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Coastal Zone .... Information Center POW MAR 14 1977' Oi AAR& lop - DE G13 Geo 0 705 G73 G74 . ......... . 1975 appendix I an Ground VV ate r,'. -HEAT LAKES BASIN FR K STUF` Great Lakes Basin Framework Study Q.- APPENDIX 3 GEOLOGY AND GROUND WATER Q7 GREAT LAKES BASIN COMMISSION Prepared by Geology and Ground Water Work Group Sponsored by United States Geological Survey Published by the Public Information Office, Great Lakes Basin Commission, 3475 Plymouth Road, P.O. Box 999, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Printed in 1975. Cover photo by Kristine Moore Meves. This appendix to the Report of the Great Lakes Basin Framework Study was prepared at field level under the auspices of the Great Lakes Basin Commission to provide data for use in the conduct of the Study and preparation of the Report. The conclusions and recommendations herein are those of the group preparing the appendix and not necessarily those of the Basin Commission. The recommendations of the Great Lakes Basin Commission are included in the Report. The copyright material reproduced in this volume of the Great Lakes Basin Framework Study was printed with the kind consent of the copyright holders. Section 8, title 17, United States Code, provides: The publication or republication by the Government, either separately or in a public document, of any material in which copyright is subsisting shall not be taken to cause any abridgement or annulment of the copyright or to authorize any use or appropriation of such copyright material without the consent of the copyright proprietor. The Great Lakes Basin Commission requests that no copyrighted material in this volume be republished or reprinted without the permission of the author. OUTLINE Report Appendix 1: Alternative Frameworks Appendix 2: Surface Water Hydrology Appendix 3: Geology and Ground Water Appendix 4: Limnology of Lakes and Embayments Appendix 5: Mineral Resources Appendix 6: Water Supply-Municipal, Industrial, and Rural Appendix 7: Water Quality Appendix 8: Fish Appendix C9: Commercial Navigation Appendix R9: Recreational Boating Appendix 10: Power Appendix 11: Levels and Flows Appendix 12: Shore Use and Erosion Appendix 13: Land Use and Management Appendix 14: Flood Plains Appendix 15: Irrigation Appendix 16: Drainage Appendix 17: Wildlife Appendix 18: Erosion and Sedimentation Appendix 19: Economic and Demographic Studies Appendix F20: Federal Laws, Policies, and Institutional Arrangements Appendix S20: State Laws, Policies, and Institutional Arrangements Appendix 21: Outdoor Recreation Appendix 22: Aesthetic and Cultural Resources Appendix 23: Health Aspects Environmental Impact Statement SYNOPSIS The Great Lakes Basin is underlain almost consolidated aquifers. Carbonate (limestone entirely by a thick succession of sedimentary and dolomite) aquifers constitute the most rocks. The major structures include the large common bedrock aquifers in the Basin. They Michigan basin and a long, narrow structural occur along the northern and western shore of platform, extending from Indiana to the St. Lake Michigan, from Illinois to Cleveland, and Lawrence Valley. Crystalline rocks extrude in along the southern shore of Lake Ontario. The the western Lake Superior and Adirondack carbonates are most productive, with well regions and form a buried structural high yields as much as 1,000 gpm, where they ex- separating the sedimentary basin and plat- trude or are overlain by unconsolidated de- form structures. posits. Solution processes have developed Glacial and alluvial deposits cover the bed- good permeability in these areas. Sandstone rock. These deposits are as much as 1,100 feet aquifers are the next most common bedrock thick, with the thickest deposits generally oc- aquifers. A thick sequence of productive sand- curring in Michigan and locally in buried bed- stone units (well yields as much as 1,300 gpm) rock valleys of New York and Wisconsin. The is present along the western and northern deposits are thin or nonexistent on bedrock part of the Lake Michigan basin. Such produc- surface in the southern part of the Basin and tive units with well yields as much as 500 gpm in bedrock "highs" of Minnesota, New York, are also present in parts of Michigan and in and Wisconsin. The deposits range in composi- Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. As aqui- tion from clay and silt, through sand and fers, shale beds are the least productive gravel, to boulders which are well sorted or a sedimentary unit. Shales are abundant in the heterogeneous mixture. The clay and silt de- southern part of the Great Lakes Basin from posits represent the former extent of lakes Indiana to the Adirondack Mountains. during deglaciation and generally border the Chemical quality of ground water in the present Great Lakes. The sand and gravel de- Basin is generally good but varies con- posits were formed by glacial meltwater siderably from area to area, depending on the streams that sorted the glacial materials. The type of aquifer and its depth. Hardness, iron size and extent of these deposits are depen- content, and salinity are the most common dent upon the longevity of the meltwater problems in developing a ground-water stream. The glacial till is a heterogeneous source. Hard to very hard water generally is mixture deposited by the ice with little or no present in the carbonate aquifers, in many sorting action by meltwater. sandstone aquifers, and in aquifers in uncon- Ground water is present everywhere solidated deposits that contain carbonate sed- throughout the Basin, but in limited iments. Excessive iron is very common in quantities in areas where the basement rock many of the sand and gravel and sandstone is at or near the surface. The most productive aquifers. A low iron content is common where aquifers, with well yields as much as 2,500 gpm, the recharge source is relatively close or re- occur in unconsolidated, well-sorted sand and charge is rapid. Saline, mineralized, or brack- gravel deposits, especially where natural re- ish water containing more than 1,000 mg/l of charge from streams or precipitation can dissolved solids is present in deep bedrock occur readily. The deposits are most wide- throughout the Basin. In many areas, highly spread in western and central Michigan, mineralized water is present at shallow or rel- northeastern Indiana, the western part of the atively shallow depths of 75 to 200 feet. This Wisconsin area, and locally in the remaining mineralized water has been in contact with areas. the rocks for a longtime or has moved through Bedrock aquifers also vary in their produc- an easily dissolved rock, such as gypsum, and tivity throughout the Basin, but they are has accumulated excessive minerals. Highly more widespread, continuous, and generally mineralized water is seldom present in surfi- more predictable in their potential than un- cial unconsolidated sediments, except locally v vi Appendix 3 in New York, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. In the local system. The effect of overdevelop- these situations, the mineralized water usu- ment is a continual lowering of water levels ally has migrated upward from bedrock with resulting increases in pumpingcosts. The sources. Chic ago-Milwaukee area is a good example. The most critical region for highly Projections of the practical sustained yield mineralized water is the Saginaw Bay area of have been made. New water supplies for those Michigan, where saline water is present in who can no longer afford the increasing pump- most bedrock aquifers and even in much of the age costs have been planned. In addition, in- unconsolidated sediments. Saline water is creased ground-water withdrawals from new present in relatively shallow (less than 300 developments penalize existing users by feet) bedrock aquifers in the region from Gary, further lowering the water level. Water rights Indiana, to Oneida Lake, New York. and management decisions need urgent con- Elsewhere, central Michigan, parts of upper sideration to develop the regional ground- Michigan, and the western Lake Superior water resource properly. area have saline-water aquifers at relatively Local pollution of shallow ground-water shallow depths. Most of these areas have supplies is common, but current disposal re- freshwater aquifers present in overlying sand strictions will hopefully reverse this trend. and gravel deposits. Pollution of deeper aquifers is rare, but im- Natural ground-water discharge or runoff proper well construction and the use of deep was used to estimate basin yield as a means of waste-disposal wells may permit migration of determiningthe ground-water potential of the wastes to deep aquifers. Improper well design Basin. Ground-water runoff with any evapo- in multi-aquifer areas, especially where a transpiration that can be salvaged represents poor-quality water zone is present, has been a the "perennial yield" of a basin. The greatest problem in some areas. Deep disposal of toxic ground-water potential based on runoff lies in wastes is rapidly coming under State control. north-central Michigan and in the Adirondack Instances of shallow disposal or disposal in Mountains. In these areas, and locally brackish-water zones need evaluation as to elsewhere, thick sand and gravel deposits with displacement of water or migration of the appreciable available recharge make very wastes. productive aquifers. The areas with the least Unplanned ground-water development has yield are present along parts of the western caused problems. For example, construction of shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, wells near streams to obtain the highest sus- and along the southern shores of Lakes Hu- tained yield can decrease streamflow during ron, Erie, and Ontario. low-flow periods. The aesthetic and dilution Problems in developing the ground-water considerations of maintaining flowing resources are related to both natural and streams may outweigh the value of higher man-made conditions. Natural problems are ground-water yields. Wetlands may be de- those of poor quality water and low-yielding stroyed by ground-water withdrawals, de- aquifers. Man-made problems are those of pol- stroying wildlife and aesthetic features. Fi- lution and overdevelopment-or improper nally, control of ground-water use can be one development-of ground-water resources. factor in curtailing the urban sprawl occur- Overdevelopment is caused by continuously ring in metropolitan areas. withdrawing water in excess of recharge to FOREWORD This appendix was written by Roger M. Wal- Professor George R. Kunkle-University of ler and William B. Allen and reviewed by Toledo members of the Geology and Ground Water William S. Miska-U.S. Bureau of Mines Work Group. Work began in September 1968 George Skene-Corps of Engineers, and was completed in June 1971. Material used Arthur E. Slaughter-Michigan Depart- was compiled from reports published by ment of Natural Resources numerous State and Federal agencies and Dr. Arthur A. Socolow-Pennsylvania Top- from the files of the U.S. Geological Survey. ographic and Geologic Survey The task of the Survey was to describe perti- Paul Solstad-Minnesota State Planning nent geology, and to appraise the availability Agency of ground water and its potential for develop- William J. Steen-Indiana Department of ment within the Great Lakes Basin. Natural Resources Geologic names used in this report were de- James R. Thompson-U.S. Soil Conserva- termined from several sources and may not tion Service necessarily follow the usage of the U.S. This appendix could not have been com- Geological Survey. pleted without the assistance and advice of Selected representatives from State agen- the district offices of the Geological Survey. cies and universities were appointed to the The following district chiefs and their staffs Geology and Ground Water Work Group to act provided published reports, maps, and data as technical advisors in planning, writing, and from their respective States and technical re- reviewing this report. These representatives view of respective parts of this report: were; Illinois-W. D. Mitchell Indiana-M. D. Hale Roger M. Waller-U.S. Geological Survey Michigan-A. D. Ash and R. E. Cummings (Chairman) Minnesota-C. R. Collier James F. Davis-New York State Geological New York-R. J. Dingman Survey Ohio-J. J. Molloy Herbert B. Eagon, Jr.-Ohio Department of Pennsylvania-N. H. Beamer Natural Resources Wisconsin-C. L. R. Holt, Jr. Dr. Robert K. Fahnestock-State Univer- Special thanks go to the above and to the sity of New York at Fredonia work group members for their help in supply- George F. Hanson-Univbrsity of ing data, for delineating problems in water Wisconsin Extension, Geological and Natural development in their areas, and for their History Survey technical review of this report. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page OUTLINE .................................................................... iii SYNOPSIS ................................................................... v FOREWORD ................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................ xii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................... xiii INTRODUCTION ............................................................. xvii Purpose and Scope ........................................................ xvii Basin Reference Material ................................................. xvii 1 PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING ................... 1 1.1 Geologic Framework .................................................. 1 1.1.1 Physiography .................................................. 1 1.1.2 Unconsolidated Sediments ..................................... 1 1.1.3 Bedrock Formations ............................................ 3 1.2 Ground-Water Hydrology ............................................. 4 1.2.1 General ........................................................ 4 1.2.2 Water Quality Characteristics .................................. 6 1.2.3 Development Potential ......................................... 6 1.2.4 Regional Problems ............................................. 9 1.2.5 Cost of Developing Ground Water .............................. 10 1.3 Ground-Water Management .......................................... 10 1.3.1 General ........................................................ 10 1.3.2 Water Rights ................................................... 10 2 LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN ................................................ 13 2.1 General .............. 13 2.2 Physiography and Drainage .......................................... 13 2.3 Ground-Water Conditions ............................................. 14 2.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers ....................................... 14 2.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers ............................................... 14 2.4 Ground-Water Potential .............................................. 15 2.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Considerations ................... 16 2.5.1 General ........................................................ 16 2.5.2 River Basin Group 1.1 .......................................... 16 2.5.3 River Basin Group 1.2 .......................................... 17 3 LAKE MICHIGAN BASIN ................................................ 21 3.1 General ............................................................... 21 3.2 Physiography and Drainage .......................................... 21 ix x Appendix 3 Page 3.3 Ground-Water Conditions ............................................. 22 3.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers ....................................... 22 3.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers ............................................... 23 3.4 Ground-Water Potential ............... 26 3.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Considerations ................... 27 3.5.1 General ........................................................ 27 3.5.2 River Basin Group 2.1 .......................................... 27 3.5.3 River Basin Group 2.2 .......................................... 29 3.5.4 River Basin Group 2.3 .......................................... 32 3.5.5 River Basin Group 2.4 .......................................... 33 4 LAKE HURON BASIN .................................................... 41 4.1 General ............................................................... 41 4.2 Physiography and Drainage .......................................... 41 4.3 Ground-Water Conditions ............................................. 42- 4.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers ....................................... 42 4.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers ............................................... 43 4.4 Ground-Water Potential .............................................. 44 4.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Considerations ................... 44 4.5.1 General ........................................................ 44 4.5.2 River Basin Group 3.1 .......................................... 45 4.5.3 River Basin Group 3.2 .......................................... 46 5 LAKE ERIE BASIN ...................................................... 49 5.1 General ............................................................... 49 5.2 Physiography and Drainage .......................................... 49 5.3 Ground-Water Conditions ............................................. 50 5.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers ....................................... 50 5.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers ............................................... 51 5.4 Ground-Water Potential .............................................. 52 5.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Considerations ................... 53 5.5.1 General ........................................................ 53 5.5.2 River Basin Group 4.1 .......................................... 53 5.5.3 River Basin Group 4.2 .......................................... 54 5.5.4 River Basin Group 4.3 .......................................... 55 5.5.5 River Basin Group 4.4 .......................................... 56 6 LAKE ONTARIO BASIN .................................................. 61 6.1 General ............................................................... 61 6.2 Physiography and Drainage .......................................... 61 6.3 Ground-Water Conditions ............................................. 62 6.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers ....................................... 62 6.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers ............................................... 63 6.4 Ground-Water Potential .............................................. 64 6.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Considerations ................... 65 6.5.1 General ........................................................ 65 6.5.2 River Basin Group 5.1 .......................................... 65 6.5.3 River Basin Group 5.2 .......................................... 65 6.5.4 River Basin Group 5.3 .......................................... 66 Table of Contents xi Page SUMMARY ................................................................... 73 General .................................................................... 73 Illinois .................................................................... 74 Indiana .................................................................... 74 Michigan .................................................................. 74 Minnesota ................................................................. 75 New York ................................................................. 75 Ohio ....................................................................... 75 Pennsylvania .............................................................. 76 Wisconsin ................................................................. 76 GLOSSARY .................................................................. 77 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................. 79 LIST OF REFERENCES ..................................................... 81 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................ 85 LIST OF TABLES Table I Page 3-1 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Superior Basin ................................................................... 18 3-2 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Superior Basin ................................................... 19 3-3 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Superior Basin ............................................... 19 3-4 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Michigan Basin .................................................................. 35 3-5 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Michigan Basin ................................................... 38 .3-6 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Michigan Basin ............................................... 39 3-7 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Huron Basin .................................................................. 47 3-8 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Huron Basin ..................................................... 48 3-9 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Huron Basin ................................................. 48 3-10 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Erie Basin 57 3-11 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Erie Basin ........................................................ 59 3-12 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Erie Basin .................................................... 60 3-13 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Ontario Basin .................................................................. 68 3-14 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Ontario Basin .................................................... 70 3-15 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Ontario Basin ................................................ 71 xii LIST OF FIGURES (All figures may be found in numerical order at the rear of this volume.) Figure. Page 3-1 Great Lakes Basin Showing Drainage System and Physiographic Regions 93 3-2 Glacial Geology of the Great Lakes Basin .............................. 94 3-3 Bedrock Geology of the Great Lakes Basin ............................. 95 3-4 Areas of Mineralized Ground Water at Shallow Depth in the Great Lakes Basin, United States ................................................... 96 3-5 Estimated Ground-Water Yield in the Great Lakes Basin, United States 97 3-6 Costs of Producing Ground Water in the Great Lakes Basin ............ 98 3-7 Map of the Lake Superior Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports .......................... 99 3-8 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 1.1 100 3-9 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 1.1 ............................................................... 101 3-10 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 1.2 102 3-11 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 1.2 ............................................................... 103 3-12 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Superior Basin, United States .......................................................... 104 3-13 Map of the Lake Michigan Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports .......................... 105 3-14 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.1 106 3-15 The Silurian (Niagara) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.1 ....... 107 3-16 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.1 .... 108 3-17 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.2 109 3-18 The Silurian Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.2 ................. 110 3-19 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.2 .... ill 3-20 Potentiometric Surface of the Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System, 1969, in the Chic ago- Milwaukee Area ................................... 112 1 xiii xiv Appendix 3 Figure Page 3-21 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.3 113 3-22 The Pennsylvanian (Saginaw) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.3 114 3-23 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.3 115 3-24 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.4 116 3-25 The Pennsylvanian (Saginaw) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 117 3-26 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 118 3-27 The Silurian-Devonian Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 ....... 119 3-28 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 .... 120 3-29 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Michigan Basin, United States .......................................................... 121 3-30 Map of the Lake Huron Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports ............................... 122 3-31 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 3.1 123 3-32 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 124 3-33 The Devonian Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 ................ 125 3-34 The Silurian (Burnt Bluff-Engadine) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 ............................................................... 126 3-35 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 .... 127 3-36 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 3.2 128 3-37 The Pennsylvanian (Saginaw) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.2 129 3-38 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.2 130 3-39 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Huron Basin, United States .......................................................... 131 3-40 Map of the Lake Erie Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports ............................... 132 3-41 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.1 133 3-42 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.1 134 3-43 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.2 135 3-44 The Mississippian and Devonian Aquifer Systems in River Basin Group 4.2 136 3-45 The Silurian (Bass Islands) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.2 .. 137 3-46 The Silurian (Lockport) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.2 ...... 138 List of Figures xv Figure Page 3-47 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.3 139 3-48 The Pennsylvanian (Sharon) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.3 - 140 3-49 The Mississippian (Cussewago and Berea) Aquifer Systems in River Basin Group 4.3 ............................................................... 141 3-50 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.4 142 3-51 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 4.4 ............................................................... 143 3-52 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Erie Basin, United States .................................................................. 144 3-53 Map of the Lake Ontario Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports .......................... 145 3-54 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 5.1 146 3-55 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 5.1 ............................................................... 147 3-56 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 5.2 148 3-57 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 5.2 ............................................................... 149 3-58 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 5.3 150 3-59 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 5.3 ............................................................... 151 3-60 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Ontario Basin, United States .......................................................... 152 INTRODUCTION Purpose and Scope permits an integrated appraisal of the entire major basin or region. The division of the An appraisal of geologic and ground-water Great Lakes Basin into 15 river basin group data is needed to indicate areas of ground- areas by drainage divides permitted the pre- water availability; potential for ground-water sentation of ground-water data in usable seg- development; current and projected ground- ments. water and related land-resource problems; Data analyzed from the various studies in and approaches for appropriate solutions to each State are presented in five plan area sec- problems. tions. These sections cover the five Great This appendix discusses the part of the Lakes basins in as great detail as available Great Lakes Basin that is located within the data and time permitted. Each section is de- United States. Data are presented in such a signed to be usable as a separate report cover- manner as to allow both Basin and river basin ing that particular area. Most of the data are group planners to appraise the ground-water presented on 15 river basin group base maps resources of the Basin; to indicate the poten- with State boundaries delineated to enable tials for management by public water-action the user to extract needed information and agencies; and to identify deficiencies in knowl- still be aware of geographically unbound edge and hydrologic factors that need ' to be limits of the ground-water conditions. Discus- considered in present and future water- sions by river basin groups are presented at resource development plans. - the end of each plan area section. Compilation of this report entailed the Information presented in the first section on analysis and appraisal of the existing data on the entire Great Lakes Basin gives gross as- geologic and ground-water conditions within pects of the geology and ground water in the the United States part of the Basin. No sys- Basin as a whole, to enable the planner to gain tematic or uniform coverage of the ground- a quick appraisal of Basinwide ground-water water conditions in the Basin had previously conditions. The Lake basin sections and their been made. The data were used to describe the division into river basin groups provide general geologic framework and ground- specific ground-water details of a particular water situation throughout the Basin, major Lake basin or of a local condition. problems of quantity and chemical quality of Each river basin group discussion has tables ground water, and factors to be considered in and maps showing major aquifer systems, the conjunctive and beneficial use of the Ba- probable well yields from each system, bound- sin's entire water resources. Emphasis is on aries of mineralized water zones, and an esti- major aquifer systems because domestic-type mated total ground-water yield. The typical supplies are available almost everywhere. range of selected chemical constituents in Problems of insufficient data, technological ground water from each aquifer system is pre- lag, and legal or administrative conflicts per- sented in tables. The accompanying text dis- taining to ground water are also presented. cusses future ground-water development and Ways and means to provide answers to the the status and needs of ground-water infor- problems are discussed. mation. Most of the States within the Basin have begun to reappraise their water resources by drainage basins rather than by political boun- Basin Reference Material daries. This progressive move permits more complete evaluation of the hydrologic system. The basic framework needed for under- Those concerned with use and management of standing the ground-water resources of any water resources are gaining better under- basin lies in the geologic environment of the standing of ways to meet their water needs. basin and a knowledge of the principles of Systematic appraisal of all smaller basins ground-water hydrology. Reports included in xvii xviii Appendix 3 the Bibliography help provide a framework for groups. Each Lake basin section has a map this report and background material for the showing the coverage of published ground- reader. Geologic data for the Canadian part of water reports. the Basin were readily available and also are Scope of the reports ranges from general included on the geologic maps to present a Statewide summaries to detailed local aquifer Basinwide framework for the planner. Re- studies. Many of these reports could be useful ports used in compiling this appendix have in planning water-resources development. been cited where specific references were For purposes of this appendix regarding made. The cited reports are included in the Basinwide planning, the scope of the reports List of References. has been divided as follows: Many of the referenced reports relate to de- (1) Statewide or large Basinwide sum- tailed local studies of aquifers by county maries giving the general occurrence of areas, but areal and Statewide summaries and ground water reconnaissances of widely varied scope have (2) general reconnaissance reports on a been made. Summaries of a Basinwide nature county or basin giving the occurrence, well are included in various national summaries. yields, chemical quality, and problems of the Recent framework studies similar to this ap- ground-water resource pendix have been done on adjacent regions -(3) detailed reconnaissance reports on a (Upper Mississippi and Ohio River basins, and county or basin including the above informa- Appalachia) and provide correlative informa- tion and describing the hydrologic system as tion on mutual ground-water conditions. Re- well as presenting general quantitative data ports including summaries that are useful in (4) comprehensive reports on small areas appraising ground-water conditions in the en- presenting the above information, quantita- tire Basin are also listed in the List of Refer- tive data on the relationship between ground ences or Bibliography. and surface water in the solution of problems, Numerous reports and unpublished data in and data on perennial or long-term ground- the files of State or Federal surveys were used water yield in compiling information on the river basin Section I PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING 1.1 Geologic Framework controls the drainage pattern. The major leg- acy of the Pleistocene glaciation is the forma- tion of the Great Lakes. The greatest relief in 1.1.1 Physiography the Basin is in the Adirondack Mountains, where many mountain peaks are more than The Great Lakes Basin lies principally 2,000 feet. Santanoni Peak reaches 4,621 feet within the two major physiographic provinces above mean sea level. In most of the Basin the (Figure 3-1), the Superior Upland and the land surface is less than 1,000 feet above mean Central Lowland. 