols have several deleterious effects on The mean phenol concentration in inshore water quality. Concentrations of 0.001 to 0.1 Lake Michigan in 1962-63 was 2 gg/1 (range mg/l impart an unpleasant odor and taste to 0-32 1jg1l) (Federal Water Pollution Control water that is difficult to eliminate by standard Administration 1135). Mean concentration in water treatment. Phenols and phenolic com- southern Green Bay reached 21 /_tg/1 and in pounds impart odors and tastes to fish flesh at northern Green Bay phenols were not detect- concentrations as low as 0.001 mg/l (Federal able during June-July, 1963. Phenol determi- Water Pollution Control Administration 832), nations in the other lakes are restricted to and may cause extensive internal damage to harbor areas. fish subjected to these low concentrations (Mitrovic et al.549 ). They are toxic at concen- trations of 0.1 to 10 mg/l. 7.5.7.4 Detergents Phenol retention in the Great Lakes pre- sents little problem because phenols are Detergents have become extremely impor- biodegradable and degrade rapidly away from tant as water pollutants because of their wide the source (Figure 4-184). However, biodegra- usage. As mentioned in the subsection on dation results in nuisance algae and slime phosphates, detergents often contain phos- growths (Federal Water Pollution Control phatic compounds that serve as nutrients in Administration 831), high oxygen demands, the aquatic ecosystem. They can cause un- I Chemical Characteristics 197 TABLE 4-39 Effect of Alkyl-aryl Suffonate, including ABS, on Aquatic Organisms Organisms Concentrationi Time Effect Trout 5.0 26 to 30 hours Death 3.7 24 hours TLm 5.0 --- Gill pathology Bluegills 4.2 24 hours TLm 3.7 48 hours TLm 0.86 --- Safe 16.0 30 days TLm 5.6 90 days Gill damage 17.0 96 hours TLm Fathead minnow 2.3 --- Reduced spawning Fathead minnow fry 13.0 96 hours TL, 11.3 96 hours TL, 3.1 7 days TLm Pumpkinseed sunfish 9.8 3 months Gill damage Salmon 5.6 3 days Mortality Yellow bullheads 1.0 10 days Histopathology Emerald shiner 7.4 96 hours TLm Bluntnose minnow 7.7 96 hours TI, Stoneroller 8.9 96 hours TLjn Silver jaw 9.2 96 hours TLm Rosefin 9.5 96 hours TLm Common shiner 17.0 96 hours TLm Carp 18.0 96 hours TLm Black bullhead 22.0 96 hours TLm "Fish" 6.5 --- Minimum lethality Trout sperm 10.0 Damage Daphnia 5.0 96 hours TLm 20.0 24 hours TLm 7.5 96 hours TLm Lirceus fontinalis 10.0 14 days 6.7 percent survival (hard water) Crangonyx setodactylus 10.0 14 days 0 percent survival (hard water) Stenonema ares 8.0 10 days 20 to 33 percent survival 16.0 10 days 0 percent survival Stenonema heterotarsale 8.0 10 days 40 percent survival 16.0 10 days 0 percent survival Isonychia bicoZor 8.0 9 days 0 percent survival Hydmpsychidae (mostly 16.0 12 days 37 to 43 percent survival cheumatopsyche) 32.0 12 days 20 percent survival Orconectes rusticus 16.0 9 days 100 percent survival 32.0 9 days 0 percent survival Goniobasis livenscens 16.0 12 days 40 to 80 percent survival 32.0 12 days 0 percent survival Snail 18.0 96 hours TLm 24.0 96 hours TLm Chlorella 3.6 --- Slight growth reduction Nitzchia linearis 5.8 --- 50 percent reduction in growth Navicula seminulwn 23.0 --- 50 percent growth reduction in soft water 1mg/l SOURCE: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, (1968a) - 198 Append'ix 4 sightly scums and suds that reduce light pen- mg/l to 0.05 mg/1) in the adjacent portions of etration and thus modify the energy budget of Lake Michigan. ABS in Lake Erie in 1963-64 a lake. They are toxic to aquatic organisms if was 0.067 mg/l in the western basin, 0.065 mg1l present in sufficient quantities. in the central basin and 0.065 mg/1 in the east- Alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) has been a ern basin (Federal Water Pollution Control widely used non -biodegradable detergent. Administration833). The samples in Lake Erie Consequently, its toxic effects (Table 4-39) are ranged from 0.01 mg/l to 0.20 mg/l. Since ABS promulgated over wide areas and are persis- detergents have not been used since 1965, tent. Although an extensive literature exists these data should represent maximum values on ABS and its effects on the environment, and the present ABS content in Lake Erie little is known of its behavior in an aquatic should be less. system. For example, water hardness, tem- The transition to biodegradable detergents perature, and pH are known to affect the be- will reduce the toxic effects of detergents. havior of ABS, but the extent of that effect is However, biodegradability does not mean that unknown. AB S in concert with other toxicants the detergent-derived problems in the Great is known to have a synergistic effect of un- Lakes will be obviated. As long as phosphates, known extent. The Federal Water Pollution ammonia, or any other nutrient remains in the Control Administration 1131 has recommended detergent the more critical problems of eut- a limit of one-seventh of the 48 hour TL. for rophication will be present. ABS, with short periods (less than 24 hours) of Phosphates are added to detergents to sof- 1 mg/l allowable. ten water by combining with calcium and In 1965 U.S. detergent manufacturers other ions, to disperse and suspend particulate ceased production of hard detergents using matter, and to augment the cleaning action of the ABS surfactant. The present primary sur- the detergents. Alternatives include nitrilo- factants are linear alkylate sulfonates (W), triacetic acid (NTA), organic polyelectrolytes, and sodium citrate. Although most tests indi- which are biodegradable. LAS compounds are cate.that NTA is benign, Epstein 244 warns two to four times more toxic than ABS (Fed- that under heavy load, low temperature, low eral Water Pollution Control Administra- tion 832) until they become degraded. There is oxygen, and/or low sewage bacteria conditions little information on LAS effects upon the NTA may not completely degrade, and the in- ecosystem. The Federal Water Pollution Con- termediate products in the breakdown to ni- trol Administration 1131 summarized much of trate and nitrite may be toxic. Furthermore, the existing median toxic limit data for LAS on he warns that NTA is a metal-chelating agent, freshwater fish, and recommended that the which means that NTA could complex toxic concentration of LAS should not exceed 0.2 metals from a sewer system or the sediment mg/l or one-seventh of the 48 TL. for a given and cause toxic conditions in the water. This fish population. Dugan 226 found that LAS had may be a particular problem in the Great a synergistic effect when combined with Lakes where known toxic metals (e.g., mer- chlorinated pesticides. Low oxygen levels are cury, copper, zinc) are bound in the sediments. also known to increase the toxicity of LAS NTA and all other substitutes to phosphates (Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- in detergents should be, therefore, carefully tion"31). considered in light of Great Lakes chemistry LAS and ABS surfactants are not normally before use is initiated. separated in water quality studies, but are combined and reported as methylene blue ac- 7.5.7.5 Petroleum tive substances (MBAS), a name derived from the standard test for surfactants (American Crude oil is injurious to the environment in Public Health Association et al.10). several ways. Most oil products are biodegrad- MBAS data in the open lakes are sparse. The able and biodegradation exerts a considerable Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- oxygen demand. When incorporated with sed- tion835 monitored MBAS in the harbors and iment, petroleum products accelerate loss of tributaries of Lake Michigan in 1963-64. oxygen. In fact, the natural occurrence of pet- Traverse Bay was the only embayment exam- roliferous rock has contributed to the eu- ined and none of the open lake was sampled for tropication of Lake Erie since that lake was MBAS. In Traverse Bay MBAS averaged 0.03 formed. The bottom of the lake contains sedi- mg/1 (range 0.01 mg/l to 0.06 mg/1), as compared ment derived in part from a petroliferous with an average MBAS of 0.03 mg/l (range 0.02 shale bedrock (Section 1), the oxidation of Chemical Characteristics 199 which creates an oxygen demand regardless of LANSING SHOALS LI H cultural additions of the system. Most petroleum products are less dense MACKINAW than water and remain at the water surface. CITY Floating oil hinders exchange of gases be- tween the water and atmosphere, and leave t CHAALEVOIX unsightly slicks on the surface. The slicks of oil and oil derivatives foul neustonic organisms and waterfowl. If large quantities of oil are 0 present, mass mortalities result (Hunt393). A Plants may al-so be affected by coating of pe- troleum products, which decreases interaction with the atmosphere. The lighter fractions of petroleum cause po- Number of oil discharge incidents tentially serious problems because of extreme fI'.- "Ifoll. and ships in indicate. Ici.il,-as reported by toxicity, high vapor pressure, and low viscos- the U.S. Coast Guard for 1967. ity. For exarp-ple, gasoline is commonly spilled in lakes and rivers. It is not viscous, so it rapidly spreads into an invisible layer on the SPIAND HAVEN water surface. The high vapor pressure causes ISILWAVIVIt the more vorlatile fractions to enter the atmos- ph-ere leaving a residue of heavier fractions -WISCOTSM and additives, such as the highly toxic tet- ILLINOIS raethyl lead. Neustonic organisms ingest the gasoline products on the surface and the solu- ble fractions are ingested by the entire aquatic biota. CHICAGO 20 _!tl _CH I INDIANA Petroleum products are removed from the "ARY ... -RS aquatic system by oxidation, metabolization, 0;Z E !! S;ATU;. IL.. and sedimentation. Oxidation of the lighter _J . . . . . fractions of crude oil leaves a tarry residue that adheres to surfaces and mars beaches. Brown and Tischer 107 found the microbial FIGURE 4-185 Number and Distribution of breakdown is a significant mechanism for de- Oil Spills in Lake Michigan in 1967 grading petroleum products under aerobic U.S. Coast Guard and Federal Water Pollution Control Admin., 1968b and anaerobic conditions. In Brown the Tisher's experiments oil removal was most rapid under aerobic conditions in the presence significant sources are oil spills from coastal of nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment. Fish installations, tankers, and oil wells. It would were subjected to the soluble byproducts of be impossible to list the spills that occur each the microbial breakdown of petroleum and the year in the Great Lakes. However, an active results suggest that the products are more petroleum industry in the Great Lakes Basin toxic to fish than the original oil. The heavier has led to many spill occurrences, including fractions and oxidized products of petroleum storage tank losses, tanker hold pumping, settle to the bottom and become part of the loading and discharging accidents, and well- sediment. Oil-enriched sediment is unsuitable head losses (Federal Water Pollution Control for a normal benthic biota as it forms a poor Administration ;836 International Joint Com- substrate for larval development, attachment mission 407,408,409). or burrowing of animals, and attachment of Twenty-eight oil spills were reported on rooted plants. The petroleum may have a high Lake Michigan during 1967 (Figure 4-185). BOD that competes with the biota, as well as The Chicago-Gary region is responsible for degrading the substrate. As mentioned in most of these because of the petroleum re- Subsection 7.5.7.1, oil in the sediment is known fineries and heavy industry in the area. En- to partition and concentrate DDT. forcement practiees have reduced the inci- Oils enter the lakes from a variety of dence of such spills. sources. They flow into the lakes from un- A potential source of oil spills is the drilling treated industrial discharge, urban runoff, operations in the open lake. Offshore wells are and fuel and lubricants on vessels. The most currently operating in Ontario waters off 200 Appendix 4 ONTARIO 7.5.7.6 Organic Gases Organic gases are not a serious problem in the open Great Lakes. However, in restricted LAKE E .1 areas, such as harbors, oxidation of organic debris may lead to the evolution of flammable, toxic, noxious gases such as methane and 0.10 acetylene. These gases have become local problems in the Cuyahoga River, Indiana Harbor, and other confined areas. Cessation of influx of oxidizable organics will reduce the problem of organic gas evolution. FIGURE 4-186 Acreage Leased in Lake Erie 7.5.7.7 Organic Acids for Oil and Gas Drilling Modified from International Joint Commission, 1969b Organic acids are a normal result of decay in the woods and swamps of the Great Lakes Ba- Lake Erie. By 1968 there were more than 250 sin. The most often used classification of the producing gas wells but no oil wells in these organic acids includes humic acid (alkali- waters. Very few wells have been drilled on the soluble, acid-insoluble fraction of humus), ful- United States side of Lake Erie, and none are vie acid (alkali -soluble, acid-soluble humus currently producing. Exploration in the U.S. is fraction), hymatomelanic acid (alcohol-soluble currently prohibited. Figure 4-186 shows the humic acid fraction), and humin (alkali insolu- leased acreage in Lake Erie for oil and gas ble fraction) (Stevenson and Butler 7611 ). Little exploration (International Joint Commis- is known about the structure and importance sion"08). Since there is little oil present, well- of these natural organic acids (Wershaw et head oil spills appear to present little hazard. al.883). Humic substances are highly variable Future oil exploration could change the situa- in composition and molecular weight. Under tion. normal conditions humic and fulvic acids do Adequate legislation exists to enable en- not present a problem in the Great Lakes. forcement of the laws against oil spillage. However, upland lakes may be severely af- However, detection devices and methods are fected by acid inputs from adjacent swamps inadequate. Chemical tracers may be a solu- and bogs. tion to the problem of detecting unobserved oil Under conditions of loading of pollutants, spills and identifying the source of the pollu- such as pesticides, phosphates, and nitrates, tion. Johnson et al .436 related various analyti- humic and fulvic acids may have a synergistic cal methods in an effort to identify the source or retarding effect on those pollutants. Humic of one oil slick on southern Lake Michigan. and fulvic acids are known to serve as buffers, Their experiments indicate the difficulty en- ion exchangers, surfactants, sorbents, and countered in oil spill detection and enforce- chelating agents (Konova465). ment. The International Joint Commission"" Wershaw et al .882 showed that presence of has outlined the current structural and in- sodium humate solubilizes DDT and that stitutional methods for control of oil spills in humic acid strongly sorbs 2, 4, 5-T. Lange 484 the Great Lakes. showed that fulvic acid can stimulate growth A special problem concerning oil deriva- of blue-green algae by chelating iron. Recently tives, in addition to other pollutants, is the is has been shown that organic acids are im- disposal of dredged spoil from industrialized portant agents in the complexing of heavy harbors and rivers. Until 1969 open lake dis- metals (e.g., mercury, copper) and that the posal was a common practice. The Army Corps presence of organic acids may account for the of Engineers, Buffalo District8l' in conjunc- mobilization of these metals as either solid or tion with the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, studied the effects of open soluble complexes, and may provide direct lake spoil disposal on water and bottom qual- pathways for toxic materials to enter the food ity. Pursuant to their findings, alternative chain (Cline et al.; 112 Cline 151). disposal methods (e.g., disposal on land, dis- Other organic acids that have been iden- posal in diked areas) have been chosen where tified from either natural or cultural sources needed to preserve lake quality. include mono-carboxylic acids (e.g., formic, Chemical Characteristics 201 acetic, stearic, lactic, acrylic), dicarboxylic TABLE 4-40 Dissolved and Particulate Or- acids (e.g., oxalic, malonic, succinic), and urea. ganic Matter in Great Lakes Water (mg/1) Little is known of the toxicities of these con- Dissolved Particulate stituents of their impact on the aquatic envi- Mean Range Mean Range ronment. Control of the naturally occurring organic 0-25 m depth Lake Superior 2.62 2.22-2.98 0.42 0.28-0-50 acids is impractical. Since their only apparent Lake Huron 2.71 2.52-2.91 0.71 0.61-1.00 ill effects are in conjunction with known pollu- Lake Michigan 4.91 3.24-5.81 1.12 1.05-1.18 tants, control of those pollutants appears to be Lake Erie --- 15.82-6.01 --- 20.41-3.80 a logical solution. The ecological impact of Lake Ontario 6.13 5.85-6.53 1.41 1.09-1.68 acids from industrial, agricultural, and munic- >25 m depth ipal wastes should be studied to determine if Lake Superior 2.25 1.77-2.65 0.30 0.20-0.40 Lake Huron 2.72 2.41-2.83 0.98 0.71-1.31 elimination of these acids is necessary. Lake Michigan 4.61 4.51-4-77 1.15 0.97-1.33 Lake Erie --- 2 ---2 Lake Ontario ___2 ---2 7.5.7.8 Cyanide Insufficient sample set 2Not determined Cy@nides (CN-) are common industrial SOURCE: Robertson and Powers, (1967). chemicals. They have been studied exten- sively in order to establish water quality range of dissolved organic matter in the Great standards (Table 4-30). However, little is ac- Lakes are shown in Table 4-40. As dissolved tually known of the impact of cyanides on the organic matter is a measure of productivity aquatic biota (Federal Water Pollution Con- and organic chemical loading, the sequence of 'trol Administration 1131). Doudoroff et al .223 increasing organic matter from Lake Superior showed that the complexes of cyanide that to Lake Ontario reflects the accelerated aging were most toxic to fish are HCN and a few and increased waste loading in the lower heavy metal (e.g., Ag) cyanide complexes. Be- lakes. According to Robertson and Powers, the cause cyanic acid (HCN) is an important toxi- higher concentration in shallow water results cant, the availability of hydrogen ions (pH) is from metabolic activity in the photic zone. a controlling factor in cyanide toxicity. Particulate organic matter in the sediment Cyanides are also known to be toxic to diatoms and water column is a primary source of natu- (Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- ral dissolved organic carbon. According to tion831). Robertson and PowerS1666 summarization of the distribution of particulate organic matter in the Great Lakes (Table 4-40), particulate 7.5.7.9 Organic Carbon matter shows essentially the same trends as dissolved organic matter in the water col- Organic carbon is an indicator of the amount umn. Determination of organic carbon and of carbon present in a water mass and includes chlorophyll in sediment is somewhat more re- the carbon compounds produced by biotic vealing than in the water column because production and introduced by man. There are sources of organic contribution can often be several ways of determining organic carbon, identified. Organic carbon in the sediment is and they vary in efficiency. The water quality closely correlated with depth and sediment standards (Table 4-30) are based on carbon texture (Powers and Robertson627) (Figure chloroform extract (CCE). CCE does not give 4-187). Deeper water contains finer textured the total organic carbon concentration, as it is sediment and more organic carbon. Con- insensitive to certain compounds, such as sequently, mean organic carbon determina- synthetic detergents. More sensitive tech- tions for a region are erroneous unless niques are used to monitor total organic car- weighted by areal extent, depth, and texture. bon for prod ucti vity-po Ilution load studies. Organic carbon in Lake Ontario sediment The use of organic carbon as a measure of pro- ranges from 0.5 percent nearshore to 4.0 per- ductivity is discussed in Section 8. cent offshore (Lewis and McNeeley 497). Kick 453 Very few studies have been concerned with and Kemp and Lewis 449 found essentially the organic carbon in the water or sediment of the same concentrations in Lake Erie, and Powers Great Lakes. Robertson and PowerS666 sum- and Robertson627 found ranges from 0.05 per- marized the organic matter dissolved in the cent inshore to 3.5 percent offshore in Lakes water column of all five lakes, based on a rela- Michigan and Huron (Figure 4-187). Organic tively few, shallow samples. The mean and content does not increase with depth in Lake 202 Appendix 4 Lakes Basin. Bedrock and overlying sediment 5- a SUPER I OR HURON in the Great Lakes Region, outside of the 6.4- 1- MICHIGANI Canadian Shield, are composed of high propor- T o a tions of the mineral calcite (CaC03) and dolo- 6 - a a U 3 - mite (Ca, Mg(C03)2) (Section 1). Dissolution of calcite and dolomite occurs through interac- o o tion with acid solutions, such as rainwater, by 2- o reactions such as: Z W1 - U a C02 + H20 = H2CO3 (34) a: - o W H2CO3 + CaC03 = Ca++ + 21ICO@i (35) 0- " ' . I . I I I . . I 40 8-0 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 DEPTH,METERS 2H2CO3 + Ca,Mg(C03)2 = Ca++ + (36) Mg++ + 4HCO@i FIGURE 4-187 Distribution of Sedimentary Organic Carbon Versus Depth in Lakes Super- Other sources of Ca +2 and Mg+2 in the Great ior, Michigan and Huron Lakes Basin are chemical weathering of From Powers and Robertson, 1967 feldspars and ferromagnesian silicate miner- als in, or derived from, the igneous and Superior because of lower productivity. metamorphic rocks of the Canadian Shield, Whereas organic carbon cannot be attributed and ground-water dissolution of gypsum and to a particular source material, chlorophyll anhydrite in the strata of the Michigan struc- can be attributed to primary production. tural basin. The latter source is of signif- Kemp and LewiS449 found that total chlo- icantly less regional importance than dissolu- rophyll concentration in Lake Erie ranged tion of minerals on the surface. from 0 ppm to 29.3 ppm (dry weight) and in Hardness, normally a measure of the Lake Ontario ranged from 0.5 to 21.7 ppm. On amount of calcium and magnesium present in the same basis pheophytin (a chlorophyll deg- water, affects the wetting capabilities of soap radation product) ranged from 0.7 ppm to 120.2 or detergent solutions by combining with the ppm in Lake Erie and 16.0 ppm to 191.5 ppm in soap to form a less soluble compound. If a Lake Ontario. Based on an estimated 60,000 calcium-magnesium-rich solution is concen- ppm chlorophyll and pheophytin in living or- trated by evaporation of water, the solubility ganic matter (phytoplankton) and a range of product of calcite may be exceeded and a cal- from 680 ppm to 4030 ppm chlorophyll and cium carbonate scale that is deleterious to pheophytin in organic sediment, Kemp and cooling systems and boilers will form. Water Lewis estimated a minimum of 93 percent deg- hardness has been related to plant growth, radation in lake sediment. They also con- particularly in upland lakes. In lakes where cluded from other evidence that chlorophylls the water is relatively soft there is a likelihood are essentially degraded by the time they that phytoplankton will be the major as- reach the lake bottom and pheophytins are 93 similator of nutrients, while in hard water percent to 100 percent decomposed before dep- filamentous algae and higher plants will con- osition. Clearly, degradation of organic matter sume nutrients and become a problem (Hooper is a rapid process and can contribute many et al .375). dissolved organic constitutents to the lakes. Calcite and dolomite form an important buf- fering system in the Great Lakes. By means of the dissolution reactions and the carbonate 7.5.8 Calcium and Magnesium reaction, acid discharge into the lakes is neu- tralized, C02 is stabilized, and pH is fixed Calcium and magnesium are important in (Kramer472). Under certain conditions of tem- the Great Lakes because of their effect on perature, C02 pressure, and calcium and mag- water hardness, scale formation, and the car- nesium concentration, saturation with re- bonate cycle. H2CO3, HCO@i, and Co@j2 (indi- spect to calcite and dolomite is approached in cators of alkalinity), and Ca+' and Mg12 arethe the Great Lakes (Figures 4-188 and 4-189). most abundant chemical constituents in Saturation with respect to the carbonate min- Great Lakes water (Table 4-32), representing erals is especially prevalent in the lower lakes 70 percent of the total ionic strength in Lakes (Figure 4-155) where calcium and magnesium Erie and Ontario and 90 percent in Lake Supe- concentrations are compounded by inflow rior (Kramer472). Calcium and magnesium are from upper lakes and from tributaries in ter- widespread and readily available in the Great ranes characterized by calcite and dolomite. Chemical Characteristic8 203 19.5 ............... ........... .......... LAKE SUPERIOR 66-3-01 ,,,LAKE SUPERIOR 19 - .......... ..... 64 _S_Ot .......................................... ......... .. ,,,,LAKE ERIE 68-1-08 Cr oa AKE ERIE 0 41111-1-11 LAKE HURON 6.5 -2-01 66 -7 KE ERIE LAKE ONTARIO 68-0-19 .0 0. It A.A LAKE ERIE a 7 LAKE HURON LAKE ONTARIO,-, 16 - 68-0-19 T.5 13.50 1 LO 210V 3!0 TEMPERATURE 'C FIGURE 4-189 Ion Product Diagram for Dolomite as a Function of Temperature in the T L 0 to 20 30 Great Lakes. Areas outlined by dashed lines bound lake water analyses; solid line represents TEMPERATURE C solubility of dolomite (upper) and aragonite FIGURE 4-188 Ion Product Diagram for Cal- (lower). From Weiler and Cha@la, 1969 cite as a Function of Temperature in the Great Lakes. Areas outlined by dashed lines bound complexed by natural organic acids. These lake water analyses; solid lines represent solu- calcium complexes may account for the appar- bility of calcite (upper) and aragonite (lower). ent saturation and supersaturation with re- From Weiler and Chawla, 1969 spect to calcite and hydroxyapatite in regions Other buffering mechanisms that can re- where these minerals do not appear to be form- move or contribute calcium and magnesium to ing. the lakes are reactions with phosphates, ion The patterns of calcium and magnesium exchange with clays, metabolic activity, and loading in the Great Lakes reflect the contrast complexing with organic acids. Calcium may in bedrock lithology and land use. Figure 4-190 combine with phosphate (Subsection 7.5.5) to indicates that Lakes Superior, Huron, and form the mineral hydroxyapatite, according to Michigan are essentially at steady-state con- the reaction ditions, where inflow of calcium equals out- Ca +2 + 6pO4-3 + 20H- Ca (P04)6(OH)2 (37) flow. A steady-state concentration in these lakes indicates that cultural inputs are neg- Calcium and magnesium are the most common ligible, whereas Lakes Erie and Ontario show divalent cations found in exchange positions increases in loads in the last sixty years (which on clay (Gri M 304). In the limited regions of the correspond to the increase of agricultural ac- Great Lakes where clays with high exchange tivity in the two lake basins). High calcium capacities are found, ion exchange may be an concentrations occur in tributaries that drain important process for removing calcium and agricultural areas, and low concentrations magnesium. Organisms use small amounts of occur in the tributaries in undeveloped basins. calcium in production of hard parts, such as Steepness of the chemical gradients away shells, carapaces, and bones; and plants use from the river mouths is governed by the rate magnesium in chlorophyll production. of calcium-magnesium loading, diffusion Hoffman and Ehrlich 365,366 have shown that rates, and the assimilative capacity of the divalent cations, particularly calcium, can be lake. Lake Superior has a high assimilative 204 Appendix 4 % 7.5.9 Sulfur System ONTARIO 4 1, ERIE. 30 MICHIGAN % The many organic and inorganic sulfur compounds in a lake system can exist in either SUPERIOR - - - - - - an oxidized or reduced form, depending on the MICHIGAN - - - - - - - - HURON availability of oxygen and the Eh of the sys- tem or on organisms that govern the state of 20 - ERIE 0ONTARIO the sulfur compounds by metabolic activity. In SUPERIOR an oxidizing environment most of the inor- ganic sulfur occurs as sulfate ions (So-,2). In anaerobic environments hydrogen sulfide (112S) is the prevalent inorganic sulfur com- pound. Most organic sulfur is combined as pro- 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1%0 1970 YEAR teins or amino acids. Other sulfur compounds that are locally important, especially near FIGURE4-190 Historical Calcium Concentra- sources of cultural input, are sulfuric acid tion Trends (mg/1) in the Great Lakes. Solid lines (H2SO4) and its dissociation products, sulfites represent Beeton's suggested trends; dashed (SO3-2) , and sulfonates (complex hydrocarbons lines are after Weiler and Chawla. with HSO-3 radicals derived from detergents). From Beeton, 1965; Kramer, 1964; Weiler and Chawla, 1969 Sulfur compounds enter the lakes from sev- eral sources: atmospheric precipitation; ground water and surface runoff from regions that have sulfur-containing minerals in bed- capacity because of its volume and a low cal- rock or soil; industrial wastes, including those cium concentration (Figure 4-191) because from oil refineries, tanneries, paper and pulp loading from the undeveloped Canadian mills, plastics plants, and other chemical Shield is minimal. In contrast, Lake Erie7 has plants; and domestic sewage. little assimilative capacity and is in an area of The three most detrimental sulfur com- high calcium loading (Figure 4-192). Con- pounds in industrial and domestic wastes are sequently, input into Lake Superior appears H2S, S032 , and sulfonated detergents. Hydro- as restricted areas of high concentration, and gen sulfide is very soluble in water and im- in Lake Erie input appears as broad regions of parts the familiar "rotten egg" odor commonly high concentration. associated with polluted water and with KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES L 'i 12.0 1@0 IL5 0 N. .0 11.5 IV @20 120. JM@_ tzta@ FIGURE 4-191 Representative Distribution of Calcium (mg/1) in Lake Superior Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/19-8/8168 and 7/27-817/69 Chemical Characteristics 205 83, 82' 81* 80* 79* L A K E L A K E o N r A R 1 0 H U R 0 N H.-ilto. Port Wol Is 43*- Part Huron Sarnia 43' Port Maitland Port Colbo n. SON Port St..I.y Port Dunkirk LAKE ST CLAIR 35 Rond*a Hbr C@ Q King-ill* Eris 42' '30. airport I.do 3 (@ lov.l.nd Lor.i@ Sandusky KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES 41' 41' 8V 82* 81, 80* 79' FIGURE 4-192 Representative Distribution of Calcium (mg/1) in Lake Erie Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 9/8-9/20/65 aerobic environment causes high BOD and ..........I ............. 04-11, COD levels that are also destructive to the C I.-, P, ........... biota. Sulfites are usually associated with ........... paper and pulp mills. They are equally as toxic Ch.-.1 -.1h.- P-- E.-Ii- as H2S and cause high oxygen demands. Sul A-b., fonated detergents are deterimental because i(thyd,il C the detergents persist and are found where A-1- S;' 1:::jmii the other problem sulfur compounds do not. SON, B.".- Sulfur is a minor nutrient for organic produc- H 5 tion and may be involved in the growth of nui- sance algae in polluted systems. Ch P-t. (F.S2) A- The sulfur cycle (Figure 4-193) is propa- gated by two mechanisms that work in con- cert. In environments that are depleted in FIGURE 4-193 Simplified Sulfur Cycle in a oxygen by BOD and COD from heterotrophic Lake bacteria and chemical oxidation, H2Sis formed by bacterial reduction of oxidized sulfur com- ounds in the water springs containing significant 112S. Hydrogen p column and organic sedi- sulfide is not only disagreeable in taste and ment. Where oxygen is abundant, reduced odor but is known to be as toxic as hydrogen forms of sulfur are oxidized by bacteria. Be- cyanide and several times as toxic as carbon cause bacteria that oxidize reduced sulfur monoxide to many taxa. Concentrations of 1.0 compounds are ubiquitous, any influx of re- mg/l to 25.0 mg/l of 112S are lethal to many fish duced sulfur (e.g., 112S, So 3 2) creates a high in a period of 1 to 3 days (Federal Water Pollu- BOD. Unless anaerobic conditions exist, ffiS tion Control Administration 11311). 112S in an will not persist, but will be rapidly oxidized. 112S 206 Appendix 4 40 SUPERIOR MICHIGAN 30 - HURON ONTARIO V6 ERIE 0 ERIE 20 - ONTARIO 10 - ICHIGAN HURON SUPERIOR 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 YEAR FIGURE 4-194 Changes in the Sulphate Con- centration (mg/1) in the Great Lakes. Solid lines represent Beeton's suggested trends; dashed lines represent Weiler and Chawla's suggested trends. From Beeton, 1965; Kramer, 1964; and Weiler and Chawla, 1969 0 is a problem, however, in some harbors and in 0 portions of Lake Erie where DO is occasionally depleted. In silt-and clay-rich sediment the permeability often is low enough to maintain 15 local reducing conditions in the vicinity of de- composing organic debris, even though the C. overlying water mass is aerobic. Strata that contain gypsum, anhydrite, py- rite, and organic compounds are included in Figure 4-193 because they may represent lo- f- cally impoitant sources of sulfur compounds KILOMETERS in the Great Lakes. Gypsum and anhydrite are STATU;E MIL"ES mined from Silurian and Devonian strata in the Michigan structural basin so losses to the FIGURE 4-195 Representative Distribution lakes from the niines may be of local impor- of Sulfate (mg/1) in Lake Michigan Surface tance. All of the lakes, except Lake Superior, Water lie in topographic basins containing shale. The Data from Beeton and Moffett, 1964 shale is highly organic, so there is a natural source of BOD sulfur compounds in the lake resent the influence of industrial waste dis- bottoms. charge. For example, Green Bay has a sulfate Since sulfur is a minor nutrient and is stored concentration ranging from 9.5 mg/l to 26 mg/l in proteins, trapped in sediment as I-hS, and and an average concentration of 19 mg/l, cycled through the food chain by bacteria, the which is well above the Lake Michigan aver- natural storage capacity of a large lake system age. Traverse Bay has an average concentra- for sulfur is enormous. However, the net as- tion of 18 mg/1 and a range of 12 mg/l to 22 mg/l similative capacity of the Great Lakes system (Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- in recent years has been insufficient to buffer tion1135). Similarly Saginaw Bay reflects high out all of the sulfate added to the system, and loadings (Beeton et al.59). The chemical gra- sulfate concentrations are rising (Figure dients out of the embayments are distinct, in- ONTARIO HURON N 4-194). dicating that loading is greater than flushing The areal distribution of sulfate in the lakes capacity. (Figures 4-195 through 197) is similar to that of calcium. Regions of high sulfate concentra- tions nearshore have distinct gradients into 7.5.10 Silica System open lake water. Enriched sulfate in several of the Great Lakes embayments appears to rep- Silica is important in the Great Lakes for Chemical Characteristics 207 silicate mineral can be predicted by the follow- KILOMETERS ing: STATUTE MILES C02 + H20 + silicate mineral = dissolved (38) ions + degraded silicate minerals + HCO-,, 25@ -L The products and reactants of some of the pos- 0011V sible weathering reactions in the Great Lakes 0 are listed in Table 4-41. Many of the most 15 common cations, sedimentary minerals, and 10 bicarbonates are released in the reactions. The silicate reactions, like other inorganic reactions, are equilibrium relationships. 1 -15 Therefore, the rate of reaction and the path that the reaction takes are governed by the residence time of water in the vicinity of a 6 mineral, the composition and crystal struc- ture of the mineral, temperature, and water '001.1 composition. Most of the reactions that produce the min- erals commonly found in sediments occur in a stepwise fashion. For example orthoclase (Ta- ble 4-41) is thermodynamically unstable in Great Lakes water. Orthoclase will slowly react to form muscovite, potassium, silica (H4SiO4), and bicarbonate. If circulation is -7 poor, the reaction cannot proceed past the orthoclase-muscovite phase until all of the or- thoclase is consumed. If circulation is possible, then both orthoclase and muscovite are metastable and the next step in the reaction series, the formation of kaolinite (see Table FIGURE 4-196 Representative Distribution 4-41) with the release of potassium, silica, and of Sulfate (mg/1) in Lake Huron Surface Water bicarbonate may occur. A convenient manner Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/Z--8117166 for representing the silicate reactions is by the activity diagram (Garrels and Christ ;283 Helgeson ;337 Helgeson, Garrels, and Macken- three reasons: it is a nutrient that is consumed zie ; 33"Helgeson, Brown, and Leeper 338) . In ac- by diatoms for construction of hard parts, it is tivity diagrams the phase boundaries in an a good index of chemical weathering in ter- aqueous system are related to concentrations ranes where silicate rocks abound, and it may of the principal components that are dissolved react with other constituents to form silicate in the water at a specified temperature. minerals in lake sediment. Quartz, water, and certain other constituents Silica has been shown to be a significant nu- are presumed to be in excess and aluminum is trient in stimulating the productivity of phy- assumed to be conserved. Figure 4-198 shows toplankton in experiments using Lake Michi- the phase boundaries and lake water concen- gan water (Schelske and Stoermer 717). In_ tration fields for the activity ratios of potas- creased carbon fixation and increased diatom sium to hydrogen and sodium to hydrogen ver- counts result when small quantities Of Si02 sus silica (Kramer 470). Lake water is gen- are added to lake water, even in the absence of erally saturated with respect to gibbsite in the other nutrient additives. The abundance of winter and kaolinite in the summer, and sedi- diatoms (Section 8) and frequency of diatom ment interstitial water is saturated with re- blooms suggests that they act as significant spect to kaolinite. Consequently, those silicate buffers in removing silica from lake water. minerals that are unstable with respect to The inorganic reactions involving silicate kaolinite in Great Lakes waters will tend to minerals are known to serve as sources and react with the water to produce kaolinite ions. possible sinks of silica and cations such as Nal, The destruction of metastable silicates may K+, Ca +2' Mg+2 , and Al +3 . The products and not occur in either lake or interstitial water reactants in weathering or precipitation of a because reaction kinetics are too slow, organic 208 Appendix 4 83, so* 79* L A K E L A K E o N r A R 1 0 N U _R0 N Pori W.11. 43'- 43' Part Huron sarnig Port M.itI..d Pori Colborn 25 Part St..Iy Part B Dunkirk LAKE sr CLA Detroit 4: Rand- Hb, Ki.9-ille Tb Eri. 42* 41' Aughtabl. a itirport TaWa 1?0 V C7 I.-Itind Lor S.nd..ky KILOMETERS go STATUTE MILES a 25 to 41* 83* 82' 81' 80, 79* FIGURE 4-197 Weighted Average Distribution of Sulfate (mg/1) in Lake Erie Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 5/25-6/14/67 coatings may protect the mineral (Chave 1;39 stabilities of silicate minerals in Lakes Onap- or precipitation of a thin shell of the stable ing (an Ontario lake in granitic terrane), Hu- mineral may protect the metastable mineral ron, and Erie. He found that in Lake Onaping from further reactions (Upchurch8011). the stable minerals are kaolinite, orthoclase, The stable silicate minerals in Great Lakes albite, and illite. For Lake Huron, he found the waters are primarily the clay materials, kaoli- stable silicate minerals to be Na- and Ca- nite, muscovite (illite), and montmorillonite montmorillonite, albite, chlorite, and amor- (Section 7). Many clay minerals have the phous silica; and in Lake Erie he found the property of being able to sorb or desorb or- stable silicate minerals to be muscovite, or- g-anic and inorganic ions either by ion ex- thoclase, Ca-montmorillonite, and kaolinite. change through stoichiometric reactions or by Calcium from dissolution of carbonate miner- simple sorption (Gri M 304). Common cations als in the drainage basins and lake sediment is that can be retained by clay minerals are Ca", incorporated in the sediment minerals of M +2 +4 g , H+, K+, NH , and Na+. Common anions Lakes Huron and Erie, this producing the cal- are So 42, Cl-, PO 43, and N03. The relative ease cium clay minerals. From the above data with which the clay mineral adsorbs or de- Kramer concluded that the silicate system is sorbs an ion depends on the exchange capac- an active buffering mechanism in the Great ity, ions present at the ion exchange sites, ions Lakes. present in the water, and temperature. Clay Because silica is derived primarily by minerals also serve as ion-exchange sites for weathering of silicate minerals in the Great heavy metals. Ion exchange between hydro- Lakes watersheds, the major sources are ag- gen and potassium ions occurs in clays in Lake ricultural and mining regions where rela- Erie (Kramer 4611). Other exchange reactions tively unweathered materials are continually are discussed in Subsections 7.5.5 and 7.5.8. exposed and erosion is widespread. In Lake Kramer 471 conducted a study of the Superior (Figure 4-199) silica is derived from Chemical Characteristics 209 TABLE 4-41 Major Silicate Mineral Weathering Products Reactant (with H20 and C02) Products Actinolite - Chlorite, Ca2(Mg,Fe)S S18O22(OH)2 Ca+2' Mg+2, . Fe +2,+3, H4SiO4, HC03_ Albite - NaAlS13O8 Sodium Montmorillonite, Na+ , HCOT, H4SiO4 Anorthite - CaAl2Si2O8 Calcium Montmorillonite, Ca+2, HC03-1 H4SiO4 Augite - Chlorite, (Ca, Mg, Fe, Al)2(Sil Al)206 Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe +29 +3 , Al +3 , HC03 H4SiO4 Biotite - Kaolinite, +2-+3 K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3OlO(OH)2 K+' Mg+2, Fe H4SiO4, HC03 Chlorite - Montmorillonite, (Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe)2Si3O10(OH)8 Mg+2, Fe+2,.+3, H4SiO4, HC03 Gibbsite Al(OH)3 A1+3, HC03_ Kaolinite A12Si2O5(OH)4 Gibbsite, H4SiO4, HC03 Montmorillonite - Kaolinite (Na,Ca)(tl2.33Si3.67O10)(OH)2 Na+, Ca-@2, H4SiO4, HC03_ Muscovite KA13Si3O10(OH)2 Kaolinite, K+, H4SiO4, HCO3_ Orthoclase KAlS13O8 Muscovite, k+, H4SiO4, HCO3_ Quartz - Si02 H4SiO4 mining areas such as the Keweenaw Penin- (4) Large quantities of iron amd man- sula, Michipicoten Bay, and the Minnesota ganese are toxic to plants and animals. shore. From the cross section it appears that (5) High concentrations of iron and man- silica is released from the sediment to the ganese impart taste and color to water. water column by dissolution of metastable (6) Manganese in the form of ferroman- silicate minerals. In Lake Huron (Figure ganese nodules may be present in mineable 4-200) the influence of influx of high silica quantities in some lakes. water from Lake Superior and from the ag- Iron and manganese in minor amounts are ricultural and mining areas in the Saginaw widespread in the Great Lakes Basin. Both Bay drainage basin is obvious. elements occur in reduced (Fe+2, Mn+3) and oxidized (Fe+3, Mn+4) forms in the Great Lakes. The transitions in oxidation states are revers- 7.5.11 Iron and Manganese ible and may occur inorganically or organi- cally. Iron and manganese compounds are impor- Iron and manganese are derived from tant in the Great Lakes for the following rea- weathering of ferromagnesian silicate and sons: oxide minerals in igneous and metamorphic (1) Their sensitivity to chemical changes terranes (Subsection 7.5.10), and from pyrite, and reduction-oxidation reactions makes manganese, oxides, and iron-containing car- them buffers, in pH, Eh, and oxygen systems. bonate rocks in sedimentary terranes. The (2) Iron compounds serve as sites of nutri- rocks of the Canadian Shield contain abun- ent removal and/or release. dant mineral sources of iron and manganese, (3) Small quantities of iron and manganese including some, such as the iron ranges of are micronutrients required for plant and Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, that animal growth. may cause local, unnatural influx into the 210 Appendix 4 10- 10 lakes. Ground water has also been suggested as an important source of iron and manganese KF AB in the Basin (Rossmann and Callender682). 8 - KM 8 Oxygen availability and Eh govern the oxi- dation state of both iron and manganese M (Hutchinson ;402 Ruttner ;693 Garrels and + 47' S ChriSt2113). For example, in deoxygenated X 6 a; 6 water Fe+3 is reduced to Fe+2, which combines Z_ + W 0 Q with HCO5 by the reaction _C' 4) 11@' Fe+2 + 2HCOif = Fe(HC03)2 (39) 4 4 The ferrous bicarbonate is a soluble species CSR that commonly occurs in the hypolimnion G K when deoxygenation and abundant C02 pro- 2 2 G K duction coincide. If a lake is well mixed or oxy- gen demand is insufficent to drive the hypolimnion oxygen content to zero, ferrous bicarbonate and other ferrous iron species are -5 -4 -3 -2 -5 -4 -3 -2 rapidly oxidized to the ferric state by reactions log 10 (H 0104) log io NS104) such as 4Fe(HC03)2 + 2H20 + 02 (40) FIGURE 4-198 Activity Diagrams Showing 4Fe (OH)2 + 8CO2 Stability Fields of Great Lakes Water in Contact with Common Sediment Minerals. W, S, FW, and The ferric hydroxide is insoluble and forms a SW represent winter lake water; summer lake chemical precipitate. Manganese is reduced water; interstitial, fresh sediment water; and more easily and oxidized with more difficulty interstitial, marine sediment water, respec- than iron, but behaves in an essentially simi- tively. Mineral stability fields include gibbsite lar manner. Soluble iron and manganese can (G), kaolinite (K), amorphous silica (Q), K-mica be present only in the absence of oxygen and (KM), K-feldspar (KF), montmorillonite (M), and presence Of C02. In well oxygenated lakes iron albite (AB). is removed from the water column to the sedi- From Kramer, 1967a ment. KILOMET S;ATUT@E WILZS aq - - - - Cl 17 Ir d 2.0 'V 2. C@ 3 @\A B M SW FIGURE 4-199 Representative Distribution of Silica (mg/1) in Lake Superior Surface Water Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruises 7/18-8/8/68 and 7/27-8/9/69 Chemical Characteristics 211 KILOMETERS nation in the hypolimnion leads to release of L STATUTE MILES phosphorus. The phosphate adsorbed on ferric hydroxide gel is released to the environment by changing the equilibrium relationship as a consequence of reduced phosphate loads, re- gardless of the oxygen level (Ruttner 693 ). The extent to which these two processes of phos- phate buffering occur in the Great Lakes is unknown. It is evident that the processes op- erate in western and central Lake Erie. Curl 174 described phosphate buffering in 20 western Lake Erie and attributed at least a portion of the uptake to interaction with ferric iron compounds. Other buffering mechanisms that involve iron compounds include reactions with humic substances, reactions with H2S,metabolic up- take, and reduction of nitrate to nitrite. Humic substances can form humate colloids with @0' iron, which are insoluble and exist in the pres- 5114 693 ence of oxygen (Oden in Ruttner; Schnitzer 723). 1.0 In the presence of sulfide, which may be generated during the decay of organic mate- rial, and at an alkaline pH, Fe +2 is known to be j -7 fixed in sediment as pyrite (FeS2) or other ferrous sulfide minerals. Iron and manganese are necessary for growth of plants and animals (Hewitt 35 1). Plants especially require iron to aid in FIGURE 4-200 Representative Distribution chlorophyll production (Welch 879). Certain of Silica (mg/1) in Lake Huron Surface Water bacteria have the ability to oxidize inorganic Data from Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA) cruise 8/2-8/17/66 iron compounds. Since iron and manganese are necessary for plant and baterial growth, Eli and pH have profound effects on the sol- those organisms represent potentially signifi- ubility and oxidation state of both iron and cant sinks for the two metals. manganese. Figure 4-201 shows the Eli- and In large quantities both metals are toxic. pH-controlled stability fields of those iron and Iron should be present in quantities between manganese compounds that may occur in the 0.2 mg/l and 2 mg/1 for maximal algal produc- Great Lakes, and the limits of naturally occur- tion. If iron exceeds 5 mg/l it is toxic to algae ring interstitial and lake water for Lake and other organisms (Welch 879). Manganese Michigan (Rossmann and Callender 682) . At toxicities have been identified at 0.5 mg/l, al- 25'C, pH must be less than zero for reduction of though 2 mg/l can be tolerated by most aquatic either iron or manganese. Because of the buf- plants (Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- fering capacity of calcite and dolomite, which ministration 1131). occur in excess in the lakes, it is unlikely that Manganese nodules were discovered in Green the pH can go below 7 and that dissolution of Bay and Lake Michigan in 1968 (Rossmann iron and manganese can occur. However, in and Callender 682,683). The nodules range from 1 the vicinity of acid waste discharge, influx of percent to 25 percent manganese with an av- high BOD waste, or oxidation of other or- erage of 10 percent (Moore 552 ). These deposits ganics, local dissolution may occur. may prove to be economically important. The In oxygenated water ferric iron compounds nodules are poorly structured hydrated oxides can act as buffering mechanisms for phos- and hydrates (Rossmann and Callender 682). phates. If pH is greater than 7 and phosphate The nodules are authigenic, and it is post- is present, then ferric phosphate, Fe2(PO4)3, ulated that they form at the sediment-water can precipitate. Ferric iron can also form fer- interface from ground water that contains ric hydroxide which gels and adsorbs phos- iron and manganese derived from weathering phate. Mortimer556 concluded that deoxyge- of ferromanganese minerals if Eli, pH, sedi- 212 Appendix 4 1.2 H2 Q,2 1.2 0 1.0- 1.0- 4%@? 0 0.8- 0.8- 0.6- P-W02 0.6- A Eh 0.4 - Eh 0.4- Oro, 6. 1,& A W 4f- to-- 0.2 - Mn aq Mn 0.2- 3 W"'MS1 S 0. 0 0.0 - A' 0 IL -0.2. H -0.2 A@ Z* 0 2 '@ 0 -0.41 1 1 1 - a -0.4L- I 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 a 10 12 pH pH FIGURE 4-201 Eh-pH Diagrams Showing the Comparative Stabilities of Manganese and Iron Compounds at 250C and 1 atm Total Pressure. W represents lake water; S represents sediment water. From Rossman and Callender, 1969 ment type, and DO are appropriate. Cline and color water an unsightly brown and reduce Upchurch 153 suggest that manganese can be light penetration. The gels are not a wide- released from organic complexes by burial, de- spread color or turbidity problem in the Great cay, and sediment dewatering. The released Lakes at present. However, Cleveland, with metals may then be free to migrate upward to one of its water intakes in the hypolimnion of the sediment-water interface. Figure 4-201 the central basin of Lake Erie, has problems at shows the stability fields for the minerals in present and the gels are problems in some of question. Ferric hydroxide is stable in both the the upland lakes, especially the dystrophic sediment and water. Thus, ferric hydroxide ones. precipitates throughout the sediment and is not concentrated at any one horizon. On the other hand, aqueous manganese (Mn+2) is sta- 7.5.12 Trace Elements ble in the sediment. At the sediment-water interface Mn+2 is no longer stable and the fer- The trace elements and their compounds are ric hydroxide and hydrated oxides of man- important for many reasons. Most of the met- ganese precipitate as nodules from the up- als are toxic if present in sufficient quantity ward moving ground water. Subsequent to the and all of the elements can be used to identify reports of nodules in Lake Michigan and sources of natural and cultural influx. Exam- Green Bay, manganese crusts and nodule-like ples of the application of the use of trace ele- forms have been found in Oneida Lake ment content in sediment to identify sources S 01 @A,'9@- '9,' @O (Dean2015), Lake Ontario (Cronan'70), and Lake of those elements include the work of Ruch et Tomahawk, Wisconsin (Bowser and TraviS80). al.,"r- Shimp et al.,735 Kennedy et al.,450 Shimp Average iron and manganese concentrations et al.'111a and Shimp and Leland 734 in southern for Great Lakes waters are shown in Table Lake Michigan. They found a multiplicity of 4-42. trace elements and compounds, most notably The hydroxides and organic gels that form Hg, Cu, Pb, Cd, and As, and that there is a in the presence of iron and manganese may definite increase in concentration within the Chemical Characteristics 213 TABLE 4-42 Trace Elements in the Great Lakes Water (Ag1l) Lake Superior Lake Huron Lake Erie Lake Ontario Element Median Range Median Range Median Range Median Range Zn 27 9- 80 33 10-110 11 0-290 71 18-115 Cu 12 4-230 3 2- 13 7 4- 58 60 5-175 Pb 2.2 1- 7 2.7 2- 7 2.8 1- 12 3.3 2- 7 Fe 8 3-230 22 3-400 48 3-460 8 4-500 Ni 2 0- 9 4 2- 15 3 2- 30 5.6 2- 16 Cr 1 0- 18 1.6 0- 19 1.6 0- 14 0.7 0- 12 Mn <1 0- 1 <1 0-100 <1 0- 20 <1 0- 44 Sr 32.5 30- 70 119 100-175 173 130-200 188 180-200 SOURCE: Weiler and Chawla, (1969). TABLE 4-43 Mean and Coefficient of Variation of Trace-Metal Input into Lake Michigan from Selected Michigan Rivers St. Joseph Kalamazoo Grand Muskegon Pere Marquette Manistee Boardman mean coeff. mean coeff. mean coeff. mean coeff. mean coeff. mean coeff. mean coeff. conductivity 506.0 0.1 582.8 0.0 686.6 0.0 335.8 0.1 436.5 0.1 713.7 0.1 351.5 0.0 (limho/cm) Calcium 67.1 0.1 75.3 0.0 76.7 0.1 41.4 0.1 59.7 0.1 80.4 0.3 43.0 0.2 (mg/1) Iron 24.4 0.5 46.6 0.6 33.8 0.3 37.1 0.7 30.3 0.7 38.8 0.3 20.4 0.5 Gg/1) Copper 4.2 0.2 2.8 0.1 10.4 0.8 3.1 0.2 1.7 0.2 2.4 0.1 1.9 0.1 Gg/l) Nickel 17.5 0.6 17.0 0.4 41.0 0.5 8.0 0.2 7.5 0.3 8.4 0.1 2.8 1.0 (lig/1) Chromium 2.1 0.4 2.1 0.2 22.4 1.1 4.5 0.6 1.6 0.7 2.1 0.3 0.9 0.1 (lig/1) Zinc 6.9 0.8 4.8 0.5 10.8 1.0 4.6 0.5 4.1 0.4 2.2 0.3 2.2 0.0 Gg/1) Manganese 5.1 0.3 30.8 1.0 17.8 0.9 7.1 1.5 9.1 0.7 7.6 0.7 8.6 0.2 (Pg/1) Strontium 104.9 0.3 134.1 0.2 226.6 0.3 123.0 0.2 270.7 0.4 582.8 0.1 61.0 0.4 Gg/1) SOURCE: Robbins, et al., 1972. NOTE: Mean of 5 observations from February to September, 1971. upper few centimeters of sediment which is zinc in Lake Michigan tributary water (Table associated with organic carbon. This increase 4-43). The metal concentrations represent the in concentration was attributed to recent cul- material transported as soluble, organic com- tural contributions through surface runoff plexes, or as inorganic ions. Robbins and and the atmosphere. Cline and Upchurch'" Callender661 examined the fate of trace metals suggested that the buildup in metals at the contributed to Lake Michigan from the Grand sediment-water interface may be the result of River offshore of Grand Haven, Michigan (Ta- decomposition of organic complexing agents ble 4-44), and found a maximum metal concen- which induces release of metals to the intersti- tration at approximately 19 km (12 mi) tial water and upward migration of the de- offshore, the zone of maximum sediment composition products and associated metals. thickness. In Rochester Harbor, New York The mode of mobilization and transfer of (Orzek et al.592) , and in various Michigan lake trace elements in aquatic systems is highly sediments (Cline and Upchurch 15.3), it was variable and subject to debate at the present found that organic complexes are significantly time. Robbins et al .662 found measurable more important than inorganic sediment or amounts of iron, copper, nickel, chromium, and interstitial water as mobilization, transport, 214 Appendix 4 TA13LE 4-44 Bottom Sediment Concentration of a Series of Trace Metals Contributed to Lake Michigan from the Grand River, Grand Haven, Michigan Offshore Distance (Miles) Element 3.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 13.0 16.0 18.0 21.0 25.0 All 3.0 3.9 4.9 4.8 5.0 5.3 4.1 5.5 5.1 V Gg/g) 44.2 71.5 81.2 85.9 86.9 89.2 59.4 104.1 83.9 Ti2 3.7 5.7 4.2 6.8 9.6 3.2 2.7 5.0 4.2 Cal 5.6 6.1 5.9 5.7 5.1 5.7 4.1 5.4 6.3 Mgl 2.5 4.5 3.0 3.9 3.0 4.3 2.7 2.2 5.1 Na (mg/g) 2.6 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.7 2.4 1.8 2.0 2.5 Mn (mg/g) 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.3 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.2 Zn (pg/g) 480 558 610 698 682 668 622 656 618 Cu (11g/g) 72 82 94 114 108 108 106 114 120 Ni (P'g/g) 130 186 150 248 164 124 134 148 134 Cr (jig/g) 212 200 200 236 232 214 216 200 184 1weight % - 2arbitrary units SOURCE: Robbins and Callender, 1972. and sedimentation media. The trace elements Health, Education, and Welfare829). Because of current or predictable concern are dis- of the process of biological magnification, ut- cussed individually. most precautions should be taken to insure that arsenic loads do not reach toxic levels. Little work has been done on the distribu- 7.5.12.1 Arsenic (As) tion of arsenic in the Great Lakes. Ruch et al.6116 found arsenic concentrations in cores Arsenic is widely used in pesticides (Federal from southern Lake Michigan that range from Water Pollution Control Administration 831) 5 ppm to 30 ppm. Areas of high concentration and detergents (Angino et al.21). Con- are near Benton Harbor and Grand Haven, sequently, arsenic is present in small quan- Michigan, and near Waukegan, Illinois. The tities throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It arsenic is concentrated in the uppermost por- occurs naturally in the Canadian Shield and is tions of the sediment column and are posi- recovered in the nickel mines of the Sudbury, tively correlated with organic carbon content. Ontario, region. Little is known about the tox- Ruch et al.6116 supposed that the arsenic comes icities of arsenic compounds to Great Lakes from pesticide and detergent use in the drain- taxa. However, certain deleterious effects are age basin. well known from studies in other environ- ments. Arsenicals, which are used in pes- ticides, are toxic to aquatic organisms at levels 7.5.12.2 Barium (Ba) over 1 mg/l. Arsenous oxide (AS203) and aque- ous equivalents (As(OH)3, H3ASO3, ffiAsO@f) Barium is not, nor is it likely to become, a are toxic to fish when present at levels higher problem in the Great Lakes. Water quality than approximately 2 mg/l, and to some plants standards for drinking water (Table 4-30) in- at levels higher than 1 mg/l (Federal Water clude barium because it is a muscle stimulant Pollution Control Administration 1131). Arsenic and is highly toxic if ingested as a soluble com- compounds are not known to be essential to pound (Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- growth. When ingested in low concentrations, ministration 1131). The solubility of some simple arsenic is known to accumulate by biological barium salts (e.g., BaSO4, BaC03) is increased magnification. Arsenic is concentrated in kid- by the presence of iron and magnesium, which neys, liver, and tissues of the gastro-intestinal may cause local, abnormal concentrations of trace and is carcinogenic (U.S. Department of barium. Chemical Characteristics 215 7.5.12.3 Boron (B) 7.5.12.6 Chromium (Cr) Boron is presently not a serious contami- Chromium is utilized in the metal industries nant of Great Lakes waters. It is essential to for alloy and plating purposes. The hexavalent plant growth in quantities less than 1 mg/l. form, which usually occurs as chromate, Excess boron in water can be toxic to some Cro;i2' is an efficient oxidizing agent and is plants and can affect the central nervous sys- used as a cleanser. Hexavalent chromium is tem of certain animals. Borates are used in the most toxic form of chromium (U.S. De- detergents and cleaning compounds, so they partment of Health, Education, and Wel- are introduced into the environment. As such, fare 829), and is known to be carcinogenic when they may present a future hazard to water use inhaled and toxic to fish and algae in small in the Great Lakes Basin. doses. Chromium is concentrated in trout and salmon and so is potentially dangerous. 7.5.12.4 Bromide (Br-) The average and range of chromium concen- trations for Great Lakes water are shown in Bromide is not present in sufficient quan- Table 4-42. The mean concentration in south- tities in the Great Lakes to present a hazard. ern Lake Michigan sediment is 53 ppm with a Bromide is conservative in the Great Lakes range of 30 ppm to 92 ppm (Shimp et al .735). system and is used as an index of chemical Orzek et al .592 found chromium in sediment in loading (Tiffany et al.,802 Tiffany and Win- Rochester Harbor, New York, that was con- chester"01). Average total bromide concentra- centrated in the organic fraction. Total tions for the Great Lakes and connecting chromium ranged from 1.6 lxgll to 19 lAgll channels are Lake Superior, 13 ggll; Lake whereas organic chromium compounds Michigan, 11 gg/I; Lake Huron, 21 gg/I; St. ranged from 0.07 mg/g to 1.37 mg/g calculated Clair River, - 24 /ig/l; Lake St. Clair, 50 pg/l; on the total mass of organic material present. Detroit River, - 24,ug/l; Lake Erie, 31 Ag1l; and Ingestion of these chromium-organic com- Lake Ontario, 47 gg/l. plexes could present a severe hazard. 7.5.12.5 Cadmium (Cd) 7.5.12.7 Copper (Cu) Cadmium is utilized by several industries in Copper is a micronutrient needed by most the Great Lakes Basin. Electroplating proc- organisms. The Public Health Service drink- esses, combination of cadmium in metal alloys, ing water standards (Table 4-30) (U.S. De- and cadmium contamination in zinc proc- partment of Health, Education, and Wel- essing and galvanizing are possible sources of fare 1129) , are based on the quantity that imparts cadmium contamination. Cadmium loss to the an unpleasant taste to water. Copper is toxic environment through corrosion of zinc water to fish and plants (Table 4-35) in small quan- pipes is thought to be a major source of danger tities and has been used as an algicide. Jordan to man and the environment (Schroeder 724). et al .438 reported toxicity in some algae at con- The metal is extremely toxic to man and has centrations as low as 0.1 mg/l, with Cladophora been studied primarily in the human context toxicity at 0.5 mg/l. Close control in using cop- (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and per compounds as algicides must be exercised WelfareI129). Little is known about cadmium in order to avoid damage to the fauna. in the aquatic environment. It is known to ac- Copper content in the Great Lakes is derived cumulate in tissue and so reach higher con- from two apparent sources. Lake Superior has centrations than in the surrounding water. a highcopper content (Table 4-42) relative to Mount564 reported concentrations of up to 100 Lakes Huron and Michigan, and according to mg/g (dry weight) of cadmium in living blue- Weiler and Chawla"177 the copper content is gills, which suggests that a potential hazard highest west of the Keweenaw Peninsula. It exists to man if cadmium enters the aquatic appears that a part of the high Lake Superior environment. copper loadings can be attributed to copper There are only scattered data on cadmium in deposits and mines in the drainage basin. With the Great Lakes. In the sediment of southern the exception of the western basin, Lake Erie Lake Michigan cadmium ranged from 5 ppin to also has low copper concentrations. Copper de- 19 ppm with a mean of 11 ppm (Shimp et al.735). creases eastward in Lake Ontario, also. The Weiler and ChawlaI176 could not detect cadmium western halves of Lakes Superior, Erie, and in Lake Erie water. Ontario are more populated, suggesting a 216 Appendix 4 major input from urban areas. The eastward mine wastes and industrial outfall, and intro- declines in copper concentration suggest that duced from the atmosphere as a result of com- organisms and sediment are partitioning bustion of leaded gasolines. Concentration of and/or assimilating some of the copper. Copper lead occurs in aquatic organisms, especially in is known to be metabolized, adsorbed on clays, calcareous tissues and hard parts. Little in- and chelated by natural organic acids (Cline formation is available regarding tolerance and Upchurch153). Shimp et al .735 described levels for aquatic organisms, although toxicity two cores from southern Lake Michigan in has been reported for concentrations as low as which copper is concentrated in the upper few 1 mg/l (Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- centimeters of sediment with an average of 37 ministration 831). There are no data to show ppm and a range of 21 ppm to 109 ppm. The what proportion of lead in the Great Lakes relationship of copper with organics in comes from the atmosphere but it can be as- Rochester Harbor, New York (Orzek et al .592) sumed that reduction in the use of tetraethyl is the same as for chromium. lead in gasolines will reduce the lead load in the lakes. The average concentrations of lead in the 7.5.12.8 Fluoride (F-) Great Lakes are shown in Table 4-42. The uni- formity in concentration suggests that atmos- Fluorides are not a problem in the Great pheric contributions, which are ubiquitous, Lakes. They are derived in trace quantities may be more important than local contribu- from weathering and from pesticides, and are tions from cities and tributaries. Lead is con- added in small quantities to public water centrated in the upper few centimeters of supplies and dentriffices as a tooth-decay pre- southern Lake Michigan sediment (Shimp et ventative. Fluorides are not important con- al. 735) with an average of 27 ppm and a stituents in industrial or cultural wastes. range from 16 ppm to 90 ppm. The data of Most plants resist fluoride assimilation and Shimp et al. support atmospheric transport as prevent harmful amounts of fluorides from a prime source of lead in the Great Lakes sys- entering the food chain. Fluorides can be toxic tem by the spatially uniform and relatively to fish in concentrations higher than 1.5 mg/l high concentration at the sediment-water (Federal Water Pollution Control Administra- interface. tion 1131 ). Average fluoride values for the Great Lakes are given in Table 4-33. 7.5.12.11 Mercury (Hg) 7.5.12.9 Iodine (1) A few years ago a discussion of mercury would have been relegated to a brief warning Iodine is a micronutrient needed for growth similar to those for arsenic and cadmium in of some plants and animals. It has been used in this appendix. It is now known that mercury the Great Lakes as a tracer for estimating contamination of aquatic organisms occurs in chemical loading (Tiffany et al.,802 Tiffany and the Great Lakes and that a potential hazard to Winchester 1101). Winchester 903 concluded that man results from that contamination. Chlor- the differences in iodine concentration and alkali plants, pulp and paper mills, electrical compounds between the Great Lakes and the industries, and other minor uses by the public oceans may create a stress on anadromous fish and industry are sources of mercury in the introduced into the lakes. Smith 747 suggested Great Lakes. that alewife die-offs may result from thyroid Recognition of the dangers of methyl- deficiencies induced by low iodine concentra- mercury came about after two occurrences of tions in the lakes. Average iodine levels in the poisoning in Japan in 1950 and 1956 and after Great Lakes are Lake Superior, 1.1 tkg1l; Lake significant bird mortalities in Sweden (Tur- Huron, 1.3 pg1l; Lake Michigan, 0.9 lAg1l; Lake ney'106). It took nine years before the source of St. Clair, 2 Ag1l; Lake Erie, 1.7 Ag1l; and Lake the poisoning was identified and eighteen Ontario, 2.9 gg/l. years after the first outbreak before the in- dustry responsible admitted its involvement. The poisoning was induced by eating fish and 7.5.12.10 Lead (Pb) shellfish contaminated by methylmercury discharged by a vinylehloride and acetal- Lead is a potentially dangerous pollutant dehyde plant. In Sweden methylmercury was that is discharged into the Great Lakes frorn used as a fungicidal seed coating from the Chemical Characteristics 217 early 1940s to 1965. Birds that ate treated ingested by bottom feeders and primary con- seeds had low survival rates and the bird popu- sumers. Once ingested the mercury could be lation decreased rapidly. After cessation of methylated in vivo. Glew and HameS2119 have seed treatment with methlymercury the bird shown that the solubility of metallic mercury population began to recover. It is through at 25'C in distilled water is 0.06 mg/l. If Swedish research that biological magnifica- the mercuric ion is complexed by humic sub- tion in the food chain, high mercury levels in stances, there is no limit to the amount of mer- fish, and industrial sources of mercury were cury that can be made available to the biota identified. through ingestion 6f the complex. Regardless The chlor-alkali plants at Sarnia, Ontario, of the mechanism, methylmercury has con- and at Wyandotte, Michigan, were losing up to taminated the fish and sediment of Lake 65 pounds (Branch") and 20 pounds (Tur- Michigan, the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, ney"06), respectively, of metallic mercury per the Detroit River, and Lake Erie. day to the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers. Both of Mercury concentrations in fish have been these companies operated under the com- reported as being well above the 0.5 mg/l ac- monly held assumption that, unlike methyl- tion level set by the U.S. Food and Drug Ad- mercury, metallic mercury is essentially inert ministration. Sediment from just below the and harmless in the aquatic environment. Sarnia plant contained up to 2000 mg/1 mer- When it was discovered in 1969 that the metal- cury (dry weight) and from just below the lic mercury was not inert, action was taken Wyandotte plant contained up to 84 mg/l mer- both by the State and Provincial water re- cury (dry weight) (Turney"O"). Sediment in source agencies and by the industries to cease Lake St. Clair contains much less mercury release of mercury. with maximum reported levels of 1.3 mg/l off Little is known of the process by which the mouth of the St. Clair delta (Branch"3). metallic mercury is converted to methylmer- There is no detectable mercury reported from cury in the aquatic environment. Two the water of the St. Clair-Detroit River sys- mechanisms have been suggested (Turney8O6). tem, and consequently mercury is not cur- Soluble mercury compounds, such as mercuric rently a drinking water hazard, and is a chloride, which is known to have been dis- hazard to the public only when consumed charged at one plant, may be assimilated through fish (Purd y633). through fish gills. An alternative or parallel Mercury content in Lake Michigan process is that fish obtain the mercury sediments has also been found to be rather through biological magnification through the high. Kennedy et al. 450 analyzed 132 cores from food chain. According to Turney, predators, the southern basin and found 0.1 ppm to 0.4 such as walleye and bass, show the highest ppm of mercury in the upper sediment layers mercury contamination, a fact which supports in the deep parts of the basin and off Benton the food chain theory. The conversion of Harbor and Grand Haven, Michigan. Natural metallic mercury to methylmercury may take background concentrations, based on the place through bacterial action in the sediment cores, range from 0.03 ppm to 0.06 ppm. They (Wood et al.,912 Jensen429). A third possible also noted a direct positive correlation be- mechanism for the mobilization of mercury is tween mercury content and organic carbon through chelation with hurnic substances and sulfur. (Subsection 7.5.7.9, Organic Carbon). Mek- The mercury pollution problem dramatizes nonina 5" has shown that humic substances the lack of understanding of the chemical, can complex mercury in soils. Cline et al.152 physical, and biological processes that operate have shown that the humic substances in the in the aquatic environment. Failure to St. Clair River can complex mercury and that promptly identify problems, exchange infor- the complex forms a precipitate. The precipi- mation, and set standards led to an environ- tate appears to be fulvic acid and it contains mental crisis in the Great Lakes Region. Other approximately 45 percent mercury by weight. potential problems exist and could be obviated The precipitate has a specific gravity of ap- with foresight in planning, management, and proximately 2 g/CM3, which is about the research. specific gravity of most sediment minerals. The organic-mercury precipitate would, therefore, be easily transported in streams 7.5.12.12 Potassium (K) without detection since samples for chemical analysis are usually filtered to-remove sedi- Potassium is a micronutrient required for ment and biotic material, and could be readily plant and animal growth. It is derived from 218 Appendix 4 20 Great Lakes is street salting and the indus- trial use of brines derived from the Silurian SUPERIOR salt in the Michigan structural basin. A dis- MICHIG N HURON cussion of the mechanisms that may remove IRIE 4 sodium from the environment is given in Sub- ONTARIO section [email protected], Silica System. Like potassium, sodium silicates do not appear to be ther- ER11 modynamically stable in Great Lakes water or ONtAR(O sediment (Figure 4-198). Ion exchange on MICHIGAN clays may account for removal of some sodium from the la tration of sodium in the lakes is increasing at .U." ke system. However, the concen- the present time (Figure 4-202). 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 YEARS FIGURE 4-202 Changes in Sodium and Potas- 7.5.12.15 Selenium (Se) sium Concentration in the Great Lakes. Solid lines represent Beeton's suggested trends; Selenium is a micronutrient required by all dashed lines represent Weiler and Chawla's. living things. Certain plants are able to ac- From Beeton, 1965; Weiler and Chawla, 1969 cumulate selenium from the soil or water without apparent effect. However, animals weathering of minerals such as orthoclase have low tolerance to selenium and can be feldspar (Table 4-41), chemical wastes, atmos- seriously harmed by ingesting the selenium pheric contributions from marine aerosols, concentrated in plants. The majority of infor- and contributions to the atmosphere and sur- mation on selenium toxicity comes from face water from dust containing minor studies on agricultural problems (Federal amounts of potassium minerals. The only cur- Water Pollution Control Administration 1131). rently recognized importance of potassium in Selenium should be investigated in the the Great Lakes is in the dissolution and aquatic environment as well. There are few precipitation of potassium silicate minerals in systematic data on selenium in the Great sediment (Subsection 7.5.10, Silica System). Lakes. Figure 4-198 shows the silicate stability fields of water in the Great Lakes and indicates that dissolution of potassium silicates is likely. Potassium may be removed from the system 7.5.12.16 Uranyl Ion (UG22) by ion exchange on clays. Even though it is radioactive, the primary reason for inclusion of uranyl ion in the drink- ing water standards is that the uranyl ion has 7.5.12.13 Silver (Ag) an unpleasant taste and color, and can be in- jurious to the kidneys (Federal Water Pollu- Little is known about the effects of silver on tion Control Administration"'). Little is the aquatic environment. Silver is limited in known of its effect on the aquatic environ- drinking water (Table 4-30) because, in suffi- ment. There are no systematic data on uranyl cient doses, it concentrates in the skin, eyes, loads in the Great Lakes. and mucous membranes, and causes a perma- nent blue discoloration. Silver is thought to be concentrated in aquatic plants and is known to be toxic to both plants and animals if levels are 7.5.12.17 Zinc (Zn) high enough. Silver compounds are, therefore, used in disinfectants in some water uses. The primary sources of zinc in the Great Lakes Region are similar to those of cadmium, which commonly occurs as an impurity in zinc. Zinc has little adverse effect on man, other 7.5.12.14 Sodium (Na) than imparting an unpleasant taste and ap- pearance in water. In small doses zinc is ER11 .NIARI. Sodium is derived in the same manner as utilized in human metabolic activity (U.S. De- potassium. A major source of sodium in the partment of Health, Education, and Wel- Chemical Characteristics 219 fare 829) . Excessively high concentrations can erated after technological awareness of the cause temporary gastric distress. Zinc is toxic hazards of radioactive substances had de- to fish and algae. As is the case with many veloped. Consequently, legislation, monitor- heavy metals, the toxicity of zinc is dependent ing methods and precautions against hazards on pH and calcium-magnesium concentration have kept pace with the need. Because of the (Mount563) , and a single standard for the con- ease of monitoring radioisotopes and the ex- centration of the metal is not valid. The effects tensive data base developed since the advent of zinc on various fish and algal species have of nuclear power in the early 1940s, been reviewed by the Federal Water Pollution radioisotopes have become a tool used to trace Control Administration .1131 the behavior of stable elements, toxic heavy metals, and hard pesticides. The study of Zinc concentrations in the Great Lakes are radionuclide effects on the environment and shown in Table 4-41. As is the case with cop- biota represents, with a few exceptions, a not- per, zinc concentrations are highest in the able contrast to the crisis ecology currently western ends of Lakes Superior and Erie, re- practiced in the United States. flecting local inputs from urban regions. The concentration decreases from north to south Through monitoring of radioactive waste in Lake Huron, and from west to east in Lake dispersion the process of concentration in or- Ontario (Weiler and Chawla 877). Shimp et ganic tissue and biological magnification first al.,735 found a mean zinc concentration of 84 became apparent (Woodwe11916). The sources ppm and a range of 42 ppm to 179 ppm in sedi- of radioisotopes in the environment are pres- ment from southern Lake Michigan. Orzek et ently limited and little new material is added al.592 observed preferential uptake of zinc by each year. Possible cultural sources are fallout organic molecules in nearshore sediments of from atmospheric nuclear blasts, disposal of Lake Ontario at Rochester, New York. reactor wastes, and other accidental losses from reactors and research activities. Al- though atmospheric nuclear tests and waste disposal have been curtailed, there is suffi- 7.5.12.18 Summary cient radioactive material left in the environ- ment from these practices to cause some con- Some of the known toxic elements that may cern. Radioisotopes are dispersed through presently be threatening the aquatic envi- atmospheric and water circulation. The ronment have been discussed. However, other isotopes are assimilated by lower organisms metals may also be threatening the aquatic and thus begin the progression up the food environment without our knowledge. For chain, being concentrated each step of the example, Schroeder 724 has warned that beryl- way. If radionuclide concentrations reach suf- lium and antimony are threatening man, and ficiently high levels, the radioactivity causes the same may be true of the lake system. Most, tissue damage, reproductive failure, and if not all, of the heavy metals are toxic in some death. Although many isotopes can cause form and have the property of being stored damage and may be present in the environ- and concentrated in plant and animal tissue ment, three have caused the most concern be- and in sediments. Consequently, it is neces- cause they behave in a manner similar to nu- sary that not only water quality analyses but trients and therefore, are highly susceptible sediment and biota quality analyses be made to retention and biological magnification. to protect man from consumption of toxic ma- Strontium-90 (90Sr) is a fission product that terials. Bioassays and tolerance limit studies commonly occurs in fallout. It emits beta radi- must be made for Great Lakes taxa under ation that can impair the ability of bone mar- Great Lakes conditions in order to set stand- row to produce blood cells. Strontium behaves ards that will protect the aquatic community in a fashion similar to calcium and is, there- from further damage. fore, fixed in bone, shell, and plant tissue. Cesium-137 (137CS) is a gamma ray-emitting fission product that behaves like potassium. Iodine-131 (1311), another gamma ray source, is 7.6 Radionuclides concentrated in the thyroid gland along with stable iodine (127 1). Because of the inherent Radionuclides are better controlled and un- hazard of other radioisotopes, such as derstood than other potential pollutants be- radium-226 (Table 4-30), the standards for cause of the widespread interest that was gen- drinking water and food consumption are 220 Appendix 4 67. Be 12 11 13 3 0 90 23 6 11 50b 12,r- - 9 . 0 e 9 2 311 45' 0 10 3 10 6 is 24 KILOMETERS a S;ATUTE MILES 10 7 L4 9 5 W 10-- Ill 9 7 43. 9 10 K__ KILOMETERS ST.TUTE MILES 14 5 a 12 10 11 @@ON 42' 2 12 1 12 7 14 1 9, 9 1 9 13 FIGURE 4-204 Gross Beta Radioactivity WIS* ILL. (pc/g) of Lake Michigan Bottom Sediments 1 11 3 9 9 From Risley and Abbott, 1966 9 It 9 Risley and Abb ott660) and Lake Erie (Risley and Abb ott660) . The distributions of average CKICAGO 10 :19 11 gross beta radioactivity, sediment gross beta 1 -11 radioactivity, and plankton gross beta 14 It radioactivity in Lake Michigan water are KILOMETERS shown in Figures 4-203 through 4-205. From L"i STATUT the three distributions, an order of concentra- tion is evident, where FIGURE 4-203 Gross Beta Radioactivity radiation- << radiation < radiation (pc/g) in Lake Michigan Water. Values repre- water sediment plankton sent averages of data taken in 15' quadrangles. The concentration of nuclides in the food chain From Risley, 1965 is clearly shown. At the concentrations re- ported none of the radioactivity levels pose a health hazard. 'Lt 9 I I 3 @1' A highly responsive to recommendations of the Total alpha radioactivity is greatest on the national and international radiological re- Michigan side of Lake Michigan. Risley659 at- search groups (Federal Water Pollution Con- tributed this to natural alpha radioactivity. trol Administration 831). Average beta radioactivity is highest off Chi- Radioactivity levels have been systemat- cago, near the mouth of the Milwaukee River, ically studied in Lake Michigan (Risley; 658,659 at the Racine channel, near the St. Joseph Chemical Characteristics 221 080 87' -1 IT River mouth, southwest of the Holland chan- nel, in Green Bay, and at Mackinaw City. Slightly higher than background counts were indicated west of the Big Rock Point nuclear power plant at Charlevoix, Michigan. Gener- ally, gross beta counts were higher nearshore 45- than in the open lake. Radionuclides are also concentrated in Lake Erie plankton, but are not found in the sedi- ment and water (Figures 4-206 through 208). The radioactivity levels in Lake Erie are simi- lar to those of Lake Michigan, although varia- tion of counts between samples from Lake 4.' Erie is less (Risley and Abbott660). In both the Lake Michigan and Lake Erie investigations it was noted that radioactivity levels were highest in tributary streams during spring flooding. t' I \,@\ 03. 