12 Small parts of the Basin in sea level. The highest point in the headwaters New York and along the south side of Lake area of Lake Superior is 2,301 feet at Eagle Erie lie in the St. Lawrence Valley, Adiron- Mountain in Cook County, Minnesota. The dack, and Appalachian Plateaus provinces, elevation of the St. Lawrence River outlet is The land area covers 118,000 square miles or approximately 150 feet. approximately 60 percent of the U.S. part of The Great Lakes Basin is unique in that the Great Lakes Basin, including the Lake approximately one-third of its area is water surfaces. surface and there are no dominant tributary The Superior Upland consists of a glaciated systems. Some dozen tributary river basins peneplain whose base is mostly crystalline each have approximately 6,000 square miles of rock. The Central Lowland is characterized by drainage area, whereas the remainder vary a generally flat lowland and lacustrine plain, from a few to several hundred square miles The southeastern border of the Basin is and drain directly into one of the major Lakes. formed by the Southern New York and Water resources of some of the larger river Mohawk sections of the Appalachian Plateaus basin groups have been studied in detail. province. The area is a maturely dissected and The bedrock succession of the Great Lakes glaciated plateau of varied relief and promi- Region consists of a series of sedimentary nent escarpments. At the mouth of the Basin formations which overlie a basement of Pre- several tributary streams drain the subdued cambrian rocks (Figure 3-3). Major structural glaciated mountains of the Adirondack pro- features of the bedrock include the deep vince. The Basin outlet is through the wide St. sedimentary basin centered under Michigan, Lawrence Valley province, which consists of a a shallow sedimentary platform bordering the young marine plain with local rock hills. Appalachian trough in the Lake Erie-Ontario - The entire Great Lakes Region was sub- region, and a basement high that extends jected to four major phases of glaciation dur- southeastward between the Michigan basin ing the Pleistocene era. Glacial deposits as and the Appalachian trough. Basement rocks much as 1,100 feet thick overlie the bedrock are exposed in uplands that extend from Min- surface. Postglacial streams have partly re- nesota eastward along the northern limits of worked the glacial drift and deposited al- the Great Lakes Basin into the Adirondack luvium in the modern stream channels. The Mountains. variety of glacial deposits has resulted in an imperfect drainage system with hundreds of thousands of lakes, ponds, marshes, and bogs. 1.1.2 Unconsolidated Sediments The topography and materials of the glacial deposits control the rate of recharge to the Unconsolidated sediments that mantle the ground water. Postglacial alluvium along bedrock surface of the Great Lakes Basin con- most of the streams is too small to be distin- sist of glacial drift and alluvium. These de- guished in Figure 3-2, a map of the glacial posits vary greatly in their water-bearing deposits. properties as well as in their land-use Glaciation has formed the relief and in part capabilities. Postglacial streams have re- 1 2 Appendix 3 worked the glacial deposits and transported deposited the drift sheet that covers the gravel. Thus, the material toward the Lakes. These re- the base of the lowest drift and the horizons between worked gl .acial deposits are alluvium, but in successive drift sheets are in many places the most this appendix they are classed with the glacial productive water horizons. drift because they are generally confined to Till occurs in two common types of land narrow stream flood plains. forms, end moraines and ground moraines. Meinzer'S34 description of the glacial drift The former show up as conspicuous lobate and its water-bearing potential is so complete forms on detailed surficial geologic maps (see that his words need little reworking: isolated examples on Figure 3-2). Ground mo- The glacial drift consists chiefly of till, [unsorted raine deposits are generally an irregular thin veneer of till. Material in the end or terminal material], deposited directly by the glaciers or great continental ice sheets; [outwashl deposited by moraines can vary greatly from fine to coarse streams issuing from the ice; stratified beds laid down sediment and is generally poorly sorted. in glacial lakes; and loess and dune sand, consisting Sandy moraines can have significant water- largely of glacial materials picked up and redeposited bearing potential. In addition to the impor- by the wind. The bulk of the material is till. As it is [unsorted], it tance of till deposits as a source of small water has low porosity and does not yield water freely. It supplies and ground-water recharge, till is varies greatly, however, in its water-yielding capacity significant in land-use practices. Construction [depending on whether] it is composed predominantly that involves cutting even moderate slopes on of coarse or fine material. It supplies a large number most morainal hills can lead to slope failures of shallow dug wells throughout the drift-covered area ... The yield of these wells is generally small when the material becomes water saturated. but commonly adequate for domestic use. The water It behooves land-use planners to become of many of the wells is polluted by household and aware of slope stability in such areas. barnyard wastes and by near-by privies. Till deposits are the most widespread of the The gravelly and sandy deposits made by the streams that issued from the ice are the great water glacial drift. In addition to being exposed in bearers of the glacial drift. They yield copious supplies the areas shown on Figure 3-2, they commonly to many drilled and driven wells and are largely occur beneath other types of deposits. In much drawn upon for public, industrial, and live-stock uses, of the southern part of the Basin the ground for which the yields from the till are inadequate. moraine is relatively thin. The ground mo- These ... deposits consist largely of gravel but also include much sand. They occur in abundant irregular raine deposits of fine-grained till commonly lenses and stringers of gravel and sand intimately create perched water tables and vast areas of intermingled with the till; in outwash aprons that wetlands. These wetlands are very significant extend out from the moraines, where the edges of the in the hydrology and land-use aspects of the ice sheets once stood pouring out great debris-laden floods; and in valley trains, consistingof glacial debris Basin. Their relation to hydrology is discussed deposited for many miles along the streams that in the Lake basin sections of this report. headed in the ice sheets. Another type of sediment included in the The irregular lenses and stringers intermingled glacial drift is the lake deposits. The vast lakes with the till in many places consist of imperfectly that formed in front of the receding glaciers [sorted] gravel or sand, and, as a rule, they are not very thick or continuous. One or more of these water- were sites of widespread deposition of clay, bearing beds is, however, commonly encountered by silt, and fine sand. Lake deposits generally drilled wells, and they generally yield reliable and occur on the borders of the present Great rather large supplies under good pressure and pro- Lakes and extend into the contiguous low- tected from pollution to some extent by overlying drift. They furnish water to many successful wells lands (Figure 3-2). Their occurrence attests to throughout the glaciated area ... for live-stock and the former extent of the large preglacial lakes. general farm supplies, for industrial supplies, and for Lake deposits generally are not significant for public supplies of villages and small cities. ground-water supplies because most of the The outwash aprons and valley trains are generally sediments are too fine to transmit water readi- large deposits of coarse and well [sorted] gravel or sand that yield water very freely and in large quan- ly. Consequently, the deposits inhibit re- tities. They occur abundantly in the glaciated area charge to underlying formations and may cre- and for many miles along nearly all the streams that ate extensive water-logged areas with atten- rise in that area.... dant excessive evapotranspiration losses. The glacial drift is not all of the same age but con- Lake deposits probably are of most critical sists of at least five sheets of different ages, superim- posed upon one another like the successive formations sig n-ificance in land-use developments involv- of older rocks. Between the successive drift sheets are ing cuts and fills, where excessive moisture old soils and various stream and wind deposits. The causes slope instability. Glacial lake clays are most important of these deposits with respect to particularly well known for their instability water supplies are beds of gravel laid down by the streams from the meltingice as the ice front retreated under imposed stresses. or by the streams from the advancing ice which later Deposits of outwash sand, gravel, and al- Physiographic and Hydrogeologic Setting 3 luvium are principally located in Michigan weathered zones within the upper 100 feet of (Figure 3-2). Here the deposits have been rock. Locally, several gallons per minute of spread over and between the morainal ridges water are reported. Several hundred gpm may in varying thicknesses. This region was pri- be available to wells, particularly in the sand- marily an interlobate area during much of the stones in northern Wisconsin. In general, retreat of the last glaciation. With the area however, the Precambrian must be considered bounded on three sides by melting ice, numer- only for yields less than 10 gpm. Under the ous streams were available to sort and deposit thick cover of sedimentary rocks throughout the sediments. most of the Basin, saline water is probably Local outwash deposits and alluvium occur present in the basement complex. Recharge to along most present-day streams throughout the rocks occurs directly to the exposed rocks, the Basin, but the area of the deposits is gen- through overlying sedimentary rocks, or erally too small to show on the map scale of through the surficial cover of glacial deposits. Figure 3-2. In addition, buried outwash from Formations of Cambrian age consist pre- previous glaciations has been discovered in dominantly of well-sorted, fine- to medium- most of the States. Their small size and the grained sandstone up to a few thousand feet lack of complete boundary delineation pre- thick. Within the Basin the sandstone crops clude plotting on Figure 3-2, but they are gen- out only in Wisconsin, the Upper Peninsula of erally located in the bedrock valleys. Basin Michigan, and in a small region in New York reports include descriptions of local buried de- (Figure 3-3). The upper formations are con- posits where they are significant in the areal tinuous through much of the U.S. part of the ground-water situation. Basin. However, depth of occurrence and sa- Ice-contact stratified drift deposits of sand linity of the water are too great for most uses and gravel shown on Figure 3-2 occur princi- in this area. pally in Wisconsin, with minor deposits in the Sandstones are an excellent source of water other States. These deposits are similar to the in Illinois, Wisconsin, upper Michigan, and outwash deposits in their composition but New York in and near their outcrop areas. they generally are less well sorted. They com- Down the dip of the formations the waters monly occur as isolated hills or ridges and thus become saline. In the Illinois, Wisconsin, lose their significance as major water-bearing and Michigan area, the Cambrian section is deposits. Some of the units mapped as linear hydraulically connected to overlying Ordovi- moraines in Wisconsin and elsewhere may ac- cian units that together may yield more than tually be ice-contact deposits. 1,000 gpm to wells. In New York only one or two thin sandstone units of the upper Camb- rian series are present. They produce moder- 1.1.3 Bedrock Formations ate yields to wells. Principal recharge to the Cambrian aquifers General characteristics of the bedrock sys- occurs in their outcrop areas beneath the un- tems within the Basin and a general discus- consolidated sediments. Appreciable recharge sion of the water-bearing potential of each fol- also occurs through the overlying Ordovician lows. Systems are described in chronological rocks, particularly where they are exposed order from the bottom upwards (see geologic (Figure 3-3). column, Figure 3-3). Rocks of the Ordovician system consist of The Precambrian system that underlies the shale, carbonate, and sandstone more than entire Basin consists of an igneous and 1,000 feet thick in places. The formations occur metamorphic crystalline complex, mainly over much of the Basin but crop out only in a granite, gneiss, schist, and a lesser amount of narrow band in eastern Wisconsin, the Upper sedimentary rocks. The rocks are exposed or Peninsula of Michigan, and in northwestern tapped by wells in two general areas, the New York (Figure 3-3). The sandstone forma- Adirondacks of New York; and the Lake tion (St. Peter) is generally present in much of Superior highlands of northern Wisconsin, the Wisconsin and Illinois. It is a significant Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and Minnesota aquifer. The sandstone is composed of well- (Figure 3-3). rounded grains that are poorly cemented. Precambrian rocks generally provide small Many wells in Wisconsin and a few in Illinois water yields for domestic, rural, and small in- may obtain more than 500 gpm of water from dustry use where no other supplies are avail- this formation. As noted earlier, in these able. Water is obtained from permeable zones States the Ordovician aquifers are hydraulic- consisting of fractures or, in some instances, ally connected to the underlying Cambrian 4 Appendix 3 sandstones. The St. Peter sandstone contains Recharge occurs directly in the outcrop area highly mineralized water in the southern part (Figure 3-3) and through the overlying Mis- of the Great Lakes Basin. It is not present in sissippian beds. New York. The Mississippian system occurs in much of The carbonate formations yield moderate the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, in Indiana, to small supplies of fresh water west of Lake and in small areas in northwest and north- Michigan and in the outcrop area west of the central Ohio (Figure 3-3). Rocks mainly con- Adirondack Mountains in New York. sist of sandstone, shale, and some limestone in Elsewhere the aquifer contains saline water. thicknesses of more than 1,000 feet. The thick The shale formations are generally not con- Marshall sandstone in Michigan has well sidered water bearing, although domestic yields of potable water in amounts as much as supplies can be obtained in outcrop or 1,800 gpm. Sandstone aquifers in north- shallow-depth areas west of Lake Michigan, in central Ohio yield moderate supplies. Those in Ohio, and in north-central New York. northern Indiana yield only small supplies of Recharge to the Ordovician aquifers princi- water. pally occurs where the formations crop out Saline water is present in the Mississippian beneath the glacial deposits (Figure 3-3). aquifers locally, and generally where it is The Silurian system, consisting primarily of overlain by Pennsylvanian rocks. Recharge carbonate rocks, has a maximum thickness of occurs directly in the outcrop area (Figure more than 3,000 feet. Formations crop out ex- 3-3). tensively around the lower four Lakes and The youngest and smallest areal occurrence continue beneath the intervening areas (Fig- of bedrock significant to ground-water occur- ure 3-3). Best known exposure of this type is rence is the shales and sandstone of the Low- at Niagara Falls where these rocks form the er Pennsylvanian Series. 'the unit occurs in crest of the falls. central Michigan and near Akron, Ohio (Fig- Silurian limestones or dolomites yield as ure 3-3). The Pennsylvanian Saginaw much as 500 gpm of water to wells west and sandstone aquifer has high well yields and south of Lake Michigan. Eastward the aquifer contains saline water in parts of Michigan becomes too saline for use where it extends where it is confined by overlying bedrock. In beneath a thick sequence of salt beds. From Ohio, however, the Pennsylvanian Sharon Michigan eastward. into New York an Upper sandstone provides moderate well yields of Silurian Series of carbonate and sandstone good quality water. Recharge is principally beds provide moderate to high well yields in from overlying drift in the marginal parts of its upper zones. Recharge to the Silurian the outcrop area shown in Figure 3-3. aquifers occurs in their outcrop areas (Figure Jurassic rocks have recently been mapped in 3-3) and locally from the overlying Devonian central Michigan25 but are not shown on Fig- formations. ure 3-3. Outcrops of Cretaceous rock occur in The Devonian system crops out around most mine pits on the Mesabi Iron Range, but they of the borders of the Lower Peninsula of are insignificant with respect to Basin hydrol- Michigan and Lake Erie and extends along ogy. southern New York. These rocks probably form much of the lake beds of Lakes Erie, Hu- ron, and Michigan (Figure 3-3). The system 1.2 Ground-Water Hydrology consists of primarily shale in the west, lime- stone in the central parts, and increasingly more sandstones in New York. Thickness 1.2.1 General ranges from slightly more than 100 feet in the small outcrop area in Wisconsin, to more than Preceding sections described the general 1,000 feet in Michigan, to several thousand water-bearing properties of the permeable feet in New York and Pennsylvania where it parts of the Basin's bedrock and unconsoli- forms the divide at the southern boundary of dated sediments. Sand and gravel beds within the Basin. the unconsolidated sediments are the most Shale yields small water supplies to wells. permeable portion and form the principal Limestone yields moderate supplies in north- aquifers. Throughout this report unconsoli- ern and southeastern Michigan, Indiana, and dated aquifers, glacial-deposit aquifers, and Ohio. Both units yield saline water to deeper sand and gravel aquifers are used inter- wells. In New York and Pennsylvania the changeably and refer to the same condition. It sandstone beds produce moderate well yields. was noted that ground water is present Physiographic and Hydrogeologic Setting 5 throughout the Basin. Water filters into the that water moves from the stream toward the ground wherever the soil interstices permit. well. Well yields are thus sustained and are This ground water is derived directly from generally higher because of availability of the precipitation, or indirectly from surface constant head of the stream. However, re- bodies of water. Recharge to the aquifers be- duced streamflow from pumpage can be de- neath the soil zone occurs after surface evap- trimental to aquatic life and aesthetic values oration, transpiration needs, and soil- and must be evaluated. moisture deficiencies are satisfied. Recharge The water-yielding potential of an aquifer is to the surficial deposits by such infiltration limited by available recharge and by the least occurs throughout the Basin. permeable layer between the recharge area Underlying bedrock aquifers can receive re- and the aquifer. Natural recharge is water charge in this manner also, but because they that exceeds evapotranspiration and soil are usually mantled by the surficial deposits moisture needs and does not run off. Annual in this region, recharge occurs only if the soil recharge is affected by variations in plant zone water needs are met. Bedrock aquifers cover, soil conditions, and climatic conditions. can also be recharged through stream beds Extensive wetlands, present in much of the that traverse their outcrop areas and through ground-moraine and lake-deposit areas, store swamps and lakes. In some instances this type and evapotranspire much water. Drainage of recharge occurs to the surficial deposits, but practices decrease the evapotranspiration in humid climates like the Great Lakes Re- loss and create additional farm land, but with gion's, streams act as drains for the water consequent loss of wetlands for wildlife table and recharge occurs through them only habitat. in rare instances where the water table lies Discharge of ground water in surficial aqui- below stream level. fers occurs principally to streams, lakes, and Most recharge occurs as a result of water ponds that intersect the water table. Dis- percolating to the water table during the charge of bedrock aquifers occurs where the spring snowmelt period. During the summer, aquifers are near the surface, but movement the amount of water lost from evapotranspir- may be somewhat different in deeper forma- ation usually exceeds the amount of water tions. Ground water moves from areas of re- retained from rainfall and little or no recharge charge (high head) to areas of discharge (lower occurs. Ground-water recharge resumes in the head). Wherever fresh water is found at ap- fall after evapotranspiration losses are re- preciable depths, water must be moving out of duced and may continue through part of the the aquifer through relatively pervious rock winter. However, severe winter conditions or fractures. In this manner fresh water dis- that result in extensive frost penetration, places the highly mineralized water present in most prevalent in the northern part of the some sedimentary formations in the Basin to Basin, inhibit winter ground-water recharge. depths greater than present sea level. The five In places where the sand and gravel aquifers Lakes are natural discharge areas for ground are confined, the recharge potential is lower water from bedrock as well as surficial aqui- because recharge has to occur through the fers in their river basins. These surficial aqui- confining layer. Thus, unconsolidated sedi- fers discharge primarily through the base flow ments in the Basin are not only significant for of streams. Consequently, ground water containing aquifers, but act as the recharge makes an appreciable contribution to the medium for bedrock aquifers. Recharge to Great Lakes. Most of it is included in the many of the bedrock aquifers normally occurs streamflow. A rough calculation of the in their outcrop area (although it may still be ground-water seepage directly into the Lakes under the surficial deposit cover) as shown on in the first few feet of rock beneath the entire the bedrock geology map (Figure 3-3). How- lakeshores where most of the seepage would ever, recharge also occurs downward through occur gives a value of only approximately overlying formations by infiltration through 2,000 efs (cubic feet per second). fractures, permeable zones, and uncased wells Multi-aquifers in an area can provide large as long as there is the proper head differential supplies of water. Probable yield, well depth, in the respective water levels. and quality of water in each aquifer can be Induced recharge from surface bodies of wa- evaluated so that a well or wells can be con- ter, particularly streams, is of utmost impor- structed to obtain desired quantity and qual- tance in extensive development of unconsoli- ity. Although theoretically one well tapping dated aquifers. Pumping of wells located near all hydrologically separated bedrock aquifers streams reverses the water-table gradient so should yield the total aggregate of a well in 6 Appendix 3 each aquifer, actual yield is somewhat less areas the situation is reversed. High iron con- than aggregate. The ground-water planner of tent also is a problem in most shallow aquifers. the future should consider all aspects of a Highly mineralized ground water occurs at multi-aquifer system and guide development depth throughout the Basin. Feth and otherSIA to make the best use of the system, e.g., pre- have compiled a map of the United States vention of unnecessary drawdowns or inter- showing deepest to shallowest ground water change of aquifer waters of differeing chemi- containing various contents of minerals.That cal quality. part of their map covering the Great Lakes Bedrock aquifers, although widespread Basin is shown with modifications for this throughout the Basin, differ in areal extent, study in Figure 3-4. Mineralized water is di- thickness, yield to wells, and quality of water vided into three ranges: 1,000 to 3,000 mg/l; yielded. Each major aquifer system in each of 3,000 to 10,000 mg/l; and 10,000 to 35,000 mg/l. the five Lake basins is presented on separate It was noted by Feth and others 14 that 1,000 river basin group maps and discussed sepa- mg/l ". . . departs from the limit on dissolved rately in the basin sections. Chemical quality solids content, 500 [mg/1] recommended by the data concerning representative aquifer wa- U.S. Public Health Service67 for water to be ters are presented in tables by aquifer, State, used in public supplies" because they ". . . and river basin group. recognized that persons become accustomed to higher concentrations and use water for domestic supply containing more than 1,000 1.2.2 Water Quality Characteristics (mg/1), and locally more than 2,000 (mg/1) of dissolved solids where less mineralized water Generally, mineral content of ground water is not available." Mapping of mineralized increases with the length of time the water is water also lends itself to distinguishing areas in contact with rocks. As water infiltrates the where demineralization processes may be- ground and moves toward discharge points, it come economically feasible for moderately usually undergoes changes in mineral con- mineralized waters. In this report water con- tent. The farther water travels and the great- taining more than 1,000 mg/l is termed saline er the solubility of the rock material through or mineralized and a qualifying adjective such which it passes, the greater chance it has of as moderate or high is frequently used with it. becoming highly mineralized. For example, In basin sections of this report, known saline water passing through salt beds that contain zones of each aquifer system are delineated. easily soluble sodium chloride readily becomes Some maps show areas where fresh water is highly. saline. available beneath saline aquifers and the text Some mineralized water originated in sea- points out potential as well as current prob- water inundation during the Ice Age. Such an lems of contamination from improperly con- inundation is known to have occurred in the structed wells in such areas. In areas where St. Lawrence Valley in the area where Lake saline water is relatively close to the surface, Ontario is now. Much of this seawater has it is difficult to portray the zone without pre- probably been flushed out of the Basin. senting the three-dimensional picture. Fresh Chemical quality of ground water in the water is generally present above saline water Great Lakes Basin is variable. In most of the and the depth of the saline zone varies with Basin at least one bedrock aquifer contains topography and the character of the rock. water with a satisfactory level of dissolved sol- Saline zones are not depicted on the aquifer ids, usually less than 1,000 mg/l (equal to 1,000 maps in areas where the average freshwater parts per million). However, this water com- well does not extend down to the saline water. monly has undesirable hardness. Mineral con- tent of water generally increases with depth and with the dip of the formation. High iron 1.2.3 Development Potential content in water from sandstone aquifers is a general problem in the Wisconsin-Illinois Several major aquifer systems in the Great area. Iron content higher than 0.3 mg/l is con- Lakes Basin are very productive in terms of sidered undesirable.1.7 Water quality in uncon- industrial and municipal water supplies. solidated aquifers varies considerably from Available streamflow data offered the best place to place because of differences in sedi- means to determine overall and comparative ment types and recharge conditions. General- ground-water potential within the Great ly, waters of unconsolidated aquifers are sof- Lakes Basin. Base flow of unregulated ter than average bedrock water, but in some streams represents outflow of the ground- Physiographic and Hydrogeologic Setting 7 water system of an area. Surface-water data shown, however, that most recharge occurs are presented in Appendix 2, Surface Water during the March to June period when snow- Hydrology, but data pertinent to base flow or melt and spring rains far exceed minimal ground-water outflow are used here. evapotranspiration demands. Recharge oc- Areas underlain by good aquifers, as indi- curs during the summer growing season only cated by their yield as runoff, are shown in when above normal precipitation occurs or Figure 3-5. Nearly half the Basin's land area when rainfall is intense or prolonged. During is underlain by aquifers that yield more than a the dormant fall-winter season recharge is in- quarter million gallons per day per square hibited by frost conditions, and may not occur mile. Well yields can range upward to as much if moisture is locked iin the snow pack. Fall- as 5,000 gpm within these areas. More prolific winter recharge is more significant in the areas are denoted as those areas yielding southern part of the Basin, where frost condi- more than 0.50 mgd per square mile. In gener- tions and snow pack do not develop as exten- al, the Basin's ground-water resources are sively as in the northern portions. among the largest in the nation. Development plans for using water-table The use of 50 gpm as a minimum "high" well aquifers far removed from stream recharge yield value in the tables of this appendix is require an appraisal of annual recharge and arbitrary. Other studies use either 40 gpm, potential recharge under development condi- because it is equivalent to a convenient unit of tions, as well as the feasibility of capturing the flow of approximately 0.1 efs, or 70 gpm, be- discharge that leaves the area. Recharge cause it is equivalent to 100,000 gpd (gallons value puts an upper limit on maximum sus- per day). In compiling data from various areas tained ground-water development possible by for such a large region as the Great Lakes capturing all discharge and without removing Basin, it is apparent that well-yield descrip- water from storage. One inch of annual re- tions vary considerably. "Small" yields may charge, for example, amounts to approxi- mean less than 5 gpm in one area, and in mately 17 million gallons per year per square another area yields less than 100 gpm may be mile, enough water to supply 465 people 1000 considered small. gpd for an entire year. Even low annual re- Areas adjacent to Lake Superior and the charge to a water-table aquifer can supply a Adirondack region of New York have low lot of water to an area. yields because the underlying bedrock is Pre- Unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers of cambrian crystalline complex. Elsewhere in the Great Lakes Basin offer high potential for New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio sedimen- induced recharge to large production wells. tary bedrock formations are also low-yielding Principal areas where induced recharge is aquifers. feasible often occur along streams. Yields of The estimated ground-water yield map, Fig- 1,000 to 2,000 gpm are possible in many of ure 3-5, is suitable for depicting areas of high these situations. These sites are too small to potential, but the potential user should also show on the map, but practically every stream consider whether or not existing pumpage is in the Basin has this potential where it flows exceeding or nearly exceeding the perennial through medium to coarse unconsolidated yield of that area. Such areas are those where material. These shallow sand and gravel water levels have been declining for several aquifers are good sources for future develop- years because the aquifers probably are being ment. In addition to induced recharge, these overdeveloped. Areas are noted on maps in the aquifers lend themselves to artificial recharge basin sections. Such notation implies that ad- during periods when excess surface water is ditional bedrock wells developed in that area available. would compound pumping effects and add to Natural discharge of ground water occurs ground-water depletion. Immediately adja- principally by transpiration during the grow- cent areas might also be considered poor areas ing season and by seepage or outflow to sur- to develop wells because they would impose face water. Base flow discharge of streams, their drawdown effects on the existing area. therefore, gives a measure of the natural Detailed local investigations have resulted ground-water outflow of an area. Where in estimates of annual recharge to the geologic conditions are favorable for storing ground-water system. Estimates of recharge natural recharge and delayed release of ranging from less than 1 to 10 inches per year, ground water, base flow will be much higher covering different areas or different years, than in areas lacking storage potential. In this show the problems of trying to establish areal region stream discharge consists entirely of values of potential recharge. Studies have ground water at least 90 percent of the time. 8 Appendix 3 Cumulative-frequency curves showing the shown in tables in each basin section. The es- percent of time specified discharges were timated totals for each Lake basin and the equaled or exceeded are called flow-duration total for the Great Lakes Basin are given be- curves. In streams in this region total average low: annual runoff, including runoff from precipi- Basin Yield (mgd) tation, is generally near the 30 percent point of Lake Superior 4,240 the flow-duration curve. Average annual Lake Michigan 11,710 ground-water runoff value should lie between Lake Huron 3,215 the 30 and 90 percent points, depending in part Lake Erie 1,900 on geologic conditions. Lake Ontario -4,910 The slope of the duration curve gives a clue to the proportion of ground-water contribu- Total 25,975 tion. The flatter the slope as it approaches the Values generally show a good correlation with 100 percent point, the greater the storage and well yields and surficial geology. Higher dis- generally the greater the ground-water con- charges lie within the higher well-yield areas. tribution. Upstream conditions, such as large Where comprehensive studies have deter- surface-water bodies maintaining a high base mined ground-water potentials, their yield flow, or man-induced conditions, have to be values are inserted for comparison. evaluated. For those duration curves that Estimated ground-water yield from flow- have a relatively straight slope in this seg- duration data gives the planner a preliminary ment, a reasonable estimate of the average estimate of the minimum amount of ground annual ground-water runoff can be obtained. water available annually. Average annual In recent years, a point within the 60 to 70 ground-water runoff is usually greater than percent range has been considered a rep- the 70 percent duration value. Where reliable resentative conservative value for average flow-duration curves are available and repre- annual ground-water runoff (see references 66 sent ground-water drainage area, values up to and 76). Ground-water yields computed for 60 percent may be used as the minimum this and other studies using varied methods ground-water potential of an area. The flatter compare favorably with this range (Tables the curve toward the 100 percent end, the 3-6, 3-12, and 3-15). The smaller the storage greater the ground-water contribution. For and release capabilities in the Basin aquifers, example, the 60 percent value for the Great the closer the average value will be to 90 per- Lakes Basin total is approximately 36,000 cent. For the purpose of this appendix, 70 per- mgd. cent flow-duration values were chosen. This is The planner must realize, however, that both a conservative value for dependable yield values determined by this method are ground-water discharge and a measure of the only generalizations. Perennial yield can only potential ground-water yield of a lake basin. be based on information concerning potential Ground-water runoff value determined for a location of well development and type of pump- lake basin from flow-duration data is useful in age operations. Potential yield is ground comparing adjacent basins. For correlative water that can be captured before discharging purposes, discharge at any point can be corre- out of the Basin and recharge that can be ob- lated with the size of surface drainage area tained by lowering the water level and reduc- and compared with that of another basin with ing evapotranspiration losses. Therefore, pe- a comparable period of now record. rennial yield depends upon the conditions im- The 70 percent value represents the esti- posed by man. The planner must also realize mated ground-water potential of shallow and that additional ground water is available in deep bedrock aquifers. Bedrock aquifers usu- other ways. Recycled water may be reused by ally have a much lower water transmitting down-gradient users. Water may temporarily capacity than sand and gravel aquifers and be drawn from storage in thick aquifers. Ex- receive their recharge from the shallow aqui- cess waters may be artificially recharged. On fers. Deep aquifer ground-water potential can the negative side, a natural base flow in most best be considered as storage. No attempt is streams is desired for aesthetic reasons. Con- made to determine the vast amount of water suming uses of ground water will reduce the in storage, which in some instances could pro- flow of the streams. Nonconsumed water is vide water for years without any recharge. usually put back into the hydrologic system as Values estimated for the ground-water po- effluent and would help to maintain base flow. tential of each planning subarea in the Basin, However, unless the effluent is highly treated, based on the 70 percent flow duration, are water quality would be degraded. Withdraw- Physiographic and Hydroge o logic Setting 9 als from aquifers can also create storage space Seepage of wastes into the shallow unconfined that helps reduce flood peaks by storing water part of bedrock aquifers can easily occur. during periods of high runoff. Combined use of Aquifer maps show the unconfined areas, ground and surface waters can even out the where pollution potential is greater. amount available during wet and dry spells. Deep-well disposal or storage of wastes, in- cluding toxic wastes from industries, is becom- ing more common. One major accident of a 1.2.4 Regional Problems disposal system already has occurred within the Great Lakes Basin. Until recently, the Although the Great Lakes Basin has some of States have not had stringent control over the most productive aquifers in the United these disposal sites. Most have just begun States and good annual recharge capability, maintaining records and controlling such problems related to natural as well as man- practices. Piper47 recently advanced the need made conditions are present. Natural condi- for a national body to delineate sites for injec- tions are known for the most part and man has tion and to maintain records of waste storage. adapted somewhat to the problems they In this appendix, 31 known sites of well dis- create. Major natural problems are low- posal are plotted on the respective aquifer yielding aquifers or high salinity water. These maps pertaining to zone of disposal and re- were already noted in the discussions and ported depth. Most disposal wells are deep and maps on aquifers and their capabilities (Fig- in highly saline formations, but some are rela- ures 3-4 and 3-5). tively shallow. While migration of toxins is of The man-made problem of aquifer contami- prime concern in well disposal, use of nation, although a local problem, occurs brackish-water zones now seems imprudent throughout the Basin. Indiscriminate dis- because technology is making demineraliza- posal of wastes easily contaminates aquifers tion of brakish waters economically feasible. through recharge areas, or indirectly through Management should consider that random induced recharge from surface waters. In ad- surface disposal of any wastes is likely to af- dition, multi-aquifer wells have permitted in- fect some shallow aquifer. Sites should be cho- terflow of waters of variable quality from dif- sen to eliminate as much contamination as ferent aquifers. Where a saline aquifer is possible. Proposals for land-development penetrated, the resulting contamination of areas should consider the protection of under- the freshwater aquifer is especially disas- lying aquifers. Public sewerage systems may trous if the aquifer is used locally. prevent pollution of an aquifer suitable for Shallow sand and gravel aquifers also raise individual or community-wide water systems. problems that should be considered in poten- The cost of obtaining or treating a water sup- tial development. Shallow aquifers are easily ply may be greatly increased if septic tanks subject to pollution from wastes dumped on are permitted in unsuitable areas. It is im- land or into streams. Extensive use of aquifers perative that any housing, commercial, or in- adjacent to streams will seriously deplete base dustrial development that creates substantial flow and add to low-flow pollution problems. wastes be required to treat the effluent. Dis- Ideally, nonconsumed water, returned to the po sal in or near shallow aquifers requires stream as "fully" treated effluent, will not ap- complete treatment to prevent undesirable preciably add to the pollution problem. contaminants from entering the aquifers. Septic tanks, leaching fields, disposal wells, Septic tanks may not be suitable for lot-sized land fills, spillage, and leakage may all add developments in areas of thin surficial de- waste contaminants to sand and gravel aqui- posits. Such areas of thin drift or bedrock out- fers and to permeable bedrock formations near crops occur locally in the western and north- the land surface. Prolific sand and gravel ern shores of Lake Michigan, in Precambrian aquifers in much of Michigan and parts of Wis- areas of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and consin are affected by extensive waste dis- in northern Wisconsin. posal in heavily populated areas. Limestone Ground-water overdevelopment is a prob- and dolomite aquifers that occur beneath a lem affecting part of the Lake Michigan basin. thin surficial-deposit cover, such as the Extensive ground-water withdrawals in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer, are most suscepti- Chicago area, coupled with heavy pumpage in ble to pollution because of their open-fracture the Milwaukee area, have been lowering the and solution-joint systems. The Door Penin- water level of the deep sandstone aquifer. In- sula area of Wisconsin is a good example and is creasing pumping costs and pump mainte- currently under study for possible remedies. nance are affecting a steadily increasing re- 10 Appendix 3 gion involving the two States. Restrictions on aware of the nature of the hydrologic system increased use of Lake Michigan water and in- to make best use of water resources. Guidance creasing economic loss to ground-water users and control of urban and industrial growth make it imperative that a water-supply solu- can forestall the necessity of extensive and tion be worked out in this large metropolitan expensive water developments, as well as area. transportation, pollution and other problems. Limitation on available water supply can lead 1.2.5 Cost of Developing Ground Water to the curtailment of metropolitan expansion and may be a prime factor in developing satel- The cost of developing a ground-water sup- lite communities with green belts and rural ply in an area must be evaluated in conjunc- areas interspersed with urban and industrial tion with costs of developing other sources of complexes. Public awareness of the ultimate water. In contrast with surface-water de- effects of unplanned expansion can create velopment, ground-water development varies support for management decisions that could considerably from area to area both in initial produce the most beneficial long-term use of capital and in annual operating costs which water resources. are dependent upon the type of aquifer and physical characteristics of the 'well or wells needed to extract the necessary quantity of 1.3.2 Water Rights water. Data on aquifer systems, well depths, and Rights to ground water have not been a well yields compiled for individual river basin common legal consideration in the water-rich groups were used in applying standard cost Great Lakes Basin. However, in areas of over- indexes to the cost of developing the necessary draft the rights of land (well) owners are be- wells to produce 1 mgd. The data were used ginning to be questioned. Economic con- further to estimate the annual cost of pump- siderations, rather than water shortages, are ing 1 mgd. These data have been adapted from the causes of concern. According to ThomaS,57 Illinois studies as shown in Gibb and Sander- public opinion used to favor "mining" of son.18 Costs of developing a ground-water sup- ground water rather than conserving its use ply have been summarized in Figure 3-6 for over an indefinite period, but recent aware- each basin. Major assumptions have been in- ness of man's environment may be changing cluded. Even with the assumptions and aver- this opinion. Thomas also reviewed existing ages used in this compilation, it can be seen water laws and concepts with respect to more that costs vary considerably by area and type effective management of the nation's water of aquifer. In general, unconsolidated- resources.59 Appendixes F20, Federal Laws, sediment wells cost less to develop and operate Policies, and Institutional Arrangements, and because of higher yields and smaller pumping S20, State Laws, Policies, and Institutional Ar- lifts. rangements, cover details of water rights and As shown on the graph, unconsolidated- regulations in the Basin. aquifer well and pumping costs are slightly Water rights by land ownership usually higher than they should be. In many areas imply a reasonable use of water. However, a wells in sand and gravel are capable of 500 major user of water, such as an industry or a gpm. To obtain 1 mgd (approximately 700 gpm) municipality, can create an overdraft in an for comparative purposes, the cost of an extra area outside its land boundaries. Continuing well of the same capacity was added. It was too overdraft necessitates increased pumping complicated and detailed for this framework lifts, increased costs, periodic extension of study to adjust costs to accommodate selec- pump columns, and larger pumping units. tion of a proper-sized well to get the extra 200 Capital investments in ground-water de- gpm. In contrast, bedrock wells generally velopment are damaged by these unforeseen have lower yields. It was practicable to select costs. the approximate number of wells needed to Use of wells in heavily pumped areas may provide 1 mgd. become uneconomical because of pumping lifts and because water supplies may be im- 1.3 Ground-Water Management ported from other areas. This could be to the disadvantage of other areas. Lowering the 1.3.1 General water levels in numerous domestic wells in one aquifer or in an overlying aquifer that Management has a responsibility to be loses its water to the underlying aquifer Physiographic and Hydrogeologic Setting 11 causes a serious financial loss to individuals. both unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers. Draining lands by ditching can seriously af- Streams could become intermittent, flowing fect shallow rural and domestic water only in response to runoff from precipitation. supplies. Similar effects can be created by the Sewage effluent would still provide a base hard surfacing of the land surface that takes flow, but under present conditions water qual- place in urbanization. Recharge is decreased ity would be poorer. and runoff is increased. It must be decided whether sustained flow A plan is needed to use the water in the best in a stream is desirable.. The demand for manner while minimizing undesirable effects. adequate flow of high quality water in most In some cases there may be justification in streams is increasing with recreational de- limiting new withdrawals where increased mands. Many cases of overdraft or stream de- pumping costs, endangered investments, in- pletion and subsequent litigation have occur- creased urban growth, or decreased use of red in the western States. Management can- existing installations are created. Reserva- not develop aquifers to their limits, divert the tion of shallow, low-producing aquifers for effluents, and still retain "normal" flow in domestic and rural use can solve some prob- every stream. lems. Adequate knowledge of an aquifer system Another aspect of overdevelopment is the can provide managers with alternatives such decrease in ground-water contribution to as nonuse of shallow aquifers or overdevelop- stream flow. Bedrock aquifers contribute to ment of deeper aquifers; overdraft from aqui- some streams, but most base flow in this Re- fers that yield water of good quality, or nonuse gion comes from unconsolidated aquifers. De- of aquifers that yield water of poorer quality; velopment of unconsolidated aquifers to their areally concentrated well development, or fullest capabilities can decrease streamflow adequate spacing of wells; a water supply by two principal means: decreasing ground- drawn from one source, or seasonal or com- water outflow; and increasing recharge, bined use of ground water and surface water; which results in less surface-water runoff. Use or the high per capita use of unmetered water of all annual recharge would eventually di- or the lower per capita use of metered water. minish ground-water outflow to streams from Section 2 LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN 2.1 General Minnesota, but 1,800- to 2,000-foot altitudes are common in much of this area. The approx- The Lake Superior basin has poor to fair imate mean elevation of Lake Superior is potential for ground-water supplies, but lo- 602 feet. In Minnesota, an upland glacial-lake cally there are good aquifers. The best aquifers plain is drained by the St. Louis River. Other are in sand and gravel deposits, especially in glacial-lake lowlands cover much of the Wis- the east end of the Upper Peninsula of Michi- consin part of the basin and parts of the east- gan, in the headwaters of the St. Louis River ern end of the basin. system of Minnesota, and in the headwater Approximately two-thirds of the basin is areas of Wisconsin. Sedimentary rocks in the underlain by Precambrian igneous, sedimen- eastern part also have good aquifers. tary, and metamorphic rocks. Precambrian Elsewhere bedrock is dominantly Precam- - and Paleozoic rocks form topographic high- brian igneous, metamorphic .. and sedimentary lands and ridges, which were eroded primarily rock with a 25- to 400-foot thick glacial-drift in preglacial times and less so by relatively cover. recent continental glaciation. Mesozoic rocks The major ground-water problem is low crop out in iron mines of the Mesabi district. yields. Highly mineralized water occurs in a The small area of Paleozoic sedimentary few areas, particularly in the Superior Slope rocks within the eastern part of the basin is and Apostle Islands complexes, the shown in Figure 3-11. The relationship of the Keweenaw Peninsula area, and the head- Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks is shown in waters of the Tahquamenon complex. Rela- the geologic section. Sandstone and carbonate tively sparse populations, seasonal vacation rocks were deposited on the surface of Pre- use, and the fact that industry is developed cambrian rocks that form the northern edge of only locally limit man-made pollution prob- the Michigan sedimentary basin. As many as lems. 2,000 feet of these sedimentary rocks remain after erosion has removed overlying rocks and worn down the updip edges of what remains. 2.2 Physiography and Drainage Most basin bedrock is covered with sedi- ments of almost entirely glacial drift, and many The land part of the Lake Superior basin bedrock valleys have been partially or wholly within the United States (Figure 3-7) consists filled. Lakes and swamps resulted from glacia- of 16,986 square miles, approximately one-half tion. Glacial deposits, shown in Figures 3-8 of the entire Lake surface area. Most streams and 3-10, consist primarily of lake deposits draining the United States part have rela- and till. Well-sorted outwash and ice-contact tively small drainage basins. The largest, the sediments are less common. Thickness of the St. Louis River basin, drains more than 3,600 deposits is highly variable, but the maximum square miles. known thickness (550 feet at Superior) is not as Most of the Lake Superior basin lies within great as in other Great Lakes basins. Bedrock the Superior Uplands province (Figure 3-1). exposures are common, particularly in the Part of the basin at the eastern end of Michi- Superior north shore, Apostle Islands, Por- gan's Upper Peninsula is included in the Cen- cupine Mountains, Keweenaw Peninsula, and tral Lowland physiographic province. The Huron Mountain areas. basin is characterized by its rugged uplands Most of the basin has a stand of second and a rock escarpment bordering parts of the growth forests after being partly logged and lakeshore. A maximum altitude of 2,301 feet burned during the late 19th and early 20th occurs at Eagle Mountain near Grand Marais, centuries. 13 14 Appendix 3 2.3 Ground-Water Conditions principal chemical constituents. Dissolved- solids content usually ranges from 30 to 400 Ground water is present throughout the mg/l. Water may be hard, particularly in the Lake Superior basin, but varies greatly in eastern part of Michigan and the western part quantity between areas. Dominance of dense of the St. Louis River basin, where sediments crystalline bedrock, glacial till, and lake de- contain much carbonate material. Iron con- posits limits the occurrence of high-yielding, tents as high as 10 mg/l have been determined permeable aquifers. Aquifers that produce and are a significant detriment. High sulfate moderate to high yields are locally present in and chloride contents in unconsolidated three major types of rocks: sand and gravel, aquifers are associated with ground water carbonates, and sandstones. There are few that has migrated from underlying bedrock areas where large-producing wells can be drill- aquifers. ed. Their whereabouts heed to be delineated Recharge to sand and gravel aquifers occurs in future studies. Wells that yield adequate from percolation directly into the sediments. water for domestic supplies can be con- Most recharge occurs in spring from snowmelt structed nearly everywhere. and in fall from rains, when evapotranspira- tion losses are low. Summer evapotranspira- tion usually exceeds available moisture and 2.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers the water table gradually recedes. A continu- ous recession of the water table usually occurs Aquifers in unconsolidated sediments (gla- in winter as ground water is discharged to cial drift and alluvium) primarily occur in streams and lakes. Recharge can occur during well-sorted sand or gravel beds where re- winter only in the absence of heavy frost con- charge occurs freely. Areas where glacial ditions. streams deposited outwash and ice-contact Hydrographs of typical water-level fluctua- material, and where postglacial streams have tions are shown in Figures 3-8 and 3-10. reworked the sediments have the best poten- Long-term hydrographs in Figure 3-8 show tial for ground water. Surficial deposits and how the water table fluctuates in response to availability of ground water in them, as ex- climatic variations. Well numbers for hydro- pressed in well yields, are shown in Figures graphs here and throughout the appendix are 3-8 and 3-10 for River Basin Groups 1.1 and local numbers used by water agencies and are 1.2, respectively. Higher yielding areas are based on county designations. generally associated with sand and gravel de- posits. High yields may be possible where lake deposits are indicated because of the presence 2.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers of buried outwash deposits. Dominance of till and other thin glacial drift in the basin is re- Significant bedrock aquifers occur only in flected in the vast areas with well yields less certain areas of the Lake Superior basin. than 10 gpm. Sedimentary Paleozoic formations in the A summary of characteristics of unconsoli- eastern part of the basin, and sedimentary dated aquifers by river basin groups and Precambrian units in western Michigan and States is included in Table 3-1. The thickness in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota contain of sediments containing one or more aquifers higher producing aquifers. Bedrock units and ranges up to 550 feet, with the Wisconsin area areas of saline ground water are shown in (except for Superior) having the thinnest sec- Figures 3-9 and 3-11. tion. Well depths are usually between 15 and Bedrock units making up a major aquifer 200 feet. High yields range from 50 to 500 gpm. system are delineated in Table 3-1. The fresh- The scale of the ground-water maps cannot water portion of the aquifers is sometimes 500 show smaller areas where large yields are pos- feet thick, and well yields of 50 to 500 gpm are sible. However, many stream valleys, except obtained. The few available chemical ayalyses those in the Superior Slope area, have sand or of bedrock water (Table 3-2) show that the gravel in some reaches, and high yields are water is very hard, 200-250 mg/l. Its sulfate obtainable by inducement of stream recharge. content generally ranges from 20-200 mg/l. Chemical quality of ground water from un- A small area of carbonate rocks of late Or- consolidated deposits in the Lake Superior dovician and Silurian age occurs in the east- basin is generally good, owing principally to ern end of the basin (Figure 3-11). Although the crystalline -rock origin of much of the sed- areal extent of the unit is small, the rocks have iments. Table 3-2 shows the range of some high ground-water potential. The aquifer sys- Lake Superior Basin 15 tem occurs in the near-surface part of the car- water from shallow to medium depth wells. bonates where solution activity has created Elsewhere Precambrian metamorphic and high permeability. The few chemical analyses volcanic rocks are only capable of producing of the water indicate that it is of good quality yields for domestic and small industrial wells. but hard (Table 3-2). The rocks receive re- Locally along the north shore volcanic rocks charge directly where they are exposed and are very porous and yield moderate amounts indirectly through overlying glacial drift. of water to wells. Well depths in Precambrian Saline water is encountered at relatively shal- aquifers range from 5 to 600 feet. low depth in the carbonates. Saline springs, as Chemical quality of water from all Precam- well as freshwater springs, seep out of the brian aquifers varies locally with hardness. bases of escarpments in the area. Iron and chloride contents present problems Units of Precambrian, Cambrian, and Or- in some areas (Table 3-2). Generally, the dovician rocks form the most significant bed- deeper the well, the poorer the quality of rock aquifer system in Lake Superior basin. water encountered. The north shore of Lake The system is present only in River Basin Superior, much of the Wisconsin area, and an Group 1.2. The aquifer system consists of area in Michigan (Figures 3-9 and 3-11) re- sandstone beds. There are some carbonates in portedly have areas of saline water, especially the upper part of the system in the eastern in wells drilled deeper than 200 or 300 feet. part of the basin, within a rock sequence that Wells close to the Lake Superior shore com- reaches as much as 1,600 feet in thickness. The monly encounter saline water at 100 feet or lowermost sandstone, considered partially less. Precambrian, is the only part of the system Recharge to aquifers occurs through out- west of Marquette. The relationship of the crops and glacial drift. A hydrograph of water aquifer to the rock sequence is shown in Fig- levels in a Precambrian well shows normal ure 3-11. seasonal and climatic responses to precipita- The aquifer system has high well yields, in tion (Figure 3-11). the 50- to 500-gpm range. Wells range from 20 to 500 feet deep (Table 3-1). Chemical quality, particularly sulfate and chloride content, is 2.4 Ground-Water Potential generally related to depth; the deeper the well, the greater the mineral content. Saline An estimate of ground-water yield, based on water is present at relatively shallow depth in flow-duration data as discussed in Section 1, two major areas in the basin (Figure 3-11). In was made for the basin. Flow-duration data the eastern part the lower portion of the for the 70 percent value were used in correla- aquifer system cont 'ains fresh water beneath tion with the map of unconsolidated deposits highly saline waters occurring in the upper to compile Figure 3-12. Areal coverage of sta- parts of the aquifer and overlying Silurian and tions for flow-duration analysis is poor except Ordovician systems (geologic section, Figure for the Bad River to Keweenaw Bay region. A 3-11). Salinity here is believed derived from Table 3-3 shows estimated ground-water yield leaching of evaporate beds in the system. Re- by river basin groups and by States within the charge to aquifer systems occurs principally basin for use in regional planning. The apprai- through the glacial-drift cover. Position of the sal of ground-water potential based on rela- ground-water divide is not known, but it is tively sparse 70 percent flow-duration data probably close to the surface-water divide. provides only a first approximation. The user Most of the natural discharge probably drains should also consider additional potential in into Lake Superior. normal reuse of ground water as it migrates Precambrian rocks contain significant from one area to the next, practicality of in- aquifers only in Minnesota's Mesabi district ducement of surface-water recharge, and and locally in Wisconsin. In the Mesabi dis- planned temporary withdrawal from storage trict, a sedimentary formation that produced of water from aquifers. extensive iron deposits has been so altered Flow-duration data indicate that several by weathering, that its porosity and permea- areas have high potential for major ground- bility have been greatly increased .6 Well yields water supplies (Figure 3-12). Parts of Wiscon- of 100 to 200 gpm are generally obtained, but sin show the highest yield, and the Sturgeon yields as high as 1,000 gpm are reported. In and Ontonagon river basins of Michigan show Wisconsin and southeastern Carlton County, good yields. High yield may be related to Minnesota, coarse red Precambrian surface-water storage in the form of lakes or sandstone yields moderate supplies of hard swamps. Knowledge of basin characteristics is 16 Appendix 3 needed to relate to flow-duration data. De- reason that compatible use of all natural re- lineation of sand and gravel deposits and their sources cannot be accomplished. The two river thicknesses within these areas would pinpoint basin groups are discussed separately as to potential sources of major ground-water specific problems, needs, and management supplies. Presence of buried aquifers beneath considerations. lake sediments indicates a high potential, even though flow-duration data do not show a high yield, and recharge capabilities are lim- 2.5.2 River Basin Group 1.1 ited. Sand and gravel aquifers in the extreme eastern part of the basin, as well as the Low well yields and local areas of poor water Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer, reportedly quality are problems in this area. Moderate to have the highest well yields in the basin. Be- small well yields are considered possible in cause this area is densely populated, more well parts of the St. Louis River basin. Somewhat data are available than for less populated larger yields are found in parts of the Apostle areas. Islands Complex, but only small supplies are available in the remaining area. The former mining area in the Gogebic Iron Range in the 2.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Con- Montreal River area has special ground-water siderations supply problems. Sand and gravel units in glacial drift, particularly adjacent to streams, and the Biwabik-Iron Formation in the 2.5.1 General Mesabi Range offer best potential. Supply problems may be largely eliminated through Lake Superior basin does not have an unlim- detailed site studies in areas of concern. ited ground-water resource, so areas not adja- Chemical quality of ground water varies cent to surface-water resources can be con- considerably. Generally sand and gravel aqui- sidered problematic from the standpoint of fu- fers yield good quality water, but iron is a ture growth and development. However, common problem. Bedrock aquifers yield soft surface-water resources here are relatively to hard water with saline water locally at untapped and population density is the lowest depths greaterthan 200 feet in the north shore in the Great Lakes Basin, less than 2.5 people area and at shallower depths along the west- per square mile. Much of the Lake Superior ern parts of the south shore area. basin serves as a recreational haven for the Ground-water pollution is not a problem at upper Great Lakes population. Emphasis on present. There is waste-pollution potential in this type of development fits natural condi- the Duluth area, but waste-treatment tions of the area. There may be merit in dis- facilities are being improved. couraging urbanization in natural problem Ground-water management has no specific areas. For example, low water yielding and regional problems. The populated Duluth- impervious rock terrain can cause problems in Superior and Ashland areas withdraw water obtaining an adequate water supply and in from Lake Superior. The Mesabi Range area subsurface disposal of wastes. has moderate to large ground-water supplies Some of man's current activities can cause from sand and gravel and small yields from serious problems in natural conditions. Con- bedrock aquifers. Quality control by regula- tamination of aquifers presents the most seri- tion of waste-disposal practices needs con- ous problem. Thin glacial drift throughout stant supervision. Land-use practices such as much of the basin and an area of highly recreation and forestry management that re- permeable carbonate rock exposed in the quire low population density may offer best eastern part are areas susceptible to contami- use of the land. nation of aquifers by poor waste-disposal General and detailed reconnaissance practices. Only a few instances of pollution studies have been made for parts of the basin have been noted to date, principally because of (Figure 3-7) and a general reconnaissance is present low population densities. Disposal of now under way for the Wisconsin area. These mining and wood-processing wastes creates reports are probably adequate for preliminary another potential for pollution (e.g., mercury regional appraisals. A special study is being pollution from wood processing). Antipollu- made on use of abandoned mines in the tion laws are beginning to control disposal Gogebic Range for ground-water supplies. practices. With a thorough knowledge of the Small areal comprehensive studies will be hydrologic system of an area, there is no needed for projected land development in in- Lake Superior Basin 17 land areas where surface-water supplies are contain potable water. not adequate. Intensive studies will be re- High iron content in many aquifers is almost quired to determine occurrence of aquifers a basinwide problem. Only carbonate aquifers and their long-range yield. Better regional are free of this problem. Unconsolidated appraisals of ground-water potential could be aquifers have water containing up to 10 mg/l made if more stream-gaging sites were estab- iron (Table 3-2). Water treatment is the most lished to obtain low-flow data. The existing practical solution in most cases. Wells located network is very sparse and should be ex- near a surface-water recharge source have panded to facilitate water resource appraisals better potential for obtaining iron-free water. of smaller areas. The observation-well net- Pollution of shallow aquifers has occurred in work for bedrock aquifers is very sparse. In Michigan from mining and wood-products areas of highest potential for future popula- wastes, and from sewage systems.9 Michigan tion growth and increased ground-water use, has applied more stringent waste-disposal additional wells for observation of water regulations in recent years. Contamination of levels would aid in evaluating changes in stor- fresh-water zones by saline water from overly- age from future ground-water development. ing Ordovician-Silurian aquifers (Figure 3-11) presents a potential problem depending upon well construction. 2.5.3 River Basin Group 1.2 River Basin Group 1.2 has been covered by general studies, except for Baraga County'O Much of the area within River Basin Group and parts of Marquette County, where studies 1.2 has an indicated ground-water yield to are in progress. Several studies have been wells of less than 10 gpm. The Tahquamenon made on mining areas, but they have not speci- Complex has the highest potential; wells cap- fically been on water problems related to min- able of yielding 100 to 500 gpm are reported. ing developments. To provide a better regional These are principally from sandstone and car- evaluation of ground-water potential of the bonate aquifers of Precambrian to Ordovician area, river basin studies of entire water re- age and from aquifers in glacial drift. On the sources should be made, with particular em- basis of streamflow data (Figure 3-2), the phasis on potential yield of unconsolidated Sturgeon and Ontonagon River basins indicate aquifers. good potential for high ground-water yield. Management of ground water is probably Chemical quality of ground water is vari- most important in eastern counties. Here the able. Water in all types of aquifers can be hard high potential of ground water and coexis- to very hard and have an appreciable iron tence of saline-water zones require wise de- content. Bedrock aquifers contain saline velopment of the resource to prevent con- water at relatively shallow depth in the tamination. Much of the area lends itself to Keweenaw Peninsula area and in shallow car- recreation and reforestation or other de- bonates in the Tahquamenon Complex. In the velopments with small water-withdrawal re- latter area, however, deeper bedrock aquifers quirements. 18 Appendix 3 TABLE 3-1 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Superior Basin (Stratigraphy only carried dawn to lowermost major aquifer) Maior aguifers -'1 1 Well 2 Era System Group Formation Thickness yields depth. Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) RIVER BASIN GROUP 1.1 Minnesota Cenozoic Quaternary 0-300 100-500 20-150 Sand, gravel in drift. Mesozoic Cretaceous Coleraine 0-100 Conglomerate, shale, and sand. Little water. Precambrian (Keweenawan) 0-2100+ Sandstone, shale, conglom- erate and igneous rocks. Some water. Animikie Virginia- 0-2000-F Slate and graywacke. Thomson Some water. Biwabik Iron 0-800 100-250 50-150 Slate, chart, and tacon- ite. High yields in Mesabi district only. Wisconsin Cenozoic Quaternary 1 0-150 5 1100-200 1 20-80 1 Sand. gravel in drift. Paleozoic(?) Cambrian(?) Bayfield Sandstone. ----------?------------------------ ? -------------- 0-600 50-100 50-600 1 Precambrian (Keweenawan) Oronto Sandstone, shale, and con- I I glomerate. RIVER BASIN GROUP 1.2 Michigan Cenozoic Ouaternary 0-350 50-500 15-200 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Silurian Dolomite. Manistique 0-500 Dolomite. Burnt Rl,,ff 50-100 25-500 Carbonates. Cataract 0-110 Dolomite and shale. Ordovician Richmond 0-425 Limestone and shale. Collingwood Shale; partial confining bed. Trenton 0-250 Limestone. Fresh water Black River only in Alger Co. Prairie du Chien Sandstone and'dolomite. Cambrian Trempealeau 0-1200 Sandstone. Munising 50-500 20-500 Sandstone. ------ ?----- --------------------------- Jacobsville Sandstone. amr) i n IRange is that of typical high-capacity wells. 2Range is that of all wells. 3Depths to 550 feet at Superior. '21 Lake Superior Basin 19 TABLE 3-2 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Superior Basin (Numerical ranges represent typical values and do not include unusually high or low values) Total dissolved Temper- Aquifer system Hardness Sulfate Chloride Iron solids ature Remarks (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (OF) RIVER BASIN GROUP 1.1 Minnesota Quaternary 10-250 5-150 1-15 0.3-5 50-300 42-47 Manganese is a problem in Mesabi (Sand and gravel) Range. Precambrian 10-350 5-25 1-350 0.2-2.5 125-500 44-50 (Biwabik Iron) Wisconsin Quaternary 40-50 3-12 1-30 0-3 50-200 43-52 (Sand and gravel) Precambrian 70-250 5-60 1-50 0-1 110-500 45-47 (Sandstone) RIVER W IN GROUP 1.2 Michigan Quaternary 20-400 3-75 1-200 1-10 30-400 42-50 (Sand and gravel) Ordovician-Silurian 250-500 50-200 10-50 0.05 250-650 45 Only 1 iron and temperature value. Cambrian-Ordovician 25-450 3-60 1-300 0-1 50-700 42-49 Precambrian-Cambrian 10-500 5-100 1-500 0,05-7 50-1000 42-48 (Jacobsville) TABLE 3-3 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Superior Basin Runoff at Subbasin 70-percent Subbasin State River Basin duration yield totals Group totals (cfsm) (mgd) (mgd) (mgd) RIVER BASIN GROUP 1.1 Minnesota 1,010 2,240 Superior Shore Complex 0.20 300 St. Louis River 0.27 710 Wisconsin 1,230 Apostle Islands Complex 0.60 770 Bad River 0.50 340 Montreal River Complex 0.60 120 RIVER BASIN GROUP 1.2 Michigan 2,000 2,000 Porcupine Mountains Complex 0.20 140 Ontonagon River 0.52 450 Keweenaw Peninsula Complex 0.40 350 Sturgeon River 0.52 240 Huron Mountains Complex 0.30 190 Grand Marais Complex 0.40 310 Tahquamenon River 0.47 250 Sault Complex 0.40 70 Lake Basin total 4,240 mgd Note: estimates based on flow-duration data for period of record (generally more than 10 years) at all gaging stations within the subbasin; extrapolations within drainage area and to ungaged areas based on surficial geology. Section 3 LAKE MICHIGAN BASIN 3.1 General exist. The basin needs a comprehensive inte- grated study of bedrock-aquifer systems from The Lake Michigan basin has the greatest Green Bay, Wisconsin, to Gary, Indiana. Bed- ground-water potential of any Great Lakes rock aquifers are hydraulically connected and basin. Glacial drift contains many high- reflect the demands of man's activities. Over- producing aquifers, particularly in the Lower lying glacial drift acts as a recharge medium Peninsula of Michigan. In addition the west- and should be studied concurrently. The ern shore of Lake Michigan is underlain by basinwide network of observation and high-producing bedrock aquifers. However, chemical-quality wells needs to be sandstone aquifer in the Chic ago-Milwaukee reevaluated so that each aquifer unit is moni- area is being "mined" by overpumping in tored separately. In this way the effects of northeast Illinois. increasing development of the ground-water Areas of poor ground-water yield are rela- system can be predicted and measured. tively scarce and of small areal extent. They Contamination of aquifers has occurred mainly occur in Precambrian areas of north- from unrestricted drilling and well- ern Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Penin- construction practices in areas of saline or sula and in the Ottawa River in the Lower poor quality aquifers. Carbonate rocks under Peninsula of Michigan. Highly saline water is a thin surficial cover are particularly subject present at relatively shallow depths in bed- to pollution from waste disposal. Sealing and rock formations of Michigan's Lower Penin- plugging of all abandoned wells and test holes sula and northern Indiana, but overlying is needed to stop interaquifer movement of aquifers in glacial drift provide good fresh- water and resultant quality deterioration. water sources. Unwise test drilling and Heavily pumped areas need alternatives to ground-water development practices could re- existing practices. Restriction or metering of sult in contamination of overlying aquifers water use may reduce demand, and restric- due to this occurrence of saline water. tions on new or additional pumping may be The problem of excessive lowering of water required. Allocation of aquifers to specific levels has occurred where pumpage has in- users on the basis of necessary water quality creased. The heavily pumped Chicago area may decrease overdraft. Seasonal or continual and the Green Bay, Lansing, and Milwaukee use of Lake Michigan waters by all feasible areas are major places that have faced or will users may reduce overpumping. face this problem. The City of Green Bay al- leviated its problem by switching to Lake Michigan water. However, increased indus- 3.2 Physiography and Drainage trial pumpage has again lowered ground-water levels, but the rate of lowering is not excessive The Lake Michigan basin is the only Great at present. Milwaukee has slowed the lower- Lakes basin that lies entirely within the Un- ing rate by increasing use of Lake Michigan ited States. The basin, third largest in total water. Chicago area water levels continue to area, covers 67,900 square miles and includes decline even with extensive use of Lake 44,330 square miles of land. The drainage area Michigan water. In 1966 it was estimated that is the largest of the Great Lakes, more than Chicago area pumpage from the principal twice that of the Lake Erie-St. Clair basin. aquifer, the Cambrian-Ordovician, exceeded Except in Illinois and Indiana, most streams its "practical sustained yield" of 46 mgd by have relatively large drainage areas con- about 37 mgd.51 tributing water to Lake Michigan (Figure Reconnaissance studies have been made in 3-13). Here the drainage boundary parallels much of the basin. Detailed studies of river the shoreline and includes very little con- basin groups are needed where problems tributing land area. Illinois in particular has 21 22 Appendix 3 no significant stream system contributing to with a generalized description of the rocks. Lake Michigan. The Chicago River and sub- Major aquifer systems are described in Table sidiary drainage system is now diverting 3-4 and shown on figure maps. water into the Mississippi basin via a canal system. The two major drainage systems with- in the Lake Michigan basin are the Fox River 3.3 Ground-Water Conditions system in Wisconsin, containing 6,600 square miles, and the Grand River system in Michi- Ground water occurs in several formations gan, containing 5,600 square miles. throughout the basin. It is probable that more The Lake Michigan basin lies entirely than one aquifer@will be encountered at any within the eastern lake section of the Central well site. This multiplicity of aquifers, with Lowland physiographic province. The basin is their differences in thickness, well yield, and characterized by a maturely dissected water quality, is discussed separately by glaciated terrain. Most of the Lower Penin- aquifer system. Unconsolidated or sand and sula of Michigan and southern Wisconsin has gravel aquifers and significant bedrock aqui- low rolling relief from morainal deposits. To fers are also mapped individually. In addition, the north, particularly in the Upper Peninsula the basin has been divided into four river of Michigan, bedrock crops out and forms more basin groups as a basis for planning. For each rugged relief. Elevations of a few isolated bed- river basin group, therefore, ground-water rock peaks in Wisconsin and the Upper Penin- conditions are presented separately by aqui- sula of Michigan exceed 1,900 feet, but most of fers on maps and in tables, and are separately the basin's land surface is less than 1,000 feet. discussed in regard to specific problems and The surface of Lake Michigan is at approxi- management considerations. mately 580 feet. A prominent escarpment, ex- tending -from Michigan's Garden Peninsula through Wisconsin's Door Peninsula to south 3.