7.7 Great Lakes Harbors e rborsoft e Great Lakes pose a water quality and economic problem. Because of the economic benefits obtained from water trans- ";Z, KILOMETERS portation, it is advantageous to maintain har- STATUTE MILES bors for use by shipping and industrial inter- 42- ests. The associated heavy industrialization and harbor development has led to severe pol- I lution in many of the harbors. Solid material interferes with navigation by filling the har- FIGURE 4-205 Gross Beta Radioactivity bor and introduction of deleterious chemical (pc/g) of Lake Michigan Plankton constituents interferes with industrial water From Risley and Abbott, 1966 use. Transfer of water and sediment out of the TABLE 4-45 Chemical Parameters as a Measure of Pollution of Sediments Degree of_Pollution No. of Parameter Lighti Moderatel Heavyl Samples Errors2 Ammonia (N) 0-25 25-75 over 75 53 19% COD 0-40,000 40,000-120,000 over 120,000 28 18% Total Iron 0-8,000 8,000-13,000 over 13,000 67 19% Lead 0-40 40-60 over 60 21 14% Oil & Grease 0-1,000 1,000-2,000 over 2,000 78 13% Phenol 0-0.26 0.26-0.60 over 0.60 55 29% Total Phosphorus 0-100 100-300 over 300 79 20% Sulfide 0-20 20-60 over 60 21 14% Volatile Solids 1-5% 5-8% over 8% 78 15% Zinc 0-90 90-200 over 200 21 19% 'All values in mg/kg (dry) unless otherwise indicated 2An error is defined as an overall rating that falls outside ofits range for a particular parameter, e.g., a station with a "light" rating falling in the "Moderate" range for a particular parameter. Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District, 1969. 222 Appendix 4 so- ElkLO LA KE C, OE7ROIT STCLAIR N 79. 42- 50 42- A 10@ 0. OLE 1w Ott I'll C VEL KILOMETERS STATUTE ;ILES t From Risley and Abbott, 1 66 F16URE 4-206 Lake Erie Dissolved Solids Gross Beta Radioaeti 9 vity (PC/g) so- 43. FfA-O SO .1 ;_3 9.3 7.7 76 1.4 0.4 9.2 a.s 0-5 LAKE @'7.-. OETROIT ST CLAIR oe 6.1 7.9 6.2 ?2 9.2 9.7 6.4 7.9 7" el@ I I - I--, I N 42- @ @.4 76 75 9.4 6.8 9.g 7.9 9.g .0 @-nr. 7@1 5.4 -42- 7.2 5.7 6.2 T.4 6.1 6.2 9.2 9.2 T.9 74 5.00 77 10 9-5 7-2 0.1 0 16.7 KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES FIGURE 4 From Risley and Abbott, 1966 -207 Lake Erie Plankton Gross Beta Radioactivity (pc/g) LAKE DETROIT S r. CLA W 4r 'PIE r-2- OLE Ij C, KILOMETERS STATUTE MILES From Risley and Abbott, 1966 FIGURE 4-208 Lake Erie Sediment Gross Beta Radioactivity (pc/g) Chemical Characteristics 223 TABLE 4-46 Classification of Pollution of Harbor Sediments LAKE SUPERIOR LAKE MICHIGAN LAKE HURON and Connecting Channels UNPOLLUTED POLLUTED Michigan Michigan POLLUTED Big Bay Harbor Frankfort (inner harbor) Michigan Black River Grand Haven (river) Cheboygan (turning basin) Grand Traverse Holland Harbor (inner Keweenaw Waterway channel) Lac LaBelle Harbor New Buffalo Harbor Little Lake South Haven (turning LAKE ERIE Ontonagon Harbor basin) Presque Isle Harbor St. Joseph Harbor (inner UNPOLLUTED Whitefish Point Harbor channel) Michigan Wisconsin Wisconsin Bolles Harbor Cornucopia Green Bay Harbor (inner Monroe Harbor (outer Port Wing channel) channel) Saxon Harbor Kenosha Harbor Ohio Kewaunee Harbor POLLUTED Manitowoc Harbor (river) Rocky River Harbor Minnesota & Wisconsin Menominee Harbor New York Milwaukee Harbor Duluth-Superior Harbor Sheboygan Harbor Dunkirk Harbor Sturgeon Bay Ship Canal (canal) POLLUTED LAKE MICHIGAN Two Rivers Harbor (inner Michigan channelY UNPOLLUTED Indiana Monroe Harbor (inner Michigan Indiana Harbor channel) Charlevoix Harbor Michigan City Harbor Ohio Frankfort (outer habor) Illinois Ashtabula Harbor Grand Haven (harbor) Cleveland Harbor Holland Harbor (entrance Waukegan (inner harbor) Conneaut Harbor channel) Indiana & Illinois Fairport Harbor Ludington Harbor Huron Harbor Manistee Harbor Calumet River & Harbor Lorain Harbor Manistique Harbor Sandusky Harbor Muskegon Harbor Toledo Harbor Pentwater Harbor LAKE HURON and Connecting New York Portage Lake Harbor Channels Saugatuck Harbor Buffalo Harbor South Haven (outer UNPOLLUTED Black Rock Channel harbor) Michigan Tonawanda Harbor St. Joseph Harbor (outer Little River Harbor channel) Alpena Pennsylvania White Lake Harbor Au Sable Harbor Wisconsin Lake St. Clair Erie Harbor Les Cheneaux Island Green Bay Harbor (outer Channels channel) Sebewaing River LAKE ONTARIO Manitowoc (outer harbor) Cheboygan (except turning Oconto Harbor basin) UNPOLLUTED Pennsaukee Harbor St. Clair River New York Port Washington Harbor St. Marys River Racine Harbor Great Sodus Bay Harbor Sturgeon Bay Ship Canal POLLUTED Little Sodus Bay Harbor (approach channel) Michigan Two Rivers Harbor (outer POLLUTED channel) Detroit River New York Illinois Harbor Beach Harbor Rouge River Oswego Harbor Waukegan (outer harbor) Saginaw Harbor Rochester Harbor SOURCE: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District, 1969. 224 Appendix 4 harbor by stream discharge, by flushing, and material in the open lake and to the habitabil- by dredging leads to degradation of the lakes. ity of the harbor bottom (Figure 4-209). The Some of the potentially harmful materials five categories range from one, where the sed- contained in harbor sediments include biode- iment is clean, nontoxic and stimulates algal gradable organic matter (BOD); oil and grease; growth, to five, where the sediment is toxic nutrients; fine-grained, slow-to-settle sedi- and algal growth is limited. This subject is ment; pathogenic bacteria; and potentially further discussed in Section 8. toxic levels of trace metals (U.S. Army Corps of A combination of the classification schemes Engineers, Buffalo District;"" Orzek et al.592). developed for the Buffalo District study by the During 1967 a survey of Great Lakes harbor Federal Water Quality Administration and water and sediment quality was made by the the University of Wisconsin should aid in ac- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo Dis- curate assessment of harbor conditions, and trict, and Federal Water Quality Administra- point toward action needed to clean up the tion to evaluate the impact of dredging harbors. Unfortunately, neither of the two and open lake spoil disposal on lake water and schemes has yet been applied and subjective bottom quality. Unless otherwise cited, the evaluations still prevail. The problem has eco- data and classification scheme used in this nomic significance because open lake disposal subsection are extracted from the reports of of "polluted" dredge spoil is not allowed. the Corps of Engineers study. The water qual- Flushing of harbors still causes pollution in ity standards established for harbors and the lakes through direct exchange of water and nearshore areas are discussed in Appendix 7, interaction with the sediment in the harbor. Water Quality. Any of a large number of harbors can be used It is evident from the review of toxic and as an example. Cleveland Harbor, Ohio, potentially toxic materials that the sediment situated at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, in grossly polluted harbors represents a lo- receives waste sources including both treated cally important source for lake and harbor and untreated industrial and municipal contamination. In such cases more stringent effluents. Much of the waste material is re- water quality standards will not prevent the moved from the river before it enters the lake harbor from being a source of pollution until by precipitation with or adsorption on metal the sediment is either covered to an extent oxides and metal-organic complexes. By these that exchange with the water is impossible, processes an estimated 96 percent of the iron, removed by dredging, or removed by normal 86 percent of the phosphates, and 44 percent of flushing. total solids are removed from the river before Great Lakes harbors can be classified on the it flows into the lake (Figure 4-210). The or- basis of the chemical quality of the water and ganic material in the river creates a high oxy- sediment (Table 4-45). The criteria selected for gen demand that deoxygenates the lower river the classification scheme represent the most which could lead to release of the iron and common constituents that are likely to de- phosphates that have been precipitated from grade the lake as a result of natural or man- the system. caused influx. The classification is based on Due to the extreme loading from sources on analyses of samples taken from Lake Michi- the Cuyahoga River, sediments in the lower gan harbors in which pollution levels were river and the harbor contain high concentra- identified subjectively. The scheme has not tions of organic and nutrient constituents (Ta- been applied outside of the harbors studied by ble 4-47). Comparison of Figure 4-210 and the Federal Water Quality Administration, as Table 4-47 shows that constituent concentra- described in the Buffalo District report. The tions decrease gradually in the river to within classification scheme does relate the pollu- a mile of the outer harbor. Near the outer har- tants to precisely definable parameters. The bor sediment quality shows a marked im- Federal Water Quality Administration has provement. Sediment from the Cuyahoga identified all harbors in the Great Lakes as River is toxic to all taxa (Class 5 sediment, either polluted or unpolluted (Table 4-46) but Figure 4-209). Experiments with outer harbor the basis for this classification is subjective sediment have shown that the sediment does and insensitive to pollutants that cannot be not affect benthic fauna, is toxic to zoo- easily detected. plankton, and stimulates algal growth (Class 3 Based on bioassays of sediment from or 4, Figure 4-209). selected harbors (Gannon and Beeton 282 ) a Toledo Harbor, Ohio, at the mouth of the five-fold classification was established that is Maumee River, drains primarily agricultural applicable to the effects of disposal of dredge land. Due to the high loss of sediment in the Chemical Characteristics 225 100 100 6 16 0 6- 12 U) 90 90 Z 0 80 so PHOSPHORUS o3/67 -6/67 -7/67 + 0 0 0 150- ------- 300 o 70 + -70 110 > + - - ____ ___ 11 100- 10 200 0, -0 0 0 0 -60 X C31 100 11@ IRON E + E C 1,3% CP o3/67 .6/67 7/6? 0- 1, E 0.3 0.6 1.3 1.6 2.3 2:9 3,5 41 2 4*5 4:9 5A 0 E 050 50 E RIVER MILEPOINT SAMPLING' STATIONS 9 1 C: FIGURE 4-210 Distribution of Phosphorus 040 - .2 Z 40 and Iron Along the Cuyahoga River, near Cleve- 0 CX X 0 E land, Ohio. River milepoint zero is the mouth of 0 E the river. Sampling dates are indicated by cir- _3( 30 < CL cles and crosses. .2 From U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District, 1969 E ZI/ 20 - - - - -- Ammonio-N 20 0 - COD + - - - Phosphate - P the potential hazards of polluted harbors and 10- X-Volotile Solids -10 the nature of pollution that results from dif- ferent cultural inputs. Flushing rate, con- 0 '3 4' 5' 0 stituent loading, harbor configuration, and sediment type play an important role in the Harbor Categories effectiveness of a harbor as a pollution trap or FIGURE 4-209 Classification of Harbor source, and in the use of a harbor resource by Sediment Quality on the Basis of Chemical multiple interests. Composition After U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District, 1969 7.8 Loads and Trends rural portions of the Maumee basin, sediment Previous subsections indicated that three composed of 80 percent silt and 20 percent interacting processes govern the chemical sand accumulates rapidly in the harbor. The quality of lake water. These processes are rate composition of dredged sediment from of loading, rate of assimilation or release Maumee River and Bay is shown in Table 4-48. by the biota or sediment, and rate of outflow. The importance of agricultural runoff is illus- The following subsections will present a basis trated by the high proportion of nonvolatile for interpretation of past chemical composi- solids, as compared with the highly volatile tion of the lakes, present-day loads, areal vari- solid and oil and grease content of harbors in ation in concentrations, and possible future more industrialized areas. consequences of control of loadings. Indiana Harbor, Indiana, is an artificial harbor with a small, heavily populated and industrialized drainage basin. The primary 7.8.1 Historical Trends pollutants are solid wastes from steel mills and petroleum derivatives from refineries. Beeton 48 and Weiler and Chawla 877 re- Table 4-49 shows the relative importances of viewed the historical data on chemical com- volatile materials and oil and grease in In- position in the Great Lakes (Mgures 4-128, diana Harbor sediment. Other pollutants in 4-138,4-190, 4-194, and 4-202). The data were the sediment include high concentrations of taken from the literature and represent sam- toxic metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Sedi- ples of inconsistent quality because they were ment from the canal at Indiana Harbor is toxic taken inshore, in the open lake, at water in- to "clean-water" taxa and will even restrict takes, and elsewhere, and subjected to vary- survival of pollution-tolerant taxa. ing analytical techniques. Despite the incon- The data presented in this subsection show sistencies, historical trends are apparent. In 226 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-47 Comparison of Sediment Quality With biological and sedimentary assimilation, at Cleveland, Ohio natural background calculations for noncon- servative constituents represent minimum Central loads that would be exceeded by the amount Parameterl Cuyahoga Outer Lake Erie that is assimilated. River Harbor (FWPCA,1968e) The steady-state concentration in a lake Chlorine Demand 30 12 ---- serves as a model of the natural system for COD 240 95 41 conservative and nonconservative con- BOD 15 5 1 stituents. The chemical balance model (Up- Volatile Solids 125 65 63 Oil and Grease 35 8 ---- church and Robb810) is similar to the water Phosphorus 4 1.5 0.7 budget model presented in Section 4. The Nitrogen 5 1.6 1.8 equation is Iron 110 45 35.5 Silica % 55 72 ---- L (R,P,G,D,S,B,) j,t+l + L 0j-l,t+l (41) 1All values mg/g (dry weight) unless otherwise noted Source: U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo L + L L District, 1969. (0,E,D,G,S,B) j,t+l L i't L j,t+l TABLE 4-48 Characteristics of Dredged Ma- where L is the mass (load) of a constitute pres- terial in Maumee River and Bay ent in the lake (L), or introduced to or removed from the lake by runoff (R), precipitation (P), Parameter Range Mean ground water (G), diversion (D), sediment (S), biota (B), outflow water (0), and evaporation Volatile Solids 5.8-10.5 8.3 (E). Ground water, diversion, sediment, and Total Solids (%) 36.5-71.0 45.2 biota may act as sources or as sinks for the Oil and Grease (mg/g) 0.5-4.1 1.48 constituent, so they are included in the loads BOD (mg/g) 0.54-2.22 1.5 introduced and removed from the system. The Settleability (% 1st hr.) 0.0-43.0 7.7 subscript j refers to the lake in question, so Settleability (hrs. for 90%) 20.0-59.0 41.5 pH 6.6-7.1 6.8 LO i-i is the load that is removed from the eH (volts) -0.11-0.0 -0.09 upper lake(s) (j-1) by outflow and introduced to the lower lake. The equation is solved by interaction over a period of years, where t is Source: U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo the previous year, and t+1 is the year in ques- District, 1969. tion. When combined with the mass balance equation for the Great Lakes water budget, general the data show little change in Lake concentrations of constituents in the lakes Superior chemistry over the last hundred and connecting channels can be computed. years. Constituent concentration of Lake In reality, the above equations can only be Huron has increased due largely to inputs solved for conservative constituents. If a load from Lake Michigan and Saginaw Bay. The estimate for the contributions of diversions, other lakes indicate distinct upward trends of runoff, and upper lakes is available, and if the all measured constituents. loads contributed or removed by precipitation, Observed Lake Superior chemical concen- evaporation, ground water, and sediment- trations have remained essentially un- water interaction are zero or negligible, then changed indicating that the lake receives the equation can be solved simply. If a con- loads that are essentially natural in origin and stituent is nonconservative, as they all are to is at a steady-state condition. Under steady- some degree, the equation can be used to state conditions inflow of a particular con- suggest minimum buildup and removal times stituent equals outflow, and there is no change only. The chemical budget approach will be an in composition of the lake. If one assumes that, accurate predictive tool only when the follow- on the average, the hydrologic cycle for a lake ing can be effectively quantified: has not changed then a natural background (1) contributions by eolian processes concentration can be computed. For those (2) effects of precipitation and evaporation constituents that are conservative or are on chemical flux known to be slowly or insignificantly assimi- (3) kinetics and rate coefficients for inor- lated by the sediment and/or biota, the natural ganic and organic sediment-water interac- background concentration is a valid concept. tions Chemical Characteristics 227 TABLE 4-49 Composition of Sediment Dredged from Indiana Harbor Main Canal Harbor Channel Lake George Grand Calumet Comparable Stations Comparable Stations Parameterl Branch2 River Branch2 212 1-5' 182 12-04 1-11 Total Solids % 42.5 40.9 73.6 47.5 60.5 37.9 45.0 Volatile Solids % 20.7 15.2 9.0 16.1 6.1 6.6 6.1 oil and Grease % 14.2 5.92 --- --- 0.32 2.79 --- BOD 6.24 4.17 5.25 --- 1.13 --- --- COD --- --- --- 461 ___ 261/5 117 NH3-N --- --- --- 0.07 --- 0.26 0.09 Organic - N --- --- 2.09 --- 0.76 1.68 Phosphorus - P --- --- 1.05 --- 0.79 0.48 lAll values mg/g dry basis except where noted 2All values are average (Lake Survey Center, NOAA, data) 3University of Wisconsin data 4FWPCA data SOURCE: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District, 1969. (4) kinetics and rate coefficients for biotic States. The low natural weathering rates in assimilation and decay the Lake Superior drainage basin reflect the (5) net ground-water flux. poorly developed drainage and slow weather- In the steady-state situation the un- ing rates characteristic of the igneous and dertermined processes in a lake that affect the metamorphic rocks exposed in the Canadian chemical balance reduce the measurable con- Shield. The Lake Erie drainage basin in 1910 centration of material by an unknown produced more quantities of constituents than amount, so the natural background or the other lakes, probably because ag- steady-state concentration thus represents a ricultural and urban land use and improved minimum load. The natural background con- runoff were already major factors in lake centrations and minimum loads for the Great chemistry. The other three lakes were essen- Lakes are shown in Table 4-50. The values tially consistent in the production of quan- were obtained by UpchurchI107 from diagrams tities of chemical constituents, which supports modified from Beeton48 and Weiler and the concept that the values used approximate Chawla'877 in which the earliest steady-state steady-state concentrations. concentrations, based on Beeton's regression lines, were used for the computations. The data in Table 4-50 show the loads in each lake, 7.8.2 Current Loads including contributions from the upper lakes. If the contributions of upper lakes are sub- It is not possible to estimate from lake chem- tracted from the total load in each lake and ical concentrations the present annual loads adjustments are made for drainage basin to the Great Lakes, because the assimilative area, the relative importance of the mineral- capacity of a lake causes the instantaneous ogy of each drainoge basin is apparent. Table concentration of a constituent in a lake to lag 4-51 shows the annual rate of removal of dis- behind the ultimate steady-state concentra- solved solids, chloride, calcium, sulfate, and tion for a given loading level. Since loads con- sodium, plus potassium in the early 1900s. tinuously change, a projected steady-state These natural weathering rates, as indicated concentration based on a load estimate will by dissolved solid removal, are commensurate not reproduce the natural system. Also, mod- with those calculated by Durum et al.,231 who ern data, and to a lesser extent historical data, estimated an annual gross yield of dissolved do not represent actual denudation rates be- solids of from 1 X 104 to 4 X 104 kg/kM2 for cause there are also contributions from the various drainage basins in the eastern United atmosphere and cultural wastes. For example, 228 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-50 "Natural Background" Concentrations and Annual Loads to the Great Lakes +2 SO-2 + Dissolved Solids Cl- Ca 4 Na & K+ Load Conc. Load Cone. Load Conc. Load Conc. Load Conc. Lake Superior (1890) a 3.9 63 0.19 3.0 0.79 13 0.23 3.7 0.21 3.4 Lake Michigan (1890) 6.1 b 131 b 0.22 4.6 1.5 32 0.38 8.0 0.14 3.0 Lake Huron (1910) 18 108 0.81 5.0 3.9 24 1.1 7.0 0.68 4.2 Lake Erie (1910) 26 144 1.6 9.0 5.6 31 2.4 13 1.2 6.8 Lake Ontario (1870) 30 b 144 b 1.5 7.3 6.4 31 3.0 14 1.4 6.6 NOTE: Load in 109kg/yr, includes contributions from upper lakes. Concentration in mg/1 SOURCE: Based on data of Beeton (1965), from Upchurch (1972) aDate of determination used to compute steady-state concentration. bSteady-state concentration estimated for the year 1910. TABLE 4-51 Minimum Natural Weathering cent; Lake Huron, 8 percent; and Lake Supe- Rates of Each Great Lakes Basin rior, 7 percent. The apparent increase inwater Lake Basin quality in Lake Superior may only represent Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario differences in sampling methods and sample sites through the years. Representative Dissolved Solids 3 5 6 10 6 tributaries to each lake are symbolized in Fig- Chloride 2 2 3 10 -2 ure 4-211. Those streams that fall above the Calcium 0.6 1.3 1.2 2.2 1.3 background and minimum present-day levels Sulfate 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.7 0.9 of dissolved solids are polluted. Sodium & Potassim 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.9 0.3 Numerous attempts have been made to es- NOTE: Rates as 104kg/kM2-yr timate loadings for various constituents in the Great Lakes. No one has made estimates for all of the lakes as an integrated system. Meade530 studied the relative importances of Chloride budgets are most commonly studied natural, atmospheric, and cultural inputs to because the data are accessible and chloride is streams of the Atlantic States and concluded essentially conservative. Among the studies of that about one-quarter of the dissolved solids chloride loading in the Great Lakes are Own- in a stream were derived from atmospheric bey and Willeke,594 Ownbey and Kee,593 and sources and about one-tenth from man-made O'Connor and Mueller.583 Regional, multicom- wastes. ponent load estimates have been made by the At the present time, even though the appar- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo Dis- ent loadings to the lakes are low because of trict"' and the International Joint Commis- slow mixing time and assimilation by the biota sion4011 (Tables 4-52 through 4-54). and sediment, they show significant increases The previous load estimates are deficient in over tributary loading at the turn of the cen- that they do not allow complete, simultaneous tury. Figure 4-211 shows the annual dissolved characterization of the entire lake system and solid loads per square kilometer to each lake all of the major inputs. To achieve complete for 1910 (1890 for Lake Superior) and 1968. In characterization of the system, estimated in- all cases, except for Lake Superior, the loads puts from unsampled streams must also be have increased. The minimum increase due to included. Table 4-55 shows estimated loads man-caused input in Lake Erie is approxi- (UpchurchII07) of dissolved solids, chloride, mately 120 percent. This increase is extremely phosphate, nitrate, calcium, and silica to each high when compared to the average of 35 per- lake in 1968. The data are based on discharge cent estimated to be contributed by atmos- and chemical data where available. Municipal pheric and man-made sources in streams of discharges into the lakes are included, where the Atlantic States (Meade530). The minimum possible, in the values for the drainage basin percent increases for the other lakes are Lake in which the municipality falls. Where no data Michigan, 18 percent; Lake Ontario, 12 per- are available, estimates are made by compar- Chemical Characteristics 229 1000 - L. SUPERIOR on the concentration of a constituent in the 750 - A L. MICHIGAN lakes. The excess of precipitation over evap- 500 - L. HURON oration governs concentration or dilution of L. ERIE constituents. Also, the input from streams V L.ONTARIO with chemical composition less than that of a 250 - lake will tend to dilute the lake. Kramer 472 considered the effects of evaporation on chem- ical equilibria in the carbonate system in the lakes. He attributed part of the approach @:_100 - to chemical equilibrium in Lake Erie (Fig- >' 75 - A ure 4-155) to the high rate of evaporation, as compared to total lake volume, in that lake. 0 50 - V Comparison of the constituent distribution maps presented earlier shows the effects of X V) 25 - inflow of dilute streams. Negative concentra- tion gradients can be seen in Lake Huron near 7 the outlet of the St. Marys River and in the lower lakes near the mouths of streams that AV* Z Z Uj 10- V drain relatively undeveloped basins. ?; VA 2 .11 0 7.5- 6 Lake currents play an extremely important A A *9A#V ;L --- part in the distribution of chemical con- 5.0 stituents. There are coastal currents in all of the lakes that tend to isolate the inshore areas 2.5- LAKE BASINS from the main lake. These currents result from the interaction of prevailing wind sys- tems, inflow and outflow of water, thermal re- gimes; and Coriolis effect on the lakes (See- 1.0 tion 6, Water Motion). Cultural inputs dis- 10 20 RUNOFF (cm) charge into these coastal zones. In Lake Supe- rior, loads from Duluth-Superior generally FIGURE 4-211 Dissolved Solids Loads from move eastward along the southern shore. Great Lakes Tributaries (geometric figures) Loads from southern Lake Michigan are iso- and Apparent Historical Range in Total Loads. lated to some extent by a semiclosed circula- Dashed lines represent earlier apparent loads. tion gyre in the southern basin of the lake. From Beeton, 1965; Weiler and Chawla, 1969 Water that flows out of Lake Michigan moves along the western shore of Lake Huron, as ing soil and bedrock lithology with terranes does water from Saginaw Bay. Water from the that have similar geology and hydrology. The Detroit River, Toledo, and Cleveland tends to ungaged drainage basins are assumed to ap- follow the south shore of Lake Erie. In Lake proximate the natural system, in which case Ontario, water from the Niagara River gener- lithologic control of composition can be demon- ally follows the south shore also. Although strated. Meade 530 has shown that on the Atlan- there is mixing in each lake by current eddy- tic seaboard rainfall contributes a significant ing, diffusion, and dispersion, the coastal cur- proportion of the dissolved solid load of rents tend to limit the lateral distribution of streams, so one can assume that precipitation chemical constituents. As a result, the concept contributes an important amount to the total of a homogeneous lake is not valid in mass load in a lake. Few studies include chemical balance studies. analyses of rainfall in the Basin. Junge and Water quality is also controlled by the ther- Werby '442 Gorham '292 and Winchester and mal regime in the lakes. During periods of Nifong 903a present a few analyses of the thermal stratification (Sections 3, 4, and 6), Great Lakes Basin. The contribution of rain- certain chemical loads are isolated from com- fall that has been included in the load estimate plete mixing. Because of mixing and diffusion is based on these analyses (Table 4-55). characteristics discharges may be restricted to the epilimnion. Since the greatest range in densities is at the thermocline, particulate or- 7.8.3 Loading and the Physical Environment ganic material often floats on the thermocline. The solubility of gas in water is inversely pro- The hydrologic cycle has a profound effect portional to the temperature of the water. 230 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-52 Pollutants Contributed to Lake Michigan from Major Tributaries Total Soluble Total Toxic Suspended Dissolved Phorphor.. Nitrogen Metals' Solids Solids Input 104 kg/yr Tons/yr 105kg/yr Tons/yr 105kg/yr Tons/yr 106kg/yr Tons/yr 108kg/yr Tons/yr DIRECT TO LAKE MICHIGAN Manistique River 1.1 11 3.37 332 1.01 100 7.695 7,574 1.435 141,255 Manitowoc River 1.7 17 .65 64 .14 14 2.411 2,373 .215 21,170 Sheboygan River 1.7 17 1.75 172 .45 44 3.430 3,376 .410 40,332 Milwaukee River 3.8 37 4.12 406 .40 39 4.580 4,580 .697 68,620 Burns Ditch 8.8 87 3.43 338 .15 15 3.153 3,103 .668 65,700 St. Joseph River 16.2 159 21.77 2,143 2.89 284 43.203 42,523 6.378 627,800 Kalamazoo River 7.8 77 14.43 1,420 1.14 112 22.807 22,448 4.098 403,325 Grand River 32.3 318 27.55 2,712 4.19 412 45.613 44,895 6.638 653,350 Muskegon River 3.3 33 8.38 825 2.43 239 17.245 16,973 4.061 399,675 Pere Marquette River .5 5 2.05 202 1.14 112 6.268 6,169 1.226 120,633 GREEN BAY TRIBUTARIES Fox River 40.3 397 90.10 8,870 .48 47.7 110.510 108,770 11.928 1,178,950 Oconto River 4.4 43 25.70 2,530 .56 55 11.125 10,950 2.077 204,400 Peahtigo River 2.3 23 5.24 516 1.96 193 13.350 13,140 2.503 246,375 Menominee River 11.7 115 20.46 2,014 --- 2 --- 2 42.276 41,610 5.006 492,750 Ford River *4 4 1.92 189 41 40 2.392 2,354 .684 67,343 Escanaba River 2 0 20 4.29 422 1 52 15 16.261 16,005 1.687 166,075 Rapid River 4:2 41 1.21 119 _'__2 --- 02 1.439 1,416 .191 18,798 Whitefish River 1.3 13 .81 80 --- 2 --- 2 1.135 1,117 .445 43,800 TRAVERSE BAY TRIBUTARY Boardman River 1.6 16 --- 2 --- 2 --- 2 --- 2 --- 2 --- 2 .567 55,789 'Includes Copper, Cadmium, Nickel, Zinc, and Chromium. 2Not Sampled SOURCE: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District (1969). TABLE 4-53 Loadings to Lake Huron Inflow from Inflow from Outflow from Lake Supe;.i:: Lake Michigan U.S. Tributaries Lake Huron Parameter T0?kg/yr 707kg/yr Tons/yr T0-7kg/yr T..s/yr 107kg/yr- Tons/yr Chloride 7.9 78,000 28 280,000 96 950,000 100 1,000,000 Total Solids 290 2,900,000 650 6,400,000 530 5,200,000 2,200 22,000,000 Suspended Solids 7.9 78,000 9.7 95,000 29 290,000 160 1,600,000 Volatile Suspended Solids 7.9 78,000 9.7 95,000 9.1 90,000 53 520,000 Total Iron 3.7 36,000 1.3 13,000 0.61 6,000 3.6 35,000 Total Phosphate 0.29 2,900 0.58 5,700 0.51 5,000 1.5 15,000 Soluble Phosphate 0.14 1,400 0.28 2,800 0.34 3,300 1.2 12,000 Nitrate-Nitrogen 1.0 10,000 0.97 9,500 0.53 5,200 3.2 31,000 Ammonia-Nitrogen 0.58 5,700 0.91 9,000 0.50 4,900 1.9 19,000 Organic-Nitrogen 0.58 5,700 0.77 7,600 0.28 2,800 1.9 19,000 Calcium 94 930,000 140 1,400,000 82 810,000 480 4,700,000 Magnesium 21 210,000 53 520,000 23 230,000 160 1,600,000 Sodium 14 140,000 19 190,000 41 400,000 71 700,000 Potassium 7.3 72,000 9.5 94,000 7.5 74,000 17 170,000 Sulfate 21 210,000 91 900,000 48 470,000 300 3,000,000 Alkalinity (CaCO3) 300 3,000,000 450 4,400,000 180 1,800,000 1,400 l4oOOO,OOO Hardness (CaC03) 330 3,200,000 530 5,200,000 270 2,700,000 1,600 16,000,000 Phenol 0.014 140 O.Oa97 95 0.0069 68 0.053 520 COD 44 430,000 24 240,000 26 260,000 120 1,200,000 BOD 7.3 72,000 9.6 94,000 4.0 39,000 17 170,000 DO 73 720,000 54 530,000 11 110,OGO 190 1,900,000 Flow (in cfs) 72,600 48,000 11,000 176,900 SOURCE: Data from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo District (1969). Chemical Characteristics 281 60 in the lakes. The smaller the volume of the lake, the more responsive it is to these varia- tions. Figure 4-212 shows the seasonal varia- tions of a number of constituents in Lake Erie. The curves are based on approximately ten years of data taken from all parts of Lake Erie 50 (Pinsak613). The variations of some con- stituents, such as calcium, are similar to vari- ations in tributaries (Figure 4-127), which suggests the importance of runoff as a con- A tributor to the seasonal variation. Other con- stituents, such as dissolved oxygen, are re- AO lated to stratification. Nitrate, silica, and sul- oil C. fates appear to be negatively correlated with %%% III turbidity. Turbidity is most abundant during % I the period of spring runoff. It appears that SPECIFIC COND./10 runoff contributes the nutrients from the watershed, and algal production assimilates 1a them. The increases in turbidity reflect algal 30 E /\TURBIDITY (REL.) production and sediment introduced by runoff. SOA 7.8.4 Flushing and Future Trends 20 DISSOL. SOLIDS/10 Many of the papers mentioned in this sub- section have dealt with the time required for the lakes to be cleaned by flushing (also called I D-0. natural displacement, retention, or residence .No & K time), presuming that chemical loads diminish 10- ALKALINITY/10 in the future. Because of the lack of knowledge Mg of the kinetics and rates of inorganic and or- ganic reactions, no one can say how long it will actually take to clean up, or flush, the lakes. It has been demonstrated that complex interac- S i tions of sediment, biota, and water occur in the 0 77" 0. N. 81, Great Lakes, the net result of which is the J 1 A J J A storage of vast quantities of chemical con- stituents in the sediment and food chain. A FIGURE 4-212 Monthly Variation in Compo- reduction in loading rates of these con- sition of Lake Erie, Based on Averaged Data stituents will likely lead to release of the Collected over the Entire Lake stored material and a significant delay in From Pinsak, 1970, unpublished achieving a higher quality of water. It is in the study of retention times in the Therefore, high BOD water in the hypolim- lakes that use of conservative elements, such nion during summer stratification is isolated as chloride, become valuable. The calculated from the air-water interface by the warmer retention times of conservative constituents epilimnion. In the absence of exchange with would correspond to minimum retention times the atmosphere, hypolimnion oxygen is con- for nonconservative constituents. Ownbey sumed without replenishment and deoxygen- and Willeke '94 and Ownbey and Kee 593 studied ation may occur if the hypolimnion volume is chloride buildup in Lakes Michigan and Erie, low. Until destratification in the fall, the only and sulfate buildup in Lake Michigan. Their mechanism of chemical exchange across the model accounted for increased loading from thermocline is diffusion. economic and demographic expansion and was Owing to differences in the thermal regime, simply a mass balance equation where cultural loading, natural runoff, organic pro- dQ duction and other causative factors, there is a Rg R, (42) cyclic variation in constituent concentration dt 232 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-54 Materials Balance for Lower Lakes, 1966-1967 Total b Chloride s dissolved solids Total nitrogen Total phos horusb 108kg/yr 103t/yr 1010kg/yr 103t/yr 107kg/yr 103t/yr 106kg/yr I 03t/yr LAKE HURON Output 9.07 1,000 2.15 23,657 5.99 66 2.0 2.2 DETROIT RIVER Output 29.9 3,300 2.63 29,000 11.4 126 16.0 17.6 LAKE ERIE Total input 40.8 4,500 3.18 35,000 17.6 194 27.3 30.1 Total output 45.4 5,000 3.27 36,000 7.7 85 4.3 4.7 Difference 4.6 500 .09 1,000 9.9 109 23.0 25.4 % Difference or retained 11 3 56 84 NIAGARA RIVER Output 47.2 5,200 3.45 38,000 8.3 95 6.99 7.7 LAKE ONTARIO Total input 62.6 6,900 4.17 46,000 15.7 173 12.4 13.7 Total output 55.3 6,100 3.36 37,000 10.3 113 2.8 3.1 Difference 7.3 800 .81 9,000 5.4 60 9.6 10.6 % Difference or retained 12 20 35 77 aThe difference between the inputs and outputs of chloride cannot be interpreted as an indication of the percent retained, but as a measure of the reliability of the determination of the materials balance. The difference of 11 and 12 percent between the total inputs and outputs for chloride for Lakes Erie and Ontario provides a good example of this reliability. bIt is assumed that the determination of the materials balance for total nitrogen and phosphorus is of com- parable reliability to the chlorides. SOURCE: International Joint Commission (1969). Q is the amount of substance in the lake at tion 4 and depends on the volume, runoff, and time t. R, is the material added each year from outflow from upper lakes, outflow from the all sources and R, is the rate of outflow multi- lake in question, precipitation, and evapora- plied by the concentration of the lake at the tion. Using the data of Beeton and Chandler,55 time of outflow. Ownbey and Willeke applied O'Connor and Mueller calculated the following an increase in municipal loads of 1.79 percent residence time of water in the Great Lakes: per year, an increase in industrial loads of 1.9 Lake Superior, 191 years; Lake Michigan, 99.1 percent per year, and a constant rural runoff, years; Lake Huron, 22.6 years; Lake Erie, 2.6 and they projected chloride buildup in Lake years; and Lake Ontario, 7.9 years. The resi- Michigan as follows: 1965, 7 mg/l; 1980, 7.9 dence times are predicated on complete mix- mg/l; 2000, 9.6 mg/l; and 2020, 11.8 mg/l. Own- ing in each lake. Rainey640 assumed complete bey and Willeke also made the following esti- mixing and equal precipitation and evapora- mates for sulfate buildup in Lake Michigan: tion to calculate buildup and decay curves for 1965, 20 mg/l; 1980, 21.8 mg/l; 2000, 24.7 mg/l; the lakes. He used the following equation to and 2020, 29.2 mg/l. O'Connor and Mueller5113 characterize the buildup and decay of a con- estimated chloride loads in the Great Lakes stituent in the lakes: system based on historical records and con- tributions of different water resource users. Residence time calculations may be made C, = Q'exp(-RT/V) [C@+(Q/R)1[l-exp(-RT/V)] (43) from several assumptions. O'Connor and Mueller583 used the time required to introduce a volume of water equal to the volume of a lake C, is the concentration of a constituent in the as a residence time. This calculation is analo- streams entering a lake and is constant, C, is gous to the water budget calculations in Sec- the concentration of the constituent in the Chemical Characteristics 233 TABLE 4-55 Estimated Modern Annual Loads to the Great Lakes, Exclusive of Loading from Upstream Great Lakes Dissolved PO 43 NO; 1 +2 S102 Solids Cl Ca aq (108kg/yr) (107kg/yr) ClOlkg/yr) (10'kg/yr) (107kg/yr) (107kg/yr) LAKE SUPERIOR Nipigon Basin, incl. Long Lake & Ogoki Diversion 121 4.11 3.3' 131 181 131 Michipicoten River 2.1' .661 2.71 2.21 3.31 2.21 St. Louis River 2.0' 1.9 2.41 2.7 3.5 1.3 Kaministikvia River 2.0 .41 3.1 037 2.7 1.81 White River (Ontario) 1.71 .381 2.01 1.71 2.51 1.71 Montreal River (Ontario) 1.2' .491 1.51 1.31 1.91 1.31 Ontonagon River 1.21 .221 1.51 1.21 1.81 1.21 Magpie River .79' .181 .98' .821 1.2 1 .821 Tahquamenon River .771 .241 .951 .781 1.21 .791 Sturgeon River .701 .18 .871 .721 1.1 1 .731 Bad River .521 .181 .641 .541 .79 .541 Montreal River (Wisconsin) .28' .0971 .28' .421 .421 .281 Presque Isle River .241 .050 .30' .251 .37' .251 White River (Wisconsin) .24' .0851 .301 .251 .371 .251 Pigeon River .21 .044 .40 .35 .39 .30 Black River (Wisconsin) .181 .064 .23' .19, .28' .19, Bois Brule River .151 .0541 .063 .048 .23' .16' Precipitation 3.01 .88' 01 Unknown 6.51 01 Other sources 161 .431 221 18, 271 1.81 Total (Based on 26 sample sites, 823 analyses) 45 11 44 45 74 29 LAKE MICHIGAN Green Bay Complex Basin 131 3.71 19, 5.61 19, 1.41 Chicago-Milwaukee Complex Basin 11 1 12' 161 4.71 161 1.21 Grand River 11 13 16 2.2 22 1.6 Fox River 10 7.8 10 .37 15 3.5 St. Joseph River 9.4 4.8 7.3 1.8 19 1.9 Seal Choix-Gros Cap Complex Basin 5.3' .18' 8.01 .23' 8.11 .561 Sable Complex Basin 5.21 2.5 .481 3.3' 11 1 1.3' Menominee River 4.3 .16 3.1 4.7 7.8 1.2 Kalamazoo River 4.2 4.0 2.5 .68 8.3 .69 Muskegon River 4.0 3.2 1.0 .41 5.1 .95 Manistee River 3.00 15 .58, .311 8.3 1 1.2' Traverse Bay Complex Basin 2.71 .581 .521 .87, 7.41 1.11 Manistique River 2.6 .36 .60 .40 4.4 .88 Peshtigo River 2.1 .83 .61 .11 2.5 .74 Bay de Noc Complex Basin 1.91 .321 131 .281 5.1 1 .66 Oconto River 1.4 .76 .40 .10 2.0 .47 Escanaba River 1.3 .22 .47 .079 2.2 .55 Menominee Complex Basin (excl. Menominee River) 1.31 .161 .251 .25' 2.51 .44' South Haven Complex Basin .821 .821 1.77 1.11 1.81 .201 Black River (Michigan, Lower Peninsula) .51' 8.7 .047 .221 1.1 1 .13 Precipitation 2.31 .701 01 Unknown 5.11 01 Other sources .66', 2.21 6.41 .86' .851 .84' Total (Based on 77 sample sites, 1563 analyses) 98 82 110 29 170 22 LAKE HURON Saginaw River 15 130 42 16 --- 2 ---2 Bruce Peninsula Complex Basin 6.81 5.21 3.0' .601 --- 2 ...2 Thumb Complex Basin 6.31 161 291 6.61 ... 2 ...2 Maitland River 2.8 4.1 .49 .64 ... 2 ---2 Maganatawan River ---2 1.81 1.21 .0601 ... 2 ---2 French River ---2 1.61 1.11 .054' ... 2 ...2 Au Sable River (Michigan) ---2 .16 .81 .081 --- 2 ---2 Mississagi River ---2 1.31 .844 .0421 ... 2 ---2 Rifle-AuGres Complex Basin ---2 .191 .50, .211 --- 2 ...2 Les Chenaux Complex Basin ---2 .161 .700 .141 --- 2 ...2 Spanish River ---2 1.21 .771 .0391 --- 2 ...2 Cheboygan River 1.4 .14 .69 .069 --- 2 ---2 Severn River 1.2 1.1 .55 .097 ... 2 ---2 Au Sable River (Ontario) 1.1 .53 .89 .44 --- 2 ---2 Presque Isle Complex Basin ---2 .131 .55 .111 ... 2 ...2 Parry Sound Complex Basin ---2 1.2 1 12 .0221 ... 2 ...2 Muskoka River .99 .65 .43 .022 --- 2 ---2 Thunder Bay River ...2 .12 .39 .12 --- 2 ...2 Manitoulin Island Complex Basin ---2 .52' .351 .0171 ... 2 ...2 Alcona Complex Basin ---2 .271 .221 .0951 --- 2 ---2 Saugeen River .57 .17 .052 .041 --- 2 2 Kawkawlin Complex Basin ---2 1.6 2.5 .551 --- 2 2 Wanaptei River ...2 .32' .222 oil, --- 2 ...2 Precipitation 2.51 .741 01 Unknown --- 2 ...2 Other Sources 19 .68 1 .631 .181 --- 2 ...2 Total (Based on 46 sample sites, 332 analyses) 58 170 100 26 'Indicates that the load was estimated by comparison with basins of known load, similar soil, and bedrock litbology, and similar hydrology. Adjustment was made for discharge. 21n the Lake Huron drainage basin there are insufficient data to allow estimation of loads for the constituents and/or drainage basins indicated. 234 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-55 (continued) Estimated Modern Annual Loads to the Great Lakes, Exclusive of Load- ing from Upstream Great Lakes Dissolved pO-3 NO-' Ca +2 S'02 Solids- TI Cl 4 3 __aq 07kT /yr) (10,kg/yr) (106kg/yr) 16T (108kg/yr) kg/yr) (107 kg/yr) LA@E ERIE (incl. Lake St. Clair) Rouge & St. Clair Complex Basins3 49 130 56 .92 130 .078 Grand River (Ohio) 31 130 200 2.8 2.51 .35' Maumee River 16 IL 46 41 4.1 2.51 Grand River (Ontario) 7.1 5.8 55 .37 7.71 .661 Thames River 4.7 5.3 9.2 .79 5.1' .37' Cuyahoga River 4.2 11 13 14 2.91 .991 Sandusky River 4.0 2.7 6.5 8.4 6.21 .741 Cattaraugus Creek 3.71 1.51 ill 7.2' 2.71 .371 Clinton River 1.9 3.6 27 1.9 1.71 .121 Portage River 1.8 2.9 5.41 1.01 1.01 .161 Black River 1.6 3.3 65 7.6 1.11 .166 Raisin Ri er 1.5 1.9 1.8 2.6 4.5 .54 Huron River (Ohio) 1.3 1.1 .81 1.2 .241 .141 Rocky River 1.2 2.1 19 2.4 .80' .13' Cazenovia Creek 1.1 .461 3.51 2.22 .841 ill Big Creek 1.0 .38 .27 .050 .891 .0761 Huron River (Michigan) .98 1.7 5.0 .73 2.5 .46 Chagrin River .86 1.1 5.11 .41 1.21 .171 Vermilion River .60 .61 .311 .81 .191 .12' Precipitation .17' .87' 0 Unknown .321 01 Other Sources 361 771 1401 251 50, 2.8' Total (Based on 90 sample sites, 1770 analyses) 170 400 670 120 230 11 LAKE ONTARIO Oswego River 59 250 5.6 19 96 .49 Genesee River 6.2 6.2 2.9 5.0 13 .86 Trent River 5.4 1.8 1.2 1.7 122 1.00 Black River 2.5 .44 1.6 2.0 5.1 1.8 Moira River 1.5 .74 1.0 .24 3.71 .321 Credit River .67 .59 .81 .11 .881 .0751 Humber River .60 .96 .73 .032 .681 .0581 Napanee River .48 .33 .19 1.11 1.11 .0931 Salmon River .44 .29 .097 .041 .971 .0821 Twentymile Creek .37 .23 .080 .041 .291 .025' Sandy Creek .36 .23 .099 .20 1.0 .065 Don River .34 .63 2.8 .035 .241 .0201 Precipitation .080, .481 01 Unknown .181 01 Other Sources 29' 31' 9.21 16' 731 2.77 Total (Based on 138 sample sites, 1435 analyses) 110 290 26 45 320 7.6 lIndicates that the load was estimated by comparison with basins of known load, similar soil, and bedrock lithology, and similar hydrology. Adjustment as made for discharge. 21n the Lake Huron drainage basin there are insufficient data to allow estimation of loads for the constituents and/or drainage basins indicated. 3Undifferenciated lake attime T=O (C2") and at time T-1 (C,). R is cal phenomena, such as stratification and the flow rate to and from the lake. Q is the rate source location play important roles in the of addition of the constituent, and V is the rate of mixing in the lakes. Rodin expanded volume of the lake. Rainey estimated that 90 the work of Rainey to include the case where a percent of the final concentration is achieved critical concentration is reached. Upon reach- when the volume that has flowed through ing the critical concentration, above which equals 2.3 times the volume of the lake. The water quality is impaired to the extent that it flow-to-volume ratio of water in a lake controls becomes useless, legislation or abandonment the buildup or recovery rate of the lakes as- by water users prevents further increases and suming uniform loading conditions. Lakes may cause water quality improvement. Erie and Ontario, which have high flow-to- SweerS7711 considered Rainey's equation in volume ratios, would reach about 90 percent of light of flushing Lake Ontario. Stratification the steady-state concentrations upon change was considered in Sweers' model, and it was in loading in approximately 6 and 20 years, concluded that removal time was only slightly respectively. Lakes Michigan and Superior, increased by the stratification. which have low flow-to-volume ratios, would Simultaneous solution of equation 43 for reach 90 percent of their steady-state concen- all the lakes and the mass-balance equation trations in about 100 years and more than 500 used for water budget calculations (Section 4), years, respectively. Rodin 678 pointed out that using yearly iterations, gives a buildup and Rainey's model is a special case of a more com- decay model. for chemical constituents (Up- plex system, and that the interaction of physi- church and Robb'110). The simultaneous solu- Chemical Characteristics 235 TABLE 4-56 Chemical LoadSa Used for Solution of the Chemical Budget Model Lake Load Condition Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario Cl load in 1968 l-07Xl08 8-19X108 1.68xlO9 3.9OxlO9 2.95xlO' Dissolved solids load in 1968 4.48x109 9.73xlO9 2.72xlO10 1.69xlOlo 1.07xlO'O Background Cl load l-07xl08 2.2OxlO8 4.OOxlO8 8.73xlO8 --- b Background Dissolved solid load 3.9OxlO9 6.10x109 8.OOxl09 8.OOxlO9 4.OOxl09 80% treatment cultural load (Cl) 1.07xlO8 2.80x,08 6.56xlO' 1.48xlO9 5.9OxlO8 80% treatment at Detroit (Cl) 1.07xlO' 8.19xlO 8 1.68x109 2.98xlO9 2.95xlO9 80% treatment of C1 at Chicago, l.07xl08 4.08xlO8 1.68x109 1.76x109 2.95x109 Milwaukee, Detroit, Toledo, and Cleveland aAll chemical loads are in kilograms per year. bThe chloride load in Lake Ontario is so low that it is masked by inflow from Lake Erie and cannot be calculated. SOURCE: Upchurch and Robb, 1972. tion approach has the following advantages: sources, and interaction with the biota and (1) All of the lakes are interconnected, so sediment inject unknowns into the model. water quality of downstream lakes depends on Sedimentary and biotic interactions with the the quality of upstream lake water. water are overriding factors for most chemical (2) Precipitation, evaporation, runoff, in- constituents and cause the times given in the flow from upper lakes, outflow, and ground following discussion to be minimal. water are included as identifiable variables; so If no additional water quality controls are the effects of natural or man-made variations developed, and population and industrializa- in the water budget on water quality can be tion continue to increase, then loads and con- tested. centrations will increase proportionately and (3) The sources of chemical loads can be be subject to the criteria discussed by Ownbey differentiated and variations in loading can be and Willeke594 and Rodin.6711 If there are no tested. increases in loading and present loads are (4) The lakes are back-mixed to approxi- maintained, then the lakes will slowly reach a mate natural mixing and assimilation. steady-state concentration. Figure 4-213 For the purposes of this appendix, several shows an example in which the initial concen- assumptions have been made to simplify use of tration of chlorides corresponds to the 1968 the simultaneous equation, chemical-budget concentration *s reported by Weiler and model. A time increment of one year is used, so Chawla,1177 and the loads are those given in that known episodes of mixing, such as spring Table 4-55. The large volumes of the upper and fall overturn, are included. Since there are three lakes cause lake water quality to re- few data on the kinetics of the biotic- and spond slowly to loading, so these lakes would sediment-interaction processes, conservative not reach steady-state concentrations for sev- and near-conservative constituents are used, eral hundred years. Lakes Erie and Ontario and the terms for sediment and biotic interac- have high flow-to-volume ratios and adjust tion are excluded. The net effect of ground relatively quickly to load conditions. However, water is assumed to be zero. The water budget flow from the upper lakes is superimposed on values (Table 4-56) used are modified from the loads into Lakes Erie and Ontario, and Section 4 so that changes in storage in the complete adjustment cannot be reached until lakes equals zero. the upper lakes have stabilized. Remembering In the examples that follow, the reader is that the rates shown in Figure 4-213 are min- reminded that the buildup or flushing rates imal because sediment- and biota-water in- are provided to illustrate processes that con- teractions are not included, it is clear that trol chemical composition only. Circulation, foresight is needed to prevent further damage thermal stratification, location of point . to the lakes. The lag in time between cause 236 Appendix 4 ONTARIO 30 2S 3o o z .0 w 5 ONTARIO Z o BAN No 0-1001-2001 300J;;;;;;;;;J4J0 TEARS Nuftok Nic"loAN FIGURE 4-213 Buildup of Chlorides from su KRIOIk Present Concentrations (Weiler and Chawla, loan 2oon 300g 1969) Assuming a Steady Influx at Estimated TEARS 1968 Loading Rates Figure from Upchurch and Robb, 1972 FIGURE 4-214 Projected Chloride Levels in the Great Lakes if All Cultural Loads are Re- (loading) and effect (lake water quality) means duced by 80% in All Lake Basins. Starting con- that present day man-caused loads need to be centrations are from Weiler and Chawla, 1969. Loads are given in Table 4-56. reduced considerably just to maintain the sta- From Upchurch and Robb, 1972 tus quo. The example in Figure 4-213 is hypothetical and does not reflect a real situa- tion because loading will not be held constant water quality control would be to arbitrarily at the 1968 level. reduce all man-made waste by 80 percent The less the difference between actual (Figure 4-172). If 80 percent treatment were chemical concentration and ultimate steady- achieved, excess conservative constituents state concentration, the more rapid is the ad- could be flushed from the lower lakes in less justment to the steady-state concentration. than 40 years. For example, Figure 4-214 shows possible The above examples show the interdepen- chloride concentrations, assuming that a dence of the Great Lakes and give an idea of chloride treatment policy is established. If cul- the changes in chemical composition that may tural inputs are reduced by 80 percent, the result after abatement action with respect to a responses of Lakes Erie and Ontario are rapid. conservative constituent. Nonconservative Lake Erie has a higher background concen- constituents would require* significantly tration than Lake Ontario, so after the initial longer times to adjust to steady-state concen- flushing Lake Erie has a higher concentra- trations because of biota- and sediment-water tion. Lake Michigan is slow to adjust to the interactions. The amount of natural loading is drop in loading because of the low rate of out- also a factor in adjustment. flow and great volume of the lake. Lake Supe- If there were no appreciable natural load- rior concentrations increase slightly due to ing, which is the case for pesticides, toxic met- the fact that background loads were slightly als, and to some extent, nutrients, then a higher than present loads (Tables 4-50 and model that does not include background levels 4-55). If only certain problem areas were could be used. This type of model is analogous treated, such as 80 percent reduction of man- to that described by Rainey640 and can be used made waste from Chicago, Milwaukee, De- to predict minimum flushing time of a lake or troit, Toledo, and Cleveland (Figure 4-215), of a conserved constituent. Figure 4-216 then adjustment is noticeable, but increases shows the percent of a constituent remaining in loading elsewhere in the system would versus change in time, assuming complete cause continued increase in chloride concen- cessation of loading at time zero and assuming trations. For example, Figure 4-215 illus- a homogeneous lake. Based on the "no trates that this treatment policy would result background" case, the residence time of water in rapid water quality improvement in the or a chemical constituent in a lake can be eval- Lake Erie basin until loading in the upper uated (Table 4-57). lakes becomes dominant. Another approach to It has not been the purpose of this subsec- Chemical Characteristics 237 1 75 50 2 13 W Z "uno" W OlCHIGAN W 10- 75- Z SUPIRIOR uJ loam 2001 3002 40:1 U YNARS cL 5.0- FIGURE 4-215 Projected Chloride Concen- tration Decay Given 80% Reduction in Loading 10 in the Chicago-Milwaukee Complex Basin, De- 2.5- troit, Toledo, and Cleveland. Starting concen- trations are from Weiler and Chawla, 1969. Loads are given in Table 4-56. From Upchurch and Robb, 1972 1.01 tion to predict how long it will take to clean up 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 the lakes. However, the flushing rates and in- YEARS teractions that were calculated for conserva- FIGURE 4-216 Time Required for Removal of tive constituents do suggest two important Conservative Constituents in the Great Lakes, facts. First, rapid adjustment of the lakes to Assuming Cessation of All Input, No Sediment changes in loading cannot be expected. Sec- or Biotic Interaction, and Zero Background ond, any action concerning a constituent that Level is widely used in the basin must include the entire basin. The consequences of lake resto- ration programs are discussed in Section 3. make the organism unsafe for human con- sumption. The five Great Lakes can be ranked accord- 7.9 Summary ing to the level of chemical quality. Lake Supe- rior, located in a northern latitude with a The chemical processes that operate in the small population in its drainage basin and Great Lakes are complex interactions of in- with a large lake volume, is the purest of the troduced natural and man-caused loads with lakes. Lake Huron, which receives water from the biota and sediment of the lakes. In the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, is second in absence of sufficient data to characterize the order of decreasing water quality. The Lake kinetics of the interactions, the actual extent Huron basin has a low population density, and of lake bottom and water degradation and the Lake Huron has a large volume and receives time required for the lakes to be naturally inflow from Lake Superior, which tends to bal- cleansed cannot be determined. Several types ance lower quality inflows from Lake Michi- of chemical loads are known to degrade water gan and Saginaw Bay. Lake Michigan is third quality in the Great Lakes. Nutrient loads in order of decreasing quality. The southern stimulate plant production, which in turn portion of Lake Michigan shows signs of eu- combines with man's organic wastes to create trophication, due to nutrient input from the demands on the oxygen system. Toxic metals agricultural and urban complexes adjacent to and hard pesticides enter the food chain and the lake. The northern half of Lake Michigan are concentrated in organisms at successively receives much higher quality tributary water higher trophic levels, where the toxicants may than the southern basin, is somewhat isolated 238 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-57 Approximate Residence Times of tained throughout the year at statistically Water or Chemical Constituents meaningful sites in the lakes. Laboratory and I field studies need to be implemented to deter- Time Required for mine the nature and extent of sediment-water Lake 90% Removal 99% Removal interaction, biotic assimilation, biological magnification, synergism of potentially harm- ful chemicals, and toxic limits of lake biota. Superior 420 years 840 years The sediment-biota-water interactions need Michigan 240 480 to be studied with respect to reaction kinetics and lake restoration techniques. The impact of Huron 160 420 structural and political action at the local, Erie 70 320 State, and Federal levels needs to be consid- ered in the context of the Great Lakes as an Ontario 50 280 interconnected system. For this purpose, Sys- tematic data on natural background. loads, lAssuming complete cessation of loading cultural loads, and the water budget must be and conservation of the dissolved obtained for use as a base in numeric alsimul a- species tion. Known water contaminants, particularly nutrients, toxic metals, and pesticides, should from the the southern basin by the general not be released into the lakes, and political and lake circulation pattern and acts as a buffer structural measures should be taken to assure between lower Lake Michigan and the rest of rapid abatement of such releases. In addition the system. Lake Ontario receives poor qual- to abatement of waste loading, restoration ity water from Lake Erie in addition to inputs methods should be investigated. The Great from within its own basin. Owing to the larger Lakes are dissimilar to upland lakes in several volume, Lake Ontario water is of higher qual- respects. These differences obviate the use of ity than Lake Eric water. The dense popula- many restoration methodologies that could be tion, high degree of industrialization, the high applied to upland lakes. Therefore, abatement level of chemical loading, and its low volume, of waste loading, dredging, chemical treat- are the reasons that Lake Erie has the lowest ment, introduction of exotic organisms, and quality water of the Great Lakes. any other restoration activity must be consid- Much remains to be done to understand the ered in light of its effect on the entire Basin. chemical processes and interactions within Since the lakes constitute a single system, the lakes. Sampling techniques need to be their interactions emphasize the need for more refined: physical, chemical, and biologi- coordination of local, regional, State, and Fed- cal water quality monitors should be main- eral programs. Section 8 BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Robert G. Rolan and Edwin J. Skoch 8.1 The Bacteria and Fungi of the Great Lakes available for further growth of producer or- ganisms. Some decomposers are chemoauto- trophs, deriving energy needed for growth from 8.1.1. Introduction the oxidation of certain inorganic molecules. These bacteria and fungi are also essential in The bacteria and fungi of the Great Lakes making mineral nutrients available to pro- have received little attention compared to ducers. Others are involved, along with cer- such groups as the plankton, the macroben- tain of the blue-green algae, in the indispens- thos, and the nekton. Most of the studies have able job of nitrogen fixation. Another group of consisted of routine determinations of densi- bacteria and fungi such as aquatic yeasts are ties of the coliform bacteria populations. The basically consumers (Hedrick and Soyu- lack of information concerning the normal genC 332) . They absorb soluble, organic nu- bacteria and fungi of the lakes is significant trients from the water as their food source. because understanding of the functional role They are important because they may be the of these organisms in nutrient recycling is only organisms capable of using this ex- fundamental to ultimate control of the eu- tremely dilute "soup" as food. Bacteria and trophication problem. Even the pathogenic fungi themselves account for little of the total bacteria and fungi, with their obvious public biomass produced by a lake, but bacteria ap- health significance, have not been adequately parently are important as the main compo- studied with regard to their occurrences and nent of the diet of the oligochaete worms dispersal. which are a component of the benthos of pol- luted lakes. The paths followed by the chemical elements 8.1.2 Bacteria and Fungi as Normal Lake as they move through an ecosystem are re- Biota ferred to as biogeochemical cycles or ecocycles. The general features of such cycles are fairly well known, especially for the elements that 8.1.2.1 Nutrient Cycling are the most important macronutrients: car- bon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur (Hutch- Bacteria and fungi act as decomposers in the inson 402). The factors that control the rate and life cycle in a lake or ecosystem. In the func- alternative routes of transfer of an element tional classificaion of organisms, producers from one component of the ecosystem to (e.g., phytoplankton) manufacture complex, another are not well known although availa- organic molecules out of simple, inorganic pre- bility and activity of bacteria and fungi are cursors; consumers (e.g., animals) convert the significant aspects. Accumulation of an ele- organic molecules of their food into organic ment in one component of the ecosystem and molecules of their own bodies, and decompos- its relative scarcity in another are often con- ers convert molecules back to the simple, inor- trolled by these microorganisms. The impor- ganic precursors. Without the decomposers, tance of bacteria in regulation is probably best dead organic material would accumulate, known in the nitrogen cycle (Figure 4-217, see never decay, and its nutrients would never be Subsection 7.5.6). Nitrogen fixation is ac- Robert G. Rolan (Subsections 8.1 through 8.3), Dalton, Dalton, Little, and Newport, Cleveland, Ohio. Edwin J. Skoch (Subsection 8-4), Department of Biology, John Carroll University, Cleve- land, Ohio. 239 240 Appendix 4 Nitrogen in Air (NZ) Nitrogen fixation in cation (the production of NO, from NF13), and at-oap re or soil I (N.bsNO3) the nutrification of NO, from N02, are Nitrogen in water chemosynthetic autotrophs and do not require (ND an organic food source since they derive their Biological nitrogen energy by oxidation of either ammonia or ni- fixation in water trite. Hirsh et a 1.362 have evidence that the Denitrification (N,-NO3) (NO3_N2) Azotobacter a P.eud-onas ZT0_8t_rUj1= ctinomycetes, Streptomycetes and Mi- Xn-aVa-em Rain or ora, are also involved in the ni- Nostoc runoff cromonosp dre-otricha trosification step. Nitrosification and nitrifica- phanizomenm tion are inhibited by acid conditions, which Nitrate - (N03) may cause stagnation of the nitrogen cycle. Denitrosification IN Availability of decomposer organisms dur- .g@_N ') ._iua Assimilation by ing summer in the western basin of Lake Erie -Te r -r -=ti a producers (protein. and other organic Nitrification nitrogen compounds) (Beaver45) indicated that a general pattern (N.,.-N.,) Nitrobacter N could be discerned although there were minor Predation and assimilation by regional differences in distribution. Or- c Denitrificatio' ( ganisms capable of decomposing animal and 3 NOz) Death or :xcretion plant protein were universally present. Mi- Denitrification Deco7 oaers crobes capable of carrying out the final. stages (N03@NH3) Airnmonificatio, of ammonification, such as the conversion of \ (organic nitrogen @mpound, NH3) urea to ammonia, were generally distributed Nitrite \@Ammonia and abundant. Organisms that perform ni- (NO?,) (NH3) trosification were less abundant, and those ca- Nitrosification -11@ (NH3-.NO?.) pable of nitrification were scarce. Thus, it Nitrosomo a. StreptomycEs would appear that a real or potential M.Cromonospora bottleneck in the nitrogen cycle during the summer is at the nitrification step. The nitro- FIGURE 4-217 Nitrogen Cycle in Aquatic En- gen fixing bacterium, Azotobacter, was found vironments to be present in fair abundance, but Beaver did not demonstrate that it was activel- fixing nitrogen under prevailing lake conditions. complished by at least six bacterial genera, Domogalla et al .220 demonstrated that there including the aerobic heterotroph, Azotobac- are seasonal fluctuations in Lake Michigan ter, and the anaerobic heterotroph, Clos- and smaller lakes in the availability of free tridium, and by certain blue-green algae ammonia and nitrate, which correlate with (Hutchinson 402 ). The algae are mostly photo- the rate of denitrification or nitrification by synthetic autotrophs and do not require an the bacteria. Nitrate concentration reaches a organic food source as do the bacteria. Hutch- maximum in March and then declines to low inson 402 thinks that algal nitrogen fixation is levels by midsummer, which corresponds with relatively important, but that nitrogen fixa- Beaver's observation on the low activity of tion by aquatic, heterotrophic bacteria ordi- nitrifying bacteria during summer. Spring narily is not, since these bacteria almost al- and summer are the main growing seasons for ways require an organic food source that con- phytoplankton so nitrate concentration tains organic nitrogen. Regardless of how it is should drop even if nitrification would con- produced, most nitrate is used by the phyto- tinue unabated. Whatever nitrate is added plankton for the production of protein and other during the summer by nitrogen fixation is also nitrogenous compounds in their tissues. consumed so rapidly that it causes no appar- After being routed through consumers, these ent increase in free nitrate concentration. De- nitrogenous compounds are eventually de- nitrification to ammonia reaches a maximum composed. The ultimate product is ammonia in the summer; but, in contrast to nitrifica- (NH,). The production of ammonia is effected tion, remains fairly high during the rest of the by nearly all decomposer bacteria and fungi, year, so the availability of free ammonia never end most of which act on only one or a few kinds of appears to be limiting. At least some species of nitrogenous compounds. Ammonia may be lost freshwater algae can use ammonia as a nitro- to the atmosphere as a gas, used directly as an gen source, and some can use both ammonia algal nutrient, or reconverted to nitrate and nitrate, but the selective effect of the rela- through an intermediate step involving ni- tive availabilities of these two nutrients has trite (NO,). The bacteria engaged in nitrosifi- not been determined (Hutchinson 402) . An in- Biological Characteristics 241 teresting point about the seasonal variations due to the addition of alloctlionous nutrients, in nitrate abundance is that nitrate seems to the normal balance of producers-consumers- become most abundant in early springjust as decomposers may be disrupted, resulting in the growing season begins. the accumulation of organic material as a Domogalla et al .220 also demonstrated the more or less permanent part of the lake presence of bacteria that are not involved in sediments. These authors maintain that such the nitrogen cycle, but which decompose other imbalance results from the inability of bacter- complex, organic substances. They found that ial population growth to keep up with the addi- stare h- hydrolyzing organisms are present tion rate of organic nutrients because of some nearly everywhere in various degrees. Cel- physic-al limiting factor and suggest that win- lulose decomposer organisms are scarce in ter low temperatures do not allow the bacteria some areas. Chitin decomposer bacteria, while to decompose the sewage and other organic widely distributed, have temperature optima material which is added year-round. Since a well above that usually found in the Great certain portion of the organic matter is not Lakes. McCoy and SarleS517 generalize that decomposed, but is added to the sediments, lake microfloras typically contain a well- there is a residual BOD which accumulates in balanced mixture of species capable of strong the lake year after year. Dugan et al.227 esti- proteolysis (protein digestion) and decomposi- mate that the annual organic input into Lake tion of cellulose, chitin, pectins, and other Erie is approximately 29 x 109 lbs., which is complex biological molecules even though eel- well above the capacity of the aerobic hetero- lulose and chitin are among the most decay- trophic bacteria whose annual production is es- resistant of natural substances. Cellulose is a timated at 1 x 101 lbs. The suspended bacterial major component of plant tissues and is mass in the lake at any given time in the sum- largely responsible for their fibrous or woody mer is estimated at 5 X 107 lbs., and most of texture. Chitin is a protein characteristic of these cells may die and may be added to the the exoskeletons (shells) of insects and other sediments with the onset of winter. The cy- arthropods. The role of detritus feeders and cling of BOD-bacteria organic matter can be their symbiotic intestinal bacteria in the de- represented as shown in Figure 4-218. Obvi- composition of cellulose, chitin, and pectins in ously, the solution to the BOD problem would fresh water has not been evaluated. be to reduce the BOD input into the lakes The actinomycetes are a poorly known and/or increase the BOD output (e.g., by har- group of microorganisms having characteris- vesting organic matter). tics suggesting relationships to both the true Bacteria and fungi are also important reg- bacteria and true fungi, although they are ulators of the phosphorus cycle. Gahler 210 more bacteria-like. The actinomycetes of summarized the evidence concerning the abil- freshwater lake sediments appear to be in- ity of some bacteria and fungi to use insoluble volved in the biodegradation of some of the forms of phosphate directly. Some bacteria more highly resistant substances such as cel- can use calcium phosphate or ferric phosphate lulose, lignin, and chitin. Colmer and as their sole phosphorus source. Colloidal MCCoy'159 in studying this group in the muds of phosphate in clay-loams can also be utilized. upland lakes in Wisconsin, found that popula- Various species of Pseudomonas, Mycobac- tion levels of Micromonospora, the most terium, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, and the characteristic actinomycete genus in aquatic fungi Penicillium, Sclerotium, and Aspergillus muds, showed a significant increase following are capable of using tri-calcium phosphate, the vernal overturn each year, but had rela- apatite, and other insoluble forms as their sole tively low populations at other times. They phosphorus source. The obvious implications hypothesized that these slow-growing ac- of these findings are that the resolubilization tinomycetes are at a disadvantage in competi- of phosphates in sediments is not entirely de- tion with other decomposer organisms when pendent upon the oxidation-reduction poten- readily degradable nutrient sources are avail- tial. It has also been proposed that bacteria able, as would be the case in the summer and may resolubilize ferric phosphate by gen-er- fall. In the spring, when all the nutrients are ating hydrogen sulfide, which then reacts with either in an inorganic form or in resistant or- the ferric phosphate to produce ferrous sulfide ganic molecules, the actinomycetes, which can and soluble phosphate. break down such organic molecules, flourish. Dugan et al .227 mention a phenomenon McCoy and SarleS5117 reiterate Birge's68 con- which is not generally appreciated. Bacteria clusion that bacteria stand at the base of the themselves compete with the phytoplankton fertility of lakes. In the case of eutrophication, for the available soluble phosphate and may 242 Appendix 4 BOD (in) BOD (produced) BOD (out) ity of surfaces is a very important factor in the Bacteria (in) -.V. Bacteria (produced) Bacteria (out) ecology of aquatic bacteria and fungi. Stalked bacteria of the sulfur and iron efiemoauto- f trophic groups and other sessile types are im- portant components of the aquatic microflora. BOD (r -sd) ia. (returned) In fact, some sessile bacterial species have et F-c- been discovered only through permitting BOD (settled) Bacteria (settled) them to grow on submerged microscope slides FIGURE 4-218 Compartments of BOD- in their natural habitats. Fungi, apparently, Bacteria Exchange do not grow when out of contact with an ap- From Dugan et al., 1969 propriate surface. Bacteriain suspensiontend to aggregate with other seston, which provide have the advantage whenever the phosphate considerable combined surface areas, includ- concentration is as low as 0.3 mg/l. ing both plankton and non-living particles Bacteria and fungi cannot be ignored in the (Pfister et al .606) . There is some evidence that nutrients and DDT strongly adsorb on such problem of nutrient enrichment of lakes. 1.227). Kuentze 14711 indicates bacteria are intimately aggregations (Pfister et al.,606 Dugan et a involved in controlling the amount of avail- These aggregates may then be consumed by able carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide cannot be detritus and filter feeders, providing a route of obtained rapidly enough from carbonate salts entrance for otherwise dilute nutrient and or from the atmosphere to support bloom con- DDT concentrations into the biomass. ditions. However, abundant amounts of car- Weeks 875 determined that lake sediment bon dioxide can be produced as the result of bacteria, both aerobes and anaerobes, de- the heterotrophic nutrition of bacteria on or- crease in abundance with increasing depth of ganic carbon. Some algae require organic residence in the mud. The upper stratum, or growth factors such as vitamins (Holm- mobile layer, had 2.5 times more bacteria than Hansen 374) and perhaps chelating agents the more stable sediment. In the stable sedi- (Lange 4114), or other poorly understood ment, aerobes outnumbered anaerobeS 10 to 1 exometabolites produced by bacteria. to a depth of 6 cm. At 6 cm to 10 cm, anaerobes slightly outnumbered aerobes. Chromogenic bacteria, those which produce colored colonies on laboratory media, are more 8.1.2.2 Other Aspects of the Ecology of Normal common among aquatic bacteria than soil bac- Lake Bacteria and Fungi teria. McCoy and Sarles 517 note that chromo- gens may be common among aquatic bacteria McCoy and Sarles 517 report that periphytic because the pigments offer protection against bacteria are generally more abundant than damaging effects of solar radiation. Weeks 1175 those suspended in water. Benthic bacteria found that chromogenic bacteria, exclusive of appear to be more abundant in sediments at the chromogenic actinomycetes, comprised moderate depths than in either very shallow 24.5 percent of those bacteria in the mobile waters or at great depths. In shallow water, layer and 20.7 percent in the 0 cm to 2 em layer bacterial abundance is directly related to the of formed sediment. Colmer and MeCoy159 de- relative abundance of vegetation. It may be termined similar patterns of distribution of argued, of course, that the relative scarcity of the actinomycete, Micromonospora, which bacteria in vegetationless shallow areas is due was essentially restricted to the sediments ex- more to the lack of productivity of the area cept during mixing periods when it is probably than to any surface effect. Similarly, picked up from the bottom by convection cur- Graikoski 296 found greater suspended bacter- rents. Micromonospora is not abundant in ial populations in shallow water of Lake On- sandy littoral zones that have little or no vege- tario than in deep water. The amount of vege- tation and are subjected to vigorouswave ac- tation in these shallow areas was not reported. tion; rather it is associated with silty profun- Robohm and Graikoski 669 could find no con- dal areas rich in organic matter. As with bac- sistent differences in the bacterial population teria, Micromonospora decreases markedly in levels from various depths in Lake Michigan. numbers with increasing depth below the They also found that samples taken within sediment-water interface. relatively short distances of one another and In general, yeast populations increase with at similar depths showed considerable differ- water depth. Hedrick et a 1.334 found the ences in bacterial populations. The availabil- greatest yeast cell densities at 100 m-in the Biological Characteristics 243 deep open waters of Lake Michigan, but in served the same high numbers of bacteria in waters of intermediate depth, the greatest nearshore samples after only two days of in- density was at 40 m to 50 in. In shallow areas, cubation as reported by Scarce'714 but this dis- cell density was greatest at 15 in to 20 in, just tinction disappeared after 10 days of incuba- above the bottom. The depth distribution of tion because of the subsequent development of yeasts and molds in waters of Lake Ontario the more numerous slow-growing psy- appears to be correlated with nitrite concen- chrophils of the deepwater samples. Direct mi- trations, which generally increase with croscopic counts of bacterial populations depth (Hedrick and SoyugenC332 ). The most nearly always exceed estimates based on numerous species of yeast, Candida guillier- growth of laboratory media. Some of the most mondii and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, are important bacteria, the sulfur- and iron-using also found regularly in low numbers near the species of chemosynthetic autotrophs, are sel- surface. They cannot utilize nitrate as a nitro- dom counted due to the lack of adequate tech- gen source but they can use both ammonia and niques for laboratory culture (McCoy and organic nitrogen, which seem to be sufficiently SarleS 517). available at all depths to promote their Virtually nothing is known concerning the growth. psychrophilic and thermophilic bacteria of the Some species of yeasts, such as Hansenula Great Lakes, i.e., those bacteria adapted for and a pink yeast, Rhodotorula graminis, are growth at low or high temperatures, respec- associated with muds. In contrast, the black tively. Robohm and Graikoski669 indicate that yeasts, mainly Aureobasidium, are never psychrophils are relatively more numerous in found in muds, although they may be abun- deep lake water than in inshore areas. Farrell dant in the overlying waters (Hedrick and and Rose 2511 confirm the importance of psy- Soyugenc 332,333) . The sediment yeasts are chrophils in lake ecology, which comprise 41 more closely related to terrestrial soil yeasts percent to 76 percent of the bacteria sus- than to the water yeasts as a group (Hedrick pended in lake water and 11 percent to 33 per- and SoyugenC333). The diversity of yeasts in cent in the sediments. Virtually nothing is sediments also seems to exceed that in water known concerning the differences in func- (Hedrick et al.334) . Hedrick et al .335 found that tional attributes of psyebrophils relative to the variety of yeasts in sediments of Lake mesophils or thermophils. An understanding Michigan is related to the depth at which the of the functional significance of thermophilic sediment is found. The greatest diversity oc-. bacteria is fundamental to comprehension of curs in the black, viscid muds characteristic of the effects of discharge of thermal effluents the principal basins. There are three species of from power generating plants. Stangenberg yeast in this mud that occur in no other type. and Pawlaczyk 757 have found that tempera- The red clays of plateau areas of the lake bot- ture increases in rivers, due to such thermal tom containing iron oxides support the second discharges, have caused reduction of total greatest variety of yeast species. Grey-black bacterial populations, including a drastic re- clays and sandy-surfaced clays contain few duction of psychrophils and some increase in kinds of yeast. Black and red-banded and the thermophils. Seasonal changes in tempera- black mottled sediments, which have large ture in estuarine areas induce corresponding amounts of iron sulfides, contain generally no changes in the proportion of psychrophils and yeasts. mesophils: populations shift toward predomi- Lake Erie seems to have greater yeast nantly psychrophilic bacteria in winter and species diversity but lesser cell densities per predominantly mesophilic bacteria in summer unit volume than Lake Michigan (Hedrick et (Sieburth 738). It is reasonable to presume that al .334 ). There also seems to be some differences similar changes occur among open lake bac- in the species of yeasts present in Lakes teria, but the functional significance of such Michigan and Ontario (Hedrick and variations is unknown. Soyugene 332) , but studies on this group are not extensive. There is no doubt that the aquatic bacterial 8.1.3 Bacteria and Fungi as Indicators of numbers and variety of species exceed those Pollution reported by nearly all investigators. This is due to the inadequacy of laboratory media for the growth of many types and to differences 8.1.3.1 Coliform Bacteria caused by varying periods and temperature of incubation. Robohm and Graikoski669 ob- The most common use of bacteria as indi- 244 Appendix 4 cators of pollution is the coliform index. The This aftergrowth indicates an ability of the most common source of coliforms is domestic coliforms to multiply for a short period of time and feedlot sewage since the normal habitat of outside the digestive tract. Fecal streptoeocci Escherichia coli is the intestinal tract of usually declined under the same conditions, warm-blooded mammals. However, not all col- although under certain circumstances these iforms are fecal coliforms. Aerobacter bacteria also demonstrated an ability to grow aerogenes, for example, is usually a nonfecal outside their mammalian hosts. The following form. It is also usually less common than Es- factors affected survival time of these two cherichia coli in surface waters, but occa- types of sewage bacteria: sionally may be locally abundant. (1) temperature of the water into which the The presence of 5000 coliforms per 100 ml as bacteria are discharged a monthly pretreatment average is considered (2) the abundance of organisms, such as sufficient contamination to condemn water as protozoa, which feed on bacteria not potable in Ohio. The danger of disease from (3) the amount of organic nutrients avail- colon bacilli in their natural habitat is slight, able for bacterial growth but they can cause infant diarrhea and local (4) the initial population density ofthe bac- infections. However, coliforms do indicate a teria probability of the presence of dangerous (5) the chlorination of the sewage effluent, pathogens that are also associated with sew- and, presumably, the presence or absence of age. Fecal coliform counts correlate more pre- other toxic materials in the environment. cisely with either the presence or absence of There were no consistent differences in col- pathogens. The pathogens are normally not iform survival patterns at YC, 10*C, and 20'C, tested themselves because they are difficult to but at 35*C the aftergrowth and subsequent culture and are much less abundant than the die-off occurred more rapidly. The authors coliforms. Pathogens associated with fecal think that this pattern can be attributed to the contamination of water include the causative fact that 35'C is near the optimum tempera- organisms of typhoid fever, cholera, lepto- ture for coliforms and that predatory proto- spirosis, infectious hepatitis, and bacillary and zoans were inhibited by the warmth. Fecal amoebic dysentery. In regard to the correla- streptococci, on the other hand, died away tion between coliforms and pathogens, the Na- with increasing rapidity as temperature in- tional Technical Advisory Committee on creased. Water Quality Criteria to the Federal Water Another factor that influences the survival Pollution Control Administration 1131 made the of coliforms is the clarity of the water (Federal following statement: Water Pollution Control Administration 832). While the total coliform counts may be a satisfac- High light penetration is correlated with tory indicator in certain respects, the sub-committee shorter survival times. Interpretation of col- believes that the variable correlation of total col- iform count data thus becomes extremely dif- iforms content with contamination by excretasuggest ficult. Heavy rainfall may lower the coliforin that total coliforms are not a satisfactory indicator of count through dilution or may increase it if the possible presence of pathogens in recreational water. sanitary and storm sewers are combined and That portion of the total coliforms in water that the flow rate during a storm exceeds sewage are of fecal origin may range from 1% to more than treatment plant capacity. GlatZ 288 found signif- 90%. At the 1% level, a standard of 1,000 coliform icantly different coliform counts at the same bacteria per 100 ml. would constitute an undue limita- site over five-minute intervals. Most of the tion on availability of water for contact recreation. At the 90% level, a limit of 1,000 counts per 100 ml. older data are based only on total coliform would constitute a threat to the health of a contact counts which, as noted above, are ambiguous. recreational user. Thus, total coliform criteria are not Despite these difficulties, it is reasonable to adequate for determining suitability of water for use accept long-term changes in average coliform for contact recreation. counts at particular locations as indicative of A number of problems makes the interpre- environmental change, namely sewage dis- tation of coliform counts rather difficult. charge and degree of treatment. Scarce et al.716 found that the survival time in Early reports of coliform counts in Lake natural waters of coliforms and fecal strep- Erie were low except in the immediate vicinity tococci, another group of bacteria indicative of of large cities such as Erie, Pennsylvania, and sewage influx, was dependent on a variety of Cleveland, Ohio (Zillig;921 Gottschall and Jen- factors. Coliform counts nearly always showed nings;294 EJIMS240). Beeton49 reports that col- an increase in the first few days following iforms increased threefold in the western basin sewage mixing with Lake Michigan water. of Lake Erie from 1913 to 1946-48, but showed Biological Characteristics . 