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers of Lake Winnebago, is formed by the exposed crest of a dolomite formation. Availability of water in glacial drift and al- Glacial deposits (Figures 3-14, 3-17, 3-21, luvium varies considerably. More productive and 3-24) cover the basin and create relief. The aquifers (well yields over 500 gpm) are likely to morainic system, particularly the end occur in thick sand and gravel deposits adja- moraines, forms large lobate or arcuate ridges cent to streams. The poorest aquifers are more and dominates the basin landscape. Inter- likely to be those in thin deposits or in the morainal areas are relatively flat and contain clayey or silty till and lake deposits. Table 3-4 numerous bodies of water and wetlands. Low- includes a summary of hydrologic characteris- lying flat areas of glacial lake origin rim much tics of wells in unconsolidated deposits in each of Lake Michigan shores. In addition, the Fox river basin group. River valley of Wisconsin, the Chicago area, Two major areas of thick sand and gravel and much of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan aquifers are the Manistee-Muskegon river are underlain by vast areas of glacial lake basin groups in Michigan (Figure 3-24), and beds. the western slope of the Fox river basin group Postglacial streams have reworked glacial in Wisconsin (Figure 3-14). Parts of the St. material in most valleys and deposited al- Joseph and Kalamazoo basins in River Basin luvium as flood plains and low terraces. Group 2.3 (Figure 3-21) also are high yielding. Larger streams have developed more exten- Wells yielding from 1,000 to more than 2,500 sive reaches and greater alluvial thickness, gpm can be obtained in all of these areas. but it is not feasible to distinguish between Aquifers adjacent to the above areas are alluvium and glacial outwash in the figures. capable of producing well yields of 100 to 500 Bedrock underlying the Lake Michigan gpm. These areas have lesser yields because basin consists of thousands of feet of sedimen- the saturated thickness of sediments is not as tary rock lying in the western part of a deep great and deposits are generally finer grained. structural basin in the basement igneous- Smaller well yields (less than 100 gpm) indi- metamorphic complex. These sedimentary cated in the remaining areas are related rocks consist of sandstones, carbonates, either to less thickness of glacial deposits or to shales, and evaporites of Cambrian through the predominance of fine-grained till or lake Jurassic age. The bedrock outcrop pattern, deposits. Along major streams in these areas, which underlies glacial drift in most of the higher yields are possible from the alluvial Lake Michigan basin, is shown in Figure 3-3 sand and gravel. Lake Michigan Basin 23 Buried bedrock channels filled with uncon- major aquifer systems within bedrock forma- solidated sediments are present in many areas tions. Sequences of rock formations and of the basin. They have not been mapped in characteristics of the major aquifer systems detail nor has their ground-water potential are shown in Table 3-4 for each of the four been fully explored. Major valleys containing river basin groups. Each system is discussed 300 to 400 feet or more of unconsolidated sedi- in descending sequence, from youngest to old- ments are known to be present in the Fox, est, and its relationship to the other systems is Grand, Kalamazoo, and St. Joseph River ba- noted. sins. These buried channels do not always con- The uppermost significant bedrock aquifer tain ideal aquifer material, but the frequency occurs in the Saginaw Formation of the of high well yields in buried valleys warrants Pennsylvania system. This formation occurs their exploration where evidence shows they only in Michigan where it borders the eastern exist. Channels are of particular importance edge of Lake Michigan basin (Figures 3-22 and where overlying surface streams provide 3-25). It is partially confined by 'overlying natural or induced recharge. In many areas rock. Along the northwestern part of the for- buried-channel potential has not been mation, beds of gypsiferous shales, red explored because of adequate water supplies sandstones, and gypsum locally called Red at shallower depth. Beds, overlie and partially confine the Chemical quality of water from sand and Saginaw Formation. The Red Beds, Jurassic gravel aquifers ranges from good to poor. in age, are thin and are not sources of ground Normal ranges of constituents in numerous water. In the central area of the Saginaw partial analyses for different areas are pre- Formation is the Grand River Formation. sented in Table 3-5. Dissolved solids are usu- Containing beds of red and brown sandstone ally in the 100 to 2,000 mg/l range. Water is and shale, it overlies and partially confines generally hard, ranging up to 1,000 mg/l, and the Saginaw Formation. Only locally is the its iron content is objectionable in much of the Grand River Formation thick or permeable basin. Chloride and sulfate are generally less enough to be an important source of water. than 50 mg/l, except where bedrock water con- Elsewhere, it is thin or cemented with iron taminates shallow unconsolidated aquifers. oxide and is relatively impermeable. Several places in Michigan have contamina- The Saginaw Formation is composed of beds tion problems from salt, brine, or oil well leak- of sandstone, siltstone, shale, coal, and lime- age. Water in the sand and gravel aquifer can stone. Hydrologic characteristics of the be classed in general as a calcium magnesium Saginaw Formation are summarized in Table bicarbonate water. 3-4. Where the formation is mantled confining Sand and gravel aquifers are recharged by bedrock, and many places elsewhere, it is 300 water from precipitation, mainly from snow- to 500 feet thick. At other places it is only a few melt at the spring thaw. Summer evapotrans- feet thick. Where the formation is composed of piration losses generally exceed precipitation sandstone, it will yield more than 700 gpm to and available moisture in the ground, and properly constructed wells. Where it is mostly consequently, recharge to the water table at shale, it yields only a few gallons per minute. this time is negligible. Fall recharge occurs as Large-capacity wells drawing water from the evapotranspiration losses diminish. Winter Saginaw Formation are generally 200 to 500 recharge from snowmelt or unseasonal rains feet deep. Recharge to the aquifer occurs depends upon ground-frost conditions. Exten- through the overlying glacial drift. sive frost development inhibits recharge, so Chemical quality of water in the Saginaw winter recharge is generally less significant in Formation (Table 3-5) ranges from soft to very the northern parts of the basin. hard. It may contain objectionable amounts of The ground-water divide does not always dissolved iron. Many wells, especially in Eaton coincide with the surface-drainage divide as and Shiawassee Counties, yield water contain- shown on the maps. In some places, ground ing objectionable amounts of sulfates and water moves into the basin from adjacent chlorides. They apparently draw water from areas, while in other places it moves out. De- the lower part of the aquifer where coal and tailed data are not available to delineate these gypsum deposits are present. Figures 3-22 divides. and 3-25 show areas where the mineral con- tent of ground water is high and it is classed as 3.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers saline water. Where the formation contains water of high chloride content, the aquifer is The Lake Michigan basin contains several at shallow depth in a topographically low area, 24 Appendix 3 and is discharging water. Salty water has well in the Battle Creek area are shown to migrated upward into the Saginaw Formation illustrate the seasonal (including pumpage ef- through old coal borings. Extensive with- fects) and long-term water-level trends (Fig- drawals of water from the aquifer can result in ure 3-23). migration of saline water into the formation A series of interbedded dolomite and shale from lower saline formations. with some limestone, sandstone, anhydrite, In the Lake Michigan basin the next sig- and salt beds of several formations and groups nificant bedrock aquifer below the Saginaw make up a complex Silurian-Devonian aquifer Formation is the Marshall Formation of Mis- system extending over two-thirds of the Lake sissippian age. Like the Saginaw, the Mar- Michigan basin (Figures 3-15,3-18, and 3-27). shall occurs only in Michigan (Figures 3-23 The system is confined by thick shale (Antrim and 3-26). It extends through a large part of and Ellsworth) in most of lower Michigan and the basin, but much of it yields -saline water. Indiana. In the unconfined area of the Upper The Marshall Formation is composed of Peninsula of Michigan, most of Wisconsin, and sandstone, siltstone, and shale. It is confined, parts of Indiana and Illinois, the Devonian except for a circular outer strip, by overlying units have been eroded away and only Silu- Michigan and Bayport Formations, and is un- rian bedrock is present. The aquifer system is derlain by impermeable Coldwater shale (Fig- mainly dolomite west of Lake Michigan. It ure 3-23). In the eastern part of the basin the changes to thin-bedded limestone with Marshall Formation is 550 feet thick, whereas sandstone and shale beds to the east. in the unconfined area it is relatively thin. Aquifer hydrologic characteristics are in- The Marshall Formation is most productive cluded in Table 3-4. The aquifer system ranges as an aquifer where it is not confined by the in thickness from a few feet to 600 feet west of Michigan Formation, where it is directly over- Lake Michigan, but reaches 1,800 feet in the lain by glacial drift, or where streams are in Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Here some 450 direct contact with the aquifer. Productivity feet of Ordovician carbonates are included in decreases markedly toward the thicker parts the aquifer system. Solution activity has pro- of the formation. Hydrologic characteristics of duced extensive permeability in the upper the formation are presented in Table 3-4. parts of the formation, and well yields up to Wells are generally from 50 to 500 feet deep. 1,000 gpm are reported. Solution activity is Yields from large-capacity wells range from highly variable, however, as is common in car- 100 to 1,800 gpm. bonate rocks. High-producing wells tapping Where the Marshall Formation is mantled permeable zones may be adjacent to moderate directly by glacial drift, the chemical quality or low producers tapping dense rock. The De- of water is generally good. Water quality data vonian part of the system is most significant are shown in Table 3-5. The water is commonly as an aquifer in its unconfined area in south- hard and may contain objectionable amounts ern Michigan and Indiana where yields as of iron, but can be made satisfactory for most high as 100 gpm are possible. uses by treatment. Because the Michigan West of Lake Michigan the Silurian aquifer Formation contains salt and gypsum beds, it is encountered beneath the glacial drift at a contributes to contamination of the underly- few feet or at as much as several hundred feet. ing Marshall aquifer through leakage under Recharge to the Silurian aquifer occurs differential-head situations. The aquifer be- through the glacial drift. Ground water moves comes saline in its deeper or thicker parts be- toward streams draining the area and thence cause they lie principally under the confining to Lake Michigan. Michigan Formation (Figures 3-23 and 3-26). Natural discharge is being diverted toward Brine and salt contamination in Michigan is pumping centers in the Milwaukee and discussed more thoroughly in Subsection 3.5.5. Chicago areas because of increasing pumpage Recharge to the Marshall Formation occurs from the Silurian aquifer and loss of water principally from water migrating through downward into deeper, heavily pumped sand- overlying glacial drift in unconfined areas. stone aquifers. Leakage occurs vertically Stream recharge to the aquifer can be induced through underlying shale beds because the where the formation is in close proximity with head of the deeper aquifer has been reduced streams, such as at Battle Creek. Large capa- below that of the Silurian aquifer. Loss also city wells installed at Battle Creek induce fil- occurs through wells uncased in both aquifers. tration of water from a stream through the For example, in 1950 in the Milwaukee area it glacial drift and into the Marshall Formation. was estimatedl,9 that 5.5 mgd was being lost to Water-level fluctuations in an observation deeper aquifers, primarily through wells. In Lake Michigan Basin 25 1958, in the northeastern Illinois area of ap- Several hydrographs are shown in Figures proximately 4,000 square miles, 8.4 mgd was 3-15,3-18, and 3-27 to represent the long-term leaking through the shale bedS.71 Increasing water-level trend. Only in the Milwaukee- head differences and continued construction Chicago area is there a notable declining trend of multi-aquifer uncased wells will increase caused by extensive pumping. this loss from the Silurian aquifer and in- Several hydraulically connected bedrock crease the recharge to the underlying sand- units make up the Cambrian-Ordovician aqui- stone aquifer. fer system underlying most of the Lake Michi- As noted on Figures 3-18 and 3-27, much of gan basin (Figures 3-16, 3-19, and 3-28). Rock the Silurian-Devonian aquifer system in the units are primarily sandstones with interven- Lake Michigan basin contains saline water. ing dolomite beds, and the aquifer system is Salinity generally increases down the dip of generally called sandstone aquifer. In the Il- the formation. East of Lake Michigan in the linois area one of the lower dolomite forma- Lower Peninsula of Michigan, only the up- tions, the Eau Claire, contains much shale, permost part (Devonian) of the system con- reducing permeability and virtually separat- tains fresh water (Figure 3-27). The saline ing lower sandstone (Mount Simon) into a dis- zone is present only in small areas in Wiscon- tinct aquifer. In this appendix the Mount sin. The areas in Manitowoc and Sheboygan Simon is discussed, where appropriate, with Counties are based on only a few analyses, but the Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer system. the data imply that the Silurian water has a An overlying thick shale formation salinity of up to 3,000 mg/1 along the (Maquoketa) confines the Cambrian- lakeshore. In the Milwaukee area there is evi- Ordovician sandstone aquifer nearly dence of high salinity in the Silurian aquifer, everywhere in the basin except in the north- but conclusions by investigators to date indi- western and northern parts. East of Lake cate that upward contamination from Michigan in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan Maquoketa shale or from the deeper aquifer or and at approximately 2,000 feet at Chicago, multi-aquifer sampling may have caused the water in the aquifer is saline. Sandstone aqui- salinity. fer characteristics apply only to the freshwa- Some areas, such as the Upper Peninsula of ter aquifer in the western part of the basin. Michigan, have a high sulfate content be- Thicknesses of rock units containing the lieved related to gypsum or shale beds within freshwater system range from nearly 500 feet the Silurian rocks. The upper Silurian rocks in to more than 1,500 feet in the confined part the Lower Peninsula of Michigan contain ex- (Table 3-4). Units gradually thicken to the tensive evaporite beds, and the western edge east and south. The Chicago area has the of these beds extends under Lake Michigan. thickest section, partly because of downfault- Salt beds have not been noted in drilling in ing near Waukesha, Wisconsin. West of the Wisconsin, but the western terminus of the confining bed, erosion has removed some of beds may be fairly close to Wisconsin .61 Saline the Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer system, and Silurian-Devonian water may be related to many units wedge out against the Precam- these beds. Elsewhere, variability of the brian basement rocks. Maximum thickness of chemical quality of Silurian-Devonian water the unconfined part of the sandstone aquifer may be related to variations in rate and is 600 feet. amount of vertical recharge and depth to the The Cambrian-Ordovician sandstone aqui- water table. fer is one of the nation's more productive aqui- The presence of saline water in Silurian- fers. Even though the sandstone has low av- Devonian aquifer may have also resulted from erage permeability, its thickness and areal ex- contamination by wells tapping deeper sand- tent create a vast reservoir for ground-water stone aquifers. The piezometric head in the development in the region west of Lake Michi- deep aquifers was originally greater than that gan. Well yields range from several tens to in the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. Flowing, more than 2,000 gpm. Low values are related unused, and uncased wells have allowed up- to the thinner western parts of the aquifer. ward leakage of water and may have created Most recharge to the sandstone aquifer sys- some local saline zones in the Silurian- tem occurs by percolation through surficial Devonian aquifer system. Drilling shallower deposits directly overlying the aquifer sys- wells in sandstone aquifer may alleviate the tems outcrop area and also through the dolo- problem of saline water. Representative mite beds. Walton 73 calculated that approxi- ranges of chemical analyses of Silurian- mately 0.02 mgd per square mile of recharge Devonian water are given in Table 3-5. occurs through glacial drift in northeast Il- 26 Appendix 3 linois. In the Illinois and Wisconsin area, re- Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer in the Lake charge occurs principally west of the border Michigan basin originally occurred very on the Maquoketa shale confining layer (Fig- slowly upward through the confining layer ure 3-20). An appreciable amount of ground into streams and the Lake. Discharge occur- water is derived from the upper Mississippi red west of the saline zone (Figure 3-20) after River basin. Additional recharge is due to deep circulation from the recharge area. leakage through the Maquoketa shale from Saline water has evidently not migrated overlying Silurian aquifer because the poten- westward toward the Chicago and Milwaukee tiometric level of the deep aquifer is now lower pumping areas, even with nearly 700 feet of than the Silurian. Walton73 calculated about pressure decline at Chicago. 0.001 mgd per square mile of recharge occurs Representative hydrographs of the long- through the shale in northeast Illinois, ap- term water level trend are shown in Figures proximately 11 percent of 1958 Chicago area 3-16, 3-20, and 3-28. Steadily declining water pumpage. Percentage of water derived from levels in the Chic ago-Milw aukee pumping shales will increase due to increased leakage areas contrast with other areas. Problems as head differential between the Silurian and concerning these areas are discussed later. Cambrian-Ordovician aquifers increases. In Chemical quality of sandstone aquiferwater 1961 and 1966, it was estimated that an addi- is generally good, but the water is hard. Min- tional 27 percent of pumpage in a larger area eral content increases to the east and south came from overlying unconsolidated and and with increasing depth. Representative dolomite aquifers through leakage from un- ranges of some chemical constituents are cased or poorly constructed wellS.51 given in Table 3-5. Highly saline water has The underlying Mount Simon aquifer is tap- been encountered in deep wells along much of ped by a few wells in the Chicago area and by the west shore of Lake Michigan (Figures 3-4 many in the Fox River valley to the west. The and 3-20). South of Milwaukee the saline zone high head in the Mount Simon aquifer causes occurs in underlying Mount Simon aquifer upward movement of ground water into the below 2,000 feet. In the area immediately Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer through open north of Milwaukee the saline zone appar- wells. The Mount Simon aquifer contributed ently begins just beneath the St. Peter 16 percent of the total pumpage in 1961. sandstone unit of the Cambrian-Ordovician The amount of recharge to the sandstone aquifer system at approximately 1,000 feet. and Mount Simon aquifer system is not de- Investigations into controlling factors of the pendent upon available precipitation but on saline zone have not been made. Preliminary permeability of the sandstones and hydraulic views 50 indicate a relation to synclinal gradient. Greatest recharge will occur when troughs in bedrock formations in Wisconsin. the water-level gradient is steepest. Aquifer Farther north there seems to be a relation transmissivities have been determined for between saline water and the presence of gyp- many places in Wisconsin and Illinois. Trans- sum beds in geologic section. missivity generally decreases downdip to the east and to the south ranging from 10,000 to 50,000 million gallons per day (mgd) per foot. 3.4 Ground-Water Potential It has been calculated that the sandstone aquifer in northeastern Illinois has a peren- Ground-water potential is estimated on the nial recharge of 40 mgd from the northweSt.56 basis of the amount of ground water dis- Annual pumpage began exceeding this figure charged to streams within the area. As dis- in 1959. Farther north, the Milwaukee area cussed in Section 1, this method provides re- was pumping approximately 13 mgd. The lated data on drainage basins throughout the Green Bay area was pumping approximately Great Lakes Basin. It does not consider 10 mgd during this time. It has since dropped ground water in storage (significant in thick to approximately 6 mgd. These Wisconsin area aquifers, such as the deep sandstone aquifer pumping rates approach the perennial yield. in River Basin Group 2.2, for short-term con- Additional significant recharge is derived sideration) nor recycling of the ground-water from leakage from the overlying dolomite runoff from induced recharge. aquifer. Water available from storage by Natural discharge of ground water from un- drawing pumping levels below the top of the consolidated aquifers sustains the base flow of sandstone aquifer may be considered reserve most streams. The amount of discharge is de- supply. pendent on the amount of storage in the Natural ground-water discharge from ground-water drainage area. Extensive de- Lake Michigan Basin 27 posits of sand and gravel provide good storage areas have highly saline bedrock aquifers or and usually account for the highest base flows. poor unconsolidated aquifers, prohibiting Figure 3-29 shows estimates of ground-water major ground-water use. yield in Lake Michigan basin using base-flow Man-made problems include extensive low- data obtained from stream-gaging stations ering of bedrock aquifer water levels in and surficial geology interpretations. Areas metropolitan areas. This results in increased with the greatest area of sand and gravel de- pumping costs and mining of water from stor- posits have the greatest ground-water poten- age. Contamination of shallow aquifers by tial. Elsewhere large yields are obtained from waste disposal and of deep aquifers by leakage areas containing extensive buried sand and of poor quality water from multi-aquifer wells gravel aquifers. Table 3-6 tabulates relative have also occurred. Emphasis is on reducing ground-water potentials. The table should be major problems by wise management. These used with caution because estimated problems are discussed by river basin group. ground-water yield data are applied to surface drainage area above a gaging station and may not represent the contributing ground-water 3.5.2 River Basin Group 2.1 drainage area. However, the estimates are useful in indicating better areas for ground- River Basin Group 2.1 covers a diversified water development and in comparing water- area, ranging from the sparsely populated, use data in the same area. River Basin Groups forested north typified by a wild rivers area, to 2.1 and 2.4 have areas with the largest industrial areas on the lower Fox River and in ground-water yield. the south. Both natural and man-made prob- Managers of areal water resources must lems are present. remember that ground-water outflow or yield The Green Bay, Wisconsin, area had a prob- makes up a large part of stream flow. Data lem with declining water levels in the sand- from Figure 3-29 and Table 3-6 cannot be stone aquifer system due to concentrated and added to surface-water discharge data to de- steadily increasing pumpage (to 13 mgd) from termine the water resource of an area. Cap- an aquifer of relatively low transmissivity." ture of ground water by wells before it enters In 1957 the City of Green Bay began using natural discharge areas such as streams and Lake Michigan water. This halted the decline lakes normally reduces streamflow. In most by reducing pumpage to approximately 6 mgd. uses pumped ground water not consumed is Water levels, which had dropped as much as directly or indirectly returned to a stream, al- 400 feet below land surface, rapidly began to though quality is reduced. Most small streams recover. They continued to rise until 1961 and lakes in urban areas of the Lake Michigan when a relatively stable level was established. basin are suffering from this reduced quality. A slight downward trend in water levels has Where ground water is diverted from the local now resumed (Figure 3-16), particularly in the hydrologic system, streamflow depletion will DePere area. Increasing pumpage will proba- result and streams may flow only during bly repeat the declining water level trend of storm runoff. the pre-1957 period. Studies in 1960 indicated that 30 mgd of ground water is available from sandstone aquifer in the area without exceed- ing perennial yield.26 Construction of new 3.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Con- wells to the west would disperse water-level siderations decline and save on pumping costs. Additional surface-water sources and new wells in the Silurian carbonate aquifers would also relieve 3.5.1 General pumpage demand on the sandstone aquifer as it approaches the 30 mgd usage. Artificial re- Although the Lake Michigan basin has the charge of the aquifer is not economically feas- most bountiful ground-water supplies in the ible at present. entire Great Lakes Basin, there are areas Increasing pumpage in the Lake Winnebago where natural or man-made conditions create area also creates increasing pumping lifts. problems. In some places the ground-water Proper spacing of new wells and increased use resource is inadequate for other than domes- of surface water should forestall rapid de- tic and rural use, although this is more often a clines in this area. problem of improper well locations or out- Where the Silurian carbonate aquifer lies moded supply and distribution systems. A few close to the surface, such as in Door County, 28 Appendix 3 pollution of shallow ground water is occurring. Several recent studies add to knowledge ot Wisconsin drilling codes now require 100-foot the ground-water resources of this area. The eased wells in such problem areas. Improved first covers the Pine-Popple River basin, a wild methods of private waste disposal are needed river area.40 An appraisal has been made of to protect aquifers in this and similar areas. the water resources and hydrologic system of Saline water is present in the sandstone this relatively natural area. The study was aquifer near the bottom of the aquifer and in made by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooper- the eastern counties (Figure 3-15). At Lake ation with the Wisconsin Geological and Winnebago and to the east, poor quality water Natural History Survey. with a high sulfate content is found at rel- Water resources of the Menominee- atively shallow depths and inhibits construc- Oconto-Peshtigo River basin area in Wiscon- tion of freshwater wells. Migration of poor sin 41 is another study. A detailed reconnais- quality water toward pumping centers is sance has been made by the U.S. Geological occurring. Highly mineralized water in the Survey in cooperation with the Wisconsin dolomite aquifer at Manitowoc and Geological and Natural History Survey. Sheboygan apparently comes from deep sand- A third study covers water resources of the stone zones under high hydrostatic head. It Lake Michigan area in Wisconsin .54 This de- has migrated through open wells into the tailed study was made by the U.S. Geological upper aquifer. Wisconsin State codes now pro- Survey in cooperation with the Wisconsin hibit abandonment without proper filling and Geological and Natural History Survey. sealing of all holes, including saline wells, but Lastly there is a study of ground water in leaking wells seem to have caused significant Marquette County, Michigan. A basic local deterioration of freshwater aquifers. ground-water inventory is being taken by the Continued surveillance of well-abandonment U.S. Geological Survey and preliminary maps procedures is imperative. of surficial deposits are being made by the Ground water with a high sulfate content Michigan Geological Survey. Results will be and reportedly sulfur water is present in published in the Michigan Department of Marinette and Menominee CountieS50 and at Natural Resources Water Investigations one location in Door County. Apparently the Series. sulfur water, probably created by hydrogen Subsequent studies need to concentrate on sulfide gas, occurs locally only in the upper the problems that have developed or are in- unit of Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer in south- herent in the hydrologic system. Four studies ern Menominee County. are recommended: Hard water in all the aquifers and a locally (1) A quantitative appraisal of the lower high iron content of water in sandstone and Fox River basin is needed for optimum man- sand and gravel aquifers are problems. Indi- agement of the aquifer systems in this high- vidual softening treatment seems to be a solu- use area. tion to the first problem. Iron treatment is (2) A detailed study of the localized areas generally mandatory for municipal supplies of poor quality water in the bedrock aquifers and for some industrial uses. is needed. The origin and movement of this Water quantity is a common problem only in water, if any, should be known before con- the upper Menominee River basin. Reported tinued development takes place. Monitor wells well yields in much of this area are less than 10 have been established in some areas of Wis- gpm. Streamflow data show a high base flow, consin to keep a check on changes in the qual- which implies significant water storage in the ity and movement of the water. Probably the basin. Extensive sand and gravel deposits, most critical sites are those where individual numerous lakes, or hydroelectric reservoirs wells tap both deep and shallow aquifers and store and slowly release water to sustain the permit interchange of aquifer waters. high base flow. Well fields must be selected (3) A carbonate hydrology study of the with care in this area to tap sand and gravel Door Peninsula area is a prerequisite to con- aquifers, preferably those in hydraulic con- trolling the pollution problem. Very little is tact with lakes or streams. known of the hydrologic system, especially the Basic ground-water studies have been made porosity system and the rate of ground-water for many counties in the two-State area. River movement. A special study for Door County basin group studies of entire water resources has now been approved. have been or are being done in Wisconsin (4) River basin group studies of the en- (Figure 3-13). There have been numerous tire water resources need to be done for the general ground-water studies of the area. Michigan part of the area to provide a quan- Lake Michigan Basin 29 titative appraisal of the ground-water poten- feet in 1961) has moved westward out of the tial. Great Lakes Basin due to increased pumpage to the west. Wa v vvQ *05,1 reduced pumpage by increased use of Lake Michigan water. Pump- 3.5.3 River Basin Group 2.2 age has been relatively constant at more than 20 mgd for the past two decades in the Mil- River Basin Group 2.2 is a unique area in the waukee area. Great Lakes Basin because it is almost en- Walton 72 has estimated future water-level tirely urbanized. Consequently, demands and declines to the year 2010 (Figure 3-20) in the effects on the ground-water resources are ex- sandstone aquifer in the Chicago region. treme. These estimates are based on increasing pum- The area, including its contiguous area page at existing pumping centers and no in- within the Planning Subarea 2.2 boundary creased use of Lake Michigan water. Pumpage (Figure 3-13), represents the most heavily would increase from approximately 100 mgd to pumped ground-water in the Great Lakes Re- 243 mgd by 2010, and pumping level at most gion. Approximately 100 mgd of more than 200 pumping centers would "be at critical stages a mgd of ground water pumped in northeastern few feet above the top of the lowermost and Illinois in the mid-1960s came from deep most productive unit of the aquifer.1172 In ad- sandstone wells.51 In the same period an esti- dition, 1,000-foot pumping levels would be mated 30 to 35 mgd were pumped from the same common by 1980. Even though pumpage would sandstone aquifer in Wisconsin. In compari- greatly exceed the maximum 46 mgd practical son, a total of 1,100 mgd of ground water was sustained yield under 1961 conditions, there withdrawn in 1965 in the entire Great Lakes would still be 1.5 x 1013 gallons of a total of 1.6 x Basin .311 In addition to the heavy pumping 1013 gallons in storage in the upper units of the problem, poor quality ground water exists in sandstone aquifer. Walton states further that several localities. it would take ". . .4,500 additional production The Chic ago- Milwaukee region of declining wells in upper units of the Cambrian- water levels is perhaps the most serious Ordovician aquifer to mine [this total] water in ground-water problem in the Great Lakes storage during a 50-year period.1172 Basin because of its effects on so many people. Dispersal of pumping centers would in- In the heavily pumped Illinois area, which lies crease sustained yield by 19 mgd even with the mainly within the upper Mississippi River ba- addition of two new pumping centerS.72 Most sin, projections of water-level decline and in- investigators of the Illinois portion of Plan- creased costs to users seem only to have ning Subarea 2.2 conclude that much addi- spurred greater development and use. The tional ground-water potential is available in consequence of this overdevelopment is that unconsolidated and Silurian dolomite aqui- ever-increasing amounts of ground water are fers, but projected demands by 2020 will still being pumped. Eventually increased use of require other sources of water. Reuse of wa- Lake Michigan water will probably be re- ter, less per capita water use facilitated by quired. The growing cone of influence, meter installation, and increased use of Lake predominantly westward (Figure 3-20), now Michigan water are expected to be solutions to causes ground water to flow northwest from water shortages. Indiana, west from Lake Michigan, and south Salinity of ground water is a problem from Wisconsin, all from within the Great primarily in the southern area. Indiana has Lakes Basin. The amount is not appreciable at saline water in most bedrock formations, with present, but problems of relocation or estab- good quality bedrock water available only in lishment of new pumping centers, increased the northwest part of the Silurian-Devonian pumping lifts, depletion of water in storage, aquifer. Saline water is present in deeper and potential migration of saline waters are of parts of the sandstone aquifer from the Mil- immediate concern. waukee area south throughout the river basin Heavy pumpage in the sandstone aquifer group. Water in unconsolidated aquifers is began approximately 100 years ago. As a re- saline in some parts of the Lower Peninsula of sult the cone of influence is expanding far out- Michigan. side the Great Lakes Basin. Water level or Hardness and high sulfate content are prob- artesian pressure had declined nearly 700 feet lems in the shallow unconsolidated and at Chicago and more than 300 feet at Mil- Silurian-Devonian aquifers. Carbonate rock waukee by 1970. Near Milwaukee the center of causes high hardness through most of the water-level decline (which reached nearly 400 area. Sulfate is a local problem. 