245 no significant increase elsewhere in the open seems to be related to the amount of organic lake. Total bacterial counts declined at the nitrogen (Hedrick et al. 330) . The populations water intake at Erie, Pennsylvania during the were lowest in open waters, high in harbors period 1920-1957. During the years 1926 to and near river mouths, and highest at the 1942, the average coliform count per 100 ml mouths of the rivers and streams that dis- was 70 for Lake Michigan in the vicinity of charge considerable amounts of organic nitro- Chicago (Damann'81). During the period 1943 gen into the lake. Yeasts and molds may, to 1958, the coliform count declined to an aver- therefore, also be indicators of organic en- age of 23/100 ml. richment, whether or not this enrichment is Data from various sources, mainly Jackson associated with domestic sewage. et al.419 indicate a rank order of sewage dis- charge into the Great Lakes. In 1962, Lake Erie had the highest coliform counts, followed 8.1.4 Bacteria and Fungi as Pathogens by Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, and Lake Su- perior. The last two receive little sewage. There were no data for Lake Ontario. Coliforms 8.1.4.1 Salmonella and Shigella are normally evident in inshore areas rather than throughout a lake. Scarce71-4 found es- The occurrence of enteric bacteria sentially none in central Lake Michigan. pathogenic to humans in the water of the Great Lakes, at least in Lakes Erie and Michi- gan, is well established (Scarce and Peter- 8.1.3.2 Total Bacteria son ;715 Peterson;603 Clemente and Christen- sen;150 and Dutka et al.232). All these reports High levels of coliforms, fecal streptococci, describe many varieties of Salmonella, but and total bacteria in Lake Michigan are as- Shigella organisms were not found. Certain sociated with urban centers discharging large kinds of Salmonella seem to be more common amounts of sewage into the lake (Scarce714). in spring and others in summer (Peterson603). In Green Bay, however, elevated total bac- Scarce and Peterson715 note that salmonellae teria counts were found without correspond- and the pathogenic enteroviruses such as ing increases in sewage discharge. Green Bay poliovirus, ECHO, Coxsackie, and reovirus receives a considerable amount of allocthon- have prolonged survival times in receiving ous organic matter in the form of pulp, paper, waters, and thus may present ahealth hazard. and food-processing wastes, which could be Two hundred and tWenty-seven. cases of sal- expected to increase the total heterotrophic monellosis were reported in Chicago in 1962 bacteria populations without increasing col- (Scarce and Peterson 715) . An explanation for iform and fecal streptococci. Total bacteria the absence of Shigella in the above surveys counts may reveal information that might be may be found in the work of Hedrick 329 and overlooked when full reliance is placed on fecal Hedrick et a 1.331 They found that waters of bacteria counts. Scarce also observed the Lake Michigan were quite toxic to Shigella familiar phenomenon of a lowered species di- species, Salmonella typhosa, and Salmonella versity in polluted waters. A smaller variety of paratyphi, and less toxic or even nontoxic to bacteria species occurs in polluted areas even Escherichia coli and Salmonella schottmuel- though the total number of individuals may be leri. Hedrick 329 attributes this toxicity to very high. dialyzable products of algae. Lake Michigan waters tend to be toxic more often in the late summer months when certain kinds of 8.1.3.3 Yeasts and Molds plankton algae are at a maximum. Antibiotic substances from actinomycetes should also be The distribution of the two most common considered as a possible toxin. species of yeasts in Lake Ontario, Candida A correlation between coliform counts and guilliermondii and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, pathogenic bacteria is not obvious. Peter- correlates with the densities of coliform bac- son 603 reported that Salmonella isolations in- teria (Hedrick and SoyugenC332). It is likely creased sharply as coliform counts passed that those environmental conditions favoring each of two plateaus, 100 and 1000 cells per the presence of coliform bacteria also promote milliliter. Dutka et a 1.232 state that sal- the growth of these yeasts. In Lake Superior, monellae could be isolated from water con- the distribution of the greatest cell densities tiguous to the major population centers on the per unit volume of yeasts and molds in water Great Lakes even when these waters conform 246 Appendix 4 to existing coliform standards. Clemente and of the toxin in fish to its presence in the envi- Christensen 150 report a number of incidents in ronment and not to the feeding habits of the which no salmonellae were found in water fish. Thus, the fish of southern Green Bay, samples with high coliform counts, and yet which has an environment condWiVe to the Salmonella was isolated from a Lake Erie development of Clostridium botulinum, have a sample having less than 100 coliforms per mil- high incidence of the toxin. Bott et al. specu- liliter. late that botulism should increase in any lake which is overenriched and develops anoxic conditions, but they point out that this has not 8.1.4.2 Botulism happened in Lake Erie. Obviously, the envi- ronmental requirements of Clostridium The toxin of Clostridium botulinum has botulinum are not so simple. been cited as causing the death of large num- bers of loons, gulls, grebes, and mergansers in Lake Michigan in 1963-64 (Fay et al .259). Mor- 8.1.4.3 Parasitic Fungi tality was related to the feedinghabits of birds that eat fish and some larger aquatic inverte- Beneke and SchMitt6l and Schmitt and Ben- brates. The toxin is probably produced by eke 720 report the presence of a number of Clostridium under anaerobic conditions in the parasitic fungi from sediments of the western sediments. The toxin enters fish and inverte- basin of Lake Erie, some of which have been brates during feeding or by absorption known to infect fish. There are no data on the through the gills without apparent harm; they incidence of such infections in the Great in turn are eaten by the birds who die. This is Lakes. due either to the lower tolerance of these birds to the toxin of botulism, or to a biological amplification of the toxin (Jensen and Al- 8.1.5 Actinomycetes as Causes of Tastes and len 430). However, it has not been conclusively Odors in Drinking Water proven that these birds died from botulism (Herman 349) . Gulls can withstand very large Unpleasant tastes and odors in drinking doses of botulism toxin, as much as 200,000 water are one of the common problems for fil- mouse-lethal doses, with no visible effect. tration plants. Causes of these tastes and odors Local ornithologists who have been studying are generally conceded to be biogenic in origin gull populations believe that the 1963 die-off although some odorous substances come from was not excessive for a year in which many industrial wastes. Even so, Hoak 363 contends young birds were produced. Gull populations that phenolic tastes and odors derive from the have increased about fourfold because of the microbial decomposition of tannins rather abundance of alewife as food (Ludwig5O8). than runoff from steel production wastes, the Therefore, more dead gulls are likely to be source to which they are usually attributed. noticed even if the death rate remains the The more common tastes and odors are usu- same; in fact, there may not actually have ally described as earthy, musty, or fishy. been a mass die-off of aquatic birds. Nonethe- These odors have been customarily attributed less, the diagnosis of botulism for the simulta- to algal blooms, which show up in raw waters neous die-off of four unrelated species is more or less simultaneously with the odorous rather convincing for the following reasons: substances (Palmer 595) , but there aria reasons all the birds had similar feeding habits; they to think that actinomycetes may actually be all showed symptoms of botulism paralysis responsible. potoS623 reports the regular oc- while dying; and a necropsy isolated botulism currence of a musty taste and odor problem at toxin in each species. Cleveland's Crown Filtration Plant, in sum- Bott et al.79 cite two incidents of human mers since 1966 whenever the intake is inun- botulism from consumption of Great Lakes dated by hypolimnetic Lake Erie water. This fish. Such cases may increase if conditions fa- occurs when winds blow out of the south for vorable for the development of Clostridium several days, causing displacement of the botulinum become more common. The resis- hypolimnion toward the southern shore. The tant spore stage is extremely common, but the plankton in this hypolimnetic water contains a spores are of little significance if the proper number of algal genera which Palmer595 as- type of anaerobic environment for the growth sociates with taste and odor problems. of the bacterium and production of its toxin Studies implicating actinomycetes in taste does not exist. Bott et al.79 relate the presence and odor production are scattered and go back Biological Characteristics 247 to the start of this century. Thaysen 790 dem- spore - primary filaments onstrated that actinomycetes, in organically (0. 5 u dia.) enriched river sediments in England produced a substance with a musty odor. This sub- zygospore motile ygotes stance was assimilated by fish and imparted an earthy taint that rendered the flesh e) secondary filaments inedible (Thaysen and PentelOW791 ). Egovora (0.6 _1. 0u dia. and Isachenk0239 showed that an earthy odor could be produced by actinomycetes growing FIGURE 4-219 General Life Cycle of Aquatic on bottom muds. The most interesting aspect Actinomycetes of this study was the apparent correlation with the texure of the bottom. The greatest amount of odor was produced in a sandy mud trient material remains, another generation and the least in silty mud, the latter presum- of primary filaments may be produced with ably being efficient in adsorbing the substance. the resulting fish odor. These authors main- The most convincing study of the role of ac- tain that destroying algae with algacides, a tinomycetes in producing taste and odor sub- commonly used control measure, is self- stances was made by Silvey and Roach .739 defeating because the dead algae merely add They correlate the production of odorous ma- to the nutrient sources of the actinomycetes.. terials with the life cycle stage and the availa- The actinomycetes themselves are unaffected bility of organic nutrients. They describe the by such algacides as copper sulfate and chlo- general life cycle based on laboratory cultures rine. of seven genera of aquatic actinomycetes Since actinomycin and a number of other (Figure 4-219). In the presence of organic nu- antibiotics are derived from soil actinomy- trients, the spores germinate and produce cetes, it is not surprising that aquatic ac- primary filaments that give off a strong fish tinomycetes produce such substances too (Saf- odor for 2 days to 10 days depending on the ferman and Morris;111,199 Kosmachev ; 466 temperature. In the absence of an adequate Ivanitskaya and Upiter417). There are hun- nutrient supply, the filament produces zygo- dreds of actinomycetes showing antibiotic spores before death, otherwise it produces properties, which are rather specific as to motile zygotes which develop directly into their target organisms. In view of the life cycle larger secondary filaments. Initially, the sec- work of Silvey and Roach, it is interesting to ondary filaments produce a strong grassy speculate whether or not the actinomycetes taste and odor for 2 days to 10 days. With a produce their own organic nutrient source by continuing nutrient supply, a pungent musty poisoning algae. It has been suggested that odor develops for the next 2 days to 10 days. antibiotics derived from actinomycetes could Following this, there is a period of production be used as specific algacides with low residual of a slight musty "potato-bin" odor before effects (Safferman and MorriS699). Since one of sporulation. The genera which fit this pattern the consequences of using this or any other include Aptisima, Calyptroida, Glancop- type of algacide would be the liberation of or- primenda, Brevisporulata, Pyrospora, and ganic nutrients for actinomycete growth and Aspyrospora. possible subsequent taste and odor produc- Silvey and Roach 739 maintain that the algae tion, such algacides would not obviate the associated with taste and odor problems have necessity for controlling the algae through been accused of causing these problems control of nutrient input to the lakes. merely because of their coincidental presence. They suggest that certain blue-green algae, such as Polycystis, Aphanizomenon, and 8.2 The Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, and Anabaena, may have an indirect causal rela- Periphytic Invertebrates of the Great tion to the problem by being the nutrient Lakes source for actinomycete growth. These algae form floating mats, ranging in size from a mil- limeter to several inches, in which actinomy- 8.2.1 Components of the Fauna cetes colonize. When the algae begin to die off the secondary filaments flourish on their re- The invertebrate fauna of the Great Lakes is mains and produce first a strong, nauseating, rich and diverse, comprising more than 500 musty odor followed by a rotting-wood odor species in ten phyla. A list of species arranged mixed with an earthy smell. If sufficient nu- according to lake and major taxonomic groups 248 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-58 Number of Species in Major Taxa Reported in the Great Lakes St. Superior Michigan Huron Clair Erie Ontario Protozoa (unicellular animals) 2 20 - 7 70 Coelenterata (hydras & jellyfish) 2 2 2 1 4 - Rotatoria 8 64 6 109 147 6 Calanoid Copepods 8 8 8 6 9 10 Harpaticoid Copepods 1 1 - - 1 - Cyclopoid Copepods 5 6 2 9 10 1 Cladocera (water fleas) 19 20 27 8 48 8 Porifera (sponges) - 1 1 1 1 - Turbellaria (flatworms) 1 1 1 4 2 Bryozoa (moss animals) 1 2 1 1 1 - Nematoda (roundworms) 1 1 2 1 1 1 Tubificidae (sludgeworms) 14 24 21 4 22 22 Enchytraeidae 1 1 - - 1 - Naididae 4 12 7 6 5 5 Lumbriculidae 2 - - - 1 - Polychaeta 1 - - 1 1 Hirudinea (leeches) 10 1 1 8 16 - Sphaeriidae (fingernail clams) 14 19 24 3 19 24 Unionidae (mussels) 2 - 6 19 28 1 Gastropoda (snails) 24 3 31 29 24 28 Tardigrada (waterbears) - 1 - - 1 - Hydracarina (water mites) 1 1 6 1 3 Ostracoda (seed shrimp) 1 1 1 1 1 Mysidacea (opposum shrimp) 1 1 1 - 1 - Isopoda (aquatic sowbugs) 4 - 2 2 2 1 Amphipoda (scuds) 4 2 3 3 5 2 Decopoda (shrimp & crayfish) 3 - - 2 4 1 Chironomidae (midges) 5 1 28 - 29 12 Other Diptera - - 2 1 3 - Neuroptera - - 1 - 1 Hemiptera - - 1 4 Plecoptera (stoneflies) - - - 1 Odonata (damsel flies) - - - 1 2 Trichoptera (caddisflies) - - 3 - 14 - Ephemeroptera (mayflies) - 1 8 2 15 1 Coleoptera (beetles) - - 1 - 4 - Total species 139 194 197 230 501 123 Blank categories 10 12 9 11 0 21 No. Research Reports 18 33 26 12 53 19 Biological Characteristics 249 is presented in Table 4-58. This table reveals parently tychopelagic, that is, they are nor- the following pertinent facts concerning mally members of the benthos that were swept knowledge of the invertebrates of the Great up due to wave or current action and had not Lakes- returned to the bottom at the time of sam- (1) Some groups of organisms have been pling. Another problem develops in the mar- studied much more extensively than others. ginal zone. The marginal zone encompasses These include the planktonic crustaceans, those areas around the periphery of a lake and sludgeworms, fingernail clams, amphipods, the shores of islands that are marshy, weedy, midges, and mayflies. The rotifers and proto- and/or can be described as baylets, coves, etc. zoans were extensively studied at the begin- This marginal zone will be included when ning of the century, but they have largely been there appears to be significant exchange of ignored since then. water between the zone and the lake proper. (2) Some groups of organisms have been Methods used to collect organisms in these studied more thoroughly in some lakes or por- protected areas often make it impossible to tions thereof than in others. The plankton of distinguish between plankton, periphyton, Lake Ontario have received little attention in and benthos. comparison to plankton of other lakes with lower human population densities in their wa- 8.2.2 Zooplankton and Zoobenthos as tersheds. Environmental Indicators (3) The entire invertebrate faunas of some lakes or their subdivisions have been studied much more thoroughly than others. Based on 8.2.2.1 Zooplankton a number of research reports used to compile the list of species, the fauna of Lake Erie is the Plankton are transients carried from place most thoroughly known, followed in order by to place in the water mass. Plankton reflect those of Lakes Michigan, Huron, Ontario, Su- the integrated effects of all the environmental perior, and St. Clair. In Lake Erie, the major- influences acting on them, but, since their ity of studies have been conducted in the west- source is generally unknown, interpretation is ern basin. Saginaw Bay, Georgian Bay, and difficult. Plankton may not show the effects of the Straits of Mackinac are better known than pollution until far from the source (Davis 194). the mid-lake regions of Lake Huron and the Nonetheless, plankton are valuable indicators bays have been studied more thoroughly in of environmental conditions in entire lakes or Lake Ontario than the pelagic regions. in large areas of lakes. For example, plankton (4) Further research is necessary on the in Lake Erie near the mouth of the Cuyahoga invertebrate faunas of the Great Lakes. The River are not particularly good indicators of column in Table 4-58 entitled, "Blank pollution coming from the river (Davis 194). Due Categories" is a rough index of the degree of to the dynamics of the mixing of the two differ- ignorance about the fauna of each lake. ent water masses, it is not possible to show the It is often difficult to assign a particular fertilizing effect of organic pollution from the species to one of the categories: plankton, river. However, toxic effects on lake plankton periphyton, or benthos. For example, the crus- in the zone of mixing can be seen. The proto- tacean, Mysis relicta, spends the daylight zoan Tintinnidium and the microcrustacea hours on or near the bottom and can be called Daphnia spp., Diaptomus spp., and Epis- benthic; but at night, it migrates toward the chura lacustris were scarce in the zone of mix- water surface and is then obviously ing where the iron concentration, a major, tox- planktonic. Benthos is defined here as those ic, industrial waste of the local steel plants, organisms that live in or on a particulate sub- exceeded 6 ppm. Davis concluded that the strate, such as mud or sand, most of the time. presence of many dead Copepoda and Clado- Periphyton are those organisms that charac- cera indicate water highly polluted by indus- teristically live on submerged objects such as trial wastes, but other methods are more reli- other organisms, rocks, logs, and pilings. able and sensitive. Plankton are relatively weak swimming or- The following zooplankton are predominant ganisms that live suspended in the water. in glacial lakes. Asterisks indicate the zoo- There is a problem in distinguishing true plankton characteristic of deeper lakes only plankton (euplankton) from organisms that (Eddy235). However, every one of the deep lake are accidental and temporary members of the species has been collected from either or both plankton, especially among the Protozoa and Lake St. Clair and the western basin of Lake Rotatoria. Many of these organisms are ap- Erie. 250 Appendix 4 Protozoa: Difflugia globulosa longiremis. Daphnia pellucida, on the other Codonella cratera hand, may be indigenous to Lake Superior. Cladocera: Bosmina longispina* At least some Daphnia species are adapt- Daphnia retrocurva* able to low levels of dissolved oxygen, develop- Daphnia "longispina" ing enough hemoglobin under semi-anaerobic Chydorus sphaericus conditions to give them a distinct red color (Hrbacek 386) . Their value as an organic pollu- Rotifera: Polyarthra vulgaris tion indicator is thus reduced. Hrbacek 3116 Keratella cochlearis showed that certain species of Daphnia are Notholca longispina* differentially favored over others when cul- Notholca striata tured in various natural waters. He concluded Asplanchna priodonta that pollution usually does not act directly on Synchaeta stylata the zooplankton, but rather it changes their Copepoda: Diaptomus ashlandi* environment: Diaptomus sicilis* A part of the changes in zooplankton, attributed Diaptomus oregonensis to pollution,.may be owing instead to the changed Diaptomus minutus* nutritional level that results from the development of Epichura lacustris* bacteria or algae. Other changes are owingto changes in fish stock, since the oxygen deficiency, one of the Cyclops bicuspidatus most common consequences of pollution, affects pred- Mesocyclops edax* ators more seriously than some species of coarse fish. Limnocalanus macrurus Certain species indicate either the trophic 8.2.2.2 Zoobenthos level or the. warmth of the lower lakes. Diap- tomus siciloides and Diaptomus reighardi are The benthos are better indicators of envi- recorded only for Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. ronmental conditions than the plankton be- Eurytemora affinis has not been found in cause they are more or less fixed. The presence Lake Superior, but this may reflect only the or absence and relative abundances of benthic limited time for range expansion in the Great taxa reflect the integrated effects of water Lakes which this recent invaderfrom brackish that has passed through a particular location. environments has enjoyed. This species was (1.) Oligochaetes not recorded in the Great Lakes until 1966. Senecella calanoides has not been taken in Brinkhurst97 chided those who, observing Lake Erie. Apparently, it is restricted to that tubificids are abundant in bodies of fresh areas below the thermocline (Wells;110 water with excess organic matter, have pro- Robertson'14), and much of Lake Erie lacks a posed "various rather naive schemes of pollu- hypolimnion. Nevertheless, Lake Erie has tion detection and assessment." His studies been sufficiently sampled, and no documenta- have revealed that "there is no simple numer- tion of its presence exists. Therefore, the ab- ical relationship between the numbE!rs of un- sence of Senecella calanoides may reflect some identified worm species, or the proportion of significant environmental control. all worms in the fauna, and pollution of any Among the cyclopoid copepods, the following but the must obvious, and demonstrably ex- appear to be lower lake species, as they are treme, types." It is necessary to identify these found only in Lakes Michigan, St. Clair, and/or worms to the species level to make full use of Erie: Cyclops americanus, C. ater, C. prasinus, them as,indicator organisms. Sampling varia- C. phaleratus, C. vernalis, C. bicolor, C. tions are marked, but useful information on fluviatilis, C. fimbriatus, C. serrulatus, C. al- distribution of tubificid species can be ex- bidus, C. quadricornus, C. robustus, and C. tracted by mapping on the basis of order of pulchellus. Occurrence of Cyclops americanus magnitude differences (zone 1 = 1-9 worms/ is further restricted to the western basin of M2, zone 2 = 10-99/M2, zone 3 = 100_1)99/M2 as Lake Erie or nearshore areas such as Cleve- the mean of three samples). Brinkhurst found land Harbor. that three categories of species could be dis- Among the Cladocera, the lower lake species tinguished: seem to be Bosmina obtusirostris, Ceriodaph- (a) Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, L. clapare- nia lacustris, Ceriodaphnia rotunda, deanus, and other Limnodrilus, Tubifex Daphanosoma brachyurum, Daphnia schod- tubifex, and Peloscolex mutisetosus are most leri, Ceriodaphnia reticulata, and Daphnia abundant in mouths of heavily polluted rivers. Biological Characteristics 251 (b) Aulodrilus americanus is most abun- nodrilus hoffmeisteri. The other is a naidid, dant in relatively clean waters of the open Paranais litoralis, which is restricted to salt or lake. brackish water. Brinkhurst attributes its (c) Limnodrilus udekemianus occurs in presence to the exceptionally high salinity of shallow water regardless of pollution, and Au- the Saginaw River, which at times has as lodrilus spp. avoid some river mouths and not much as 500 ppm chloride. others. Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri is the characteris- Wright and Tidd918 had earlier devised a tic tubificid of the highly polluted zone of simple index of pollution, which is still widely Saginaw Bay (Schneider et al .722) . Hiltunen359 used, based on the total numbers of tubificids found thatLimnodrilus hoffmeisteri, L. cervix, plus the mayfly nymph, Hexagenia: and L. maumeensis are highly restricted to no pollution = 100 tubificidS/M2 and inshore areas subject to organic pollution. 100 Hexagenia/M2 Brinkhurst93 proposed that the percentage of light pollution = 100-999 tubificidS/M2 occurrence of Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri rela- moderate pollution = 1000-5000 tubificidS/M2 tive to all other oligoehaetes might prove to be heavy pollution = 5000 tubificidS/M2 a useful indicator of organic pollution. Brink- hurst9l lists the lumbriculid, Stylodrilus This index is valid only for mud bottoms and heringianus, as tolerant of a slight amount of Hexagenia is now absent from much of its pollution and Hiltunen 360 noted that the former range in the Great Lakes. Stylodrilus heringianus is common through- Carr and Hiltunen 125 pointed out the inade- out the Great Lakes except in areas that are quacy of using tubificid counts alone as the excessively enriched or polluted. Both index of pollution. In the 1961 study the Potamothrix moldaviensis and P. vejdovskyi greatest worm density found anywhere in the can tolerate some degree of organic enrich- western basin of Lake Erie was 15 'OOO/M2 , and ment. The naidid, Nais elinguis, is apparently this was at the mouth of the Detroit River. associated with areas having much organic However, according to Carr and Hiltunen pollution, especially where Cladophora is "this high count does not in itself justify the present. Brinkhurst et al.100 summarized the designation of the mouth of the Detroit River indicator values of various oligochaete as the most heavily polluted region because species (asterisks indicate species restricted to other less tolerant organisms were more upper Great Lakes): abundant here than at certain stations with (a) species restricted to grossly polluted smaller worm counts." Hiltunen360 pointed areas: Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, L. cervix, and out that counts of aquatic oligochaetes are not Peloscolex multisetosus very helpful. Not all aquatic oligochaetes are (b) species often present in grossly polluted tubificids, but may in fact belong to other areas: Branchiura sowerbyi, L. maumeensis, families (Naididae and Lumbriculidae) whose and L. claparedeianus correlation with pollution has not been estab- (c) present in mesotrophic or eutrophic lished. Occasionally, some oligochaete sam- areas: Aulodrilus sp., Potamothrix sp., and ples contain no tubificids. Peloscolex ferox The various species of oligochaetes fit Fjer- (d) characteristic of oligotrophic areas: dingstad's sparobie system in the following Rhyacodrilus sp.,* Tubifex kessleri amer- manner (Hiltunen360): icanus, * Peloscolex variegatus, * and Stylodri- (a) saprobionts-Limnodrilus cervix and lus heringianus (Lumbriculid). L. maumeensis. (b) saprophiles and saproxenes- Lim- Brinkhurst9l' speculated on the significance nodrilus hoffmeisteri, Peloscolex multisetosus, of the pollutio n-t ole rant species of tubificids in Ilyodrilus templetoni, and Tubifex tubifex. the overall problem of eutrophication: "They tubifex. may prove to be beneficial where they are act- (c) saprophobes-Stylodrilus heringianus, ing as sludge converters in situations where Peloscolex variegatus, Limnodrilus profun- we have neglected to undertake the task our- dicola, and possibly Tubifex kessleri selves. They may, however, promote eutrophi- americanus. Tubifex tubifex is present in cation and be the object of control measures many polluted areas and also in mesotrophic where a reversal of eutrophication is seriously or eutrophic environments. Brinkhurst 93 undertaken." In other words, these worms found two oligochaetes that seem to indicate may be involved in recycling into the water the influence of a polluting flow of the Saginaw nutrients that otherwise would become fixed River into Saginaw Bay. One of these is Lim- in the sediments. 252 Appendix 4 (2) Chironomid Larvae could find no correlation between chironomid Brundin'09 emphasized the importance larvae and pollution influences from the of midge larvae as sensitive indicators of Maumee River, using identifications only to trophic conditions in lakes. He proposed a levels higher than species. He concluded that "bottom faunistic lake-type" system based on the index value of these larvae rests with the predominant chironomids present: specific identifications. Carr and Hilltunen 125 (a) ultraoligotrophic, deep-Heterotrisso- found no consistent quantitative correlation cladius subpilosus lakes of midge larvae and tubificids. (b) ultraoligotrophic, shallow-Tantytar- Chironomus larvae were abundant; in heav- sus-Heterotrissocladius lakes ily polluted areas, especially if the dissolved (c) moderately oligotrophie-Tantytarsus oxygen was low. Procladius (mostly P. bellus) lugens lakes was more widely distributed, and Nvas most (d) mesotrophic - S tic tochironomus-Ser- abundant where tubificids were numerous but gentia lakes only because it feeds on them. The highly pol- (e) eutrophic-Chironomus lakes luted part of Saginaw Bay was characterized (i) moderately eutrophic-Chironomus by Chironomus plumosus, C. decorus and Pro- anthracinus lakes cladius sp., but Chironomus spp. viere also (ii) strongly eutrophic--Chironomus found in the moderately polluted and unpol- plumosus lakes. luted areas of the bay (Schneider et al.722). Brinkhurst et al.100 used chironomid larvaie Chironomus attenuatus is a highly adapta- as indicators of trophic conditions in lakes by ble species frequently found in polluted areas another system. They used the following as well as unpolluted areas so it is a poor indi- trophic condition equation: cator (Curry 175) . This midge larva has a wide Trophic Condition = ni + n2 range of experimentally determined toler- no + ni + n2 ances: (a) wide range of temperature tolerance In this equation, no, ni, and n2, are the number N wide range of pH tolerance of species found in the lake which have a (c) tolerance of anaerobic conditions trophic index value of 0, 1, and 2, respectively, (d) tolerance of high levels of dissolved C02 according to the following scheme: (e) tolerance of high salinities (a) pollution intolerant (no) taxa (index (f) tolerance of a wide range of sediment value = 0): Monodiamesa bathyphila, Pro- types. tanypus forcipatus, Potthastia longimanus, Chironomus plumosus has narrower toler- Heterotrissocladius subpilosus, Paraclad- ance limits which tend to restrict it to polluted opelma obscura, Tantytarsus sp., Micropsectra areas. Such evidence seems to indicate that sp. this pollution indicator is excluded from (b) moderately tolerant (ni) taxa (index cleaner areas by its own physiological toler- value = 1): Demicryptochironomus vul- ances rather than by competition with pollu- neratus, Paralauterborniella nigrohalteralis, tion intolerant species. Stictochironomus sp., Xenochironomus sp., Adams and Kregear4 found abundant Ablabesmyia sp., and Thienamannimyia Chironomus sp. at a location in Lake Superior group having a high percentage of organic debris. (c) pollution tolerant (n2) taxa (index value Calopsectra and Pentaneura were ELISO pres- 2): Chironomus sp., Cryptochironomus sp., ent. The correlation of Chironomus and Pen- Microtendipes pedellus, Procladius den- taneura with large accumulations of organic ticulatus, Procladius bellus, and Coelotanypus material has been noted in other studies. concinnus. (3) Mollusca The theoretical minimum value is 0 (extreme oligotrophy) and the maximum is 2.00 (ex- Sphaerium transversum occurs in both the treme eutrophy). On this basis, Brinkhurst et polluted and marginally polluted SE@Ctions of al.100 calculated the following trophic condi- the Maumee River (Brown'06) but; is most tions for some of the Great Lakes: Lake Huron, abundant in the latter environment. Carr and Georgian Bay, 0.13; Lake Ontario, 1.07; Lake Hiltunen125 also note that Sphaerium trans- Erie, Eastern Basin, 1.67; Lake Erie, Central versum appears to be highly pollution tolerant Basin, 1.91; and Lake Erie, Western Basin, since its distribution coincides with that of 2.00. oligochaetes. S. corneum, also generally con- The value of chironomid larvae as local pol- sidered to be a pollution tolerant SPE!Cies, was lution indicators is questionable. Brown'06 found to be less tolerant than S. transversum. Biological Characteristics 253 With regard to mussels, Carr and Hiltunen 125 anoxic or nearly anoxic conditions in the said "the presence of naiads is generally con- hypolimnia of organically enriched ponds and sidered to indicate clean water." They are lakes. present in the open lake portion of Lake Erie. (9) Nematoda Snails are generally not tolerant of highly polluted water. Operculate snails are particu- Nematodes are generally found where or- larly scarce in polluted areas except for Val- ganic debris is abundant (Adams and Kre- vata sincera which seem to be positively corre- gear4). lated with high density occurrence of oligochaetes (Carr and Hiltunen 125). The snail, 8.2.3 Faunal Gradiefits Bulimus tentaculata, is also characteristic of the marginally polluted zone of the Maumee River (Brown"). Snails are abundant in the open lake portion of western Lake Erie. 8.2.3.1 Lake Superior (4) Amphipods and Isopods There are three faunal environments in the Cook and Powers 163stated: "It is well known eastern end of Lake Superior: boundary, that members of family Tubificidae shoal, and pelagic (Adams and Kregear4). The (sludgeworms) prefer a habitat of organic sed- boundary environment consists of relatively iment. Not as well defined, but generally con- shallow (less than 60 m to 90 m depth) areas of ceded is the fact that Amphipoda (aquatic sand and rock along the South shore. The shoal scuds) favor clean, clear water and a lake bot- environment is also shallow, but the shoals are tom of sand and gravel." However, Carr and isolated from land by intervening stretches of Hiltunen 125 said: "The value of this amphipod deep water. The shoal environment is an area (Gammarus) as an indicator of environmental of considerable sediment instability. The conditions is little understood. It does not tol- pelagic environment comprises all the deep- erate severe conditions but is able to with- water areas, including a series of submarine stand some types of pollution." Schneider et canyons as deep as 370 m. The benthic com- al.722 found Gammarus to be concentrated in munities of these environments are Signifi- the zone of moderate pollution in Saginaw Bay cantly different (Figure 4-220), although Pon- whereas Pontoporeia affinis dominated in un- toporeia affinis is found in all three. The polluted areas. boundary environment is the most diverse, The isopods Asellus communis and Lirceus much of which is associated with occurrence of lineatus are scavengers and are thus largely organic detritus or attached vegetation. The restricted to shallow enriched areas with shoal benthos are the least diverse, probably much plant debris (Adams and Kregear 4). reflecting the relative uniformity and harsh- (5) Ephemeroptera ness of this environment in Lake Superior. Benthos from pelagic environment are typical Mayfly nymphs of the genus Hexagenia are of lake bottoms receiving minimal enrich- indicators of unpolluted waters where the bot- ment. tom is mud (Wright917).Hexagenia is quite in- tolerant of low dissolved oxygen (Britt 101). Pol- lution tolerance, however, is a matter of de- 8.2.3.2 Lake Michigan gree, and Hexagenia is tolerant of some pollu- tion. It is extremely abundant in Lake St. Clair Oligochaete populations are concentrated at and occurs in moderately polluted areas in the southern end of Lake Michigan and the Saginaw Bay. amphipod populations are concentrated in (6) Hirudinea nearshore areas in northerly portions of the lake (Powers and Robertson625) (Figure 4-221 Leeches are tolerant of moderate degrees of A&B), producing a south to north gradient in pollution, tending to be mesosaprobic rather the ratio of amphipods to oligochaetes (Figure than polysaprobic (Carr and Hiltunen 125). 221C). Distribution maps for the pollution- (7) Trichoptera tolerant tubificids, Peloscolex multisetosus Caddisfly larvae are considered by Carr and and Limnodrilus cervix, essentially corre- Hiltunen 125 to be "clean water" organisms. spond to the locations of the largest cities on the Great Lakes with the exception of Chi- (8) Chaoborus cago (Brinkhurst 92). Chicago is unique in that Phantom midge larvae are highly tolerant of the sewage effluents are diverted away from 254 Appendix 4 L E G E N D A M P H I P 0 D A - H A U S T 0 R I I D A E M 0 L I G 0 C H A E T A - N A I D I D A E E-M-17. OLIGOCHAETA- LUMBRICULIDAEEM DIPTERA- CHIRONOMIDAE KIM 0 L I G 0 C H A E T A - T U B I F I C I D A E aM H E T E R 0 D 0 N T A - S P H A E R I I D A E [M PERCENT PELAGIC BOUNDARY SHOAL SAND BEDROCK 100 - 90 - 80 - 70 - 60 - 50 - 40 30 - 20 - 10 - . oL_ U= FIGURE 4-220 Faunal Composition of Eastern Lake Superior Biotypes From Adams and Kregear, 1969 Lake Michigan into the Illinois River drainage sive sampling by Schuytema and PowerS.725 In system. The abundance of oligochaetes in general, more varied species are present in southern Lake Michigan can be accounted for nearshore areas than either in the open lake by the other cities in the Chicago area com- or in Saginaw Bay. Relatively dense popula- plex. tions of amphipods and oligochaetes occur in Total benthic production, as measured by the North Channel. This is contrary to the biomass, is apparently constant within given findings of Teter'788 who found the aniphipod depth ranges throughout the lake regardless Pontoporeia affinis to prefer deeper waters in of local dominance of different categories of the northern part of Lake Huron. Dramatic organisms (Powers and Robertson 625) (Figure faunal gradients occur in Saginaw Bay where 2211)). Schuytema and Powers found that Pon- The only information on the zooplankton of toporeia affinis, the predominant artiphipod Lake Michigan comes from Edd y'234 who indi- near the mouth of the bay, was gradually cated that there are no qualitative differences supplanted by Gammarus toward the interior. in the plankton in various parts of the lake No Gammarus were found, however, near the because of alleged homogeneity in that lake. mouth of the Saginaw River and fewwere to be The study did not include any quantitative found 15 miles out into the bay. Oligochaetes analysis of relative abundances of various showed a contrasting distribution, being most categories. It is unlikely that anyone today abundant near the Saginaw River and other would agree that plankton gradients do not nearshore areas in the bay where amphipods exist in Lake Michigan. were not common. On the basis of total num- bers of benthic organisms, or b'.tomass, Schuytema and Powers concluded that 8.2.3.3 Lake Huron Saginaw Bay is the most productive part of Lake Huron, followed by the nearshore areas The distributions of amphipods and of the lake and, finally, the open lakE!. Brink- oligochaetes in Lake Huron as presented here hurst93 did a detailed analysis of oligochaete (Figures 4-222 and 4-223) are based on exten- distribution in Saginaw Bay with results simi- Biological Characteristics 255 N RAN"*"' FRANKFORT SHEBOYGAN LUDINGTON "'N'80YGAN LUDINGTON .1 RACINE 4 2 RACINE ST josepm ST JOVEI. CHICAGO CHICAGO AMP"IPODS OLIGOCHAETES A I OOOI./METER2 1000 't/ METER2 AUG- NOV 1964 B AUG-NOV 1964 . . . . . .U IIAME FRANKFORT FRANKFORT TNNASCITY 6 4t sw 9 LUDINGTON S"Esoy"N 2 LUDINGTON I AUSTIN N RACINE RACINE 4 3, PWCONNWO ST jOSEFN ST 403EPM RENTHOS MEN PODS AVERAGE ASH-F EE WEIGHT C AVERAGE RATIO: AN&9FR -=DICHAETES D A UG-NOV 7964 AUGUST-NOVEMBEIR 1964 GRAMS/METER2 AYC.Tl FIGURE 4-221 Average Number of Am- FIGURE 4-222 Mean Populations of Am- phipods (A) and Oligochaetes (B); Ratio of phipods (numberS/M2) in Lake Huron, June to Number Amphipods/Number Oligochaetes (C); August, 1965; and in Saginaw Bay, April to Sep- and Benthos in Southern Lake Michigan (D); tember, 1965 August to November, 1964 From Powers and Robertson, 1965 in which the reef is located. The low biomass is attributed to the relatively unstable substrate lar to those of Schuytema and Powers. Lim- overlying the reef. Gammarus is most abun- nodrilus spp., especially L. hoffmeisteri, are dant in the middle zone, which agrees with concentrated near the mouth of the Saginaw observations by Schuytema and Powers. River. The distribution of this pollution- Chironomids and Hexagenia are generally tolerant worm indicates organic pollution most abundant in the inner zone along the from the river; yet, correlation with the dis- northwest shore of the bay. However, tribution of river sediments was poor. How- chironomids of the sub-family Diamesinae are ever, Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri does correlate restricted to the outer zone. fairly well with flow of the saline river water into the bay. Schneider et al .722 divided Saginaw Bay into three zones from the 8.2.3.4 Lake Erie Saginaw River to the lake. Productivity meas- ured as total biomass of benthos is highest The three basins of Lake Erie are fairly dis- (4.51 g/M2), and lowest in the outer zone tinct biotically. The oligochaetes are divisible (3.46 g/M2). This is true regardless of the zone into three associations which correspond 256 Appendix 4 N o o o o o o o o o oo a o ooi@o oo o 0 Lp-'--A@ 0 L a b o X X 0 P 0 0 K -bO I 0-0 q C o. 0 TAUS- o A. PW@ piowl 0 o d '0 0 BAY- 0 .0 P.k.. oe FIGURE 4-223 Mean Populations of Oli- P-w@ . 0 0 S/M2) goehaetes (number in Lake Huron, June 0 to August, 1965; and in Saginaw Bay, April to September, 1965 e 0. 0 0 0 0 000 fairly well with the three basins and decrease 0 in abundance from west to east (Figure 4-224) '0. (Brinkhurst et al.; 100 BrinkhurSt 92). T Awl. 0.. 0. One of the most striking aspects of the &bbo- 0. 0 chironomids of Lake Erie is a significant dif- 0 ference in the species composition in the vari- f 0. ous parts of the lake (Figure 4-225). As with the oligochaetes, the distribution of chironomid larvae indicate a west to east gradient al- though the slope is reversed (Table 4-59). The distribution of sphaeriids in Lake Erie FIGURE 4-224 Distribution of Oligochaetes does not show distinct longitudinal gradients in Lake Erie. A single sample was taken from (Figure 4-226) as is the case with oligochaetes each station on each of 5 cruises. Dots indicate and chironomids (Table 4-59), but it appar- that the organism was absent from the rsampling ently reflects depth preferences for some station. Open symbols indicate less than 10 or- species. For example, Sphaerium striatinum is ganisms per sample. Closed symbols indicate 10 largely restricted to shallow areas including or more organisms in at least one sample. the western basin and the ridge that marks From Brinkhurst et al., 1968; Brinkhurst, 1969 Biological Characteristics 257 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0. 0 b b Cf 0o 0 0 0 00 dO 0 d o d .'o 0 0 0 W 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 K d A..- 0 0 0 @P' 0 0 -0 8 0 e 0 0 0'P dL 2 '0 f CP f % FIGURE 4-225 Distribution of Chironomids FIGURE 4-226 Distribution of Sphaeriids in in Lake Erie. A single sample was taken from Lake Erie. A single sample was taken from each each station on each of 5 cruises. Dots indicate station on each of 5 cruises. Dots indicate that that the organism was absent from the sampling the organism was absent from the sampling sta- station. Open symbols indicate less than 3 or- tion. Open symbols indicate less than 10 or- ganisms per sample. Closed symbols indicate 3 ganisms per sample. Closed symbols indicate 10 or more organisms in at least one sample. or more organisms in at least one sample. From Brinkhurst et al., 1968; Brinkhurst, 1969 From Brinkhurst et al., 1968; Brinkhurst, 1969 258 Appendix 4 TABLE4-59 Four Major Groups of Benthos in ate environments, arid polluted areas have Lake Erie, April-August, 1967 lower diversity than unpolluted areas. Al- though Veal and Osmond used the ratio of the Percentage of Total Organism average number of genera instead of species to Western Central Eastern the average number of organisms per sample, Taxon Basin Basin Basin the principle remains the same. Diversity de- creases generally toward the western basin Tubificidae 86 55 34 except for Long Point (Figure 4-227) which, Chironomidae 6 23 24 because it is actively accreting, represents a Amphipoda 0 6 27 harsh environment. Zooplankton occurrence and abundance also Pelecypoda 7 9 9 differ between the three Lake EriE! basins. Davis197 points out that Wright and Tidd918 SOURCE: Veal and Osmond, 1968. found more than 2.5 times as many zoo- the division between the eastern and central plankton of certain kinds in the western basin basins. than he did two decades later in the Cleveland Veal and Osmond,1146 using nearshore data, Harbor area. Davis' population estimates in indicated diversity within benthic groups in Cleveland Harbor, however, were comparable Lake Erie from east to west. Diversity, in its to or exceeded those of Chandler'31 in the most simple form, is the ratio of species to in- western basin. Although this apparent dis- crepancy could be explained by noting, that all dividuals present: Number of Species areas of the lake probably increased in produc- Diversity = Number of Individuals tivity in the ten years between studies, it does not support the proposition that the western Diversity generally tends to decrease in harsh basin is highly productive compared to the environments. For example, subarctic envi- remainder of the lake. Davis also pointed out ronments have lower diversity than temper- that a high biomass of plankton in itself is not Be."* 2.0 13,100 7.9 ... low .0.700 IN. 7.1 0 3 00 N: 3.0 _J 3.5 AVERAGE NUMBER OF GENERA/STATION AVERAGE NUMBER OF ORGANISMS /STATION /M2 FIGURE 4-227 Average Number of Genera and Average Number of Organisms per Station in Lake Erie After Veal and 0smond, 1968 Biological Characteristics 259 STATION NUMBE conclusive evidence of high productivity. Such @SC, 2@@ 252 253 @u 256 257 2. 25. 134 data, considered in isolation, give no informa- tion about the rates at which energy is being utilized and new living matter manufactured. Determination of phytoplankton production rates, rate of supply of allocthonous organic material (both of which are easier to measure \TU than zooplankton production), and long-term patterns of zooplankton biomass levels are 2= 2W needed to resolve the question. /.E.. IIIA Differences in species distributions anions 0 the Lake Erie basins are more obvious than -W I. quantitative differences. Plankton data from *5 a transect line extending the length of the lake 21 during the month of July indicate the heterogeneity of the lake (Davis 192) . The west- ern basin was richer in both number of species and 'abundance of rotifers than the rest of the 0 4 a 1 2 IS IS M MILES MM MUTH OF "U EE IIIIE. lake. It also supported 2.5 times as many adult daphnids than the central basin and 3.8 times FIGURE 4-228 Abundance of Tubificidae and as many as the eastern basin. Large Bosmina Hexagenia Along a Transect from the Mouth of populations were primarily found in the west- the Maumee River Twenty Miles into Lake Erie ern basin. The western basin zooplankton also From Wright, 1955 almost exclusively included such important 3200 species as Daphnia retrocurva, Cyclops ver- 3000 nalis, and the rotifer Branchionus angularis. Some species, such as the protozoan Vorticella 2000 and the various copepods were more abundant 2600 in other parts of the lake, and some species, 0 2400 such as Diaptomus oregonensis, Cyclops bicuspidatus and Polyarthra vulgaris, were 2200 virtually nonexistent in the western basin. 2000 Davis reported that Daphnia pulex was ap- 1800 parently more dominant in the eastern and central basins than in the western. Davis 1192 1600 was unable to determine whether the detailed 1400 F differences among the basins are the result of a retarded development in some of the basins 1200 1000 as compared to others, or whether there are 9 real quantitative and qualitative differences, 1100 CD reflecting basically different ecosystems in 600 the three basins. Significant benthic faunal gradients exist 400 - - - - - - within the western basin. Such gradients can 200 - - - - - - be expected in the other basins as well, but 0 M M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4 M-5 M-6 M-7 M-8 M-9 M-10 M-11 M-12 they have not been clearly identified as is the MAUMEE RIVER MOUTH STATIONS ease with the western basin where the major- (AVERAGE OF 5IX SAMPLES PER STATION TAKEN FROM MAR 8 TO JUL 28, 1951) ity of LRke Erie studies have been focused. Probably the earliest indication of gradients FIGURE 4-229 Tubificid Peaks at Maumee in the western basin was the work of Wright River Mouth Stations and Tidd918 who found large populations of Lim-nodrilus and Tubifex near the mouths of Hexagenia increased lakeward (Wright917). the Maumee, Raisin, and Detroit Rivers and Brown 106 presented similar data for the an absence of Hexagenia nymphs in the same average population of tubificids collected in areas. Along a transect from the mouth of the 1951 along a transect line beginning in the P 7 L 4 Maumee River into Lake Erie based on 1929- Maumee River and ending five miles out in the 30 data (Figure 4-228), the number of lake. These data (Figure 4-229) show a tubificids per square meter declined and maximum population density of tubificids at 260 Appendix 4 f DETROIT A 0 4 B 0 4( 4 0 A ra TOO cl soo Ik ROD No IrV TOLEDO 0 H 1 0 0 H 1 0 c DEMIT 0 4 0 D 0 4 IF 0 I.. rz, -RDE GOID MONROE KID .......... % 0 H 0 H 0 (V4,v 0 F 0 N 4 4 0 0 rl LEGIND 111111 AR*iPdD V V TOLE. 0 H 1 0 0OHI 0 FIGURE 4-230 Distribution of Oligochaeta (A), Tendipedidae (B), Sphaeriidae (C), Gastropoda (D), Hirundinea (E), and Trichoptera and Amphipoda (F) in Western Lake Erie in 1961 From Carr and Hiltunen, 1965 Biological Characteristics 261 00 the Toledo sewage disposal plant (Station M-2) and a decline in density lakeward. The two figures are not directly comparable since Brown expressed his populations as numbers per square foot (multiply by 9 to approximate AMILTON o Wright's data). Distribution of the major pollution -tolerant tubificids, Limnodrilus @_hoffmeistwi hoffmeisteri, L. cervix, L. maumeensis and Peloscolex multisetosus show their close rela- W1, 1. tubif ex tion to the three main rivers of the basin (Hil- tunen 359). Carr and Hiltunen 125 indicate a Lirrviockilus similar relationship with the distribution of all zPP_ oligochaete species combined (Figure 4-230A), and also for chironomid larvae (Figure 4-230B), sphaeriids (Figure 4-230C), gastro-', pods (Figure 4-230D), leeches (Figure 4-230E), trichoptera and amphipods (Figure 4-230F). None of these show the strong correlation to the river mouths seen in the oligochaete dis- If tribution, although chironomids and sphaeriids clearly favor lake areas influenced P cosertanum negatively with the rivers. Wood 913 identified P iflijeborgi Hexagenia nymphs in 1951-52 at all western by rivers. Some species seem to correlate basin stations except off the mouth of the De- E-!nMdum ek troit River and in hard substrate areas near 4enslowanum Point Pelee. In general, these nymphs oc- curred in greatest abundance in the eastern C. X part of the western basin, away from the rivers. Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, L. cladaredeianits, L. cervix, and L. maitmeensis dominate the bottom fauna near the rivers with additional occurrence of Tubifex tubifex near the Detroit River (Brinkhurst et al.;100 V A; Brinkhurst92). Aulodrilus spp. Potamothrix /W, @1/ spp., Branchiura sowerbyi, Peloscolex ferox, and P. MUlti8etosus are the predominant xx tubificids in the open lake areas of the western Chironorrids basin. -socladius subpilosus is common in P affinis Heterotris the eastern basin of Lake Erie, and absent in Gastropods 92). the central and western basins (Brinkhurst Chironomus spp. are most common in the FIGURE 4-231 Distribution and Abundance western and central basins and least common (number/M2) of Some Macroinvertebrates in in the eastern. C. plumosus is dominant in the Hamilton Bay and Adjacent Lake Ontario. (A): western basin and C. anthracinus is dominant Certain groups of Oligochaetes. The distribu- in the eastern basin. tion of Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri is shown where Zooplankton also differs both quantitatively it occurs as the only species of the genus present and qualitatively in the various parts of the and also where it occurs with other members of western basin. Maumee Bay has the most the genus (shown as Limnodrilus spp.). (B): The abundant zooplankton populations followed in most common sphaerfid clams, Pisidium caser. order by the Raisin River area, the Island area tanum, P. lilljeborgi, P. henslowanum, and P. in the eastern part of the basin, and finally, by nitidum, and Sphaerium nitidum. Total the Detroit River area (Wright and Tidd918). sphaerfids was greatest (250/M2) in the area cir- Low numbers of zooplankton in the Detroit cumscribed. (Q: Chironomids, Pontoporeia af- River may be due to toxicity of Detroit River flnis, and gastropods (Yalvata sincera and Y. water or to other factors. The western basin is hicarinata). From Johnson and Matheson, 1968 dominated by two water masses, the Maumee 262 Appendix 4 River flow and the Detroit River flow polluted areas, but not confined there, (Jahoda422). These river water masses influ- whereas Illyodrilus templetoni, L. cervix, L. ence the distribution of zooplankton. Diap- claparedeianus, L. udekemianus, and Pelos- tomus oregonensis, and D. minutus are rela- colex multiset6sus are confined to these areas. tively unaffected, but D. siciloides definitely Peloscolex ferox, Aulodrilus sp- ., and p favors the Maumee water mass, and D. sicilis Potamothrix spp. are characteristically dis- and D. ashlandi are abundant in the Detroit tributed along the shoreline. water mass. Jahoda also found that the lag in warming and cooling of the Detroit River im- poses a lag on seasonal changes in plankton 8.2.4 Evidence of Reicent Changes inthe Lakes populations as compared to the Maumee River. Changes in the distribution or abundance of Studies in the central and eastern basins are organisms in a lake are generally regarded as less conclusive. Davis 1193 described a gradient the most sensitive measure of environmental in phytoplankton and ciliate populations, from change. Such changes are easier to interpret abundance nearshore to smaller populations than physical and chemical changes alone and lakeward into the central basin. This could be have more impact on public consciousness. attributed to a pollution effect along the Also, changes in occurrence or relative abun- southern shore, or it could be due to a natural dance of one species may have far-reaching shore effect. Burkholder'15 reported higher effects on other species. The recent biotic populations of protozoans and rotifers in gen- changes, such as the appearance of the sea eral in Long Point Bay and near Buffalo in the lamprey and the alewife in the Great Lakes, eastern basin. In addition to being relatively have generally been regarded as undesirable. shallow, these areas are probably also en- riched. 8.2.4.1 Lake Superior 8.2.3.5 Lake Ontario Occurrence of Diaptomus oregonensis may be increasing in Lake Superior (Robertson 664), Hamilton Bay in the western end of Lake although its existence had previously been re- Ontario receives discharges from steel mills as ported there by Marsh .513 Robertson"164 noted well as domestic sewage effluent, and a defi- that D. oregonensis prefers the warmer wa- nite toxic influence of the industrial wastes on ters of the southern Great Lakes, so its recent the zoobenthos has been detected (Johnson abundance in Lake Superior may relate to cul- and Matheson 434) . No macrobenthos are found tural development and consequent effects of in an area of about 2 kM2 where the Fe203 thermal discharges into the lake. content of the sediments exceeds 25 percent. Elsewhere in the bay, Limnodrilus hoffmeis- teri and Tubifex tubifex predominate on the 8.2.4.2 Lake Michigan organically enriched sediments and other Limnodrilus spp. occur on the less enriched Eddy'234 comparing collections of zo- sediments. The most favorable habitat for oplankton made in 1887-88 with his own made in oligochaetes, in terms of biomass, isjust inside 1926, concluded that there had been very little the bay near the canal that connects to Lake change in the plankton in the fortY-YE!ar inter- Ontario. Worms here apparently benefit from val. As the earlier collections were not quan- both the sewage enrichment from the bay and titative, this conclusion was based oi.'i species the water from the lake. The distribution of composition rather than abundance. Since various species in the lake shows an apparent then, a number of species have been found influence of water from the bay (Figure 4-231), that may be recent faunal additions, including particularly Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, the copepods Senecella calanoides (first re- Tubifex tubifex, Pisidium casertanum, P. lil- ported by Wells1180), Eureytemora, affinis liborgi, P. nitidium, and P. henslowanum, (first reported by Robertson 664) , and Cy- Stylodrilus heringianus, and various gas- clops vernalis (first reported by WellS880). C. tropods. vernalis was reported as early as 1894 There are several more or less distinct zonal (Reighard 644) from Lake St. Clair, the Detroit components of the Lake Ontario benthos River, and Lake Erie. Senecella calanoides (Brinkhurst 92). Tubifex tubifex, Limnodrilus may have been found as early as 1898 in Lake hoffmeisteri are especially abundant in grossly Superior according to Juday,440 so the appar- Biological Characteristics 263 TABLE 4-60 Density of Benthos in Saginaw (Ewers 250) and in 1968 (Davis 192). Beeton46 also Bay in Various Years (individuaIS/M2) suggests the Diaptomus oregonensis may have increased in importance recently since it Benthos 1955 1956 1965 was not found by Eddy 234 but was abundant in Wells'11110 collections. It has been found more Amphipoda 123 200 330 recently by Robertson.664 However, it was also (Scuds) recorded from Lake Michigan in the Oligochaeta 2,174 3,532 3,060 nineteenth century (Marsh514). (Worms) A few signs of probable changes are also Sphaeriidae 122 Trace 100 seen among the Lake Michigan benthos. Typi- (Fingernail clams) cal oligotrophic, profundal benthos were superseded at the south end of Grand Chironomidae 424 294 360 Traverse Bay by species characteristic of (Midge larvae) small eutrophic lakes, such as Chironomus an- Ephemeroptera 63 9 1 thracinus and Chaoborus punctipennis (Hen- (Mayfly nymphs) son. 343 SOURCE: Schneider, et al., 1969. 8.2.4.3 Lake Huron ently recent occurrence of these two species in Lake Michigan may only be increases in abun- The decline of Hexagenia (mayfly nymphs) dance. Wells1110 was also the first investigator that occurred in the western basin of Lake to find the cladocerans Eurycercus lamellatus Erie may also have occurred in Saginaw Bay of and Daphanosoma branchyurum in Lake Lake Huron. Schneider et al.722 compared 1956 Michigan. Bigelow" found E. lamellatus in collections with those made in 1955 by Lake Erie and Smith 7411 found it in Lake Sppe- Surber 7611 and in 1965 by Schuytema and Pow- rior; so this is another "addition" of question- erS725 (Table 4-60). Fingernail clams also de- able significance. The predacious cladoceran clined in 1956, but recovered by 1965. These Polyphemus pediculus was first reported in data suggest that there was an environmental Lake Michigan in 1960 by Wells. catastrophe in 1955 or 1956 from which the Robertson664 compared quantitative collec- clams recovered, but the mayfly nymphs did tions of calanoid copepods made in 1964 with not. Schneider et al .722 suggested that the similar collections made in 1954-55 by Wells8110 cause for Hexagenia decline in Saginaw Bay and 1964 populations were between those was depletion of dissolved oxygen at the bot- found in Lake Michigan in 1954-55 and those tom due to organic overenrichment and stag- found in Lake Erie in 1956-57 by Davis.19' nation. Hexagenia distribution in the bay in Robertson suggests that this shift might re- 1956 (Schneider et al.722) clearly suggests the flect accelerated eutrophication of Lake influence of the Saginaw River, which enters Michigan. at the south end of the bay (Figure 4-232). Beeton46 places some emphasis on the appar- Schneider et al.722 also compared the wet- ent replacement of Bosmina coregoni by B. weight biomass of the total benthos for the longirostris as a parallel to the same change three years mentioned. The biomass was 15.1 that occurred in Lake Zurich (Minder 546) when g/M2 (13 g/yd 2) in 1955 and 11.9 g/M2 (10 g/yd 2) in that lake underwent rapid eutrophication. Bosmina coregoni has been recorded from Lake Michigan only by Edd y 234 who found it in abundance in both the 1887-88 and 1926-27 A B collections. Eddy also found B. longirostris and this has been the only Bosmina found in Lake Michigan since then by a number of in- vestigators, although some only identified to Cl 0-1 C3 genus (Wells;11110 McNaught ;525 Norden ; 5111 C3 on 2112) woo+ Gannon and Beet . The significance of this change is questionable because B. lon- girostris was identified in oligotrophic Lake FIGURE 4-232 Average Number of Dia- Huron as early as 1915 (SarS700) and in Lake mesinae per M2 on June 7, 1956 (A); and Hexa- St. Clair in 1894 (Birge 611), and B. coregoni was genia per m2 During 1956, in Saginaw Bay. identified in Lake Erie in 1929 (Wilson 899),1933 Schneider et al., 1969 264 Appendix 4 1965, indicating no significant change. How- nen125 identified only one nymph per square ever, in 1956, the year of the disaster, the meter in 1961. Veal and Osmond846 fDund no biomass was only 4.4 g/M2 (3 g/yd2). mayfly nymphs whatsoever in 1967 at the sta- Senecella calanoides (Robertson 664 ) and tions Carr and Hiltunen had used. Hunt 392 re- Eurytemora affinis (Faber and JermolajeV252) ported a reduction in Hexagenia populations may be recent zooplankton additions to the of the Detroit River from a maximum of 84/M 2 Lake Huron fauna. (22/yd 2) in his own 1955-56 study. Chandler 130 found indication of a previous 8.2.4.4 Lake Erie disaster. Hexagenia has a two-year life cycle in the western basin, with two separate age Britt 101 reported a disaster among the bur- groups which hatch in alternate years. The rowing mayfly nymphs, Hexagenia rigida an 'd group hatching in odd years during 1941-47 Hexagenia limbata, in the western basin in was consistently more abundant than the early September, 1953. Dredge samples on even-year group. Collections from 1928 September 5th contained 465 dead nymphs per showed that the even-year group was -then the m 2and none living. Chironomid larvae also dominant one. This suggested to Chandler suffefed 33 percent mortality, but sphaerfids that sometime between 1928 and 19,11 there and leeches seemed unaffected. Britt con- was a catastrophe which decimated the even- cluded that the nymphs had been dead only a year group. few days, as they would decompose quickly at Another indication of environmental the high temperatures then prevailing. Sub- change in the western basin is the trend in sequent sampling from September 14 to Sep- tubificid worm population densities. A high tember 26 and on November 13 revealed population density of these sludgeworms is Hexagenia in only 52 percent of the samples generally an indicator of organic enrichment, and none at the area where the dead nymphs typically by sewage. Dense populations of were taken on September 5. The average den- tubificids have been steadily expanding into sity of Hexagenia in these collections was the western basin from the major river 55.3/M 2 . Britt compared this with the 1929-30 mouths for most of this century. In 1930, sampling of Wright and Tidd9111 who found 283 Wright and Tidd918 found significant numbers and 510 nymphS/M2 in 1929 and 1930, and of worms only near the Maumee, Raisin, and 1951-52 data of Wood913 who gives the mean Detroit Rivers. According to their classifica- density of Hexagenia in the western basin as tion, the heavily polluted area totaled 26 kM2 235/M 2 . Brown 1106 had found a meanHexagenia (1.1 Mi2), the moderately polluted was 46 kml density in the open lake waters of the western (2 Mi 2) , and light pollution covered only 191 basin of 75.6/yd2 in 1950. Hexagenia nymphs kM2 (8.2 Mi2 ). The entire polluted area covered apparently were in a severe die-off period al- less than eight percent of the western basin. though the onset of this process may not have By 1951 the boundaries of the polluted areas been sudden. Britt attributed the mortality to (Figure 4-233) had expanded lakeward into depletion of dissolved oxygen near the bottom. Maumee Bay; the heavily polluted area by 5.5 Dissolved oxygen was as low as 0.7 ppm at the mi., the moderately polluted by 8 mi., and the station where all Hexagenia were dead during lightly polluted by 6 mi. (Brown '06). Carr and a period of stagnation in the western basin. It Hiltunen 125 found further expansion of took a rare period of stagnation in the ordinar- tubificid populations (Figure 4-230). The zone ily well-mixed western basin to dramatically of heavy pollution then covered 238 kM2 (10.2 show what pollution can do to lake fauna. Mi2) (a 900 percent increase over 1930); the In 1954 Britt 102 found that mayfly nymph zone of moderate pollution was 517 J:M2 (22.2 populations were recovering in the western Mi2) (an 1100 percent increase); and the lightly basin, there being an average 42.5 small polluted area was 265 kM2 (11.3 Mi2) (an in- Hexagenia per square meter in the area where crease of 140 percent). Veal and Osmond846 all had died the previous September. found similar populations in 1967 (Figure Hexagenia eggs from one adult hatch over a 4-234). Tubificids constituted 86 percent of all period of many months, an adaptation which the benthos collected. The most common vari- promotes species survival through times of ety was Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, and L. cer- environmental stress. However the recovery vix. Branchiura sowerbyi was also found at a did not last long for this was no transient dis- number of stations. aster to which the mayfly was adapted. Bee- Hunt 394 found no significant change in the ton 47 found that Hexagenia populations were tubificid population of the Detroit River be- again drastically reduced. Carr and Hiltu- tween Wright's 1929-1930 survey and. his own Biological Characteristics 265 21 DETROIT LEGEN RIVER '22 OAR PT. POLLUTION ZONES TUSIF ICIDAE HURON R.. 221A PER SQUARE METER 221B, 0 0 PTE. MODERATE 221 25 LIGHT POLLUTION, 100-999 MOUILLEE POLLUTION MODERATE POLLUTION, 1000-5000 0224 HEAVY POLLUTION, MORE THAN 5000 0222 226 0223 SWAN CR. 0 0 0 126 241 240 2'@@ 0 LIGHT POLLUTION 227 0 0 STONY CR. STONY 125 0127 0232 PT. 204 206 0123 0128 231 '228 203 SANDY 0 6 M. 202 CR. 0 207 0230 201 200 0205 0 214 '203 121 215 R AISIN 0209 0130 0229 10 0119 oo 211 0 r-- 0213 0 116; 117 0132 LIGHT POLLUTION 264 0263 0 262 0261 MIDDLE es 0116F . OTTER 0217 0265 CR. 0216 0134 SISTER 11 . 0111 D 0 216 0 0116 266 0259 '258 0114 0267 0257 BAY PT. 0 112 0256 0 55 2540 LIGHT 0253 0Ito POLLUTION 010c) /O-@WEST SISTER 1. 252 HEAVY ODER- 0236 PO '251 ATE 0233 0107 0237 0 250 ILLUTION 0105 235 6.4 MAUMEE R. 0234 FIGURE 4-233 Tubificid Densities in Western Basin of Lake Erie, 1951 in 1955-56 (Table 4-61). Wright reported 122 to were restricted to polluted areas, especially 1506/M 2 (102 to 1255/yd 2) and Hunt found 13 to ones with low dissolved oxygen. Veal and Os- 2706/M2 (11 to 225/yd2). Carr and Hiltunen " mond reported Cryptochironomus at only two reported only three widely distributed genera percent of their sampling stations. Carr and of midge larvae in the western basin in 1961. Hiltunen noted that Cryptochironomus may Procladius, Coelotanypus, and Chironomus be the victim of increasing pollution, because, 266 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-61 Abundance of Invertebrates in the Lower Detroit River (#/.2)a b Animal Group (#/m2) 0 Tubificidae 122-1506 13-2706 -(500 Hexagenia 0- 204 0- 26 Sphaerium 0- 760 0- 348 Musculium 0- 397 0- 542 0-1500 -1500 Pisidium 0- 145 0- 193 Gastropoda 0- 285 13-1486 /V, a From Wright's 1929-1930 Stations 126, 220, 221B, and 222. b From Hunt's 1954 Transects A and P. FIGURE 4-234 Number of Tubificids per M2 SOURCES: Wright (1955) and Hunt (1957). in Western Lake Erie; April to August, 1967 From Veal and Osmond, 1968 of the four genera, only Procladius and basin. Since this eutrophic-pond organism was Chironomus are thought to be tolerant of pol- not found in 1929-30 by Wright 917 but was luted waters. Carr and Hiltunen reported that found by Brown 106 and Wood,913 it is likely that chironomid midge larvae were 4.4 times more its presence is another indication of' the or- abundant in 1961 than in 1929-30. ganic pollution of the western basin. Carr and Hiltunen125 also reported a nearly Mussels (Unionidae) were also successful in twofold increase in fingernail clams, an in- the open lake away from the sources of pollu- crease in snails by a factor of 5.5, and a reduc- tion, and they were relatively numerous (4- tion in polluti on-intole rant benthos such as 14/M2) (3-12/yd 2)in the Carr and Hiltunen sur- amphipods, caddis fly larvae, and mussels. Six vey. Wood913 recorded the number of living species of fingernail clams were widely dis- and dead unionids of each species he Collected tributed in 1961, but Sphaerium transversum in the western basin in 1951-52. He found 50 was most successful near the sources of pollu- percent of the Lampsilis ventricosa and 79 tion. Valvata sincera appeared to be the most percent of the Elliptio dialatus to be dead and pollution-tolerant snail. Its predominance is speculated that this might represent a recent apparently a recent development since it was decline of these species. not found by Wright917 in 1928-30 or by A change in the bottom fauna in Sandusky Brown106 in 1951. The earliest record of this Bay has also been recorded. This is not caused species in the western basin appears to be by pollution, but is due to a deliberately intro- Wood's 913 collection of only four specimens in duced exotic species, which has become a nui- 1951-52. Hunt 394 found V. sincera in his 1955- sance. The Japanese live-bearing sn.ail, Viv- 56 study of the lower Detroit River although iparus japonicus, was stocked in Sandusky he did not indicate in what numbers. He did Bay in the 1940s to serve as a possible good list a marked increase in snail density in the source for channel catfish, Wolfert arid Hiltu- river from a maximum of 285/M2 (237/yd 2) in nen.111 The snail succeeded and has become a 1929-30 (Wright911) to 1484/M2 (1236/yd2) in pest for local seine fishermen who may have 1957. their nets fouled by as much as two tons of Carr and Hiltunen also pointed out the ap- snails in a single haul. Furthermore, as is parent decrease in relative abundance of the often the case with species that have little ef- amphipod Gammarus from 10 percent of the fective predatory control of their population total zoobenthos in Wood's 913 study in 1951-52 growth, these snails seem to be subject to to only 2 percent in 1961. They also found that periodic die-offs in large num. bers. caddis fly larvae were scarce in the western Changes, perhaps less marked, have also basin and were largely confined to open lake been observed in the Lake Erie zooplankton. areas. Only 35 were found in the entire study. Concern about the effects of the organic pollu- Brown 106 found about 13 caddis fly larvae/M2 tion of Lake Erie on plankton was expressed as (14/yd2) in three out of fifteen grabs. long ago as 1882 by Vorce,1166the following quo- Carr and Hiltunen125 reported a few phan- tation being perhaps the first of its kind for the tom midge larvae (Chaoborus) in the western Great Lakes: Biological Characteristics 267 TABLE 4-62 Comparison of Zooplankton in the western basin of Lake Erie during the Densities, Lake Erie Western Basin, 1938-1959 summer of 1956. The other copepod is Maximum Abundance (#/m3) Eurytemora affinis, a marine form unknown -Cladocera Copepoda in the Great Lakes before it was reported in Lake Ontario by Anderson and Clayton 12 and 1938-39 (Chandler, 1940) 17,000 70,000 in Lake Erie by Engel.243 Another copepod 1948-49 (Bradshaw, 1964) 48,150 97,044 may also be a significant addition to the Lake 1959 (Hubschman, 1960) 202,000 165,000 Erie fauna. Jahoda422 reported Diaptomus reighardi for the first time in the lake. It was recognized again by Robertson.664 For about the time named (two years) the municipal Brinkhurst et al.100 point out the following: authorities of the City of Cleveland have pursued the practice of dumping into Lake Erie, at a point nine The hard parts of the chironomid larvae preserve miles east of the city and eight miles from shore, all well in lake sediments and, consequently, core the garbage and night-soil from the city, amounting to analyses can, at least theoretically, provide informa- a scow-load daily. This point was, after careful inves- tion as to whether the present distributions represent tigation, decided by the Board of Health to be so far recent developments. . . . If the remains of oligo- from the water-works crib where the water-supply is trophic forms, now restricted to the eastern part ofthe taken, 4nd in such a direction as to be free from all lake, can be found in recent sediments from the west- danger of affecting the water-supply. There have been ern basin, this will provide direct evidence that the rumors that the required distance has not always present distributions in Lake Erie are ofrecentorigin. been reached before dumping the contents of the garbage-scowg, and occasional instances ofsuch dere- This technique would verify changes in the liction have been proven, hence the increase in the chironomid component of the benthos. number of forms of the Infusoria [Infusoria, in older terminology, are ciliated protozoans] and of their -abundance suggests very forcibly the disagreeable query whether the dumping of such matter into the .8.2.4.5 Lake Ontario lake is not the direct cause oftheir appearance in the water-supply, not only by affording an admirably well-suited field for propagation but by diffusingthem The tubificid worms Potamothrix and Au- with their food supply through the influence of cur- lodrilus occur in the deeper, open waters of rents and storms over a vastly larger area than is Lake Ontario rather than near shore (Brink- generally believed. hurst et al.100). One would not expect to find It can be seen from this bit of history that these worms at such great depths, but rather many problems now facing us are not recent in the shallower bays and harbors that are but only of different magnitude. now occupied by pollution-tole rant species, Knowledge of the plankton of Lake Erie is such as Limnodrilus. The anomalous occur- too fragmentary to reach valid conclusions rence of these taxa may be evidence of eu- about long-term changes (Davis193). This is trophication, Potamothrix and Aulodrilus even more true for zooplankton than for the being displaced by more poll ution-tole rant phytoplankton. However, two trends can be species near shore, but finding a home in noted with some confidence. First is an appar- deeper areas due to the increased, but still ent increase in total zooplankton. Reighard614 moderate, amounts of organic nutrients that classified both Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair as occur there. plankton-poor lakes. Bradshaw"' pointed to Unfortunately, nothing can be said about the increase in both Cladocera and Copepoda changes in the zooplankton of Lake Ontario when comparing the data of Chandler,"' since the earliest comprehensive study was Hubschman,3811 and his own, collected in 1949 made in 1966 (Robertson664). (Table 4-62). The second trend indicating long-term changes in Lake Erie is the recent occurrence 8.2.4.6 Great Lakes in General or increasing abundance of two copepods. Diaptomus siciloides, generally considered a Gannon and Beeton2112ran a series oflabora- pond species, was considered rare before 1930 tory tests on the toxicity of sediments dredged (Jahoda422), although EwerS250 reported this from Buffalo Harbor, the Calumet River, species to be common in the stomach of fish Cleveland Harbor and the Cuyahoga River, taken in the western basin in 1929. It was more Green Bay and the Fox River, Indiana Harbor, common by the time of Chandler's 131 study in Rouge River, Maumee River, Great Sodus 1938-39. Jahoda422 found the copepod fre- Bay, and Milwaukee Harbor. The test animals quently in 1946-47. Davis 193 found it to be very included Pontoporeia affinis, Gammarus abundant in Cleveland Harbor in 1956-57 and lacustris, and Chironomus tentans among the 268 Appendix 4 Eutrophication is a normal series of events that involves the diminution of the lake basin by sedimentation, the elimination of coastal ir- regularities and the concomitant enrichment from the drainage basin. Also to be considered is the trend toward a warmer climate in post-Pleistocene times. These factors lead to the conclusion that the processes of nature act against th.