30 Appendix 3 I Silurian and Devonian formations are ex- Careful management and allocation in poor posed or are near the surface at many places in quality areas improve conditions. Some water the area. Contaminants from poor waste- users may be able to tolerate poor quality wa- disposal systems can easily migrate into and ter, leaving the better quality water to be used through the solution channels and fractures by those who require it. Blending of poor and of the dolomite formation. Careful evaluation good quality water from two or more wells may of waste-disposal sites is needed throughout be feasible in some instances. Recharge of the area to prevent pollution of the shallow ground water into poor quality zones, using aquifer. coolant or other good water, should improve Although no major man-made deterioration chemical quality as well as reducing pumping of freshwater aquifers, is known in the heavily levels. Recharge through wells can increase pumped lakeshore area of Milwaukee-Chicago, ground-water temperature of the area and be- its occurrence seems possible. BergstrOM3 come detrimental in the long run. showed the 1,500 mg/l isocon line of the Mount In the Chicago area there are approxi- Simon sandstone aquifer water exists as far mately 1,300 feet of additional drawdown west as Des Plaines. East of this line dissolved available. This may cause some to think that solids content is greater than 1,500 mg/l. Con- concern for water supply can be postponed for tinual decline of the water level, now ap- a number of years and to assume that Lake proaching 700 feet, induces upward movement Michigan would be the ultimate replacement of the saline water. Lateral migration of the supply when wells run dry. In 1961 through upper saline water can and propably does oc- 1966 in northeastern Illinois, 82 new deep cur. Some erratic occurrences of saline water wells were drilled, 49 of which were drilled for are known. Migration northwestward into the new or existing municipal or subdivision use, Chicago area from the Gary area is probable. and 26 for industrial and commercial use .51 Some isolated saline occurrences may be re- Permitting new high water-use developments lated to upward leakage from deep wells dril- in heavily pumped areas puts increasing de- led in the late 19th century. mands on the hydrologic system and in turn Walton 72 indicates that upward leakage increases population demands. In situations from the Mount Simon aquifer (saline in part) where additional development will compound is presently only 1 mgd (approximately 2 per- water supply and population problems, well- cent of the current sustained yield) and could field development in other areas or increase to 3 mgd (4.6 percent) under water-saving methods need to be considered. maximum sustained yield. Such leakage is Dispersal of wells in a ground-water system is small compared to current pumpage of more a basic way to reduce excessive pumping lifts, than 100 mgd. However, pumpage of Mount although increased transmission-line costs ,Simon wells, and indicated leakage through may offset the economic benefits. Increased abandoned wells, could combine with lateral drafts and consequent greater costs can in- movement of poor quality water from the duce new water-use efficiency or improve- sandstones extending into Indiana, to de- ments in the economy of pumping. Curtailment teriorate the freshwater sandstone aquifer. of excessive water use for public supplies by Good management of ground-water re- installation of meters or apportionment of sources in River Basin Group 2.2 seems impera- new water development for nonpublic con- tive and several studies are needed in the im- sumption are two other alternatives. mediate future. In areas where deep drilling The problem of declining water levels in the has encountered basal saline water, properly Milwaukee-Waukesha area is not as severe eased holes can eliminate its upward flow and as in Chicago. However, the two cones of influ- potential for contamination. A better delinea- ence are beginning to overlap and declines will tion of the depth of occurrence of saline waters increase faster. These two States and Indiana is needed to prevent indiscriminate deep drill- should appraise their mutual water resources ing. Data in the Wisconsin area indicate that and determine the future course of water de- wells draw saline water from the bottom units, velopments on each other and on the two but termination of the well some feet higher major basins they straddle. would have eliminated the saline water. In Management should consider supplement- some instances salinity has increased through ing current ground-water pumpage with addi- the years of pumpage. Special site studies tional Lake Michigan water where legally should be made at these places to determine possible to reduce or stop the lowering of means of preventing deterioration of freshwa- water levels. Increased use of Lake Michigan ter aquifers. water during winter or during high lake levels Lake Michigan Basin 31 could allow pumpage to be reduced and slow or Milwaukee-Chicago area would be increased partially reverse the water-level decline. costs of pumpage in Wisconsin and Indiana Present practice requires not only continuing due to water level declines caused by Illinois pumping-lift and pump-column extensions, pumpage. As of 1969, sandstone aquifer water but endangers future use of the system. level decline along the Wisconsin-Illinois bor- Economics may eventually eliminate pump- der, directly attributable to Illinois pumping, ing as costs become prohibitive. This could ranged from 200 feet near Lake Michigan to a stabilize pumpage draft at a level only the 50-foot minimum approximately 35 miles west public or certain industries could afford. (Figure 3-20). Along the Indiana border water Saline-water migration would not be fore- level decline was approximately 200 to 600 feet stalled in any event. The saline problem, as (Figure 3-20). Some of this decline may have well as the aforementioned overdevelopment been caused by Indiana pumpage. problem, go hand-in-hand in the Chicago- In addition to attempts to reduce excessive Milwaukee area and require monitoring to de- water use, conjunctive use of surface and termine the progressive changes. ground water is a potential solution to some A plan to use underground storage for sewer water supply problems in certain areas. Areas and storm overflows is'being tested for the of aquifer overdraft can revert seasonally to Chicago metropolitan area .45 The plan calls for surface-water sources when streamflow is temporarily storing overflows in a tunnel and plentiful and allow partial recovery to occur. reservoir system constructed in Silurian and Artificial recharge using wells, particularly upper Cambrian-Ordovician aquifers. Both injection of cooling water return, has proven vital aquifers would be protected from con- feasible in many areas. If recharge of this tamination by maintaining a negative head in water to the aquifer system is considered, in- the tunnel collection system in the Niagara crease in ground-water temperature must dolomite and by installation of recharge wells also be evaluated. In the Chicago area sea- around the tunnel-reservoir complex. Re- sonal use of Lake Michigan water could reduce charge with treated water would maintain a ground-water overdraft and be more feasible head of fresh water, causing continual inflow than recharge by wells. to the tunnel preventing outward leakage and Illinois and Wisconsin have an excellent pro- contamination of the aquifers. gram of monitoring water levels and pump- Deep waste disposal through wells is occur- age in critical pumping areas. Periodic publi- ring at five sites in Indiana (Figures 3-18 and cations relate pumpage to water levels in two 3-19). Three wells below 4,000 feet inject into major aquifer systems. Addition of a few ob- brines in Cambrian sandstones. Two wells are servation wells near their State borders is relatively shallow and dispose wastes into the needed. The addition of a chemical-quality Silurian and Devonian rocks at only 295 and monitoring system in each State seems war- 650 feet. A 2,629-foot injection well into Devo- ranted for any saline water migration. In- nian rocks is used in the Chicago area. Wiscon- diana should develop a monitoring system, sin does not allow deep waste disposal. especially in its northwest area, to extend ob- Bergstro M3 has made a study of subsurface servations of the increasing effects of Illinois disposal potentials in Illinois: pumpage. The greatest hazard exists in northern Illinois, espe- Ongoing studies in River Basin Group 2.2 on cially in northeastern Illinois, where fresh water ex- both land and water resources and their de- tends to great depth, barrier conditions between pot- velopment are almost completed. For exam- able and saline waters are mainly unknown, the pump- ple, the Southeastern Wisconsin Regional age from deep aquifers is substantial, and the con- Planning Commission is completing a com- centration of industry and need for waste disposal are great. Here the most rigorous requirements are prehensive plan for the Milwaukee River needed as to natural requirements, testing, en- watershed. Reports will complement those on gineeering, safeguards, monitoring, and well aban- the adjacent Fox River watershed in south- donments. eastern Wisconsin. These reports have been Needless to say, these apply to sites through- confined ". . . to documenting the existing out the Great Lakes Basin. and probable future water resource and Water rights, especially ground water, have resource-related problems of the watershed, not been of serious concern in this part of the out of this documentation will grow definitive nation except for interbasin diversion. When plans and concrete recommendations for both water shortages develop, people begin to as- public works facility construction and for land sert their legal or presumed rights. The most and water management policies within the apparent concern in the heavily pumped watershed." The Indiana Department of 32 Appendix 3 Natural Resources is developing a State effluent even though the "captured" flow Water Plan. Preliminary appraisal of the pumped through wells is returned to the ground-water potential of the Lake Michigan streams as treated sewage effluent. drainage has been compiled. Pollution of aquifers by introduction of Subsequent studies in River Basin Group man-made contaminants or by man-caused 2.2 should involve the three States and three migration of natural contaminants is a serious aquifer systems concerned. They should be local problem in River Basin Group 2.3. Both oriented to quantitative measurements. shallow unconsolidated aquifers and deeper Studies using aquifer models to predict effects bedrock aquifers have been or can be affected of current and proposed stresses on the hy- by current practices. Pollution of ground drologic system would be appropriate. water is more serious than that of surface water because of its long-lasting effects, non- detection for long periods, and the general 3.5.4 River Basin Group 2.3 nonfeasibility of reclaiming the aquifer. The most common pollution problem is Pollution of bountiful ground water is a seepage of wastes into shallow, unconfined local problem in River Basin Group 2.3. There aquifers. Septic tanks, leaching fields, well also are areas of concentrated pumpage that disposals, land fills, spillage, and leakage all create problems. add waste contaminants to sand and gravel There are few regions where ground water aquifers and to porous bedrock formations is not plentiful. Only in the Ottawa basin are near the land surface. Productive sand and inadequate yields for other than domestic gravel aquifers are particularly subject to ex- wells likely to occur. Here surficial deposits tensive waste disposal in heavily populated and bedrock aquifers are thin. The bedrock areas and elsewhere. aquifers contain too few fractures for Industrial waste disposal in deep wells is adequate permeability for high-capacity becoming more common. State agencies in wells, or contain salty water. Induced filtra- Michigan regulating the injection of indus- tion from streams offers the best opportunity trial wastes into the subsurface formations are for developing large well yields. In areas of the Water Resources Commission and the shallow water table or thin aquifers, Geological Survey. Regulations state that horizontal-well collectors or galleries have waste stored in geological strata must not proven very efficient in obtaining high yields. create a hazard to safety, health, or welfare of Near Lansing potential ground-water sup- people or resources. In other words, the dis- ply is adequate for future needs. Large quan- posal program must insure that wastes will be tities of water are available from glacial drift, confined to the stratum officially approved as the Saginaw Formation, and from streams by the disposal reservoir. The locations of two induced infiltration. However, overdevelop- known industrial disposal wells which dump ment could result because the Lansing met- into the Devonian aquifer system are shown ropolitan area covers only a small part of the on Figure 3-23. area of potential water supply and has a con- There are some areas of naturally poor qual- centrated large water demand. Without ity water in River Basin Group 2.3. Highly proper management serious overdevelopment saline waters are present in parts of all the could occur.69 The hydrograph of an observa- bedrock aquifers. However, the Saginaw and tion well in the Saginaw Formation at Lan- Marshall Formations do contain considerable sing (Figure 3-22) shows adjustment of water areas with fresh water. High salinity is re- level to withdrawals. lated to water occurring in the deeper bedrock Areas of aquifer overdraft need to revert to formations. It moves upward through aban- surface-water sources when streamflow is doned mining and test holes with improper plentiful, allowing surface-water recharge to seals, or by an increased head differential replenish ground-water storage. Kalamazoo sometimes caused by pumping overlying has attempted conjunctive use of surface and freshwater aquifers. This situation occurred ground water to solve a water-supply prob- in the Grand Rapids area, where municipal lem.' pumping had to be halted to prevent further Areas of induced recharge from streams are contamination.55 At present, glacial-drift at heavily pumped areas in the Lansing and aquifers have not been extensively contami-. Jackson areas. Depletion of streamflow in the nated by saline water in this area. Lansing area is of concern because adequate Water in the drift is generally hard to streamflow is needed to assimilate the very hard. It often has a high iron content. Lake Michigan Basin 33 High iron is also common in the deep present or potential water deterioration. In- sandstone aquifers. Sulfates in excessive dividual aquifers need monitoring to establish amounts are found in the Michigan Formation quality changes with major withdrawals, par- and may migrate into the glacial drift. ticularly in multi-aquifer systems. A much There were no ongoing ground-water better delineation of saltwater zones in each studies in River Basin Group 2.3 in 1970. A of the aquifer systems is needed as is their comprehensive study of the Grand River relation to points of freshwater withdrawal. Basin was nearing completion.611 Several county or areal basin studies have been made. Regional planning, particularly that con- 3.5.5 River Basin Group 2.4 cerned with interstate water use, requires basic knowledge of existing problems. The fol- River Basin Group 2.4 has relatively minor lowing are general study needs: ground-water problems, primarily a few small (1) A detailed water-resources reconnais- low yield or poor quality areas. sance of the major aquifer systems should be There is poor potential for large volume completed. It is desirable that an appraisal be ground-water development from glacial-drift made of glacial-drift aquifers within major aquifers in the Upper Peninsula portion of the drainage systems. It is also important that river basin group because of large areas of separate appraisals be made of each bedrock lake and till-plain deposits. These deposits are aquifer. Local demands on all the aquifer sys- fine-grained, have relatively low permea- tems can be correlated within the entire sys- bility, and water-bearing zones provide low tem. This type of appraisal has been done in well yields. However, bedrock is at or near the the Grand River Basin Comprehensive Study. land surface and is capable of producing mod- It has provided a broad picture of where erate yields. ground-water resources have been or can be Chemical quality problems exist locally. developed for major water supplieS.68 Solid waste disposal in land fills is practiced in (2) Regional or countywide appraisals many towns. This type of disposal has recently of the quantity and quality of water resources been shown to cause ground-water contami- with special reference to ground water should nation under certain conditions, so continual be completed. These should be done on the surveillance is required. Solid and liquid aquifer-system basis, if possible, so that flow wastes are disposed of by paper companies and between aquifers and local demands on the incidents of ground-water contamination system can be correlated within the entire from such waste disposal have reportedly oc- system. Periodic determination of potential curred in the area. Dispersal of liquid wastes yield should be made for each unit in the plan- requires great care to prevent ground-water ning subarea. As long as yield values are qual- contamination. 'ified as to probable accuracy, they will provide Operation of brine and salt wells in Manis- a starting point for planners. This type of ap- tee, Mason, and Muskegon Counties has praisal was done for Kalamazoo.' caused ground-water contamination. There (3) Surficial formations should be recorded are approximately 100 natural-brine wells and on 71/2-minute topographic maps to determine 20 salt wells in this area. Some public water aquifer locations and recharge areas. Topo- supply wells at Manistee have been contami- graphic base maps at the 71/2-minute scale are nated by wastes from these wells. Regulations available in approximately half of River Basin to prevent pollution are in force, but the brine Group 2.3. One small area had no topographic and salt wells have not always been properly maps at all. Mapping was in progress there in operated and spillage has occurred. Currently, 1970. the State Water Resources Commission has (4) Abetter network of observation wells in issued orders to prevent further pollution and each of the bedrock aquifer systems is needed. to clean up the existing situation. This would provide a base for comparison be- A recent impetus to oil test drilling in the tween natural conditions and those changes northwestern Lower Peninsula has created a imposed by man. Two hydrographs for the un- renewal of public interest in the potential of consolidated aquifers (Figure 3-21) illustrate ground-water contamination by this industry. no unusual effects under natural conditions, Accidental or improper disposal of oil-field whereas the hydrographs on Figures 3-22 and brines poses a serious threat. 3-23 show effects in pumping areas. In the Upper Peninsula water in the uncon- (5) A network of chemical quality monitor- solidated aquifers is generally of good quality ing wells is needed for areas where there is except that much of it is hard and in many -34 Appendix 3 places high in iron. Locally it can contain high sary, including the unconsolidated and bed- chlorides. In bedrock aquifers the water is rock aquifers in both the Upper and Lower generally hard. Sometimes it has a high iron Peninsulas. Quantitative appraisals of the content, and in places it is high in calcium Traverse, Manistee, Muskegon, and Big Sable sulfates derived from gypsum. Saline water is river basin groups are needed. The Manistee present in parts of the Silurian and late Or- and Muskegon groups each have potential for dovieian rocks in the Upper Peninsula. ground-water yield of one billion gallons per There are no "active" industrial waste- day. A study should be made of the effects on disposal wells in River Basin Group 2.4. As of ground water of industrial processes and August 4,1968, there were three plugged wells wastes and salt spreading on highways. This is and one proposed new well in the Muskegon particularly important in the Traverse, Man- area. istee, Muskegon, and Big Sable river basin Hydrographs of observation wells in the un- groups. The study should include research on consolidated aquifers (Figure 3-24) show no ways to reduce pollution from impounded adverse effects. There are no long-term obser- wastes, waste spreading, and on the safety of vation wells in the bedrock aquifers. deep-well disposal. Detailed studies are Studies covering well inventory, chemical needed of localized areas of poor quality water sampling, and geologic mapping have been or in unconsolidated aquifers, such as in Muske- are being done in all Upper Peninsula counties gon County. A network of chemical quality of River Basin Group 2.4. No studies have been monitoring and revision of the existing net- completed in the Lower Peninsula. One is cur- work of observation wells, related to specific rently under way in the Manistee area. aquifers, is needed to establish natural and Regional planning will require several ap- changing conditions imposed on the hydro- praisals. Detailed water-resources reconnais- logic system by man. sance of the major aquifer systems is neces- Lake Michigan Basin 35 TABLE 3-4 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Michigan Basin Maior acuifers Thick- Well I Well 2 Era System Group Formation ness yields depths Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.1 Michigan Ceno-zo-ic Quaternary 0-200 50-500 20-125 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Ordovician Trenton 200-275 Limestone. Black River Limestone. St. Peter 0-25 50-300 50-175 Sandstone. Prairie du Chien Limestone. Cambrian Trempealeau 0-600 Sandstone. Munising Sandstone. Wisconsin Cenozoic Quaternary 0-300 50@1000 20@150 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Devonian Milwaukee 0-130 Shale with dolomite. Silurian Niagaran series 0-500 100-600 75-300 Dolomite. Ordovician Maquoketa 0-400 Shale. Galena- Dolomite. Decorah- 0-250 Platteville St. Peter 0-300 Sandstone. High yields. Pr:miri:ldu Chien Oneota 1 0-260 11100-1000 50-900 Dolomite. Cambrian Tr pe eau Jordan 0-55 Sandstone. St. Lawrence 0-85 Dolomite, Franco is 0-200 Sandstone. Dresbach Eau Claire.. 0-270 Sandstone. High yields. Mt. Simon Sandstone. RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.2 Illinois (Planning Subarea 2.2) Cenozoic Quaternary 0-400 100-1000 50-200J Sand. gravel in drift. Paleozoic Silurian Niagaran series 100-470 100-1000 75-300 Dolomite. Alexandrian Ordovician Maquoketa O@250 Shale; semi-confining bed. Galena Carbonate. Low yields. Platteville 200-350 Ancell Glenwood 100-650 Sandstone. Moderate yields. St. Peter Prairie du Chien 0-340 Dolomite and sandstone. - 500-1000 1000-1500 Low Yields. Cambrian Trempealeau Eminence Dolomite. Generally low Potosi 50-400 yields. Franconia Dolomite and sandstone. Ironton 105-270 Sandstone. Highest yields. Galesville Eau Claire 235-450 Shale and siltstone; semi- 1 11 1 1 confining be . Mt. Simon 12000+ 1100-500 11700-19001 Sandstone. 300 feet fresh. I Range is that of high-capacity wells. 2 Range is that of all wells. 3 Estimated. 36 Appendix 3 TABLE 3-4(continued) General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Michigan Basin Maior aa ifers Thick- Well L well Era System Group Formation ness yields Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) RIM BASTIJ GROUP 2.3 Indiana Cenozoic Quaternary 30-525 0-2500 50-300 Sand. eravel in drift. Paleozoic Mississippian Coldwater ?_500 Sunbury Shales. ---------------------------------- Ellsworth ? Devonian Antrim 60-200 Traverse 40-175 Carbonates. Possibly saline. Michigan Cenozoic RRaternary 1 0-550 1100-1000 1 20-375 Sand, gravel n drift. Paleozoic Pennsylvanian Grand River 0-475 50-700 50-500 Sandstone. -aaainaw Sandstone. shale. and coal. Mississippian Grand Rapids Bayport 0-125 Limestone. Saline. Michigan 0-400 Shale, gypsum. Gas. Marshall 0-300 -00-lAnn '10-500 Sandstone. Saline in part. RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.4 Michigan (L;@e_r Peninsula) Cenozoic Quaternary 0-1200(?)100-1000 50-300 Sand. gravel in drift. Mesozoic Jurassic "Red Beds" 0-220 Sandstone, shale, and gypsum. Paleozoic Pennsylvanian Grand River Sandstone. Saginaw 0-550 50-100 300-700 Sandstone, shale, and coal. Brines and sulfates at bottom. Mississippian Grand Rapids Bayport 0-625 Limestone, shale, and gypsum. Michigan Oil and gas. Marshall 0-300 50-500 200-1450 Sandstone and salty water. Oil and gas. Coldwater 0-1050 Shale. Some gas. ?--------------- ?---------------- ? ----------- Devonian Ellsworth 0-625 Sandstone and shale. Brines and salts. Antrim 0-650 Shale. Traverse 0-800 limestone, Oil and gas. Rogers City Limestone. Oil, gas, and Dundee 0-315 50-100 20-780 brines. Detroit River 0-1600 Carbonates, sandstone, salt, anhydrite@-., oil, gas, and brines. Bois Blanc 0-950 Dolomite.,Oil, gas, and saline water. Silurian Bass Islands 0-200 Dolomite. Possibly saline water. Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Cenozoic guaternary 0-300 150-500 10-150 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Silurian Bass 0-300 Dolomite and gypsum which have "Mackinac Is. been brecciated. breccia" Saline 0-600 50-500 20-500 Sandstone, shale, and salt which have been bre-cciated. Engadine 10-175 Carbonate and salt. Manistique 0-525 Carbonates. Burnt Bluff Cataract 0-250 Unkn Dolomite and shale. Saline water in Schoolcraft and Delta Counties. Ordovician Richmond 0-450 50-100 20-200 Carbonates. Generally saline. Bills Creek 0-400 Shale. Saline water. Trenton 0-300 100-200 20-1200 Limestone. Saline, in part. Black River -Prairie du Chien 0-425 Sandstone and dolomite. Cambrian !Tr leau 0-750 i 50-500 20-100 Dolom te nd as dstone. Mune 1 0-1175 1 1 Indloea 1Range is that of high-capacity wells. 2Range is that of all wells. Lake Michigan Basin 37 TABLE 3-4(continued) General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Michigan Basin Major aquifers Thick- Well Well Era System Group Formation ness yields depths Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) indiana Cenozoic Quaternary 0-300 100-500 20-80-3 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Mississippian Coldwater Sunbury 0-500 Shales. ---------------------- ----------- Ellsworth Devonian Antrim and 0-200 Shales. New Albany Traverse Rogers City 0-175 Carbonates. Possibly saline, Dundee but unexplored. Detroit River Bois Blanc I Silurian Bass Islands 400-600 50-500 300-400 Carbonates. F esh water only Salina in Lake County. Ordovician 2700+ Sandstone and dolomite. Saline, industrial use in Cambrian Hammond only. Michigan Cenozoic Quaternary 0-600 100-500 20-200 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Mississippian ---------------------- ----------- Ellsworth ? Shale. Devonian Antrim Shale. Reportedly fresh water in top zone. Traverse 116 Carbonates. Probably saline, but unexplored. Detroit River 170 Wisconsin Cenozoic Quaternary 0-425 100-1000 50-350 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Devonian Milwaukee 0-200 Shale with dolomite. Silurian Niagaran Series 0-645 100-800 75-300 Dolomite. Alexandrian Series Mayville Ordovician Maquoketa 0-265 Shale: semi-confining bed. Galena- Decorah- 200-345 Dolomite. Low yields. Platteville St. Peter 80-270 Sandstone. Moderate to large yields. Cambrian Trempealeau Jordan 0-120 Sandstone and dolomite. Low St. Lawrenrr 500-1300 50-1500 to moderate yields. Franconia 0-150 Sandstone. Moderate to large yields. Dresbach Galesville Eau Claire 0-405 Sandstone. Low yields. Mt. Simon 770+ r-Sandstone. fligh yields. 1Range is that of high-capacity wells. 2Range is that of all wells. 3Estimated. 38 Appendix 3 TABLE3-5 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Michigan Basin Total dissolved Temper- Aquifer system Hardness Sulfate Chloride Iron solids ature Remarks (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (OF) RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.1 Michigan Quaternary 50-400 5-75 0-50 0-3 100-450 44-49 Cambrian-Ordavician 150-350 10-70 5-60 0.2-8 200-900 47-49 High iron in deep sandstones; Menominee County has sulfate over 1,000 mg/l in lower unit, "sulfur" water in upper. Wisconsin Quaternary 40-450 1-90 1-30 0-1.5 125-500 54 Most mineralized in eastern third. Silurian 90-500 5-250 1-30 0-2 250-600 46-60 Saline in part in Manitowoc . County. Cambrian-Ordovician 70-350 0.5-90 2-125 0-1 130-700 53-56 More highly mineralized, in part, in Brown and Calumet Counties and along Lake Michigan shore. Sulfate over 600 mg/l near Marinette in middle unit. RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.2 Illinois (Plannin=Subarea 2.2) Quaternary 120-610 5 1-120 0.2-12 310-1100 52 Lake County data only. Silurian 70-950 400-1000 1-170 0-7 300-1400 54 Cambrian-Ordavician 170-340 757 1-320 0-5 300-1450 54-62 Cambrian (Mt. Simon) ?-4000+ ?_8001+ 50-400+ 0.2 1500-3800+ 60-66+ Increasing salinity at depth and to southeast. Indiana Quaternary 50-1000 1-500 1-300 0-7 150-2000 --- Silurian-Devonian 50-700 1-6 1-25 0.1-5 300-1500 --- Fresh water only in northwest. Cambrian-Ordovician --- --- --- --- 2000-3500 --- Industrial use only in Hammond area. Michigan Quaternary 150-350 5-80 3-90 0-3 200-450 --- Wisconsin Quaternary 100-450 20-300 1-30 0.5-1 200-500 52-54 Silurian 90-550 5-350 1-50 0.5-1 200-800 46-60 Cambrian-Ordovician 160-1000 45-500 5-30 0.5-2 300-1300 56-61 RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.3 Michigan Quaternary 100-700 1-500 0-700 0-10 150-1100 42-55 Pennsylvanian 20-800 2 0:500 3 0-400 4 0-9 250-1500 51 45-54 Mississippian 150-400 25 200 2-150 0.1-7 200-700 50-55 (Marshall) Indiana Quaternary 225-400 10-150 1-50 0.1-7.5 250-500 54 RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.4 Michigan (Lower Peninsula) - Quaternary 125-400 5-100 0-50 0-1 150-500 46-50 Pennsylvanian --- --- --- --- --- --- Unknown. Mississippian 200-750 20-150 5-1100 0.2-11 630-780 50 Saline water in southern and (Marshall) western part. Devonian 185-195 4-9 1-2 0-0.9 200-225 45 Saline water in most of area. Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Quaternary 60-400 1-50 0-200 0-5 100-600 44-48 Silurian 100-700 5-500 0-120 0-5 200-900 44-49 Saline water in southern part of (Burnt Bluff- Mackinac County. Bass Islands) Cambrian-Ordovician 150-300 15-75 5-200 0-3 200-500 47-50 (Munising-Trenton) 4 Only Clinton County exceeds 1,000 mg1l. 2 Barry, Kent, and Ottawa Counties range up to 750 mg/l. 3 Barry, Kent, and Ottawa Counties range up to 1,500 mg/l. 4 Barry, Kent, and Ottawa Counties range up to 7,000 mg/l. 5 Barry and Kent Counties exceed 3,000 mg/l. Lake Michigan Basin 39 TABLE 3-6 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Michigan Basin Runoff at Subbasin 70-percent Subbasin State River Basin duration yield totals Group totals cfsm) (mgd) (mgd) (mgd) RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.1 3,880 Michigan 920 Menominee Complex 0.15 100 Menominee River 0.50 820 Wisconsin 2,960 Menominee River 0.50 500 Peshtigo River 0.40 300 Oconto River-Pennsaukee Complex 0.40 270 Suamico Complex 0.10 30 Fox River 0.40 1,700 Green Bay Complex 0.10 160 RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.2 490 Illinois go Chicago-Milwaukee Complex 0.20 90 Indiana 110 Chicago-Milwaukee Complex 0.25 110 (100u) (20b) Michigan 40 Chicago-Milwaukee Complex 0.35 40 Wisconsin 250 Chicago-Milwaukee Complex 0.30 250 (e8b) RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.3 2,850 Indiana 550 St. Joseph River 0.50 550 (561) Michigan 2,300 Black River 0.40 90 Grand River 0.30 730 Kalamazoo River 0.55 710 Ottawa Complex 0.30 30 St. Joseph River 0.60 740 RIVER BASIN GROUP 2.4 4,490 Michigan 4,490 Bay De Noe Complex 0.05 40 Escanaba River 0.30 180 Manistique River 0.80 750 Manistee River 0.90 1,160 Muskegon River 0.55 940 Sable Complex 0.65 810 Seul Choix-Groscap Complex 0.05 20 Traverse Complex 0.35 590 Lake Basin total 11,710 mgd Planning Subarea 2.2 yield 480 mgd (507u, 60b). Note: Estimates based on flow-duration data for period of record (to 1960 and more than 10 years in Wisconsin, to 1964 and more than 9 years in Michigan, and to 1960 and more than 9 years in Indiana) at all gaging stations within the subbasin; extrapolations within drainage area and to ungaged areas based on surficial geology. (Figures in parentheses are maximum yield computations from published area quantitative studies;b,bedrock;u,unconsolidated) Section 4 LAKE HURON BASIN 4.1 General water quality and water quantity problems. Tapping of unused aquifers on a regional basis The Lake Huron basin contains several could also lower the water table to provide moderate-sized areas where large supplies of underground storage capacity for increased ground water are available for development. natural recharge, and could conceivably re- Most of these areas are in the southwestern duce flood discharges as well as base flow. upland part of River Basin Group 3-1. The Au Small population, large recreational use, Sable River basin group has the greatest po- minor industrial development, limited irriga- tential. Demand for water supplies has been tion, and local highly mineralized water have small, since this area is relatively unde- restricted the development of ground water in veloped. Large supplies are also available in River Basin Group 3.1. In River Basin Group small portions of western and southern areas 3.2 development of ground water has been re- of River Basin Group 3.2. Aquifers here re- stricted by limited quantities, highly quire careful development to avoid contami- mineralized water, major industrial develop- nation by saline water. Elsewhere in the basin ment locally, and large withdrawals of surface there are no known large sources of ground- supplies. water supplies. Development of large supplies of water in these portions of the basin requires use of Lake Huron stream waters. 4.2 Physiography and Drainage Chief sources of ground water are aquifers in the glacial outwash and in some places the This section discusses the part of the Lake morainal deposits. Bedrock is dominantly Huron drainage basin lying within the United Paleozoic sedimentary carbonates, shales, States. All of it lies in portions of the Upper and sandstones. The sandstone or carbonates, and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan. It consists especially where they can be recharged from of 16,200 square miles of drainage area (Figure overlying permeable glacial deposits, are 3-30). sources of moderate supplies of ground water. The Lake Huron basin lies within the Cen- Other than low well yields, a major tral Lowland physiographic province. Most ground-water problem is the presence of streams draining the United States part are highly mineralized water in some parts of the relatively short and have small drainage ba- bedrock. Pollution also has been a problem in sins. The Saginaw River basin is the largest, the basin. There is a potential for local pollu- consisting of more than 6,200 square miles. It tion from solid waste disposal, industrial drains into Saginaw Bay- a depression at one wastes, oil-field brines, highway salting, and time occupied by a glacial ice lobe. laundromat wastes. Protection must be af- Glaciation produced the present topog- forded to sources of ground water. raphy. This basin is characterized by hilly gla- Presently, ground-water sources have been cial moraines in the western and southern developed intensively for water supply at areas which greatly contrast with the flat gla- points of need. Unfortunately, these points cial-lake plains in the east. Several hills reach are generally not at the best potential sources. altitudes of 1,300 feet, while the plains are 600 Some ground-water resources are relatively feet above sea level. untapped and are therefore still available for Most of the basin is covered with thick gla- regional development. The wide distribution cial sediments; only in the eastern part are the of aquifers suggests other potential uses. Pos- glacial deposits thin and bedrock sometimes sible applications include use of ground water exposed (Figure 3-2). Glacial deposits are re- for low-flow augmentation, sewage assimila- ported to be as much as 850 feet thick in the tion, and, replenishment of surface reservoirs. hilly morainal northwestern area. They are These uses could materially aid the solution of largely composed of silty and clayey lake sed- 41 42 Appendix 3 iments. Till-plain, morainal, and outwash de- Buried preglacial channels filled with un- posits are less common. consolidated sediments are present in the Glacial processes were also responsible for bedrock. They have not been mapped and their disrupting the formed drainage of major ground-water potential has not been explored. streams in the basin. Great quantities of gla- A major channel underlies the Au Sable River cial drift were deposited in stream valleys and in Oscoda County but little is known of its oc- drainage ways and caused many lakes to be currence. Such buried channels may have a formed. Principal preglacial drainage was to large ground-water potential and thus war- the west through the area of the present rant exploration. Grand River drainage system. Following melt- ing of the glaciers, streams readjusted to the new surface features and drained to the east. 4.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers Postglacial stream development reworked the adjacent glacial deposits and formed flood Unconsolidated sediment aquifers consist of plains and alluvial deposits. sand and gravel beds in glacial drift and post- Bedrock underlying the Lake Huron basin glacial alluvium. Areas of outwash, some consists of Paleozoic sedimentary carbonates, moraines, and buried bedrock channels offer shales, and sandstone. It forms the northeast- the best potential for ground water. Surficial ern part of the Michigan structural basin. deposits and their estimated ranges of well Older consolidated rocks form the northeast- yields are shown in Figures 3-31 and 3-36 for ern rim of the structural basin and the River Basin Groups 3.1 and 3.2. The higher younger rocks lie in the middle. The outcrop yielding areas are associated with outwash pattern is shown in Figure 3-3. The type of and some of the moraines. Lower yields corre- bedrock has played an important role in the late with till plain and lake deposit areas that formation of major physiographic features. contain large percentages of clay and silt. The Where the bedrock directly underlying the presence of high-yielding areas in the till glacial drift consists of relatively resistant plains, moraines, or lake deposits may indicate carbonates and sandstones, erosion has buried outwa-sh deposits. formed escarpments and hilly topography. The surficia'. geology and well yields of Fig- Where shales are present they have been eas- ures 3-31 and 3-36 show that much of the ily eroded and now underlie the lake bottoms basin is covere d with lake deposits having well and other low areas. yields less than 10 gpm. Outwash is largely Like other areas in the Great Lakes Basin, restricted to the western and local southern the Lake Huron basin was forested with white parts of the basin. It has well yields reported pine. Today, after extensive logging and forest to be more than 500 gpm. Yield data have been fires, most of the pine is gone. generalized by area. Of special importance is the Au Sable River basin in the central part of River Basin Group 4.3 Ground-Water Conditions 3.1. Here thick outwash deposits and high well yields have been reported. There is a good po- Although there is little generalized infor- tential for stream infiltration. This area prob- mation about ground-water conditions in the ably has excellent potential for development Lake Huron basin, there is detailed informa- of large ground-water supplies. There are two tion in three areas (Figure 3-30). From publi- small areas in River Basin Group 3.2 where cations on these areas and geologic studies yields are reportedly more than 500 gpm and conditions in other areas have been projected large supplies have been developed. One of to show that some ground water is available these is in the northwestern part of the throughout the basin. The ground water var- Saginaw Bay area, the other in the southern ies greatly in amount and quality. Water oc- part of the basin. curs in aquifers in glacial deposits, which vary Hydrologic characteristics of unconsoli- considerably in permeability and in ability to dated sediment aquifers in the Lake Huron yield water to wells. The bedrock contains basin are included in Table 3-7. The thickest aquifers generally yielding moderate to small deposits are irt the Lower Peninsula portion of amounts of water. The chemical quality of this River Basin Group 3.1 where thickness ranges water may be poor. Moderate and large from 0 to more than 850 feet and the sediments supplies adequate for industry and may contain one or more aquifers. Well depths municipalities are restricted to the western are usually less than 400 feet. River Basin and southern sections of the basin. Group 3.2 has the highest yields, ranging from Lake Huron Basin 43 100 to 1,200 gpm with wells generally less than The next oldest aquifer, the Mississippian 350 feet deep. (Marshall) aquifer system, underlies the southern two-thirds of the Lower Peninsula portion of Lake Huron basin and is the largest 4.