- profundal fauna in favor of the littoral species. Pleistocene glaciation brought to us a unique fauna of inestimable value in the trophic economy of the lakes, and the unwavering prognosis is -that this ultraoligotrophic fauna will continully di- minish. Am ong the evidence that Henson gives for this replacement of profundal benthos by the @ittoral type is a map showing the present dis- tribution of oligotrophic, profundal crusta- finis and Mysis relicta FIGURE 4-235 Distribution of Pontoporeid ceans, Pontoporeia af and Mysis in the Great Lakes (Figure 4-235). Mysis relicta was described in the western benthos and various species of Daphnia, Bos- basin of Lake Erie in 1929-30 (Wright 917) . As mina, Ceriodaphnia, Cyclops, and Diaptomus Mysis relicta has not been collected since then among the plankton. The levels of toxicity of in the western basin of Lake Erie, its apparent many of these sediments range from acute to disappearance is more evidence of change slight. There is no simple pattern of toxicity supporting Henson's scenario in which pro- occurrence, but many of the rivers and har- fundal fauna are being replaced by littoral bors of the Great Lakes contain substances species. toxic to zooplankton and zoobenthos. These materials have not been identified, but Gan- non and Beeton did find a rough correlation 8.2.5 Physical Factors Controlling Distribu- between toxicity and chemical oxygen demand tion of Zoobenthos and Zooplankton (COD), volatile solids, phosphate, and am- monia. There is no indication that the toxicity of the sediments is part of a trend. However, 8.2.5.1 Depth toxic sediments should not be expected in the pre-industrial period, so these data could be a Depth is frequently considered a factor con- forecast of future conditions of the sediments trolling species distribution. Because many or in the open lakes. most zooplankters exhibit diel vertical migra- Henson 343 maintains that major changes in tions, they are not greatly affected by depth. the benthic fauna of the Great Lakes are in- Therefore, this section is concerned primarily evitable since they are part of long-term with the benthos. Some benthic species are geological changes: restricted in their habitable depths. This is particularly true of the littoral benthos, many The present benthic fauna was derived from pri- of which are either dependent on type of bot- mary sources. The littoral communities are domi- nated by a pre-Pleistocene native fauna that was dis- tom, wave action, or light. Pulmonate snails in placed by glaciation and migrated into the lake basins the western bakin of Lake Erie tend to be most as the ice receded or was established in postglacial abundant in very shallow, littoral waters, lakes. The profundal fauna is characterized by those whereas branchiates have a deeper range species that inhabited the marginal proglacial lakes (Denni S21 1). This is to be expected since the and during the Pleistocene, migrated into the Great Lakes by routes determined by ice fronts. A third pulmonates are air breathers and are obliged element of the fauna is represented by those species to return periodically to the surface, whereas that were introduced into the lakes in recent time. branchiates respire by means of gills. Dennis Ecologic requirements for the profundal species found the greatest population densities of all are not the same as those for the littoral species. The profundal components are oligothermal detritus types of snails within the first six inches of feeders. The littoral components are favored by a water. The first six inches is an important warmer environment and are adaptable to a wide zone for many kinds of berithic fauna. Krecker range of habitats around the profundal bottom. The and Lancaster475 found that twice as many two groups overlap in the sublittoral zone .... These two components are in active competition with one benthic species attained their maximum another, as evidenced by a large intermerging of numbers in the first six inches than in any range in depth of the species in the two zones. other comparable depth interval (Table 4-63). Biological Characteristics 269 TABLE 4-63 Depth Distributions of Shallow Littoral Benthos, Lake Erie Western Basin Water Depth Number of Number of Number of 50 (inches) Species Indiv./m2 Indiv./Yd2 1-6 30 3000 (2500) 100 S 18 35 4800 (4000) 36 18 3600 (3000) P 72 31 600 (500) 150 SOURCE: Krecker and Lancaster, 1933. ft 200 260- C'i ----- Adams Ek Kregear, 69 Z P 240- -Brinkhurst jt gl_ 68 4 250 ....... Heard, 62 P-- 220- --ironge interquortile 200- median FIGURE 4-237 Relative Abundance of the Five Most Common Species of Sphaeriidae 180- Found in the Straits of Mackinac with Respect to Depth. The widths of the polygons are propor- 160- tionate to the total number of specimens col- lected within 10 ft depth intervals. The dashed 140- lines indicate depths. from which no specimens were collected. After Henson and Harrington, 1965 120 the depth range for a number of the benthos 100- based on data from Heard;3211 Henson and Her- T T rington,344 Brinkhurst et al.,100 and Adams and Kregear.4 Perhaps even more informative are the relative abundances of benthic species at 60- various depths, (Henson and Herrington344) (Figure 4-237). In comparing the depth ranges 40 of various Great Lakes benthos, the literature agrees generally as to whether a species is 20- littoral, sublittoral or profundal, but precise depth ranges often vary widely. So many fac- tors such as temperature, light intensity, dis- solved oxygen, wave action, and the availabil- ity of food are related to depth that published 0 0 depth ranges should be regarded as tentative. 0 Shallow water represents a dynamic envi- ronme > 0V nt with respect to wave action and the C . 0 1@ 0 U > E. consequent instability of the bottom, but this z a; 1@ one seems to be most favorable for life. The shallow water of Lake Huron supports a FIGURE 4-236 Depth Preferences for a greater diversity of benthos than deep water Number of Benthic Species (Teter7118). Perhaps most important is the fact that the shallow nearshore zones of the lakes Some benthic species can be described as are richest in food, due either toin situ produc- eurybathic in that they are found at most tion which is dependent on light penetration, depths except in the littoral zone or in profun- or to the inflow of allocthonous material from dal depths. Few species appear to be to- the watershed. In Lake Michigan, Powers and tibathic although Smith748 reported collect- Robertson625 determined that there is a _1@ IN . I ir Is I ing Hydra carnea from all depths in Lake Su- strong negative correlation between organic perior to 309 m (1014 ft). Figure 4-236 shows matter on the bottom, which includes the 270 Appendix 4 10- TABLE 4-64 Mean Oligochaete Abundance at Various Depths in Lake Ontario Zone Abundance 2) Littoral go/m2 (108/yd 2) Sublittoral 270/M2 (323/yd go/M2 2) Profundal 4 (586/yd SOURCE: Johnson and Matheson, 1968. X regarded as pollution tolerant, increases with 0.1- depth (Johnson and Matheson 434) (Table 4-64). Tubificids are found at all depths in the Great Lakes, but are least abundant above 3 m and below 66 m. They are most common be- tween 33 m and 66 m (Henson 342) . Henson and Herrington344reported that the size of many fingernail clam species is diminished in the I cold, deep water of the Great Lakes compared 0 5, .'0 ISO ILO ISO 3100 with the same species living in rivers and DEPTH,METERS creeks. FIGURE 4-238 Distribution of Organic Mat- Brinkhurst et al.100 observed that the north- ter Versus Depth in Lake Michigan ern shore of Lake Ontario is not as steep as the From Powers and Robertson, 1965 American shore so if species were limited by depth, one would expect to find them first on the Canadian shore. The distribution of Pisidium conventus in Lake Ontario supports this observation as this species extends fur- Is- W W ItI a W D 0 lo- w 00 0 X 00 (10 0 0 FIGURE 4-239 Comparison of Depth Dis- so tribution of Benthic Fauna, Lake Michigan, 5- 0 0 40 0 0 1962-64, and Lake Huron, 1965 - 0 0 0 From Schuytema and Powers, 1966 0 00 0 0 benthos, and depth (Figure 4-238), indicating 0 that food is most abundant in shallow areas. 0 Schuytema and PowerS725compared the depth distributions of the total benthic fauna in Lakes Michigan and Huron and found that the 20 40 60 80 100 120 greatest part of the benthos is concentrated in DEPTH IN METERS shallow water in both lakes (Figure 4-239). In FIGURE 4-240 Relationship of the Number of Lake Ontario, the greatest abundance of Pontoporeia affinis to the Depth of Sampling oligochaetes which, taken as a group, may be From Marzolf, 1965 Biological Characteristics 271 zone. Marzolf"15 for example, found no corre- lation of the relative abundance of this am- &OOq phipod with depth in Lake Michigan (Figure 4-240). In contrast, Robertson and Alley665 re- VOq ported that in collections made in both 1931-32 .r: and 1964, P. affinis has a distinct zone of maximum abundance at 30 in to 40 in (Figures 300q 4-241, 4-242). It appears that depth may not affect distribution, but it does have an effect Z 2POq on abundance of Pontoporeia. In South Bay of 165 Z Lake Huron, Cooper observed that Pon- Z toporeia has a one-year life cycle in the shallow LOOO (mean 14 in) outer bay and a two-year life cycle in the deeper (mean 40 in) inner bay. This is C@ --------- most probably a temperature and/or food sup- ply effect rather than depth related. -koool io 30 io io ;0 ;10 i30 ;50 DEPTH W 8.2.5.2 Substrate FIGURE 4-241 Mean Abundance of Pon- The type of substrate is a factor which, at toporeia in Lake Michigan in a Series of 10 in least to some extent, controls the distribution Depth Ranges in 1931-1932 with 95% Confi- of benthic and periphytic animals. It is widely dence Limits. The dashed line represents zero recognized that rocky and sandy substrata abundance. Robertson and Alley, 1966 support a meager fauna compared to mud bot- toms. Krecker and Lancaster 475 pointed out that bottom type cannot be regarded alone be- cause bottom type also implies a specific type 5poc@ of lake environment. For example Schuytema and PowerS725 attributed the low numbers 4.000L of Pontoporeia at the Bruce Peninsula en- trance of Georgian Bay to the rocky bottom and shallow depths, while Adams and Kre- 4 3000L gear found that Pontoporeia is able to flourish on a bedrock substrate if it is covered W ?,POCL with epilithic algae. Sand bottoms are usually Z unstable, a situation that many species find intolerable. For example, Veal and Osmond 1141. Z kooq attribute the low densities of benthic inverte- brates in portions of the Lake Erie central basin to shifting sediment as well as to the - - - - - - - - - predominance of sand and gravel. Shelford -1,0001 and Boese 1732 distinguished two different benthic communities that occurred on different 10 30 50 io @O 1,10 1,30 150 DEPTH (m) bottom types in the western basin of Lake Erie: the Pluerocera-Lampsilis community on FIGURE 4-242 Mean Abundance of Pon- sand and the Hexagenia-Oecetis community toporeia in Lake Michigan in a Series of 10 in on mud. Krecker and Lancaster 475 related the Depth Ranges in 1964 with 95% Confidence benthos distribution to a rather complex Limits. The dashed line represents zero abun- series of bottom types in western Lake Erie dance. (Table 4-65). Robertson and Alley, 1966 Some investigators make precise descrip- ther from the shore on the northern side of the tions of the type of substrate in which they lake than on the south. find various organisms. Attempts to correlate Pontoporeia affinis is an interesting species the abundance of oligochaete species with par- with regard to its depth distribution. Most in- ticle size of the sediments have usually failed vestigators agree that it is one of the few truly to show any direct correlation. Henson '342 eurybathic benthic forms outside the littoral however, found that the abundance of 272 Appendix 4 TABLE'4-65 Number of Species and Individ. more influence than particle size. Occurrence uals on Various Substrata of Ilyodrilus templetoni is positively corre- lated with organic content of sediments, while Number of Number of Peloscolexferox, another species of tubificid, is Substratum Species Individuals negatively correlated with organic matter (Brinkhurst93). In Saginaw Bay, Schneider Sand 6 200 et al.722 found that Hexagenia sp. and Pebbles 8 300 Chironomus plumosus are both positively Clay 14 800 correlated and Cryptbehironomus and Pseudochironomus are negatively correlated Flat Rubble 18 1000 with organic content of the sediments. In Block Rubble 17 1200 Hamilton Bay, Lake Ontario, Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri and Tubifex tubifex are numer- Shelving Rock 12 7700 ous in profundal sediments that contain an excess of 0.25 percent organic nitrogen and SOURCE: Krecker and Lancaster, 1933. 0.50 percent phosphorus and lose more than 10 percent weight upon ignition. Marzo,lf,515 on oligochaetes in the Straits of Mackinac, when the other hand, found no direct correlation be- plotted against median particle size, was tween organic content of sediments and the nearly a normal curve. Sediments having a density of Pontoporeia affinis populations in high percentage of either sand or clay sup- Lake Michigan, but in laboratory experiments ported a smaller biomass. Henson and Her- this amphipod selected organic sediments or rington 344 reported the particle size pref- sediments having bacterial growth on the erence of a number of fingernail clam species particle surfaces. Organic content seems to be (Table 4-66) to show that this factor can serve a more important factor than sediment tex- as a partial basis for niche differentiation ture in determining the distribution and among closely related species. abundance of benthic species. Henson and Herrington also showed that sediment size preference may be influenced by depth. For example, Sphaerium nitidum ap- 8.2.5.3 Water Movement parently prefers coarse sediments in shallow water (Figure 4-243). Water movement is important in the dis- Organic content of sediments may have tribution of the benthos and periphyton. Some TABLE 4-66 Sphaeriid (Fingernail Clam) Sediment Texture Preference Species Mean 0 Sizel Description S. nitidwn 2.0-3.5 Sand S. striatinum 1.5-3.5 Well-sorted, medium fine sand S. striatinum form acuninatwn 1.5-2.5 Tends to prefer coarser sand P. casertanum 1.5-3.5 Well-sorted, medium fine sand P. coppressum 2.3-4.4 Modal around fine sand P. conventus 3.0-4.0 Prefers silty sand P. dubiwn 3.0-3.5 Fine sand P. ZiUjeborgi 1.5-2.5 Prefers 90% coarse-medium sand with 10% silt P. punctatwn 2.4-3.5 Sand P. subtruncatzin 3.3 Sand P. ventricosum 3.2-3.5 Sand P. waZkeri 3.2-3.3 Sand with vegetation 10 units, are defined as the negative 1092 Of the particle size in millimeters. SOURCE: Henson and Herrington, 1965. Biological Characteristics 273 1 2 3 4 5 6 Little information concerning the influence M) 0 of waves on zooplankton is available. C 0 0 0 Windstorms may reverse the normal depth 20- 0 stratification of zooplankton species (An- 30- 0 A 00 0 0 dreWS 20) . Rotifer blooms occur during times of 0000 0 the year when there is little turbulence (Wil- 0 A 4C 00 A liams897). Wave action is also important in 50 A shallow areas some distance from shore, as in the shoal environment of Lake Superior 60 (Adams and Kregear 4) . The Coreyon Reef also To 0 supports the lowest biomass in Saginaw Bay, so A presumably because of wave action (Schneider 0 et al .722). 9C AA A The effect of general lake currents has been 'OC A little studied, perhaps because these currents are not yet well defined. Biological effects of 110 seiches have not been extensively studied 120 either. Seiches in the western basin of Lake Erie afford indispensible feeding and breeding 130 0 S striatinum grounds to fish (Krecker 474) . No one seems to 140 A S @,fid- have studied the probable limiting effects that A seiches might have on periphytic organisms near the surface. This situation should be FIGURE 4-243 Samples Containing Sphae- analogous to that of marine epifauna in the rium striatinum and Sphaerium nitidum intertidal zone, except that seiches might be Showing the Relationship Between Medi-an Par- more limiting. Tides are predictable and ticle Size (Oro average phi number) and Depth marine organisms have become adapted to Henson and Harrington, 1965 them on a clocklike basis, whereas seiches are species may be adapted to high flow and wave irregular and marine organisms may have action, but this environment is limiting to more difficulty adapting to them. Internal most species. Wave action controls animal dis- waves may also have a limiting effect on tribution in two ways (Krecker 473), first by periphytic organisms. Distribution of certain striking the animal directly and, second, by benthos, such as Chironomus plumosus, may causing an oscillation of the substratum. To center at the bottom of the thermoclines (Bar- these a third might be added, the scouring ac- dach 40). Shifting of the oxygen-deficient tion of suspended particles. Where subject to hypolimnion of the central basin of Lake Erie wave action, the snail Goniobasis livescens could have profound effects on the biota. tends to inhabit only large objects or avoids the waves by seeking the lower surfaces of rocky habitats (Krecker 473) . Goniobasis lives- 8.2.5.4 Temperature cens also inhabits generally protected regions where its substrate preferences are not so Temperature in the Great Lakes varies de- narrow (Denni S211). Wave action is one of the pending on the latitude of the particular lake major factors determining snail species dis- and its depth and this influences the distribu- tributions in the western basin of Lake Erie. tion and abundance of invertebrate fauna. Some species are inhibited by wave action if The upper lakes are colder than the lower the substrate lacks large rocks; others can tol- lakes and, therefore, have different zoo- erate essentially no wave action and require planktonic and zoobenthic fauna. The fauna is vegetation substrata; while others need both not entirely different, but many species have vegetation and wave action. Mussels are corn- limited ranges or change greatly in relative pletely lacking on certain wave-swept shoals abundance from one lake to another. Deep in Lake Erie even though the bottom is suit- lakes are cold at depth and support fauna simi- able. Elsewhere in the lake these mussels are lar to northern lakes. This is obvious when one stunted compared to the same species in pro- compares the western and eastern basins of tected habitats (Brown et al.105). The stunting Lake Erie, which are roughly at the same may be due to the continuous effort required of latitude but differ considerably in depth. Hen- the mussel to stay in place or to some other son '343 Henson and Herrington '344 and Brink- factor, such as food availability. hurst et al.,1100 pointed out that there is an 274 Appendix 4 oligothermic fauna, which is characteristic of river mouth and harbor sediments contain the colder lakes, that persists as a profundal, substances toxic to benthic organisms. glacial relict. Such organisms as Sphaerium Johnson and Matheson 434 found a lack of nitidum, Pisidium conventus, Heterotrisso- tubificids in Hamilton Bay sediments, which cladius subpilosus, Monodiamesa bathyphila, have a high iron content. The toxicity, they Rhyacodrilus spp., Pontoporeia affinis, Mysis noted, could be due to the iron directl- or the relicta and many other species are included. high COD associated with its oxidation. With Seasonal changes in zooplankton popula- regard to zooplankton, Parker and Hazel- tions can be partially correlated with seasonal wood 597 reported a positive correlation be- temperature variations, but other factors tween Daphnia schodleri populations and high such as light intensity and photoperiod are. trace amounts of aluminum and magnesium also involved. and a negative correlation with high phos- Finally, temperature changes due to ther- phate content in natural waters. mal enrichment can affect fish, phytoplankton Most knowledge concerning the importance and, to a minor extent, bacteria. Thermal ef- of specific chemicals dissolved in water to the f6cts on zooplankton appear to be trivial and well-being of zooplankton and benthos has to local, and thermal effects on the benthos may do with oxygen. Many profundal benthic be nonexistent since the low-density warmwa- species, notably species of chironomid midge ter layer cannot be expected to reach the lake larvae and various tubificids, have been ob- bottom. However, power plants may damage served to survive periods of very low dissolved zooplankton during passage through con- oxygen in the hypolimnion. Chaoborid midge denser pumps or poison them by using chlo- larvae can apparently adapt themselves to life rine and other biocides used to keep condenser in an anaerobic or nearly anaerobic environ- pipes free of fouling growths. ment. These species also seem generally toler- ant of high C02 levels (Curry175). It Seems probable that most aquatic invertebrates can 8.2.5.5 Light adapt to some extent to changing levels of dis- solved oxygen. Certain species of Daphnia de- As an environmental factor for lake inver- velop a red color due to increased hemoglobin tebrates, light appears to be most significant production during periods of low dissolved indirectly. Light is an important factor in oxygen, and this permits increased survival photosynthesis. This process is necessary for time under anaerobic conditions (Hrbacek ; 386 the nourishment and growth of phyto- Fox270). plankton, which act as food for the lake inver- Leonard493 has found that Hexagenia lim- tebrates. Light also influences water temper- bata and Ephmera similan8 can survive 0.20 ature. Light has considerable influence on the ppm to 0.30 ppm of cyanide, which acts specifi- depth distribution of zooplankters, especially cally to block oxidative metabolism, for I to 2 the Crustacea and their diel migrations. This hours and that some other mayfly nymphs are is discussed in. Subsection 8.2.6. Light inten- even more tolerant. Cyanide tolerance may sity and depth of penetration influence the have some significance in the vicinity of steel distribution of many benthic species. Photo- mills since this is one of the components of period is involved in regulating the life cycles wastewater from such plants. of many Great Lakes invertebrates, but de- finitive studies on this subject are lacking. 8.2.6 Vertical Stratification and Diel Migrations 8.2.5.6 Chemical Factors Diel migrations are regular cyclic changes Although the chemical content of water, in depth distribution over a 24-hour period. As particularly dissolved nutrients for phyto- a result of this migration pattern, many zoo- plankton, has been studied rather extensively, plankton species are restricted to a narrow this is not so relevant for marine animals be- stratum within the water column. Migration cause they generally feed on other organisms patterns are well known for the planktonic or solid detritus. Impact of toxic chemicals en- Crustacea, but the other major components of tering the Great Lakes is significant. How- the plankton, the Protozoa and Rotatoria, are ever, little has been done to describe either the not generally noted for this phenomenon. chemicals or their effects. Gannon and Bee- Davis'93 observed that planktonic crusta- ton2112 demonstrated that many Great Lakes ceans in central Lake Erie tend to be more Biological Characteristics 275 0 5:30PM 7:45PM 8:30PM I I: 00PNI S S S 10 ------------------- S--------------- S ------------------ S----------------- -------------- 20 --------------------------------------------------------------- -------- 30 Uj ;k T@ 40 50 0 1 2 3 5 60 AUGUST 7,1954 HUNDREDS PER CUBIC METER 70 0 4:15PM 6:15PM 8:15PM 10:45PM ----------- S ------------- - ---------- ---------------- ----------- 10 - --- --------------------- --------------- --------- --------- 20 - 30 - Uj 0 1 2 3 4 JULY 24,1955 40 - HUNDREDS PER CUBIC METER FIGURE 4-244 Vertical Distribution of Limnocalanus macrurus in Lake Michigan on August 7, 1954 (sunset 8:00 pm, EST), and July 24,1955 (sunset 8:15 pm, EST). The broken lines represent the limits of the thermocline. The thermocline was pronounced on August 7. On July 24 it was distinct at 4:15, less so at 6:15, and weak at 8:15 and 10:45. The bottom line of each panel shows the depth of the lake at the sampling locality. No samples were taken below 40 m. (S) indicates samples in which L. macrurus did not occur. After Wells, 1960 numerous at depths of 6 m to 12 m but rotifers semi-planktonic benthos such as Mysis, have and protozoans are not characterized by peak visual pigment systems that seem best abundance at any specific depth. However, in adapted to detect the light wavelengths that an earlier paper Davis196 reported that prevail at their habitual depths (Beeton;52 many species of rotifers show diel migration. McNaught and Hasler;527 MeNaught525). Ab- The matter is further complicated by the ob- solute light intensity apparently bears only an servation of Jennings 426 that "during the day- imperfect relation to crustacean depth selec- light, the limnetic Rotifera are found in much tion, but such things as changes in time of greater numbers near the surface than near sunrise and sunset, moonlight, fog, and turbid- the bottom, reversing the condition commonly ity influence the onset and extent of migration observed for the Crustacea." Exceptions are (Jahoda;422 Beeton;54 Marzolf515). McNaught also found among protozoans. For example, and Hasler5211 determined a linear relation- Stehle760 found that the ciliates Codonella ship between the rate of vertical movement of cratera and Coleps hirtus are much more crustacean zooplankters and the logarithm of abundant in night net tows than in tows made the rate of change in light intensity. The slope during daylight hours. of this line increased with increase in water Various crustacean species differ among one temperature, apparently reflecting increase F 4,_1 JULY 2 another in the extent to which they migrate in metabolism. Reluctance of some zoo- daily and the depths at which they tend to plankters to migrate through the thermocline concentrate (Jahoda;422 WelIS8110). There are is well documented (Wells,8130 McNaught also differences between sexes and various and Hasler527). Limnocalamus macrurus is a developmental stages within the same species. good example of a species which is known to Changes in light intensity and water tempera- stay largely within the hypolimnion during ture regulate diel migrations. Plankton, and the summer (Wilson"01) (Figure 4-244). 276 Appendix 4 The reasons for vertical diel migrations have concentrate on the benthos. Larger been explained by a number of theories sheepshead eat crayfish and other fish, some- (McLaren522); the following are the most thing clearly impossible for fry. A similar pat- commonly cited. The first is that Crustacea tern was reported for yellow perch (Turner 1105). avoid predation by moving to the dark depths Dryer et al.224 reported a predominance of during the day (McNaught425) . However, planktonic crustaceans in the stomachs of lake McLaren 522 pointed out that this theory is an trout up to about 8 inches in length, a predom- oversimplification and there is little evidence inance ofMysis relicta in trout from 8 inches to that diel migration significantly reduces pre- about 13 inches, and a predominance of fish dation, day or night. The second theory pro- remains in the larger trout. poses that such migrations are needed to pro- An inspection of the table reveals the impor- vide a thorough mixing of the zooplankter tance of the Copepoda, Cladocera, Hy- species gene pools, thus avoiding the undesir- dracarina, Ostracoda, Mysis, Amphipoda, able effects of localized inbreeding. McLar- crayfish, chironomids and various larval in- ren 522 pointed out that once again the facts sects, most notably Trichoptera and apparently do not support this theory. The Ephemeroptera, as fish food. In general, the third and most popular theory is that crusta- mollusks do not seem to be too important as cean zooplankters rise to feed in the warmer, fish food, because they have shells which productive upper photic layers and then des- would need to be crushed. Oligochaetes and cend to the colder depths to slow down their leeches do not appear to be important either. metabolism, thus conserving energy for egg Because tubificids make up a large portion of production (MeLaren522). The behavior of the benthos in polluted areas, this could repre- Limnocalamus and the other species that ap- sent a significant dimunition of the available parently migrate upward only until they hit fish food supply in such areas. Tubificids and the warmer nutrient rich layers of the ther- leeches are soft-bodied creatures and may mocline supports this explanation. break down so rapidly that little would be left to identify in stomach contents other than the microscopic setae of the tubificids. There is not 8.2.7 Feeding Relations yet sufficient information with which to ascer- tain the importance of soft-bodied inverte- From an economic viewpoint, one of the brates as fish food. most important things about zooplankton and The importance of planktonic organisms as zoobenthos is that they serve as food for fish of fish food is indicated in other ways besides commercial or recreational importance or for stomach content analyses. Game fish are at- smaller fish, which, in turn, are consumed by tracted to a sewage plant outfall in Lake Erie the larger species. Other forms of wildlife eat near Cleveland either by the abundance of lake invertebrates, but there is little informa- Crustacea in the area or, secondarily, by tion specifically for the Great Lakes. Some smaller fish (Metealf533). The best fishing in ducks consume large quantities of snails and Cleveland Harbor appears to be within the fingernail clams (Hunt 392). Stomach-content thermal plume of an electric generating plant. analyses for 26 species of Great Lakes com- As previously stated, plankton are killed or mercial, sporting, or forage fishes indicate maimed by passage through power plant con- that certain groups are more important than densers, so this easy prey may be the! attrac- others as fish food (Table 4-67). In the interest tive feature. of this discussion, only invertebrates are in- How much of a species' feeding depends on cluded in the table rather than a total preference and how much on availability of dietary analysis. Some species usually con- the prey organism is not indicated in Table sidered piscivorous, such as perch and walleye, 4-67. Fish do feed selectively when given a obviously feed on a variety of invertebrates as choice and, of course, prey preference is based well. It should be recognized that the inverte- partially on availability and partially on the brates listed for each fish species include those previous experience of the predator. Faber consumed at all developmental stages, for and JermolajeV252 found that young smelt some of the species at least, and that feeding selected mature female Eurytemora affinis in habits change considerably as fish mature. preference to all other planktonic crusta- For example, Daiber178 observed that ceans. Sibley737 found that young fish seemed sheepshead feed on planktonic organisms, to eat copepods in preference to cladocerans. mostly small crustaceans, until they reach a Essentially the opposite finding was made by length of more than 20 mm, after which they Brooks '103 who concluded that planktivorous Biological Characteristics 277 TABLE 4-67 Invertebrates Identified in Stomach Contents of Various Great Lakes Fishes Invertebrate Fish COPEPODA alewife, bloater, shiners, channel catfish, largemouth bass, yellow perch, Valleye, smelt Diaptomus D. ashlandi shiners, yellow perch D. minutus bloater, white crappie, yellow perch D. oreganensis bloater, carpsuckers, white bass, largemouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, sheepshead D. reighardi D. sicilis bloater, shiners, white bass, smallmouth bass, black crappie, yellow perch D. siciloides white bass, yellow perch Epichura Lacustris bloater, whitefish, shiners, white bass, smallmouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead Eurytemora affinis smelt Limnocalanus alewife, shiners L. macrurus bloater, cisco or lake herring, lawyer, white bass, yellow perch Canthocanpus largemouth bass C. robertocokeri carp CYCZOPS shiners, bullheads, channel catfish, white bass, largemouth bass, rock bass, yellow perch, smelt C. albidus mooneye, bullheads, smallmouth bass C. americanus whitefish, white bass, largemouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead C. bicuspidatus bloater, carpsuckers, shiners, lawyer, white bass, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, walleye C. fimbriatus yellow perch C. phateratus carp C. robustus carpsuckers, carp C. serrulatus carp, shiners, bullheads, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass C. vernaZis Meeocyclops M. ed= bloater, whitefish, cisco or lake herring, white bass, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead CLAWCM yellow perch Acroperus yellow perch A. harpae bullbeads Alona shiners, bullheads, white bass, largemouth bass, yellow perch, smelt A. affinia carp, yellow perch A. costata largemouth bass, yellow perch A. guttata largemouth bass A. quadranguZaris yellow perch Alonella excisa cisco or lake herring A. nana carp, bullheads Bosmina alewife, channel catfish, largemouth bass, yellow perch, walleye, smelt B. longirost2,is bloater, whitefish, shiners, white bass, largemouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, walleye ceriodaphnia largemouth. bass, yellow perch C. laticaudata bullheads, yellow perch C. pulchella bullheads, yellow perch C. quadrangula shiners C. reticulata bullheads, black crappie Chydorus shiners, lawyer, white bass, yellow perch, sheepshead C. gibbus bullheads C. globosus yellow perch C. sphaericus carpsuckers, bullheads, largemouth bass Daphnia alewife, carp, shiners, channel catfish, largemouth bass, yellow perch, sbeepshead, smelt D. galeata mendotae bloater D. "Zongispina" cisco or lake herring, shiners, yellow perch D. pulex mooneye, whitefish, muskellunge, carp, shiners, white bass, largemouth bass, black crappie, rock bass, yellow perch, sheepshead D. retrocurva mooneye, bloater, whitefish, shiners, white bass, smallmouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead Daphanosoma alewife, channel catfish D. branchyurwn cisco or lake herring D. leuchtenbergianwn whitefish, cisco or lake herring, shiners, white bass, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead Eurycercus Z=eUatus bloater, cisco or lake herring, yellow perch 278 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-67(continued) Invertebrates Identified in Stomach Contents of Various Great Lakes Fishes Invertebrate Fish Holopedium yellow perch, smelt H. gibberum bloater, cisco or lake herring Ilyocryptus sordidus carp I. spinifer carpsuckers, carp Latona channel catfish L. setifera carpsuckers, sheepshead Leptodora alewife, bloater, cisco or lake herring, shiners, channel catfish, white bass, yellow perch, sheepshead L. kindtii shiners, white crappie, black crappie, walleye, sheepshead Leydigia quadangularis carp, bullheads Macrothrix laticornis carpsuckers M. rosea carpsuckers, carp Monospilus dispar yellow perch Pleuroxus largemouth bass P. aduncus carpsuckers, carp P. procurvatus largemouth bass PoZyphemus alewife, bloater, largemouth bass Scapholeberis aurita carp S. mucronata largemouth bass Sida alewife, cisco or lake herring, shiners, channel catfish, white bass, largemouth bass, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead S. crystallina largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, black crappie, yellow perch Simocephalus serrulatus carp, bullheads S. vetulus carp, bullheads NEMATODA carpsuckers, shiners, channel catfish, yellow perch Hydra alewife ROTIFERA alewife Paludicella ehrenbergii OLIGOCHAETA alewife, smelt Tubificidae bullheads Limnodrilus sheepshead HIRUDINEA sheepshead SPHAERIIDAE lake trout, bloater, whitefish, carp, lawyer Pisidium carp, smelt P. conventus bloater P. UZZieborgi bloater P. nitidwn bloater Sphaerium lake trout, whitefish S. nitidium bloater GASTROPODA yellow perch Gyraulus alewife Lymnaea alewife Physa bullheads, yellow perch Valvata yellow perch HYDRACARINA alewife, bullheads, channel catfish, white bass, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, smelt CONCHOSTRACA lake trout OSTRACODA alewife, lake trout, bloater, carp, shiners, bullheads, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, sheepshead, smelt Avais alewife, bloater, whitefish, lawyer, largemouth bass, black crappie, yellow perch, smelt M. relicta lake trout, bloater, lawyer, smelt ISOPODA alewife, yellow perch Asellus bullheads, yellow perch, sheepshead AMPHIPODA mooneye, lake trout, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, smelt Gwmarus bullheads, channel catfish, white bass, largemouth bass, yellow perch, sheepshead, smelt Hyalella shiners, bullheads, largemouth bass, yellow perch H. knickerbockeri largemouth bass Biological Characteristics 279 TABLE 4-67(continued) Invertebrates Identified in Stomach Contents of Various Great Lakes Fishes Invertebrates Fish Pontoporeia alewife, smelt P. affinie lake trout, bloater, whitefish, lawyer Crayfish northern pike, carp, channel catfish, lawyer, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white crappie, rock bass, yellow perch, sheepshead C=barus sheepshead DIPTERA lake trout CHIRONOMIDAE alewife, mooneye, lake trout, bloater, whitefish, carp, shiners, bullheads, channel catfish, lawyer, white bass, largemouth bass, white crappie, black crappie, rock bass, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead, smelt Chironomus mooneye, channel catfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead Orthocladius smallmouth bass Pentaneura channel catfish Tantytarsue smallmouth bass CULICIDAE sheepshead HELEIDAE channel catfish, white bass, sheepshead TIPULIDAE mooneyes yellow perch, sheepshead SiaZia infwnata sheepshead HOMOPTERA mDoneye HEMIPTERA mooneye, lake trout CORIXIDAE sheepshead Cori= northern pike, white bass, largemoutb bass, yellow perch PaZmcorixa sheepshead ODONATA lawyer ZYGOPTERA smallmouth bass, yellow perch AGRIONIDAE mooneye TRICHOPTERA mooneye, bloater, carp, shiners, bullbeads, channel catfish, smallmouth bass, yellow perchp sheepshead, smelt Hydropsyche white bass EPHEMEROPTERA alewife, lake trout, northern pike, shiners, bullheads, white bass, white crappie, rock bass, yellow perch, sheepshead, smelt Baetis smallmouth bass Caenis bullheads, channel catfish, sheepshead Ephemera sheepshead, smelt Ephemepetla smallmouth bass, sheepshead Ephoron bullheads, channel catfish, white bass, sheepshead Heptagenia mooneye, sheepsbead Hexagenia channel catfishv smallmouth bass, sheepshead Stenonema sheepshead LEPIDOPTERA mooneye COLEOPTERA alewife, mooneye, lake trout, bloater, smallmouth bass, sheepshead Psephenus sheepshead ELHIDAE shiners SOURCES: Baldwin, 1950; Boesel, 1938; Daiber, 1952; Drayar, et al., 1965; Ewers, 1933; Faber, 1966; Gordon, 1961; Bohn, 1966; Morsell and Norden, 1968; Norden, 1968; Schneiberger, 1937; Shelford and Boesel, 1942; Sibley, 1929; Tharratt, 1959; Tressler and Austin, 1940; Turner, 1920; Van Osten and Deason, 1938; Ward, 1895; Wiekliff, 1920; Wilson, 1960. fish selected the largest available prey and predominate when planktivory by fishes is thus chose cladocerans (Daphnia) before more intense. Norden 5111 Used the electricity copepods. This prey size selection could shift index of Ivlev to express mathematically the the competitive balance between zooplank- feeding preferences of larval alewife. The tonic herbivores so that the smaller Crustacea index equation is 280 Appendix 4 E ri - P, ri + Pi +1.00- Cladocera +0.75- aftft -Clf where r@ is the percentage of any food item in the diet and Pi is the percentage of the same +0.50- EM-00 organism relative to the entire population of zooplankton in the environment. The +0.25- Copepoda go maximum range of electivity is + 1 to -1. A plus number indicates that the food species is pref- .2t 0 erentially selected, a negative number that it 2-0.25- is rejected. Applying this equation Norden W -0.50- Rotatoria found that larval alewife change their pref- < ........ 10 erence to copepods from cladocerans as the -0.75 - season progresses (Figure 4-245). Rotifers are rejected at all times. -1.00- What, in turn, do the zoobenthos and zoo- 6 S:pt. Is 20 3 plankton eat? Brown106 suggested that Oct. tubificids eat organic detritus in sludge, but Date they apparently eat the bacteria contained within the sludge (BrinkhurSt,92 Coler et FIGURE 4-245 Electivity of Cladocera, al.1511). There seems to be some selectivity in- Copepoda, and Rotatoria Sampled from Lake volved, since Brinkhurst recounted that some Michigan in 1967 bacterial species pass through the tubificid di- From Norden, 1968 gestive tract unharmed. Coler et al.1511 found is probably mainly a detritus feeder that sludge worms (Limnodrilus sp., Tubi/ex (Reighard644). Field and laboratory evidence sp. and Peloscolex sp.) consume Escherichia indicates that Pontoporeia affinis feeds on coli, Sphaerotilus natans, and Aerobacter bacteria living on detritus and MarZolf515 aerogenes, but avoid ingestion of Arthrobacter suggests that this is the mode of nutrition for sp., Micrococcus flavus and Chromobacterium most detritus feeders. sp. These data suggest that the susceptibility Most work on feeding relationships has been of E. coli to ingestion might account for its done on planktonic Crustacea because they are rapid disappearance from sewage-polluted a direct link between the phytoplankton and water. Brinkhurst92 noted that tubificids the fish which are the consumers of most would eat Chromobacterium sp. and that these interest to man. A few generalizations can be worms caused kill-offs when subsequently fed made. Most cladocerans are planktivorous to turtles and fish. grazers (Edmondson237) except Leptodora Hiltunen360 and Adams and Kregear4 agree and Polyphemus, which are predatory on other that most oligochaetes are herbivorous, but Crustacea. The calanoid copepods are filter that Chaetogaster is predacious, perhaps even feeders, feeding mainly on phytoplankton, cannibalistic. Both observed harpaticoid whereas the cyclopoids are omnivores, feed- copepods within the digestive tracts of these ing on all sorts of particulate material worms. (Hubschman388). Hubschman's assignment of Leeches of the Great Lakes feed on a variety Epischura lacustris to the herbivorous cate- of organisms, including turtles, fish, snails, gory was contradicted by Rigler and frogs, insect larvae, mammals and aquatic Langford655 who state that it can eat algae, oligochaetes (Miller545). Brinkhurst9l men- but Epischura thrives on Diaptomus. Even tions erpobdellid leeches in particular as among the filter-feeders, there is some selec- predators of tubificids, but Miller lists Glos- tion of food. Burns'16 found that the size of siphonia spp. and Placobdella spp. as well as plastic beads ingested by seven species of various erpobdellids as sludge-worm feeders. cladocerans increased with increasing body Chironomid larvae as a group are herbivor- size. This ability to select food by size appar- ous, but Procladius feeds extensively on ently helps reduce competition between tubificids (Carr and Hiltunen125). Chaoborus closely related species of crustaceans (Hutch- ,do larvae feed voraciously on other zooplankton inson;401 Fryer2711). (Edmondson237). An important question relating to this sub- Most of the benthic Crustacea (crayfish, ject is how much of the food supply of the Asellus) are detritus feeders and, although filter-feeding zooplankton comes from phyto- Gammarus is known to eat copepods, it too plankton production and how much is alloc- Biological Characteristics 281 IVA B / ZA 7S Fabian 253 added Cyclops vernalis to the list of DEEP BO L r/C 511OA4 fish-biters. A large number of Fabian's ex- perimental fish died, presumably nibbled to Pyyroamwrav A4Q9WV1A death. Fabian suggested cyclopoid copepods 10MAC TrA21r"C' Mwwil m etimes be a significant biotic limiting i faactyosrofmor some fish populations. DETRIMS X&MU I Daiber178 diagrammed a tentative food web ETTROrRaVIC for the western basin of Lake Erie with 46,CNIA I sheepshead as the -top consumer (Figure UNW4RCU5 4-246). The food web emphasizes the complex- MINIMA A ity of feeding relationships in the Great Lakes VAPPMA and the importance of all species for the well- NNARV5 'EMPMV being of those species in which man is primar- ily interested. MVIAW 8.2.8 Reproduction 7RIVIORAFRA 1 1 CAMBARUS LEXODORA C4N,6"W An understanding of population growth and PERMIJA regulation requires knowledge of the repro- N.A. A r)![Vi ZX FZABR duction of the species in question. Little is known of the breeding seasons of Great Lakes I.B. BUMVOIDO invertebrates (Table 4-68). Where information is available for a number of closely related species, it can be seen that they often differ in FIGURE 4-246 A Tentative Food Web in their breeding seasons. Some zooplankters Western Lake Erie Using the Sheepshead as the breed throughout the warm months, some pre- Climax Organism From Daiber, 1952 fer the colder months, and some do not breed during either the warmest or the coldest thonous particulate material. Allocthonous months. organic material is an important contribution The number and size of eggs in female zoo- of the watershed to lake enrichment. Sus- plankters of the same species vary depending pended,n on-living organic matter in a lake is on external conditions. For example, the termed trypton. Davis""' cited four sources of number of eggs produced by Lake Erie trypton: the watershed, marginal marshy copepods decreases under unfavorable tem- areas, dead and decaying plankters, and re- perature and food supply conditions and also suspension of bottom material. when young copepods are abundant (Ewers 249). Particulate matter in domestic sewage is Hutchinson401 attempted to synthesize the probably an important food source for known facts about copepod reproduction into a planktonic crustacea in Lake Erie (Wright9l). general theory of feedback control on egg pro- Since zooplankters seldom have recognizable duction. His hypothesis stated that "early in algae cells in their intestines (Edmondson236), the season when the population is expanding some investigators have suggested that they into a lake rich in food, individuals producing mainly feed on detritus. Extensive analyses of many small eggs will leave most descendents, the availability of phytoplankton and trypton while later in the year when the population is relative to planktonic crustacean population larger and the food supply less, it is desirable in Lake Erie were carried out by Davis,1811 who to increase as far as possible the individual life concluded that the major source of food for expectancy of the nauplii produced" by pro- these zooplankters was probably the algae, ducing larger eggs with more nutrient con- with trypton playing a secondary role. Ed- tent. In his analysis of calanoid copepod repro- mondson236 also dismissed dissolved organic duction in Lake Erie, Davis 1119 could not find a material and suspended bacteria as signifi- consistent decrease in number of eggs pro- cant food sources for planktonic crustaceans. duced from spring to autumn. Moreover, zoo- Finally, it appears that crustaceans can plankters from the eastern basin produced sometimes reverse the food chain by feeding more eggs than those in the more highly en- on fish. Davis'90 observed Cyclops bicus- riched western basin. Davis concluded that pidatus and Mesocyclops edax nibbling on the seasonal and other variations in the number of fins of rock bass fry, causing visible damage. eggs produced per female could not be corre- 282 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-68 Reproductive Seasons of Some Great Lakes Zooplankton and Zoobenthos Invertebrates Reproductive Season Diaptomus D. ashlandi Breeding March--August and in October (Davis, 1961). Breeds April--Septenber (Davis, 1962) D. minutus Breeding March--May; July--August (Davis, 1961). Breeds April--August (Davis, 1962) D. sicilis Breeding January--April and in October (Davis, 1961). Breeds April--June (Davis, 1962) D. siciloides Breeding May--November (Davis, 1961). Not parthenogenic (Ewers, 1936). Breeds June-- October (Davis, 1962) Epichura lacustris Females apparently do not carry eggs. Breeding in May (Davis, 1961) Limnocalanus Females bearing spermatophores in January and March. Females apparently do not carry eggs (Davis, 1961) CVCZOPS C. albidus Not parthenogenic; breeds April--November (Ewers, 1936) C. ater Not parthenogenic; breeds in August (Ewers, 1936) C. bicoZor Not parthenogenic; breed June--July (Ewers, 1936) C. bicuspidatus Not parthenogenic; breeds March--September (Ewers, 1936). Breeds April--October (Davis, 1962) C. fimbriatus Not parthenogenic (Ewers, 1936) C. phateratus Not parthenogenic (Ewers, 1936) C. seApuZatus Not parthenogenic; breeds March--November (Ewers, 1936) C. vernaZis Not parthenogenic; breeds March--November (Ewers, 1936) ldesocycZops ed= Not parthenogenic; breeds May--September (Ewers, 1936). Breeds June--September (Davis, 1962) Tropocyclops prasinus Not parthenogenic; breeds July--October (Ewers, 1936). Breeds July--October (Davis, 1962) Bosmina Zongirostz-ls Breeds March--December (Davis, 1962) Chydorus sphaericus Breeds March--June; August--December (Davis, 1962) Daphnia D. galeata rwndotae Breeds October--November (Wells, 1960) D. "Zongispina" Breeds June--December (Davis, 1962) D. Zongiremis Breeds June--August (Davis, 1962) D. pulex Breeds June--July; October--November (Davis, 1962) D. retrocurva Breeds June--November (Davis, 1962) Daphanoso?w D. leuchtenbergianum Breeds August--October (Davis, 1962) Leptodora kindtii Parthenogenic reproducing feinales in western Lake Erie from late May to early November. Males occur late August to early November (Andrews, 1953) Rotifera Eggs deposited freely in water or attached to suspended particles, especially phytoplankters. Most abundant in May and October (Davis, 1962) Branchionus anguZaris Ovigerous females common in July (Davis, 1968) Keratella K. cochlearis Reproduction May--October (Davis, 1962). Reproduction May--June; late July--October (Davis, 1954) K. quadrata Reproduction May and June (Davis, 1962) Branchiura sowerbyi Breeds in summer (Aston, 1968) Linmodrilus hoffmeisteri Breeds at any time of the year (Brinkhurst, 1965) Tubifex tubifex Breeds at any time of the year (Brinkhurst, 1965) Akididde Peak of reproductive season may occur in late summer or early fall Sphaeriidae Breed year round (Hunt, 1962) Viviparus japonicus Reproducing in June (Wolfert and Hiltunen, 1968) Pontoporei,a affinis Breeding season probably winter or early spring (Teter, 1960). Gravid females observed in September (Adams and Kregear, 1969) Palaemonetes Ovigerous--early July to late August (Burdick, 1940) lated with the three basins of Lake Erie nor ble techniques to determine zooplankton with the season of the year, except that egg populations from Lake Erie. Total zoo- production generally decreased in the late au- plankton population fluctuations for parts of tumn. the years 1938, 1939, 1950, 1951, 1956, and 1957 (Figure 4-247) show winter minima and spring and autumn maxima, separated by summer 8.2.9 Seasonal Patterns in Population depressions. Fluctuations Figures 4-248, 4-249, 4-250, and 4-251 show the contributions to the total population fluc- Chandler'31 and Davis 193,196 used compara- tuations made by the three main components Biological Characteristics 283 2000 - 1000- t 900- 800- 700 600- 500- ir 400- 300- 200- 0 100- 9 0 so 70 60 S 50 40- Davis A 30- 20- 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 J M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTHS FIGURE 4-247 Total Zooplankton Population Fluctuations for Parts of the Years 1938, 1939, 1950, 1951, 1956, and 1957 for Lake Erie After Chandler, 1940; Davis, 1954; Davis 1962 of the zooplankton, the Copepoda, Cladocera, data were not presented in a form that could and Rotatoria. These graphs were derived be used here. from the above papers and from Wright 917 Chandler 131 and Davis "3,'96 tend to agree as whose data are for the years 1929 and 1930. to the seasonal population density patterns of Wright's data are not precisely comparable to Copepoda, Cladocera, and Rotatoria, as does those of Davis and Chandler because his Wright917 for Copepoda and Cladocera Copepoda include onlyDiaptomits and Cyclops (Figures 4-249,4-250, and 4-251). Data for 1938 and his Cladocera includes only Daphnia. to 1939 indicate larger populations, especially Major fluctuations in numerical densities of of copepods, in the western basin of Lake Erie the total zooplankton are caused by the roti- than were observed in 1929 to 1930. The same fers, particularly the summer depression and is true for 1956 to 1957 data from Cleveland the fall maximum. Wright 917 did not observe Harbor compared with 1950 to 1951 data. The an autumnal pulse of rotifers, but his rotifer population increases may indicate increased 284 Appendix 4 400 - cated, it would appear that water masses mov- ing past the sampling point are heteroge- neous. 350 - It is now obvious that more attention should be devoted to the statistics of sampling error. This has been a serious deficiency because 300 - much care should be normally exercised in making statistically valid counts of' the or- ganisms contained within the sample collec- tions. 250 - A detailed examination of the species popu- lation data in Eddy,234 Wilson,899 Chan- dler,131 Wells,1180 and Davis'93,191 shows some 200 - partial seasonal consistency for some of the species. Some species seem to develop peak populations in the spring and fall, although 150 - any given species may not peak at both sea- sons in the same year. In this group are Daph- nia retrocurva, Bosmina longirostris, B. lon- gispona, Cyclops bicuspidatus, Diaptomus 100 - ashlandi, and Epischura lacustris. Hol- A opedium gibberum, Sida crystallina, Lep- .4 todora kindti, Chydorus sphaericus, and 50 Daphnia galeata mendotae apparently favor warm weather and thus peak in summer and fall. Cyclops brevispinosus probably also be- 0 longs to this group. Robertson,664 in comparing i F M A M i i A S 0 N D the seasonal distribution of the four most MONTHS common calanoid copepods in Lake Michigan FIGURE 4-248 Seasonal Abundance of Three with .data reported by others for the same Major Components of the Zooplankton in Lake species, (Table 4-69) shows an interesting sea- Erie sonal succession that apparently develops ear- After Chandler, 1940; Davis, 1954; Davis, 1962; Wright, 1955 lier in the more southerly Lake Erie. This pat- tern is not entirely consistent with data from productivity over these intervals in Lake Erie. Edd y,234 Wilson,1199 and Chandler,"' so These data all indicate that both copepods and generalization is not really possible at this cladocerans have spring maxima in June time. and decline for the remainder of the year. The copepods shift from predominance by They do not indicate the true significance of cyclopoids in late June to predominance by the Cladocera and Copepoda in total zoo- calanoids in late August (Hubschman;3811 plankton, as they are based on numbers rather Davis'93). There is a difference in feeding than on biomass. habits of the two categories: the Cyclopoida Hubschman 31111 made daily zooplankton col- are largely carnivorous, whereas the lections by comparable methods during July Calanoida tend to be herbivorous. This may and August (Figures 4-252 and 4-253). If these reflect a shift in available food species as the data are averaged with those used to con- summer progresses. struct Figure 4-247, one finds that the June Information concerning seasonal popula- maximum for copepods is maintained, but the tion fluctuations among the zoobenthos of the cladoceran maximum is extended through Great Lakes is even more scarce than for zoo- June and July. Unfortunately, there is only plankton. Teter 7" reported a lack of seasonal one June observation in Hubschman's study. changes in the bottom fauna of Lake Huron The data show the extreme variability in even though he sampled twice a month from plankton population estimates based on sam- June through October. Brownl06 noted sea- ples taken on successive days. Even order of sonal fluctuations in the tubificid populations magnitude differences in estimates appear to in mouths of rivers draining into Lake Erie. be unreliable indicators of trends in popula- These data, although not extensive, suggest tion densities. As it seems unlikely that the peak populations in the spring with declines in populations oscillate daily to the extent indi- the summer (Figures 4-254 and 4-255). The Biological Characteristics 285 100 90 80 70- AA 60- 50- 40- Wright .. . ........ Chandler - - - - 30_ Davis- a-.-.- fA, 20- 5; 10 a 9 6 5 4 ------ 3 1939 2 ------- I 1950 F M A M i i A S 0 N D MONTHS FIGURE 4-249 Seasonal Abundance of Total Copepoda in Lake Eric After Chandler, 1940; Davis, 1954; Davis, 1962; Wright, 1955 relation of the population maxima to spring food chain upon which the fishery and many flooding is unknown. All worms in the Grand waterfowl depend. The ecosystem approach to Haven area of Lake Michigan, except Pelos- environmental management requires a fun- colex variegatus, peak in June (Hiltunen360) damental understanding of the components of (Figure 4-256). P. variegatus, Stylodrilus the system. Literature on the invertebrates of heringianus and immature forms without the Great Lakes is extensive, but numerous capilliform setae showed maxima in October. and significant gaps of knowledge exist, and Data from Benton Harbor, Michigan are not these gaps will inhibit sophisticated systems as extensive, but tend to confirm October analysis. peaks for Stylodrilus and immature worms The zooplankton and zoobenthos of the without capilliform setae. Great Lakes are incompletely cataloged, espe- Other species peak in July or August. A sea- cially certain groups. Lake Ontario has been sonal fluctuation in the biomass of oli- studied less extensively than the other lakes, goehaetes also occurs in the south end of and Lake Erie, especially the western basin, is Saginaw Bay (Schneider et al.722). The worm the most thoroughly studied. biomass is low in June, peaks in August, and Conclusions concerning environmental diminishes again by the end of October. The changes in the lakes are tenuous, at best, in most dramatic change was from 3.0 g/M2 in the absence of thorough biotic descriptions. June to 8.4 g/M2 in August to 0.5 g/M2 in Oc- There is, therefore, need to conduct limnologi- tober in the 1969 study. eal research in areas of the lakes which have been inadequately studied. These studies will provide baseline data against which future 8.2.10 Conclusions changes can be compared. Changes in the zoobenthos and zooplankton The zooplankton and zoobenthos of the of the Great Lakes have been adequately Great Lakes are of interest to planners and documented only for thewestern basin of Lake policy makers primarily as indicators of envi- Erie and, to a lesser extent, Lake Michigan ronmental quality and as links in the aquatic and Saginaw Bay. Changes may be the result 286 Appendix 4 100- 90- A so- 70- Wright ----------- - - 60- Chandler Davis ------- 50- 40- 30- 20 _j > E 10 A 7 6 fit 5 %*1 4 It % 3 4, I 05 2 V. M i A S 0 N D MONTHS FIGURE 4-250 Seasonal Abundance of Total Cladocera in Lake Erie After Chandler, 1940; Davis, 1954; Davis, 1962; Wright, 1955 of pollution, but other factors may have played completely established. The low level of sup- a role of undetermined significance. Changes port that systematics has received directly in- may have occurred in the other lakes but these hibits the understanding of Great Lakes ecol- would be difficult to ascertain. For example ogy, so it is imperative that taxonomic re- Lake Ontario fauna, especially the zoo- search be given a higher priority. plankton, has incomplete historical documen- Zooplankton are poor indicators of local pol- tation. The degree to which this lake may have lution but are good indicators of over-all envi- undergone changes in the past cannot be dem- ronmental conditions in the Great Lakes. onstrated. Zoobenthos can be'used as indicators of local Methods for sampling and processing the pollution if they are carefully classified and zooplankton and zoobenthos vary, often mak- interrelationships properly interpreted. Use ing comparison of different studies difficult. of organisms such as the tubificids and Great Lakes researchers should establish chironomids as indicators requires identifica- some conventions or guidelines for these pro- tion to the species level. cedures, similar to the International Biologi- The distributions of zoobenthos and zoo- cal Program (IBP) handbooks. If nothing else, plankton species tend to have distinctgradients standard units for reporting data should be within each of the Great Lakes. These gra- adopted. dients are best documented for Lake Erie, The taxonomy of even the better known Lake Michigan, Saginaw Bay and the North groups of zooplankton and zoobenthos is not Channel of Lake Huron. Simple comprehen- Biological Characteristics 287 2000- 1000- 900 800 700- 600- 500- 400- 300- 5> _J 200- 100 90- 80- 70- 60- 50- Chandler - - - - - - 40- Da@is 30- -41 20- 10 9 8 7 6 4 a, 3 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i F M A M i A S 0 N D MONTHS FIGURE 4-251 Seasonal Abundance of Total Rotatoria in Lake Erie After Chandler, 1940; Davis, 1954; Davis, 1962; Wright, 1955 sive faunal description of a lake is clearly not ability of allocthonous organic material to a possible. great degree. Lake Erie probably contains more living Most species of Great Lakes fish feed heavily material than at any time in the past. Species on the zooplankton and zoobenthos. Even the diversity is lower in the western basin than in mainly piscivorous species rely on these or- the rest of Lake Erie, but the total biomass ganisms when they are fry. Most of the there is apparently greater. Similar faunal dis- zoobenthos are detritus feeders and thus may tribution patterns have been determine d in consume significant amounts of allocthonous southern Saginaw Bay and southern Lake organic material or the bacteria that grow on Michigan and probably are a result of pollution. such material. The zooplankton may also con- Careful analyses of physical factors that gov- sume particulate alloethonous material, but ern the distribution of the Great Lakes zoo- apparently the grazing species derive most of plankton and zoobenthos are not numerous. A their nutrition by feeding on the phyto- significant observation is that the distribution plankton. of benthic organisms is influenced by the avail- Life history data, such as reproductive pat- 288 Appendix 4 183 terns and symbiotic relationships are too in- 120 completely known to be of use in predicting 110 Cladocera (0the, than LePtodora) zooplankton and zoobenthos population fluc- 100 tuations. Zooplankton clearly undergo sea- 90 sonal population fluctuations which are re- so lated, in part, to phytoplankton fluctuations. 70 Zooplankton as a group have spring maxima =4 Go and the rotifers regularly have a fall pulse as 450 well. Seasonal population fluctuations proba- 40 bly occur among the zoobenthos, but have not 30 been well documented. 20 10 8.3 Phytoplankton, Phytobenthos, and June July July July July Aug- Aug. Aug. Aug* Phytoperiphyton of the Great Lakes 30 6 13 20 27 3 to 17 2.1 FIGURE 4-252 Daily Population Densities of Cladocera Other Than Leptodora 8.3.1 Components of the Flora From Hubschman, 1960 The Great Lakes flora discussed in this sec- 120 tion include only the phytoplankton, phy- 150 110 tobenthos, and periphyton. The terrestrial and 100 semiterrestrial plants of the region are not 90 included. It is often difficult to distinguish so Cyclap*id coptpoft among the plankton, the benthos, and the TO Colanaid Caltepods .......... periphyton. The euplankton are more diverse so and more abundant in terms of biomass than Is 50 the attached (benthic and periphytic) forms. :.o The periphytic life habit appears to be more 0 important among the algae than the benthic :0 habit. Many types of diatoms and filamentous 10 ....... "I green and blue-green algae are periphytic on substrates such as rocks, pilings, and stems of Ju- July Ju July July Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug 30 6 13 2.0 27 3 10 17, V' higher plants. Some periphytic, filamentous algae break free of their attachments and be- FIGURE 4-253 Daily Population Densities of come members of the plankton before dying. Cyclopoid and Calanoid Copepods Collected in The main categories of Great Lakes flora are: the Same Location Daily in the Bass Islands (1) Phylum Chlorophyta is a green algae Region of Lake Erie in 1950 From Hubschman, 1960 and includes many filamentous Species and TABLE4-69 Dominant Diaptomid Species in Lake Michigan in 1954-1955 and in 1964, and in Lake Erie in 1956-1957 Month Location and Date J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Lake Michigan (1954-55) D.m. D.a. 1D.o. I D.s. (Wells, 1960) Lake Michigan (1964) D.m. & D.o. D.a. D.o. ly Lake Erie (1956-57) D.m. I D.a. D.o. (Davis, 1962) D.m. = Diaptomus minutus D.o. = Diaptomus oregonensis D.a. = Diaptomus ashlandi D.s. = Diaptomus siciZis SOURCE: Robertson, 1966. Biological Characteristics 289 111100- 50 1100- 40- (00 900- 30- U. 0 goo- 20- Too- W lo- w P1910scolex WrlegOIUS 6W 0 Ir 500- W 0. W 400- 160- -1 - - 2 300 - S2 120- U. M 200 < 80 Stylodrilus heringia-s .00- 0 40@ 0. J d lo- rII&I'tex lubifex FIGURE 4-254 Tubificid Peaks at Black River CL 0 Stations Data from Brown, 1953 10- L w&ilvs hoffmmsferl X LLl 0 225 - in 80- 200 - Z 60- 175- 150- 40- 20- Undetemined immat@e with - capilliform choetoe RIO - 60- 40- 25 OA n n 20- Undetermined irmature without I _j 4 4 ccolliform choetoe 11 i i 1 4 0 R=Y RIVER VERMILION HURON RIVER CON EAUT A$KrAB---. FOCT NOVI RIVER RIVER RIVER FIGURE 4-255 Tubificid Peaks in Five Lake FIGURE 4-256 Average Number of Selected Erie Tributaries Oligochaetes in Samples near Grand Haven, Data from Brown, 1953 Michigan; May to November, 1960. Vertical lines are ranges. From Hiltunen, 1967 the desmids, as well as other types. Also included here but not classified with Chlorophyta are the stoneworts, Chara and (4) Phylum Pyrrhophyta usually includes their relatives, which comprise much of the the dinoflagellates. These algae are widely benthic macroflora of parts of the Great Lakes. distributed but not abundant. (2) Phylum Chrysophyta is the yellow- (5) Phylum Rhodophyta is the red algae. green or yellow-brown algae. This group is as- These algae are very rare in the Great Lakes. sociated with the diatoms, which are generally (6) Phylum Euglenophyta, the euglenoids, dominant among the phytoplankton of the are quite small and do not preserve well. Some Great Lakes. investigators believe this group may be more (3) Phylum Cyanophyta is a blue-green important to the productive economy of the algae and includes unicellular, colonial, and Great Lakes than is generally realized. filamentous species, many of which are impli- (7) Phylum Spermatophyta includes most I @/"S'O"" V. A'ego-s H @91ylodril., heringid- with ,,,gn V without cated in some of the undesirable consequences of the aquatic macrophytes. These are various of eutrophication. pond weeds, which are more characteristic of 290 Appendix 4 the marginal zone where there is protection sample recovery, there has been lack of uni- from wave action than of the lakes proper. formity in sample processing. Sediments are The flora of the Great Lakes consists of a customarily screened through sieves or grit staggering number of species. Taft'783 for cloth to remove the benthos, but most meshes example, lists 599 species of phytoplankton for used are large enough to allow some of the the western basin of Lake Erie alone, al- smaller benthos such as ostracods and the though many of these are not actually lake polychaete,Manayunkia, to pass through. It is species, but rather are found only in marshes necessary to relate what is found in any given and ponds of that area. In contrast, reports on investigation to mesh size. Some workers have the phytoplankton and benthic algae of Lake tried elutriation (Powers and Robertson;625 Huron are virtually absent. This absence of Brinkhurst et al.100) and at least one at- reports may give a false impression of a low tempted to float the benthos out in saturated diversity of algae in Lake Huron, but actually sucrose solutions (Teter 7811). lack of investigations is the reason. Fixation of plankton and benthos in 5 to 10 percent formalin is a standard procedure and appears satisfactory except for forms with cal- 8.3.2 Sampling Problems cified structures. For these forms the formalin should be buffered by saturating with mag- A major problem in interpreting literature nesium carbonate. Fixatives containing on the benthos and plankton of the Great glycerine dissolve oligochaetes (Brinkliurst in Lakes is the widespread inconsistency in comments following Davis '95). sampling methods. Quantitative sampling has Some recently developed techniques for become common only in the last 25 years, and studying the plankton and benthos may de- even during this period, checks have been con- serve wider application. Robertson et al.6611 ducted on the efficacy of sampling devices, the used a manned submersible to study Mysis use of the same samples, or the statistical va- relicta. Scuba diving has been used with suc- lidity of sampling schemes. In the interest of cess (Alley and Anderson"), but it requires comparison of results and cooperation be- some special techniques for realization of its tween projects, methodologies must be agreed full potential (Fager et al.254). McNaught524,526 to and standardized. has been developing acoustical techniques for Techniques for acquiring benthic samples determining plankton distribution with si- have only recently been examined systemat- multaneous estimation of biomass. ically. The type of organism sought dictates The technical problems of plankton sam- the method of sampling. For example, drag pling have received considerable attention dredges must be used to recover certain forms (Jossi;439 Olson et al.590) . Most quantitative such as mussels, but this technique then plankton samples in the Great Lakes have creates problems in converting results into been taken with the Clarke-Bumpus ap- quantitative units. Most benthic work has paratus or the Juday plankton trap; little work employed grab samplers. Because it is difficult has been done with pumps. Accurate esti- to observe grab samplers at the actual mo- mates of the population of active zooplankters ment of sampling, the effectiveness of these such as Leptodora, which are quite skillful in devices has largely been conjectural. Such avoiding various sampling devices, are dif- samplers tend to produce a shock wave as they ficult to obtain (Davis 196) . The unreliability fall which could dislodge benthos as large as 8 of single plankton samples was shown by cm (Wigley890). Sly744 rated the popular Hubschman388 (Figures 4-252 and 4-253). Ekman dredge as adequate for work on soft Daily variations in samples cannot be ex- sediments only, but considered the Petersen plained by real population changes and there- dredge, probably the most frequently used fore reflect sampling deficiencies. benthos sampler in the Great Lakes, to be a Another problem inherent in plankton sam- poor device for quantitative work on any bot- plingis the tendency of manyspeciesto swarm tom type. The ponar grab and the Shipek or clump, creating a high degree of bucket sampler also received high ratings. heterogeneity in their dispersion through a Brinkhurst 92 reported that no grab sam- relatively small area. Planktologists frequently pler is adequate for sampling benthos such as report swarming or clumping of planktonic or- the active oligochaetes, because the as- ganisms. The benthos, which should be easier sociated shock wave warns them; therefore, he to sample because of their relative immobility, developed the K-B core sampler. show the same phenomenon. Johnson and In addition to inconsistencies in bottom Matheson 434 found the standard deviation on Biological Characteristics 291 counts of benthic organisms in replicate sam- ently known species classification. These ples at the same station and time to range forms may be either local variants or distinct from 41 percent to 57 percent. Such variability species. As recently as the summer of 1970 questions the significance of anything less Deevey207 suggested that the Norther Ameri- than order of magnitude differences when can plankton Bosmina coregoni should be comparing numbers of organisms at two subdivided into four species within a new places or times. Investigators need to give genus, Eubosmina. The ecologist will be hand- careful thought to sampling programs. Re- icapped until the taxa are well defined. sults from systematic sampling patterns Brinkhurst et al.100 noted problems of the applied to the study of benthic organisms will second category. Only adult tubificid worms be biased if the population or the environment can usually be identified at the specific level contains a periodic variation in phase with the and only adult males among chironomid interval between samples (Alley and Ander- midges can be identified as to species. sons). Replicate random sampling is recom- Copepods usually can only be speciated if they mended. Not only does this approach allow es- are adult males, although Czaika and timation of the mean and standard error, but Robertson177 devised a tedious dissection certain environmental relationships may be method of identifying the copepodid stages of revealed by the type of distribution of the Diaptomus spp. data: If members of a population conform to a Poisson distribution, the density of individuals is low relative 8.3.4 Floral Gradients in the Great Lakes to the possible density that could exist in that area, and the members of the population are considered to It is impossible to characterize any of the be randomly spaced. Great Lakes with a simple floristic descrip- If the effects of all environmental factors are tion. Various regions within each lake have small or the environmental factors are randomly dis- distinctive environmental properties that are tributed, the individuals will be dispersed as a nornfal distribution. reflected in differences in their phytoplankton Dispersion will follow the negative binomial communities. Therefore, investigation of the (q-p)-d if one or a few environmental factors have a phytoplankton may reveal the prevailing relatively great influence on the population. Individ- ecological conditions in an area. uals will occur in clumped groups under such circum- stances. Alley and Anderson found that small (2 mm) 8.3.4.1 Lake Superior Pontoporeia, total Pontoporeia, and total benthos populations follow a normal distribu- There are six different offshore areas in the tion. Large Pontoporeia (7 mm), sphaeriids, U.S. portion of Lake Superior on the basis of and chironomids follow a Poisson distribution. dissimilarities in diatom communities (Hol- Oligochaetes, on the other hand, follow the land 371). The most distinctive are the inner negative binomial, indicating their tendency Apostle Islands area, which has the greatest to cluster. Distribution of oligoehaetes is standing crop (up to 2160 cells/ml), and the strongly and positively correlated with areas area west and southwest of the Keweenaw within which organic detritus is more abun- Peninsula, which has the least standing crop. dant. Each area ofthe lake also exhibits its distinc- tive diatom species composition in terms of relative abundances, and some species are 8.3.3 Taxonomic Problems confined to single areas. Advances in knowledge of the ecology of the plankton and benthos ofthe Great Lakes have 8.3.4.2 Lake Michigan been retarded by problems in identifying these organisms. The problems fall into two Damann 182 reported a consistent difference categories: those associated with inade- in the timing of phytoplankton pulses in quately resolved taxonomy, and those as- southern Lake Michigan at Chicago and at sociated with difficulty in identifying species Milwaukee. Phytoplankton near Chicago have or the immature stages of a number of these vernal and autumnal pulses each year; near invertebrates. As an example of the first cate- Milwaukee one annual pulse develops in the gory, Hiltunen359 reported atypical forms of late spring and lasts most of the summer (see oligochaetes that did not belong to any pres- Subsection 8.3.6, on seasonal patterns in 292 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-70 Abundance of Phytoplankton in wick261). Tabellaria fenestrata has a northern the Western Basin of Lake Erie in 1930 distribution, with some extension down the western shore to the mouth of Saginaw Bay, in Sector Organisms/l surface waters. At five foot depth, the dis- tribution extends further south and a general Maumee Bay 1260 lakewide distribution becomes evident at 50 and 100 feet. The pattern suggests that water Raisin River 751 temperature influences the distribution of Portage River 543 this diatom in Lake Huron. Coelastrum re- ticulatum, on the other hand, is restricted to Islands 193 the part of Lake Huron south of Saginaw Bay. It occurs at increasing depth furthersouth in Detroit River 48 its range, which again suggests that tempera- ture is involved, but that this species requires warmer waters than Tabellaria fenestrata. population fluctuations). Stoermer and Kopezynska765 confirmed these observations and also described a similar late blooming of 8.3.4.4 Lake Erie phytoplankton in the midlake portions of southern Lake Michigan. They also reported Wright et al.9111 found distinct differences be- regional differences in the distribution of tween the phytoplankton communities of the species, such as Stephanodiscus hantzschii Maumee Bay section and the island district of which is largely confined to harbors and other the western basin of Lake Erie in 1930. The inshore areas. Spring phytoplankton abun- phytoplankton in Maumee Bay usually main- dance from inshore to midlake is profoundly tained greater standing crops and abundance influenced by the thermal bar (Stoermer764) decreased with increasing distance from the (see Sections 3 and 6). Spring phytoplankton mouth of the Maumee River. Mean abundance, standing crops were relatively higher on the of phytoplankton in various sectors of the warmer shoreward side of the thermal bar western basin in 1930 are shown in Table 4-70. compared to the midlake side (1500-2000 The order of abundance of algal groups in cells/ml vs. 350-400 cells/ml). The greatest Maumee Bay at that time was blue-green al- standing crop (3000 cells/ml) was found at the gae, green algae, and diatoms, whereas in the interface, within the thermal bar itself. vicinity of the Bass Islands, diatoms were Consistent differences in areal distribution usually dominant. occur among species of Melosira from April Chandler and Weeks 136 reported that vernal through November (Holland370). M. granulata and autumnal phytoplankton pulses in the and M binderana were largely confined to western basin and at Cleveland were similar Green Bay. M. ambigua was found in Green in overall duration, and in the spring, in Bay and certain nearshore sites in Lake species composition. The pulses began earlier Michigan proper. M. islandica was usually in the season in the western basin, probably found only in Lake Michigan proper. In a later due to earlier warming of the shallow -western study, Holland372 found that Fragilaria basin. capucina and Stephanodiscus niagarae were Sullivan 767 found that the phytoplankton at also more abundant in Green Bay than in the the mouths of 10 Ohio tributaries to Lake Erie open lake. Additional lake species were Tabel- were essentially lake species and were similar laria flocculosa, Cyclotella "glomerata- at each entry. The more turbid tributaries, i.e., stelligera," C. michiganiana, Asterionella for- Maumee, Sandusky, and Portage Rivers, had mosa, and Stephanodiscus tenuis. Average lower standing crops at their mouths, but standing crops were higher in the bay than in standing crops near the mouth of the Maumee the lake (944 vs. 517 cells/ml) as might be ex- River were still greater than in the open water pected of a more enriched area. of the western basin (Wright et al. 918). Michalski535 reported a difference in the species composition of phytoplankton com- 8.3.4.3 Lake Huron munities of the central and eastern basins as compared to the western basin. The central Two species of phytoplankton in Lake Huron and eastern basins had significant popula- show distinct, regional preferences (Fen- tions of Ceratium hirundinella, Peridinium Biological Characteristics 293 sp., Pediastrum sp. and Staurastrum sp. 8.3.5 Evidence of Changes in Great Lakes whereas the western basin did not. Michalski Flora also found that phytoplankton standing crops, on the average, declined from west to east and 8.3.5.1 Lake Michigan noted that differences between vernal and au- Damann"10 concluded that plankton stand- tumnal phytoplankton pulses tended to be ing crops had been increasing near Chicago obscured, a symptom of eutrophication since 1938, but he did not detect any trend of (Davis'91). Snow and Thompson750 also re- change in dominant species. Evidence of a ported a west to east decrease in plankton long-term increase in phytoplankton standing standing crops and a distinction in the domi- crops is also evident in Chicago filtration plant nant plankton from each section. They corre- records. Lackey'479 on the other hand, re- lated these differences with variations in con- ported both an increase in abundance of centration of hydroxyapatite in each of the phytoplankton at the southern end of Lake basins. The pelagic portions of the central Michigan and an increase in the number of basin of Lake Erie include dominant diatom genera and species of blue-green algae, species that are distinctly different from those diatoms and dinoflagellates. Chrysophyta, found in the western basin or nearshore in the especially Dinobryon, are less important con- central basin Hohn368). Within the western stituents of the Lake Michigan phytoplankton and central basins, the boundaries of water than earlier reports would suggest (Stoermer masses originating in the tributaries could be and Kopczynska 765) . They also reported that determined from qualitative and quantitative the diatom Stephanodiscus hantzschii is a rel- changes in the planktonic diatoms. All these atively recent invader of Lake Michigan and observations tend to confirm a generally rec- occasionally creates nuisance blooms in the ognized west to east trophic gradient in Lake nearshore and in polluted harbors. Erie. 8.3.4.5 Lake Ontario 8.3.5.2 Lake Erie Comparison of phytoplankton counts at the Ogawa5116 found greater abundances of Cleveland, Ohio, Division Avenue Water Fil- phytoplankton inshore near Toronto than far- tration Plant during the period 1927 to 1964 ther out in the lake. Schenk and Thompson !is indicates two trends (Davis '98). were puzzled by the difference in long-term First, there was a change in the species that (1960 to 1963) standing crops determined at predominated during various seasons. Domi- two nearby water filtration plants at Toronto. nance in the fall phytoplankton pulse shifted The Toronto Island plant, with intake located from Synedra to Melosira in the 1930s and only 670 in (2200 ft) out into the lake, has an 1940s and then toFragilaria in the later years. average standing crop slightly more than half Melosira replaced Asterionella as the domi- that of the Harris plant, with intakes 2208 in nant spring phytoplankton genus over the (7500 ft) and 2430 in (7900 ft) out. The discrep- same period. Blue-green and green algae have ancy might be due to the inhibition of photo- recently become increasingly important at synthesis by higher turbidity near shore. both seasons. Melosira and Fragilaria have Nalewajko 1611,57' reported that near- also become predominant in the winter shore waters typically supported higher phytoplankton crop, displacing Stephanodis- standing crops (514 cells/ml) compared with cus and Cyclotella. The trend away from midlake areas of western and central Lake diatoms and toward blue-green and green Ontario (201 cells/ml). Stephanodiscus tenuis algae is also evident in the summer as was the most important species inshore but Anabaena and Pediastrum have increased. was displaced in midlake by Melosira islandica The second trend has been an overall in- and Asterionella formosa. Phytoplankton crease in the phytoplankton standing crop, were two to three times more abundant close with the rate of increase accelerating after to shore. 