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers yielding bedrock aquifer in the basin. The aquifer is composed of sandstone or siltstone. Bedrock aquifers are present in most parts It ranges in thickness from 50 to 350 feet (Ta- of Lake Huron basin. There are five major ble 3-7). Beneath the freshwater zone the aquifer systems, but only one may be present formation contains oil, gas, and brines. The in a given area. The aquifers generally coin- aquifer crops out beneath the glacial drift in a cide with the outcrop pattern of geologic for- northwest-southeast band across the south- mations, making a series of successive aquifer eastern part of River Basin Group 3.2 (Figures systems from north to south along the north- 3-32 and 3-38). Little is known of aquifer po- ern rim of the Michigan structural basin. The tential of the confined part of the system. general stratigraphy and hydrologic charac- The higher yields of wells in the Marshall teristics of each aquifer system are included in aquifer are reported to range up to 500 gpm. Table 3-7 and their occurrence and strati- Well depths are from 50 to 650 feet. The chemi- graphic relationships are shown in Figures cal quality of water from the aquifer is hard to 3-32, 3-33, 3-34, 3-35, 3-37, and 3-38. Chemical very hard, 130-470 mg/l, and moderately quality characteristics of the aquifer waters mineralized, 250-600 mg/l (Table 3-8). Saline are included in Table 3-8. The aquifer systems water, as shown on Figures 3-32 and 3-38, oc- are discussed from the youngest, or upper- curs in the eastern and central parts of the most in the stratigraphic sequence, to the old- basin. It coincides with the central part of the est or deepest system in each river basin Michigan structural basin. group. The youngest recognized bedrock unit Recharge to the unconfined part of the Mar- is of Jurassic age, but it is not presented here shall aquifer occurs principally through the because it has no known aquifer significance. glacial-drift cover. Natural discharge occurs The youngest aquifer system, in Pennsyl- to streams and probably directly into Lake vanian rocks, occurs in the central part of Huron. A hydrograph of a well in Sanilac Lake Huron basin. It lies almost entirely in County (Sa-33dd) shows the long-term water River Basin Group 3.2 (Figure 3-37). These level trend caused by natural conditions (Fig- rocks are present only in a small area of River ure 3-38). The Marshall aquifer is not exten- Basin Group 3.1, in Arenac County. This unit sively used as a source of water supply in the is considered insignificant. The Saginaw and basin because of productive overlying uncon- Grand River Formations, consisting of 75 to solidated aquifers. 750 feet of sandstone, limestone, and shale, The Devonian aquifer system is the north- make up the Pennsylvanian aquifer system. ernmost bedrock aquifer in the Lower Penin- Coal, brines, and gypsum are also present. sula part of the Lake Huron basin (Figure Wells penetrating the Pennsylvanian 3-33). This system consists of the Traverse aquifer reportedly have yields up to 500 gpm Group, Rogers City Formation, and the Dun- and depths that range from 100 to 600 feet. The dee Formation, a series of limestone beds with water is very hard, 130 to 725 mg/l, and moder- some interbedded shales. These are as much ately high in mineral content, 200 to 800 mg/l as 1,300 feet thick (Table 3-7). Beneath the (Table 3-8). Saline water occurs in the central freshwater zone in places, the aquifer con- part of the system (Figure 3-37). tains oil, gas, brine, or salt. Recharge to the Pennsylvanian aquifer oc- Wells in the Devonian aquifer system report- curs through the glacial drift. Discharge, in- edly yield up to 200 gpm from depths of 100 to cluding the saline water, occurs to streams 600 feet. The water is very hard, 150-300 mg/l, and flows into Saginaw Bay. Two hydrographs but only moderately mineralized, 250-370 mg/l show long-term water level fluctuations (Fig- (Table 3-8). Where the aquifer system is con- ure 3-37). The Genesee County hydrograph fined by overlying bedrock, the water is saline. (Ge-9de) shows effects of ground-water with- Recharge to the unconfined part of the aquifer drawals over the last 17 years. The Bay occurs indirectly through glacial drift and di- County hydrograph (Ba-22ad) shows a short- rectly where the limestone is exposed. A hy- term recovery trend as the result of cessation drograph for a well in Presque Isle County of pumping after the aquifer becomes saline. (PI-8bb) shows long-term water level fluc- The aquifer is used quite extensively in the tuations caused by natural conditions (Figure basin. 3-33). The Devonian aquifer is widely used as a 44 Appendix 3 source for domestic and stock water in the ba- water zone in the upper unit of the sin. Cambrian-O@rdovician system, but the The southern two-thirds of the Upper sandstone unit is generally fresh to 1,000 feet Peninsula portion of the basin is underlain by in Chippewa County. The water in both units the Silurian aquifer system (Figure 3-34). This of the aquife@r if hard to very hard, 150-350 system is composed of carbonates in the En- mg/l, and moderately to highly mineralized, gadine, Manistique, and Burnt Bluff Forma- 250-700 mg/l (Table 3-8). tions that are as much as 700 feet thick (Table Recharge ol@curs to all the units through the 3-7). The overlying Silurian and Devonian glacial drift or directly wherever the bedrock rocks-the Bois Blanc and St. Ignace Forma- is exposed. The Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer tions, and possibly the Salina-can be consid- is a source of water for domestic and stock use ered a part of the Silurian aquifer system in the basin. because they are permeable from being brec- ciated and faulted. Their well-yielding capabilities are unknown. 4.4 Ground-Water Potential The Silurian aquifer system has yields up to 100 gpm from wells 50 to 120 feet deep. Per- As discuSSEA in the first section, ground- meability of the carbonate rocks has de- water potential of the Lake Huron basin was veloped as a result of solution activity along estimated from the low-flow characteristics of fractures and bedding planes. Table 3-8 data streams. Flow-duration data27 for the 70 per- show the water as very hard, 250-300 mg/l, and cent value on the flow-duration curve were moderately mineralized, 250-650 mg/l. The used to compile Figure 3-39. Areas shown with aquifer contains saline water where it is con- high 70 percent values (0.40 to 0.78 efsm and fined, as in the St. Ignace area and the Lower greater) indicate where ground water is con- Peninsula. Recharge to the Silurian aquifer tributing much of the stream discharge from occurs through glacial drift and where the significant ground-water storage in shallow aquifer is exposed. A hydrograph of a well in aquifers. Data from Figure 3-39 were used in Mackinac County (Ma-7aa) shows the long- turn to cornpile Table 3-9 of estimated term water level trend due to natural condi- ground-water potential. Conservative esti- tions (Figure 3-34). The Silurian aquifer is mates should be used to provide first approxi- used as a source of water for domestic and mations of po-,ential yield. Other factors were stock water in the basin. not considered in estimating this potential, The lowermost freshwater aquifer, the Cam- such as reuse of ground water as it moves from brian-Ordovician aquifer system, occurs in place to place, inducement of streamflow into the northern third of the Upper Peninsula the ground (stream infiltration), and with- part. To the south the system probably con- drawal of water from ground-water storage. tains saline water. The system consists of The flow-duration data indicate that the Au sandstone grading upward to dolomite and Sable River basin has the greatest ground- then to carbonates. The system is 2,000 feet water potential in the Lake Huron basin. thick in some areas. The aquifer system is Further study is needed, however, to de- separated into two units in Table 3-7 because lineate the shape and size of the unconsoli- of differing rock types and well yields. The dated and Marshall aquifers and the pos- northern part of the system includes the sibilities of induced stream infiltration. sandstone and dolomite units of the Jacobsville sandstone to the Prairie du Chien Group. The southern part of the system in- 4.5 Problems, Needs, and Management Con- cludes overlying carbonates of the Black siderations River and Trenton rocks. In the northern part the system has ground-water potential with well yields up to 300 gpm and well depths from 4.5.1 Generall 75 to 1,000 feet. To the south, where the carbo- nates are present, potential well yield is The Lake Huron basin has a limited poten- smaller, 50 to 100 gpm. Well depths range from tial for large ground-water resources. Areas 50 to 500 feet. The carbonate units of the that do have large potential supplies are lo- aquifer system are best developed in the cated away from Lake Huron and other large near-surface portion where greater solution lakes in the basin, and therefore can provide a activity has increased the permeability. good water supply where access to large Saline water is present beneath the fresh- surface-water sources is not available. Lake Huron Basin 45 Presently, the northern part of the basin is posits here are usually thin. Good to excellent serving primarily as a recreational area. yields are available to the west and southwest. Stream and lake waters and limited ground- The quality of water in the Lower Peninsula water resources should be adequate to satisfy is generally good, although water from the developing water needs. The southern part of glacial-deposit aquifers is often hard and high the basin is industrialized and demands for in iron. Water in the Marshall Formation is water cannot always be adequately supplied saline in the southeastern part of the basin. In by either streams or Lake Huron water. both the Marshall and the Devonian (Dundee Further consideration should be given to full and Traverse) aquifers, the water apparently development of larger ground-water re- is saline where the aquifer is confined by over- sources. For this to be realized, systematic lying bedrock. Highly mineralized water has exploration, testing, and management of the moved upward and outward from the bedrock aquifers on a regional basis will be necessary. to shallow depths in some areas. In the east- Only then can long-range planning consider ern and southeastern parts of the basin, water the potential of the underground water re- in the glacial aquifers has become saline. source in solving water supply or water qual- Local pollution problems have been experi- ity problems. enced in the Lake Huron basin as they have in Some natural conditions can develop into other areas of the State.9 Solid waste disposal, serious problems through the current ac- industrial wastes, oil-field brines, highway tivities of man. Specific problems, needs, and salting, laundromat wastes, and other dele- management considerations of each of the two terious substances are of concern as pollu- river basin groups are discussed separately. tants. Continued and strengthened surveil- lance by State pollution-control agencies is needed to protect potential sources of 4.5.2- River Basin Group 3.1 ground-water supplies in the western part of the basin. There were no deep waste disposal There are no aquifers covering large areas wells (excluding oil-field brine-injection wells) in the Upper Peninsula portion of River Basin in River Basin Group 3.1 as of June 1971. Group 3.1 known to be capable of yielding large Detailed reconnaissance studies that cover (more than 300 gpm) ground-water flows to well inventory, chemical sampling, and individual wells. The glacial drift is relatively geologic mapping have been done in the Upper thin. In many places the saturated thickness Peninsula. None have been done in the Lower is not great enough to form good aquifers. The Peninsula portion of the basin, but one study known and suspected presence of buried val- is underway in the Rifle River basin to provide leys, with their potential of containing good information on the water resources of that aquifers, should be considered in future area. ground-water exploration. Lake deposits of Regional planning will require: glacial origin are generally of low permeabili- (1) comprehensive geohydrologic studies ty. Development of large ground-water of the major aquifer systems, including the supplies usually cannot be expected from the unconsolidated and bedrock aquifers, in both bedrock. Even though a few high yields from the Upper and Lower Peninsula. A detailed bedrock aquifers have been reported and flow- study would include accurate delineation of ing wells are common, the chances of similar areas where water-bearing formations may be yields elsewhere are small. Some of the bed- contaminated, and where this contamination rock is impermeable shale. Solution openings would prevent or impede future ground-water in carbonates are riot well developed below the development. water table. Based on well records, sandstones (2) quantitative appraisals of the Che- are the best aquifers. boygan and Au Sable basins as potential areas The quality of water in the Upper Peninsula of major ground-water development. These varies considerably within the same aquifer. have estimated potential yields of 510 and 785 Generally, the water is hard and sometimes mgd, respectively. high in iron content. Poor quality water is (3) chemical-quality monitoring network. present in some of the Silurian rocks in Mac- A revision of the existing network of observa- kinac County. tion wells related to specific aquifers is also In the Lower Peninsula many low well needed to establish natural and changing yields are reported in the eastern part adja- conditions imposed on the hydrologic system cent to Lake Huron. Morainal and lake de- by man. 46 Appendix 3 4.5.3 River Basin Group 3.2 water resources investigation of this area as a guide in solving thermal pollution. Surface In the northwest area there is considerable reservoirs to,3tore seasonal excess strearnflow potential for development of ground water. In for later release to augment deficient flow general, however, River Basin Group 3.2 has have been recommended. These could also be little potential for development of large vol- used for recreation. Other possible hydrologic umes. In many places the glacial drift is thin solutions are the use of ground-water reser- and largely composed of lake deposits and till voirs for storage and subsequent pumpage to plain deposits, which generally have low augment low streamflow. This storage is po- permeability and low well yields. The two tentially available in glacial-drift formations principal bedrock aquifers, the Grand River- in the northwest. Saginaw and the Marshall, may yield large There were eight active industrial waste volumes of ground water locally, but over the disposal wells and one standby in River Basin aquifer areas as a whole, yields would be mod- Group 3.2 as of June 1971. Eight of the wells erate. dumped their wastes in the saline part of the In addition to the scarcity of large ground- Marshall Formation and one in the Devonian water supplies, there is a definite problem (Dundee Formation) aquifer system. These with poor quality water, especially in the cen- wells are located in Gratiot, Midland, and Bay tral basin area. Saline water is often found at Counties. depths less than 100 feet in either drift or bed- To obtain the necessary information for rock. Part of the poor quality probably results proper planning of water resource develop- from natural migration of saline water up- ment, the following ground-water investiga- ward and outward from inner and deeper bed- tions are needed: rock formations in the Michigan basin. In (1) comprehensive water resources studies other instances the poor quality results from of the geohydrology of the unconsolidated and leakage through uneased or poorly con- bedrock aquifers structed borings drilled for coal, salt, or (2) quantitative appraisal of the north- brines. These borings are generally located in western part of the Saginaw basin. The entire the counties adjacent to Saginaw Bay. Many basin has a potential for a yield of more than of the wells have since been plugged and the one billion gallons per day. brine leakage reduced.9 In still other areas the (3) deterrnination of the hydrologic system natural balance between fresh and salt water of saline areas in the central and eastern parts has been disturbed by draining or pumping. of the basin. Such knowledge would permit an Management will be needed in the Midland evaluation of fresh ground-water sources and area, where industrial requirements for its relationship to the saline ground water. streamflow have exceeded the supply. Lakes (4) a network of wells to monitor chemical and streams available for recreation are also quality, and revision of existing observation limited here. In addition, a large nuclear wells, so that they relate to specific aquifers. power plant is planned for the area, and cool- This would establish both natural and man- ing water from it would have to be released to made conditions. a stream. There is a need for a comprehensive Lake Huron Basin 47 TABLE 3-7 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Huron Basin Major aquifers Thick- Wells' Well Era System Group Formation ness yield depths Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) RIVER BASIN GROUP 3.1 Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Cenozoic Quaternary 0-400 0-200 50-400 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Devonian Bois Blanc 0-250 Unknown - Brecciated carbonates. Silurian "Mackinac St. Ignace 0-300 Brecciated dolomite and shale. Breccia" Bass Islands 0-600 Brecciated inter-bedded shale Salina and carbonate . Saline in mrt Engadine 10-175 Manistique 0-525 50-100 50-120 Carbonates. Burnt Bluff hataract 0-200 Dolomite and shale. Ordovician Richmond 0-240 Carbonates. A minor aquifer locally. Bills Creek 0-250 Shale. Trenton- Trenton- 0-210 50-100 50-500 Carbonates. "Sulfur water." Black River Black River ------ ?--------- Prairie du Chien Trempealeau 180-600 100-300 75-1001D Sandstone and dolomite. Cambrian Munising 1 900-1200 Sandstone. IJacobsville I Michigan (Lower Peninsula) Cenozoic Quaternary O@850 50-900 50-300 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Pennsylvanian Saginaw 50-400 Sandstone, shale, and coal. Present only in small area of Arenac Co. Brines and sul- fates at bottom. Mississippian Grand Rapids Bayport O@25 Carbonates, shale, and gypsum. Michigan 50-250 Oil and gas _ --1 Marshall 50-300 50-500 50-650 Sandstone. Some brine, oi and gas. Coldwater 925-1150 Shale- Some pas. Sunbury Shale and sandstone. Some ------ ?----------------------------- Berea 10-250 oil, gas, and brine. Bedford Devonian Antrim 150-650 Shale, Gas, Traverse 640-850 Limestone and shale. Oil, gas, and brine in confined areas. IRogers City 80-460 Limestone. Oil, gas, and IDundee 50-200 100-600 brine in confined areas. -RIVER BASIN-GROUP 3.2 Michigan Cenozoic Quaternary 0-650 100-1200 25-350 Sand, gravel in drift. Mesozoic------Jurassic "Red Beds" 0-150 Sandstone, shale, and gypsum. Pale zoic Pennsylvanian Grand River 75-750 50-500 100-600 Sandstone, shale, limestone, Saginaw and coal. Brines and sulfates. Mississippian Grand Rapids Bayport 15-125 Carbonates, shale, and gypsum. Michigan 50-500 Oil and gas. Marshall 50-350 5b-5oo(?) 50-650 Sandstone and siltstone. Oil, gas, and brines. lls. I Range is that of typical high-capacity we nj 2 Range is that of all wells. 48 Appendix 3 TABLE 3-8 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Huron Basin Total dissolved Temper- Aquifer system Hardness Sulfate Chloride Iron sOlids ature Remarks (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (OF) RIVER BASIN GROUP 3.1 Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Quaternary 75-170 10-20 0-15 0-0.1 100-175 44-52 Silurian 250-300 20-550 0-15 0-1 250-650 44-55 Saline water in southern part of (Burnt Bluff- Mackinac County and where Engadine) confined by bedrock. Cambrian-Ordovician 150-350 30-60 100-300 1 250-700 --- Saline locally. (Jacobsville- Trenton) Michigan (Lower Peninsula) Quaternary 100-300 0-80 0-50 0-1.5 80-400 45-50 Saline locally in east and southeast area. Mississippian 130-470 3-450 3-300 0.5-2 --- 46-55 Saline in southeast area. (Marshall) Devonian 150-300 5-80 0-40 0-1 250-370 47 Saline where confined. (Dundee and Traverse) RIVER BASIN GROUP 3.2 Michigan Quaternary 100-550 0-600 0-450 0-11 160-700 46-54 Saline locally. Pennsylvanian 130-725 15-500 0-630 0-5 200-800 50-55 Saline in central part of area. (Saginaw and Grad river) Mississippian 200-380 10-300 0-450 0-4 250-600 49-55 Saline in part of area. (Marshall) TABLE 3-9 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Huron Basin Runoff at Subbasin 70-percent Subbasin State River Basin duration yield totals Group totals (cfsm) (mgd) (mgd) (mgd) RIVER BASIN GROUP 3.1 Michigan (Upper Peninsula) Les Cheneaux-St. Marys Complexes 0.05 45 45 1,945 Michigan (Lower Peninsula) Cheboygan River 0.50 510 1,900 Presque Isle Complex 0.05 20 Thunder Bay River 0.40 325 Alcona. Complex 0.10 10 AuSable River 0.60 785 Rifle-AuGras Complex 0.35 250 RIVER BASIN GROUP-3.2 Michigan Kawkawlin Complex 0.05 15 1,270 1,270 Saginaw River 0.30 1,210 Thumb Complex 0.05 45 Lake Basin total 3,215 mgd Note: Estimates based on flow-duration data for period of record, adjusted to the 1931-60 period, at all gaging stations within the subbasin; extrapolations within drainage area and to ungaged areas based on surficial geology. Section 5 LAKE ERIE BASIN 5.1 General ment before disposal into streams. One benefit of ground-water use is augmentation of Although the Lake Erie basin has the least streamflow, currently being considered in overall ground-water potential of any Great Ohio. Lakes basin, glacial drift provides excellent aquifers in selected areas of Michigan, New York, and Ohio. Carbonate aquifers are 5.2 Physiography and Drainage significant in western Ohio and northern New York areas. Areas of limited ground-water For this appendix, the Lake Erie basin in- potential occur in the lake plains along the cludes Lake St. Clair and its drainage area. southern shore of Lake Erie east of Sandusky Collectively, the drainage area within the and in the upland areas of Pennsylvania and United States is 21,460 square miles, the sec- New York. In these places, conjunctive use of ond largest drainage area of the five Lakes. surface water and ground water is necessary Except for the 6,586-square-mile Maumee to provide adequate water to most areas. River basin, the tributary system consists of Chemical quality of the ground water has relatively small drainage- areas draining into been a limiting factor in its development. the Lake system (Figure 3-40). However, most poor quality water can be im- Most of the basin lies within the eastern lake proved by treatment, so the problem becomes section of the Central Lowland physiographic economic. Water from surficial sand and province. The headwaters areas of streams gravel aquifers is generally good to fair in beginning in eastern Ohio lie in the Appala- quality. Iron is usually present. The water can chian Plateaus province, as does an area ex- be hard and contain appreciable dissolved sol- tending east through Pennsylvania into New ids. Bedrock aquifers consistently yield hard York (Figure 3-1). Glaciation of the entire to very hard water with dissolved solids quan- basin has created rolling morainal hills of tities often above the recommended limit of moderate relief in the Michigan area. There 1,000 mg/l. Saline water is present locally, and are extensive lake plains bordering the Lake increasingly with depth. Iron and sulfate con- system, much of the Maumee basin, and ma- tents may be relatively high in local areas and turely dissected till-covered uplands of the increase treatment costs. A better under- Appalachian Plateaus province. The basin di- standing of the fresh water portion of the vide has altitudes higher than 1,000 feet. The aquifers will aid in developing ground-water greatest altitudes reach 2,300 feet in the Cat- supplies and do away with common miscon- taraugus watershed of New York. ceptions concerning ground-water quality. Prominent physiographic features include Pollution of aquifers, particularly the car- the great Maumee lake plain, which was the bonate near-surface aquifers, has been a local vast Great Black Swamp before man drained problem in Ohio and New York. Stricter con- it, the inland Portage Escarpment along the trols for waste disposal and more advanced southeastern shore of Lake Erie, and the treatment facilities are being established to deeply incised headwater valleys of Pennsyl- stop further pollution. Saltwater leakage from vania and New York. Several prominent oil-test holes has been a problem in Pennsyl- linear sand beaches parallel the Lake Erie vania and in isolated cases in Ohio. shore, remnants of beaches of the glacial Solutions to ground-water needs in specific lakes. Other linear hills are moraines depos- problem areas will require detailed studies. ited at the glacial ice margins. Critical factors will include finding optimal Bedrock exposures are increasingly promi- economics for adopting surface-water versus nent toward the eastern part of the basin. ground-water sources when both require Along the escarpment and in the incised val- treatment. Both sources also require treat- leys, gently dipping shales and sandstones 49 50 Appendix 3 have been exposed by erosion or were not cov- these types of deposits, and where recharge ered by drift. Many of the incised valleys are from adjaceint streams is available, such as in partially filled with thick deposits of glacial parts of Michigan and Indiana (Figures 3-41 drift, especially in the New York area. Buried and 3-43). LE!sser yields are available in most valleys are known in other parts of the basin, upper reaches of stream valleys in the re- and there are undoubtedly many that have mainder of -the basin. Elsewhere, the thin not been discovered. These buried valleys cover of clayey till or lake deposits contains sometimes contain major sand and gravel poor aquifers. However, yields adequate for aquifers. domestic use are available in all but a few Bedrock underlying the Lake Erie basin areas. Buried valleys have been discovered in consists of sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age. some local a:-eas and offer high potential for Formations west of the Sandusky-Maumee large yields. Many of these valleys have been drainage divide dip gently northwestward to- discovered in the Ohio area east of the Black ward the Michigan structural basin. East of River and in New York. the divide the formations dip southeastward It has been found, however, that many of in Ohio and southward in Pennsylvania and these buried valleys, like normal valley fills, New York. The near-surface rocks consist contain inte:rbedded tills and lacustrine de- principally of carbonates in Indiana, western posits which do not make good aquifers. This Ohio, and the northern part of the New York occurs mainly in north-trending valleys which area. Shales and sandstone are dominant in had no through-flowing glacial streams dur- the other areas (Figure 3-3). ing deposition. Ground-water divides here do The drift overlying the bedrock is domi- not always coincide with the surface divides as nantly fine-grained throughout most of the ground water moves into or out of the basin. basin, except in Michigan and local areas in In addition to the presence of very perme- New York and Ohio (Figure 3-2). The outwash able material and a source of recharge, an and morainal deposits in these areas consist of adequate thickness of sediments is needed to coarse-grained material which contains sig- have good aquifers. Drift thicknesses up to nificant ground-water resources. The lake 1,100 feet37 in buried valleys are known within plain areas are underlain by lacustrine de- the basin, but most of the drift is much thin- posits of clay, silt, and fine sand of low per- ner, particularly in and east of Ohio. Wells are meability. Similarly, low-perme ability clayey generally less than 300 feet deep. Yields more till mantles most of the bedrock upland of the than 50 gpm are possible in much of the area. Appalachian Plateaus province and provides Aquifer and well data for each of the river no aquifers of large water-yielding potential. basin groups are included in Table 3-10. The chemical quality of water from the uncon solid ate d-sediment aquifers is gener- 5.3 Ground-Water Conditions ally fair to good. The water is commonly hard to moderately hard, and some of it is high in Ground water occurs in several types of iron. Normal ranges of some constituents are aquifers in the Lake Erie basin. Major aquif- presented in Table 3-11. Sulfate or chloride ers are those in unconsolidated sediments and problems cxist locally where upward in near-surface bedrock formations. In con- ground-water movement occurs from saline trast to the three upper Great Lakes basins, bedrock. Methane gas has been found in gla- the Lake Erie basin has much less significant cial drift at Oakland County, Michigan, and unconsolidated sediment aquifers. It does not elsewhere.36 In many areas, wells are drilled have the multiplicity of bedrock aquifers in a through the shallow aquifers to obtain better particular area. A general description of the quality water from the bedrock. aquifer system follows. Ground-water condi- Recharge to unconsolidated sediment tions in each of the four river basin groups are aquifers occurs from infiltration of rain and presented separately in figures and tables. snow both directly and indirectly into the de- posits. Indirect recharge occurs by runoff from adjacent less permeable surface deposits 5.3.1 Unconsolidated Aquifers or by slow seE!page through overlying deposits. Most recharge occurs during the late fall and Glacial outwash, alluvium along streams, spring dormant seasons when evapotranspi- and buried-valley deposits offer the best po- ration rates are low. An example of the tential for high yielding aquifers. Wells yield- amount of total recharge that can occur to ing more than 500 gpm are usually possible in unconsolidated sediment is shown by a study Lake Erie Basin 51 in New York. LaSala 30 estimated recharge atively thin and wells penetrate close to the rates to the sand and gravel deposits in the contact between the Marshall and the under- Tonawanda-Cattaraugus basin from 0.5 to 4 lying formation. Generally, bedrock underly- mgd per square mile. Higher values occur ing the Marshall contains salty water. If phys- where extensive surface runoff from the ical conditions are right, the salty water may watershed is added directly to the aquifer. move up into the Marshall. Kunkle 29 reports Ground water moves toward the stream that water from wells deeper than 80 feet may drainage system and emerges as base flow of be brackish in Washtenaw County. Table 3-11 the stream. In local areas adjacent to streams, gives a summary of principal chemical con- extensive withdrawal of ground water stituents reported from a very limited number through pumping wells can include recharge of wells penetrating the Marshall. from stream water. Two other important Mississippian aquifers are the Berea and Cussewago sandstones in the eastern part of the basin. RaU48 made a 5.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers comprehensive study of the ground-water availability of these two aquifers. He has pre- Several bedrock formations in the Lake Erie sented the data in a thorough, well-illustrated basin are significant aquifers (Table 3-10). In format for the potential ground-water de- descending sequence, the first aquifer occurs veloper's use. The lower aquifer, Cussewago in the Sharon and Saginaw Formations of sandstone, is present in the basin only in a Pennsylvanian age. The Saginaw Formation small part of Portage and Trumbull Counties, is present in a small area at the southwest Ohio, and in Pennsylvania. The sandstones in corner of Livingston County, Michigan. Be- some areas are directly connected. Their loca- cause there are no well data, little is known of tions and relationships are shown in Figures its potential. The Sharon Formation is present 3-44 and 3-49. only on the hilltops of the Cuyahoga and Berea sandstone ranges from coarse- Grand River basins in eastern Ohio (Figure grained in the western part of the basin to 3-48). The formation is a sandstone or con- fine-grained with shale beds in the east. The glomerate and is the most significant bedrock formation thickens and is greatest in the aquifer present. The Sharon generally yields northwestern part but averages 50 feet. Well up to 50 gpm. Where it is thickest, it will yield yields are generally less than 50 gpm, but as as much as 100 gpm to wells. The chemical much as 100 gpm are reported. The higher yields quality of the water is fair, although high iron are in the northern part of the aquifer in Por- content and high hardness are common (Table tage and Trumbull Counties. In the Vermilion 3-11). basin the Cuyahoga Formation contains a lit- The next major aquifer in the Lake Erie tle water and is generally developed with the basin is the Marshall Formation of Mississip- Berea to add a few gallons a minute (Table pian age. It is present only in a small part of 3-10). Michigan (Figures 3-42 and 3-44). The Mar- Chemical quality of water from Berea sand- shall Formation is a light-colored, fine- to stone is relatively poor (Table 3-11). The water medium-grained sandstone that locally con- is hard to very hard and needs softening for tains considerable shale. It is mantled most uses. Sulfate, chloride, and iron contents everywhere by glacial deposits. are high in some areas. Chloride increases The Marshall Formation is a good water with depth in the aquifer and to the south source except where shale is present. Well where brines are present. The zone of saline yields (Table 3-10) are generally as great as water is shown on Figures 3-44 and 3-49. 