1956 (Figures 4-257 and 4-258). Between 1929 As might be expected, bays tend to be more and 1962 the mean annual increase in phyto- enriched than exposed nearshore areas. plankton standing crop. was 44.3 cells/ml/yr Standing crops of phytoplankton in the inner whereas the mean annual increase from 1956 portion of the Bay of Quinte were 10 times through 1964 was 122.0 cells/ml/yr. This prob- greater than those at the mouth of the bay ably indicates an increasing rate of eutrophi- (McCombie516). cation (Figure 4-258). Background levels of 294 ' Appendix 4 2500 2500- 2000 2000- 1500 1500- 1000 1000- 500 500- 20 2 4 G 30 2 4 6 8 40 24 6 B50 2 4 6 8 60 2 YEAR5 0-, FIGURE 4-257 Average Phytoplankton 1927 30 40 YEAR 50 6(1 64 Cells per ml for All Years with Complete Rec- ords, 1920 to 1963. Two weeks of records are FIGURE 4-258 Regressions of Number of lacking for 1960 near the height of the autumnal Phytoplankton Cells per ml Against Years. phytoplankton maximum. Each dot represents the average number of After Davis, 1965 cells/ml for an entire year. For the years from standing crops are increasing so that spring 1927 through 1964 the regression is 41.3 cells/ and fall pulses appear less pronounced. ml/yr. From 1956 through 1964 the regression is Similar changes in dominant species have 122.0 cells/ml/yr. been noted in the western basin. Asterionella After Davis, 1965 formosa, Tabellaria fenestrata, and Melosira ambigua were the dominant forms before 1950, (3) Species that have remained stable but they have been supplanted by Fragilaria quantitatively but have decreased drastically capucina, Coscinodiscus radiatus, and Melo- in percent occurrence: Tabellaria fenestrata, sira binderana (Verduin 1153a). Cyclotella Asterionella formosa, Fragilaria crotonensis, melosiroides, a diatom unrecorded in western Melosira granulata. Lake Erie prior to 1950, has become a major (4) Species that have increased in abun- component of the phytoplankton, comprising dance but have maintained the same percent 75 percent to 95 percent of the phytoplankton occurrence: Melosira ambigua, Stephanodis- volume in the winter and spring of 1954 cus sP. 1. (HintZ 361). Hohn 3611 reported changes in the The filamentous alga Cladophoraglomerata, diatoms of western Lake Erie from 1930 to which always has been an important member 1935. The intensity of spring and fall pulses of the periphyton and littoral benthos, has has quadrupled in contrast to the relative de- been increasing in abundance (Verduin8511). crease in intensity at Cleveland during the This alga has become a nuisance in recent same period. The planktonic diatoms of the years because of the tendency for great open portions of the central basin of Lake Erie masses of its filaments to break away from the in 1960 were similar in species occurrence and substrate. These masses foul fish nets and abundances to those occurring in the Bass is- beaches. The masses are often washed up on land area of western Lake Erie prior to 1950. the beaches where they undergo decay. The Four general categories of species change resulting stench has forced closings occa- have occurred: sionally with consequent economic loss to the (1) Species that were present in large resort industry. numbers and have disappeared or are rarely Changes in abundance of aquatic mac- observed: Cysotella stelligera, Rhizosolenia rophytes and benthic algae have been eriensis. documented since the 1930s. In the case of the (2) Species that were not present or rare macrophytes, the change may be in the oppo- and have now become domir, ant: Melosira bin- site direction than one would expect. As derana, Diatoma tenue var. elongatum, Cy- Davis 195 observed, "Lake Erie and Lake On- clotella meneghiniana, Stephanodiscus al- tario are deeply affected by enrichments from pinus, S. tenuis. man's activities, so one would suspect that Biological Characteristics 295 vegetation today would be much enriched crops in 1937 to 1939 in southern Lake Michi- compared to that many years ago. On the con- gan near Evanston, Illinois. Both the vernal trary, in the bays and ponds of Lakes Erie and and autumnal pulses were due to diatom max- Ontario, and in the Detroit and Niagara Riv- ima; other algal groups made only minor con- ers.... there has been a reported decrease." tributions to the overall standing crop. Later Two factors may override the expected fer- observations of phytoplankton seasonal pat- tilizer effect and reduce the abundance of terns in Lake Michigan from the same site at macrophytes. One is the introduction of carp Evanston indicate a significant change in into Lake Erie in the 19th century. This fish phytoplankton composition over a relatively uproots and eats some species of plants and short period of time (Griffith 303 ). A major generally stirs up the bottom. For example, spring pulse was observed in 1953 followed by vegetation density in a western Lake Erie five minor pulses at other times of the year. marsh is inversely proportional to the carp The blue-green algae Cyanophyta predomi- population (King and Hunt 451). The second in- nated over much of the year, falling below 50 fluence is the increase in turbidity associated percent of the standing crop only about 12 per- with increased silt entering the lakes. cent of the time. Damann 1112 compared Chicago waterworks data collected since 1926 with similar data col- 8.3.5.3 Lake Ontario lected at Milwaukee since 1940. A unimodal plankton peak occurs near Milwaukee, usually Schenk and Thompson 718 detected trends in in July, whereas a typical bimodal peak occurs phytoplankton populations from a water in- near Chicago. take near Toronto similar to those noted by Damann correlated these phenomena with Davis in central Lake Erie. Between 1923 and temperature; the optimum temperature for 1954 the standing crop approximately dou- the growth of diatoms, the principal compo- bled, increasing by a mean of 5.6 areal stand- nent of Lake Michigan phytoplankton, lies be- ard units per year. The dominant genera in the tween 10'C (50'F) and 14'C (570F). The differ- spring pulse changed from Asterionella to Cy- ent peaks indicate the sensitivity of these or- clotella and Melosira during this period. ganisms to temperature variations at the two McCombie -516 compared the results of his intakes. 1963-64 study of phytoplankton at the mouth Stoermer and Kopezynska765 described the of the Bay of Quinte with one conducted in vernal phytoplankton pulse as beginning in 1945 (Tucker 1104) . There was no clear indication nearshore areas and coinciding with the pro- of a trend toward larger standing crops, but gressive seasonal warming of water out into the proportion of phytoplankton belonging to the open lake. This is not inconsistent with the genera Tabellaria and Fragilaria was Damann's observations. They also suggested smaller in 1963 and 1964 than in 1945. Also, the that the autumnal pulse may follow a reversed blue-green alga Aphanizomenon began to pattern as the lake cools, but the data are in- bloom a month earlier during the more recent conclusive. Stoermer and Kopczynska also study. found that phytoplankton at Milwaukee tends to pulse at about the same time as the midlake phytoplankton from the southern part of Lake 8.3.6 Patterns of Seasonal Change in Great Michigan. This is further confirmation of Lakes Algae Damann's observations and suggests that a unimodal curve is characteristic of most of the lake. Control of phytoplankton population 8.3.6.1 Lake Superior changes is probably not so simple because other temperature -related factors such as nu- Putnam and Olson 635 observed only a single trient redistribution must certainly have an phytoplankton pulse during the period mid- influence (Stoermer and Kopczynska 765). June to late October, 1960; the peak occurred Nearshore phytoplankton communities in in July. Green Bay and near Ludington, Michigan, exhibit the typical bimodal annual abundance curve, whereas the communities of the open 8.3.6.2 Lake Michigan portions of upper Lake Michigan have a uni- modal curve with the peak developing in the Daily 179 and Damann183 observed a typical summer (Holland372). Since inshore water bimodal pattern for phytoplankton standing warms earlier and exceeds 14'C (57'F) during 296 Appendix 4 the summer, these areas can be expected to 280 have bimodal phytoplankton abundance curves in accord with Damann's observations, 240 whereas the slower-warming open lake will not. In this manner the number of pulses in a year may relate to location in the lake. 200 /IR It 8.3.6.3 Lake Erie too- It Chandler 1'1,133,13' and Chandler andWeeks 136 determined that phytoplankton standing 2 120 16ATOMS DIATOMS crops in the island district of the western basin 0 follow the classical pattern for temperate zone < so lakes in having both a vernal and autumnal 0 111LUE- pulse. The main results of these studies are rITENS 6GREENS summarized in Table 4-71. The onset and du- 40 __qK ration, as well as the maximum development, of these pulses is quite variable. The spring GREENS V pulses were almost completely dominated by , L_=--_ diatoms, especially Asterionella. Blue-green APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT and green algae become significant in the fall FIGURE 4-259 Seasonal Distribution of pulses. Chandler concluded that temperature Diatoms, Green Algae, and Blue-Green Algae in and turbidity, rather than chemical factors the Island Section of Lake Erie, 1930 control the magnitude of these spring phyto- Data from Wright et al., 1955 plankton pulses. In contrast, the fall pulses might be limited by a variety of chemical or in mid-June were phyto flagellates with some physical factors. green algae. In July diatoms were predomi- Seasonal patterns were the same in 1929 and nant but were subordinate to an enormous 1930 (Wright et al.9111). Spring pulses occurred algae bloom in the fall. Twenty-two investiga- in May to June and were due almost entirely to tions agree that diatoms are dominant in the diatoms. Autumnal pulses occurred in Sep- spring, but the dominant genera vary between tember to October with blue-green and green Asterionella, Cyclotella, and Melosira algae as well as diatoms present (Figure (Davis 194). 4-259). Based on weekly samples from water in- From records of Cleveland's Division Av- takes at 16 municipalities along the Canadian enue Filtration Plant, Chandler observed that shore of Lakes Erie and Ontario from March the overall duration of pulses is about the 1966 to November 1967 and supplemented by same as at the islands, but that both spring samples, Michalski 535 reported that the phy- and fall pulses at Cleveland contained a toplankton in most locations conformed to the smaller proportion of blue-green and green al- typical bimodal abundance pattern although gae. Also annual variations in standing crop some appeared to have three annual peaks. were more moderate than in the western ba- The most peculiar results were obtained from sin. Kingsville, Ontario, where the plankton From similar studies over a number of years seemed to be in continuous bloom from Oc- in Cleveland Harbor and several miles outside tober 1966 to November 1967. Michalski also the harbor, Davis 193,196 observed seasonal phy- reported the four dominant genera of phyto- toplankton patterns similar to those observed plankton for each season for the three Lake in the western basin. The 1950 to 1951 seasonal Erie basins. In neither 1966 nor 1967 were As- succession of plankton categories was also es- terionella, Cyclotella, or Melosira among the sentially the same; phytoplankton were virtu- top four in any basin as Davis had reported 10 ally 100 percent diatoms from winter through years earlier. Those dominant were usually the spring pulse and remained dominant Stephanodiscus niagarae, Fragilaria cap- through summer and fall with green and ucina, Fragilaria crotonensis, and Tabel- blue-green algae becoming relatively more laria fenestrata. important. By 1956, blue-green algae were In the early summer of 1969, Kleveno et al.459 dominant in autumn and diatoms dominated found extensive beds of the benthic algae in winter. In 1957, phytoplankton populations Tribonema utriculosum and Oedogonium sp. Biological Characteristics 297 TABLE 4-71 Seasonal Patterns in Phytoplankton Standing Crops, 1938-1942, in Lake Erie Autumnal Pulse Vernal Pulse Pulse Duration 1938: early Sept.--late Oct. 1939: late Feb.--early April 1939: mid-Aug.--mid Nov. 1940: mid-March--late May 1940: early Sept.--late Sept. 1941: early Feb.--late May 1941: late July--late Nov. 1942: early Feb.--mid-April 1942: mid-July--late Nov. Maximum Standing Crop (orgs./1) 1938: 330,000 1939: 247,000 1939: 320,000 1940: 374,000 1940: 95,000 1941: 971,000 1941: 409,000 1942: 459,000 1942: 470,000 Composition (% diatoms) 1938: 70-90 1939: 50-100 1939: 25-55 1940: 98 1940: 77 1941: 98 1941: 50 1942: 94 1942: 76 Source: Chandler, 1940, 1942b, 1944, 1945. in the central basin hypolimnion. Light pene- temperature development and water mass tration was sufficient at that time to permit movement. Nalewajko571 observed the same their growth. Kleveno et al.459 postulated that phenomenon as in Lake Michigan in which the the algae were killed in August by a reduction vernal phytoplankton bloom occurs first near in light penetration because of an increase in shore and subsequently progresses into the the plankton in the epilimnion. The decompos- open lake coincident with warming water. ing benthic algae caused a tremendous in- Both Stephanodiscus tenuis and Melosira is- crease in biochemical oxygen demand, aiding landica peaked and declined earliest at Gibral- in depletion of dissolved oxygen levels charac- ter Point, later 13 miles out, and still later 18 teristic of the hypolimnion of Lake Erie's cen- miles into the lake. tral basin in late summer. This observation has been essentially confirmed as a result of work carried out during 1970. 8.3.7 Trophic Relations 8.3.6.4 Lake Ontario 8.3.7.1 Primary Productivity Schenk and Thompson 7118 detected the Primary productivity is the rate of commu- bimodal annual phytoplankton curves at To- nity photosynthesis and is one of the best indi- ronto in most years from 1923 to 1954, but cations of the degree of eutrophication of a summer pulses were observed during five of body of water. Productivity in aquatic these years. Autumnal peaks did not develop habitats may be limited by factors such as consistently in every year and were charac- temperature, light, the availability of carbon teristically less pronounced than those in dioxide and the availability of other nutrients spring. The dominant genus of the spring such as phosphorus and nitrogen. The process pulse wasAsterionella in the earlier years, but of photosynthesis can be simply represented: since 1941 Cydotella has often been codomin- light energy + 3CO2 + 3H20 chlorophyll ant or dominant. On the basis of the Damann observation (Subsection 8.3.6.2) the phyto- C3H603 + 302 + organic energy plankton at Toronto Island water intake may Total community productivity is usually esti- exhibit either one or two pulses, depending on mated by measuring the amount of carbon 298 Appendix 4 dioxide consumed or oxygen produced during are consuming the phytoplankton about as a given time. Respiration, which is essentially rapidly as they produce new cells. Thus, the the reverse process, occurs simultaneously phytoplankton may be highly productive, but with photosynthesis and also at night when they show no increase in numbers or biomass. photosynthesis cannot take place. Respiration Since productivity data are so important, can be represented as: masses of such data should be available for the C3H603 + 302 + organic energy Great Lakes; however, this is not the case. 3CO2 + 3H20 + heat energy Only a few productivity studies have been made. Even fewer studies of community respi- Respiration is a function of all living things ration have been made. The range of produc- whereas photosynthesis is carried on only by tivity estimates for all the lakes is consider- green plants and certain bacteria. Gross pri- able (Table 4-72) and it is obvious that insuffi- mary productivity is the rate of production of cient data have been accumulated to make new organic matter and is synonymous with many conclusions about the general levels of the rate of photosynthesis. Net primary pro- productivity in the Great Lakes. No productiv- ductivity is the rate of production of new or- ity data are available for Lake Hui-on. The ganic matter that is not immediately con- estimates reported for Lake Erie generally sumed in respiration; thus the important rela- support the idea that this lake, and especially tionship is as follows: its western basin, is more productive than the other Great Lakes. Western Lake Erie is ap- net productivity = gross productivity - respiration rate parently much more productive than many smaller lakes. that are considered eutrophic Net productivity is of considerable interest in (SaunderS701). management of aquatic ecosystems. It indi- The wide range of productivity estimates in cates how much organic material is available each lake is due partly to short-term environ- either for additional growth within the system mental changes. For example, daily differ- or for export out of the system. Export in- ences in temperature and sunlight cause fluc- cludes any harvest, such as fish, taken by hu- tuations in production rates. The time of day mans. Growth of organisms within the system at which the measurements are made also af- may not be desirable, as with the massive fects results (Verduin855). Another source of algal blooms of western Lake Erie or the popu- the variance in estimates of primary produc- lation explosions of alewife. tivity is in the techniques of measurement It is customary to refer to the total respira- (Gessner and Pannier'296 Verduin,"',"' 862 tory activity of all organisms in a particular Manny and Ha11511). Great Lakes researchers area -as community respiration. If an ecosys- should agree on some standard technique for tem is in balance, then the gross primary pro- estimating productivity. ductivity will equal community respiration. If Another problem in comparing productivity the ecosystem is unbalanced, as when large data is the reporting of results in non.compar- amounts of organic material enter from the able terms. Most results are reported in milli- outside, then the gross primary productivity grams of carbon per square meter per day (mg will equal community respiration plus net C/M2/da). Areal units such as these are prefer- productivity. able to volumetric units since light flux Comparison of productivity and respiration through the water surface determines the data between the Great Lakes, or between dif- total amount of light energy available for ferent parts of the same lake, yields informa- photosynthesis. Much of the volume in the tion on trophic conditions, including how much water column below the surface may be in the organic material is produced in the lake, how tropholytic zone, therefore productivity per much is imported, and how organic material is unit volume cannot be related to productivity utilized within the lake. Such data are more per unit area in any simple way. Unfortu- accurate in estimating the enrichment of a nately, some productivity studies report in lake than biomass data or population data. volumetric terms with insufficient data for High biomass and large population (standing conversion to areal terms. Productivity data crops), may not be indicative of high energy are occasionally reported in terms of carbon levels. Conversely, a small population may fixed per unit of standing crop of phyto- very actively metabolize energy. For example, plankton. This has revealed useful information summer phytoplankton populations are rela- about the nature of the photosynthetic proc- tively low, but they support relatively high ess. For example, McQuate529 and Ver- populations of zooplankton. The zooplankton diun11511859 showed that productivity per cell is Biological Characteristics 299 TABLE 4-72 Comparison of Estimates of Gross Primary Productivity in the Great Lakes Location Pg (MgC/m2/da) Investigator Lake Superior 185-1260 Putnam & Olson (1961) 50- 260 76- 507 Putnam & Olson (1966) Lake Michigan near Sturgeon Bay 114- 193 Saunders, unpublished Grand Traverse Bay 359-1160 Saunders, et al., (1962) Grand Traverse Bay 295- 536 Saunders, et al., (1962) Grand Traverse Bay 260 Saunders, unpublished near Grand Haven 8900 Manny & Hall (1969) Lake Ontario Bay of Quinte 218-2560 Tucker (1949) Lake Erie Western Basin 2640a Verduin (1956) Western Basin 1680b Verduin (1956) Western Basin 4558 Verduin (1959) Western Basin 6150 Verduin (1962) Western Basin 756-7340 Tucker (1949) Western Basin 2160-4320 Verduin (1962) Western Basin 97.6-371.5 Saunders, unpublished Sandusky Bay 50-36000 McQuate (1956) Central Basin 10650 Dobson (1967) after Manny & Hall (1969) a In summer b Mean July-January SOURCE: Saunders, 1964 inversely related to standing crop of phyto- 4-260. Width of the energy line is proportional plankton. In some way the phytoplankton are to the amount of energy flowing along each self-inhibiting, perhaps through competition route. Limnologists are interested in net pri- for light, nutrients or carbon dioxide. mary production because this category in- cludes food energy available to nurture the primary consumers which may be fish or fish- 8.3.7.2 Extracellular Production food organisms. Only a part of the net primary production may be used by primary consumers A portion of the well-known OdUM 5115 model with portions going into the non-used (NU) of energy flow through an ecosystem showing category. Part of the NU material is detritus, only the producer level is depicted in Figure formed when producer organisms die without 300 Appendix 4 glutamine to glutamic acid and ammonia. The PRODUCERS NU NA alga uses ammonia as a nitrogen source. Many kinds of algae seem to release large amounts of HERBIVORES Lt their production as glycolic acid. This sub- PN P- stance may be a growth regulator since labo- L y work shows that algal cultures will not rator enter into the log growth phase until a certain Lr minimal amount of glycolate has accumulated 1-4 in the medium (Fogg265). This suggests that HEAT R sudden onset of plankton blooms may be due to --- - the accumulation of threshold levels of FIGURE 4-260 Energy Flow Through Pro- glycolic acid in lake water. ducer Trophic Level The antibiotic or toxic substances released After Odum, 1971 by some kinds of algae are another important B, = Biomass of producers extracellular product. These are discussed in B2 = Biomass of primary consumers (herbivores) Subsection 8.3.10.4. Lt = Total light energy striking producers Even less is known about the primary pro- L, = Light reflected from producers L. = Light absorbed by producers ductivity of other members of the first trophic PG = Light energy captured as gross production level than is known about phytoplankton. R = Energy lost in respiration (as heat) There are apparently no published reports on PN = Energy available for growth or transfer to next the productivity of the aquatic macrophytes of trophic level (net production) the Great Lakes, and only two on the periphy- I = Energy intake (food) for the next trophic level, the primary consumers tic algae. Productivity of Cladophorafracta in NU = Energy not used by the next trophic level Lake Ontario ranged from 1.27 MI 02/hr/mg NA = Energy not assimilated (feces, etc.) ash-free dry weight (AFD wt) in the fall to 2.63 A = Energy assimilated MI 02/hr/mg AFD wt in the early summer at Oswego. At Henderson Bay, some 50 km away, the range from fall to early summer was 0.50 being eaten. The remainder represents solu- 1111 02/hr/mg AFD wt to 2.35 MI 02/hr/mg AFD ble excretory products that are sometimes col- wt (Jackson418). Early summer levels were lectively termed the extracellular production. about the same, but the fall productivity at Both the detritus and the extracellular pro- Oswego may have been 21/2 times greater than duction can serve as food to heterotrophic bac- at Henderson Bay. The lack of information on teria. Extracellular production can amount the productivity of periphytic algae and to as much as 90 percent of the total aquatic macrophytes makes it impossible to photosynthetically-fixed carbon (Fogg265) al- compare their production relative to that of though it is more commonly in the range of 1 the phytoplankton for any of the Great Lakes. percent to 3 percent (Nalewajko5611). The However, because of the extensive habitat of amount of extracellular production seems to phytoplankton, they must be considered by far be correlated with phytoplankton growth the most important. rates (Nalewajko and Martin 572). Therefore, in careful ecosystems analyses, extracellular production should not be ignored. 8.3.7.3 Relation of Standing Crop to In addition to serving as a food source for Productivity bacteria, substances in the extracellular pro- duction appear to have other functions of sig- Much of the apparent primary production nificance to the ecosystem. Some algae excrete measured under natural conditions cannot be polypeptides that act as chelating agents for accounted for on the basis of the standing crop various metal ions such as copper, zinc, and of phytoplankton. Lake Erie, which is probably ferric iron. For exam' ple, Anabaena cylindrica representative of temperate zone lakes, produces a polypeptide that isolates copper exhibits vernal and autumnal diatom maxima sufficiently well to protect the alga from the with winter and summer minima, but the an- toxic effect of this ion (Fogg and Westlake 266). nual photosynthesis curve is not bimodal; it The actual function of these products, how- peaks in summer when the diatom crops are at ever, may be to keep trace elements available. a minimum. Identification of the organisms Another function suggested by Fogg265 is responsible for this photosynthetic activity extracellular digestion. At least one alga constitutes a major problem in assessment of excretes a glutaminase that hydrolyzes primary production (Verduin862). McQuate529 Biological Characteristics 301 observed productivities averaging 2.3 /imol AJ ORGANIC INPUTS BJ ORGANIC OUTPUTS C02/l/hr in Lake Erie water from which the 1. Organic Material 1. Organic inflow to phytoplankton had been removed. Since algae in Influent Rivers. Central Basin were apparently not responsible for the ob- 2. Release From 2. Accumulation in served production, McQuate speculated that Sediments Sediments 3.Fish,algae, insect, the metabolism of bacterial communities etc. Removals (chemosynthetic, photosynthetic, and reduc- ers) may contribute to the inverse correlations observed. Both Verduin and McQuate esti- PHOTOSYNTHESIS Organic RESPIRATION mated primary production from carbon C02 + Material t CO 2 +HO dioxide consumption. However, photosyn- Nature of 0 (net) Nature of thesis is only one of the metabolic processes isms 1 0anism r.---- -1 0 ygen which consumes C02, and neither author I h t I IrAs f@r I "S041 I I Photosynthesis, seems to have considered carboxylation by INO2,NH 2 1 1 Excepting I bacteria as an alternative explanation for the I Growth c ors 1 1 Light in I -4-Temperature 1 LItLosSqn@exL J primary production they observed in the ab- L1nhgit9rJ sence of phytoplankton. During the exponen- tial growth phase of a community, synthesis of organic acids may utilize considerable C02 OXYGENINPUTS OXYGEN OUTPUTS (carboxylation) above the quantities used in 1. 02 in River 1. 02 in Water to glucose production, and this process accounts Inputs Central Basin for the low ratio OfO2:CO2 change (Verduin 861). 2. Input From 2. 02To Atmosphere Atmosphere on Supersaturation Another explanation is that a productive phy- toplankton community may be cropped off so rapidly by predators that their productivity is not expressed as a large standing crop. This is FIGURE 4-261 Elements of the Physical- a significant problem because it represents a Biological System of Western Lake Erie, with possible source of error in attempts to charac- Oxygen as the Measure of Performance terize the Great Lakes on the basis of their From Randles et al., 1970 primary production and community res- piration rates. (5) Sudden die-offs of algal blooms in sur- face waters can lead to the depletion of dis- solved oxygen. 8.3.7.4 Relation of Algal Production to (6) Organic material entering the lakes Dissolved Oxygen may be directly responsible for depletion of dissolved oxygen, as in western Lake Erie dur- The popular phrase "oxygen-consuming al- ing periods of stagnation. gae," conveys a misleading impression of the The interrelations of various factors which in- role of algae in eutrophication which could fluence dissolved oxygen levels are sum- lead to incorrect decisions and improper action marized in Figure 4-261. by planners, political leaders and the general public. The following statements would more correctly describe the relation of algal produc- 8.3.7.5 Secondary Production tion to dissolved oxygen: (1) Healthy, functioning algae produce Data on the algae and macrophytes found in much more oxygen than they consume. the stomachs of 13 species of Great Lakes fish (2) Oxygen is consumed in the Great Lakes have been compiled from the five reports that by the respiration of plants and animals and in contain such data, and are shown in Table the microbial decomposition of dead organic 4-73. Many reports list invertebrates and fish matter. in stomach contents, and some, not cited here, (3) Decomposition of dead algae consumes mention debris of unidentified plant origin in oxygen just as the decomposition of sewage stomachs of fishes feeding mainly on inverte- and other organic matter which enters the brates. However limited the information in lakes via streams. Table 4-73 may be, it does indicate a distinct (4) Late summer depletion of hypolimnetic preference among fish for diatoms and green dissolved oxygen in the central basin of Lake algae. Dinoflagellates and especially blue- Erie is due to the decomposition of masses of green algae seem to be avoided relative to algae. their natural abundance and diversity. The 302 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-73 Algal and Macrophyte Food of Great Lakes Fishes as Determined by Stomach Analyses Organism Fish Chrysophyta Diatoms gizzard shad Amphora ovalis walleye (fry) Cocconeis placentula walleye (fry) Coscinodiscus radiatus walleye (fry) Cyclotella meneghiniana walleye (fry) CVmatopleura sp. bluntnose minnow C@matopleura solea walleye (fry) Cymbella sp. pearl minnow Diatoma elongatmm walleye (fry) Dicyonema sp. bluntnose minnow, stoneroller Fragilaria capucina walleye (fry) Fragilaria crotonensis walleye (fry) FragiZaria vaucheriae walleye (fry) Gomphonema sp. bluntnose minnow, pearl minnow Melosira ambigua walleye (fry) MeZosira binderana walleye (fry) Melosira granulata walleye (fry) Meridion sp. stoneroller Navicula sp. bluntnose minnow, pearl minnow, common shiner, golden shiner, stoneroller Nitzschia oraciZis walleye (fry) ,11itzschia sigmoidea walleye (fry) Pleurosigma sp. pearl minnow Stephanodiscus astraea walleye (fry) SurtreZla augusta walleye (fry) Synedra sp. bluntnose minnow, pearl minnow, common shiner, stoneroller Synedra acus walleye (fry) Synedra ulna walleye (fry) Tabellaria fenestrata walleye (fry) Pyrrhophyta Dinoflagellates gizzard shad Ceratium hirundinelZa walleye (fry) Cyanophyta Blue-green algae gizzard shad Gomphosphaeria lacustris walleye (fry) Merismopedia sp. golden shiner Merismopedia tenuissimum stoneroller Oscillatoria sp. bluntnose minnow, yellow perch, pearl minnow, common shiner, golden shiner Chlorophyta Green algae gizzard shad Characium sp. pearl minnow Cladophora ap. CZosterium sp. bluntnose minnow, redpin shiner, bullhead, redhorse Cosmarium sp. bluntnose minnow, pearl minnow, redpin shiner Cosmarium cyclicum stoneroller Oedogonium sp. bluntnose minnow, pearl minnow, redpin shiner, stoneroller Pediastrum sp. bluntnose minnow, stoneroller Pediastrum boryanwn walleye (fry) Pediastrum duplex walleye (fry) Pediastrum simplex walleye (fry) Scenedesmus sp. bluntnose minnow, pearl minnow Scenedesmus abundans stoneroller Scenedesmus acuminatus walleye (fry) Scenedesmus arcuatus stoneroller Scenedeamus bijuga stoneroller Scenedesmus dimorphus stoneroller Spirogyra sp. walleye (fry), bluntnose minnow, yellow perch, pearl minnow, redpin shiner, stoneroller Staurastrum alterans stoneroller Staurastrum sebaldi walleye (fry) Ulothrix sp. bluntnose minnow, yellow perch, largemouth bass, pearl minnow, redpin shiner, golden shiner, stoneroller, redhorse Macrophytes Potomogetom sp. mooneye Scirpu3 sp. mooneye SOURCES: Bodola, 1949; Boesel, 1938; Hohn, 1966; Sibley, 1929; Tressler and Austin, 1940. Biological Characteristics 303 odorous or toxic substances associated with 400- these algae may be fish repellants. Renn 645 noted that blue-green algae make poor fish food. wo The principal consumers of phytoplankton apparently are zooplankton rather than fish, B although Edmonson238 has noted that zoo- z.@ plankters seldom contain recognizable algal wo- z cells in their digestive tracts. Feeding pref- erences of zooplankton may involve chemical selection, but particle-size selection is defi- 'oo- nitely involved (Burns 116) 2. There is no infor- mation concerning algal species that may be preferred by given species of zooplankton. w Filamentous algae are probably not grazed by 4 H' c' P, ol s si most zooplankton because of their shape. Con- NUTRIEN@ sumption of phytoplankton by zooplankton may be very heavy at times. Davis 193 noted the FIGURE 4-262 Hypothetical Concentrations simultaneous existence of minimum phyto- of Some Nutrients Essential for Algal Growth, plankton and the maximum of the larger zoo- Illustrating the Concept of Limiting Nutrient plankters in both 1957 and 1951. This supports the hypothesis (Davis 197) that the summer ments are represented by solid dots, P is limit- minimum is caused primarily by grazing ac- ing because its concentration permits growth tivities of the zooplankton, although settling only up to 50 gM/M2/yr. If the concentration of of algae could also be a factor. P is increased to position A, it is still the limit- ing element, but growth is increased to 125 gM/M2/yr. If the concentration of P is further 8.3.8 Factors that Control the Growth and increased to position B, P is no longer limiting Abundance of Algae because it no longer represents the least con- centration. Instead C now becomes limiting. In this example, the concentrations of all the 8.3.8.1 Inorganic Nutrients elements except one have remained constant, while in nature, nutrients are continually re- Any chemical element that is an essential moved and added to the water by organic component of one or more living plant activities and by interactions with the sedi- molecules can theoretically limit the growth of ments, the atmosphere, and surrounding land algae if it is in short supply. Practically speak- areas. Therefore, the nutrients present are ing, however, only a few of 23 biologically es- also continually changing from forms avail- sential elements actually limit algal growth able for plant nutrition to unavailable forms under natural conditions. The ones that most and back again. It is possible, therefore, for logically could be limiting are phosphorus, ni- several different nutrients to be limiting at trogen and carbon. Levels of free silicon have different times. One method for controlling been declining in Lake Michigan since 1926 algal growth and lowering the trophic state of and this nutrient may now be limiting for di- a lake is to determine which nutrient appears atom growth in Lake Michigan (Stoermer 764). to be limiting most of the time and to devise a Identifying the limiting nutrient, if only one is feasible way of reducing its availability. The limiting, could help to focus efforts into reduc- effect of the other elements would then be neg- ing abundance of that element. Money might ligible as far as phytosynthesis and plant be saved by selecting the correct approach to growth are concerned. reducing massive blooms of algae, one of the symptoms of eutrophication. The concept of limiting factors incorporates 8.3.8.2 Phosphorus the generally accepted idea that, at any given time, one environmental factor (in this case, a Correlations between increasing concentra- nutrient) will limit the growth of algae (Figure tion of phosphorus and increased algal growth 4-262). The amounts used in Figure 4-262 are are common in literature describing the Great hypothetical and only serve to illustrate the Lakes. However, such correlations do not principle. If the concentrations of all the ele- necessarily indicate phosphorus as the factor 304 Appendix 4 responsible for stimulating algal growth. TABLE 4-74 Photosynthetic Rates of Clado- Studies that have followed the concentrations phora Relative to Phosphorus Concentration of all the major nutrients simultaneously or Photosynthetic Rate Fhosphorus that involve some experimental manipulation Lake (Omol C02/ml/hr) GO of the environment are not numerous in the Great Lakes. Furthermore, the few that have Northern Lake Michigan 37 5 been done have produced some divergent opin- Western Lake Erie 33 8 ions. (1949-50) Neil and Owen574 conducted an experiment Eastern Lake Erie 35' 10 Western Lake Erie 153 30-40 on the influence of nutrients on Cladophora (1966-68) growth in Lake Huron, a lake in which this form does not normally gTow. Several experi- 'Approximate number mental sites were selected that appeared to SOURCE: Verduin, 1969 have the physical characteristics necessary for growth of Cladophora except that nutrient cause molecular nitrogen, which is abundant levels were low. Several rocks covered with a in the atmosphere and dissolved in water, can growth of Cladophora were placed in each be converted into biologically usable forms. area. One area was fertilized with inorganic Certain bacteria and some blue-green algae nitrate, another with inorganic phosphate, fix nitrogen. Therefore, if algae themselves another with a mixture of inorganic nitrate, can provide an unlimited supply of usable ni- phosphate and potassium, and a fourth with trogen, then the environmental source can sheep manure. Growth occurred in the latter never be limiting. However, Williams and three sites, but not in the first, although the Burris1193 found that only three blue-green Cladophora persisted there all summer. Neil algae species out of a group of ten could fix and Owen surmised that phosphorus was nitrogen. Even those species that are capable limiting for Cladophora growth at these sites. of fixing nitrogen do not do so at all times. The On the other hand, Curl 174 concluded the oppo- circumstances that induce nitrogen fixation site: that phosphorus is probably never limit- are not well known. Taha784 found that nitro- ing in the southern waters of Lake Erie. gen fixation byAnabaena, Calothrix, and Hap- Jackson41111 demonstrated that phosphorus ac- lisiphon increases with increasing light inten- tually was limiting in Lake Ontario near Os- sity and reaches a maximum at intensities far wego. Cladophora fracta photosynthesis was in excess of photosynthetic saturation levels. stimulated to an extra 0.17 I-tg 02/hr/mg AFD In 1964, Casper128 investigated a massive wt to 1.04 Ag 02/hr/mg AFD wt by the addition blue-green algal bloom consisting mainly of of phosphorus (P320 43). Verduin858 suggested Microcystis cyanea, Oscillatoria sp., Carteria that the metabolism of Cladophora is 'linearly sp., Aphanizomenon holsaticum andAnabaena proportional to the phosphorus supply in the circinalis and concluded that nitrogen was 10 to 40 jig/l concentration range. He reported limiting at the time of the bloom because ni- the photosynthetic rates that appear in Table trate nitrogen was extremely low (0.05 mg/1) 4-74. while the total soluble phosphorus was at a Davis 193 found from empirical analysis that level known to be non-limiting (0.13 mg/l). As the concentration of phosphorus and other nu- mentioned above, however, correlation with trients in water showed no consistent correla- existing conditions is nonconclusive. tion with phytoplankton standing crops. Be- cause of time lag and utilization, algal prop- erties presumably correlate most satisfactor- 8.3.8.4 Carbon ily with conditions over the previous several weeks than with conditions existing at the Carbon dioxide is a major raw material in time of the study. Consequently, in situ lake photosynthesis, but it has generally been experiments appear to be the most promising thought that so much bound C02 is in reserve approach to determining which factors are in the water and in the atmosphere that C02 limiting under natural conditions. could never be in short supply. The flux routes that have an influence on dissolved C02 are shown in Figure 4-263. When CO, is removed 8.3.8.3 Nitrogen from water for photosynthesis, its deficiency is not made up instantaneously from the atmos- Nitrogen is often dismissed as a possible phere or the buffer system; otherwise, photo- limiting factor for phytoplankton growth be- synthesis could not be measured by changes in Biological Characteristics 305 ATMOSPHERIC CO?. ture medium low in both phosphorus and ni- trogen (Kerr et al .451). CAR13ONATFS Ra, d Evidence concerning the possible limiting I I role of CO, in the Great Lakes is meager. ONIC Rd, p ACID DISSOLVED CO 2. 0- PHOTOSYNTHESIS Bound CO@ is always present in quantities ad equate to support photosynthesis in Lake Erie central basin waters (Davis 193) . However, is JNITY the sum of the rates R, BICARBONAT RESPIRATION d;Rb,d; and Ra,d (Figure 4-235) sufficient to compensate for the rate of loss Of C02 to photosynthesis (Rd,P) and still ALLOCHTHONOUS maintain the pool of dissolvedC02 above the ORGANIC MATTER limiting concentration? As Kuentzel suggests, FIGURE 4-263 Sources and Sinks for Dis- there must also be a high rateof C02addition solved Carbon Dioxide. (Ra): respiration of at- from the respiration of accumulated organic mospheric C02. (Rb): respiration of bicarbon- matter (Rr. d) to keep C02 from becoming limit- ates. (Re): respiration of carbonic acid. (Rd): ing during bloom periods. Griffith 303 found respiration of dissolvedC02. (Rp): respiration some indication thatC02might limit photo- of photosynthesis. (Rr): community respiration. synthesis in Lake Michigan. On the basis of incomplete data he suggests that the bicarbo- nate supply may have a decided effect upon pH and alkalinity that are affected by changes phytoplankton productivity. Verduin 1157 esti- in CO, A concern then is whether C02concen- mated the rate of absorptionOf C02 from the tration ever becomes low enough to limit atmosphere at 13 millimole (11111101) C02/m2/da photosynthesis of algae in the Great Lakes. (151 mg C/m2/da) for the well-agitated waters Kuentzel478 stimulated renewed interest in of the western basin of Lake Erie. Referring to C02as a limiting factor. The basic points of his Table 4-72, it is evident that this rate of ex- paper may be summarized as follows: change, if it is valid, would be marginally ade- Carbon dioxide is the major nutrient required for quate to support summer photosynthetic algal growth. rates in Lake Superior and the more oligo- The large amounts Of C02 required for fast- trophic parts of Lake Michigan. This sort of growing massive algal blooms of blue-green algae comparison suggests that there must be a pro- cannot come from the atmosphere and/or dissolved gressive drain on boundC02 during the sea- carbonate salts via the normal physical-chemical sons of highest productivity and/or thatC02 is processes. At most, about one mg/I of free C02 accumu- lated over a period of many hours or days can be ex- being supplied by the decomposition of alloc- pected. thonous organic material. Verduin 857 pointed While phosphorus is a necessary element for algal out that the mean summer productivity in the growth, the amounts required to support massive western basin of Lake Erie is 550MMOl C02/ blooms are quite low, about 0.01 mg/I (10 ppb) or less. m2/da and that only 13 mmol of this can be The action of bacteria on ample amounts of o r- derived from solution from the atmosphere. ganic matter can supply as much as 20M9/1 Of C02 in a He concluded that the remainder comes from supersaturated state. Explosive logarithmic growth respiration, but apparently did not consider rates of bacteria under favorable conditions can de- the respiration of alloctlionous material: "The liver large amounts Of C02 required for algal bloom development. C02andO2economy of such a habitat is almost In well-documented instances involving large a closed system economy [emphasis added], lakes, the presence of decomposable organic matter with CO@ produced by respiration of the and bacteria have produced massive algal blooms in aquatic community serving as the C02 Supply waters containing not more than 0.01 mg/I soluble for the autotrophic component, and the 02 phosphorus. In other waters containing more than produced by the autotrophs serving as the 0.01 mg/l soluble phosphorus, but relatively free from supply for the total community." It should be organic pollution, there was no nuisance algal prob- lem. Thus, the availability of adequate amounts OfCO2 noted that the02 produced in photosynthesis via the action of bacteria on decomposable organic is not adequate for the heterotrophic or- matter determines massive blue-green algal growth ganisms of the western basin in the absence of even in the presence of excessive amounts of soluble atmospheric replenishment. The mass mortal- phosphorus, ity of mayfly nymphs (Hexagenia) due to In laboratory experiments, carbon dioxide, anoxia caused by a period of stagnation in supplied either by bacterial action or from gas western lake Erie in 1953 attest to this cylinders, stimulated the growth of the blue- (Britt'011). The rapid development of anoxic green algae, Microcystis nidulans, on a cul- conditions in this incident was attributed to a 306 Appendix 4 high biochemical oxygen demand in the form moved in the process of reducing wastewater of accumulated alloctlionous organic matter. BOD. These are sound reasons uponwhich to base public policy, but they should not fore- close further consideration of the need to re- 8.3.8.5 Practical Use of the Limiting Nutrient move other nutrients. Concept Phosphates and other nutrient inputs to lakes can be reduced by changing habits. of The International Joint Commission 407 rec- consumption as well as by sewage treatment, ommended emphasis on the control and re- but the effects of these actions should be con- moval of phosphorus as the most feasible sidered. Present day detergents are a major method for reduction or reversal of the unde- source of phosphates and environmentalists sirable effects of organic growth in the Great have mounted a campaign to replace phos- Lakes. The previous subsections have shown phates in detergents. However, caution should that all nutrients are more or less important. be exercised as substitution of nitrite for The question that then arises is whether phosphate could replace an algal bloom prob- growth of algae can be controlled by selec- lem with a public health problem involving tively reducing a single nutrient such as phos- nitrite poisoning of public water supplies. Ni- phorus. The documentation indicates that trilo acetate, the leading candidate as a substi- Lake Erie may already contain two to three tute for phosphate in detergents, is a chemi- times the limiting concentration of phos- cally stable chelating agent which is incom- phorus, but that the availability of CO, or some pletely destroyed in sewage treatment plants. other nutrient may be limiting much of the Preliminary tests on the pure compounds time. Nitrogen has been dismissed because all seem to assure its safety, but no one can the nitrogen needed can allegedly be guarantee that there will be no unexpected supplied by atmospheric nitrogen fixation, but long-term tragic effect when the material is it has been demonstrated that nitrogen-fixing spread about in huge quantities and its effects blue-green algae need organically enriched are combined with those of many other sub- water for nitrogen fixation. stances (Abelson 2). Since any nutrient could be limiting, the practical problem is one of technology. Carbon 8.3.8.6 Temperature in the form of organic carbon can be easily removed since conventional secondary sewage Laboratory measurements have estab- treatment involves oxidation to reduce BOD. lished that the total process of photosynthesis Phosphorus can be removed in certain kinds of is temperature dependent under optimum tertiary treatment processes. A desirable ap- light conditions when single species are proach in highly eutrophic lakes would be to tested. In such cases the rate of photosyn- support programs which will reduce the input thesis approximately doubles with each in- of phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon to levels crease of 10"C within the tolerable range of below the lake capacity for self-purification. temperature. This is the typical Q,,, effect so Concentrating only on phosphorus removal familiar to environmental physiologists. will eventually produce the desired result, but McMillan and Verduin 523 showed that the a multi-nutrient removal program should be same phenomenon may occur when winter more quickly effective in the short term. and summer photosynthetic rates are com- McMillan and Verduin 523 suggested that pared even though different species are in- Baule'S44 concept of limiting factors may volved at the two seasons. When they treated be operative: that all of the factors influencing the productivities of Cladophora glomerata at a process are operative at all times, the degree 18"C and 16'C and of Ulothrix zonata at 7'C and of limitation being inversely, and exponen- 20C as a single set of data, the Q,,, was 2; that is, tially, proportional to the relative abundance the rate doubled with each increase of 10'C. If of each. this is a general phenomenon, one should ex- Control of phosphorus is technologically and pect the highest rates of productivity in economically feasible. A greater proportion of aquatic communities to occur at the warmest the phosphorus entering a lake can be made to season and vice versa, on the basis of tempera- pass through a wastewater treatment plant ture alone. Mean photosynthesis in western than any of the other nutrients. Also, existing Lake Erie is more than seven times greater phosphorus removal technology is better de- during midsummer than midwinter, but it veloped and less expensive than that for any would be difficult to separate light and tem- other nutrient except carbon, which is re- perature effects in these data (Verduin 862). Biological Characteristics 307 8.3.8.7 Light and Turbidity peratures can account for diatom dominance in the annual pulses, especially, in the vernal Light is one of the most important factors pulse. regulating growth of phytoplankton and The various factors that reduce light pene- periphytic algae, for it is the energy source for tration have a retarding effect on primary their photosynthetic activity. Three charac- production by preventing sufficient light to teristics of light are important to algae: inten- drive photosynthesis. Most lakes are thus di- sity, spectral quality, and duration. vided into two zones, the trophogenic (eupho- Duration is a function of season. No work tic) and the tropholytic (dyspotic). In the has been done to define the role of changing former, photosynthesis exceeds community photoperiod on seasonal succession of phyto- respiration (P>R) so that an excess of organic plankton in the Great Lakes, but it must have a matter is produced. The boundary between considerable influence. Some work has been the two zones, where P = R, is called the done with light intensities and spectral qual- compensation depth. The depth at which light ities since these influence primary productiv- penetration is 1 percent of the surface inten- ity. These qualities of light are significant in sityis approximately the compensation depth. the water where the plankton are located, Photosynthesis can be inhibited by high rather than at the air-water interface. light intensities. Thus intermediate depth, Turbidity causes light penetration to vary rather than the water surface, is generally the by as much as a factor of 20 in the Lake Erie most productive. The depth of greatest pro- western basin (Chandler 132) . Turbidity has ductivity is time dependent, since morning significant influence on both the abundance and afternoon light intensities may not be in- and composition of the phytoplankton in sub- hibiting at the surface. For example, Ver- sequent pulses (Chandler 133). When turbidity duin 1161 observed that surface phytoplankton is 20 ppm, the pulse is large, long, and com- productivities are maximal in midmorning, posed of relatively more green and blue-green fall off by noon and continue to decline during algae. Chandler 134 found further confirmation the afternoon. Photosynthetic rates rose of the importance of turbidity when very low sharply between 0 percent and 30 percent of turbidities correlated with the largest phyto- full sunlight, remained essentially constant plankton crops of any of the years from 1938 to between 30 percent and 80 percent, then re- 1942. Verduin 1160 found that the highest duced almost 20 percent. Putnam and Olson 134 phytoplankton crops in the Bass Island region suggested that photoinhibition in superficial of western Lake Erie occurred in water having layers is probably much reduced by continual intermediate turbidity. Verduin suggested circulation of waters within the epilimnion, that the incidence of the maximum phyto- thus minimizing the exposure of individual plankton crops correlates with influx of clear cells to high intensity light. Light penetration water driven by northeast winds, which mixes and compensation depth are important vari- with turbid, fertile water in the Bass Island ables in controlling primary production. region, creating large water masses having Chandler's 134 diagram of the relation of fac- enhanced fertility plus sufficient transpar- tors influencing phytoplankton production in ency to promote utilization by phytoplankton. western Lake Erie is -general enough to apply Davis 196 could find no simple correlation be- to all the Great Lakes and is a good way of tween turbidity and phytoplankton abun- summarizing the influence of climatic condi- dance in the Cleveland Harbor area of central tions on phytoplankton production (Figure Lake Erie probably because of the overwhelm- 4-264). ing industrial impact. Griffith303 observed a relation between turbidity and phytoplankton in Lake Michigan that agreed with Chandler's 8.3.9 Phytoplankton and Phytobenthos as observations in one regard but not another. In Indicators of Environmental Quality agreement, she found that the relative abun- dances of green and blue-green algae in- Three systems are generally used to creased with decreasing turbidity. In con- evaluate environmental quality on the basis of trast, the higher phytoplankton pulses were biological criteria: preceded by high turbidities although during (1) presence or absence of particular indi- the pulse the turbidities were relatively low. cator species Diatoms may be adapted to high turbidities (2) population densities of certain general although very high turbidities are inhibitory. groups or organisms Adaptation to high turbidities and low tem- (3) species diversity indices. 308 Appendix 4 PRECIPITATION IIND SOLAR 5 SKI RADIATION AD 35 30 RUN-OFF SEICIES, CURRENTS,WAVES LIC.T @o RWER DISCIARGE TURBULENCE X o TURIIDITI ICE-COIER IND.VID.A5DLS- 1-212-414-6 B-16I 6-MIIM'1128'12?6- 512- 1024' 2-A096- IM@'1636A. 'ivd 1 2 IOZAI BOAS @ IBM 1,RIBA AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS LIG- FOR PHOTOSYNTIESIS ATER TEAIRERATUNE 3 4 5 6 26 72% 6 101. .2Q , uns 65m I"11111ILS 1011 4 15 16 RNYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTION FIGURE 4-265 The Structure of a Natural Di- atom Community, Ridley Creek, Pennsylvania FIGURE 4-264 Relation of Certain Climatic From Patrick, 1962 Factors to Phytoplankton Production in West- ern Lake Erie From Chandler, 1944 trophic lake (Rawson642). This is a helpful criterion, whereas number of species is not a reliable criterion. Water bodies with high A fourth method, the use of physiological in- phytoplankton standing crops also usually dices of sublethal stresses, is still in the devel- have low plankton species diversity (Wil- opmental stage so A will not be discussed, nor liams8911). will species diversity indices, because this In eutrophic lakes it is difficult to distin- method has not been widely employed in the guish between true limnetic species and those Great Lakes. Reliance should not be placea on washed out into the open lake that are the any one system (Cairns"8), but rather all so-called tychopelagic plankton characteristic available evidence should be used in evaluat- of the marginal zone of marshes and baylets. ing an environment. The properties of an ideal As a consequence, the apparent diversity of indicator species are very narrow tolerance the lake plankton is considerably increased, limits for the environmental factor in ques- but does not characterize trophic conditions in tion, and visibility, i.e., it must be easily ob- the lake. The difference in frequency of water servable. The concept that presence or ab- blooms is also real, but as Rawson noted, sence of indicator species denotes certain en- blooms may not occur at times convenient for vironmental conditions has been somewhat investigation. So this leaves algal-indicator discredited. The modern concept utilizes the groups and species as the most useful keys to entire community, or at least its more promi- trophic conditions. nent members, as the indicator. For example, Two schemes used to classify lakes on the the most reliable method in considering algae basis of their phytoplankton are measuring as indicators of pollution is to study the algal the numerical dominance by a particular community as a whole and consider the group of species and measuring the variety of species, relative sizes ofthe populations ofthe a particular group of species regardless of the various species, and the number of species numbers in which they occur. It is easier to (Patrick598). Patrick demonstrated that the determine the dominant species than to de- diversity of diatom communities in ecologi-. termine the diversity of a plankton commu- cally similar stream segments is reduced as a nity (Rawson 642). The latter may be worth the consequence of pollution (Figures 4-265 and effort, however, because the dominant species 4-266). This sort of relationship presumably are often those with rather wide tolerance can be extrapolated to lacustrine environ- (eurybionts), and thus they may be a poorer ments, but definitive work has not been per- indicator of trophic condition than the less formed in the Great Lakes. Rawson642 SUM_ frequent species. In this regard, Rawson de- marized the properties of plankton that are termined a number of trophic-condition in- I X, generally accepted as defining oligotrophy or dices by comparing the abundance of various eutrophy (Table 4-75). These criteria were de- groups. These determinations require prior rived primarily from work in small lakes. assumptions of the trophic state that each Although all degrees of intergradation are species indicates. Part of the difficulty with expected between the extremes, a typical eu- index equations is the inherent error in desig- trophic lake will have at least five times the nating members of a particular algal group as standing crop of plankton of a typical oligo- oligotrophic or eutrophie indicators. This Biological Characteristics 309 TABLE 4-75 Phytoplankton of Oligotrophic and Eutrophic Lakes Characteristics Oligotrophic Eutrophic Quantity Poor Rich Variety Many species Few species Distribution To great depths Trophogenic layer thin Diurnal Migration Extensive Limited Water-blooms Very rare Frequent Characteristic Algal Chlorophyta (green algae) Cydnophyta (blue-green algae) Groups and Genera Desmids (if Ca low) Anabaena Straurastrum or Aphanizomenon Microcystis and Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) TabeZZaria Bacillariophyceae MeZosira cyclotella Fragilaria Chrysophyceae Stephanodiscus Dinobryon AsterioneZla SOURCE: Rawson, 1956. 40 part, this exceptional distribution of phyto- 35 plankton in the Great Lakes may stem from the 30 fact that these lakes tend to be morphometri- 25 cally oligotrophic, i.e., oligotrophic due to their great volume rather than because of a low rate 5",- of nutrient addition (see Section 7). Rawson 642 used lakes of western Canada to prepare a ten- tative list of indicator species that he felt were .......... appropriate for the large lakes of North INOIVIDUALS 11-2 2-4 4-6 S'NS IS.R 20'.-S_ 6,92- -6 - N@ @. 655!`S America (Table 4-76). However, whether this INTERVALS -0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 12 13 1. .5 .6 list is applicable to the Great Lakes is debata- FIGURE 4-266 The Structure of a Diatom ble. Holland371 noted that Fragilaria cap- Community in a Moderately Polluted Environ- ucina, which appears in Rawson's list as an ment, Nobs Creek, Maryland oligotrophic indicator, was associated by From Patrick, 1962 Davis-91 with the eutrophication of Lake Erie. She also noted that Rhizosolenia eriensis, which Jarnefelt (1961, cited in Round 6114) corre- should be done on a species by species basis, lated with organic pollution in a small lake, recognizing that most species will have indif- was the fourth most abundant species in Lake ferent values as indicators. Another problem Superior and "has declined to insignificance in is that relatively few species are oligotrophic Lake Erie since 1800." Nalewajko561, desig- indicators. Most species in oligotrophic lakes nated Melosira islandica and Asterionella are simply tolerant to the conditions and are formosa as oligotrophic indicators in Lake On- also found in more enriched lakes. Dinobryon tario and Stephanodiscus tenuis as a meso- divergens and Uroglena americana are truly trophic or eutrophic indicator. Stoermer and oligotrophic species of algae. They thrive in Kopczynska 7r5 concurred on the indicator low nutrient lakes and laboratory media, and value of Melosira islandica for oligotrophy in also are inhibited by small additions of phos- Lake Michigan. They listed Diatoma tenue, phate (Rodhe 677). Melosira granulata, Melosira binderana, The dominant algae in the upper Great Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and Spirulianajen- Lakes are not those commonly cited as charac- neri as eutrophic indicators. Abundant occur- teristic of oligotrophic lakes (Rawson642). In rence of Spirulina jenneri is often considered 310 Appendix 4 TABLE4-76 Approximate Trophic Distribution of Dominant Limnetic Algae in Lakes of Western Canada Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic AsterioneZZa formosa Fragilaria crotonensis Microcystis fZos-aquae Fragilaria capucina CoeZosphaerium naegeZianum MeZosira isZandica Ceratium hiundineZZa Stephanodiscus niagarae Anabaena spp. TabeZZaria fenestrata Pediastrum boyyanum Straurastrum spp. Aphanizomenon fZos-aquae TabeZZaria fZoccuZosa Pediastrum dupZex MeZosira granuZata Microcystis aeruginosa Dinob2-yon divergens SOURCE: Rawson, 1956. to be presumptive evidence of organic enrich- having the highest standing crops at each site ment and anaerobic conditions. were employed. All phytoplankton genera Holland 370 correlated the distribution of the were identified and counted. Those genera species of Melosira in Green Bay and Lake having 150 members or more per milliliter Michigan with other indications of trophic were considered dominant. Each dominant state, specifically phosphate and nitrate con- genus was assigned a weighting factor, 1 centrations and diatom standing crops. She through 9, based on its abundance. All these found that Green Bay and a nearshore Lake weighting factors were added for all dominant Michigan site were more eutrophic than the genera in all 10 samples to arrive at the diver- other lake sampling stations. Melosira bin- sity density value; the higher this value, the derana and Melosira granulata were found higher the trophic state of the site (Table only in Green Bay and at the somewhat less 4-78). eutrophic inshore Lake Michigan site. These This method is valuable because the subjec- species were absent in oligotrophic portions in tive judgment concerning the indicator value Lake Michigan. Melosira islandica, which was of a given species is eliminated. However, it is absent in the eutrophic areas, was characteris- a slow method which gives information only on tic of the open lake. long-term trends and regional differences. It Williams8911 developed two indices of trophic is not suitable for rapid surveys or for detec- condition based on phytoplankton samples. tion of transient polluting conditions. The first index involves making numerous col- The extensive limnological studies of small lections over two years and recording the lakes in Europe and North America cannot abundances and frequencies of occurrence of serve as models which can be extrapolated un- the four most common species of diatoms. The critically to the Great Lakes. Algal com- combined percentage of abundance of the munities that are reasonably indicative of the most common species over the two years is trophic conditions of each Great Lake or of multiplied by the density level to obtain the local areas within each lake probably exist, trophic index. The density level is a value from but they have not yet been adequately de- l through 9 and corresponds to the mean fined. Such indicators of general conditions number of individuals per species per milliliter should be expected among the phytoplankton of sample; the larger the trophic index, the as well as among the benthic and periphytic more eutrophic the water body. The index has plants. The phytoplankton are poor indicators a high degree of correlation with chemical and of localized pollution conditions for the same physical indicators of eutrophication (Table reason as zooplankton (see Subsection 8.2, 4-77). Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, and Periphytic In- In his second index, Williams used the same vertebrates of the Great Lakes). For example, plankton samples, but only the 10 samples phytoplankters were killed near the mouth of Biological Characteristics 311 TABLE 4-77 Diatom Trophic-Index Values, Upper Great Lakes Dominant Species Density Trophic Lake Site Percent Abundance Level Index Lake Superior at Duluth 40.5 1 41 St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie 39.9 2 80 St. Clair River at Port Huron 46.7 3 140 Detroit River at Detroit 41.0 4 164 Lake Michigan at Milwaukee 57.2 4 229 Lake Michigan at Gary 65.4 5 327 SOURCE: Williams, 1964 the Cuyahoga River, but this response is an TABLE 4-78 Phytoplankton Diversity- unreliable indication of pollution since Densities, Upj)er Great Lakes moribund cells are often found in the absence of pollution (Davis194) . The phytobenthos and Diversity- periphytic algae, because of their immobility, Site Density should reflect local pollutional conditions St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie 3 more accurately. For example, certain species Lake Superior at Duluth 11 of Oscillatoria appear to be the only macro- scopic life forms in the industrial section of the Lake Michigan at Gary 97 Cuyahoga River in Cleveland. The presence of SOURCE: Williams, 1964 these highly tolerant organisms in the ab- sence of others may be a good indication of toxic conditions. Unfortunately, little work oration caused by windrows of decomposing has been done in North America utilizing at- Cladophora that accumulate on beaches can tached algae in lakes. force the closing of recreational areas (Neil and Owen ;574 Casper 1211). In Lake Michigan, the main problem is 8.3.10 Nuisance Algal Problems Spirogyra rather than Cladophora (Michigan Water Resources Commission539). Broken Blooms of various kinds of algae cause nui- Cladophora filaments settle to the bottom, and sance problems which result in economic loss while their presence may bother some swim- to certain industries and to the public in gen- mers, the suspended Spirogyra stains bathing eral, particularly in the lower lakes. The main suits and consequently is the greater an- nuisance problems involve interference with noyance. Blue-green algal blooms can also be unaes- recreation, fish net fouling, undesirable condi- thetic. Casper 128 described a blue-green algal tions in public water supplies, and toxic algal bloom that floated to the water surface and blooms. produced a green, frothy scum over approxi- mately 800 square miles of the western basin 8.3.10.1 Interference with Recreation of Lake Erie, completely enclosing the Bass Islands, a popular resort area. Cladophora, a filamentous green alga, grows abundantly in Lakes Erie and Ontario and to a lesser degree in Lakes Huron and 8.3.10.2 Net Fouling Michigan (Neil and Owen ;574 Michigan Water Resources Commission539). Adams and Kre- Floating masses of filamentous algae such gear4 also identified Cladophora on rocky sites as Cladophora foul the nets of commercial in the boundary environments of Lake Supe- fishermen in the lower lakes, making them rior. Cladophora has become a nuisance in the more difficult to haul. In Lake Superior, Put- lower lakes. Its filaments grow up to 15 inches nam and Olson 635 reported the growth of slime long and then break off. The odor and discol- on fish nets. Nets set for 10 days had heavy 312 Appendix 4 slime growths composed mainly of the growth of blue-green algae are high nitrogen Chrysophytes, Tabellaria, Synedra, Cymbella, and phosphorus content, high carbon dioxide Dinobryon, and Fragilaria. reserve in dissolved bicarbonates, and high temperatures (26'C to 30*C) (Prescott629). Most of the evidence involving human 8.3.10.3 Interference with Public Water poisoning by the products of toxic freshwater Supply algae is circumstantial but fairly convincing (Ingram and Prescott 406). Outbreaks of nausea Palmer 596 indicated that the presence of and gastroenteritis coinciding with blooms of algae in public water supplies in Ohio clogged blue-green algae in public water supplies have intake screens, formed unsightly mats on occurred among humans in the United States. walls of sedimentation basins, caused difficul- These epidemics of "intestinal influenza" ties in production of an alum floe, caused a were not caused by consumption of substand- reaction with chlorine used to destroy patho- ard or unsafe water as far as the usual bac- gens, and changed the pH and other physico- teriological tests were concerned. chemical characteristics of water. One of the Ingram and Prescott4O6 related many cases most troublesome problems created by algae is of mild to acute poisoning of domestic animals the clogging of sand filters in water filtration and wildlife to blue-green algal blooms. One plants. The more frequently these filters are report described death of sheep as occurring 1 washed, the more expensive water purifica- to 6 hours after drinking the water in ques- tion becomes. The large filamentous algae tion; horses died in 8 to 24 hours; dogs in 4 to 5 may be the greatest offenders, but Melosira hours; and pigs in 3 to 4 hours. Fencing off and Anabaena are most often implicated animals from the water containing the algal (Palmer596). At Cleveland, both the numbers blooms prevented any further mortality in a and kinds of algae in Lake Erie water affect similar incident. Symptoms of sub-lethal algae the length of filter runs. Diatoms were the poisoning in domestic animals include severe most abundant organisms with Melosira pre- constipation, general weakness, increased dominating, and they seemed to be the chief sensitivity to solar radiation, and often liver offenders in filter clogging. damage resulting in jaundice (Steyn762). Fish The most serious nuisance problem caused may also be killed by blue-green algae toxins. by algae is the production of undesirable Decomposing Aphanizomenon flos-aquae tastes and odors in drinking water, although killed black crappie, gizzard shad, golden some varieties of actinomycetes fungi may shiners, orange-spotted sunfish, fathead min- share the blame. Decomposing masses of nows, bluegills, buffalo fish, sheepshead, Cladophora in water can cause these problems perch, bullheads, pumpkinseed, and carp (Neil and Owen574) . The algal varieties most (PreSCott629) . The dissolved oxygen was ade- frequently associated with taste and odor quate at all times. Shelbusky731 found that problems in Lake Erie are blue-greens, espe- massive decay of Microcystis aeruginosa in cially Anabaena, but other types such as As- continuously aerated water caused death of terionella, Synedra, and Synura are also sus- fish in spite of the high oxygen supply. pect. Tastes from Lake Erie water at Cleve- There is no documentation that toxic land, Lorain, Painesville, and Toledo have var- blue-green algal blooms have occurred in the iously been described as chloro-phenolic, Great Lakes although blue-green algal blooms grassy, green corn, musty, and pig-pen are well known. One of the mysteries of this (Palmer 596) . Reduction of tastes and odors in- problem is that toxicity is not associated with volves chlorination and activated charcoal ad- every bloom of blue-green algae even when sorption. These treatments increase the cost the same species are involved. Those species of water and often are not entirely successful that appear to produce toxins under some in eliminating the offensive substances. conditions are members of the genera Microcystis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Nodularia, Gloeotrichia, and Coelosphaerium. 