500 gpm, but reach as much as 1,000 gpm in the The Cussewago sandstone is medium- Pontiac area of Oakland County. The City of grained and poorly consolidated. Well yields Jackson, just outside the basin, has wells that are generally less than 50 gpm. Yields as much have yielded 2,000 gpm of good quality water. as 200 gpin have been reported where the for- These exceptionally high yields suggest there mation is thickest, or where recharge is more may also be a good potential for the aquifer in readily available, such as under the Grand the area west of Ann Arbor. Although water River. No chemical analyses of the aquifer quality in the Marshall Formation is gener- water are available, but it is believed the ally good, wells penetrating the sandstone are water is similar to that of the Berea. reported to yield salty water in some lo- Recharge to the aquifers occurs directly and calities, especially where the Marshall is rel- indirectly from precipitation. In addition, 52 Appendix 3 streams flowing across outcrop areas provide with the Camillus shale. Iron content is com- recharge where the aquifer head is lower than monly high throughout the area. Along with stream level. hardness it necessitates treatment of the The next lower rock system contains Devo- water for public and some industrial uses. nian carbonate aquifers. In some places these Many areas use water containing more than are in direct connection with the underlying the 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids recommended Silurian carbonate aquifers. For purposes of limit without treatment. Most of the aquifer this section, the Devonian and Silurian carbo- waters in the Michigan portion are too saline nate aquifers are considered as one. Where for use. Saline water is present beneath the significant data, such as different saline zones Silurian aquifer throughout the Lake Erie ba- within the units in Ohio, are available, indi- sin. vidual aquifers are presented on separate Recharge to the aquifer systems occurs by maps. vertical leakage through the glacial drift or The freshwater part of the Silurian and De- confining bedrock layer and directly through vonian aquifer systems extends from Wayne outcrops of cavernous carbonates. Indirect re- County, Michigan, throughout most of the charge through highly permeable materials in Maumee and Sandusky River basins and in buried valleys also is significant. The amount the Tonawanda Creek basin of New York of recharge varies with the depth to the (Figures 3-44, 3-45, 3-46, and 3-51). The sys- carbon ate-aq uifer water level, among other tem in River Basin Group 4.1 is not shown things. RowlEnd and Kunkle 49 computed re- because the rocks do not contain a major charge rates to the carbonate aquifer in the aquifer. Carbonate formations dominate the Maumee River basin versus ground-water rock system with minor sandstone and shale use. Recharge rates vary from 0.006 to 0.075 beds present. Thickness ranges to more than mgd per square mile, depending upon the 800 feet. The aquifer system varies greatly in pumpage ratE!. There is higher recharge with both areal and vertical permeability. Carbo- higher pumpage, which lowers the water level. nate solution seems to have taken place prin- For comparison, the 70 percent now-duration cipally where the rocks were exposed prior to data used in this appendix to compute esti- glaciation. Postglacial solution has probably mated ground-water yield for the same area occurred also, especially where the aquifer is (Table 3-12) ranged from 0.030 to 0.078 mgd per .directly present under a relatively thin cover square mile. Most recharge water is derived of glacial drift. from precipitation, but stream water can also Well yields in the carbonates are very good, recharge the aquifers in some areas where up to 500 gpm in the western portion of the conditions are right. basin (except Michigan where wells have yields less than 20 gpm) and up to 200 gpm in the New York area. Because of the hetero- 5.4 Ground-Water Potential geneity of the solution and fracture openings, test wells should obtain data where high As discussed in Section 1, ground-water po- yields are desired. Well yields and depths are tential for an area was estimated on the basis presented in Table 3-10. of stream -d isch arge data. Flow-duration val- Special note should be made of the high yield ues for the 70 percent point, a conservative area in New York. Here the Camillus shale estimate of ground-water runoff per square unit contains gypsum which is highly soluble. mile, were used to compile Figure 3-52 and to Solution has removed gypsum beds, particu- tabulate yield values in Table 3-12. The esti- larly near streams, and created a highly por- mates do not. consider the ground water in ous rock. Well yields in these areaS30 range up storage nor actual reuse or recycling of to 1,000 gpm, making the Camillus shale the ground water. most productive unit in River Basin Group 4.4. In comparison to the other basins in the Water quality of the carbonate aquifers is Great Lakes, the Lake Erie basin has the low- fair to poor. Chemical characteristics are est estimated ground-water potential. On the shown in Table 3-11 for the entire aquifer sys- basis of ground-water runoff at the 70 percent tem or for separate units where wells draw flow-duration point, only 1,930 mgd of ground from specific formations. The water is ex- water is derived from this basin, the second tremely hard and contains a high amount of largest in total land area. The low yield is di- dissolved solids. Sulfate content increases rectly related to the character of the rocks. with depth in some areas of Ohio and is a prob- Glacial drift is fine-grained and relatively thin lem locally in New York where it is associated in most of thE! area (Figure 3-2). Near-surface Lake Erie Basin 53 bedrock is predominantly shale (Figure 3-3). upland areas. Areas lacking in ground water Areas shown in Figure 3-52 as having good are generally near surface-water sources, ground-water yield are those in areas of thick, especially Lake Erie, so the problem is primar- coarse-grained glacial drift. Outwash, ily economic. moraines, and sediment-filled valleys are Probably the greatest ground-water prob- dominant in these areas and provide good re- lem throughout the Lake Erie basin is water charge and storage characteristics. For quality. Much of the ground water is hard and example, in the Cattaraugus basin in New high in dissolved solids. Locally it contains ex- York, which includes relatively small areas of cess iron, flouride, or sulfate. Saline water is unconsolidated material in the narrow present relatively close to the surface in most valley-fill areas (Figure 3-50), the ground- of the basin. Although pollution has been a .water potential based on flow-duration data is problem, strong action by most of the States an estimated 150 mgd (Table 3-12). La Sala'S30 now controls poor waste disposal practices. calculations for total recharge to sand and Major problems and needs requiring man- gravel deposits in this area and some minor agement attention are discussed by river valleys in the Tonawanda basin of western basin group. New York were 155 mgd. The poor ground-water yield areasindicated in Figure 3-52 are generally related to the thin 5.5.2 River Basin Group 4.1 drift cover. Here again, data on ground-water yield should be used with caution. Stream- River Basin Group 4.1 is one of the most discharge data for some basins indicate a very heavily populated and industrialized areas in low ground-water yield, but there is evidence the Great Lakes Basin. The area has been sub- of thick buried-channel deposits containing ject to intense urbanization and consequent water which moves out of the basin by under- change in water use from rural-domestic to flow. Long-term yield potential could be criti- suburban needs. It has now reached the urban cal here, with respect to potential recharge to stage with a municipal water system. the buried aquifer after extensive develop- Municipalities drew water locally at first, but ment. A similar situation exists in the central later water had to be imported from greater Maumee basin area. This has poor-yield indi- distances. Wells were again drilled in rural cations, but the carbonate aquifer wells will areas or water was obtained from distant sur- yield several hundred gpm. Furthermore, face sources. Rowland and Kunkle 49 show that ground- The Detroit metropolitan area, one of the water development can increase aquifer po- largest urban areas in the United States, is a tential by increasing recharge. These exam- major example of the progressive land- and ples point out the need for studies on long- water-use changes. The amount of water term yield potentials under development necessary to support present and predicted conditions. In summary, the estimated growth of the Detroit complex is considerable. ground-water yield map (Figure 3-52) can be Ground water, present in large supplies only used to compare relative potentials of ground in limited areas of sand and gravel, is not water in various areas, and give a measure of adequate to meet this demand. Only surface- the existing ground-water discharge from a water sources from the Great Lakes system basin under existing conditions of recharge, can serve this metropolitan complex. How- evapotranspiration, and pumpage. ever, ground water will still continue to play an important role in the growth of the area in industrial developments and in initial stages 5.5 Problems, Needs, and Management of new urbanization, until it is more economi- Considerations cal to convert to a surface-water system. Total reliance on ground water in this heav- ily populated area would result in over- 5.5.1 General development. For example, in Pontiac prior to 1963, ground-water pumpage was concen- Although Lake Erie basin has the least pro- trated in a small segment of a buried glacial- ductive aquifers of the Great Lakes Basin, channel aquifer at considerable distance from there is still a plentiful supply of ground water the area of recharge. This caused a 100-foot in some areas. Small ground-water supplies, drawdown of water level throughout central barely adequate for domestic supplies, occur Pontiac.13 In 1963, Pontiac joined the Detroit along much of the eastern lakeshore and in water system and discontinued its well supply. 54 Appendix 3 Water levels have since recovered more than as major water supplies. Another detailed 40 feet in some wells. study of all Nvater resources in Washtenaw Very low yields can be expected from uncon- County is being made. It will update ground- solidated aquifers in the lake plains part of the water information from the Kunkle area. The lake deposits, from surface to bed- study.29 Marty bedrock aquifers in the area rock, are generally fine-grained and do not contain water unfit for most uses because of readily transmit water. The moraines contain poor chemica'.. quality. It may be feasible to aquifers made up of poorly sorted deposits displace the poor quality water with fresh that produce only low yields. With the excep- water in SOME! aquifers. Such a project would tion of the Marshall Formation, which is lim- entail removal of inferior water by pumping ited in area, bedrock gives low yields or water and recharging with fresh water by induced too highly mineralized to be of general use. recharge facilities or injection through wells. The chemical quality of the ground water is Study of this vrould provide information on the likely to be poor in much of the area because of practicability of storing fresh waters in saline the presence of saline bedrock water. High water reservcirs, and on hydraulic principles chloride and sulfate content is common. High involved. iron content is particularly common in water from the surficial aquifers. Pumping some sand and gravel aquifers can sometimes in- 5.5.3 River Basin Group 4.2 crease the sodium and chloride content of water from wells. Ferris and others 13 found Ground-water supplies in River Basin that when drawdown in a buried outwash Group 4.2 are of relatively adequate quantity aquifer at Pontiac was appreciable, the resul- with the exception of a few areas. Water qual- tant gradient developed between an aquifer ity is the most critical problem. In much of the and the underlying bedrock induced upward area, water from the carbonate-rock Aquifers migration of chloride water from the bedrock. is very hard, commonly more than 200 mg/l, Three known waste disposal wells have been and highly mineralized. A number of com- constructed in bedrock (Silurian-Devonian munities whose only supply is ground water aquifer system) in this area (Figure 3-42). One are using water with a dissolved solids content well is located on the south side of Detroit and considerably higher than the 1,000 mg/l limit injects wastes at a depth of 563 feet. To deter- suggested by -the U.S. Public Health Service 67 mine areas where subsurface waste disposal is for drinking water. Water from glacial aqui- feasible, a study should be made of the saline fers is typically much less mineralized but is portion of the hydrologic system and its possi- usually quite hard. Iron is often excessive in ble problems, such as abandoned wells and ground water from most of the aquifers, par- test holes. ticularly those associated with shale, sand, A comprehensive and detailed study of and gravel. Water from carbonate rock sys- hydrologic changes created by urbanization in tems in localized areas is apt to have objec- the metropolitan area should also be made. tionable amounts of hydrogen sulfide. Such a study would contribute appreciably to In much of the area thin drift overlying por- hydrology in both research and practical ap- ous limestone results in conditions conducive plication to water-resources management. to ground-water contamination. A serious Although many municipalities in the area situation exists in the Bellevue area of Huron anticipate problems in obtaining additional County, Ohio, and part of Erie County south of good quality water supplies, little or no re- Sandusky. There are no natural surface gional ground-water information is available streams draining the area. For years sewage for planning purposes. Geologic conditions in and waste were dumped into sinkholes orwells headwater areas of major streams appear to drilled for that purpose in the cavernous ter- be favorable for considerable additional rain. As a result, municipal and domestic ground-water development. Studies covering water-supply wells have had to be abandoned well yield, geology, water quality, and base- because of contarni"nation of - the limestone flow investigations, as well as surface-water aquifer. The high cost of installing municipal data, have been published in U.S. Geological sewage facilities has been one of the main ob- Survey Hydrologic Atlases. A comprehensive stacles in remedying the situation. However, a appraisal of the geology and ground-water re- sewage system and secondary treatment sources of all of southeastern Michigan is facilities are now being constructed. Acciden- under way. This will provide a broad picture of tal pollution can occur anywhere. Bacterial ground-water resources and their possibilities pollution of the Silurian aquifer at Millbury Lake Erie Basin 55 (Wood County), Ohio, was found to be caused and Kunkle49 are needed. Water quality is by defective pipes in two wellS.35 such a problem in some areas that research or Recent restrictions on disposal of wastes emphasis on new economical treatment into streams is leading to the use of deep wells methods should be encouraged. Low-cost de- for waste disposal. Such a well has been drilled mineralization of moderately saline water and into the Mount Simon sandstone (of Cambrian removal of hydrogen sulphide would solve age) at Lima, Ohio (Figure 3-4). The planning many quality problems in this region. of well-disposal systems must consider poten- tial contamination of fresh and brackish water aquifers. Brackish water aquifers are a poten- 5.5.4 River Basin Group 4.3 tial water supply source now that de- mineralizing of water is becoming economical. Low-yielding aquifers characterize much of Sedam and Stein 52 have prepared a map of River Basin Group 4.3. Except for the Ohio's saline water resources with this in sandstone aquifer area and a few areas of mind. Saline zones also are being considered thick sediments, the aquifers are capable of more feasible as potential reservoirs for tem- yielding only a few gallons per minute to wells. porary storage of fresh water.5 The preponderance of shale formations limits Low well yields occur in both bedrock and occurrence of bedrock aquifers, and glacial- unconsolidated sediment aquifers. In the drift cover consists principally of clay-rich till. northwest corner of Ohio and in an area ap- The upper Cuyahoga watershed has the best proximately 10 miles wide extending south- ground-water potential. ward through Erie, Huron, and Crawford Mineral content of water at relatively shal- Counties, the bedrock is relatively imperme- low depths in the bedrock causes problems. able Devonian shale and yields only meager The salinity of bedrock aquifers generally in- amounts of water to wells. The buried Teays creases toward the south. Oil and gas seeps preglacial drainage system has tributary val- are common in Pennsylvania, indicating that leys in the southwestern part of the Maumee freshwater bedrock aquifers may not be pres- basin. Sediments filling it are fine-grained and ent, especially near Lake Erie. Along Lake yields to wells typically are low. However, the Erie, potable ground-water sources in many thick-saturated deposits are of significance to areas have been contaminated by salt water the water-yielding capabilities of adjacent and oil leaking from improperly abandoned oil bedrock aquiferS.39 and gas test holes. Iron and manganese are Representative long-term hydrographs do present in most aquifer waters, causing par- not show a pronounced dewatering of the ticular trouble with well-screen incrustation aquifers in the region (Figures 3-43, 3-44, in the Akron area. 3-45, and 3-46). Wells tapping carbonate Water-level hydrographs (Figures 3-47, aquifers at Lima, Ohio, were originally flow- 3-48, and 3-49) do not show any long-term ing, but municipal and industrial development water level decline. Some show responses to has lowered water levels to approximately 150 pumpage increases (Po-2, Figure 3-47) or to feet below the surface. This dewatering at reduction of pumpage (L-1, Figure 3-47, and Lima seems to have leveled out somewhat in Ln-1, Figure 3-49). recent years despite additional exploitation of A better potential for obtaining good- the aquifers. In some localities in northwest- quality water and large well yields lies in the ern Ohio, artesian wells in glacial sand and unconsolidated aquifers. Detailed studies of gravel no longer flow. Chief causes of this are these deposits are needed, including those in increased water use and decreased recharge buried valleys. The recharge potential of these owing to land drainage. aquifers should also be considered. A study of the northwestern Ohio carbonate A new study in Ohio may aid this water- aquifers by the Ohio Division of Water has short area. The Ohio Division of Water is recently been finished, and it gives an overall supervising a program for exploring the po- appraisal of this systeM.42 This study will pro- tential of buried-valley aquifers in northeast- vide greater knowledge of water-supply ern Ohio. A water-resources study of the capabilities, water quality, optimum locations headwaters of Conneaut Creek in western for development, and will assist in planning Crawford County, Pennsylvania, is being done regional growth. Part of the area has been by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation studied for needs and development planS.43 with the Pennsylvania Topographic and Regional appraisals of potential available Geologic Survey. In Pennsylvania, a detailed ground water such as those done by Rowland map of saltwater zones, along with locations 56 Appendix 3 of abandoned oil and gas wells, should be pre- This unconsclidated material may contain pared. This will permit a program of proper aquifers capable of yielding large quantities of plugging of such abandoned wells. water. The dolomite aquifer at the northern edge of the basin also produces small quan- tities of ground water. 5.5.5 River Basin Group 4.4 The sand and gravel aquifer at Gowanda (Cattaraugus County), New York, has been Poor chemical quality of ground water is significantly dewatered. The public-supply probably the greatest problem with major well has decreased in yield from 500 to 200 gpm ground-water supplies in River Basin Group since 1928. The water level has declined from 7 4.4. Water containing more than 1,000 mg/l of feet above ground level to 150 feet below dissolved solids is present at relatively shal- ground in 1963 .30 Additional ground-water low depth throughout most of the area. The supplies are available in nearby aquifers. Buffalo and northeastern area is most critical Deep-well waste disposal of steel pickle as both bedrock and surficial deposit waters liquor is being tested at a site in Buffalo (Fig- are too mineralized for public use. Shallow ure 3-51). Brines in Cambrian sandstones at saline water is present locally in Pennsyl- 4,000 feet are considered the most feasible dis- vania. In general, however, individual domes- posal horizon. 21, tic wells can obtain potable water from shal- Most of River Basin Group 4.4 was covered low aquifers throughout this area. by the detailed ground-water study by LaSa- Much of the area underlain by thin glacial la.30 A water-resources study by the U.S. deposits (generally upland areas), and Devo- Geological Survey covering the New York por- nian shale bedrock contains aquifers capable tion southwest of the Cattaraugus basin is of yielding water only for domestic wells. being published by the New York State Water Thick unconsolidated material usually under- Resources Commission. lies the glaciated valley floors in New York. Lake Erie Basin 57 TABLE 3-10 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Erie Basin Maior acuifers Thick- Well 1 Well 2 Era System Group Formation ness yields depths Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.1 Michigan Cenozoic lQuaternary 0-600 1100-1500 20-300 Sand. gravel in_grift. Paleozoic IPennsvlvanian Saginaw - I I I Sandstone and shale. Mississippian Marshall 50-150 50-500 1 40-330 Sandstone and shale. Oil, .1 gas, and brine. RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.2 Indiana Cenozoic Quaternary 50@500 100@600 75@225 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Mississippian Bedford(?) 400 Shale with limestone and sandstone. Devonian Antrim 60-200 Shale. New Albany 100 Shale. Sellersburg Limestone. Jeffersonville 500 50-500 150 3 Limestone. Pendleton Sandstone. Silurian Niagaran Series New Corydon [Huntington Dolomite. Michigan Cenozoic Quaternary 0-200 50-500 50-115 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Mississippian Marshall 50-100 150-240 Sandstone. Coldwater Shale. Sunbury Shale. Berea Sandstone. ------ ?--------------------------- Bedford Shale. Devonian Antrim Shale Traverse Limestone. In Monroe Co. Li.esto a. Rogers City - 0-200 500-700 60-90 Limestone. Dundee Detroit River Carbonates. S lvania ? Silurian Bass Islands Dolomite. Saline in part. Ohio Cenozoic Quaternary 10-400 50-1500 30-160 Sand, gravel in drift. Pale zoic Mississippian Cuyahoga 0-20 50-60 30-150 Shale and sandstone. Berea Sandstone. ------ ?--------------------------- Bedford 0-500(?) Devonian Ohio Antrim Shales. Traverse Olentangy Delaware Limestone. Detroit River Columbus 0-200 60-500 40-310 Carbonates. Silurian JBass Islands Raisin River arbonates- 0-400 50-600 50-41DO Iomi . . ITvmochtee Holomite salt. and gypsum. Greenfield Dolomite! ILockpor Carbonates. 1 Range is that of typical high-capacity wells. 2 Range is that of all wells. 3 Estimated. 58 Appendix 3 TABLE 3-10(continued) General Stratigraphy and Major Aquife:r Systems in the Lake Erie Basin Major aquifers Thick- Well Well Era System Group Formation ness yields depths Remarks (ft.) gp-) (ft.) RTVER BASTN GROUP 4.3 Ohio Cenozoic Quaternary 0-400 50-1500 50-350 Sand, gravel in drift. High yields in isolated sites. Paleozoic Pennsylvanian Pottsville Sharon 0-100 50-100 35-130 Sandstone and conglomerate. Mississippian Cuyahoga Cuyahoga O@180 Shale and sandstone. Berea 0-235 50-100 30-275 Sandstone. Bedford 0-50 Shale; semi-confining bed. Cussewago O@30 Sandstone. Pennsylvania Cenozoic lQuaternary 1 1 0-150 1 50-2 1 15-150 1 SanZ gravel in drift. RIVER BASIN GR UP 4A New York Cenozoic Quaternary 0-600 50-1400 10-200 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Devonian Conneaut Canadaway 0-2600 Shale and siltstone. Low or Java-Genesee no well yields common. Hamilton Onondaga 0-175 50-200 60-150 Carbonates. Silurian Bettie Akron Salina Camillus 0-400 500-1000 30-125 Shale. High yields in solu- I I i 1 tion channels in gypsum beds. k.-I-garan Series 1 50-7T- 20-70 Dolomite. Pennsylvani_ Cenozoic louaternarv 0-150 11 50-25E 15-75 Sand, gravel in drift. Paleozoic Devonian Conneaut Chemung 0-200 15-125 Shale and sandstone. Low I I I yields. 1 Range is that of typical high-capacity wells. 2 Range is that of all wells. Lake Erie Basin 59 TABLE 3-11 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Erie Basin Total dissolved Temper- Aquifer system Hardness Sulfate Chloride Iron solids ature Remarks (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (OF) RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.1 Michigan Quaternary 50-480 0-320 10-700 0-7 150-600 48-56 Mississippian 160-460 10-150 10-400 0-2 260-700 --- Locally saline. (Marshall) RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.2 i,idiana Quaternary 250-1000 3-3001 3-20 0.5-4 325-1000 1 --- Adams County has sulfates and (Sand and gravel) dissolved solids over 1000 locally. Silurian-Devonian 500-1000 350-1000 5-50 0.5-3 600-1500 --- (Huntington-Sellersburg) Michigan Quaternary 170-325 10-55 5-25 0-1.5 200-415 --- (Sand and gravel) Mississippian 315 28 16 0.2 348 Hillsdale County only, 1 analysis. (Marshall) Silurian-Devonian 112-115 14 2 0.1-0.2 140-148 --- Hillsdale County only. (Bass Islands-Traverse) Ohio Quaternary 165-820 1-480 3-315 0.15-2.2 170-1050 51-55 (Sand and gravel) Mississippian 70-400 30-75 5-60 0.20-0.90 400-520 55-56 (Berea-Cuyahoga) Devonian 300-1250 100-930 5-110 0.02-4 300-1700 55-58 (Detroit River) Silurian 375-1600 240-1500 5-50 0.05-2.6 280-2700 54-56 (Bass Islands) (Lockport) 330-920 130-800 5-45 0.05-2.6 470-1670 50-56 RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.3 Quaternary 100-500 5-200 3-150 0.10-5.7 270-750 51-55 (Sand and gravel) Pennsylvanian 100-550 25-250 2-40 0.03-4 150-650 52-54 (Sharon) Mississippian 100-600 10-680 3-220 0.10-5 200-2000 52-55 Salinity increases southward. (Cussewago-Berea) Pennsylvania Quaternary 100-200 10-40 5-10 0.10-0.15 170-250 49-51 (Sand and gravel) RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.4 New York Quaternary 100-350 5-100 2-75 0.03-0.08 175-300 40-56 (Sand and gravel) (Buffalo-NE area) 500-1200 300-1000 20-550 0.25-0.50 600-2000 Upward ground-water flow from Camillus Shale aquifer. Devonian 100-500 5-125 5-100 0.10-0.50 150-500 52-55 Saline at depth. (Shales) Silurian-Devonian 250-700 50-400 5-250 0.08-5.6 350-800 54 Saline at depth. (Carbonates) Silurian 400-1900 150-1500 25-2000 0.07 80-5000 53 Fresh water only where locally (Camillus) recharged. Silurian 350-600 150-400 10-50 0.5-3 450-700 48-52 Saline and sulfur wat6r beneath (Lockport) Camillus Shale and in deeper zones in Lockport. Pennsylvania Quaternary 75-300 30-80 0-50 0.6-0.5 250-500 49-56 Saline locally. (Sand and gravel) Devonian 50-250 3-80 0-150 0.2-0.5 200-500 48-49 Saline locally. Gas seeps prob- (Chemung) ably from deeper sources. (Canadaway) 1 may be as high as the Silurian-Devonian aquifer. 60 Appendix 3 TABLE3-12 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Erie Basin Runoff at Subbasin 70-percent Subbasin State River Basin duration yield totals Group totals (cfsm) (mgd) (mgd) (mgd) RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.1 Michigan 600 600 Black River 0.05 20 St. Clair Complex 0.10 40 Clinton River 0.25 125 Rouge Complex 0.15 70 Huron River 0.30 165 Swan Creek Complex 0.10 20 Raisin River 0.20 160 RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.2 Indiana 120 635 Maumee River 0.14 120 (133u) (75b) Michigan 50 Maumee River 0.15 50 Ohio 465 Maumee River 0.10 320 (250b) Toussaint-Portage Complex 0.04 30 Sandusky River 0.06 60 Huron-Vermilion Complex 0.08 55 RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.3 Ohio 300 315 Black-Rocky Complex 0.07 40 Chagrin Complex 0.25 60 Cuyahoga River 0.30 160 Grand River 0.07 30 Ashtabula-Conneaut Complex 0.05 10 Pennsylvania 15 Ashtabula-Conneaut Complex 0.15 15, RIVER BASIN GROUP 4.4 New York 350 380 Tonawanda-Buffalo Complex 0.17 160 1 Cattaraugus River 0.43 150 Erie-Chautauqua Complex 0.20 40 Pennsylvania 30 Erie-Chautauqua Complex 0.15 30 Lake Basin total 1,930 mgd I Estimated available recharge to the unconsolidated-sediment aquifers is 155 mgd (LaSala, 1968). Note: Estimates based on flow-duration data for period of record (generally more than 10 years or adjusted to the 1931-60 period) at gaging stations; extrapolations within drainage area and to ungaged areas based on surficial geology. (Figures in parentheses are maximum yield computations from published area quantitative studies: b, bedrock; u, unconsolidated) Section 6 LAKE ONTARIO BASIN 6.1 General 6.2 Physiography and Drainage Generally moderate to poor ground-water The Lake Ontario basin is the smallest of the resources are available throughout much of five Great Lakes basins, with only 13,340 Lake Ontario basin. Most of the basin is under- square miles of land surface in the United lain by fine-grained sedimentary or igneous States. However, the basin contains some of rocks. Better yielding aquifers occur locally in the larger drainage systems. The Oswego carbonate rocks in central New York, River drains some 5,000 square miles, and the sandstone and carbonate rocks along the St. Genesee, Black, and Oswegatchie Rivers have Lawrence Valley, and sand and gravel in the an average of approximately 2,000 squere glacial drift in valley bottoms. The greatest miles each. The Black River basin is the most estimated ground-water yield in the basin and easterly major area draining directly into one of the greatest in the entire Great Lakes Lake Ontario. The St. Lawrence complex, Os- Basin occurs in the Adirondack area of River wegatchie River, and the Grass-Raquette-St. Basin Group 5.3 Regis River systems drain directly into the St. Water-critical areas occur along the entire Lawrence River. Lake Ontario lowland from Niagara Falls to Four major physiographic provinces are the Black River. Bedrock aquifers are low- represented in the basin (Figure 3-1): yielding, and saline water is present in much (1) The Appalachian Plateaus province in- of the lowland south of the Lake. Sustained cludes the hilly uplands covering the southern summer droughts create severe water short- half of the Genesee and Oswego drainage and ages in the dairy counties of the Ontario low- the unique Finger Lakes region. land and particularly in the Black River val- (2) All the lowlands bordering Lake On- ley. Locally, the sand and gravel aquifers are tario and extending along the St. Lawrence very productive. River through the Thousand Islands are part The high seasonal runoff areas of the of the eastern lake section of the Central Low- Adirondacks and Tug Hill represent a chal- land province. lenge to water managers, especially in connec- (3) The broad lowland extending to the out- tion with summer droughts. Conjunctive use let of the Great Lakes Basin is part of the St. of surface and ground water will be a necessity Lawrence Valley province. to serve the water needs of the area adequate- (4) The Adirondack province includes the ly. However, the presence of the vast re- mountainous headwaters of the Black, Os- stricted Adirondack Forest Preserve, in which wegatchie, and Grass-Raquette-St. Regis little or no development of any kind is allowed, River systems. makes this more difficult. The Adirondack Mountains are the highest River basin studies, some in detail, have points in the Great Lakes Basin. Therefore, been completed on nearly the entire basin (Fig- Lake Ontario basin has the greatest extremes ure 3-53) so that the ground-water conditions in altitude of the five Lake basins-from more and problems are fairly well known except in than 4,000 feet in the Mountains to 150 feet the Adirondack province. Networks of obser- above sea level at the outlet of the basin. The vation and chemical-quality monitoring wells deeply incised valleys of the Appalachian are needed for both areal and aquifer cover- Plateaus and the severely eroded Adirondack age. Water spreading on elevated glacial ter- Mountains account for much of the basin's races and deltas seems to offer recharge po- rugged topography. tential to sustain low flow and stabilize well Lake Ontario basin physiography provides yields in many parts of the valley systems. one of the more scenic areas of the Great Forest management to increase snowpack and Lakes basin. Much of its attractiveness is re- modify extremes of streamflow is also promis- lated to the glacial history of the region. Niag- ing. ara Falls and its gorge, the beautiful, historic 61 62 Appendix 3 Finger Lakes region, the forested, lake-dotted dack province than elsewhere in the basin. Adirondack Mountains, and the Thousand Is- After the ice front forming glacial Lake lands of the St. Lawrence River, give the basin Iroquois melted back from the St. Lawrence features appreciated by both its citizenry and lowland area, marine waters invaded the St. the recreation seekers of the nation. There are Lawrence Valley and joined the lake. Marine many glacial features throughout the basin. clays and silts were deposited in this "Champ- In contrast to upper Great Lakes Basin areas, lain Sea" at least as farwest as Ogdensburg, in glaciation of the Lake Ontario area involved St. Lawrence County (Figure 3-2). less extensive deposition of material but de- Bedrock exposures are common in the basin. veloped more rugged landscape. Southward Generally, the bedrock is not very permeable ice movement was inhibited by the highlands and does not provide major ground-water of the Adirondack and Appalachian Plateaus supplies. Except for a carbonate sequence provinces. cropping out along the north edge of the Ap- Notable points of geologic interest, some of palachian Plateaus province, shales and silt- which should be considered for preservation in stone dominate the Adirondack province. the form of parks, are drumlin fields in Ontario Another, older carbonate sequence with un- and Wayne Counties; numerous waterfalls in derlying sandstone is present in the Black the Finger Lakes region (many are already in River and E,t. Lawrence lowlands. These parks); kame, kettle, and esker topography in sedimentary rocks crop out around basement the Adirondack foothills and Tug Hill areas; rock composing the Adirondack Mountains meltwater channels, eaves, solution channels, (Figure 3-3). The Adirondacks consist princi- and disappearing streams in the lowlands of pally of an ig:neous-metamorphic complex of the Black and St. Lawrence Rivers; and many some of the oldest rocks on the continent. The fossiliferous bedrock exposures throughout sedimentary rocks gently dip away from the the basin. Adirondacks. In the Appalachian Plateaus Glacial deposition resulted in a relatively province they dip gently southward. thin veneer of shaly till over most of the Ap- palachian Plateau region. Deposition in the narrow, deeply incised bedrock valleys was as 6.3 Ground-Water Conditions much as 1,000 feet, but much of the deposit is composed of fine-grained material. Glacial Ground-wa--.er resources are moderate to movement was southward against the up- poor in much of the Lake Ontario basin. The lands, so meltwater was generally ponded in dominance of either the fine-grained or igne- front of the ice front. Material settled into the ous bedrock formations, and the fine-grained ponds and lakes as the glacier retreated. nature of much of the unconsolidated sedi- There was little chance for outwash to form ments preclude the occurrence of large- extensive well-sorted deposits. Local delta de- producing aquifer systems. Mode rate-yielding posits were created from drainage flowing into carbonate aquifers in selected areas and the lakes. The last stages of the glacial lakes thick-saturated deposits of medium- to formed one large lake (Lake Iroquois) which coarse-grained glacial deposits in small covered land now in the Central Lowland pro- valley-fill areas provide ground-water sources vince. A thin veneer of lake clays, silts, and to most of the populated areas. fine sands mantles the area. Former beaches, deltas, and sand bars mark the extent of Lake Iroquois in much of the lowland. The lowland 6.3.1 Uncon-solidated Aquifers and some of the upland have a gently rolling topography with scattered hills representing Highest yielding aquifers in the basin are in moraines, kames, and drumlins left by the the unconsolidated sediments. Sand and glaciers. gravel beds within glacial deposits provide the The Adirondack area was also mantled with best aquifers, but are of limited scope (Figures glacial drift, but here the source material was 3-54, 3-56, and 3-58). Glacial materials depos- principally igneous rock, and as a consequence ited by running meltwater or reworked by the drift is coarser than that elsewhere in the modern streams to create alluvial deposits basin. Meltwater streams flowed off the generally contain well-sorted sand and gravel Adirondack highlands into Lake Iroquois and beds. Good s,-istained well yields are rather earlier glacial lakes and caused sorting of the common in sand and gravel units that have glacial material. Well-sorted outwash and del- good recharge. The Genesee River basin, in taic deposits are more common in the Adiron- particular, has productive sand and gravel Lake Ontario Basin 63 units adjacent to stream-recharge sources much precipitation and soil permeability is (Figure 3-54). In contrast, River Basin Group generally low, recharge in the lowlands is 5.2 does not have extensive units of good aqui- much less. fer material, and the aquifers are not high- yielding. Unconsolidated sediments are quite extensive in the Adirondack part of River 6.3.2 Bedrock Aquifers Basin Group 5.3, but little is known of the ex- tent or thickness of sand and gravel units. There are several significant bedrock aqui- Streamflow, precipitation, and cursory fers in the Lake Ontario basin (Figures 3-55, geologic data indicate a good ground-water po- 3-57, and 3-59). In some areas these provide tential in these unconsolidated sedimentS.70 the only ground-water source, while in others Well yields as high as 2,000 gpm are possible they are secondary to the overlying uncon- in the best areas. Depths of glacial deposits solidated sediment aquifers. The bedrock are highly variable. Greatest thicknesses units are significant aquifers only where they (1,000 feet) are known in the Oswego basin. intrude into overlying sediments or are ex- Aquifer data are presented in Table 3-13. Fig- posed. The upper part of these exposed forma- ures 3-54, 3-56, and 3-58 show that more than tions makes up the major bedrock aquifer sys- half the Lake Ontario basin probably has a tem, and this is considered the upper water- poor potential for other than domestic yields bearing zone. All rock units are shown as a from the unconsolidated sediments. single aquifer on the map for each river basin Chemical quality of ground water in the un- group, but different water-yielding and chem- consolidated sediment aquifers ranges from ical quality characteristics make it useful to poor to excellent. Quality data in Table 3-14 describe the various units separately. indicate that the better water generally oc- The youngest rock formations are Devonian curs in River Basin Group 5.3. Headwater shales in the Genesee and Oswego River up- areas of all regions generally produce water lands. Fractures in the shale create an aquifer low in dissolved solids. Iron is the most preva- system capable of yielding water to wells at lent problem. Below the headwater areas in rates less than 100 gpm (Table 3-13). The the basin, ground water usually comes in con- chemical quality of the water is good, with tact with carbonate material and becomes in- hardness the main concern (Table 3-14). creasingly hard and more mineralized. In the Saline water is present at depths greater than Genesee-Oswego areas, sulfate and chloride approximately 300 feet. contents increase markedly in the lowlands The next major aquifer system occurs in where outflow of deep bedrock aquifers con- carbonate rocks in the Lower Devonian and tributes highly mineralized water to shallow Upper Silurian Series. Figures 3-55 and 3-57 aquifer systems. Areas where highly show that the carbonates extrude in a narrow mineralized waters are known are depicted on band along the north edge of the Appalachian Figures 3-54 and 3-56. Plateau border. The carbonates extend south, Recharge potential from precipitation and dipping below the Devonian shales, but de- streamflow is excellent. Studies elsewhere in creased permeability and the presence of New York under similar conditions indicate saline water inhibit their potential as aqui- up to 4 mgd per square mile of recharge are fers. Well yields reach 500 gpm in the Oswego possible to sand and gravel units. The River basin, where extensive solution of the ground-water potential has been depicted carbonates has taken place and stream re- conservatively because of the lack of detailed charge is available. Fifty-gpm wells are more studies. Most of the area of good potential common in most of the area (Table 3-13). aquifers is within the Adirondack Forest Pre- Chemical quality of this carbon ate-aquifer serve. water is fair to poor, as shown in Table 3-14. Many of the aquifers in unconsolidated sed- Saline water, high in chlorides or sulfates, is a iments receive recharge directly from precipi- problem in the eastern part of the basin, tation. Runoff from the till-covered mountains where it is present at shallow depth (Figure adds appreciably to the recharge. The highest 3-57). Saline water is present elsewhere, but precipitation in the State occurs in River at greater depths. Salinity of the aquifer is Basin Group 5.3, approximately half of it in the caused by upward circulation of water form of snow. This heavy snowfall in most up- through underlying salt beds. The water is land areas contributes extensive recharge to very hard. the unconsolidated aquifers. In contrast, be- Silurian shales (Salina Group) underlying cause the lowland areas receive only half as the above-mentioned carbonate rocks are ex- 64 Appendix 3 posed along the south edge of the Ontario low- yields of 200 g:pm are common. Chemical qual- lands (Figures 3-55 and 3-57). These are of ity of this water is good but hard (Table 3-14). local significance as major aquifers in the Os- Saline water occurs at shallow depth locally in wego basin. Wells yielding as much as 1,000 the Black River valley, and more commonly in gpm have been reported (Table 3-13) where the St. Lawrence lowland. Saline water gen- gypsum beds in the Camillus shale of the erally is found at greater depth, but is evi- Salina Group have dissolved, and where dently contributing to shallow local saline nearby streams can provide recharge. Well zones (see rej?erences 62 and 70). yields elsewhere generally are less than 50 The lowermost major aquifer occurs in gpm. Chemical quality of the water is gener- sandstones of Cambrian age overlying the ally poor. As shown in Table 3-14, dissolved Precambrian basement rock. This unit ex- solids, hardness, sulfate, and iron content trudes along the northwestern Ranks of the commonly exceed recommended JiMitS.67 Adirondack X[ountains (Figure 3-59). The out- Chloride content increases with depth be- crop area is known to contain fresh water only cause of saline water associated with the salt in the upper ,ones. Elsewhere saline water is beds. present. Well yields are moderate, with 50 gpm Lockport dolomite is the next bedrock yields common in known areas (Table 3-13). aquifer unit. It crops out in a band from Niag- Little is known of ground-water potential in ara Falls through the eastern edge of the St. Lawrence County. Well yields as high as basin (Figures 3-55 and 3-57). This unit forms 450 gpm are reported in the Watertown area, the escarpment for Niagara Falls. Well yields where individual wells draw water from both in the Lockport generally are 50 gpm or less, the OrdoviciEm carbonate and the Cambrian but yields as high as 300 gpm (Table 3-13) are sandstone aquifer systems. Chemical quality available in highly permeable areas adjacent of the water i3 good except for moderate hard- to streams. Extremely permeable zones occur ness (Table 3-14). along the Niagara River where 2,200 gpm yields are reported. The chemical quality of Lockport dolomite water is poor (Table 3-14). 