8.3.10.4 Toxic Algal Blooms Gorham 293 reported that toxicity occurred in some strains and not others. Toxin production Some species of blue-green algae in the is apparently controlled by both genetic and Great Lakes are capable of producing toxic environmental factors. substances that can kill animals. This capabil- The nature of the toxins of blue-green algae ity represents a potential threat to public has not been well established, and there may health. Conditions in lakes which favor the be several different classes of chemical sub- Biological Characteristics 313 stances. It is not clear whether the chemical aeruginosa 'toxin for mice, and that the same substances are always endotoxins or also in- treatment plus chlorination did not reduce the clude exotoxins. Wheeler et al. 11114 reported toxicity. However, coagulation, filtration, that the toxin of Microcystis aeruginosa is an chlorination, and adsorption on activated endotoxin that does not become a problem charcoal does reduce the toxicity. Since until released into the water during the de- blue-green algae toxins are obviously difficult composition of dead Microcystis cells. Pres- to remove from water, p@evention is the logical Cott629 suggested that products of protein de- method for protecting public water supplies. composition, perhaps hydroxylamine or hy- The environmental requirements of blue- drogen sulfide, could be the toxic agents pro- green algae are not well known, although in duced by Aphanizomenonflos-aquae. Lovw506 general they need organic enrichment and reported that the toxin ofMicrocystis toxica is warm temperatures. The algae apparently an alkaloid, but GorhaM293 was unable to find need organic growth factors produced by other any alkaloid in Microcystis aeruginosa toxin. organisms (Provasoli632) . Gorham 293 studied Gorham found that Microcystis produced an the growth requirements of one toxic strain of endotoxin called fast-death factor (FDF) be- Microcystis aeruginosa (NRC-1) and one toxic cause it kills mice in 30 to 60 minutes when strain of Anabaenaflos-aquae (MRC-44) in the administered orally or intraperitione ally. laboratory. These species have fairly critical FDF is a low molecular weight polypeptide. requirements for certain minerals, but the re- Another toxin, slow-death factor (SDF), is quirements for light, temperature, pH, carbon produced by bacteria associated with the alga. dioxide, and chelators appear to be somewhat SDF kills mice in 4 to 48 hours and is chemi- less exacting. There is very little or no corre- cally and pharmacologically distinct from spondence between blooms generated under FDF. Gorham also found that Aphanizomenon laboratory conditions and those found in na- flos-aquae toxin was indistinguishable from ture. This suggests that the conditions that Microcystis FDF.Anabaenaflos-aquae, on the determine the later stages of bloom develop- other hand, produces a pharmacologically dis- ment may exert their effects at earlier stages, tinct toxin, very fast death factor (VFDF), thereby complicating their detection and in- which kills mice in 1 to 10 minutes. VFDF is terpretation. toxic to waterfowl, whereas FDF apparently is not. According to Ingram and Prescott'406 the toxin of an algal bloom was proven not to be botulinus toxin since it was not neutralized by 8.3.11 Conclusions polyvalent botulinas anti-toxin. Toxins that are so mild as to go unnoticed The flora of the Great Lakes are better may be produced by algae. The green alga, known than are the invertebrate animals Chlorella, produces an antibiotic substance, probably because of their direct effects on pub- chlorellin, which inhibits the ability of Daph- lic water supplies. Most of the definitive nia to feed upon the alga (Ryther696). The phytoplankton studies have been made in blue-green algae are generally acknowledged Lake Erie, especially in the western basin, and to be undesirable fish food (Renn 645) . This the phytoplankton of Lake Huron are the least suggests a possible functional significance of studied. algal toxins. The algal toxins may inhibit algal Algae in the Great Lakes are of interest to consumption by predators, and may also be planners and the general public because they antibiotics that inhibit the growth of coin- have a direct impact on daily lives. Algae are petitors. Gorham'293 however, determined responsible for foul tastes and odors in drink- that Microcystis FDF does not inhibit the ing water supplies and for making some of the growth of various bacteria such as Bacillus Great Lakes waters and beaches unappealing subtilis, Staphylococcus aureu, Escherichia for recreational uses. They also represent a coli, or Pseudomonas hydrophila. The blue- potential public health threat. The public green algae appear to be the only group of widely recognizes that excessive algal growth freshwater algae that might produce toxins of and its associated problems are among the public health significance. One of the causes main symptoms of eutrophication, but it for public health concern is that blue-green should also be aware that algae are at the base algae toxins can survive the usual water of the aquatic food chain, upon which recrea- purification processes. Wheeler et al.8114 found tional and commercial fisheries are depen- that alum coagulation and filtration actually dent. enhanced the toxicity of Microcystis Taste and odors, and other algal problems 314 Appendix 4 associated with providing potable drinking clusive. The relative abundance of Claolophora water, have become increasingly serious in and other attached algae has also been in- Lake Erie in recent years. Methods of treating creasing during this time. such tainted waters are expensive. The typical seasonal phytoplankton abun- Massive growths of Cladophora and other dance pattern in the lower lakes and in near- filamentous attached algae have become in- shore southern Lake Michigan is two annual creasingly common in the lower lakes and peaks, or pulses, one in the spring and one in southern Lake Michigan. The decomposition the autumn. Characteristically both peaks are of these algae foul beaches and may deplete dominated by diatoms, but the autumnal peak dissolved oxygen. Massive blooms of has a larger proportion of green and blue- planktonic algae also contributed to the deple- green algae. In the upper lakes, the typical tion of dissolved oxygen in Lake Erie when pattern apparently is a single pulse in mid- they die and decompose. summer. These pulses appear to be controlled Some misunderstanding exists about the by changes in water temperatures as the sea- role of algae in the maintenance of dissolved sons progress. Increasing eutrophication oxygen. Living algae may be mistakenly held seems to obliterate the distinction between responsible for the depletion of dissolved oxy- vernal and autumnal peaks in the lower lakes. gen when, in fact, healthy algae are oxygen The most direct index of the trophic state of producers. Accumulated masses of dead algae the lakes is the estimation of annual primary are responsible for the excessive oxygen de- production through the measurement of algal pletion. photosynthesis. Most conclusions about the Certain species of blue-green algae which production of the lakes have been based on occur in the Great Lakes can produce toxic measurements of standing crop, but standing substances which have been implicated in the crop and production are not necessarily re- deaths of wildlife and livestock as large as cat- lated. tle, and in the illness of humans in other areas. Algae appear to be of little importance as a No such poisonings are documented in the direct food for adults of most fish species. Most Great Lakes, but the potential exists wher- algal production is consumed by zooplankton, ever eutrophication goes to an advanced state. fish fry, zoobenthos and, as detritus, by bac- Phytoplankton can be used as indicators of teria and fungi. Under some circumstances, up general trophic conditions in the Great Lakes. to 90 percent of algal production may be re- The use of single species as an indicator is leased as soluble products in the water. These unreliable; rather the species composition and products are usable only by bacteria and a few relative abundances of the entire phytop- other organisms. lankton community must be used. The value of The main inorganic nutrients controlling some species as indicators in small lakes does algal growth in the Great Lakes are phos- not appear to be valid in the Great Lakes. Most phorus, nitrogen, and carbon. Each of these trophic index equations are unreliable be- nutrients is abundant in sewage and other cause they utilize only a portion of the com- sources of input to the lakes. The sediments munity and do not include species level iden- also provide a large reservoir, especially in tifications. Lake Erie. Inasmuch as phosphorus concen- On the basis of distribution of planktonic tration may be several times more than the and periphytic algae, it is evident that the limiting level in some areas, reduction of other lakes are not homogeneous. There are differ- nutrients as well as phosphorus, when techno- ences between nearshore and offshore areas logically and economically feasible, may in each of the Great Lakes. Bays and harbors ameliorate some of the undesirable effects of appear to be more eutrophic than open areas eutrophication more rapidly than phosphorus of the lakes. There are also distinct gradients control alone. of increasing eutrophication in Lakes Erie, Temperature has a profound influence on Ontario, and Michigan related to metropolitan algal productivity. This effect helps account centers. for seasonal differences in phytoplankton In Lake Erie, significant changes have oc- abundance and for differences observed at dif- curred in the species composition, relative ferent latitudes in the Great Lakes. abundances of species, overall abundance, Differences in photosynthesis due to latitud- and seasonal abundance patterns of phyto- inal, seasonal, and daily changes of light pene- plankton since a base documentation period in tration into the Great Lakes account for 1930. Evidence for similar changes in Lakes much of the observed differences in phyto- Ontario and Michigan exists, but is less con- plankton productivity. Photosynthesis is also Biological Characteristics 315 inhibited by the high turbidity characteristic The fish fauna of the Great Lakes and their of portions of the Great Lakes. tributaries includes representatives of most of the families of North American fishes (Table 8.4 The Nekton of the Great Lakes 4-79). The list of scientific and common names are those used by the American Fisheries So- ciety.9 Table 4-90 is a listing of those species 8.4.1 Introduction often referred to as chubs in fishery records. The salmonids dominated the early fisheries Major changes in the Great Lakes due to of all the lakes; in Lake Superior no other human activities such as construction of the group has produced as substantial catches Erie Canal, overfishing, and environmental (Beeton and Chandler55). Lake trout, degradation since the early 1800s have caused whitefish, lake herring, and chubs were, until reduction in the commercial and sport recently, the most important commercial fisheries. Changes have occurred in species species in Lakes Superior, Huron, and Michi- composition of the fish population, certain gan. Except for the chubs in all three lakes, the species have been eradicated, and others lake herring in Lake Superior, and the have been introduced. The changes have been whitefish in Lake Michigan, this is no longer most pronounced in the Lake Ontario and true. The shallow water areas of all the Great Lake Erie basins, but they are also occurring Lakes have yielded significant quantities of in the &her Great Lakes. the perch (yellow perch, walleye, sauger), One of the greatest problems in describing carp, smelt, catfish, and suckers as well as blue nekton of the Great Lakes is the general lack pike and freshwater drum. The latter two of information about the distribution and come principally from Lake Erie. A detailed population of the many fish species. Inves- review of the history and projected trends of tigators have been hampered by a lack of the Great Lakes commercial fishery is in- knowledge about past conditions of the lakes, cluded in Appendix 8, Fish. and thus are hard pressed to relate species and The faunal composition of the lakes has been population changes to the changing environ-@ modified by the introduction and migration of ment. In addition, population changes may be exotic species since the late 1800s. Carp (Cy- due in part to activities of the commercial prinus carpio) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) fisheries in the Great Lakes. Catch records were introduced during the late 1900S and from the commercial fisheries may also be mis- were well established by 1900. These two leading because they reflect only fishing species readily hybridize and are together habits or the fishing regulations; if a particu- listed as carp in catch records. The rainbow lar species becomes protected by law, then smelt (Osmerus mordax) were originally in- records of further catches no longer are avail- troduced in Lake Michigan tributaries in the able. Data on low value, undesirable food fish 1920s and subsequently spread throughout and forage fish are almost completely lacking, the Great Lakes. Smelt are considered to be as are data on the sport fisheries. The burbot native to Lake Ontario (Beeton and Chan- (Lota lota lacustris), a relatively unimportant dler 55) , and some may actually have migrated fish in the commercial catch, has been re- through the Welland Canal, as have the ported to be decreasing or almost rare in Lake alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and the sea Erie, yet it is regularly found in the trap nets. lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) which had also Because it is of little value, catches are not been confined to Lake Ontario by Niagara kept, and no formal records of landings are Falls. A similar migration by the white perch made. Thus, by looking at recent records the (Morone americanus) also seems to be taking burbot would appear to be extinct. Other fish place (VanMeter and Trautman 843). Other fish had started to decline long before the records such as coho salmon (Oncorhynchns kisutch) indicated. Due to their economic importance, have also been introduced, but most have not they were more sought after, and thus catch become established as breeding populations in records remained inordinately high. any of the lakes. Each of the lakes is interconnected, so inter- The U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries lake migration is easily accomplished. The survey of the fishery resources was initiated nekton by definition are free swimming or- in 1871 and marked the beginning of the Fed- ganisms. Thus they are able to migrate from eral government's interest in the fauna of the one lake to another. However, each lake has a lakes. The surrounding States also initiated peculiar environmental setting that may be fisheries commissions. These commissions more or less attractive to the various species. were followed by the development of both Fed- 316 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-79 Great Lakes Basin Fish Common Name Genus and Species Lake Ontario Lake Erie Lake Huron Lake Michigan Lake Superior PETROMYZONTIDAE American brook lamprey r4mpetra lamottei stream stream stream stream stream Silver lamprey Ichthyonnjzon unicuspis lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Northern brook lamprey Ichthyomyzon fossor stream stream stream stream st:cea. Chestnut lamprey Ichthyomyzon castaneus --- --- lake & stream lake & stream --- Sea lamprey Petromzon marinue lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream lake & stream ACIPENSERIDAE Lake sturgeon Acipenser fulvescens lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream la'.te & stream POLYODONTIDAE Paddlefish Polyodon spathula --- lake & streaml lake &stream' lake &stream --- AMIIDAE Bowfin Amia calva lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream --- LEPISOSTEIDAE Spotted gar Lepisosteus productus --- lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream --- Longnose gar Lepisoateus osseuB lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream lake & stream CLUPEIDAE Alewife Alosa pseudoharengus, lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream lake & stream American shad Alosa sapidissima --- --- 1 & 2 --- --- --- Gizzard shad Dorosoma cepedianum lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream --- ESOCIDAE Grass pickerel Esox americanus, vermiculatua lake stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Chain pickerel Esox niger stream --- 2 --- --- --- Northern pike Esox Lucius lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Muskellunge Esox masquinongy lake & stream stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream COTTIDAE Fourhorned sculpin Myoxocephalus quadricornis, lake & stream lake & stream' lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Spoonhead sculpin Cottus ricei lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Mottle sculpin cottus bairdi bairdi lake & stream lake & stream --- --- --- Great Lakes sculpin Cottus b. lunlieni lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Slimy sculpin Cottus cognatus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream SCIAENIDAE Freshwater drum Aplodinotus grunniens lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream (sheepshead) ATHERINIDAE Brook silverside Labidesthes a. sicculus lake & stream lake & stream stream stream stream SERRANIDAE White bass Morons chrysops lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream' White perch Morons americana lake & stream lake & stream --- CYPRINODONTIDAE Blackstripe topminnow amdulus notatus --- stream --- stream --- Starbead topminnow Fundulus nottii --- --- --- stream --- Banded killifish Fundulus diaphanus menona lake & stream stream stream stream stream HIODONTIDAE Mooneye, Hiodon tergisus lake & stream lake & stream --- --- OSMERIDAE Rainbow smelt Oamerus mord= lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream,2 lake & stream UMBRIDAE Central mudminnow Umbra Zimi Jake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream GASTEROSTEIDAE Brook stickleback Culaea inconstans lake & stream stream stream stream stream Ninespine stickleback Pungitius pungitius lake & stream --- lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Threespine stickleback Gasterosteus acuZeatus lake & stream --- --- --- --- PERCOPSIDAE Troutperch Percopsis omiscomaycus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream GADIDAE Burbot Lota Iota lacustr-ts lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream APHREDODERIDAE Pirate perches Aphredoderus sayanus stream stream --- stream --- ANGUILLIDAE American eel Anguilla rostrata lake stream lake & stream' --- --- --- POECILIIDAE Mosquitofish Gambusia a. affinis streaM2 --- streaM2 --- SALMONIDAE Lake Erie cisco Coregonus artedii albus lake & stream --- --- lPossible or extinct [email protected] 21ntroduced species Biological Characteristics 317 TABLE 4-79 (continued) Great Lakes Basin Fish Common Name Genus and Species Lake Ontario Lake Erie Lake Huron Lake Michigan Lake Superior SALMONIDAE (continued) Great Lakes ciscO3 Coregonus a. artedii lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Shortnose ciscO3 Coregonus reighar-di --- --- lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Shortjaw ciscO3 Coreganus zenithicus --- --- lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Longjaw cisco3 Coregonus alpenae --- --- lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Bloater3 Coregonus hoyi --- --- lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Kiyi3 Coregonus kiyi --- --- lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Blackfin cis,03 Coregonus nigripinnis --- --- lake &stream lake &stream lake &stream Deepwater ciscO3 Coregonus johannae --- --- lake &stream lake &stream --- Lake whitefish Coregonus clWeafornrls lake & stream lake & stream lake &stream lake &stream lake & stream Pigmy whitefish Prosopiwn coulter-i --- --- --- --- lake & stream Found whitefish Prospium cylindraceum lake & stream --- lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Artic grayling Thymallu8 arcticus --- --- stream stream stream Atlantic salmon Sabw salar --- --- 1 , 2 --- --- --- Brown trout Salmo trutta stream2 streaM2 streaM2 stream2 stre=2 Rainbow trout Salmo gair&zeri lake & stream2, lake & streaM2 stream2 streaM2 streaM2 Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis stream stream stream stream Lake trout SalveZinus namaycush --- lake & streaml lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch _--2 ---2 ---2 ---2 ---2 Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ---2 --- 2 ---2 ---2 ---2 Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka --- 2 lake & stream --- --- PERCIDAE Walleye Stizostedion v. vitreum lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Blue pike Stizostedion v. glaucwn --- lake & stream lake & stream --- --- Sauget Stizo8tedion canadense lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream 3ake & stream stream Yellow perch Perca flavesceno lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Blackside darter Percina macuZata stream stream stream stream --- Logperch Percina caprodes lake stream lake & stream stream stream stream River darter Perci@ shumardi stream stream stream --- Channel darter Percina copelandi lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream --- --- Northern sand darter Amocrypta pellucida lake & stream lake & stream --- lake & stream --- Johnny darter Etheostonza nigrum lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Greenside darter Etheostonn Kennioides stream stream stream --- --- Iowa darter Etheosto?w exile stream stream stream stream stream Rainbow darter Etheostoma caeruleum stream stream stream stream --- Orangethroat darter Etheostoma spectabile --- stream --- --- --- Fantail darter Etheostoma flabellare lake & stream stream --- stream --- Least darter Etheostoma microptera stream stream stream stream stream Scaly Johnny darter Etheostom n. eulepis stream stream --- --- ICTALURIDAE Black bullhead Ictalurus me las lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Yellow bullhead Ictalurus natalis stream stream stream stream stream Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Flathead catfish Pylodictis olivaris stream lake & stream --- stream --- Stonecat Noturus flavue lake & stream lake & stream stream stream --- Tadpole madtom Noturus gyy-inus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream --- Brindled madtom Noturus nriurus stream stream --- --- --- Eastern madtom Noturus insignis stream --- --- --- --- CENTRARCHIDAE Smallmouth bass Micropterus dolo@deui lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Largemouth bass Micropterue a. salrwides lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream White crappie Pomoxis annularis lake & stream stream stream stream --- Black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Rock bass Ambloplites r. rupestris lake & stream lake & stream stream stream stream Warmouth Maenobryttus gulosus --- stream --- stream --- Green sunfish Lepomis cyaneZIus stres-1 stream stream stream --- 1possible or extinct species 21ntroduced species 3Called chubs in fishery records 318 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-79 (continued) Great Lakes Basin Fish Common Nam Genus and Species Lake Ontario Lake Erie Lake Huron Lake Michigan Lake Superior CENTRARCHIDAE (continued) Pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus lake & stream lake & stream! stream stream stream Bluegill Leponds m. macrochirus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Orangespotted sunfish Lepomis hurailis --- stream --- --- Redear sunfish Lepornis microlophus --- --- --- stream Longear sunfish Leponds megalotis peltastes stream streaM2 stream stream CATASTOMIDAE Bigmouth buffalo Ictiobus cyprinellus lake & stream --- --- Black buffalo Ictiobus, niger --- --- --- stream Quillback Carpiodes cyprinus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream River carpsucker Carpiodes a. carpio --- stream' --- --- Black redhorse Moxostoma duquesnei lake & stream stream stream stream stream Golden redharse Moxcsto= erythrurwn stream stream stream stream --- Northern redhorse 14oxostoma m. mcrolepidotum lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Greater redhorse Moxostow valenciennesi stream stream stream stream stream Silver redhorse Moxostorna anisurum lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream River redhorse Moxostom carinatum --- --- --- stream' Harelip sucker Lagochila lacera --- --- --- --- Northern hog sucker Hypentelium nigy-icans --- stream streaml stream --- White sucker Catostoms c. comersoni lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Longnose sucker Catostomus c. catostomus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Spotted sucker Minytrema melanops --- stream stream Lake chubsucker E2-imyzon sucetta kennerlyi lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream --- Creek chubsucker Erimyzon oblongus claviformis --- stream --- stream --- CYPRINIDAE Carp cyprinus carpio lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Goldfish Carassius auratus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream --- --- Golden shiner Ploternigonue crysoleucas lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Lake chub Couesius plumbea lake & stream --- --- --- Hornyhead chub Hybopsis biguttata stream stream stream stream stream River chub Hybopsis nricropogon stream stream stream --- Silver chub Hybopsis storeriana --- stream --- --- Bigeye chub Hybopsis a. amblops stream stream --- --- --- Creek chub Semotilus atromacuZatus lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Pearl dace Semotius m. mrgarita stream stream stream stream stream Blacknose dace Rhinichthys atmtuZus lake & stream stream stream stream stream Longnose dace Rhinichthys cataractae lake & stream stream stream stream stream N. Redbelly dace Chrosonus eos stream stream stream stream stream S. Redbelly dace Chrosomus erythrogaster --- stream stream stream --- Finescale dace Chrosomus neogaeus stream --- --- stream --- Redside dace Clinostomus, elongatus stream stream --- stream --- Pugnose minnow opsopoeodus effdliae --- streaml --- stream stream Suckermouth minnow Phenacobius mirabilis --- stream --- --- Emerald shiner Notropis atherinoides lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Silver shiner Notropis photogenis --- stream --- --- --- Rosyface shiner Notropis rube I lus --- stream stream stream --- Redfin shiner Notropis umbratilis cyanocephatus --- stream stream stream --- Common shiner Notropis chrysocephalus stream stream --- --- --- Common shiner Notropis cornutus lake & stream stream stream --- --- Spottail shiner Notropia hudsonius lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake! & stream Blackchin shiner Notropis heterodon lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Bigeye shiner Notropis boops --- stream --- Spotfin shiner Notropis spilopterus, lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream --- Bigmouth shiner Notropis dorsalis stream stream --- stream strean Sand shiner liotropis daliciosus strt=ineus stream stream stream stream stream Mimic shiner Notropis voluceZIus stream stream stream stream stream Blackness shiner Notropis heterolepis stream stream strean stream stream 'Possible or extinct species 21ntroduced species Biological Characteristics 319 TABLE 4-79 (continued) Great Lakes Basin Fish Common Name Genus and Species Lake Ontario Lake Erie Lake Huron Lake Michigan Lake Superior CYPRINIDAE (continued) Ghost shiner Notropis buchanani --- stream' --- --- --- Popeye shiner Notropis ariormnus --- streami --- --- Weed shiner Notropis texanus --- --- --- stream --- lroncolor shiner Notropis chatybaeus --- --- --- stream --- Silverjaw minnow Er-icymba b@cata stream stream stream stream --- Brassy minnow Hybognathus hankinsoni stream stream stream stream stream Bullhead minnow Pimephales vigilax perspicuus lake & stream lake & stream' lake & stream lake & stream lake & stream Fathead minnow PimephaZea p. promelas lake & stream stream stream stream stream Bluntaose minnow Pimephates notattis lake & stream stream stream stream stream Stoneroller Campostoma anomatum stream stream stream stream --- IPossible or extinct species 21ntroduced species 3Called chubs in fishery records TABLE 4-80 List of Species Called "Chubs" cally declining. Increases in smelt populations in Fishery Records after their introduction in 1.912 combined with the whitefish and lake trout decline have re- Common Name Species sulted in the following catch order: lake her- Cisco or Lake herring Coregonus artedii ring, smelt, chubs, whitefish, and lake trout. Control of the lamprey has led to an increase in Shortnose cisco Coregonus reighardi the lake trout population (Smith 747) so the Shortjaw cisco Coregonus zenithicus commercial importance of this fish may be Longjaw cisco Coregonus alpenae reestablished. The introduction of the coho Kiyi Coregonus kiyi salmon, another strong predator, is an addi- tional factor that may affect further species Deepwater cisco Coregonus johannae and population changes (Beeton 46). Bloater Coregonus hoyi Blackfin cisco Coregonus nigripinnis 8.4.3 Lake Michigan The first of many historical changes in fish eral and State fish hatcheries designed to con- populations in Lake Michigan was the de- tinue the propagation on a large scale of com- crease in lake sturgeon (Acipenserfulvescens), mercially valuable species. An estimated 32.2 which is attributed to commercial fishermen million pounds of Great Lakes fish were han- (Smith 747). Prior to 1900 the fisheries catch in dled each year by commercial outlets (Beeton order of abundance consisted of lake herring, and Chandler 55) . Despite control over fishery lake trout, yellow perch (Perca flavescens), activities and surveillance of populations, whitefish, chubs, and suckers (Catostomus changes occurred in the overall species com- spp.). By 1930, this order had changed to lake position as human population steadily in- trout, chubs, lake herring, smelt, suckers, creased on the shores of the Great Lakes. carp, and whitefish. Carp had been introduced in the 1880s and smelt in 1912 (Van Oosten 844). Coincident with the increase in lamprey popu- 8.4.2 Lake Superior lations the changes have become even more pronounced with the severe decrease in the The major changes in the fish population of lake trout and whitefish and the appearance of Lake Superior seems to have been the effect of large numbers of alewife. Lake trout declined predation by the sea lamprey on both lake from 5.4 million pounds in 1945 to less than 500 trout and whitefish stocks. Before 1900 the pounds in 1953 (Beeton"). The 1965 fishery fish catch, in order of importance, consisted of consisted of alewife, chubs, carp, yellow perch, lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), whitefish whitefish, and smelt. (Coregonus clupeaformis), lake herring (C. ar- Lake herring started to decline as alewife tedii), cisco or chubs (Coregonus spp.) and wall- and smelt populations increased, and it is eye (Stizostedion v. vitreum). The lake herring probable that the rapid reproduction of became the major commercial species by 1900. alewife along with predation by the lamprey By 1940, whitefish and lake trout were drasti- was responsible. The major herring fishery 320 Appendix 4 was in Green Bay, and the degradation of that prey predation, overfishing, and changes in area probably accounts for a portion of the the environment. decline (Beeton 46). By 1925 the Lake Erie cisco (chub) fishery had declined to the point that the Lake Michi- 8.4.5 Lake Erie gan chub catch became important. However, even this fishery catch has changed since Lake Erie is the most productive of the then. By 1932 the larger chubs (C. johannse, Great Lakes and currently produces about 50 and C. nigripinnis) were becoming scarce in million pounds of fish per year, about 40 per- Lake Michigan and the net size was reduced to cent of the total Great Lakes fish production. allow the capture of the smaller fish (C. al- Over the years this level of production has pense, C. lkiyi reighardi, and C. senithicus). changed little in poundage but dramatically in These smaller species, 66 percent of the popu- species composition. In 1899 the major species lation in the 1930s, declined only 6 percent by in the catch were lake herring (cisco), blue pike 1960. The smallest species C. hoyi, which had (Stizostedion vitreum glaucum), carp, yellow been an important food for the lake trout and perch, sauger, whitefish, walleye, suckers, and had comprised about 30 percent of the popula- white bass. Lake herring (cisco) production tion in 1930, were 94 percent of the chub popu- decreased after 1924 although it continued lation by 1960 (Beeton 46). into the 1950s, and the sauger started to de- cline after 1920, while walleye became more abundant. By 1940 the fisheries were domi- 8.4.4 Lake Huron nated by blue pike, whitefish, yellow perch, walleye, sheepshead (Aplodinotus grunniens), Available information on the fish popula- carp, and suckers. Duringthe past 25 years the tions of this lake comes primarily from com- blue pike, lake herring (cisco), sauger, and mercial fishing records. The chubs (deepwater whitefish have almost disappeared from the ciscoes) have remained a dominant group in lake. Smelt have become an important part of the lake, although changes have occurred in the fisheries since 1952. By 1968 the fisheries the general fish populations since 1900. Before catch consisted of yellow perch, smelt, sheeps- this time the catch consisted of lake trout, lake head, carp, white bass (Roccus chrysops), cat- herring, yellow perch, walleye, whitefish, and fish, and walleye. suckers. By 1940 the yellow perch population No single factor seems to have been the had declined and carp had assumed commer- cause of the historical changes in the fish cial importance. In 1968 the catch consisted of populations. The immigration of the sea lam- carp, yellow perch, chubs, whitefish, walleye prey has never been important in Lake Erie as (Stizostedion v. vitreum), and suckers as the few streams can be used for breeding. Fishing predominant species. The total production of pressure by both commercial and sport fish dropped from 21.6 million pounds in 1900 fishermen has been intense on some species, to 5.1 million pounds in 1968. yet the effect is hard to determine. Although The sea lamprey, which had become estab- lake trout fishing was never important, the lished earlier here than in Lakes Michigan decline and disappearance of the species prob- and Superior, seems to have been responsible ably indicates the development of an unfavor- for the decline of the lake trout population able environment. The progressive change in after 1940. Decline of the whitefish on the the fisheries began in the Detroit River area other hand seems to have been due primarily and spread slowly into the western basin. De- to the use of deepwater trapnets and heavy cline of lake herring and whitefish production fishing, although the effect of sea lamprey began in the Michigan portion of the western predation and adverse environmental factors basin of the lake. The collapse of the blue pike cannot be ignored. In general, the changes in and sauger fishery occurred during the period populations occurred earliest in Saginaw Bay when changes in the benthos (Hiltunen"') and may be attributed there to increasing pol- first occurred. lution loads. The sauger (Stizostedion canadense) started to decline in 1935 to a catch of only a few hundred fish a year during the 8.4.6 Lake Ontario last few years. There has also been a dramatic increase in the alewife population. Commercial fisheries have not been as im- In general theri, the changes in Lake Huron portant in this lake as in the other Great can be attributed to several factors: sea lam- Lakes, although they were well developed long Biological Characteristics 321 before records were kept. Thus any early importance. However, even the sale of perch changes are not well documented. However, has declined. Several fishing companies have some of the pronounced changes in the fish closed down, leaving only a very small number populations prior to 1900 have been noted. An of American boats in operation. In addition, example is the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar new species such as coho and king salmon have salar) which, although abundant in the early been introduced. These species may cause years, had almost disappeared by 1880. The changes in the populations. These types of ef- cause seems to be development of settlements fects along with changes in the environment on the tributary streams. may cause most commercial activity to cease Lake herring, chubs, channel catfish and and could even cause many of the species bullheads (Ictalurus spp.), yellow perch, listed in Table 4-79 to become extinct. whitefish, northern pike, suckers, and lake Even though the commercial species have sturgeon dominated the catches in 1899. The great value and are the best documented, 1968 catches indicate the decline of lake her- these fish species make up only a small frac- ring, lake trout, whitefish, and blue pike that tion of the total species of the Basin (Table has occurred since that time, just as in Lake 4-79). Changes in the stream fauna have been Erie. The catch now consists mainly of carp, just as dramatic, if not as well documented. white perch, yellow perch, eels, bullheads, rock In the basins of Lakes Ontario and Erie, and bass, and sunfish. The total production of 2.7 lower Lake Michigan, stream pollution has re- million pounds, about 12 percent of which is sulted in broken distribution patterns of many U.S. catch, is quite a reduction from the 7.5 of the smaller species. The majority of the million pounds in 1890. The American eel (An- stream species, in particular, members of the guilla rostrata) has comprised a relatively Percidae (darters) and Cyprinidae (minnows), larger proportion of the catch because of the exist only in scattered stream locations and in increased demand for and value of this species. the relatively unpolluted headwaters. Carp production was not significant until after The fish component of the nekton is the most 1914. The marked population increase of the significant, but other faunal species for which white perch (Roccus americanus) has only oc- little documentation exists in the Great Lakes curred in recent years. It is now one of the can also be considered as nekton. These or- most important commercial species in the ganisms, reptiles and amphibians, are com- lake. The major important changes are the monly neglected in nekton studies, but are im- decline of the blue pike, lake herring, and dis- portant members of the ecological system. appearance of lake trout. This may be evi- The snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) dence of a change in the habitat.. The collapse and painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) com- of the lake herring followed a pattern similar monly occur throughout the Great Lakes to that which occurred in Lake Erie, but it Basin and are often important fish predators. started here about 15 years later. The blue The common northern water snake (Natrix pike fishery collapsed at about the same time sipedon sipedon) also occurs commonly and is as in Lake Erie, and the decline is similar in probably another predator. Although both of the two lakes. The sea lamprey has been in the these groups of animals are common, no data lake for many years because no barrier such as are available as to their influence on other Niagara Falls ever existed between Lake On- nektonic organisms of the Great Lakes Basin. tario and the Atlantic Ocean. The three most widespread and common amphibians are the bullfrog (Rana cates- beiana), the green frog (Rana clamitans 8.4.7 Great Lakes in General melanota), and the leopard frog (Rana pipiens pipiens). As adults these organisms are often Historical changes have occurred in the predators on fish and arthropods as well as commercial fisheries of the Great Lakes. Some prey for larger nektonic species. During the are related to environmental changes and tadpole or immature stage they are prey for some to the fishery itself. Further changes will carnivorous fishes. Although amphibians are occur which may be systematic as in the past a common part of the ecosystem, they too have or they can be catastrophic. The discovery of been neglected in the literature. mercury contamination in the Great Lakes in 1970 has resulted in an almost total cessation of commercial fisheries activity in Lake Erie 8.4.8 Summary by United States fishermen. This is especially true of the walleye catch, which was still of Fish are sensitive to changes in their envi- 322 Appendix 4 , ronment. Numerous changes have occurred in bers of the sport catch or relative abundance the Great Lakes fisheries and from the of particular species. Consequently, relative standpoint of commercially important species, changes in overall fish populations are not these have been documented, but any envi- well known; so attempts to correlate poorly ronmental changes that may have been re- documented changes with environmental sponsible for population shifts have not gen- modification could lead to erroneous conclu- erally been established. The sport fisheries sions. It can be assumed, however, that have kept records on introductions of new changes in certain species will result in ad- species or restocking of natural species, but justments in other species so that a natural little definitive information exists about num- balance can be maintained in the system. Section 9 SEDIMENTOLOGY Thomas L. Lewis and Charles E. Herdendorf 9.1 Sedimentology of Lake Superior topographic patterns resemble those on shore and can be related to the local geology. Berkson and Clay63 investigated nearshore 9.1.1 Lake Basin Morphology areas near Frieda, Michigan, with side-scan sonar, underwater television, and diver ob- Lake Superior is divisible into two basins on servations, and were able to recognize bedrock the basis of structural trends. A northeast- ledges in depths from 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft.). southwest trending western basin conformsto the axis of a synclinal trough (Figure 4-8), with more easily eroded sedimentary rocks in the basin center. Prominent land features, 9.1.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments including the Bayfield Peninsula, the Keweenaw Peninsula, Isle Royale, and the Distribution of surface sediments and pronounced faults at Keweenaw Peninsula sediments at 10 cm below the surface (Figures and between Isle Royale and the northern 4-267 and 4-268) indicate a narrow band of red, shore are aligned with the same northeast- brown, and black sands bordering the south- southwest trend. In general, the western ern shore of Lake Superior and extending basin has a shelf that slopes gently from the along the northeastern shore past Thunder southern shore out to depths of 190 m (600 ft.), Bay (Lake Survey Center826). The sands and a very steep shelf that borders the north- grade lakeward to red-brown silts and muds, ern shore (Figure 4-23). Magnetic and gravity which completely surround the eastern, surveys have defined the tectonics of the southern, and northwestern edges of the lake western basin (White;8116 Wold910). and extend to roughly 90 m to 120 m (300 ft. to The eastern lake basin contains pronounced 400 ft.) depth; a narrow zone of black mud oc- north-south topographic trends (Figure 4-23), curs in deep water east of Duluth. Gray-green for which explanations are not obvious. Al- mud covers most of the central portion of the though there is a general east-west structural lake extending close to the northern shore. trend of the Precambrian rocks east of Lake The persistence of specific environments is Superior, diabase dikes and belts, Keweena- striking. The nearshore sand. zone is only a wan lava flows, and conglomerate zones trend thin veneer at some places, but continuous north-south and represent a younger struc- bands are generally persistent along the south tural development (Hough3110). This trend may shore between the eastern edge of the basin persist under the eastern part of the lake re- and the Keweenaw Peninsula,. and west of the sulting in strongly ridged topography rising as Keweenaw Peninsula extending to Duluth. A much as 90 m to 150 m (290 ft. to 500 ft.) above wider belt of argillaceous sand farther the lake bottom. offshore extends nearly around the Ke- Detailed bottom topography can be vis- weenaw Peninsula. These coarser sedi- ualized in an isometric projection as used by ments grade. into red clays and brown-tan McKee520 who recognized six distinct physio- clays that are subparallel to the nearshore graphic provinces within the lake basin. These sediments. A wide zone of the brown-tan clay Thomas L. Lewis (Subsections 9.1 through 9.3, and 9.5), Department of Geology, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio. Charles E. Herdendorf (Subsection 9-4), Centerfior Lake Erie Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 323 324 Appendix 4 91, go, 89' as' 37* 86' 85' 49' Black Mud L Mm jjl@Ti::lii: owspo,, t::::: M t., Gray-Green Mud oral :::::: Red - Brown Mud :-:J Sand with Sill Part Arthur Gray CIGY Boundaries are Gradational 41' ........... ....... 48' Grand Moroi* nj.. G.rgttrina. .......... .......... P .Hliii. HItr Sil-r B- 47* 47' Duluth n, .9.n itfi.h Pt. Sups!-ior Marque" rand Block River Moroi* S.Wt St.. Maria M..W.9 46- KILOMETERS 46' A STATUTE MILES en W 9-0, 89* 88* 87* 86* FIGURE 4-267 Sediment Distribution at the Surface, Lake Superior From Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA), unpublished crosses the southwestern part of the lake and the Keweenaw Peninsula reflect a lack of extends out to the 400-foot depth. The remain- source materials in those areas. der of the lake bottom which covers a rela- The shoal environment is restrictive, being tively large area is essentially gray clays ex- confined to positive topographic features that cept for a small zone of gray to green mud project to within 30 meters (100 ft.) of the between Isle Royale and the north shore. - water surface. Sediments consist of cobbles to The eastern basin of Lake Superior can be moderately sorted fine sand, with small subdivided into boundary, shoal, and pelagic amounts of silt and clay. The coarse particles environments (Adams and Kreager 4) . These of varying composition indicate that the environmental boundaries (Mgure 4-269) are shoals are covered by lag deposits derived based upon both sediment and the benthic from glacial material. fauna. The boundary environment is 2 The deepwater, pelagic environment in- kilometers to 10 kilometers wide along the cludes most of the eastern basin lakeward of southern periphery of the eastern basin, in- the boundary environment, and extends to the cluding the southeastern and northeastern northern and eastern shore of the lake. The shorelines of the Keweenaw Peninsula. Bed- surface layers include lacustrine muds that rock is frequently exposed, but sand (median vary from greenish-gray in color in the central diameter average of 2 phi) is the dominant and northern parts of the basin to reddish- sediment of this environment. This sand is brown in the south. These muds overlie com- well sorted; sources are sandstone bluffs, pact gray clays in-parts of the basin and red dunes, and unconsolidated glacio-lacustrine clays with coarser textures in the southern sediments bordering the area. The absence of. part of the basin. The sediments range in size boundary deposits along the north and east from sand to clay, with scattered angular peb- shores and the restricted distribution around bles. The sediments average 50 percent sand Sedimentology 325 92* go* as* 87' 86, 85, 49, 6,.Y- IG'... M.d 49' RIM t::::: Gray CI.Y M ... tho. Rsd CIGY . ............ I. ..................... ... .................... S..d ...... ................... ........................ Port Arthur ............................... ................................. Broan-Tan CIaY ...........I .................. ................................... ................................. Argill4c.- SOnd ........... ....... .................................... ........... ........................... .......................................... .......... ............. I................ i.hipiow.. ..................................... ................... .............. .............. Grand M -is ............................. ............. .................. ............. ............. ...................... ................................... . .............. I................................ . . ............ .......... .................... - - - - - - - - - - - P - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hbr .............................. Sit"r say . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. ................................. ................... - - - - ....... . . . . . . . . ...................... ................ ...................... 17' ............... .......... Nouqrkron 0.11 th ntonago. - - - - - - B.yfi. %fi.h Pt. S.p.rior M.rq.." r.rd SIs.k Ri Ashland arsis 46- KILOMETERS Munising @..It St.. Mari. STATUTE MILES 0 92* 91, go* 89* 88, 87' 85, FIGURE 4-268 Sediment Distribution at a Depth of 10 cm, Lake Superior Lake SurvOy Center (NOF-NOAA), unpublished in the southern and eastern parts of the basin and clay in the deep areas (Mothersill 562). and only 6 percent in the central and northern Sands of varying grain size and mineral com- parts. The fine sediments of the central and position are recognized on the shelf, but no northern portions of the basin are supplied by variation is recognized in the 2 to 150 cm thick inflowing rivers, winds blowing over the lake, silt-clay covering in deeper areas. and materials suspended by wave and current Several restricted areas of the Superior action in the littoral zone. The coarse nearshore have been studied to develop tech- sediments along the southern edge are de- niques distinguishing depositional environ- rived from the boundary environment and the ments, sediment sources, and direction of shoals. Sand-size sediments, in deep troughs, sediment transport. Plots of standard devia- may have been transported by turbidity cur- tion versus particle diameter based on sedi- rents or they may be glacial in origin. ment samples in Douglas County showed good Most of the sand of the bayhead bars in separation (85 percent) of fluvial and nonflu- western Lake Superior contains 85 percent to vial sediments and excellent (97 percent) sep- 89 percent quartz and is derived from till aration between littoral and neritic samples bluffs along the south shore, and concentrated (DickaS215). Studies of nearshore sediments at by westward longshore drift (Loy 507) . These Little Lake Harbor by Bajorunas and bars are also modified by lake level changes Duane36a and Saylor and Upchurch 712a docu- and artificial nourishment from dredge spoil ment bar and trough movement and effect of in the area. waves on littoral drift and the formation of Sediment of the shallow area of the eastern bars. Upchurch 806a developed a potentially basin near the St. Marys River and Michipico- useful technique for determining littoral drift ten Harbour, Ontario, consists of sand on the direction source, and erosional and deposi- nearshore shelf and topographic highs and silt tional si@es in the nearshore area based on 326 Appendix 4 819. is. 817. 815. mixed population analyses of sediment and I the fact that changes in proportions of the log- EWHOMM normal components of sediments can be re- A PEUGIC ("d, g"M =W) lated to erosion, deposition, selective sorting, MWn __49*- and direction of drifts. FB_j =MARY E3 SMD o o IP BEDWa 9.1.3 Vertical Distribution of Bottom Sediments 46, Numerous studies based on core data and P o o seismic profiling, most notably by Zumberge g@n and Gast, 923 Reid '643 Wold,910 and Farrand'256 o a preceded most surficial sediment studies. B Seismic profiling has aided in defining thick- o P "d o ness of the unconsolidated sediments o P____ 47* (Wold910).. Deep bedrock valleys contain as o o much as 300 in (1,000 ft.) of sediment. A trough between Isle Royale and the north shore con- tains 230 m (750 ft.) of sediment. Most of the deep north-south topographic features in the 46* eastern basin are filled with at least 120 m (400 ft.) of material. Several east-west bedrock val- STATUTE 11E. leys have been completely obscured by Recent and Pleistocene sediments. Reid 643 studied grain-size distribution; varves; and composition, including carbonate content, organic composition, and a magnetic fraction of supposed micrometereorites in sev- eral cores off Munising, in Keweenaw Bay, and in one core in Siskiwit Bay near Isle Royale. Except for two cores close to the south shore near Munising that are entirely sand, few --------- cores were taken in depths less than 150 m (500 ft.). All cores show an expected decrease in particle size towards deeper water. Varves, al- o ternating light and dark layers, were recog- 46- nized in the northern half of the lake. Darker o layers contain volatile material, and lighter o layers contain mostly carbonates. In general, the percentage of volatile material (varying b from 0 percent to 12 percent) is highest in o deeper water sediments (compare with Figure 47*- 4-187). Analyses of clay-sized fractions indi- 'b -,-Io o cate the presence of quartz, carbonaceous ma- o D o terial, carbonates, illite, and/or montmorilli- HWUEM o nite. The stratigraphy of deepwater deposits above the bedrock base examined by Far- rand 256 consists essentially of silty glacial till with zones of well sorted, brown sand, which represent glacial outwash, overlain by red, 117 o %;-- @/ @o @-- - I 7' '0 5. lacustrine clay that is stratified in the lower part and typically varved in the upper part of FIGURE 4-269 Environmental Boundaries the section. The clay unit varies in thickness (A) and Median Phi Diameter Bottom Sediment from about 200 cm to 1200 cm (6.5 ft. to 39.4 ft.). (B) in Eastern Lake Superior The red varves grade upward into gray var- From Adams and Kregear, 1969 ves, which contain some of the finest-grained Sedimentology 327 lake sediments, averaging 92 percent finer TABLE 4-81 Summary of Mineralogical Data than one micron. Thin zones of brown clay con- Sediment Horizon' taining either isolated grains or thin layers of Lake Michigan Lake Superior sand overlie the gray varves in some cores. Mineral Surface <1 meter Surface <1 meter Clay minerals predominate in the gray Quartz 61 46 51 39 sediments, and quartz, calcite, and other non- Potassic feldspars 6 4 10 6 clay minerals predominate in the red sediment Sodic feldspars 6 5 18 17 (Farrand256). Amphiboles and garnets are Calcite 3 13 2 15 common in the red clays, but are rare in the Dolomite 17 25 2 4 gray clays. The transition from red to gray clay marks a changing sediment provenance. Clay minerals 7 7 17 19 Farrand points out that the variations in re- IPercent of total mineral composition cent sediments can be related to different SOURCE: Callender, 1969. sources. For example reddish-brown sediments in the southwest may be from iron minerals in the Lake Superior sediments. The ranges and red sediments of Keweenaw Age, chlorite minerals account for most of the ex- and gray clays in the northeastern basin from cess magnesium and 60 percent of the light granitic rocks of the Canadian Shield. sedimentary iron, the remainder of which is an authigenic hydrated oxide. 9.1.4 Geochemistry of Sediments Relatively high concentrations of man- 9.2 Sedimentology of Lake Michigan ganese, copper, lead, and zinc occur at the sediment surface (Nussmann5112). Absorption 9.2.1 Lake Basin Morphology is responsible for the concentrations of copper and zinc (see Section 7). Surface enrichment of The relationship between basin shape and manganese is due to upward migration of bedrock geology in Lake Michigan is fairly manganese and precipitation at the sediment well established (Thwaites;798 Emery;241 water interface (Figure 4-201). The surface Hough; 3110 and Webb and Smith 1173). The lake is enrichment of all these elements occurs wher- topographically divisible into three basins ever the rate of sedimentation is low. (Figure 4-25)- a northern basin between the A comparison of the mineralogy of Mackinac Straits and Manistee, Michigan, sediments from Lake Michigan and from with a prominent northe ast-tren ding central the eastern portion of Lake Superior depression bordered on the east and north by (Callenderl20) indicates that the Lake Supe- irregular topography; a midlake high trending rior sediments have less quartz, calcite, and from Manistee to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, bor- dolomite, and greater amounts of potassium dered on the north by a ridge, and on the south feldspars, sodium feldspars, and clay minerals by a flat shelf; and a southern basin underly- than the Lake Michigan sediments (Tables ing the remainder of the lake. Green Bay on 4-81, 82, 83) (Callender120). In a comparison the west side is separated from the main lake of average chemical composition of the sedi- basin by the prominent Niagara Escarpment ments from Lakes Superior and Michigan, cal- (Figure 4-7). cium, magnesium, and carbonate are less The western side of the northern basin common in Lake Superior sediments, organic slopes gently towardsthe center, followingthe carbon and iron are more common and man- dip of the bedrock off the Niagara Escarp- ganese is the same. Sediment pore water in ment (Figure 4-8). The eastern portion of the Lake Superior contains less calcium, mag- northern basin is composed of north-south nesium, sodium, potassium, and chloride, oriented ridges and troughs; Grand Traverse more iron, and equal silica and manganese Bay is part of this province. The ridge and compared to Lake Michigan sediment pore trough province is underlain by rocks of the water. Concentration of calcium and mag- Devonian Age Detroit River Group, Dundee nesium in Lake Superior sediment pore water Limestone, and Rogers City Formation. The is higher than in lake water. irregular topography is thought to result Most of the calcium is derived from amor- either from collapse due to solution of lime- phous phosphates or collophane, and most of stone or anhydrite in the Detroit River For- the magnesium comes from chlorite in the mation (Webb and Smith1173), or from complex Lake Superior sediments (Callender 120). Chlo- periglacial drainage systems (Hough380). SiMi_ rite and mixed-layer clays are the major clay larly, the deep south-trending depression in 328 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-82 Average Chemical Composition of Upper Great Lakes Sediments Lake Michigan Basin Componenti Southern Middle Northern- Green Bay Lake Superior Calcium 5.95 (3.41)2 4.07 (3.62) 5.72 (4.51) 2.99 (2-05) 1.38 Magnesium 2.32 (0.85) 1.76 (0.61) 1.15 (0.18) 0.82 (0-50) 1.08 Iron 1.80 (0.68) 1.88 (0.44) 1.77 (0.85) 1.60 (0.80) 2.36 Manganese 0.072 (0.09) 0.10 (0.11) 0.14 (0.12) 0.136 (0.24) 0.067 Carbonate 8.50 (4.19) 6.44 (4.56) 8.77 (4.35) 4.75 (3-32) 1.14 Organic carbon 1.56 (0.69) 1.01 (0.89) 1.69 (0.83) 2.59 (1-39) 2.44 Total nitrogen 0.204 (0.09) 0.183 (0-11) 0.237 (0-11) 0.31 (0.20) 0.23 lWeight percent 2( ) Standard deviation SOURCE: Callender, 1969 TABLE 4-83 Average Chemical Composition of Upper Great Lakes Sediment Interstitial Waters (mg/1) Component Lake Michigan Basin Lake Water (ion) Southern Middle & Northern Green Bay Lake Superior Lake Michigan Lake Superior Calcium 44.7 42.6 39.9 28.4 33 12 Magnesium 15.0 16.5 17.8 4.3 11 2.8 Sodium 17.3 5.7 '6.6 3.3 3.7 1.1 Potassium 2.5 1.8 1.9 1.4 1.0 0.6 Chloride 35.6 16.9 22.4 3.7 7.4 1.9 Silica 29.0 37.7 37.6 34.1 0.81 2.1 Iron 0.316 0.84 2.56 3.48 @,0.005 0.011 Manganese 0.398 1.41 1.95 1.37 0.003 n,0.002 pH 7.49 7.29 7.07 6.99 8.25 7.4 Eh +3892 +2242 +1722 +2552 'Prom Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, NOAA. 2millivolts SOURCE: Callender, 1969 the northern basin may be a result of collapse 9.2.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments from solution of the Silurian Age Salina Salt and/or later glacial modification. An escarpment formed by the Middle Devon- 9.2.2.1 Nearshore Distribution ian Traverse Group can be traced across land southwestward from the Straits to Frankfort, PowerS6211 described source materials to Michigan, and across the lake from Frankfort Lake Michigan. Casey127 and Fisher262 de- to Port Washington, Wisconsin. South of this scribed shoreline erosion and nearshore escarpment, the more easily eroded Upper sedimentation between the Wisconsin-Illinois Devonian Antrim Shale forms subparallel de- line and South Chicago. Other studies include pressions that underlie the broad southern beach erosion (Brater"); House Document de- basin. The eastern side of the southern basin is scriptions of Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, shaped from outcrops of the more resistant the Illinois shore, and Berrien County, Michi- Mississippian Age Marshall Sandstone. gan; and sediment characteristics between A description of the present straits connect- Lakeside, Michigan, and Gary, Indiana (Haw- ing Lakes Michigan and Huron is contained in ley and Judge 326). Work by Davis 201 and Davis the Lake Huron section. and McGeary204 relate topography and Sedimentology 329 shoreline stability along the southeastern County, Michigan, along the southeast and shore. Hulsey391 described the beaches and eastern shore northeast of Lakeside nearshore sedimentation along the eastern (McGeary;519 Davis; 201 Davis and McGeary204). shore. Grain size in the surf zone is highly variable, The impressive beaches, dunes, and near- and a decrease of median size was not detecta- shore bar complexes along the eastern and ble over shore distances (305 m or 1000 ft.) from southeastern Lake Michigan coastline have shore. Grain size generally increases in long been attractive study sites. A treatise by troughs and decreases on bar crests. Sorting Cressey169 carefully delineates beach varia- decreases in troughs and increases on top of tions, erosion problems and direction of sedi- the bars. In general, the short-term nearshore ment transport along some Michigan beaches, distribution cf sediments is stable even after and describes the nature of wind activity, minor storms. Fluorescent-dye tracers indi- dune forms, and causes of dune accumulation cate that transport in the nearshore is rapid, in the Indiana sand dunes. Contrasts of tex- that wind direction determines the direction ture and mineralogy between beach and dune of sediment transport, and that nearshore sands from Indiana Dunes State Park were transport is both toward the strand and along documented by Rimsnider.657 Descriptions by the shore. Evans 245,246,247,248 of nearshore and beach Most beach sediment along the eastern characteristics along the eastern shoreline shore of Lake Michigan is fine- to medium- have been important sedimentological con- grained well sorted sand (Hulsey391). Coarse tributions. These include the origin and classi- poorly sorted sand occurs locally, particularly fication of beach cusps, formation of sub- where glacial till borders the lake. This coarse merged troughs and ridges in areas of abun- sand grades into medium sand in the direction dant sediment supply and gently sloping bot- of sediment transport. Abundant heavy min- tom, relation of submerged sand ridges to erals, including iron species, garnet, horn- beach cusp formation, and the formation and blende, pyroxenes, and epidote, are present. maintenance of spits and bars by swash and Garnet and iron species occur in coarse sedi- backwash of oblique waves. A petrographic ment, near sites of active shore erosion, and study (Pettijohn604) of samples from selected hornblende and pyroxenes concentrate in the eastern, western, and southern Lake Michi- medium grain sizes. Both north and south sed- gan beaches relates progressive north-south iment transport by longshore drift occur. changes (direction of littoral drift) in texture, South of South Haven net sediment transport carbonate content, and heavy mineral fre- is to the south, and north of Holland to Big quencies. Sable Point the direction is to the north. In the Beach and nearshore studies of selected embayment between Big Sable and Little areas over extended time periods have re- Sable Points, net littoral drift is to the south sulted in better delineation of progressive and again is to the north above Ludington. onshore -offshore textural and mineralogic Movement of offshore bars is sensitive to variations; changes in the direction of littoral changes in lake level (Saylor and HandS712). A drift; the relationship of changing sand-body one-half meter rise in lake level over a two- geometries with time; and the effects of hy- year span displaced bar crests and troughs drologic and meterologic variables on some of shoreward an average of 30 m (100 ft.) in the these changes. vicinity of Little Sable Point. Upward growth The nearshore environment along the of bars lagged behind lake level rise allowing southeastern shore of Lake Michigan from for greater shoreward penetration of waves Lakeside, Michigan to Gary, Indiana, consists and concomitant shore erosion. The linear of a gently sloping bottom with offshore sand growth ofbars and exponential increase ofdis- bars and troughs that can be traced for long tance between bar crests with distance distances in aerial photographs (Hawley and offshore both maintained equilibrium during Judge 326). The offshore bars, which can be de- the shoreward shift. tected along this entire 34 miles of coast, shift Continuous monitoring of beach and near- slightly from one year to the next. The bottom shore processes reveals correlation of these is composed dominantly of medium- and fine- variables during a season with changes in grained sand, and it appears to shift over barometric pressure (Davis and FOX203). Low coarse lag materials or silt- and clay-sized sed- energy conditions relate to high pressure and iments. Net littoral drift is southerly. allow formation of shallow, discontinuous Continuous offshore bars also conform to sand bars and sinuous, cusped shorelines with the strand line in Berrien County and Allegan small embayments adjacent to occasional rip 330 Appendix 4 W ..... ..... 4, *01 - - - - --------- - ----- - LEGEND KILOMETERS I 1., 11 T I Y., L 2 20 0 IG 60 S STATUrTE MILE ILL - FIGURE 4-270 Sediment Distribution in FIGURE 4-271 Surficial Sediments of South- Southern Lake Michigan, 1935 ern Lake Michigan, 1962 to 1963 From Hough, 1935 From Ayers and Hough, 1963-64 channels that cut the bars. During times of reddish-brown, sandy clay occurs west of the falling barometric pressure, which relates to deepwater clay, notably east of Racine and high energy, rapid longshore currents are Waukegan. A shelf off Kenosha is covered by produced by higher waves. Deflection of those glacial till inshore and by sand on the outer higher velocity currents by the sinuous edge. Off Chicago, sand is found in broad shoreline produces rip currents which erode ridges wit 'h gravel and till in troughs between channels through the bars and accumulates these ridges. Average sand size a 'ssociated sand at sites between these rip channels. With with the gravel in the Chicago region bears no a return to low energy conditions, the original relationship to depth of water or distance from discontinuous bar system is reconstructed, shore. but at a site displaced along shore from its Ayers and Hough 31 show distributions original position. based on field description only (Figure 4-271); however, the coverage is comprehensive. Sur- ficial sediment distribution was essentially 9.2.2.2 Open Lake Distribution the same as that described 27 years earlier. This correlation may be gross because of the Hough377 provided details of beach, near- difficulty in relating field descriptions with shore, and deepwater deposits south of a detailed laboratory analyses. Sediment dis- latitude through Port Washington (Figure tribution patterns based on both size analysis 4-270). Samples of beach sand along the west- and field description (Figure 4-272) extend ern shore are essentially finer than those of knowledge of sediment distribution north- the eastern shore. Bottom deposits of the ward of the midlake shelf (Powers and eastern half of the area are sand. Recent. Robertson 626). Silt as used here includes both sediments generally grade to silt and clays in silt and clay material. Clay-silt overlying stiff deep parts of the lake. The western and plastic clay is referred to as layered deposits. southwestern sides of the basin are generally Anything hard, such as bedrock, gravel, cob- covered by glacial till or veneers of lag gravel bles, or till are labeled hard. Layered deposits deposits derived from the till. Stiff (cohesive) and silt obviously predominate. The silt covers Sedimentology 331 Particle size distribution of samples taken by Ayers and Hough 31 from the southwestern and western nearshore areas of Lake Michi- substantiates previous conclusions gan (Somers and Josephson753). Tills eroded by waves and currents along the western, near- ..... ............ .................... ................ areas, provide a source for sand, silt, and shore .............. ....... ........ ... ................................ . clay deposits. In addition, some sand in offshore areas north of Chicago has a re- .......... stricted median diameter range for some dis- tance, suggesting that it may have been depos- .... . . ited during the rise of lake level from the low 380). Chippewa Stage (Hough &AND ....... Some deepwater sediments are bimodal re- .. ...... SILTY SAND sulting from periodic influxes of medium-fine LAYERED sand during violent storms (Cote 167). Cote de- .................. scribes an offshore increase of grain size at 17 SILT ..... .... ..... in to 32 m (55 ft. to 105 ft.) depths in southeast- M HARD ern Lake Michigan before decreasing toward deeper water. Sediment distribution patterns in the northern basin are not well known. Lake Sur- . . ........ ............... vey Center, National Ocean Survey (Figure 4-273) indicates that fine- to medium-grained ............ ........... *....@:j: and fairly well sorted sand covers most of the northern part of the lake bottom near the ........... .... ........... .................... .................. Straits and occur as narrow bands parallel to ............... both shorelines. Two isolated patches of argil- ......... .... ..... ........ .............. ........... .............. ...... laceous sand extend offshore on either side of .................. Traverse Bay. Extensive areas of brown and ............... .. ............ ........ . ...... ... reddish-brown clay with thin zones of quartz ......................... ...... d border the east and west sides of the deep san ............. ........... ....... ......... . ........... v basin. Brown and reddish-brown clay with oc- ......................... ................. casional gray-brown mud, and a well defined area of gray-green mud cover the deep portion ........... ....... of the northern basin. . ......... In general, the lake bottom topography ......... exerts strong control on sediment distribution in the ridge and trough province of northeast- ern Lake Michigan (Moore550). Coarse sedi- ments occur on the ridges and ridge flanks, and fine sediments are restricted to troughs (Fig- ure 4-274). Most bottom sediments are well FIGURE 4-272 Distribution of Sediment sorted, except at the base and the flanks of Types in Southern Lake Michigan troughs where accumulations by slumpage oc- From Powers and Robertson, 1968 cur. Sediments in Little Traverse Bay and the associated shelf area show a regular grain-size much of the northern basin, a channel on the variation with change in depth of water and eastern side of the lake that interrupts the topography. Generally, carbonate content in- shelf, and much of the southern basin. creases with a decrease in the median diameter Layered deposits cover most of the peripheral of the particles and it decreases in deep troughs part of the northern basin, separating deep- and bays. Pyrite in the lake sediments is higher water silt deposits from nearshore bands of than in the glacial till on adjacent shores. The sand and silty sand and deepwater silt from high pyrite content is associated with shells offshore silty sand along the western side of and shell fragments. Clay minerals are predom- the Southern basin. Hard bottom coincides inantly illite, followed by mixed-layered clays, with areas previously described as till and lag and then chlorite. Clay-mineral composition gravels in the southwestern nearshore area. shows no variations with changes in depth of 332 Appendix 4 water, distance from shore, or depth of burial. No variation occurs between clay-mineral composition of lake sediments and glacial tills from the adjacent shores. Nearshore, deep areas contain muddy sand deposited from currents or wind transport. A deep basin in the center of Manitou Passage around Sleeping Bear Point contains clay, R; while most of the adjacent shallow, shelf areas A (less than 20 in or 70 ft.) are floored with clean c.Y sand or with a gravel-cobble-boulder pave- ment overlying clay till (French 273) . An on- G-B.y EBSand, fine-medium shore moraine (Sleeping Bear Hill) is actively 053 Sand,argillaceous eroding, and the adjacent offshore shoal, floored by medium-coarse sand and protective MC[ay.brown:sand gravel-cobble pavements, is the remnant of Clay,b,..n the western part of this moraine. Sand has M Mud,gray-green been moved inland by wind to produce dunes on the hill. G-el 9.2.3 Vertical Distribution of Bottom 13' Sediments Core studies in Lake Michigan combined with high resolution sub-bottom seismic pro- filing studies, provide a fair representation of lake sub-bottom sediments. LOMETE" The area of the lake between Green Bay and f - STATUTE M-S a line from Kenosha, Wisconsin to South Ha- ----------- ---- ven, Michigan, consists of a deepwater se- J quence, including gray lacustrine clay at the top grading downward through red clay, FIGURE 4-273 Distribution of Sediment Types in Northern Lake Michigan blue-gray clay, and a lower red clay which From Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA), unpublished rests on top of red, glacial till (Hough; 3811 also see SnodgrasS;749 -and Shea730). The sequence is typical of depths greater than 107 in (350 ft.) Little Traverse Bay contain an uninterrupted below the present lake level. At shallower sequence of dark gray clays in the bay and in depths, the cores contain thin layers of sand, deepwater troughs (Moore550). In depths less frequently with shells of a shallow-water than 72 m (235 ft.) coarse sediment is inter- species interspersed in this standard se- mixed at various levels with the clay. This se- quence. The truncation of clay zones and sub- quence varies greatly reflecting changing en- sequent deposition of sand occurred during a vironments of shallow-water deposits during low lake stage named Lake Chippewa by progressive deepening of lake water from the Hough.3111 Lake Chippewa low-water stage. In deep parts of the northern lake basin gla- High resolution, sub-bottom seismic profil- cial till is covered with a complete sequence of ing revealed several lithologic variations at lake clay deposits, the lower part of which is depth in Green Bay and southern Lake Michi- red clay with small amounts of organic matter gan (Meyer et al.534) . The lithologic units in- (Hough, in Ayers and Chandler30). The red clude, from top to bottom, modern sediments, clay grades upward to gray, becoming cori- varved sediments, and a rough reflective zone. tinuously darker up to the sediment-water A similar sequence occurs in the eastern and interface. Black color bands in the gray clay central portion of southern Lake Michigan. contain iron sulfide and small amounts of or- .Lacustrine sediments, cored at 65 km (4 mi) ganic matter. The sequence records low or- intervals along a line extending from 19 km to ganic productivity extending from the last 52 km (12 mi to 32 mi) due east from Waukegan, glacial event until nearly modern times. Illinois, by the Illinois Geological Survey, in- Shallow and deepwater cores in and near cludes the following sequence (from top to bot- Sedimentology 333 f I 85olo 85o0of 50 50 '00 50 45'40'- BEAVER LEGEND IS. G R AVE L- SAND SI LT- CLAY (110%GRAVEL a,40%SAND) @0 SAND 0 75% SAND) CLAYEY B SILTY SAND (45%-75%SAND) SANDY "CLAY' (SANDY CLAY @ SANDY SILT INCLUDING 10 Yo-45% SAND) CLAY. SILTY CLAY OR CLAYEY SILT) STATUTE MILES 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0 DEPTH CONTOUR INTERVAL 50 FEET 45o3U 00 0 100 PETOSKEY 45o2U FIGURE4-274 Areal Distribution of Sediments in Northeastern Lake Michigan, Based on Gravel, Sand, Silt, and Clay Content - After Moore, 1960 tom): a few centimeters of sandy silt clay; 0.5 m (Lake Michigan Formation) is divided into six to I m (1.5 ft to 3 ft) of dark gray, silty clay with members and one bed on the basis of color, thin, black clay layers; 0.5 m (1.5 ft) of water content, cohesiveness, grain size, and brownish-gray, silty clay with thin, dark mineralogy. Using high resolution sub-bottom layers; 0.75 m (2.5 ft) of orange-brown clay; profiling techniques, Lineback et al.499 have homogeneous, pink clay 1 m (3 ft) thick; glacial recognized three unconformities and various outwash, and till. In all cores, grain size de- overlapping relations of the units of the Lake creases with depth in the sediments. Illite, Michigan Formation. chlorite, and expandable clays decrease downward and kaolinite decreases upward. Strata in southern Lake Michigan cores 9.2.4 Geochemistry of Sediments have been assigned formation names (Line- back et al.498) . The uppermost formation The relationship of organic carbon to depth 334 Appendix 4 and sediment types has been discussed in Sec- than in lake water. Interstitial potassium con- tion 7. Organic carbon increases with depth, tent is 200 percent higher than lake water. but not at a uniform rate (Figure 4-187). Also, Chloride is 500 percent higher in the southern organic carbon is frequently associated with basin and 200 percent to 300 percent higher specific sediment types (Powers and elsewhere. Silica in pore water may range Robertson 626) . The smallest quantities of or- 1,000 percent to 1,700 percent greater than in ganic carbon occur in sand (0.04 percent to 0.22 lake water. Iron increases from 0.3 mg/l in the percent), followed by silty sand (0.16 percent to southern basin to 2.5 mg/l in Green Bay, and 0.71 percent), then in upper silt layers of the manganese increases from 0.4 mg/1 to 2.0 mg/l. layered sediment (0.66 percent to 1.69 percent), In general, interstitial water is in equilib- and finally, in silt from the deepest parts of the rium with calcite and dolomite in Lake Michi- lake (ranging above 1.70 percent). Organic gan (Section 7). Most of the authigenic man- carbon content within the same depth range ganese compounds and some of the iron com- increased with decreasing grain size. Powers pounds originate within the sediments, where and Robertson could see no relationship be- these metals are brought into solution under tween the organic carbon found in sediments low Eh-pH conditions, and migrate to the and the amount of particulate and dissolved sediment surface where they are precipitated organic matter found in the water, so they con- (Figure 4-201). At least 60 percent of the cluded that no relationship between quantity sedimentary iron and most excess magnesium of organic matter in the sediments and pro- not combined in dolomite is bound up in clay ductivity of the water can be made. minerals. The remaining iron occurs as au- Surficial sediments of Lake Michigan ap- thigenic hydrated oxide (ferric hydroxide, see pear to be significantly coarser and contain Section 7) with which all of the sedimentary more sand-sized material than sediments at manganese is associated. depth below the interface (Callender120). The Green Bay is considered to be polluted same is true of Green Bay, where the surficial where the Fox River discharges fine-grained sediment is mainly sand and silt. In addition, organic -enric he d sediment, and less polluted surficial sediments contain approximately 35 in the north part which is characterized by percent more quartz than deeper sediments, medium sand. Most of the metallic elements while feldspars and iron remain essentially added to Green Bay water are derived from equal. Calcite and dolomite increase signifi- rivers, particularly those entering northern cantly with depth but not uniformly. The Green Bay which contribute dissolved iron dolomite-calcite ratio of surface samples aver- and manganese (Callender and Rossman'21). ages 6:1, whereas the ratio of deeper samples Ferromanganese nodules have been formed decreases to 2:1. Manganese content increases on the floor, but are presently dissolving in the two to five times in surface samples with the southern basin as a result of oxygen depletion most pronounced increase in Green Bay. In of the sediment-water interface (see Section general, the most organic material occurs in 7). Sediments in Green Bay show an inverse southern Green Bay surficial sediments, depth relationship between sedimentary and which receive the discharge from the Fox interstitial manganese with the sedimentary River. Organic-carbon fixation by the phyto- manganese increasing to a maximum near the plankton is also higher in Green Bay than in sediment-water interface. Sedimentary iron Lake Michigan. remains constant with interstitial iron A regional comparison of the geochemistry slightly decreasing towards the sediment- of sediments in Lake Michigan indicates that water interface. Manganese nodules have also the calcium, magnesium, and carbonate con- been found at scattered localities in Lake tent of Green Bay sediments is lower than Michigan (Rossman and Callender 6112). POSSi- that of other Lake Michigan sediments; iron bly as much as one-half of the manganese stays relatively the same; manganese in- found in the lake water has been derived by creases two-fold and organic carbon is signifi- leaching of manganese and iron from the iron cantly higher in Green Bay than in other Lake deposits of the Canadian Shield. Michigan sediments. The trace elements As, Br, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Interstitial pore water calcium and mag- and Zn have been detected within the upper nesium concentrations are at least 30 percent portions of much of the sediment in southern higher than in lake water. In the southern Lake Michigan in concentrations 5 to 10 times basin interstitial sodium is 400 percent greater than in the underlying sediment greater than in lake water and, in other parts (Shimp and Leland 734). Concentration of these of the lake, is as much as 60 percent greater trace elements in Recent sediments are posi- Sedimentology 335 84 1 00' 82.,oo. Sc 0 u SO 2 Ou Ss-bi -S c ----------- 6 SIC Ou Sn Dbb Ddr Orc- Dt EXPLANATION Al C 3 PENNSYLVANIAN Ss-bi Sn PP1, r::",., s 1. MISSISSIPPIAN Mbb 8-E-8-o- DE Vo NIAN MD. M-Da Drc-d' DIT--. Z - D-dR-- C-.O-11 D:. D:.T.-T R.- Obb D8 8-C Mnm SILURIAN 9 S.-b. S.L... - B.I. I.L- Dt Ddr N., Mc 15 MM ORDOVICIAN Mbb o' o___.. 14 _T. 2 17 Ps ps Pgr 13 Mm Mnm 16 Dre-d 0 10 o SCALE OF MILEh SO Mc 0 M-Da DI 0 G.Ioo* FIGURE 4-275 Bedrock Geology of Lake Huron After Cvancara and Melik, 1961 tively correlated with the quantity of organic directly with the organic carbon content; so it carbon present. These concentrations may re- may be a result of man's activities in the flect the extent of pollution in southern Lake drainage basin. Michigan. See Section 7 for a discussion of sig- Kennedy et al .450 found mercury accumula- nificance of trace elements. tions from 0.1 mg/l to 0.4 mg/l in the uppermost Concentration of phosphorus correlates di- fine-grained sediment in southern Lake rectly with arsenic, iron, and organic carbon in Michigan and noted that mercury concentra- the sediments (Schleicher and Kuhn 719). High tions vary directly with organic carbon and arsenic content (5 mg/1 to 30 mg/1) was iden- total sulfur. Background mercury levels found tified at the sediment-water interface west of at depth in cores were 0.032 ppm to 0.060 ppm. Benton Harbor, Michigan, east of Waukegan, Little or no mercury was found in the sandy Illinois, and southwest of Grand Haven, areas of the southern and southwestern Michigan (Ruch et al.6116). The arsenic varies shores. 336 Appendix 4 9.3 Sedimentology of Lake Huron overall circulation pattern within the lake (see Section 6). Currents move southward 9.3.1 Lake Basin Morphology along the western edge of Lake Huron, circu- late through Saginaw Bay, and exit into Lake The basin morphology of Lake Huron is well Huron along the southeastern shore. known (Hough; 380 and Cvancara and Melik 176). In the Straits of Mackinac and northwest- The lake basin axis follows the strike of the ern Lake Huron (Figure 4-278) sand and silty rock units which are dipping southward and sand cover much of the bottom from shorelines westward toward the center of the Michigan out to depths of 31 in (100 ft) (Lauff et al.486). As Structural Basin (Figure 4-275). The Niagara expected, silts are concentrated in the deeper Escarpment separates Georgian Bay from the parts of the Straits. However, lesser amounts main lake (Figure 4-7). Two major linear of silt occur in upper Lake Michigan and the ridges capped by the Rogers City and Dundee Straits than in open Lake Huron. This overall Formations and the Upper Devonian Traverse pattern, along with deficiencies of silt and bet- Group (Figure 4-275) separate the lake bottom ter sorting of sediments in channels, suggests into two structural provinces. A flat, south- that bottom currents are sufficient to main- western structural province is underlain by tain a net transport of fine-grained material Mississippian and Upper Devonian shale and from west to east into Lake Huron. The Straits sandstone. In the northeastern province, be- and the South Channel are essentially floored tween the Niagara Escarpment and the sub- with hard, red and gray glacial clay. parallel linear ridges, the bathymetry is ir- In the lower part of Lake Huron (Duane 225), regular because of the presence of Silurian beaches on the American shore are domi- reefs and possibly because of collapse struc- nantly sand with some granules, pebbles, and tures resulting from the solution of Upper cobbles. Offshore, a zone of boulders and cob- Silurian Salina Salt. bles with little sand separates the beach from a well-defined, submerged, sand shoal. Cana- dian beaches are more coarse and sand occurs 9.3.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments offshore only as a thin veneer overlying glacial clay. Similar composition and grain size of Distribution of sediment at the bottom of sediments in the suspended load and bed load Lake Huron has not been well defined except of the St. Clair River indicate that probable for detailed work in Saginaw Bay and the sources of these sediments are the nearshore Straits of Mackinac. In general, the periphery areas of lower Lake Huron. of the lake from the shoreline out to 20 km (12.4 In Georgian Bay northeast of Tovermory mi) is bordered by coarse- to fine-grained and (Sly745) , bedrock outcrops and boulder debris sand deposits (Figure 4-276). Presence of are common around islands and submerged coarse gravel and boulders of igneou!,, reefs in depths from 5 in to 30 in (16 ft to 100 ft); sedimentary, and metarnorphic rocks could mud covers the deeper bottom. Surficial depos- represent lag deposits from tills. Some sand its thicken eastward toward the center of reflects the availability of chert and dolomite Georgian Bay. from bedrock bottoms. Thin veneers of dark gray to brown silty clay grade to dark, gray- brown clays in the central parts of the basin. 9.3.3 Vertical Distribution of Bottom Dark gray and reddish limonitic clay and very Sediments dark gray to black clay along with shale occur locally. Nothing is known of detailed size or Sediments from deep water in northwestern compositional variations or geochemieal rela- Lake Huron (80 in to 107 in or 257 ft to 345 ft) tionships of these sediments so little can be contain an average of 20 cm (18 in) of yellow- suggested about sediments sources or disper- buff clay overlying 110 cm (43 in) of gray clay, sal. which in turn overlies masses (up to 150 cm or Saginaw Bay is divided into two parts by a 58 in thick) of red clay containing thin zones of shallow, northwest-southeast extending shoal sand and silt (Figure 4-279). Shallow-water (Wood914) (see Section 8 for discussion of the cores (less than 71 in or 230 ft) contain a sharp ecology of the shoal). Sediments range in size boundary between the gray clay and underly- from large pebbles to clay, but medium- to ing red clay, which is marked by sand, pebbles, fine-grained sand is common in all parts of and shallow-water gastropod and pelecypod the bay (Figure 4-277). Apparently, the main shells. This zone is interpreted as representa- sedimentary features of the bay relate to the tive of a low-water stage. Sedimentology SS7 84- 83' 82' 46' Deto r 46- eldrurn Bay Cheboygan u Calcit Sand, fine, highly argillaceous. Sand, fine to medium, gray to tan. 45* o = chert and dolomite pebbles. u- Sand, fine to -arse, gray to tan, slightly argill ceous. a @ igneous and sandstone cobbles and boulder.. Clay, tan, with dolomite and igneous gravel. E-1 Clay. silty, gray to bro- 0 Clay, dark gray to bro- limonitic. 0 Clay, silty, dark gray, @ith black Kincardine shale and dolomitic boulders. 44* f,.W .W Port 44* Austin Har or Beach .a. Goderich :C! a. Bay ity Saginaw KILOMETERS 20 0 20 40 60 80 '00 STATUTE MILES 43' Port Huron Sarnia - 43' 20 0 20 40 60 84- 830 82* FIGURE 4-276 Field Description of Lake Huron Bottom Sediments Lake Survey Center (NOS-NOAA), unpublished 338 Appendix 4 63.15W 1 83. 1W I TABLE 4-84 Morphometry of Lake Erie Basins Lake Erie Basin .062.. Characteristic Western Central Eastern .062-.250.. . ...... Maximum length (miles) 50.0 132.5 85.0 .250 -.500 Maximum breadth (miles) 40.0 57.2 47.5 Em .500.. & 1."., maximum depth (feet) 62.0 84.0 210.0 Mean depth (feet) 24.2 60.7 79.9 Maximum depth/mean depth 2.8 1.4 2.7 a Area (square miles) 1,265.0 6,246.0 2,408.0 Volume (cubic miles) 5.8 71.8 36.4 Shoreline (miles) 268.3 373.3 263.3 Percent of total area 12.8 62.9 24.3 Percent of total volume 5.1 63.0 31.9 Percent of total shoreline 31.7 37.1 31.2 Longitudinal axis bearing N67*W N67*E N67'E SOURCE: Verber (1960) modified. Point, Ontario. The central basin has an aver- age depth of 19 m (61 ft) and a maximum depth of 26 m (84 ft). Except for the rising slopes of a low morainal bar extending south-southeast r--& .1 F- from Point Pelee, Ontario, the bottom of the central basin is extremely flat. I The eastern basin is relatively deep and bowl-shaped. A considerable area lies below 37 FIGURE 4-277 Areal Distribution of Major m (120 ft), and the deepest sounding of 64 m Median-Diameter Size Grades in Saginaw Bay (210 ft) is about 8 miles east-southeast of Long After Wood, 1958 Point, Ontario. 9.4 Sedimentology of Lake Erie 9.4.2 Basin Geology 9.4.1 Lake Basin Morphology Carman 123 attributes the varying depths of the Lake Erie basins to differential erosion by Lake Erie is a relatively narrow and shallow preglacial streams, glaciers, and postglacial, lake with its long axis oriented east-northeast lacustrine processes. The strata of the central (Figure 4-280). The lake is naturally divided and eastern portions of Lake Erie dip slightly into three basins: western, central, and east- to the southeast and have a general east-west ern (Table 4-84). strike direction roughly paralleling the lake. The western basin, lying west of a line from Lake Ontario is separated from Lake Erie by the tip of Point Pelee, Ontario, to Cedar Point, the resistant Silurian limestones and dolo- Ohio, is the smallest and shallowest basin with mites of the Niagara Escarpment. The central most of the bottom at depths between 8 m and and eastern basins of Lake Erie are underlain 11 m (25 ft and 35 ft) (Figure 4-280). In contrast by nonresistant shale, shaly limestone, and with the other basins, a number of bedrock shaly sandstone of Upper Devonian Age (Fig- islands and shoals are situated in the western ure 4-281). basin-and form a partial divide between it and The southward advance of Pleistocene gla- the central basin. The bottom is flat except for cial ice was obstructed by the Mississippian the steep-sided islands and shoals in the east- Escarpment and the ice was directed west- ern part. The deepest soundings are 19 m (62 ward along the outcrop of the softer Upper ft) in a small depression north of Starve Island Devonian shales. These shales were deeply Reef and 16 m (54 ft) in another depression eroded to form the narrow eastern basin. south of Gull Island Shoal. 'Farther west, where the dip of the beds is less The central basin is separated from the and the width of the soft shale belt is greater, western basin by the island chain and Point glacial erosion resulted in the broader but Pelee, and from the eastern basin by a rela- shallower central basin. tively shallow sand and gravel bar between The Devonian shales trend inland between Erie, Pennsylvania, and the base of Long Cleveland and Sandusky and the shallow Sedimentology 339 46W ROCK..':P 4"d zz CLAY. CLAY 111@1 011 LOAM' CLAYIEY SET MILES T. SILT PEEELES I BOTTOM TYPES o' % W40r 04W FIGURE 4-278 Bottom Types of the Straits of Mackinac and Upper Lake Huron From Lauff et al., 1961 western basin is underlain by Silurian and and metamorphic rocks. The distribution of Devonian limestone and dolomite on the bottom sediments is related to the bottom to- northward plunging end of the Findlay Arch pography (Figure 4-282). The broad, flat areas (Figure 4-3). Glacial erosion had relatively of the western and central basin, and the deep slight effects on these resistant rocks. The is- areas of the eastern basin have mud bottoms. lands in western Lake Erie are arranged in Midlake bars and nearshore slopes comprise two north-south belts that correspond with mostly sand and gravel or glacial till. Rock is the outcrop patterns of the two most resistant exposed in the shoals of western Lake Erie and rock formations. The Kelleys Island-Pelee Is- along the south shore of the central basin and land belt is underlain by the Columbus lime- both shores of the eastern basin. In general, stone and the Bass Islands are underlain by sand is limited along the shoreline, but exten- the Put-in-Bay dolomite (Figure 4-281). sive dune and beach deposits are found at sev- eral places. Notable dunes have been formed at the base and southwest side of Long Point, Point Albino, and Sturgeon Point, all in east- 9.4.3 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments ern Lake Erie. These dunes were formed pre- sumably under the influence of the prevailing The bottom sediments of Lake Erie consist southwest winds. Littoral currents have con- of silt and clay muds, sand and gravel, peat, centrated sand in spits and baymouth bars at compact glacio-lacustrine clays, glacial till, such places as Point Pelee, Pointe Aux Pins shoals of limestone and dolomite bedrock and and Long Point, Ontario; North Cape, Michi- rubble, shale bedrock shelves, and erratic cob- gan; East Harbor and Cedar Point, Ohio; and bles and boulders composed chiefly of igneous Presque Isle, Pennsylvania. 340 Appendix 4 LOGS OF CORE SAMPLES -NORTHWESTERN LAKE HURON - - 3 n 4S 41 29 30 42 5 53 43 49 25 9 24 10 46 44 26 45 12 11 13 14 M . 1. 11 32 38 37 X 19 33 34 35 21 20 -11 01pth1 107 198 I= @3 20 N3 210 213 228 - 231 233 243 2@ 257 n2 266 266 275 2W NS 318 3M @15 3@ - M7 370 M5 3" M4 @03 4@ 4M FT 0 0 F- F- 0 o CD m z no LEGEND LLJ YELLOWISH-BUFF CLAY SILT iL 0 2@ RAY CLAY SAND MM :LUISH-GRAY CLAY SHELLS _j C3 ED CLAY RED TILL FIGURE 4-279 Logs of Core Samples from Northwestern Lake Huron From Hough, 1962 Pegrum6OO observed that most of the bottom The bottom surface material of the Ohio por- of eastern Lake Erie is mud and clay bounded tion of central Lake Erie consists of silt and by relatively steep slopes of sand and gravel or clay (77 percent), sand and gravel (22 percent), rock. The massive spits at Presque Isle and and shale bedrock (1 percent). The unconsoli- Long Point are the largest accumulations of dated material apparently has been derived beach sand in Lake Erie. Rock is exposed in a mainly from glacial deposits, with bedrock narrow strip along most of the eastern basin's supplying a lesser amount of material. Sand shoreline, shale along the south shore, and and. gravel lag deposits and till occur close to limestone along the north shore. the south shore, particularly from Cleveland N RIE PENN. LAKE ERIE BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY NICK TO 0 NOTE: CONTOUR INTERVAL 20 FEET. LEVELAND CONTOURS 116 FEET ABOVE INTERNATIONAL GREAT LAKE& SCALE IN MILE$ DATUM FOR LAKE ERIE (568.6) WNW' -1955. 41 5 o IS so WESTERN BASIN CENTRAL BASIN EASTERN BASIN M, a LAKE ERIE .11113- LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION FIGURE 4-280 Bottom Topography of Lake Erie Sedimentology 341 Appalach,a. plale&@ Ka,pr& Frvt Lake Eric 0 *,timl E"emflon 40 A- Mil" South Bass IslaytJ E @,_l lels Islava matM1911- La. kc Er&e 0 N,_ Eft-Wo -E 1 2 ve't".1 r..qqe,.t- ZOT_' FIGURE 4-281 Geologic Cross Sections Through the Lake Erie Region After Carmen, 1946 L'"T LAKE (3 percent) account for the remaining bottom HURON OWTANO material. Peat and plant detritus occur in iso- ONTARIO 6 6L40.1 'ILL MICHIGAN lated areas along the low marshy shores. Sand concentrations in Maumee Bay and near the entrance to Sandusky Bay are sites of com mercial sand-dredging. NEW YORK IL ------------ 7- 9.4.4 Vertical Distribution of Bottom PENNSYLVANIA Sediments 01410 Ross,681 Hartley'320 and Herdendor f346,347 FIGURE 4-282 Sediment Distribution in Lake made borings into subsurface bottom deposits Erie in the Lake Erie islands area by the "jetting method." These borings show a predominance eastward. Extensive glacial clay deposits are of lake-deposited material with only thin gla- also exposed along the north shore of the cen- cial till overlying bedrock. Preglacial buried tral basin. Large quantities of sand and gravel valleys are indicated by bedrock topography, occur in the lake north of Vermilion, nearshore which in some places has 200 feet of relief. from Cleveland to Fairport, and midlake off Some borings indicate the possibility of inter- Ashtabula and Conneaut. Other sand and glacial or postglacial buried valleys and lower gravel deposits, which have been designated lake states. Beach deposits and peat have been commercial sand dredging areas on both sides found 11 m to 24 m (35 ft to 80 ft) below the of the international boundary, are the low present lake level, buried under sediments, morainal ridge between Vermilion and Point which have been subsequently buried in Pelee, a deposit five miles north of Fairport, deeper water. A radiocarbon date of 6550� 134 and the bar between Erie and Long Point years B.P. (Before Present) was obtained for a (Hartley321). sample of oak wood taken north of Port Clinton The bottom deposits of the Ohio portion of 7 m (23 ft) below the lake bottom. This date western Lake Erie consist of nearly two-thirds allows calculation of a sedimentation rate of (58 percent) mud, semifluid silt, and clay-sized 0.1 m/century (0.35 ft/eentury). material (Verber; 1147 Hartley 319,320). Sand (17 The deepest boring by the Ohio Department percent), mixtures of mud and sand (12 per- of Natural Resources was completed in 1961 cent), mixtures of sand, gravel, and coarser about 48 km (30 mi) north of Cleveland (Figure material (7 percent), glacio-lacustrine clay (3 4-283). At a water depth of 26 m (84 ft), the percent), and limestone and dolomite bedrock bottom surface sediments consist of gray- 342 Appendix 4 LEOEND 11E I",- 1- MMT @TM ---------------------------------------------- ----------------- --------------- - - ------------------------------- - ------ - ------ ------------------ ----------------- -- - ----------------------- -- ------------ FIGURE 4-283 Cross Sections of Lake Erie Bottom Sediments brown mud. Successively lower samplings at been the site of ephemeral ponds. Apparently, 1.5 m (5 ft) intervals yielded soft gray-brown uplift of the Niagara outlet did not result in clay that became. stiffer downward. At 34 m the flood of western Lake Erie until sometime (111 ft) of bottom penetration, rock or hard till after this date. that could not be penetrated was reached. The A seismic reflection survey in the central depth was 59 m (195 ft) below the water sur- basin of Lake Erie in 1960 (Wall 1167) made pos- face. Volatile material ranged from 5 percent sible the mapping of four distinct sub-bottom to 35 percent for the clay sediments. units: shallow-water deposits, compact Buried marsh deposits in the western basin glacio-lacustrine clay, glacial till of Lake Bor- and relict beach deposits, wave-cut terraces, der Age, and Paleozoic bedrock. Presence of a and intrabasin discharge channels in the cen- channel somewhat south of the present lake tral basin have been interpreted as evidence of axis seems to have been caused by fluvial ero- former low water levels (Lewis et al .496). sion. A maximum unconsolidated sediment Radiocarbon dates of 10,200 and 11,300 years thickness of 83 m (275 ft) was found in central B.P. on organic deposits from the western Lake Erie. In western Lake Erie an eastward basin suggest that early Lake Erie came into flowing preglacial drainage system has been existence about 12,400 years ago, with a water inferred from the bedrock topography (Hobson level 30.5 m (100 ft) lower than at present. et al.364). The maximum bedrock relief is 67 m Lewis postulated that from this stage the lake (220 ft) and the thickness of the unconsoli- level rose rapidly as the Niagara outlet area dated sediments ranges from 0 m to 40 m (130 was isostatically uplifted following deglacia- ft) (Figure 4-284). tion, and that the lake reached its present level Recent sedimentation in Lake Erie can be 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. A more recent attributed to two primary sources: suspended )@ Zot radiocarbon date by the Ohio Division of solids from inflowing streams and material Geological Survey (Herdendor f346) of 4335 � contributed by shore erosion. Over 6,000,000 135 years B.P. for plant detritus covered by tons of clay, silt, and sand are transported an- 3.4 m (11 ft) of sediment indicates that the nually to Lake Erie from its tributaries (Table present area of western Lake Erie may have 4-85). Sedimentology 343 SIM. at-W 00 0 N T A R 1 0 so roo- lo 10 so 42-00' 0 0 10 SO .0 0 0 0 ISO to $0 -b 'N 100 --Pk PO 5- 0 0 0 0 0 t6 CONTOURS IN FEET 0 4 6 MILES as-is' .3-00, FIGURE 4-284 Sediment Thickness in Western Lake Erie After Hobson, Herdendorf, and Lewis, 1969 Shore erosion of the glacial till and lacus- 9.4.5 Chemistry of Sediments trine clay is a locally acute problem. Maximum shore erosion based on volume of material re- Kramer4611 analyzed random bottom sedi- moved occurs along the north shore of the cen- ment samples from Lake Erie by X-ray meth- tral basin between Port Stanley and the base ods. Quartz was present in all samples but of Long Point, although the low-lying south generally only in minor amounts in samples shore of Maumee Bay has experienced the finer-grained than sand. The predominant clay maximum shore recession, which has been as mineral is montmorillonite, with kaolinite sec- high as 6 m (20 ft) per year. Estimates of ero- ond in importance. All of the samples high in sion rates for the Ohio shoreline indicate that clay materials were also high in carbonaceous about 7,600 M3 (10,000 yd3) of shore material content and were positive to tests for sulfide per mile of shore are eroded each year. If this ions. average is extended for the entire Lake Erie Organic carbon in Lake Erie sediments (see shoreline, 6,500,000 m3 (8,500,000 yd3) of shore Section 7) ranges from 0.23 percent to 3.60 per- materials are contributed to the lake each cent (Kemp and Lewis 449); low values are at- year, which would equate to an average thick- tributed to dilution of sediments with coarser, ness of 0.25 mm (0.01 in) if spread uniformly nonclay particles. Total chlorophyll pigments over the bottom. (a and b) range from 0 mg/kg to 30 mg/kg dry 344 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-85 Runoff Data for Tributary Streams to Lake Erie Drainage Average Suspended Dissolved Area Discharge Solids 11 Solidsi Streams (sq.mi.) (cu.ft./sec) (tons/year) (tons/year) MICHIGAN Detroit River --- 176,000 1,570,000 33,580,000 Huron River 900 570 1,800 73,000 Raisin River 1,000 670 4,700 91,200 Others 1,200 720 4,000 25,000 OHIO Ottawa River 200 120 1,000 5,000 Maumee River 6,600 4,740 2,270,000 1,370,000 Toussaint River 100 80 700 4,000 Portage River 600 390 120,000 91,200 Sandusky River 1,400 1,060 270,000 446,400 Huron River 400 310 12,000 50,000 Vermilion River 300 220 9,000 40,000 Black River 500 390 15,300 66,400 Rocky River 300 280 29,500 131,400 Cuyahoga River 800 800 260,000 419,800 Chagrin River 300 320 35,000 90,000 Grand River 700 770 212,000 1,340,000 Ashtabula River 100 170 5,500 32,000 Conneaut Creek 200 240 4,000 20,000 Others 1,100 880 200,000 300,000 PENNSYLVANIA Otter Creek 200 200 4,000 20,000 Others 200 220 4,500 25,000 NEW YORK Cattaraugus Creek 500 800 137,600 226,700 Buffalo River 400 540 74,500 357,300 Others 300 490 60,000 150,000 ONTARIO Grand River 3,000 2,490 375,000 500,000 Others 3,200 2,530 350,000 450,000 LAKE ERIE TRIBUTARIES TOTALS 24,500 196,000 6,030,100 39,904,400 Municipal and Industrial2 --- --- 87,200 179,000 LAKE ERIE GRAND TOTALS 24,500 196,000 6,117,300 40,083,400 lEstimated 20utflow direct to Lake Erie SOURCES: U.S. Geological Survey; Ontario Water Resources Commission; Ohio Department of Natural Resources, and Federal Water Pollution Control Administration Sedimentology 345 TABLE 4-86 Lake Erie Bottom Sediment Chemistry Western Central Eastern Entire Constituent Basin Basin Basin Lake Basin Total Iron (%Fe) 3.30 3.50 1.44 2.98 Total Phosphate (% POO 0.290 0.195 0.151 0.197 Sulfide (%S) 0.023 0.097 0.004 0.065 Total Nitrogen (%N) 0.042 0.193 0.092 0.149 Ammonia Nitrogen (%NH3-N) 0.019 0.009 0.007 0.013 Nitrate-Nitrite Nitrogen 0.0001 0.0002 0.0004 0.0002 (7.N02, -N03, -N) Organic Nitrogen (%Org. N) 0.023 0.184 0.085 0.139 Volatile Solids (ppm) 23.4 21.4 7.4 18.3 COD (ppm) 6.35 5.57 2.78 4.51 SOURCE: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1963 weight and pheophytin (a and b) concentration ranges from 0 mg/l to 192 mg/l dry weight of sediments. The Federal Water Pollution Control Ad- TRENTON ministration, now the Environmental Protec- tion Agency, began a program in 1963 to test the chemistry of recent Lake Erie sediments. TORONTO A summary of their findings for the first two os'Olo years of sampling is presented in Table 4-86. The mineralogical and chemical composition IAMILTO N-RA-ER -ESTER of Lake Erie sediments are covered in more detail in an International Joint Commission report on the sedimentology of Lake Erie (Lewis 495). FIGURE 4-285 Distribution of the Four Depo- sitional Basins in Lake Ontario From Thomas, 1969b 9.5 Sedimentology of Lake Ontario tween 1.9 m/km to 11.7 m/km (10 ft/mi to 62 ft/mi). Between Braddock Bay west of Roches- 9.5.1 Lake Basin Morphology ter, New York, and the Niagara River, the offshore gradient increases markedly along a Lake Ontario is elongated approximately line approximately 1.6 km to 2.4 kin (1 mi to 1.5 east-west, and the deep lake basins parallel mi) from shore. A similar change in gradient this axis. Both the southern and northern occurs off the Niagara River approximately shorelines trend essentially parallel to the 4.8 km (3 mi) from shore. Between Rochester, strike of the southward dipping strata that New York, and Mexico Bay at the southeast- underlie the lake. ThomaS795 described four ern corner of the lake, the bottom topography depositional basins, three of which are sepa- is much more irregular; gradients are gener- rated by moraines. The northeast (Kingston) ally higher than those encountered in the basin is isolated by a bedrock sill (Figure western part of the lake, and changes in slope 4-285). much less pronounced. The eastern end of the Sutton et al .773 found considerable variation lakes is marked by a smooth floor with a con- in bottom topography along the southern sistent gradient of 5.7 in/kin (30 ft/mi). shore between the Niagara River and Stony The southern shore and probably most of the Point, New York. Bottom gradients range be- western and northwestern shores show evi- 346 Appendix 4 dence of submergence. Extensive drowning is seen on the southern shore where bays are W. separated from the lake by extended bars and spits. Well defined sand and gravel bars exist at Burlington, Ontario, impounding Hamilton Harbor; at Braddock Heights west of Roches- ter; at Irondequoit Bay near Rochester, and at AND SAND Sodus and Little Sodus east of Rochester, New SAND S-S- York. The latter embayment appears to follow M S-C- lowland segments between drumlin masses. -RS The eastern shoreline includes bars and spits 20 METK DEPTM CON- with high dune masses enclosing bays and ponds to the east. 9.5.2 Areal Distribution of Bottom Sediments FIGURE 4-286 Nearshore Sediment Facies of 9.5.2.1 Nearshore Distribution Lake Ontario; Niagara to Whitby, Ontario From Rukavina, 1969 Nearshore sediments extend out to depths materials of bedrock (Rukavina 61111) . Glacial from 40 m to 80 m (132 ft to 264 ft) along the deposits or lag gravels derived from them. pre- north and south shore (Lewis and McNeeley; 497 dominate in the area west of Colborne, On- Thomas et al.796). These sediments include tario, while bedrock occurs east of Colborne. silty, fine sand; gravel; limestone bedrock; Restricted sand deposits occur near creek gray shale bedrock; and reworked till consist- mouths or as thin, discontinuous wedges adja- ing of unsorted sand and pebbles. There is a cent to the shorelines. Extensive sand depos- general reduction of particle size lakeward its only occur immediately to the west and east toward the basin centers. Various bottom of Presque Isle Peninsula. Sediment accumu- types in the Canadian nearshore areas lation patterns suggest a west to east sedi- (Rukavina 6119) include 23 percent bedrock, 39 ment drift. percent glacial drift, 9 percent gravel and Nearly continuous boulder beds and till ex- pebbly sand, 12 percent sand, 10 percent silt- tend out to depths of 15 m (50 ft) along much of sand, and 7 percent silt-clay (Figure 4-286). the southern and eastern shorelines of Lake Percentage distributions along the southern Ontario (Figure 4-287) (Sutton et al.773). Beach and eastern shores (Sutton et al .773) include 75 sands are generally restricted to areas adja- percent boulder beds and till, 10 percent bed- cent to stream mouths or to spits and bars that rock, and 15 percent sand and gravel (Figure extend eastward across the fronts of bays and 4-287). ponds. Large sand concentrations occur north The nearshore bottom in the reach between of the Niagara River, at Rochester, New York, the Niagara River -and Hamilton, Ontario, is and at the eastern end of the lake. Two smaller either represented by glacial drift grading deposits occur east of Nine Mile Point near lakeward to sand, silt, and clay or by extensive Oswego, New York, and off Hamlin Beach be- bedrock and drift with no sediment cover tween Niagara and Rochester, New York. (Rukavina6119). Extensive sand-silt and silt- Elsewhere, sand occurs in small isolated clay deposits extend off the Hamilton bar. A patches. Generally, the sand grades lakeward broad bedrock shelf with occasional patches of into silt and mud deposits below the 15 m (50 ft) sand extends north of Hamilton nearly to To- level. ronto, Ontario. A large sand deposit off To- Most of the gravel and boulder patches are ronto has resulted from severe erosion of high presumed to be lag deposits originating from bluffs of glacial sands and silts. The reach from erosion of submerged tills. Most of the sand Toronto to Whitby, Ontario, includes a thick presumably originated from currents and veneer of glacial sediment, gravel, and pebbly wave erosion of submerged nearshore tills, sands with some isolated bedrock shelves perhaps during lower stages of lake levels. offshore. Small sand patches occur near the Sutton et al.772 and Woodrow et al.915 relate shoreline where there are small reentrants in sediment variations of nearshore sands west the coastline. Nearshore areas from Whitby to of Rochester to possible drowned beaches de- Wellington, Ontario, are lined by either glacial veloped during a lower lake level. Sedimentology 347 this restricted investigation. Fluorescent dye tracers indicate that transport is related to wind direction and the morphology and orien- tation of the shoreline. LAKE ONTARIO D C 9.5.2.2 Open Lake Distribution -------------- Most of the deeper parts of the lake basin ------------ consist of muds (Figure 4-288). These muds are plastic clays or silty clays that are usually medium-gray in color with crude laminations composed of horizontal aligned specks or pods Niagara River of black greasy clay. A belt of glacial lacustrine clay occurs off the central part of the north ...... ---- - -- - shore in depths ranging from 80 in to 120 in Ho n (262 ft to 394 ft) in the west and 49 in to 100 in (161 ft to 328 ft) in the east. This clay is calcare- BOULDERS wW BEDROCK ous, devoid of organic detritus, exhibits Rochest ------- varve-like laminations and occasional lime- ----------- SAND and GRAVEL stone pebbles, and is generally firmer than most Recent muds. A second belt of such sedi- swego ment, covered by a thin veneer of Recent mud, MUD extends north-south between Toronto and the s outhern shore. A single layer of stiff, orange-colored clay, W, which ranges from 0.5 cm to 10 em (0.2 in to 4.0 Mexico in) thick, is widespread and frequently over- Bay lain by a thin layer of gray mud (Lewis and 10 Miles McNeeley497). In addition, an extensive zone of surficial black sand occurs in nearshore sed- FIGURE 4-287 Bottom Materials Along the iments and in the sands overlying the glacio- Southern and Eastern Shores of Lake Ontario lacustrine clays adjacent to the northern From Sutton, Lewis, and Woodrow, 1970 shore (Figure 4-288). The sand grains are coated by a black substance of undetermined Shore or beach sands are mostly medium- composition. to coarse-grained, in contrast to fine- to medium-grained lake sand, and there is a gen- eral gradation to finer sizes lakeward (Sutton 9.5.3 Chemistry of Sediments et al.773). Average sand size decreases from the Niagara River to the eastern shore, although Composition of the large boulders and cob- all sands are well-sorted. There is little signifi- bles can be directly related to either local bed- cant difference in sorting between nearshore rock or to glacial origin. Principal components and lake sand in the western part of the lake. of the sands consist of quartz, with lesser However, the eastern nearshore sand is signif- amounts of feldspar, heavy minerals, and icantly better sorted than lake sand. fragments of siltstone and carbonate shells. Coakley154 traced sediment transport The total heavy mineral content of the sands through changes in sand texture and mineral- varies considerably, averaging 5.6 percent in ogy as well as by fluorescent-coated sands at the nearshore sands, 6.9 percent in the west- selected sites between Toronto and Bur- ern lake sands, and 10.4'pereent in the eastern lington, Ontario. Directional variations of lake sands. Concentration of heavy minerals LAKE 0 @NT AR 10 C heavy mineral suites showed no trends, increases as the sediment size decreases primarily because of the homogeneous min- lakeward and in the general west-to-east di- eral composition of glacial source material on rection. Coch 155 indicated that the well-sorted the shoreline. Textural variations indicate beach sands between Webster and Oswego, that local sources contribute to the sand de- New York, have a higher percentage of heavy posits studied, but trends related to direction minerals than those that are poorly sorted. of transport are obscure and inconclusive in The mud in offshore areas is composed of 65 348 Appendix 4 86. 719. 718' 7@- 71a Undifferentiated nearshore sediments; cost" clastic sediments KINGSTO glacial deposits and bedrock Glaciolacustrine sediment; firm brownish grey and greyclay Glacial clay deposits; I$rgely(glaciolacustrine clay overlain by T !e9l thin scattered mud depos Is @ IM). 44' Povt-gl.cittl mud; soft grey clay and silty clay. 44@ B Black send COBOU a I 0 O.idi..d (red, brown. orange) zone. If Bad- PORT HOP T Glarcial till M. 0 S OR ... ....: ::: ........... ........ arnpl ing Station OR . .............. A *IR OR . . ............. OR13 TB ............... o@@ ::::::- OT OB . .......... Ts TORONTO 611 ............ OT 0 TO SWEGO 0 0 Jjju@ @O . H MILTO go ROCHESTER NIAGARA FALLS 43' 43*- @BLIIIAL. L A K E ERIE 79- 7p' 77- FIGURE 4-288 Distribution of Lake Ontario Bottom Sediments From In ternational Joint Commission, 1969a percent clay materials (Kemp and Lewis 449) plagioclase (laboradorite) followed by sodic composed predominantly of illite with sub- feldspar (albite) leading to offshore enrich- sidiary kaolinite and chlorite (Thomas et ment of potassic feldspar (microcline and or- al.796). thoclase). A constant ratio of quartz to Lewis and McNeeley497 noted (Figure 4-289) feldspar cations (K, Na, Ca) in Lake Ontario that high amounts of organic matter relate sediments suggests that the regional feldspar directly to occurrence of mud in the centers of distribution is not a result of mechanical abra- the basins, and a high concentration of organic sion or distance of transport but results from matter also occurs off the mouth of the Niag- chemical weathering related to the length of ara River. The surficial muds are zones of time of transport. rapid decomposition of the organic fraction Cronan 170 found that Fe and Mn contents of (Kemp and LewiS449). However, chlorophyll is Lake Ontario nodules were similar to those of mostly decomposed in the water column. Con- deep-sea nodules; however, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Co centration of both the organic material and contents were lower, and Pb content was remaining chlorophyll products in the sedi- higher. The regional distribution of Mn, Ni, Co, ment decreases rapidly below the interface. and Zn varies inversely with Fe and may be Organic carbon content increases with in- related to a change in Eh. Comparative crease in clay content and also with decreas- analyses of interstitial and bottom water indi- ing grain size. Apparently, carbon is predomi- cate that concentrations of Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Pb, nantly absorbed by the clay particles; the and Zn are higher in the interstitial water amount of absorption is related to the clay suggesting that concretions may result from surface area. upward diffusion of these elements from Variations in feldspar types occur from buried sediments. Cr and Co are present in low nearshore to offshore areas (ThomaS795). concentrations in Lake Ontario and Cd and V There appears to be a progressive loss of calcic were not detectable (Chau 1311); Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Sedimentology 349 79. b- A. KINGSTO Percent Organic-Matter 6 44' COBOUR 0 0 PORT HOP % TORONTO 2 6 OSWEGO 6 < - - - --- - - - - H MILTO ROCHESTER NIAGARA FALLS -43' 43' BUFFALO LAKE ERIE L_ 7,!' 7a 7.7' FIGURE 4-289 Distribution of Organic Matter in Lake Ontario Surficial Sediments From International Joint Commission, 1969b Mo, Ni, Sr, and Zn vary both spatially and High concentrations of trace elements also seasonally. Generally, higher concentrations correlate directly with high values of of the latter group have been found in the chlorophyll a in the western basin tending to eastern and western parts of the lake and relate the abundance and distribution to cul- lower concentrations in the central basin. tural impacts. Section 10 UPLAND LAKES David C. Norton 10.1 Introduction devoid of photosynthetic plant life. Classifica- tion of nearshore slopes is based on their Upland lakes are generally defined as any suitability for wading and swimming. A gentle body of standing water with a surface area slope is most acceptable for public beaches; a greater than one acre. In this appendix, an 1.5-2 m (5-6 ft) depth at 67 m (200 ft) offshore is upland lake is defined as any body of standing most desirable. Moderate slopes are suitable water considered important to the State in for restricted swimming and wading near- which it is located. Thus, the Michigan De- shore, but steep slopes are too severe for public partment of Natural Resources does not in- beaches. ventory lakes under 2 hectares (5 acres) sur- The Great Lakes Basin contains a greater face area, as they are primarily concerned abundance of upland lakes than other areas of with the thousands of larger lakes in the State. comparable size. The large number of lakes is Illinois, on the other hand, has few lakes and a consequence of Pleistocene glaciation. The so inventories lakes as small as 0.1 ha (0.3 last ice sheet retreated from the Basin 8,000 to acres) surface area. When speaking of upland 10,000 years ago. As this is a relatively short lakes it is, therefore, convenient if common period of time geologically, these Wisconsin- terminology with a known size connotation is age deposits and the hummocky topography used. The following is a suggested classifica- have not yet been eroded away. Hence, there is tion relating to lake size, depth, and nearshore an exceptionally large number of depressions slope: capable of holding water. The youth of the top- (1) Size (surface area) ographic surface is evident in the degree of (a) small: 6 hectares (15 acres) or less development of the drainage pattern, which is (b) medium: 6-40 hectares (15-100 acres) still controlled to a large degree by such minor (c) large: 40 hectares (100 acres) or more relief features as recessional moraines and (2) Depth abandoned beach ridges. There is a total ab- (a) shallow: 5 meters (15 feet) or less sence of major tributaries. As drainage im- (b) intermediate: 5-15 meters (15-45 feet) proves within the Basin, the number of lakes (c) deep: 15 meters (45 feet) or more can be expected to decrease as a result of the (3) Slope lowering of lake outlets and the lowering of the (a) gentle: 3' or less water table. (b) moderate: 4' to 6' Both glacial and nonglacial aspects of lake (c) steep: 7" or more distribution are illustrated in the State of Wis- Lake size categories are arbitrary because consin. The southwestern portion of the State, size differences as such do not relate to specific the "classical driftless area," unlike the re- conditions of lake state, although the interre- mainder of the State, has no glacial cover. The lationship of area and depth does affect the difference in lake density in the two areas is rate at which lakes are altered naturally and apparent (Figure 4-290). The driftless area by land-use patterns. A shallow lake bottom has a low lake density when compared to those can be entirely covered by aquatic plants if the portions of the State with glacial cover. The environment is hospitable. This is because 5 m greater number of lakes in the glacial residue (15 ft) is the approximate lower limit for is due to the irregular and hummocky topog- benthic aquatic plants in this region. Deeper raphy combined with poor drainage. The than 15 m (45 feet), the bottom is essentially smaller number of lakes in the driftless area is David C. Norton, Lake Survey Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 351 352 Appendix 4 glacial epoch, and two more types were sub- sequently formed in the post glacial era. The glacially formed lakes are till plain lakes, morainal-dam lakes, kettle lakes, erosion lakes, and periglacial lakes. The non-glacial lakes are post-glacial lakes and man-made lakes. Till lakes occur in natural depressions re- sulting from the irregular deposition of till. They are usually shallow to intermediate in depth, have gentle to moderate nearshore slopes, and are of irregular outline. Houghton 0 Lake in Roscommon County, Michigan, is lo- cated on ground moraine, and is the largest till N -fq- a lake in the Great Lakes Basin. Several adjoin- @fC_ 0 0 a 0 ing depressions on a till plain surface may be 0 connected to create a lake of lobate outline. U Lakes Corey and Pleasant in St. Joseph a County, Michigan, are examples of lobate out- line lakes (Seott726). Morainal-dam lakes were formed behind re- cessional moraines that ponded water in areas where the land surface sloped toward the re- B-.Uy CL-1 D,&k. A- cessional moraine. These lakes are elongated, 0 either parallel to or normal to the morainal Mil. dam. Parallel-oriented lakes are often part of the regional drainage system, as they lie in valleys adjacent to this topographic barrier. FIGURE 4-290 Density of Lakes in Wisconsin Normal-oriented lakes are not usually con- by County. The areas of the circles are propor- tained in the regional drainage system as tional to the mean number of lakes per square their lowest point, the recessional moraine, mile. The scale at the left is the reciprocal of does not usually permit outflow. In lakes of this, namely, the number of square miles of both orientations the nearshore slope is usu- county for each lake. The dashed line represents ally steeper along the dam than along the re- the boundary of the driftless area. maining shore, and the lakes have a wedge- From Frey, 1966 shaped profile normal to the dam. Devil's due to well-developed dendritic drainage Lake, Sauk County, Wisconsin, and Fortune characterized by topography dissected by Lakes in the Iron River district in the Upper steep valleys. Peninsula of Michigan are examples of morainal-dam lakes (SCott726). Kettle lakes were formed by the melting of 10.2 Lake Formation in the Great Lakes Basin large ice blocks that were stranded upon gla- cial retreat in ground or end moraine, or in The glacial deposits associated with the up- outwash deposits. Lakes of the latter origin land lakes of the Great Lakes Basin fall into are often referred to as "pit lakes," and, when three catagories: recessional moraines present in large numbers, the area is said to be (sandy-limey soils); ground moraines (sandy- one of "pitted outwash." Kettle lakes usually limey soils); and glacioaqueous strata in the have a regular outline, have steep nearshore form of glaciofluvial or outwash deposits slopes, are deep with respect to their surface (sandy soils) and glaciolacustrine or lake de- area, and are usually small. Medium-sized posits (clayey-limey soils). Appendix 3, Geol- kettle lakes are not as regular in outline as ogy and Ground Water, more fully discusses small kettle lakes, since more than one block the distribution of glacial deposits. Reces- may have been involved in their origin. Por- sional moraines occur as hills or ridges, while tage Lake, Crawford County, and Pontiac and ground moraines (often called till plains) have Cass Lakes, Oakland County, are a few of an undulating topography. Glacioaqueous Michigan's many kettle lakes. Higgins Lake, strata underlie essentially featureless plains. in Roscommon County, Michigan, is the Five types of lakes were formed during the largest kettle lake in the Basin. Upland Lakes 353 TABLE4-87 A Generalized Summary of Genetic Lake Types With Some of Their Physical Charac- teristics SURFACE NEARSHORE ASSIMILATION LAKE TYPE SIZE1 DEPTH2 SOIL TYPE SLOPE3 GEOMORPHOLOGY CAPACITY Till Plain Usually small Shallow to Sandy-limey Gentle to Ground Low to Lakes to medium, intermediate moderate moraine moderate seldom large Morainal Generally Intermediate Usually Steep near Usually on Moderate to Dam Lakes medium, to deep, sandy-limey dam, gentle ground high sometimes deepest por- elsewhere moraine large tion near dam Kettle Lakes Small to Intermediate Sandy-limey Moderate to Morainal, more Low medium to deep or sandy steep rarely on outwash Erosion Small to Intermediate Sand & gravel, Moderate to Bedrock & Moderate to Lakes large to deep variable amounts steep thin morainal high of clay deposits Periglacial Usually small Usually shallow Variable Variable Variable Variable Lakes to medium. A to intermediate few large. Post Glacial Generally Usually Variable, Variable Variable Variable Lakes small shallow related to mode of origin Man-Made All sizes Variable Variable Variable Variable Variable Lakes depending on purpose of builder 'Surface Size-Small: 6 ha (15 a) or less; Medium: 6-40 ha (15-100 a); Large: 40 ha (100 a) or greater. Erosion lakes occupy basins formed by gla- sink-hole lakes. Oxbow or crescent lakes are cial scouring and are the result of differential river meanders that were cut off from the erosion of bedrock surfaces. The more resis- main stream by the formation of a new chan- tant bedrock remained as ridges; but the soft- nel. Such lakes occur on river flood plains, as er bedrock was gouged out. These lakes gen- along the Huron River in Washtenaw County, erally have long parallel shores, and are deep. Michigan. Bar lakes occur in drowned valleys The Finger Lakes of New York are the largest (rias) and embayments that have been iso- examples of upland lakes of this origin in the lated from a larger lake or stream by sand Basin. The greatest number of these lakes spits. Numerous bar lakes occur along the occur in northern Minnesota which has hun- eastern shore of Lake Michigan, including dreds of small erosion lakes with a general Pentwater Lake, Oceana County, and Crystal east-west orientation, parallel to the ice and Torch Lakes, Antrim County, Michigan. movement. Recession lakes are created in small basins on Periglacial lakes formed along margins of a lacustrine plain which has been exposed by the glaciers where the topography sloped to- the lowering of the water level of a large lake. ward the glacier, which served as a dam and The largest upland lakes in the Great Lakes water supply. As the glaciers retreated the Basin, such as Lakes St. Clair, Nipissing, Sim- boundaries of these lakes changed, often un- coe, and Winnebago, fall in this category. Wind covering outlets that drained the lakes. Where erosion creates depressions that may act as the topography was suitable, the lakes re- lake basins. These blow-out lakes are not mained. The prehistoric Great Lakes are common and are generally small and shallow. examples of periglacial lakes. Silver Lake, Oceana County, Michigan, may be Post-glacial lakes were formed by the action an example. It is often difficult to distinguish of surface water, wind, and ground water after between blow-out, bar, and recessional lakes glacial retreat. These forces led to creation of when they are closely associated with sand four types of lakes: oxbow, bar, recession, and dunes. Sink-hole lakes occur in regions un- 354 Appendix 4 derlain by limestone. Groundwater solution due to variations in the thickness and per- creates cavities in the limestone into which meability of-the unconsolidated overburden the surface layer collapses to form a depres- (Appendix 3, Geology and Ground Water). sion. Long Lake, Alpena County, (Fritz and When ground water is tapped, the water table Nelson271,) and Ottowa Lake, Monroe County will be locally depressed. Should this depres- (Lane 4113) are two of Michigan's sink-hole sion encroach on the boundary of an influent lakes. lake or the feeder stream(s) of an effluent Man-made lakes are those created or signifi- lake, the lake level will drop accordingly. The cantly altered in size by man. Artificial struc- time required for this stage change can be as tures that regulate pre-existing lakes do not rapid as a few hours in sandy lake basins to a qualify a lake for this category unless the sur- few days in clayey lake basins. Evaporation face area has been increased by over 50 per- from upland lakes is insignificant in their total cent. water budget. Their small volume allows rapid A summary of the seven lake types is pre- temperature changes in response to air tem- sented in Table 4-87. The characteristics com- perature changes. In late fall, the period of pared are surface area, depth, soil type, near- highest evaporation in the Great Lakes, up- shore slope, geomorphology, and assimiliation land lakes cool rapidly and freeze over earlier capacity. The assimilation capacity is a meas- thus reducing the potential for evaporation. ure of the capability of a lake to cleanse itself The geologic variables are those which re- of undesirable chemicals through mixing, late to lake basin composition and modifica- out-flow, seepage, and sedimentation. Assimi- tion through erosion and deposition. The orig- lation capacity is, therefore, an index of pollu- inal basin is important in that its size and tion susceptibility. The greater the assimila- composition will, in part, determine the nature tion capacity of a lake, the less likely it is that of shoreline modification possible and the type the lake will become unsuitable for desired of both peripheral and aquatic plants first es- use. tablished. It is possible to surmise lake origin in a given area, if average lake size, lake abundance, and 10.3 Lake Processes in the Great Lakes Basin geomorphology of the area are known. If nu- merous regular small lakes occur in an area Lakes begin to interact with their environ- characterized by glaciofluvial strata, they are ment immediately after formation. As every kettle lakes. A large lake in the same strata upland lake is a small ecosystem, dynamics of indicates that some other factor was involved the environment cause a tendency toward a in the formation of the lake, such as a morainal series of metastable phases. It is therefore dam. A single large, lake in a till plain area necessary to understand and interrelate the along a well-defined recessional moraine is variables that affect the system. The variables also a morainal-dam lake. Irregular shallow involved are hydrological, geological, biologi- lakes in ground moraine are till plain lakes. cal, chemical, and cultural. Most lakes on a till plain have sandy bot- Hydrologic variables relate to water supply toms near shore. They often have well- and loss, and form two basic lake types. The developed beaches and are usually suitable for first is an influent lake (seepage lake) which water contact sports. Sedimentation is often derives its water primarily from ground water greater within morainal-dam lakes than in and/or springs, and the second is an effluent other lakes on the till plain because they are a lake (drainage lake) which derives its water part of the drainage system. Because upland from inflow and loses water through seepage. lakes are low energy environments, they act The former is dependent on water table levels as sediment traps. Streams are high energy and is only a topographic depression through environments; this difference in energy levels the water table. The latter is dependent on causes particulate matter to drop out of sus- inflow rates. As water table levels fluctuate pension as streams enter lakes. Upland lakes more slowly than surface inflow, stage also receive sediment through sheet wash, changes in influent lakes are less pronounced which relates directly to slope of the than in effluent lakes where drought or rain backshore. If a steep backshore area is used modify the inflow and cause a corresponding for recreation, the problem is compounded be- change in the stage. Precipitation and runoff cause the whole area is kept non-compact data are presented in Sections 1 and 4 of this through agitation. appendix. Ground water is not as evenly avail- Lakes on a glaciolacustrine plain differ from able as precipitation in the Great Lakes Basin lakes on a till plain in that they tend to be Upland Lakes 355 shallow with gentle nearshore slopes. These became chemically enriched. The enrichment lakes are associated with dense concentra- made increased productivity possible. A bal- tions of aquatic plants that contribute consid- ance between enrichment and lake size comes erable amounts of organic material to the bot- about in the mesotrophic stage and is indi- tom deposits. Lakes on a glaciolacustrine plain cated by maximum species diversity. Total are of low value for water contact sports be- productivity of a mesotrophic lake is one-half cause of the aquatic growth. However, the what the lake will have in its eutrophic stage. plant growth makes these lakes excellent Although mesotrophic lakes are more useful wildlife sanctuaries. to man than eutrophic lakes for recreation and water supply, eutrophic lakes are suitable for most recreational activities or water supplies 10.4 Aging-The Trophic Sequence even though fish species are not diverse and some swimmers might consider submerged A lake normally goes through a sequence of vegetation offensive. Excess nutrients can physical and biological stages from youth produce symptoms of a later trophic stage through old age. A four lake-age stage classifi- within a short period even though the later cation can be applied in the Great Lakes Basin trophic stage would normally require many although boundaries are somewhat arbitrary: years to evolve. (1) Oligotrophic lakes are characterized by The hypereutrophic stage arbitrarily begins a deficiency in nutrients, by low sediment sup- as total productivity begins to decline, overall ply, and by low productivity. species representation is rapidly reduced, (2) Mesotrophic lakes are characterized by and sedimentation accelerates. A lake late in a balanced supply of nutrients, moderate pro- the hypereutrophic stage is a marsh or an ductivity with a diversified population, and algal-green pond. Following the hypereu- moderate basin filling due to sedimentation. trophic stage there is dry land. (3) Eutrophic lakes are characterized by A lake may also become dystrophic. This is a excessive nutrient levels, high productivity, significant departure from the oligotrophic- and accelerated basin filling due to sedi- me sotrophic -e utro ph ic -hype re utrop hic se- mentation resulting from high productivity. quence and is characterized by low dissolved (4) Hypereutrophic lakes have high nutri- oxygen, abundant material in suspension, poor ent levels and high productivity, but they have development or absence of macrofauna, a markedly less diverse fauna and flora popula- sparse plankton population of low diversifica- tions and have rapid basin filling leading to tion, an absence of fish, acid water, and a bog lake extinction. flora. A dystrophic lake does not follow the Upland lakes of various ages and trophic typical trophic sequence; it merely becomes stages are unequally distributed over the Ba- smaller as aquatic vegetation fills it in. Be- sin. Trophic status of lakes in the Basin has cause variations occur characteristics such not generally been determined, but approxi- as size, depth, slope, and productivity should mations are meaningful in the context of this be used when describing a dystrophic lake. appendix. The highest density of oligotrophic The four lake-age stages have common in- lakes in the Basin lie in Minnesota because terdependent parameters that vary in each these are cold erosion lakes which characteris- lake stage (Figure 4-291). The aging sequence tically have low nutrient sources. Mesotrophic indicated is a natural one, but man can influ- lakes are more common than oligotrophic ence the rate of change in the sequence by lakes. These two lake types combined account modifying inputs of parameters. For example, for only one-third of all upland lakes in the rough fish are introduced into a small, shal- Basin. The majority of lakes in the Great low, early eutrophic body of water having good Lakes Basin are eutrophic or hypereutrophic. water clarity and a considerable growth of The greatest number of lakes today (about submerged, rooted aquatics. The rough fish 50 percent) are eutrophic. The lakes have be- stir up the bottom, placing suspended solids come increasingly similar throughout the into the water. These suspended solids reduce Basin due to migration of lake fauna and flort@ light penetration to the extent that a large via waterways, over land, by wind, and by ac- die-off in submerged aquatics occurs. The cidental transplants from one body of water to aquatics begin decomposing and use up dis- another by carriers such as animals 'birds, and solved oxygen (DO) to such an extent that man. Initially, glacial melt water was quite sport fish requiring high DO die. A consider- pure, but as the lake waters received drainage able portion of the aquatics cannot be assimi- and interacted with their environment, they lated in the low DO environment so they re- 356 Appendix 4 01 igo- Mesotrophic Eutrophic Hyper- or bog development, these lakes are not t,ophic outrophic --------------------- equally represented in all size classes or in all Gross Productivity areas of the Basin. Marsh and bog lakes in the Great Lakes Basin are usually small to Species Diversity - - - - - - - - - -medium in size. Ciame Fish The filling in of a marsh or bog lake coincides with an increase in organic content of its ------------------ sediment. Thick organic sediments tend to Scavenger Fish I se al the bottoms of bog lakes; therefore, little ---------- mineral or other matter is added by gTound Aquatic Plants water (Welch 879) . The primary source of water for a bog is runoff, which permeates through Basin Filling Rate the peripheral vegetative mats and peat. ------------- ----------- Water content of the peat is very high and Dissolved Oxygen particulate organic matter is 5 to 8 percent Breeding Grounds ---------------------- -------- (Brame and King 8 2 ). Although marshes are Diversity __ I ___' also insulated from ground water, this factor --------------------- is not as important as in bog lakes because Water Supply Quality marshes usually are contained in a drainage ----------------- system. Sealing is due to organic clays in Nutrients marshes as compared to the more granular ----- -- --------- peat deposits of bogs. Surface Area Lakes representing all stages of maturation are found in the Basin indicating different Water Tenperature aging rates. Many former lakes have already ------- passed through all the stages into extinction. Extinction comes about by two processes: FIGURE 4-291 Graphic Summary of Interre- marginal encroachment and bottom en- ,lated Parameters Through Four Trophic Stages croachment. The first process is more impor- for an Ideal Lake tant in the extinction of bogs and the latter of marshes, although exceptions do exist. The main on the lake bottom and release nutrients components of marginal encroachment are which are then available to the algal popula- plant ecesis, decay, and decomposition in tion. It should be apparent that changes in any nearshore areas. Bottom encroachment comes factor affecting a lake can have dire conse- about by growth and decay of emergent plants quences. and by sedimentation. The sediment is usually inorganic at the outset and becomes more or- ganic with increasing abundance of plants. jO.5 Succession in Bog and Marsh Lakes The plants cover a much greater percentage of the bottom in the latter meth@d of extinction. There are many marsh (hypereutrophic) Some young bog lakes have small, seg- and bog (dystrophic) lakes in the Great Lakes mented fringes of sedge mats composed Basin. These two types of lakes constitute the primarily of the sedge Carex and the moss final stages of a lake before dry land appears. Sphagnum while older bogs have mats cover- Therefore, recognition of their characteristics ing large sections of the shore. The mats are 's helpful in determining the trophic level of all anchored along the shore and advance lake- lakes in the Basin. These lakes originated in ward with their outer portions floating on the glacial material. Infilling by organic and inor- water surface. The mats, therefore, reduce the ganic material have modified the lakes to their open water of the lake, and provide a footing present condition. Marsh and bog lakes occur for terrestrial plants. Bogs may have a fals6 in all glaciated areas due to the hummocky bottom, composed of finely divided plant ma- topography and associated poor drainage. terial in suspension just above the true bot- Other factors favorable for marsh and bog tom. A definite concentric zonation charac- f@rmation in the Great Lakes Basin are abun- terizes the flora about bog lakes where topog- dant rainfall, high humidity, low soil tempera- raphy is suitable. Each zone has different tures, minimal runoff, high ground-water ta- plant members and requirements for exist- ble, and luxuriant plant growth. ence (Figure 4-292). As the mat encroaches on Although conditions are suitable for marsh a lake surface, it acts as a barrier to light pen- Upland Lakes 357 HYPOTHETICAL 800 DEC I DUOUS TALL SHRUBS Low SHRUBS SEDGE MAT F-- OPEN WATER F4P A- W? LACUSTRINE ......... SAND '4-1iA ORGANIC DEPOSITS W. -- -- ------- ----------- --------- Ow GLACIAL TERRESTRIAL DEPOSITS ORGANIC DEPOSITS SILT & CLAY MAR, 14YPOTHETICAL MARSH DECIDUOUS CON I FERS SHRUBS GRASS. EMERGENT VEG. FLOATING VEG' SUBMERGED VEGETATION - - - - - - - - - - - - --------- -- ---------- 2.1 -------------- KK ------ -------- --- - ---- - --------- --------- FIGURE 4-292 Comparison of the Flora and Sediment Between a Hypothetical Bog (A) and a Hypothetical Marsh (B) etration, making it impossible for aquatic the finer debris is carried into open water. Low plants to grow under the mat. As plants in the dissolved oxygen in the lake water and rapid mat die, most of the residue settles to the lake deposition rates combine to yield incomplete bottom under and in front of the mat. Some of lation of peat deposits. Aquatic plants seldom 358 Appendix 4 grow in a bog lake as the water is usually un- from the peat (Frey274). Other acids, such as suitable for their growth. carbonic acid, are known to exist in natural Marshes differ from bogs in the plant succes- waters, but they are usually present in neglig- sion near the water's edge (Figure 4-292). Zo- ible amounts. nation is not as evident in marshes as in bogs. Marshes develop in lakes that were initially 10.6 Upland Lake Water Chemistry shallow or were greatly reduced in depth by sedimentation. As part of a drainage system, The water in upland lakes is, in varying de- flushing of the lake water impairs accumula- grees, separated from the ground water by a tion of organic acids. Bulrushes and similar seal which represents the initial deposits of plants establish themselves along the lake silts and clays formed during the lakes' early margins. Lakeward, emergent plants give way history, as Broughton 1104 found in his study of to submerged plants. As the lakes fill in, these upland lakes in northeastern Wisconsin. This plant associations move toward the deeper seal not only allows a more stable lake level portions of the lake until the entire lake basin than immediate ground-water level, but it also is covered with aquatic plants. The bottom de- allows for considerable differences in water posits become increasingly organic in compos- chemistry between lake water and ground wa- ition, and sediment particle size becomes in- ter. Varying uptake by aquatic plants also ac- creasingly finer along the shore, due to the counts for some of this difference. The source reduction of wave and current energy. With water for the lakes also varies throughout the final filling, terrestrial plants quickly cover Basin. This combination of the effect of seal- the newly formed land. Odum1115 estimates ing and the variation of source water enables that as little as 25 to 100 years is required to chemically dissimilar lakes to coexist within change from an extinct lake to a conifer forest. close proximity. A primary difference in water Soil composition of the original basin is im- chemistry between the Great Lakes and up- portant in the initial stages of lake develop- land lakes is the lower assimilative and dilu- ment because soil composition governs the se- tion capacities of upland lakes. Because up- quence of plant establishment and the suita- land lakes have smaller volumes, they cannot bility of the substrata for aquatic ecesis. dissipate chemical loads and are therefore Water in marshes tends to be basic while subject to a more rapid rate of aging. Also, the water in bogs is more acidic. Marshes occur small volumes and small drainage areas cause along drainage systems that supply them with the chemistry in upland lakes to reflect soil neutral or slightly basic water which is main- mineralogy and soil chemistry of the adjacent tained by the natural buffering of ground wa- area. 'ters that originate in carbonate-rich soil Much of the extensive literature on upland (Hutchinson 402). The fact that bog waters do lake chemistry is summarized in Hutchin- not react with ground water is supported by son.402 Wisconsin lakes have been thoroughly the fact that many bogs do lie in calcareous studied, and a fair quantity of data exists for tills where the ground water is buffered by lakes throughout the Basin. carbonate equilibria. Bogs are usually iso- The small areas, low volumes, and small lated from local drainage and thus cannot dis- watersheds of upland lakes make them subject sipate by flushing or diluting the excess or- to rapid changes in water quality and trophic ganic acids that are formed or that drain into state. The water quality of upland lakes unaf- them. If the organic debris supplied to the lake fected by man is closely related to bedrock and is incompletely oxidized leaving high BOD and glacial-deposit lithology and mineralogy. low dissolved oxygen, then humic acids ac- ThwaiteS799 compared the chemical composi- cumulate and the lake becomes dystrophic. tions of ground water, streams, and upland Acidity of bog water comes from a variety of lakes in different glacial regions of Wisconsin organic acids combined with variable amounts and showed a strong correspondence between of sulfuric acid. The organic acids are derived the three (Figure 4-293). Ryder695 related up- from decay and incomplete oxidation of or- land lake water chemistry to glacial history in ganic detritus. The sulfuric acid is derived in Ontario. He showed that upland lakes in the two ways: by rainwater containing small Precambrian Shield have lower dissolved solid amounts of sulfate percolating through the concentrations than lakes in Pleistocene peat, losing cations, and gaining hydrogen glaciolacustrine deposits. The lower dissolved ions by exchange with the humus portions of solids result from slower dissolution of silicate the peat; and by oxidation of ferrous sulfide minerals. The chemical control of upland lakes Upland Lakes 359 LANGLADE LOBE problems during any trophic stage, but the @m K C03 504CI $1.5 Total Solids problems are not usually considered critical LAKES until the lake is in the eutrophic stage. A lake A@0,@I'e203 156 may exhibit multiple problems, but one prob- STREAM lem is usually dominant. As most problems @-@111111A\\A=i EM155 encountered are of a recurring nature, the GROUND WATER most prevalent ones are described below along GREEN BAY LOBE with suggested solutions (Minnesota Depart- = 180 ment of Conservation 517a). Solutions vary from LAKES control of a problem to complete elimination. 1515 Algae are a manifestation of water that is STREAM$ too fertile and of low clarity. Excessive algal [email protected] growth results in unpleasant appearance, GROUND WATER odor, deoxygenation of the water (during periods of die-off), and an accumulation of an FIGURE 4-293 Relation of Ground Water, organic ooze on the bottom. The condition may Stream, and Upland Lake Composition (mg/1) in be natural or induced by man. The following Two Glacial Terrains in Wisconsin are possible solutions: From Thwaites, 1943 (1) Nutrient removal can be accomplished by advanced waste treatment of sewage in- is, therefore, a function of the chemistry of the flow, control or removal of septic tanks, provi- surrounding terrain. Areas rich in limestones sion for an additional water source of uncon- and dolomites will contain lakes with high dis- taminated water for dilution, recycling of the solved solids, calcium, magnesium; and bicar- lake water by pumping it upland and allowing bonate loads. Lakes in areas of silicate it to seep through the soil back into the lake, mineral-rich till or igneous or metamorphic and possible dredging of high nutrient sedi- bedrock contain lower dissolved solid loads ment. dominated by such cations as sodium, potas- (2) Control of rough fish that keep shallow sium, iron, and calcium. bottom areas stirred up, thus providing nutri- The type of development around an upland ents to the algae. When these species are con- lake governs the nature of loading. Upland trolled, water clarity may improve to the ex- lakes that have industry developed along the tent that additional sunlight will reach the shores often receive wastes from the industry bottom and enable rooted aquatics to establish and rapidly deteriorate in quality. Lakes in themselves and become a seondary problem. suburban areas receive overflow from septic (3) Chemical treatment using sulfate is ef- tanks, runoff from fertilized lawns, pesticides fective in the elimination of algal growth. The from spraying around homes, and other inci- chemical must be applied repeatedly for full dental contaminants. In rural areas upland algae control. It is possible that it may be lakes receive crop fertilizers, animal wastes, harmful to game fish by damaging their gills, sediment, pesticides, and incidental wastes. thus enabling rough fish populations to in- The net effect of the loads of toxicants and crease. nutrients from the various sources is to accel- (4) Nutrient inactivation requires the erate eutrophication and restrict use of the addition of an agent that will bond with, ad- water as a resource. sorb, or otherwise prevent nutrients from re- Although the small volume of these lakes cycling. Lake bottom nutrients can be inacti- emphasizes the effects of loading and aids in vated by covering them with an impermeable rapid deterioration of water quality, the same material (U.S. Environmental Protection feature makes restoration of water quality Agency 1139). feasible. Lake restoration is discussed in Sec- Rooted aquatic plants (weeds) appear in tion 11 of this appendix. clear lakes which are fertile. Any clear, shal- low lake is susceptible if nutrients are added, as the lake bottom would receive sufficient 10.7 Problems Associated with Upland Lakes solar radiation for photosynthesis. Swimming and boating activities are reduced or halted on The type and degree of degradation relate to lakes with severe weed problems. The follow- all the factors described above so lake prob- ing are various solutions: lems must be considered individually rather (1) Nutrient removal procedures are the than categorically. A given lake may have same as those discussed under algae. 360 Appendix 4 (2) Chemical treatment by the use of her- primarily as reservoirs are periodically low- bicides is effective in.reducing a current crop ered when water is needed downstream. If a of weeds, but the problem will recur if the reservoir lake is to serve more than a single treatment is not continued. Once the weeds purpose, a balance must be achieved between are under control, algae often becomes a prob- multiple objectives. If control structures are lem. not maintained, they should be removed. (3) Mechanical removal by harvesting Sedimentation problems arise from two weeds provides short term benefits. Dredging sources: through the natural process of lake eliminates the weeds and a portion of the nu- aging, and through excessive erosion from trients and so is the best immediate treat- projects such as construction or channel mod- ment, but only a portion of the cure. For the ification. Sedimentation can be controlled by cure to be complete, nutrients entering the the following methods: system must be significantly reduced. If (1) Land can be managed through contour dredging deepens the water to more than 5 in plowing of farmlands, planting vegetation on (15 ft), light penetration will usually be too eroding slopes, and construction regulations. slight for weed growth. Much of the sedimentation problem can be Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum solved permanently using these methods. L.) has recently become a problem in the (2) Dredging is an effective control, but it is aquatic plant community (Michigan Out-of- not a cure because dredging results in in- Door 8537). Milfoil is a rapid growing, fast creased sedimentation rates in the immediate spreading, bottom rooted, emergent plant. area. Native plants are shaded out and die because Pollution of upland lakes originates from of the dense milfoil stands. The weed greatly three major sources. First, agricultural runoff restricts lake use and causes unsightly sur- contributes sediment, fertilizer, herbicides, face conditions. Milfoil can be controlled by pesticides, fungicides, and animal wastes. harvesting or herbicides, but total elimination Second, industry contributes thermal and a has not been achieved. variety of chemical inputs. Third, municipal Swimmers itch results when ducks infested wastes contribute nutrients derived from in- with blood flukes pass the eggs of the flukes sufficiently treated sewage, lawn fertilizers, into a lake. The eggs hatch into miracidia weed killers, road salt, minor sediment, and which develop into larvae within a snail host. septic tank nutrients. The following are ac- The larvae then search for a bird host and may tions for prevention or restoration: penetrate a swimmer's body in error. The un- (1) Point sources of pollution must be iden- fortunate swimmer will than have an itch tified and estimates must be made of contribu- which persists until the larvae die. The only tion from non-point sources such as agricul- attempt at control of this problem has cen- tural and urban runoff. tered around the extermination of the infected (2) The method of solving the problem must snails. The following are various solutions: be decided upon. (1) Chemical treatment using copper sul- (3) The project of halting the pollution fate has been used in killing infected snails. It must be initiated. Varying and opposing inter- is suspected that this chemical also kills natu- est within a community often make implemen- ral competitors of these snails, and, therefore, tation very difficult. may inadvertently create a greater problem. Bayluscide is a much more deadly compound than copper sulfate. It is only mildy toxic to 10.8 Upland Lake Distribution man and other mammals, but it is lethal to fish and amphibia as well as snails. It should be The size and number of upland lakes per used with great caution. square mile in the Basin is directly related to (2) The introduction of competing animals occurrence of different types of glacial depos- or predators is an extremely desirable alter- its (Figures 4-294 and 4-295). It is apparent .native to that of chemical treatment. Re- that outwash and ground moraines contain search is required to isolate members in these about twice as many lakes per square mile as two categories. glacial lake plains. The greatest number of I Water level fluctuation is an expensive and lakes occur when the outwash or ground difficult -problem to control. Because runoff moraine is associated with strong recessional and ground water fluctuations are essentially moraine topography. When bedrock is at or beyond man's control, only control structures near the surface in strong relief, there are few offer a solution. Those lakes maintained lakes. When bedrock is at or near the surface Upland Lakes 361 LAKE SUPERIOR in slight relief, there are many lakes because ON.TARIO drainage is poor. Detailed surface strata maps are available in Appendix 3, Geology and Ground Water. The surface strata maps may be used with Figures 4-296, 297, 298, 299, and WISCONSIN 300 which indicate the upland lake distribu- tion in each planning area of the Basin. The distribution is presented as the percent of LAKE 'HURON each county's surface area covered by lakes N and the number of lakes/k M2 X 103. These fig- ures allow the reader to ascertain both inter- and intracounty and planning subarea varia- tion. Table 4-88 addresses specific needs and NCHIGAN summarizes upland lake statistics by plan- ning subareas. Blanks in the table indicate insufficient information. LAKE ERE IN OHIO 10.9 Comparability of the Data 0 g "k. ", 9@ Ulm hALES 0.00-O.to Upland lake data vary from State to State 0,20-0.40 because of differences in priorities set by each 0.40-0.40 State and a lack of interstate coordination of criteria. However, information is available in FIGURE 4-294 Relative Density of Lakes in each State's Department of Natural Re- Michigan by County sources. This information is usually in unpub- From Chandler, 1966 lished file reports dealing w1th individual lakes, or, more rarely, river basins or counties. Wisconsin publishes "Lake Use Reports" and reports on "Surface Water Resources" in vari- ous counties. The Wisconsin reports are useful LAKE SUPERIOR for local planning. ONTARIO The minimum size lake surveyed by the in dividual States varies significantly (Table 4-89). Because a standard minimum size for all States could not be established with the ree- WISCONSIN ords currently available, the minimum lake size recorded by each State was used. Thus, the data presented in Figures 4-296, 297, 298, UKE HURON 299, and 300 are not to the same base. The basic discrepancy is that some States have more lakes than indicated, but these lakes are ex- tremely small. The States that do not survey ZEE small lakes are those with an abundance of lakes. All the terminology used by various Great Lakes States to describe upland lakes is listed below. The obvious inconsistency is that dif- LUE ERE HIO ferent descriptions are indiscriminantly used to describe the same types of lakes on an in- terstate basis: (1) Michigan (a) Bog lakes have brown acid water, few electrolytes, highly organic sediment, low cal- FIGURE 4-295 Generalized Slope and Relief cium, nitrogen, and phosphorus, low dis- in Michigan solved oxygen, and biota dominated by the mi- From Chandler, 1966 croflora and microfauna lakeward and by 362 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-88 A Summary of Upland Lake Statistics by County for Each Planning Subarea Percent Number Not of Lake Area Cold Inter- Warm Fish & class- Centrar- Location Lakes hectares acres Water mediate Water Dry Game Marginal Game fied chid Walleye Trout PSA 1.1 MINNESOTA Carlton 74 3,620 8,941 1.6 12.1 14.9 25.7 0.0 16.2 10.8 17.5 02.7 Cook 809 41,351 102,137 11.5 47.6 0.7 4.8 0.1 25.9 0.6 7.5 13.1 Lake 818 53,559 127,350 9.6 58.2 6.1 9.3 0.1 8.3 1.7 10.8 5.5 St. Louis 880 125,366 309,655 7.9 46.4 5.5 13.6 0.1 15.3 5.8 10.5 2.8 WISCONSIN Ashland 71 1,958 4,837 0.7 09 54 37 Hayfield 318 8,417 20,792 2.2 04 56 40 Douglas 110 4.791 11,833 0.2 01 45 54 Iron 213 13,349 ..32,971 6.8 00 53 47 Total 3,293 252,411 618,516 (5.1)1 Number of Lake Area Percent Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acres z Bog Marsh Warmwater 2-Story Coldwater km mi PSA 1.2 14ICHIGAN Alger 279 5,043 12,456 2.2 03 02 63 23 09 496.5 307.8 Baraga 163 5,515 13,623 2.4 31 04 56 08 01 292.9 181.6 Chippewa 153 4,527 11,181 1.1 17 38 36 08 01 329.0 204.0 Gogebic 278 15,230 37,742 5.3 21 05 51 19 04 674.2 418.0 Houghton 138 9,259 22,869 3.5 27 12 41 17 04 386.0 239.3 Keweenaw 46 2,198 5,429 1.6 11 07 61 15 07 111.9 69.4 Luce 231 6,776 16,737 2.9 46 05 26 18 05 381.9 236.8 Marquette 420 11,019 27,218 2.3 11 03 63 14 09 884.2 548.2 Ontonagon 76 4,436 10,957 1.3 53 12 20 08 08 136.3 84.5 Total 1,784 64,053 158,212 (2.5)1 Number Percent - of Lake Area Cold Inter- Warm Warm cold Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acres Water mediate Water B.& Karsh Water 2-Story water k. i PSA 2.1 MICHIGAN Dickinson 119 2,555 6,310 1.3 48 09 21 20 2 200.8 124;5 Iron 314 10,140 25,046 3.3 29 25 31 13 2 357.4 221.6 Menominee 53 1,826 4,510 0.7 49 17 34 0 0 122.1 75.1 WISCONSIN Brown 1 17 42 0.0 0 0 100 Calumet 8 50 124 0.1 0 50 50 Door 10 1,219 3,011 1.0 0 78 22 Florence 80 2,166 5,350 1.7 1 54 45 Fond du Lac 33 655 1,619 0.3 0 76 24 Forest 155 8,280 20,451 3.2 2 41 57 Green Lake 10 5,804 14,336 6.3 0 80 20 Keweenaw 9 89 221 0.1 0 78 22 Langlade 167 3,190 7,879 1.4 5 31 64 Manitowoc 55 553 1,367 0.4 0 61 39 Marinette 159 5,317 13,134 1.5 1 47 52 Marquette 53 1,980 4,892 1.7 0 57 43 Menominee 49 979 2,419 1.5 2 58 40 Oconto 142 4,676 11,550 1.6 1 50 49 Outagamie 2 27 66 0.0 0 50 50 Shawano 54 3,678 9,084 1.5 6 65 29 Sheboygan 35 830 .2,050 0.6 0 86 14 Waupaca 117 2,696 6,660 0.3 0 61 39 Waushara 64 1,740 4,297 1.1 0 78 22 Winnebago 6 68,644 169,550 59.1 0 100 0 Total 1,695 127,111 313,968 (3.9)1 'A@erage Upland Lakes 363 TABLE 4-88(continued) A Summary of Upland Lake Statistics by County for Each Planning Subarea Number Of Lake Area Percent Average Depth Location Lakes hectares acres % Coldwater Intermediate Warmwater meters feet PSA 2.2 ILLINOIS Cook 197 2,013 4,972 0.8 Du Page 52 185 458 0.2 Kane 16 93 230 0.1 Lake 92 4,666 11,525 3.9 McHenry 30 754 1,863 0.5 Will 40 638 1,576 0.3 INDIANA Lake 5 415 1,024 0.3 5 18 LaPorte -- -- -- -- -- -- Porter 10 152 375 0.1 12 40 Starke 6 738 1,822 0.9 -- -- -- 8 26 WISCONSIN Kenosha 24 1,386 3,423 2.0 0 87 13 -- -- Milwaukee 13 39 96 0.1 0 8 92 Ozaukee 14 109 270 0.2 0 64 36 Racine 16 1,461 3,608 1.7 0 88 12 Walworth 34 5,071 12,526 3.5 0 71 29 Washington 47 1,283 3,168 1.2 0 63 37 Waukesha 70 -6,120 15,116 4.2 2 66 32 Total 666 25,123 62,052 (1.2)1 Number Ave. Max. of Lake Area rcent Depth Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acres % Bog Marsh Warmwater 2-Story Coldwater m ft km mi PSA 2.3 INDIANA Elkhart 8 276 682 0.2 8 26 Lagrange 57 1,997 4,932 2.0 12 38 Marshall 16 1,352 3,340 1.2 14 47 Noble 69 1,608 3,971 1.5 12 38 St. Joseph 9 134 330 0.1 13 41 Steuben 73 3,476 8,585 4.3 12 39 MICHIGAN Allegan 98 4,243 10,481 2.0 1 6 90 3 0 228.4 141.6 Barry 167 5,092 12,577 3.5 4 19 69 7 0 322.4 199.9 Berrien 32 1,118 2,761 0.7 6 0 94 0 0 73.1 45.3 Branch 71 3,292 8,130 2.5 3 7 41 49 0 188.6 116.9 Calhoun 90 1,915 4,731 1.0 1 13 51 34 0 165.5 102.6 Cass 103 3,848 9,505 2.1 17 20 24 38 0 245.8 152.4 Clinton 27 328 809 0.2 19 15 52 15 0 29.8 18.4 Eaton 28 325 902 0.2 7 11 75 7 0 42.3 26.2 Hillsdale 89 579 3,899 1.0 0 0 98 2 0 163.1 101.1 Ingham 27 354 875 0.0 44 4 52 0 0 35.3 21.9 Ionia 28 901 2,226 0.6 4 4 89 4 0 64.4 39.9 Jackson 96 3,973 9,814 2.2 4 9 74 13 0 232.7 144.3 Kalamazoo 74 3,955 9,768 2.7 0 5 81 14 0 185.5 115.0 Kent 186 3,785 9,350 1.7 8 6 84 2 1 331.9 205.8 Montcalm, 160 3,456 8,536 1.9 8 3 86 4 0 244.4 151.5 Ottawa 24 2,009 4,962 1.4 0 4 96 0 0 135.0 83.7 St. Joseph 80 3,661 9,042 2.3 14 9 63 15 0 281.0 174.2 Shiawassee 23 1,632 4,030 1.2 0 4 78 17 0 37.6 23.3 Van Buren 107 2,553 _6j3O5 1-6 1 1 94 4 0 168.2 104.3 Total 1,742 55,862 140,443 (1.5)1 'Average 364 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-88(continued) A Summary of Upland Lake Statistics by County for Each Planning Subarea Number Of Lake Area Percent Shoreline- Location Lakes hectares acres % Rog Harsh Warmwater 2-Story Coldwater km mi PSA 2*4 MICHIGAN Antrim 49 8,953 22,114 7.3 2 8 76 6 8 241.3 149.6 Benzie 57 7,183 17,741 8.8 5 2 74 19 0 173.4 107.5 Charlevoix 42 10,174 25,131 9.5 5 38 36 19 2 195.3 129.1 Delta 117 1,816 4,486 0.6 21 21 43 9 6 163.9 101.6 Emmet 28 4,307 10,634 3.6 16 32 26 26 0 117.3 72.7 Grand Traverse 82 7,772 19,198 6.5 2 10 66 21 1 273.7 169.7 Kalkaska 95 5,790 14,301 3.9 1 5 67 18 8 169.2 104.9 Lake 118 1,872 4,623 1.3 5 17 48 28 2 168.6 104.5 Leelaaau 31 7,175 17,722 8.0 10 3 65 23 0 161.5 100.1 MackinaC2 171 11,329 27,983 4.3 44 34 22 0 0 389.8 241.7 Manistee 42 3,496 8,635 2.4 10 5 71 7 7 126.3 78.3 Mason 72 3,638 8,986 2.9 17 3 72 8 0 147.9 91.7 Mecosta 91 3,882 9,588 2.7 10 13 56 21 0 293.6 182.0 Missaukee 32 5,161 12,747 3.5 13 22 63 3 0 95.5 59.2 Muskegon 73 4,391 10,846 3.4 4 18 73 4 1 168.1 104.2 Newaygo 143 3,657 9,034 1.7 10 6 66 17 1 282.3 175.0 Oceana 66 1,502 3,711 1.1 5 5 73 18 0 129.7 80.4 Osceola 80 1,210 2,991 0.8 16 10 65 8 1 154.0 95.5 Roscommon 61 15,414 38,073 11.4 31 29 38 5 2 239.2 148.3 Schoolcraft 430 11,553 28,535 3.8 7 34 52 5 2 736.3 456.5 Wexford 26 2,612 6,452 1.8 38 8 38 15 0 93.1 57.7 Total 1,906 119,597 303,531 (4.3)1 Number of Lake Area Percent Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acres Bog Harsh Warmwater 2-Story Coldwater km mi PSA 3.1 MICHIGAN Alcona. 47 5,264 13,001 3.0 6 38 30 19 6 126.3 78.3 Alpena 24 6,921 17,094 4.7 8 21 67 4 0 152.4 94.5 Arenac 8 77 190 0.1 75 13 13 0 0 11.9 7.4 Cheboygan 45 21,074 52,052 11.3 22 is 33 20 7 294.0 182.3 Crawford 37 5,154 12,731 3.5 8 16 46 30 0 72.6 45.0 losco 53 4,644 11.470 3.3 28 10 28 13 0 233.1 144.5 HackinaC2 171 11,329 27,983 4.3 44 34 22 0 0 389.8 241.7 Montmorency 89 4,926 12,166 3.4 11 29 36 18 6 202.1 125.3 Ogemaw 130 2,360 5,829 1.6 5 8 78 8 2 201.5 124.9 Oscoda 73 7,972 19,690 5.5 0 11 66 21 3 146.9 91.1 Otsego 116 3,149 7,779 2.3 11 35 24 29 0 219.4 136.0 Presque Isle 77 5,912 14,602 3.5 10 12 68 10 0 233.7 144.9 Total 870 78,782 194,587 (3.9)' Number of Lake Area Percent Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acreq Bog Marsh Warmwater 2-Story ldwater km mi PSA 3.2 MICHIGAN Bay 4 62 154 0.0 0 25 75 0 0 9.7 6.0 Clare 124 2,154 5,321 1.5 4 20 67 9 0 231.6 143.6 Genesee 78 2,560 6,324 1.5 0 3 74 23 0 181.6 112.6 Gladvin 49 2,785 6,878 2.1 12 4 65 12 6 305.0 189.1 Gratiot 20 557 1,375 0.4 0 55 35 10 0 55.7 34.5 Huron 5 63 155 0.0 0 100 0 0 0 10.8 6.7 Isabella 32 438 1,082 0.3 0 3 78 19 0 56.5 35.0 Lapeer 129 4,067 10,045 2.4 0 10 74 16 0 211.0 130.8 Midland 10 926 2,287 0.7 10 0 90 0 0 53.4 33.1 Saginaw 6 584 1,442 0.3 0 67 33 0 0 28.5 17.7 Tuscola 35 564 1,392 0.3 0 51 26 23 0 70.0 43.4 Total 492 14,760 36,455 (0.9)1 lAverage, 21neluded in PSAs 2.4 and 3.1 Upland Lakes 365 TABLE 4-88(continued) A Summary of Upland Lake Statistics by County for Each Planning Subarea Number Percent of Lake Area Marsh Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acres % 8, Bog Marsh Warmwater 2-Stoiy Coldwater km mi PSA 4.1 MICHIGAN Lenawee 74 9,431 23,294 4.8 0 0 100 0 0 148.2 91.9 Livingston 171 3,849 9,506 2.6 6 2 84 8 0 366.1 227.0 Macomb 29 530 1,308 0.4 0 0 83 17 0 61.9 38.4 Mon oe 7 590 1,457 0.4 0 0 86 0 14 18.1 11.2 Oakland 394 15,283 37,749 6.8 0 2 62 37 0 852.1 528.4 Sanilac 9 33 82 0.0 0 100 0 0 0 5.8 3.6 St. Clair 19 696 1,720 0.4 11 58 21 11 0 54.0 33.5 Washtenaw 119 3,289 8,125 1.8 3 1 89 8 0 249.8 154.9 Wayne 52 ___139 2,319 0.6 0 10 90 0 0 97.4 60.4 Total 874 34,670 85,560 (2.0)1 Number Ave. Max. Number Ave. of Lake Area Depth of Lake Area Depth Shoreline Location Lakes hectares acres% m ft Location Lakes hectares acres % mft km mi- PSA 4.2 PSA 4.4 PENNSYLVANIA INDIANA Erie 15 738 1,822 0.1 516 -- -- Adams 2 28 69 0.0 4 13 NEW YORK Allen 4 130 320 0.1 9 29 De Kalb 6 124 307 0.1 13 '42 Cattaraugus 40 4,879 12,051 1.4 --- 198.39 123.00 Chautauqua 35 5,960 14,720 2.1 - 136.69 84.75 OHIO Erie 31 238 589 0.1 - 41.42 25.68 Niagara -i(-) 834 2,061 0.6 - 25.76 15.97 Allen 47 383 946 0.4 Total 131 12,649 31,243 (0-9)1 Auglaize 13 1,049- 2,592 1.0 Crawford 18 94 231 0.1 Defiance 12 428 1,057 0.4 Number Erie of Lake Area Shoreline 41 317 782 0.5 Location Lakes hectares acres % km mi Fulton 16 108 267 0.1 Hancock 23 146 361 0.1 PSA 5.1 Henry 16 844 2,085 0.8 Huron 39 303 749 0.2 NEW YORK Lucas 26 133 329 0.1 Allegany 28 1,177 2,906 0.4 61.29 38.00 Mercer 3 4,498 11,109 3.8 Genesee 13 145 358 0.1 24.77 15.36 Ottawa 44 1,011 2,498 1.5 Livingston 13 4,364 10,778 2.6 89.21 55.31 Paulding 13 456 1,127 0.4 Monroe 21 544 1,344 0.3 59.37 36.81 Putnam 11 38 94 0.0 Orleans 7 181 448 0.2 37.60 23.31 Sandusky 11 52 129 0.0 Wyoming __L7 588 1,453 0.4 51.42 31.88 Seneca 16 42 103 0.0 - Van Wert 19 45 110 0.0 Total 109 6,999 17,287 (0.7)1 Williams 34 114 330 0.1 Wood 8 28 69 0.0 Number Wyandot 22 448 1,106 0.4 of Lake Area Shoreline Total 444 10,819 26,770 (0.4)1 Location Lakes hectares acres km mi. PSA 5.2 NEW YORK Cayuga 28 20,612 50,912 11.4 237.61 147.32 Herkimer 330 12,974 32,045 3.5 1,022.56 633.99 Madison 21 1,259 3,110 0.7 102.42 63.50 Oneida 57 1,788 4,417 0.6 167.79 104.03 Onondaga 36 7,118 17,581 3.5 [email protected] 121.24 Ontario 9 4,656 11,501 2.8 85.58 53.68 Number Oswego 74 24,942 61,606 10.0 327.05 227.57 of Lake Area Schuyler 5 .811 2,003 0.9 37.74 23.40 Location Lakes hectares acres Seneca 10 18,278 45,146 21.4 159.24 98.73 Tompkins 9 109 269 0.1 15.81 9.80 PSA 4.3 Wayne 13 88 218 0.1 25.37 15.73 Yates 1 4,742 11,712 5.3 94.19 58.40 OHIO Total 593 97,377 240,520 (5.0)1 Ashtabula 64 1,598 3,946 0.9 Cuyahoga 8 55 137 0.0 Number Geauga 29 378 933 0.4 of Lake Area Shoreline Lake 15 29 71 0.0 Location Lakes hectares acres % km mi Lorain 92 287 708 0.2 PSA 5.3 Medina 70 213 527 0.2 Portage 32 2,697 6,661 2.1 NEW YORK Summit 35 1,981 4,892 1.9 Jefferson 38 2,563 6,330 0.8 161.52 100.14 - - - - Lewis 118 2,336 5,770 0.6 244.45 151.56 St. Lawrence 232 14,782 36,512 2.1 744.87 461.82 Total 345 7,238 17,875 (0.7)1 Total 338 19,681 48,612 (1.2)1 'Average 366 Appendix 4 :51 2-5 6-10 >10 110 20 11 'Mp 25 7 5 FIGURE 4-296 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area I in Terms of Percent of Each County's Surface Covered by Lakes (A) and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 (B) sedges shoreward. These are usually dys- flora, coldwater fish, inorganic sediments, and trophic lakes. high levels of dissolved oxygen. These are (b) Marsh lakes have clear alkaline wa- usually oligotrophic lakes. ter, many electrolytes, highly organic sedi- ment, high calcium, nitrogen, and phosphor- (2) Minnesota ous concentration, low dissolved oxygen, dense rooted emergent aquatic plant growths, (a) Dry lakes are dry lake basins which warmwater fish subject to winterkill, and were lakes until they were drained about 1900 blue-green algal blooms. These are usually for use as farmland as well as lakes for which hypereutrophic lakes. there is no information. (Minnesota lists "dry" (c) Warmwater lakes are usually ther- and "no information" separately.) mally stratified in summer, have many elec- N Game lakes are too shallow for fish trolytes, moderate dissolved oxygen, organic because of winterkill, but they have an abun- and inorganic sediment, and large numbers of dance of emergent aquatic plants suitable as warmwater fish. These are usually eutrophic waterfowl habitat. These lakes usually are lakes. marshes and are hypereutrophic. (d) Two-story lakes have an epilimnion (c) Marginal lakes are shallow with bar- and hypolininion, abundant dissolved oxygen, ren shores and are not good for fish or fowl. warm- and coldwater fish, a diversified flora, (d) Fish and game lakes are good for fish and primarily inorganic sediments. These are and waterfowl. usually mesotrophic lakes. (e) Not classified lakes are fish lakes (e) Coldwater lakes are usually deep, which are not classified as to type of predomi- @ @ r@z non-fertile, have small diversified fauna and nant fish. Upland Lakes 367 2-5 06-10 >10 SCILE 11 MILES 0 LQ 20-30 40 W FIGURE4-297 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 2 in Terms of Percent of Each County's Surface Covered by Lakes (A) and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 (B) <1 2-5 6-10 >10 E, T R- 10 T FIGURE4-298 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 3 in Terms of Percent of Each County's Surface Covered by Lakes (A) and Number of Lakes/kM2 x 103 (B) 368 Appendix 4 IN T A R 0 T < -5 6-10 >10 1 2 SCALE IN MILES 010 20 30 40W N T A/R @7k FIGURE 4-299 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 4 in Terms of Percent of Each County's Surface Covered by Lakes (A) and Number of Lakes/kM2 X 103 (B) Upland Lakes 369 0 N T A R 1 0 <1 2-5 6-10 >10 6@IE 11 M111S zo 0 N T A R 1 0 FIGURE 4-300 Distribution of Upland Lakes in Plan Area 5 in Terms of Percent of Each County's Surface Covered by Lakes (A) and Number of Lakes/kM2 x 103 (B) 370 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-89 Minimum Lake Size Surveyed State Hectares Acres Illinois 0.1 0.3 Indiana 4.o 10.0 Michigan 2.0 5.0 Minnesota 4.o 10.0 25 New York 2.6 6.4 Ohio 0.3 1.0 Pennsylvania 1.2 3.0 Wisconsin 0.3 1.0 1Z . . ...... TABLE 4-90 A Comparison of State Lake Types Wisconsin Michigan Minnesota Warm Water Bog & Marsh Game Warm Water Fish Came _7 Centrarchid Intermediate Two-Story Walleye Cold Water Cold Water Trout Dry FIGURE 4-301 Distribution of Marsh and Bog Marginal Lakes in Michigan, in Terms of Percentage of Lakes of All Types Data from Michigan Water Resources Commission, 1965 (f) Centrachid lakes have only warmwa- ter fish such as panfish. (g) Walleye lakes have warm- and cold- plete historical and current data on upland water fish. lakes. The Michigan Department of Natural (h) Trout lakes have only coldwater fish Resources estimates that there are more than such as trout. 7,700 lakes greater than 2 hectares (5 acres) in (3) Wisconsin surface area in the State. Lakes under 2 hec- tares have not been inventoried. The small (a) Coldwater lakes have trout as their lake category, 2-6 ha (5-15 acres), includes only type of fish more than 3,600 or 47 percent of the total (b) Intermediate lakes have walleye and number of lakes in the State. As stated earlier, all other combinations of fish the smaller the lake the greater the tendency (c) Warm lakes have bass and/or panfish to become a marsh or bog lake. Michigan has only. approximately 2,000 marsh or bog lakes of The above terminology is related to lake which almost 1,300 or 67 percent fall in the type in Table 4-90 using temperature as a small-size category. The number of lakes per basic criterion. The Wisconsin classification is county is usually positively correlated with based on the species of fish present in the lakes the percent marsh and bog lakes per county. (State of Wisconsin906 ). Bass and panfish in a The distribution of marsh and bog lakes (Fig- lake indicate warm water. Trout alone indi- ure 4-301) in Michigan parallels the principal cates cold water. Any combination of warm- recessional moraines (Figure 4-9). Streams and coldwater indicator fish species indicates are not as well developed in the eastern heavy intermediate water temperature. marsh and bog region of Michigan as in the southwestern portion of the State, and there- fore, are not as effective in removing the ex- 10.10 Lakes in Michigan cess surface water of the area as those in the southwest. The State of Michigan has the most com- Marsh distribution has not changed signifi- Upland Lakes 371 cantly in approximately 100 years, although cording to trophic condition of all publicly individual marshes have changed markedly. owned freshwater lakes in such State Davis 1117 compiled a map of the original swamp (2) procedures, processes, and methods (in- areas in the lower peninsula of Michigan from cluding land use requirements), to control data obtained prior to 1873. The map matches sources of pollution of such lakes Figure 4-301 which is based on data collected (3) methods and procedures, in conjunction in 1965. The similarity in distribution of with appropriate Federal agencies, to restore marshes and bogs in 1873 and 1965 indicates the quality of such lakes. that areas and conditions for marsh and bog development have not changed significantly during the last century. 10.12 Summary Glaciation of the Great Lakes Basin resulted 10.11 Upland Lake Data Requirements in the creation of thousands of upland lakes. The origin of a given lake has influence on its There is a lack of consistency in the manner general characteristics. After creation, lakes in which each State has surveyed its upland begin a natural aging process, eutrophication, lakes. This inconsistency is quite evident in which encompasses physical, chemical, and Table 4-88, which incorporates data from more biological successions. than 15,000 upland lakes. If one acre were used The distribution of upland lakes in the Great as the minimum lake size, 30,000 lakes could be Lakes Basin is not uniform in terms of size, listed as Basin lakes. Because of the States' density, or trophic state. The larger and criteria for lake classification are so vague and greatest number of lakes are in areas of till inconsistent, a comprehensive survey is deposits, and the least number of lakes are in needed. The Water Resources Division, U.S. glacial lake plains. The upland lakes north of Geological Survey, at Albany is conducting a the 43rd parallel are usually in an earlier survey that will include approximately 4,000 trophic stage than those south of this parallel. New York lakes. Greeson300 has listed the This physiological division is the result of parameters to be surveyed on 21 representa- climatological variations, degree of man-made tive lakes (Table 4-91). Computerization of the pollution, and the fact that the glaciers re- data would make retrieval and manipulation treated from the north a few thousand years rapid and exact. If representative upland later than from the south. lakes in the Basin were surveyed in a similar As the Great Lakes Basin becomes more manner, identification of key indices, classifi- populated, increasing use of the upland lakes cation, problem identification, and limnologi- will accelerate lake aging and/or pollution. To cal planning would be greatly facilitated. adequately measure future changes in the up- Legislation to support such activity exists in land lakes, their current state must be known. the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Since .an optimistic figure for completion of a Amendments of 1972, PL 92-500. Included one-visit lake survey as outlined above would within this legislation (Subsection 304 [i]) is be in terms of 200 man-years, the survey the requirement that the U.S. Environmental should be initiated in the near future. With Protection Agency issue such information on such a survey, individual lake changes could methods, processes, and procedures as may be be documented and diagnosed and a basis es- appropriate to enhance the quality of the na- tablished for planning and development. tion's publicly owned lakes. State-of-the-art Changes in trophic state of the upland lakes information has now been presented (see U.S. will be negligible by the year 1980 although Environmental Protection Agency 1139) . Also individual lakes may change dramatically. By included in this legislation is the "Clean Lakes 2020 half of the upland lakes could exhibit Section, 314," which states that each State signs of the eutrophic stage due to accelerated shall prepare or establish, and submit to the aging. Since pollution of lakes has not been Administrator for his approval the following abated, trophic change of upland lakes will items: continue at an accelerated rate. However, this must be controlled if the upland lakes are to (1) an identification and classification ac- serve man in the foreseeable future. 372 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-91 Survey Parameters CHEMICAL specific conductance turbidity copper pH MBAS (detergents) gallium color dissolved oxygen germanium residue on evaporation concentration iron calcium percent saturation lead magnesium spectrographic analyses lithium hardness (Ca. + Mg) herbicides in water manganese sodium 2, 4-D molybdenum potassium 2, 4, 5-T nickel mercury silvex rubidium bicarbonate (HC03) insecticides in sediment (same silver carbonate (COO as above) selected lakes only strontium alkalinity herbicides in sediment (same tin sulfate as above) selected lakes only vanadium chloride total carbon zinc fluoride organic zirconium dissolved solids (calc.) inorganic titanium silica (S102) aluminum insecticides in water phosphorus (as ppb in P) barium aldrin inorganic soluble beryllium DID total soluble bismuth DDE total particulate boron DDT N-cycle cadmium dieldrin ammonia-N (NHO chromium endrin nitrite-N (N02) cobalt heptachlor organic nitrogen lindane total nitrogen (calc.) BIOLOGICAL phytoplankton chlorophyll streptococci, fecal qualitative identifications a nutrients (a total of 21, all of total concentrations b which are included in the list (quantitative) benthos of chemical parameters) total seston coliform, total level of productivity coliform, fecal PHYSICAL water temperature vertical stratification (cont.) volume air temperature depth total vertical stratification maximum usable storage water temperature mean dead storage dissolved oxygen width stage-volume relationship pH maximum development of volume chemical analyses of epilimnion mean flow through time (when possible) and hypolimnion during periods length stage variation (if necessary) of stratification maximum fetch length of shoreline axis maximum development of shore Secchi disc axis light transparency precipitation drainage area hydrographic contours of bottom surface area (major lakes only) OTHER counties ownership type usage of lake number type regulation names name type quadrangle address extent drainage basin land usage of shoreline controller and address major types formation of lake minor percent of each natural coordinates of location point land usage of drainage basin enhanced effluent tributary types artificial percent of each numerical coding of lakes Section 11 LIMNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCE UTILIZATION 11.1 Introduction variety of alternatives may be evaluated in light of their impact on the ecosystem, as well Structural or nonstructural modifications of as their impact on other demands. However, a lake environment or of inputs or outflow will this method would be, at best, subjective. cause changes in the lake ecosystem. Discrete There are at present insufficient data and changes may be more or less imperceptible in computer hardware to develop completely ob- the broad system depending on degree of al- jective, comprehensive models for most Great teration, but the cumulative change is recog- Lakes problems, but the Great Lakes Basin nizable. In this same manner the resource Commission study of feasibility of Limnologi- cannot be exploited for single interests be- cal Systems Analysis has identified those geo- cause of the impact on the extremely complex graphical and subject areas that can be de- societal demands. Conflict of interest is inher- scribed mathematically with current technol- ent in any multipurpose approach to planning ogy. and management, and this occurs at several different levels. In addition to urban versus rural, commercial versus environmental, up- 11.2 Current and Projected Water Resource stream versus downstream, local versus re- Utilization Problems gional, there is also competition on the larger scale between regions with different interests. Thus, the development and management of 11.2.1 Municipal and Industrial Water our natural resources must be through as- Supplies sessment and coordination of all actual and potential users. For this reason, interrelation- Many limnological factors influence the use ships and impacts of current and potential of lake water for municipal and industrial limnological problems on optimum utilization water supplies (Table 4-92). Direction and in- and management of the Great Lakes and up- tensity of currents and waves, water stratifi- land lakes are presented. cation, and internal waves affect short-term As a first step each of the limnological as- changes in water quality by directing flow and pects that have been discussed is related to the influencing mixing and dispersion of inputs. principal Great Lakes water uses with an indi- Little can be done about stratification, cur- cation of its impact on the desired use (Table rents, and circulation-induced problems other 4-92). This table can be used as a guide in than to consider them in planning. Contami- selecting topics of special interest in evaluat- nation of water with toxic elements, pes- ing consequences of the water resource utili- ticides, and pathogenic micro-organisms poses zation to satisfy a particular need. Traditional much greater hazards. Care should be taken to planning techniques overlook many of the in- locate intakes away from possible sources and terre lation ships discussed in this appendix out of the zone of influence of such contamina- because the significance of these factors has tion until introduction of the contaminants is not long been recognized in the complex at- stopped. In addition to preventive measures, tempts to satisfy all interests while maintain- lake restoration techniques are required to ing the integrity of the aquatic system. Be- eliminate those hazardous constituents or pol- cause environmental impact is an integral lutants already in the lakes. part of planning, the detailed discussions ref- erenced in Table 4-92 should be included in management considerations. 11.2.2 Water Storage An alternative to oversimplifications would be the utilization of computers to analyze Major concern with water storage comes large volumes of multivariate data so that a from power, navigation, shore properties, and 373 374 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-92 Relative Importance of Limnological Factors in Great Lakes Resource Utilization Water Supply Water Shore Fish & Power Waste Section Municipal Industrial Storage Property Navigation Wildlife Recreation Generation Disposal I General Basin Character Basin Morphology minor' minor minor major2 major minor major major major Basin Climate minimal3 minimal major major minimal minimal major major minimal Basin Geology minor minor' minimal major minimal minor minor minimal minimal Lake Levels & Discharges minor minor major major major minor minor major minor 3 Physical Characteristics Turbidity major major minimal major minimal major major minimal major Density minor minor major minimal minimal major major major major Water Temperature minor minor major major minimal major major major major 4 Hydrometeorology Radiation minimal minimal major minimal minimal major minor minimal minimal Wind minimal minimal minor major major minor major minimal minimal Air Temperature minimal minimal major major minimal minimal major minimal minimal Humidity minimal minimal major minor minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal Precipitation minimal minimal major major minimal minor major minor minimal 5 lee Cover minimal minimal minor major major minor major major minimal 6 Water Motion Surface Wind Waves major minor minimal major major major major minimal major Long-Period Waves minor minimal minimal major major minimal minor major minor Surface Currents major major minimal minor major major major minimal major Internal Circulation major major minimal minimal minimal major minimal minimal major Internal Waves major major minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal major Turbulence & Diffusion major major minimal major minimal major major minimal major Harbor Currents major major minimal minor major minor major minimal major Harbor Flushing major major minimal minor minor major major minimal major 7 Chemical Characteristics Dissolved Solids major major minimal minimal minimal major minimal minimal major Carbonate System major major minimal minor minimal major minor minor major Oxygen & Redox Potential major major minimal minor minimal major minor minimal major Chloride minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal minor Phosphorus System major minor minimal major minimal major major minimal major Nitrogen System major minor minimal minor minimal major major minimal major Hydrocarbons & Other Carbon Compounds major minor minimal major minimal major major minimal major Calcium & Magnesium minor major minimal minimal minimal minor minimal minimal minor Sulfur Cycle minor minor minimal minimal minimal minor minimal minimal major Silica & Silicate Compounds minimal minimal minimal minimal minimal minor minimal minimal minor Iron & Manganese minor major minimal minimal minimal minor minimal minimal major Trace Elements major major minimal minimal minimal major minimal minimal major Radionuclides minor minor minimal minimal minimal minor minimal minor major Chemical Loads & Trends major major minimal minor minimal major major minor major 8 Biological Characteristics Nekton minor minor minimal major minimal major major minimal major Bacteria & Fungi major minimal minimal major minimal major major minimal major Zoobenthos minimal minimal minimal minor minimal major major minimal major Zooplankton minor minimal minimal minor minimal major major minimal major Phytoplankton major major minimal major minimal major major minimal major Phytobenthos major major minimal major minimal major major minimal major 9 Sedimentology Sediment Distribution minor minor minimal major minor major major minimal major Sediment Flux minor minor minor major major major major major major Sediment Composition minor minimal minimal minimal minimal minor minor minimal major 10 Upland Lakes Eutrophication major minor minimal major minimal major major minimal major 'Minor means presently or soon to be of minor importance on resource utilization 2Major means presently or soon to be of critical importance to resource utilization 3Minimal means little forseeable impact on resource utilization consumptive water-use interests. The volume 11,Levels andFlows, if the effects are notcom- of water available to satisfy user demands will pensated for, there could be a potential shore be more than adequate in the foreseeable fu- properties problem in changing lake levels ture. Diversions, control structures, and with diversions, control structures, and changes in the thermal budget of the lakes can changes in the thermal budget. cause long-term changes in the volume of Water withdrawals could cause changes in stored water, but greater variation in lake lake levels and storage. For example, the di- storage results from variations in the hy- versions in the vicinity of Chicago have pro- drologic cycle. It would be difficult to compen- duced a net drop in the levels of Lakes Huron sate for natural variations because of inability and Michigan of 0.07 in (2.8 in). Future de- to make adequate long-term forecasts. How- mands will call for more interbasin and out- ever, as indicated in Section 4 and Appendix of-basin diversions. A diversion from Lake Water Resource Utilization 3 75 Huron to the Detroit metropolitan area is near 11.2.5 Fish and Wildlife completion, and proposals have been made for exportation of water from Lake Superior to fill Fish and wildlife, including all elements of needs in the southern half of the Great Lakes the organic community from plankton to neu- Basin, for importation of water from Canada stonic waterfowl, are affected in many ways. into the Great Lakes (KieranS454) , and from Nearshore effects are most apparent. Sedi- the Great Lakes to the southwestern States ment flux and turbidity affect solar radiation, (Laycock490).These and other diversions could a basic energy source; surface and internal affect lake levels significantly and should be circulation affects the accessibility of nutri- critically evaluated since they affect other re- ents and, in the case of overenriched waters, source use categories (Table 4-92). the distribution of undesirable algae and het- rotrophic organisms. Many minor taxa in lakes are stenothermal and may not be able to 11.2.3 Shore Property withstand excessive thermal loading. Un- doubtedly the major stimulus in modification The shores of the Great Lakes and the up- of the existing Great Lakes organic commu- land lakes are highly sensitive to changes in nity comes directly or indirectly from influx of the ecosystem. Waves and currents affect the chemicals. Lake enrichment by phosphates, shoreline through periodic damage by storm high BOD wastes, and nitrates can be reduced waves and long-period waves, and sediment with advanced waste treatment. However, erosion, transport, and deposition. These nat- guidelines and standards must account for ural forces are uncontrollable but their effects population increase and reflux of nutrients al- can be controlled through use of coastal pro- ready assimilated into lake sediment. A criti- tective structures and implementation of cal threat to actual survival exists from toxic coastal zoning. Changes in thermal charac- elements such as mercury, cadmium, arsenic, teristics of the lakes may modify the fauna, hexavalent chromium, selenium, and copper, flora, and climate along the coasts. Plans for and from toxic hydrocarbons, such as phenols, discharge of thermal wastes should account detergents, and pesticides. Toxic levels have for these changes over short- and long-time not yet been reached in the Great Lakes for periods. Thermal wastes might reduce lo- most of the known chemicals. However, some calized damage problems by eliminating or fish have been withdrawn from the market shortening the period of ice cover. In the Great because they contain levels that exceed Lakes, regional steps must be taken to prevent standards for human consumption, and bird undersirable faunal die-offs, algal blooms, and populations suffer from pesticides ingested spread of pathogenic bacteria. In the future, through predation on Great Lakes taxa. unless steps are taken immediately to reduce Other mortalities may result in all taxa waste inflow to the lakes, the consequence through the synergistic effects of combina- will be increased loss of shore-use areas by tions of toxicants or through effects of toxi- contamination. cants combined with other stresses such as thermal enrichment or competition with exot- ic species. The introduction of exotic species 11.2.4 Navigation may have positive or negative effects on the quality of Great Lakes fish populations. Cau- Factors that affect navigation on the lakes tion should be exercised in allowing introduc- include basin morphology, lake levels, ice tion of species as a management alternative. cover, sediment flux, surface waves, and wind. Natural forces can be accounted for in ship design. Maintenance of navigation channels 11.2.6 Recreation as related to sediment flux and basin morphol- ogy can affect the lake ecosystem as can land Recreational uses of the lakes include boat- use practices. Extension of the navigation ing, fishing, water contact activities, and season by ice breaking and ice retardation is tourism. The hydrodynamic and hydro- presently being attempted. Before drastic meteorological factors affecting use of the changes are made in navigation practices and lakes include storms, waves, undesirable air structures, however, effects of increased win- and water temperatures, and turbidity. Little ter flows on lake levels, the lake thermal can be done in the open lakes to obviate these budget, and shore properties need to be as- problems, but structural measures can be sessed. employed on a restricted basis inshore. Chem- 376 Appendix 4 ical wastes present problems such as in- 11.3 The Present Data Base as a Limnological creased turbidity; propagation of unsightly Planning Tool organisms such as algae; dead fish; undesir- able fish; unpleasant odors; and oil slicks. Although a casual overview may suggest Sediment flux and distribution may enhance that the data base in the Great Lakes is ade- or degrade bathing areas and probably will quate for assessing planning alternatives, increase. close scrutiny indicates that relatively few in- vestigations contribute to an understanding 11.2.7 Power Generation of the large scale response of the lakes. A rea- son for the lack of systematic data necessary The lakes are used in hydroelectric, steam, for fulfilling planning needs lies in the great and nuclear power generation. Levels and cost inherent in obtaining a statistically flows of the lakes and connecting channels sound, regional data set. For example, the govern the availability of water for hydroelec- costs of operating large research vessels are tric power and are discussed in Appendix high and a number of such vessels or other 10, Power, and Appendix 11, Levels and Flows. instrument platforms is required over rela- Thermally enriched discharge from steam and tively long time periods to define the temporal nuclear power plants is discussed in Section 6 and spatial characteristics of a lake. Con- of this appendix. The ultimate effects of local sequently, the state of knowledge is limited to or regional increases in water temperature on data collected primarily from local short-term changes in lake climate, water levels, chemis- or special-purpose surveys. A survey of papers try, and biota is largely conjectural. Few prob- and reports on the Great Lakes by area and lems with the availability of cooling water or subject through 1970 (Table 4-93) to identify boiler water are anticipated; the problem is data arrays that might be suitable for inclu- withdisposal. Use of thernially enriched wat-er sion in systems analyses revealed both subject to locally enhance sport fishing and water con- and geographical gaps in the data base. Lake tact activities needs to be considered as an Erie has been the subject of about half of the alternative. reports examined and most of these are re- stricted to the western basin. In decreasing order, studies on Lakes Michigan, Ontario, 11.2.8 Waste Disposal Huron, and Superior account for the other half. Of these studies, physical limnology, biol- The capacity of the lakes to assimilate ogy, and ecology have received about equal wastes has a limit based on volume and reten- attention. Every lake, however, has signifi- tion time. Upland lakes are particularly sus- cant gaps in the data base available from the ceptible to chemical and biological loading literature. from shore properties. It appears that with pro- One problem of using data from the litera- jected population trends, even currently ac- ture is that it may consist primarily of surn- cepted treatment levels may not improve lake maries of the actual data that are not amena- water quality appreciably in the long term. In ble to reinterpretation. Also, much of the mas- order to maintain existing conditions the level sive data arrays collected by the Federal of treatment of wastes must increase as the agencies have never been published or publi- population increases. Furthermore, manage- cation lags behind collection. It is apparent ment techniques must be developed to prorate that a major data storage or data cataloging waste discharges so that States adjacent to center must be developed for the Great Lakes lower lakes will have water quality and waste area through which data can be obtained or disposal advantages similar to those above sources identified. Success of that center will them in the lakes system. This will require a depend on the cooperation of the inves- sliding standard for water quality. For exam- tigators, institutions, and agencies. ple, although Lake Superior can assimilate -much more loading before deterioration is noticeable, increased loading should not be al- 11.4 International Field Year for the Great lowed because the influx of high quality water Lakes from Lake Superior helps to maintain the qual- ity of water in the lower lakes. From the oppo- The International Field Year for the Great site view, however, it can be argued that an Lakes (IFYGL), a joint National Research increase in nutrient loading will increase lake Council of Canada and U.S. National Academy productivity and aid fish production. of Sciences contribution to the International Water Resource Utilization 3 77 TABLE 4-93 Distribution of Great Lakes Studies by Area and Subject Exclusive of Taxonomic Studies Lake Superior Michigan Huron St. Clair Erie Ontario % of Total 8 21 8 1 47 15 % Devoted to: Geochemistry <1 1 1 0 6 3 Physical limnology 2 13 4 0 15 6 & hydrology Biology & Ecology 6 6 3 <1 17 5 Pollution <1 1 <1 <1 9 1 % that are of possible 52 64 74 100 64 43 regional significance NOTE: See Table 4-58 Hydrologic Decade is an intensive effort to tives. A contract was let in January 1971 to systematically study the hydrologic cycle, determine the feasibility of developing the energy balance, and physical, chemical, and models, to evaluate the current data base, and biological limnology of Lake Ontario and its to demonstrate the applicability of pertinent drainage basin. The IFYGL has the potential models to Great Lakes planning problems to revolutionize data collection, reduction, and through development of a simple pilot model. dissemination in the Great Lakes because, for A description of the limnological systems the first time, regional synchronous data were analysis as a basic input to the proposed Great taken over and within an entire lake with Lakes Environmental Planning Study is real-time retrieval. The data collection net- summarized as follows (Great Lakes Basin work consisted of buoys, coastal towers, Commission299): oceanographic vessels, aircraft, satellite im- The major objective of a Great Lakes Limnologi- agery, and inland hydrological and me- cal Systems Analysis Program is to develop a model or teorological stations operating from April 1, models of the physical, chemical and biological proc- 1972 through March 31, 1973. The data base, esses in the Great Lakes in sufficient detail to enable probably the most comprehensive ever on a planners, engineers and economists to assess the con- sequences of alternative planning and resource de- lake, is available at Canadian and U.S. re- velopment strategies. The models developed in the positories. It will continue to be the subject of first cycle will serve as planning aids for formulating intensive analyses. In addition to exercising and modifying optimum and suboptimum coordinated international and national cooperation at all plans for the water and related land resources of the Great Lakes.... levels the program provides a sound basis for Input data to the Limnological Systems Analysis development of regional resource plans. models should include runoff variables critical to the Bolsenga and MacDowal178 give a detailed de- environment. The operation of the models with these scription of the IFYGL. inputs, using appropriate physical, chemical, and biological functional relationships, will yield output appropriate to the evaluation of the economic and aesthetic goals of the Commission. The variables 11.5 Limnological Systems Analysis selected for output from the model(s) will be environ- mental rather than economic in dimension. The physical boundary . . . will, for the time be- Underlying all of the water resource prob- ing, be limited to the lakes system proper. The design lems, planning decisions, and management of the Limnological Systems Analysis models will be programs, is a need for objective, rapid ap- such that at some future date the systems analysis praisal of projected trends, planning alterna- can be expanded into the tributary drainage basins. There may also be expansion into the areas of cultural tives, and priority assignments, and a logical and political input for optimization of overall use of assessment of consequences. In 1969 the Great the water and related land resources. . . . Lakes Basin Commission recognized this need The systems may comprise a series of models, con- and began a program to test the feasibility of cerning separate problems of the basin, i.e., hy- drodynamic, water quality and ecology, and others. developing mathematical models that simu- These models must be modular and must be compati- late responses of the Great Lakes. These tools ble for an integrated usage if multiple models are would be used in developing planning alterna- considered feasible. . . . 378 Appendix 4 The program, by estimating the magnitude of ef- ing, cooperation, and mutual benefit for the fect and extent of imbalances on the natural system Great Lakes Basin Commission and other caused by variation in input, or modification of chemi- water-resource users. cal, physical or biological parameters, will enable some specific resource planning problems of the Great Lakes to be examined, such as: (1) Long and short-term variations in water qual- 11.6 Lake Restoration ity and improvement of the total natural system by control of a segment of the environment. (2) Projected effect of cultural and industrial de- One element of a comprehensive list of na- velopment on the water resources system under pres- tional priorities recommended by the Commis- ent practices. sion on Marine Science, Engineering and (3) Relationship of waste discharges to sport and Resources'" is a water quality restoration commercial fisheries on the Great Lakes in current and projected time frame. project in the Great Lakes. The restoration (4) Effect of water level fluctuations and related program was to consist of three phases: stop in- phenomena on shore properties throughout the Great flux of pollutants; test the feasibility of reduc- Lakes. ing damage.9.1ready done; and if feasible, insti- In the planning process the models will aid in tute an action program to restore the lakes. examining problems of effective water resource utili- zation through the assessment of alternatives leading The projected cost of the program was $15 mil- to solutions and problems such as: lion annually for the period 1971-75, and a pro- (1) Coordinated use of the Great Lakes by multiple jected $20 million annually for 1976-80, for a compe-iing interests. total of $175 million. The program was adopted (2) Accurate assessment of water quality and quan- in concept by the Administration and listed as tity in current and projected time frame. (3) Optimum depth of navigation channels for a priority national project. Since that time the most economical relationship between maintenance lake restoration project has been altered to a and development of shipping capability. program of restoration studies for all lakes in (4) Assessment of recreational use of the Great the nation. The concept that smaller lakes, Lakes in current and projected time frame. (5) Proposed management of the Great Lakes Basin particularly lakes in the southeast, can be leading to a desired balance of the ecosystem. studied and extrapolations made to the Great (6) Improving the quality of the Great Lakes or Lakes has altered the original intent of the portions thereof through waste treatment and lake program. Few of these extrapolations are ap- restoration programs. The level of detail necessary for utilizing . . . plicable. Lakes prototypical to the Great [model] output . . . for planning purposes will be less Lakes should be similar in distribution of pho- stringent than that required for operation [s] and . . . tic and profundal zones, and have two seasons management. . . . For purposes of. . . [Level BI de- of stratification and mixing, ice cover, equiva- tail, assumed relationships maybe usable, but. . Ahe lently constructed aquatic ecosystems, and adequacy of such relationships [must be evaluated] for operation and management purposes. . . . similar sedimentological and chemical sys- One of the primary objectives of the Systems tems. There are no such equivalent lakes in Analysis Study is to bring together in a systematic the United States. Although restoration manner all of the pertinent data and results of studies studies of upland lakes are vital, if the ulti- developed through research and investigation by mate goal is deceleration of eutrophieation many universities, States, Federal agencies and others. The development of a model for the Great processes in the Great Lakes, then the original Lakes will also tend to bring together in an orderly intent of the Commission on Marine Science, fashion various systems analysis studies underway, Engineering and Resources needs to be reem- or proposed for study, in various areas of the Great phasized. Lakes. The restorative phase should be an Design of the models will be such that inter- International-Federal-State cooperative en- actions between the operation and design mod- deavor with several concurrent steps. A three- els of Federal and State agencies, industrial to five-year planning and feasibility study and municipal resource users, and research period is needed, during which smaller Great institutions can be tested, and regional, long- Lakes Basin lakes, such as Lake St. Clair, the term results obtained. For the first time State Finger Lakes, or Lake Winnebago, are used to and Federal agencies will have a common link test alternatives. At the same time, mathe- in an objective system that can allow testingof matical modeling and intensive datacollection individual actions against multifple diverse should be implemented on the Great Lakes, interests. In addition, scope and intensity of while phase 1 preventive programs are con- data collection can be designed to be respon- tinued, and socio-political arrangements are sive to regional problems, based on data sen- fashioned to accommodate the chosen restora- sitivity determinations from the pertinent tion techniques and trade-offs that must re- models. The result will be greater understand- sult. An extended period of action follows the Water Resource Utilization 379 feasibility period. The action must be dynamic (1) Plant harvesting is the physical re- to account for increased stress on the lakes moval of aquatic weeds and algae to reduce from population growth, industrialization, sedimentation, BOD, and nutrient recycling. utility development, and recreation/leisure- (2) Chemical treatment with herbicides or time demands. toxicants controls unwanted flora and fauna. Treatment with flocculants precipitates solids and nutrients, but flocculants have the disad- 11.6.1 Lake Restoration Techniques vantage of being nonspecific; so desirable faunal elements may be affected. Knowledge of lake restoration techniques is (3) Dredging is the physical removal of based largely on test cases conducted on small sediment and BOD-creating organic debris. lakes in North America and Europe. The ap- (4) Mechanical destratification destroys plications have met with varying degrees of the thermocline to allow reoxygenation of success (Table 4-94). Treatment techniques hypolimnetic water and increased assimila- may be classified as external or as internal tion and dilution capacity. Destratification is (Table 4-95). accomplished by stirring or bubbling. External treatment consists of measures (5) Morphological modification by dredg- applied in the drainage basin of a lake that will ing or structural modification alters circula- reduce the rate of pollution input. These gen- tion patterns or flushing characteristics. erally align with the initial or preventive (6) A few small lakes have been partially phase of lake restoration. The following are drained by pumping. Pump discharge is al- basic external treatment techniques: lowed to recycle to the lake by percolation (1) Runoff diversion is diversion of through the ground where soil minerals and tributaries or runoff from watershed areas of taxa can remove the undesirable constituents. poor quality so that the pollutant load by- (7) Biomanipulation is the introduction or passes the lake. encouragement of certain taxa to reduce an (2) Soil conservation reduces sediment loss undesirable constituent and/or create a re- and increases water and waste retention on source. the drainage basin so that natural waste as- (8) Bottom sealing is done by using sand, similation and recycling can be accomplished. clays, plastics, and other materials to form a (3) Runoff treatment involves conven- barrier at the sediment-water interface to iso- tional waste treatment of natural and agricul- late high BOD organics and nutrients in bot- tural runoff. tom sediment from potential interaction with (4) Control of chemical additives can cause the water column. reduction of phosphate, organic fertilizer, and (9) Thermal manipulation by selective in- pesticide influx by conservative use on the wa- troduction of heated or cooled water may alter tershed and by selection of biodegradable circulation or reduce stratification. Antici- chemicals. pated effects are the same as those in item 4. (5) Sewage diversion uses the same princi- Some of the treatment techniques have al- ple as runoff diversion by bypassing a lake ready been used in the Great Lakes. Diversion with municipal and industrial wastes. of the Chicago River system into the Illinois (6) Waste treatment reduces pollutants by River watershed is an example of runoff and advanced sewage treatment before their dis- sewage diversion. This technique has draw- charge into the lakes. This is the first or pre- backs in that the lake levels may be affected ventive phase of lake restoration. and the wastes are not eliminated, but only (7) Flow augmentation increases tributary passed on to other areas. Lampricides, which discharge by releasing water from reservoirs have been used with some success in the Great during low flow or heavy pollutant loading Lakes Basin, are an example of chemical periods. This technique is applicable to rivers treatment. and small lakes, but the residence time of Potentially feasible restoration techniques water in the Great Lakes makes this an un- in the Great Lakes were reviewed by Battelle workable alternative. Northwest. 43 They concluded that restoration The internal treatment technique has been of the Great Lakes is possible and recom- successful in small lakes. However, applicabil- mended the following steps: ity of these techniques to the Great Lakes is (1) Identify the economic criteria that can probably limited to restricted bays and es- be quantified in order to evaluate the costs tuaries. Internal treatment techniques are and benefits associated with various treat- basically the following: ment alternatives. 380 Appendix 4 TABLE 4-94 Examples of Lake Restoration Restoration Technique and Lake Location Effectiveness Reference WASTE TREATMENT Annecy France Eutrophication slowed Laurent, et al., 1970 Leman France Eutrophication continues Laurent, et al., 1970 Vattern Sweden Turbidity reduced Scandinavian Times, 1970 Shagawa Ely, Minnesota EPA Test Project Brice & Powers, 1969 Stone Cass County, Michigan No change to date Tenney, et al., 1970 INTRODUCTION OF FORAGE FISH Clear California 70%-80% decrease in algae Civil Engineering, 1970 DIVERSION OF WASTE EFFLUENT Annecy France Eutrophication slowed Laurent, et al., 1970 Monona Madison, Wisconsin N & P decreased, little Lee & Fruh, 1966 decrease in algae Nantua France Some success Laurent, et al., 1970 Washington Seattle, Washington P decreased, N shows little Edmondson, 1970 decrease, algal declines Waubesa Madison, Wisconsin (see Lake Monona) Lee & Fruh, 1966 Mackethun, 1965 AERATION Cox Hollow Wisconsin DO increased, constituents Brezonik, et al., 1970 oxidized DESTRATIFIGATION Boltz Noi::hern Kentucky Water quality improved; Symons, et al., 1970 Falmouth Northern Kentucky algal productivity increased Symons, 1969 Vesuvius Southern Ohio DILUTION WITH NUTRIENT-POOR WATER Green Seattle, Washington Definite improvement Oglesby, 1968 Bled Yugoslavia Definite improvement Sketeli & Rejic, 1963 DREDGING Green Seattle, Washington Definite improvement Oglesby, 1968 Carlinville Illinois Sediment removal Roberts, 1969 HERBICIDE APPLICATION Multiple examples Various Effect varies Holm, et al., 1969 ALUM TREATMENT Bangsjon Stockholm, Sweden P reduced Jernelov, 1970 Horseshoe Wisconsin Temporary improvement Univ. of Wisconsin & Wisconsin Department Natural Resources, 1970 PUMPING WITH GROUND-WATER RECHARGE Snake Wisconsin Apparent success Univ. of Wisconsin & Wisconsin Department Natural Resources, 1970 SOCIAL-POLITICAL ACTION Wolverine Michigan Indeterminate Huron River Watershed Council, 1970 Zurich Switzerland Apparent success Thomas, 1962 TREATMENT WITH FLY ASH Stone Michigan Temporary improvement Tenney & Ec@elberger, 1970 (2) Implement measures to prevent fur- cerned with Great Lakes water quality and to ther water quality deterioration. implement and manage restoration plans. (3) Implement techniques to restore the Water quality deterioration in the Great quality of those portions of the Great Lakes Lakes was attributed by Battelle North- that are presently impaired. weSt43 to the following causes, in order of de- (4) Designate A lead agency to coordinafe creasing impact: the agencies and organizations that are con- (1) High Impact Water Resource Utilization 381 TABLE 4-95 Application of Lake Restoration Techniques to Specific Water Quality Problems Nuisance Nuisance Fishkills Bacterial Toxicant Oil & Brine Unstable Siltation Excessive Undesirable Algal Aquat ic & Bacteria Contami- Contami- Contami- Water Excessive Dissolved Biotic Undesirable Growth Vegetation Decline nation nation nation Levels Sediment Solids Elements Solid Wastes Diversion of Urban B B B B B B S B B S/E Storm Runoff Diversion of Rural B B B B B B B B B B Storm Runoff Sewage Diversion B 8 B B B - - S/E B B Algal Harvest S/E/A S/g/A S/E/A - S - - S B Use of Growth Inhibitors B B A R A - - A A A Flow Augmentation S S S S - S S A A A Dredging S/E S/E A - S/E S/E - SIR SIR SIE/A SIR Advanced Waste Treatment B 8 B B B1 B - B B B Herbicide Treatment S/E S/E A S/E A - - A A B/A - Tr atment with Other A A A S/E A - - A A B - P:sticides Destratification S/E - S/E S/E S/E - Harvest of Aquatic Weeds S/E/A S/E S/E/A - S - S/E S/E/A S/E/A - Intensive Soil Conserva- B 0 B B B - B B B tion on Drainage Basin Chlorination of B B A B Storm Runoff Pasticide Control BI HI B BI B BI B1 in Basin Morphology Changes To S/E S/E S/E S/E - A A A S/E Increase Flushing Public Action Group - S/E B Activity Control of Feedlots SIR S/E S/E S/E - - S/E S/E Exchanges of Septic Sys- B B B B B - B tems for Sewage Treatment Mechanical Aeration BI BI - Impede Light Penetration HI BI - BI BI Lim Treatment in Lake - S1/E1/A - S1/E1/A A Alm Treatment in Lake S/E/A S/E/A S/E/A - A Pumping with Ground S S S S S SI 5 Water Recharge Specific Treatment for B B B B B Limiting Nutrient Introduction of B S BI St BI B Consuming Organisms 'Although potentially effective, technique not designed for treatment of problem. S - May be suitable for small upland lakes. E - May be suitable for Great Lakes embayments. B - May be suitable for both upland lakes and Great Lakes. A - May have adverse effects on a water-quality problem. (a) municipal wastewater (1) Maximize nutrient removal from mu- (b) agricultural runoff nicipal wastewater. (c) sediment interchange (2) Improve land management practices to (2) Medium Impact eliminate agricultural runoff. (a) industrial wastewater (3) Subject maximum amounts of com- (b) combined storm sewage bined storm sewage to secondary treatment (c) urban land drainage and design all future sewer systems with (d) dredging separate storm and sanitary sewers. (e) tributary inflow (4) Cease all disposal of dredgings, gar- (f) fisheries considerations bage, trash, and refuse into the lakes. (3) Low Impact (5) Remove rough fish and harvest desira- (a) watercraft wastes ble fish to the maximum feasible extent. (b) oil discharges (6) Harvest aquatic weeds and isolate the (c) thermal discharges nutrients contained therein from the lakes. (d) waterfowl (7) Treat watercraft wastes to the equiva- (e) subsurface disposal lent of secondary treatment. (f) atmospheric quality deterioration. It is obvious that five of the seven measures In addition to adherence to Federal water are preventive and only two are restorative quality recommendations, Battelle North- actions. weSt 43 suggested that the following be imple- It is apparent that for overall treatment of mented to restore lakes: the Great Lakes only the preventive or exter- 382 Appendix 4 nal techniques which have been tested are tration required to improve phosphorus- economically feasible; additional alternatives linked water quality criteria would be in the must be developed. Application of the other range of 15 to 950 years, based on retention alternatives to specific problems may be eco- times given for the Great Lakes in Subsection nomically and physically expedient. Con- 7.8.4. Uncertainties in projecting from small to sequently, the primary thrust of the lake res- large lakes have already been cited and there toration program in the early or preventive is evidence (Gumerman 307) that, at one ex- stage of development must be a combination of treme, Lake Superior may require no water soil conservation, control of chemical replacement while, at the other extreme, Lake additives, and waste treatment. The first two Erie may require many'more than five cycles. techniques are well understood and, although Times could be open to question with non- specific implementation methodologies should conservative constituents, but the principle is be developed, the major obstacles to im- valid and must be considered. Since Lake Su- plementation are legislative and economic. perior has no problem with overproductivity, Techniques for advanced waste treatment only Lake Michigan, with a water residence are also available, but are costly. Low cost time of 100 years, would not benefit from phos- treatment plans are needed to augment con- phorus control over a short period of time. ventional waste treatment designs. Greeson 301 summarized the literature on One problem that is evident from the loading requirements for algal growth. His conclusion studies in Section 7 is the effect of treatment was that from 0.002 to 0.090 mg/l of phosphorus on present chemical loads. If the load esti- is sufficient for algal production. If this is the mates by UpchurchI107 are accurate, then case, then the maximum loading of phos- present external treatment criteria may be phorus into a lake for limitation of primary too low to achieve an improvement in water production can be estimated. For example, quality. For example, lake enforcement con- Figure 4-178 indicates a maximum of 0.005 ferences have suggested 80 percent phos- mg/l phosphate (equivalent to about 0.002 phorus removal as an achievable goal. In order mg/1) in northern Lake Michigan. If this is as- to reduce primary production to the point that sumed to be the maximum allowable phos- algae cease to be a problem, phosphorus, or phate content in a phosphorus-limited system, some other nutrient, must become a limiting then the ideal phosphate concentration nutrient. Studies with chlorides indicate that throughout Lake Michigan should be 0.005 80 percent removal of man-made wastes, mg/l. Assuming that inflow equals outflow and which is practically impossible because ag- assimilation is at a steady state, the maximum ricultural runoff is included in this category, annual loading can be no more than the prod- will allow reasonably good reduction of wastes uct of annual outflow and the concentration of in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but will only sus- phosphate or tain existing conditions in Lakes Huron and (3.7 x 10131) (5 x 10-9kg/1) - 2.34 x 10,1kg of P Michigan. Therefore, although 80 percent re- moval of phosphorus is a necessary first step Any excess over an annual load of 2 x 105kg in lake restoration, improvements in waste of phosphate is, therefore, assimilated by treatment are needed for more effective nu- plants and becomes excess productivity or is trient removal. A few simple projections can stored in sediment. Upchurch 1107 (Section 7) es- also be made regarding phosphorus. Ogles- timated an annual phosphate load in Lake by 5117 studied the effects of flushing Green Michigan of 110 x 105 kg. To reduce that load Lake, Seattle, Washington, with nutrient-poor to 2 X 105kg would require approximately 98 water. After a period of time equivalent to re- percent removal, which is the same order of placing the lake water five times, an improve- reduction suggested by Vollenweider. 1164 ment in those water quality criteria linked to Ninety-eight percent removal would require phosphorus was noted. This implies that phos- treatment far in excess of that anticipated by phorus bound in the sediment was either iso- present planning. The loading estimates pub- lated or released upon cessation of waste in- lished by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, flow. It also took five times the water replace- Buffalo District"" (Tables 4-52,53, and 54) are ment time to remove a sufficient amount of the even higher and indicate even more treat- active, bottom-sediment phosphorus to estab- ment. lish a new equilibrium with the water and thus Another important consideration in exter- effect the noted improvement. If results from nal treatment for Great Lakes restoration is this small lake were projected to the Great the role of limiting nutrients. KuentzeJ4711 Lakes, phosphorus reduction to the concen- suggested that phosphorus reduction may not Water Resource Utilization 383 be feasible because it is already present in ex- chemicals, particularly organic chemicals cess in most lakes; therefore, it no longer such as most pesticides have been shown to serves as a limiting nutrient. He suggests that damage terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosys- BOD and organic waste control be a goal in tems. In combination with loss of heavy metals lake restoration. Nitrogen is thought to be a to the aquatic environment, these chemicals limiting nutrient in certain coastal marine may pose the ultimate threat to the lake sys- environments and should be considered in the tem. Restoration can begin immediately with control of plant production in the Great Lakes. control over or prohibition of chemicals known Abbott I has suggested that other constituents or suspected to be harmful. besides phosphorus, nitrogen, or carbon could In broad terms lake restoration should be be limiting. Abbott postulated that vitamins directed toward the restoration of water qual- or metals may limit productivity in some sys- ity to some desired level and improvement of tems. If controls combining the best existing the total environment for the maximum bene- technology with clean water objectives are fit to the population. Feasibility of any tech- instituted, these controls should consider nique must be tested at the lake scale, and the phosphorus, nitrogen, organic wastes and relationship of effects on the total system other carbon sources, trace metals, and other must be determined. The entire approach to macro- and micronutrients as limiting factors lake restoration must be based on the concept within the limnological system and limit their that restoration is not merely a process that concentration if technologically feasible. arrests factors which cause degradation of a Chemical control on the watershed must be lake; rather, restoration consists of varied ap- strictly enforced and supported by an active proaches aimed at rejuvenation or reversal of research program. Many commonly used existing trends. Section 12 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 12.1 Current Status of the Great Lakes 12.1.2 Lake Michigan The Great Lakes are in danger of irrepara- Major environmental deterioration is not ble damage from the introduction of wastes of yet evident in the major part of Lake Michi- one kind or another. At the present time the gan. However, Green Bay and portions of the quality of the lakes is such that simply main- lake south of a line from Milwaukee to Muske- taining them at present quality levels will be a gon are deteriorating. The flow-through time major task in view of increasing population, for Lake Michigan is slow, so wastes intro- industrialization, urbanization, and leisure duced into the lake have a tendency to remain time available for lake use. Restoration of the there. The large volume gives it a great capac- lakes to some desired earlier level of quality is ity to assimilate inputs, but unless rapid and technically feasible, but requires a willingness comprehensive action is taken to reduce waste on the part of the people to support long-range, introduction, this capacity will soon be ex- large-scale, costly programs. ceeded. Population growth in the Lake Michi- gan basin is projected to continue. Due to the increased population and waste loads, main- 12.1.1 Lake Superior tenance of lake water quality and restoration will become disproportionately more difficult Lake Superior is essentially oligotrophic and without adequate treatment. Present prob- shows no overall change in quality in the last lems include increasing concentrations of nu- century. Its large total volume and the large trients and other dissolved constituents, oxy- volume of hypolimnion make the lake insensi- gen depletion in Green Bay, near oxygen de- tive to wastes that are currently being intro- pletion in many harbors under ice cover in the duced. Local problem areas of varying scales southern basin, heavy chloride concentrations do exist in Duluth and other urban areas, in near Manistee and Ludington, oil spills, over- mining regions north of Duluth, in the production of algae, and fish-kills. Relative Keweenaw Peninsula region, at paper mills, abundances of planktonic and benthic species and at other industrial waste outfalls have changed, and several new species have throughout the basin. One problem that may appeared in the lake. In Green Bay and other arise in the near future is the loss of toxic restricted areas most of the normal, oligo- elements from some of those industries. Intro- trophic biota have been replaced by pollution- duction of taconite into the lake north of tolerant species. Fish populations have Duluth is considered to be a hazard and litiga- changed radically. Lake trout have ceased to tion is under way to remedy the problem. The be important and the introduced smelt, carp fishery has changed as a result of man's ac- and alewife have become major members of tivities, but there appears to be little change in the total catch. With the predation of the sea other aspects of the biota. Fishery changes lamprey on the trout, smelt, carp, and alewife include the introduction of smelt and the de- have had few natural predators to control cline of lake trout and whitefish coincident their numbers. Introduction of salmon into with modified fishing practices and the intro- Lake Michigan seems to have alleviated this duction of the sea lamprey. Lamprey control, problem, and with an active lamprey-control restocking with lake trout, and the introduc- program trout are also again becoming major tion of salmon will cause further changes in predators on the "trash fish." Management of the fish population and presumably an im- the Lake Michigan fish population can be in- provement in use of the resource. strumental in achieving a desired ecological 385 386 Appendix 4 balance, but only if the water quality of the tion. Restoration is possible within a few dec- lake is not allowed to deteriorate. ades if decisive action is taken. Problems stem from the interaction of four factors: the bed- rock of the lake and the drainage basin contain 12.1.3 Lake Huron natural pollutants; the lake basin is extremely shallow and contains only two percent of the Most of the inflow to Lake Huron is from water in the Great Lakes system; a major Lake Superior and the upper, relatively unaf- megalopolis has developed along the Ameri- fected part of Lake Michigan. Therefore, Lake can shore; and the lake receives polluted Huron displays many of the same characteris- water from upstream areas. Restoration of tics as Lake Superior. Water quality has not Lake Erie must include adequate action in changed greatly in the last century. However, Lake Michigan and, Lake Huron to achieve ac- Saginaw Bay and the heavily used harbors do ceptable water quality. Problems in Lake Erie show strong evidence of excess waste loading. include overenrichment with nutrients and Because of the large volume of the lake, these concommitant algal growth, turbidity, loads have little effect on the open lake north deoxygenation in the central basin during of Saginaw Bay. As population pressures in- summer, toxic element contamination, inade- crease in the Lake Huron, Superior, and quate shore-use control, and loss of habitats Michigan basins, the quality of Lake Huron necessary for removal of nutrients and devel- water can be expected to deteriorate. opment of a stable biota. Increases in the con- Pollution-generated stresses on the biota in centrations of most constituents due to popu- Saginaw Bay have caused major changes. lation and industrial growth have been Fisheries throughout the lake have changed dramatic in the past and will continue if un- as well. Carp have been introduced, and lake checked. The biota has undergone drastic trout and walleye have been reduced in impor- changes and consists primarily of pollution- tance, presumably in response to sea lamprey tolerant taxa. Although the fish catch is still predation and poor fishing practices. Intro- the largest in the Great Lakes, many desirable duction of salmon and lamprey control meas- species have been reduced or disappeared. ures have had the same effects as in Lake Critical areas in Lake Erie include most of the Michigan. western and central basins, and segments ad- jacent to the large metropolitan areas. Many harbors are incapable of supporting desirable 12.1.4 Lake St. Clair life of any sort. Little is known about Lake St. Clair even though the lake is relatively small and is adja- 12.1.6 Lake Ontario cent to a major urban area. Influx of water from Lake Huron coupled with rapid flushing Although most of the water in Lake Ontario controls the overall quality of the lake. The comes from Lake Erie and the Toronto- greatest problem in Lake St. Clair is the influx Hamilton area introduces pollutants, the lake of municipal and industrial wastes from the is in somewhat better shape than Lake Erie surrounding area. This influx also constitutes due largely to the volume to surface ratio of a portion of the contamination introduced to the lake coupled with a relatively short water Lake Erie via the Detroit River. The wastes replacement time. Even so, the poor overall include excess nutrients and high BOD or- water quality must be improved. This can only ganic wastes. Toxic metals, including but not be accomplished through action in both the restricted to mercury, are known to be intro- upstream lakes and in the Lake Ontario basin duced both upstream and downstream from itself. Primary problems in Lake Ontario re- the lake. Removal of these toxic materials flect the influence of Lake Erie, and include from the lake will continue to be a problem the buildup of chemical constituents and nu- even after cessation of waste introduction, but trient supply. Major problem areas are the it must be addressed if Lake Erie water qual- urban-industrial complex from Hamilton to ity is to be improved. Toronto, Canada, and Rochester, New York. Projected problems include further overen- richment and toxic element contamination 12.1.5 Lake Erie near the two urban areas. Biotic changes, in- cluding fisheries, have been as drastic as those Lake Erie has the greatest need for restora- in Lake Erie. Summary and Recommendations 387 12.2 Future Needs (10) Use techniques for multispectral sens- ing in the visible and thermal infrared spec- This appendix has shown basic needs in two trum for identifying, measuring the extent of, areas. First, there is a need for a basic data, and tracing movements of water masses. multidisciplinary integration of the data, and definition of fundamental responses and rela- tionships that describe the limnological proc- 12.2.2 Hydrometeorology esses in the lakes. Secondly, there is a need to develop and implement institutional ar- (1) A comprehensive study of the heat rangements, restoration techniques, optimum energy budget of the entire Great Lakes is resource -utilization plans, and monitoring necessary if improvements are to be obtained systems in order to improve and/or maintain for predictions related to hydrometeorology. the viability of Great Lakes Basin lakes as The use of existing facilities and instrument resources. networks and the IFYGL program can become To better understand the chemical, physi- the basis for a study of this kind. cal, and biological processes that operate in (2) The use of buoy stations for monitoring the Great Lakes in order to accomplish goals water temperature profiles and meteorologi- and objectives as described in this appendix, cal parameters and the use of remote infrared the following areas of research should be em- sensors to detect and trace areal temperature phasized. distributions should be investigated. Data col- lection must extend over a period of time long enough that valid statistical analyses can be 12.2.1 Water Motion made and data collection techniques evalu- ated. Knowledge of winter temperature struc- (1) Study the directional characteristics of ture of the lakes is necessary for energy wind waves to define temporal and spatial as- budget determinations and for gaining a com- pects of the generation, growth, and decay of plete understanding of ice cover growth and wind-wave spectra. decay. (2) Study air-water interactions to un- (3)'Heat budget studies of the lake as a part derstand the nonlinear energy transfer from of ice forecasting require data on the areal winds to waves, and from waves to waves. extent, distribution, thickness, and structure (3) Develop instruments to measure wind of lake ice. Because of the technological ad- stress, turbulence, and atmospheric pressure vances in instrumentation for remote sensing, fluctuations at the lake surface. Incorporate both in the active and passive phases, data on these measurements with wind-wave and the quantity and quality of ice accretion and long-period wave studies. distribution can now be gathered, and in- (4) Conduct theoretical, experimental depth synoptic pictures of ice cover can be studies of long-period waves, using the hy- made. drodynamic equations with nonlinear terms (4) The effect of thermal discharges on the included. Study the effects of earth rotation, lakes needs to be assessed. The added heat bottom friction, and density stratification. affects evaporation, extent and period of ice (5) Develop instruments to measure pres- cover, and other hydrometeorological factors sure fluctuations at the lake bottom for lake- in the immediate discharge area, but the scale synoptic monitoring of variations of sur- long-term, lake-scale effect of these inputs in face motions. unknown. (6) Study the genesis, transmission, and (5) The effects of ice cover on the biological extent of water-level oscillations having characteristics of the lakes should be investi- periods of five minutes to several hours. gated, because changes in the extent or time of (7) Describe open-lake circulation and its an ice cover will affect the biological system. interaction with nearshore currents to deter- (6) Greater or lesser amounts of ice mean a mine the response and decay of both current greater or lesser degree of retardation to the types. flow in the connecting channels. The long- (8) Improve techniques to measure cur- term effect of a modified period of ice cover on rents for harbor flushing determinations, lake lake levels must be determined. circulation, and mass transport. (7) The relationship between over-land and (9) Determine water temperatures of over-water meteorological variables needs to tributaries and of lakes since lake stratifica- be determined. Clarification of these relation- tion can alter the current regime. ships would allow the utilization of on-land 388 Appendix 4 data, which are easier and more economical to urban interests, and Great Lakes research obtain. groups to assure soil conservation, control of (8) A set of terms and definitions must be chemical additives, and waste treatment compiled for lake ice. Some terms have diverse levels that are adequate for lake management meanings and almost all are a carry-over from objectives. sea ice. These terms should be redefined, and if (11) Contingency plans for oil spills and well- necessary, new ones should be introduced to head losses should be developed and the create an effective classification of Great treatment activities should be practiced. Lakes ice. 12.2.4 Biology 12.2.3 Chemistry (1) The role of bacteria and fungi in nutrient (1) Detailed, synoptic assessments of water cycling should be emphasized, particularly quality, including major constituents, trace with regard to the influence of specific envi- elements, toxicants, and organic chemicals ronmental factors such as pH, oxidation- must be made at meaningful frequencies. reduction potential, temperature, specific (2) Winter collection of water and sediment chemical pollutants, and symbiotic relation- chemical data must be implemented. ships. (3) A survey of potentially hazardous chemi- (2) Effect of mechanical disruption of lake cals must be implemented. Special emphasis thermal stratification on bacteria and fungi should be given to organic pesticides, and should be a part of the evaluation of this tech- heavy metals such as selenium, arsenic, hexa- nique as a treatment for summer anoxia in the valent chromium, cadmium, zinc, iron, copper, hypolimnion. tin, cobalt, nickel, lead, boron, and manganese. (3) In view of the apparently high BOD in (4) Sediment-water interactions that re- Lake Erie and other lakes, and the apparent move contaminants from the lake water and changes induced in bacterial and fungal popu- the kinetics of the reactions need to be deter- lations by temperature changes, the potential mined. Techniques to insure chemical isola- increase in the available nutrient supply tion of the sediment without injuring the sys- through thermal enrichment should be esti- tem need to be developed as does a lake resto- mated. ration technique. (4) The development of improved culturing (5) Water quality standards for the Great techniques for some of the more obscure Lakes need to be continually reevaluated to groups of bacteria and fungi is essential. Cul- insure equitable use of the system to all par- turing techniques should be standardized to ties and to insure future water quality. facilitate comparison of results. (6) Contributions of constituents to and from (5) Fecal coliform counts should replace the ground water must be identified. total coliform analysis as an index of domestic (7) Accurate assessments of chemical loads pollution. Counts of total bacteria should be to the lakes must be made. Data presented in employed as a measure of total available or- Section 7 suggest that waste treatment objec- ganic matter. tives are too low. Accurate load evaluation is the key to proper waste load allocation. (6) Levels of pathogenic bacteria and vir- (8) For lake restoration, a study of limiting uses should occasionally be determined as a factors for algal production and treatment check on the validity of the coliform index. If levels is needed. Treatment systems must be techniques for these analyses become less multipurpose in order to remove phosphates, tedious and expensive, they should become BOD, toxicants, and other, yet to be identified, routine. pollutants. (7) In addition to infectious diseases, a (9) An enforcement program should be im- threat to human and wildlife health and life plemented to identify sources of waste dis- exists from the toxic products of certain bac- charge. The feasibility of chemical tracers, teria and fungi, notably botulism toxin and unique to a specific company and required by alfatoxin. Occurrence of these toxicants in the law, should be investigated. Michigan pres- Great Lakes should be routinely investigated. ently identifies point discharges to its surface (8) The organisms involved in producing water. undesirable tastes and odors in drinking (10) Coordination should be established be- water supplies may be bacteria and fungi tween basin planners, agricultural interests, rather than plankton. Control of this problem Summary and Recommendations 389 requires study of the occurrence and me- expand their usefulness in managing the tabolism of the organisms involved. Great Lakes. (9) Precipitation of phosphates into the (17) Because of their immobil-ity benthic sediments is not recommended as a means of and periphytic algae should be reliable indi- reducing plankton growth in view of the abil- cators of local pollution. Their usefulness as ity of bacteria and fungi to resolubilize phos- local indicators needs to be applied to lakes, as phates. opposed to streams, where most of the existing (10) The zooplankton and zoobenthos of studies have been made. the Great Lakes are of interest to planners (18) The most direct index of the trophic and policy-makers primarily as indicators of state of the lakes is the estimation of annual environmental quality and as intermediate primary production through the measure- members of the aquatic food chain. The envi- ment of algal photosynthesis. Conventions on ronmental quality approach to management methods and units for studying and reporting requires a fundamental understanding of the phytoplankton crops and productivities must components of the system. Before Great Lakes be established. ecosystems can be properly managed there (19) The main inorganic nutrients con- must be increased understanding of the com- tributing to algal growth in the Great Lakes ponents, including the zooplankton and are phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon, al- zoobenthos. The literature on invertebrates of though silicon may be limiting to diatoms in the Great Lakes is extensive, but this review the more eutrophic lakes. To achieve desired reveals gaps that will inhibit systems analy- goals control measures should seek to reduce sis. the input of nitrogenous and carbonaceous (11) The zooplankton and zoobenthos of compounds as well as phosphorous organic the Great Lakes are incompletely catalogued. matter and its decomposition products in gen- Further distribution studies are needed. eral. (12) Great Lakes researchers should estab- (20) Fish species composition, trends in lish guidelines for sampling and processing species abundance in selected areas, locations the zooplankton and zoobenthos similar to the of spawning areas, location and distribution of International Biological Programme hand- eggs and larvae of various species, feeding books so reasonable comparisons can be made. habits in different areas for the various If nothing else, standard units for reporting species, improved appraisals of sport and data should be adopted. commercial fish landings, and distribution (13) The taxonomy of zooplankton, phyto- and effects of introduced fish species need to plankton, zoobenthos, and phytobenthos is not be investigated and catalogued. completely established. The low level of sup- (21) Bioassay work on Great Lakes taxa in port that systematics has received directly in- Great Lakes environments is needed to de- hibits the progress of Great Lakes ecology; so termine toxicity (acute and chronic) for as- support needs to be increased. semblages of organisms in multivariate sys- (14) Changes in the zoobenthos, phytoben- tems. thos, zooplankton, and phytoplankton of the (22) Behavioral and physiological studies Great Lakes are probably the result of compo- are needed to determine the metabolic, repro- sitional changes, but climatic changes may ductive, and synecologic success of Great also have had an effect of undetermined signif- Lakes taxa in a competitive ecosystem sub- icance. Baseline information on planktonic jected to chemical stresses. and benthic taxa must be obtained so that there will be a basis for comparison with fu- ture studies. 12.2.5 Sedimentology (15) Algae in the Great Lakes are of consid- erable interest to planners and the general (1) The sediments of Lake Erie have been public because they directly affect daily lives. studied in greater detail than those of the The varieties and abundance of algae needed other Great Lakes. Physical characteristics of to maintain the desired fisheries while the sediments are fairly well known, but their minimizing the problems associated with the role in mineralogical and chemical cycling is overabundance of algae must be determined. poorly understood. Research is needed to de- (16) Phytoplankton can be used as indi- termine the role of sediments in lake ecology. cators of general trophic conditions in the (2) Investigations of grain size of sedi- Great Lakes. More studies are needed to vali- ments should be standardized and meas- date and possibly simplify trophic indices and urements carried out at the .25 (P interval. 390 Appendix 4 Such data lend themselves to adequate statis- can be evaluated. Particular emphasis should tical measure, including computer analysis of be given to filling those data gaps identified in moments, and trend and factor analysis. this appendix. (3) Analyses of variance should be con- (3) A data storage and retrieval system is ducted to determine optimum sampling pat- needed that can make data assembly and pre- terns for different sedimentary environments publication data dissemination effective. now that general sediment distributions are Periodic announcements of work planned and known. These analyses would optimize sedi- in progress would aid in coordination of pro- ment collection and analyses. grams. (4) More frequent applications of statisti- (4) Comprehensive study programs, such cal parameters of size data would be useful in as the IFYGL program on Lake Ontario, mapping of dispersal trends, particularly with should be funded for each lake. The moored coarser sediments in the nearshore areas. instrument platforms utilized in each lake Combination of various parameters in groups should be maintained for regional synoptic are useful in delineating some environments monitoring of lake climate, thermal budget, of deposition. chemical indices, and circulation. The real- (5) Few thorough petrographic descrip- time data output would be a valuable opera- tions have been made of lake sediments. Quan- tions tool to aid in use of the lake resource for titative variations should be determined to de- shipping, waste assimilation, shore property lineate dispersal trends and relate sediment protection, recreation, power generation, and accumulations to possible sources. fisheries. (6) Few data relating movement of parti- (5) Cooperative studies by teams from var- cles carried by suspension have been collected. ious disciplines are needed to reduce duplica- More extensive studies should be made, par- tion, and make better use of facilities and ticularly in harbor areas, where sediment ac- equipment. Such efforts would be invaluable cumulation from suspension infills dredged in interpreting interrelated data and provid- channels. Such studies should be coordinated ing systematic solutions to problems. with current and conductivity measurements. (6) Mathematical process-response models Both directions and rates of dispersal should should be encouraged from all Great Lakes be determined. interest groups. Our knowledge of the Great (7) Sediment tracer studies in the near- Lakes has reached the point that pure descrip- shore environment are rare. Little is known of the volumes or rates of sediment removal and tion should be deemphasized, and fundamen- dispersal. Such studies will be useful in iden- tal relationships and multidisciplinary in- tifying important areas of extensive shoreline teractions should be emphasized. Operation, erosion and sedimentation. maintenance, and planning can be made more (8) Elemental exchange at the sediment- responsive by use of mathematical models. water interface, migration, and changes with (7) Emphasis should be placed on compati- depth below the interface need to be effec- bility of mathematical models so that State tively determined. Little is known of the role of variables can be standardized. The GLEPS organic sediment in ion exchange and ion ad- program should be publicized and promoted as sorption surface area and sediment composi- a communication link between the respective tion. models developed by particular agencies and (9) More sedimentological studies that use interest groups. tracer elements are needed to identify sources (8) Economic, sociological, and demo- of pollution. graphic studies should be initiated to deter- mine both tangible and intangible costs and benefits of improvement or loss of Great Lakes 12.2.6 Limnological Resource Utilization resources. Mathematical models should then be used as tools to optimize resource utiliza- (1) Technical and socio-political techniques tion and minimize real and intangible losses in must be improved to insure reduction of chem- quality of the Great Lakes environment. ical, sedimentary, and thermal waste input to (9) Lake restoration techniques must be the lakes from the Great Lakes Basin. tested in lakes protypical of the Great Lakes. (2) The present data base should be im- Presently accepted techniques, which are ap- proved so that objective determinations of the plicable to small lakes should be adopted for chemical, biological, geological, physical, and use in upland lakes and tested for use in the socioeconomic stresses on the aquatic system Great Lakes. Concurrently, new and innova- Summary and Recommendations 391 tive techniques for both large and small lakes be computed and used in management deci- must be encouraged. sions. (11) A reevaluation of treatment level (10) A water quality monitoring system goals is needed to account for present loading with adequate sampling frequency through- and to develop plans for increased treatment out the year must be implemented. Annual required to account for population growth and and short-term loads for each lake could then increased water use. LIST OF REFERENCES 1. Abbott, W., "Nutrient Studies in Hyper- 9. American Fisheries Society, A List of fertilized Estuarine Ecosystems," Water Common and Scientific Names of Fishes Research, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1968, pp. 105-106. from the United States and Canada, Spe- cial Pub. No. 2, 1960, pp. 1-102. 2. Abelson, P.H., "Excessive Emotion about Detergents," Science, Vol. 1, 1970, 10. American Public Health Association, p. 69. American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation, 3. 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