6.4 Ground-Water Potential Fresh water occurs only in the upper zones of the dolomite. It is commonly hard, contains Ground-water potential for the basin was sulfate and sulfide gas, and is increasingly estimated on the basis of stream-discharge saline with depth. data. The data are presented as estimated There are some waterbearing sandstone yield in Table 3-51 from a compilation of units within a series of thick shales of Ordovi- ground-water discharge per square mile cian and Silurian age. These extrude along the shown in Figure 3-60. The estimates are con- south side of Lake Ontario and extend north of servative, representing the annual ground- Oneida Lake (Figures 3-55 and 3-57). water runoff without considering ground Well yields are likely to be less than 10 gpm water in storage. (Table 3-13). The Rochester area has yields up The estimated 4,910 mgd ground-water yield to 600 gpm, but these are rare. Saline water is in the Lake Ontario basin ranks second to the very common in the western part of the Lake Michigan basin in ground-water poten- aquifer, and salinity increases with depth tial. The greatest potential in the Lake On- everywhere. Chemical quality of the water is tario basin is in the Adirondack Mountains, poor (Table 3-14). All but the uppermost units where major ground-water use is unforeseen. generally suffer excessive hardness and min- High-yield areas are related to the presence of eralcontent. sand and gravel deposits in the valley Another carbonate-rock sequence including streams. ThE!se permeable sand and gravel a major aquifer system occurs in the north- deposits, along with high precipitation, pro- eastern part of the basin. These carbonates vide for excellent recharge and storage are of Ordovician age and underlie most of the capabilities. Areas of good ground-water po- Lake Ontario basin. They are exposed only tential do not blanket the regions as it might along the Black River valley and along the St. seem on the map. Only sand and gravel de- Lawrence lowland (Figures 3-57 and 3-59). posits, as outlined in Figures 3-54, 3-56, and Only the mapped outcrop areas are known to 3-58, represent possible aquifer locations. The be productive. Saline water is present potential of these aquifers is additionally en- elsewhere. Wells yield only up to 50 gpm in hanced because most of them are located most of the outcrop area, but near Watertown along streams, so that well development will Lake Onta?io Basin 65 induce stream recharge. Table 3-15 shows sandstone brines at a 2,830-foot depth. The that River Basin Group 5.1 has the least brines are considered the most feasible dis- ground-water potential in the basin. posal area,28 but as LaSala30 has postulated, upward migration of saline water in this gen- eral area and dispersal of contaminants must 6.5 Problems, Needs, and Management be considered. Considerations Increased ground-water development in the Niagara Falls area may cause a decline in in- dividual well yields. Proper well spacing how- 6.5.1 General ever can reduce well interference and prevent excessive drawdowns and loss of yield. In ad- The Lake Ontario basin has extremes in dition, control of well development in saline ground-water availability and chemical qual- water areas is needed to prevent contamina- ity. Problems result because large ground- tion of the shallow freshwater zones. Proper water supplies are found in areas of lesser de- sealing of present and future abandoned wells mand and the poorest quality water is in the encountering saline water will prevent areas of greater need. Management and plan- further contamination. New York currently ning are therefore extremely important in ad- has authorized the filling of abandoned oil- justing supply to needs and in making best use test holes in one area under a special contract. of the total available water. Specific problems The recent water-resources study covers and considerations are discussed according to much of the Genesee River basin area.19 De- river basin group. tailed site studies will be required for any major future use of ground water in the Genesee basin. There is a detailed stud y23 of 6.5.2 River Basin Group 5.1 the western part of the Niagara-Orleans com- plex and a general one 21 of the Rochester area. The moderate ground-water supply of River A recent study begun on the Ontario lowland, Basin Group 5.1 requires careful development including the entire complex, was reduced in to overcome local problems. Poor well yields scope, resulting only in an unpublished sum- occur in areas such as the uplands of the mary of ground-water conditions. A com- southern part of the basin where the glacial prehensive study seems important for this drift is thin, or in the Lake Ontario lowland, complex, particularly because of the indicated where deposits are fine-grained. Most of the low-yield capabilities of the surficial and shale bedrock consists 'of carbonates and shale aquifers. Such a study might be bypassed, be- which are also low-yielding. cause of general indications of poor yield, for Mineralized and hard ground water is pres- specific site studies where development is de- ent at relatively shallow depth almost sired. The proximity of Lake Ontario water is everywhere. Careful, shallow exploration is an asset. needed to obtain fresh water. Poorer quality water generally occurs in the northern part of the basin, as a result of northward movement 6.5.3 River Basin Group 5.2 of ground water through carbonate, salt, and gypsiferous rocks. Salt mining and stockpiling Ground water is generally available operations in the central Genesee River basin throughout River Basin Group 5.2 in quan- result in leaching of saline water to local tities sufficient only for domestic and farm streams and probably also to local ground wa- supplies. Moderate to large supplies for indus- ter. Pollution from oil-field wastes, including try and municipalities are available in limited oil and brines, has occurred in the past in Al- areas of sand and gravel valleys adjacent to legany County and still persists. Hydrogen- streams or lakes. Bedrock aquifers in hy- sulfide gas is a local problem in ground water, draulic contact with streams can also produce especially in the Niagara Falls-Lockport area large quantities of water. where gas is present in the Lockport dolomite Water quality is the greatest ground-water aquifer. The gas can be eliminated from well problem. Over half of River Basin Group 5.2 water by aeration or by the addition of has water containing more than 1,000 mg/l chlorine.23 dissolved solids at depths of less than 500 feet A deep waste disposal well at Niagara Falls (Figure 3-57). Fresh water usually occurs had been planned (Figure 3-55) for disposal of above the saline water in relatively thin chloride and hydrochloric acid in Cambrian zones. The uplands in the south and northeast 66 Appendix 3 have most of the better quality ground water, 6.5.4 River Basin Group 5.3 but these areas are also the poorer yielding. Sand and gravel aquifers in the valleys con- River Basin Group 5.3 is hydrologically un- tain better quality water, but in much of the usual in the (Ireat Lakes Basin because of its lowland areas, ground water is generally contrasts and special features. Many of these hard, containing excess calcium, sulfate, or features concern ground-water resources, but chloride. High-chloride water (saline water) in most are only significant in overall manage- the central part of the area is derived in part ment of the land and related resources of this from ground-water solution of the salt beds. area. Local ground-water contamination has oc- Topographically, the area contains the curred in the area. Wastes entering the shal- highest and lowest altitudes in the Great low bedrock aquifers from septic tanks are the Lakes Basin. Physio graphically, it is part of most general problem. Discharge of treated four major regions and has the Adirondack effluent into streams is affecting stream qual- Mountains and the St. Lawrence Valley as ity, and in turn affecting downstream users dominant fea-,ures. Annual runoff varies more who pump wells adjacent to streams. Con- than other areas in the Great Lakes Basin, tamination from winter road salting is com- from the most (at 55 inches on Tug Hill) to mon and causes deterioration of local supplies nearly the least (less than 10 inches) at the of surface and ground water. mouth of the St. Lawrence. The forested area Three detailed reconnaissance studies on is not proportionately as great as in the Lake ground water cover most of River Basin Group Superior drainage, but nearly half the river 5.2 (see references 7, 8, and 24). A study on the basin group i@3 in forests, most of which are in remaining Ontario lowland area adjacent to the " untouch able" Adirondack Forest Pre- the Oswego River basin is needed to determine serve. Population is the second lowest of the where potable ground water is available. Gen- Great Lakes river basin groups. The area also eral knowledge of the conditions has been ob- contains the greatest milk-producing area tained by an unpublished general reconnais- (Lewis County) in the nation, and part of one of sance study. the most popular vacation lands (Adiron- The poor water quality and low-yield dacks) in the northeast. The area probably has capabilities of the aquifers indicate that a de- the greatest water resources with the lowest tailed study will be needed for ground-water population dEnsity in the entire Great Lakes development. The nearness of Lake Ontario as Basin. a surface-water supply will be a dominant fac- Major ground-water resources generally tor in requirements for large quantities of wa- are not available in the areas where they are ter. Most critical in developing ground-water needed. Within the Black River valley and the supplies in the northern half of the basin will St. Lawrence lowland areas, well yields over be possible deterioration of the chemical qual- 100 gpm are rare. The carbonate and ity of ground water. Heavy pumping can in- sandstone aquifers provide the most reliable duce the poorer quality water from deeper sources for quantities less than 100 gpm, with zones or streams to move toward the wells. the exception of the carbonate aquifers in the Development of large supplies will generally Black River valley. Local sand and gravel be confined to present stream valleys. Con- aquifers along, the Black River have good well sideration of the downstream ground- and yields. Elsewhere, ground water in glacial surface-water users is imperative to insure drift or crystalline bedrock is generally avail- maintenance of water quality and quantity. able only in small quantities, except in the The northeastern upland, Tug Hill Plateau, Adirondack valleys where conditions are rela- has a high water-yielding potential. Ground- tively unknown. Water problems occur during water storage in the shale bedrock is negligi- droughts, especially for the dairy farms in the ble, but some valleys have excellent storage Black River valley. potential in the glacial drift. Precipitation ex- . Chemical quality of the ground water is good ceeds 55 inches on Tug Hill, with about half for the most part, but hard water is prevalent. stored in the annual snowpack. Recharge and The carbonate aquifer contains saline water sustained streamflow potentials are large. at shallow depths in many places in the north- This practically uninhabited and much- ern lowland area, the Black River valley, and reforested area is a valuable asset in manag- locally at Watertown (Figure 3-59). Salinity ing the total water resources of this part of the increases with depth in all areas. Wells should Lake Ontario basin. be drilled without penetrating saltwater Lake Ontario Basin 67 zones, to prevent saltwater contamination of Black River for surface water during low the upper freshwater zones. High-sulfate con- flows. The dairy industry also is seriously tent can also be a problem in the carbonate hampered by water shortages. The drought of aquifer area. Iron problems in the ground the early 1950s illustrated this, when avail- water generally occur in sand and gravel able water sources were not adequate. aquifers. Low streamflow conditions in the Black Ground-water studies in River Basin Group River may be improved by artificial recharge 5.3 have resulted in one detailed study for the of the vast sand plains along the margin of the Massena area.62 A detailed reconnaissance of Adirondack Mountains. Excess runoff from the Black River basin with little emphasis on winter snows could be diverted onto the the Adirondack Mountains portion 70 has been forested, largely unsaturated thick sand completed. The remainder of the area was plains to recharge the ground-water reser- scheduled for a general study, but this was voir. Subsequent increased ground-water curtailed before completion. A study of the oc- seepage to springs and streams would greatly currence of saline-water zones at Watertown increase and sustain the low flow in the Black and the St. Lawrence Valley should be done to River. The hydrologic system created would delineate these zones and facilitate safe de- be much like that of the natural hydrologic velopment of freshwater aquifers. If ground- system on the sand plain northwest of Car- water development is to occur in the Adiron- thage, where seepage from the Black River oc- dack Mountains, detailed geologic mapping curs through the permeable limestone chan- and test drilling of the unconsolidated sedi- nel and enters the sand aquifer. The water- ments will be needed. Bedrock in the moun- table aquifer supplies water to several 250 tains is not capable of large yields. gpm wells and discharges through numerous Development and use of both surface and springs to the north. ground water is a necessity in much of the Forest management can improve existing area, particularly to insure adequate water ground-water resources by providing op- during periodic droughts. Ground-water timum snowpack, runoff, and recharge supplies alone are not adequate to provide for capabilities, especially on the sand plains. municipal, industrial, and dairy needs in this Several communities tap sand-plain springs area. Wood-processing and hydroelectric on forested watersheds. plants compete with communities on the 68 Appendix 3 TABLE 3-13 General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Ontario Basin Maj r aquifers Thick- Well I Well 2 Era System Group Formation ness yields depths Remarks (ft.) (gpm) (ft.) RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.1 New York Cenozoic Quaternary 0-645 50-IOOZ- 10-320 Sand, gravel in valleys. Paleozoic Devonian Conewango 0-520 Shale, sandstone, and conglomerate. Conneaut 0-625 Shale, sandstone, and siltstone. Canadaway 0-1450 Shale, sandstone, and silt- stone. Oil. Java 0-200 < 40 20-350 Shale, sandstone, and siltstone. West Falls 0-1200 Sonyea 0-225 Shale. Gene see 0-175 Shale and limestone. Hamilton 0-600 Shale and limestone. Gas. Onondaga 0-150 50-150 40-300 Limestone. Gas. Silurian Bettie Akron 0-110 Dolomite. Salina -Camillus 1 0-600 1< 50 - 20-250 Shale, dolomite, and salt. V rnon Shale. L:.k".rt 0-300 50-3 3 25-300 11 @arbonateS- Clinton 80-190 50-125 4 10-240 Carbonates, shale, and sandstone. RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.2 New York Cenozoic Quaternary 0@1000 50w2OOO_ 10-325 Sand, gravel in valleys. Paleozoic Devonian Java-West Falls 0-700 Shale, siltstone, and sandstone. Sonvea 0-350 Do. Genesee 0-700 Do. Tully 0-25 50-100 15-325 Limestone. Hamilton 0-1200 Shale, siltstone, and limestone. Onondaga Carbonates. Yields generally Helderberg-Ulste 0-340 50-500 20-275 low. lurian Akron-Cobleskill Bertie rsi Salina Camillus 0-850 Shale, carbonates, gypsum, Vernon 50-1000 30-200 and salt. High yields in north adjacent to streams. Lockport 0-150 50-300 10-210 Dolomite. High yields not common. Clinton 250 Shale, sandstone, and limestone. Albion (Medina) 500 50-600 20-390 Sandstones and shales. High yields not common. Ordovician Oswego Lorraine 800 Shales. Low yields. Gas. Tr nton- Utica I Shale. Black River 50 Limestones. [125+ -200 IOO-f5 ash water on y in Jefferson County. Gas to South. 1Range is that of typical high-capacity wells. 2Range is that of all wells. 3Upper part of Lockport yields as much as 2,200 gpm at Niagara Falls. 4Highest yields in upper sandstone of Rochester Shale of Clinton Group. Lake Ontario Basin 69 TABLE 3-13(continued) General Stratigraphy and Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Ontario Basin Major aquifers Thick- Well 1 Well 2 Era System Group Formation ness yields depths Remarks (ft.) (gPm) (ft.) RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.3 New York Cenozoic Quaternary 0-220 50-150 10-100 Sand, gravel in stream valleys. Very little data in most of area. Paleozoic Ordovician Oswego 0-100M Sandstone and siltstone. Minor occurrence. Lorraine 0-800 Shale. Trenton Utica Shale. 0-125+ Carbonates. Saline and gas 50-500 20-300 locally. Black River 0-135 Ogdensburg 0-500 ------?--------------------------- Theresa 0-300 Dolomite and Sandstone. High yields only in Watertown area. Cambrian Potsdam 0-230 50-450 20-300 Sandstone. High yields only in Watertown. Precambrian Metamorphic and igneous. Weathered zones produce high yield. in Watertown area only. 1 Range is that of typical high-capacity wells. 2Range is that of all wells. 70 Appendix 3 TABLE 3-14 Chemical Quality Characteristics of the Major Aquifer Systems in the Lake Ontario Basin Total dissolved Temper- Aquifer system Hardness Sulfate Chloride Iron solids ature Remarks (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (OF) RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.1 New York Quaternary 160-1220 1 2 0.6-990 5-160 0.2-1.3 80-1600 45-53 Increasing mineralization northward. Devonian 55-335 1.4-4.3 8-180 0.6-1.2 160-510 --- (Shale-sandstone) Silurian-Devonian 245-545 45-180 4-90 0.1-0.6 315-745 --- (Carbonates) Silurian 380-1540 65-1150 5-95 o.4-0.19 510-2000 50 Higher iron in Rochester area. (Salina) Silurian 165-800 60-185 5-25 0.02-0.89 330-540 53-54 Hydrogen sulfide common. Saline (Lockport) in lower zones. Ordovician-Silurian4 110-1200 40-135 10-275 0.05-0.85 550 47-53 Saline at depth. (Queenston-Clinton) Pennsylvania Data on Quaternary (lower values) and Devonian aquifers above apply RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.2 5 6 New York Quaternary 200-1000 1-1000 1-300 --- 300-2000 --- Devonian 50-500 1-150 1-125 --- 300-900 --- (Shales) Silurian-Devonian 50-1500 35-1250 3-75 --- 300-2900 --- Syracuse and east has shallowest (Carbonates) saline water. Silurian 250-1600 50-1500 10-350 Highest 300-2000 --- (Salina) Silurian 100-600, 30-350 5-25 --- 300-800 --- (Lockport) Ordovician-Silurian 100-800 20-200 5-300 --- 200-2000 Saline water common. (Shale-sandstone) RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.3 7 New York Quaternary 50-400 50-140 5-200 0,1-5 50-600 42-50 Ordovician 200-500 40-500 2-300 012-1 250-2000 47-50 Saline locally. (Carbonates) Cambrian 250-400 50-100 20-300 0.05-0.20 400-600 47-50 Based on 4 analyses. Salinity (Sandstones) increases with depth. 1Allegany County upper range is only 365. 2Allegany County upper range is only 56. 3Allegany County upper range is only 365. 4Rochester area only. Samples include water from underlying Queenstons not conside:7ed major aquifer in this report. 5No iron data available, all aquifers reportedly have iron-water problems. 6The Ontario lowland generally has saline water at shallow depth. 7Areal coverage poor. Lake Onta?io Basin 71 TABLE 3-15 Estimated Ground-Water Yield from 70 Percent Flow-Duration Data in the Lake Ontario Basin Runoff at Subbasin 70-percent Subbasin State River Basin duration yield totals Group totals (cfsm) (mgd) (mgd) (mgd) RIVER BASIN GROUP 5A New York 530 550 Genesee River 0.30 460 Niagara-Orleans Complex 0.10 70 Pennsylvania 20 Genesee River 0.30 20 RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.2 New York 1,290 1,290 Oswego River 0.20 1,020 1 Salmon River Complex 0.25 260 Wayne-Cayuga Complex 0.01 10 RIVER BASIN GROUP 5.3 New York 3,070 3,070 Black River 0.90 1,170 Perch River Complex 0.01 2 30 Oswegatchie River 0.60 640 Grass-Raquette-St. Regis Complex 0.60 1,230 Lake Basin total 4,910 mgd 1 Estimated available yield from area study (Gilbert and Kammerer, 1970) totals 850 mgd. 2 No flow-duration data available, runoff estimated.. Note: Estimates based on flow-duration data for period of record (generally more than 14 years, and adjusted to 1931-60 period in the Black River basin) at all gaging stations within the subbasin; extrapolations within drainage area and to ungaged areas based on surficial geology. SUMMARY Aquifer parameters are needed to evaluate General the yield of a system, but the amount of poten- tial recharge to that system and the amount of The Great Lakes Basin has a bountiful discharge that can be captured before dis- ground-water supply which has been over- charge are critical data needed to determine looked in some areas and overused in other the potential yield. Recharge evaluation con- areas. Its relationship to surface water has sidering the area of recharge and its precipita- not been fully understood in many cases. An tion, soil characteristics, and water-table con- understanding of the complete hydrologic sys- ditions is needed. However, present data are tem of an area is necessary before extensive not available to make a good evaluation. Data use of one segment, surface water or ground usually lacking are soil permeability and water, is undertaken. For example, dam con- moisture characteristics, the availability of struction can change the conditions of re- recharge from streams, and information charge to the ground-water system; well fields about overlying or underlying formations. constructed near streams can reduce the low Minimum values are usually estimated by streamflow; irrigation can raise the water multiplying the area of recharge by a percent- table and affect the chemical quality of the age of precipitation falling on the area. This ground water; waste disposal can affect must be applied to the area of the aquifer. ground-water and surface-water quality; and Such an estimate does not consider the drainage systems can deplete the ground- amount of water available from storage in the water system. aquifer, usually a very large amount which Based on stream-discharge data, it was con- can be considered a mineable source for a servatively estimated that 26,000 mgd of given length of time. An aquifer can be practi- ground water is available within the Great cally dewatered temporarily and thus add ap- Lakes Basin. Maps such as Figure 3-5, show- preciably to the yield. In addition, dewatering ing ground-water availability, can be based on of an aquifer generally induces greater re- several types of data used. Well yields usually charge from adjacent formations and streams are the most widespread information avail- and also reduces evapotranspiration from the able in ground-water studies. Well data indi- near-surface water table. Determination of cate the potential for an individual well tap- the amount of ground water in storage was not ping an aquifer, but they do not tell a planner attempted, but it should be done to properly how much ground water is available in a given evaluate the resource. area. Aquifer yield per unit area per unit time Very few studies of this nature have been is needed to project a safe development of that made in the Basin. Studies probably can be area. However, data for such a compilation are made only in those areas where ground-water available only from detailed studies of small demands are rapidly increasing, and many areas. Thickness, permeability, potential re- data are available. However, this type of study charge, area and type of discharge, water should be made in any comprehensive evalua- levels, and areal extent of the aquifer are the tion of an area's water resources. Many poten- types of data needed. Thus, most existing re- tially good ground-water systems probably ports on local studies are probably of greatest have been abandoned or bypassed in favor of a value to determine well spacing, rate and surface-water source because of lack of knowl- amount of lowering of water levels, and op- edge about the long-range potential of an timum well yields to permit efficient ground- aquifer. water withdrawal. Quantitative studies of To further refine the water budget of the aquifer parameters and potential stresses on Great Lakes system, a more accurate apprais- the system are needed to evaluate the long- al of the direct ground-water inflow or outflow range potential. to the Lakes is needed. 73 74 Appendix 3 Illinois best potentia'. exists in the St. Joseph and Elk- *hart River basins, where thick deposits of Northeastern Illinois has large ground- outwash sand and gravel are common. water resources. The deep, thick sandstone Elsewhere, r.,loderate to good supplies are aquifers provide a major water supply with available from sand and gravel aquifers well yields commonly high. The overlying within the general glacial drift sequence. Car- dolomite aquifer and the discontinuous sand bonate aquifers in the eastern and western and gravel aquifers are very prolific and can portions of th a basin provide moderate to good provide much more water than is currently supplies. Some limited areas of carbonates are being drawn from them. The deepest sand- present locally, but they are not of sufficient stone aquifer (Mount Simon) islimited in use areal extent to be defined. because of marginal chemical quality and the Water quality is moderately good, but hard economics of deep-well construction and sub- to very hard, calcium carbonate, high iron- sequent pumping costs. content water predominates in the basin. The principal problem is one of heavy pump- High sulfate content generally is present in age in small areas. The sandstone-aquifer sys- water from carbonate aquifers in the eastern tem is beingmined as pumpage locally exceeds part of the area. Dissolved solids content recharge .51 Because new or expanding indus- commonly exceeds 1,000 mg/l. Deeper bedrock trial use makes greater demands on the aquifers in the northern part of the area, cap- ground-water resource, management might ped by shale of Devonian and Mississippian consider directing new development toward age, contain brackish to saline waters at mod- areas of greater or little-used water sources. erately shallow depths (300-600 feet). These Shoreline areas may have to rely almost en- sources are not used, but are overlain by more tirely on Lake Michigan water to reduce the prolific sand and gravel aquifers of the glacial overdraft on the deep aquifers, or use surplus sequence. The deep Ordovician and Cambrian Lake Michigan water, possibly during the bedrock aquifers present in Illinois become winter months. Improvements in pollution less permeable and more saline in Indiana and control are needed where surface waters re- are not generally used. charge, or potentially recharge, the aquifers. Unconsolidated aquifers, both surficial and Illinois has made excellent studies of its buried, lend themselves well to artificial and water resources and their uses for the future. induced recharge. Because of the potential of These studies have proven the value of these deposits for replenishment and their water-data collection over the years and have vulnerability to pollution, the aquifers must indicated the need for improved collection. be protected. Constant surveillance will be re- Deep-well disposal has been considered unde- quired. sirable in this region. They have pointed out Deep-well disposal of industrial wastes cur- that pollution control, water reuse, and inter- rently occurs in the northwest part of the basin diversions for municipal supply are area. Some wells are relatively shallow necessary for the existing highly developed (300-400 feet) and an evaluation of the use of northeastern Illinois region, and they suggest these disposal zones versus future water that the development of "new" cities versus needs may bE! required. continuing metropolitan sprawl should be Indiana is just completing a State Water considered. Plan which will outline specific study needs. Study needs include the following items: The basin area presently is fairly well covered (1) a continuing appraisal of the effects of with basic ground-water studies. extensive ground-water withdrawal in the area (2) other solutions to ground water supply Michigan when the limit of pumping lifts is reached (3) quantitative model study to predict the Michigan has large ground-water resources effects of current and proposed stresses on the in most of its area. The better aquifer systems hydrologic system are provided by extensive deposits of thick glacial drift. Bedrock aquifers provide moder- ate supplies in the eastern part of the Upper Indiana Peninsula and in the central and south- central parts of the Lower Peninsula. Indiana has moderate to excellent supplies Water quality probably is the most pressing of ground water in the Great Lakes Basin. The problem in Michigan. Saline water is present Summary 75 in many of the shallow bedrock aquifers of New York eastern Michigan and locally elsewhere. Some of the salinity is due to contamination by in- New York has a wide range in quantity and teraquifer flow from borehole and mining ac- quality of its ground-water resources within tivities, but most is due to upward leakage the Great Lakes Basin. Small yields dominate from the bedrock * aquifers. Poor-yielding throughout the crystalline areas of the aquifers are present in the western part of the Adirondack region and most of the shale and Upper Peninsula where Precambrian bedrock limestone rocks of the remaining area. Moder- is present. Here and in the rest of the Upper ate to high yields are locally available in sand Peninsula good unconsolidated aquifers are and gravel aquifers in stream valleys and scattered and not always near places of de- glacial-outwash sites. Sandstone and lime- mand. stone in the St. Lawrence Valley produce mod- Industrial waste is being injected into at erate yields. Limestone and dolomite aquifers least 21 deep wells in Michigan. Such disposal is in the western area and local sand and gravel now under regulation by Michigan law. Other aquifers along streams throughout the area means of disposal and methods of abandoning offer the best possibilities for large ground- deep test holes are being more carefully con- water supplies. trolled than formerly. Saline water is a problem throughout most Study needs include the following items: of the lowland area south of Lake Ontario. The (1) studies of ground-water potential of the presence of salt beds and saline water within large areas of glacial drift and the bedrock the circulation pattern of the ground-water aquifers of the Lower Peninsula system has led to aquifer contamination. In (2) regional or county appraisals of the St. Lawrence lowland, local occurrence of ground-water resources in the Lower Penin- saline water is attributed to postglacial sula marine inundation. (3) delineation and monitoring of poor Local pollution of shhllow ground water is quality areas to determine their extent and occurring in bedrock areas having a thin drift whether changes are occurring naturally or cover, especially the areas underlain by car- from man's activities bonate rock along the Ontario and St. Law- rence lowlands. One deep disposal well is proposed in the Minnesota Buffalo area. Disposal in brines well below the freshwater aquifer system is being con- The Minnesota part of the Great Lakes sidered. Basin has ground water in small to moderate New York has made detailed studies of most amounts. Mining and wood processing are of the river basin groups in the region. Quan- large users of surface water in the St. Louis titative studies are needed in the more heavily River basin. Most of the remaining area has populated regions to obtain potential yield in- low needs. Sand and gravel and a bedrock unit formation. provide moderate to large supplies in the Specific study needs include a detailed re- Mesabi district. Mining and processing re- connaissance of both the Ontario and the St. quirements on the iron range and industrial Lawrence lowland areas for their ground- development in the Duluth area rely almost water potential. wholly on surface-water supplies. Ground water is high in iron, manganese, siliceous compounds, and hardness. Ohio Pollution of ground water by mining ac- tivities has largely been curbed. Urban waste Ohio has moderate ground-water supplies presents the greatest problems. available in both unconsolidated deposits and Study needs include the following items: bedrock aquifers. The unconsolidated aquifers (1) mapping of the occurrence and extent are more prevalent along the basin boundary. of the glacial drift. Such studies would aid in Carbonate aquifers occur in most of the west- the location of the water-bearing units and the ern half of the area. Sandstone aquifers of less- units controlling ground-water movement. er yield occur in the eastern part. The poorest (2) enlargement of the surface-water gag- ground-water yield area occurs along the ing network to make an adequate evaluation Lake Erie lowland. of the surface waters Quality of ground water is more of a problem 76 Appendix 3 in Ohio than quantity. The ground water gen- eastern Wisconsin and locally in the northern erally is hard to excessively hard and dis- portion. Low-yielding areas of thin glacial solved solids content commonly exceeds recom- drift on Precambrian crystalline rocks com- mended limits. Brackish and hydrogen- monly exist in the northern parts. sulfide-bearing water is present in some The chemical quality also is variable. Wa- aquifers at relatively shallow depths. Salinity ters are of generally excellent quality in the is a greater problem in the shallow bedrock shallow aquifers, and saline at depth in the aquifers of eastern Ohio. eastern bedrock aquifers. Water hardness in- Deep-well disposal of wastes has started in creases from west to east and generally with two known wells in the area. Ohio has recently depth. developed regulations and controls on dis- Most problems other than the poor-yield and posal practices and on the abandonment of saline-water areas are the result of heavy test holes in efforts to prevent deterioration of pumping in the sandstone aquifer. The freshwater aquifers. Milwaukee-Racine area has a steadily lower- Ohio has, along with New York, excellent ing water level from local and Chicago-area areal coverage of ground-water studies. pumping. Artesian pressures in the sandstone Study needs should be directed to the follow- aquifer at Milwaukee have dropped as much ing items: as 400 feet since the first wells were drilled. (1) recharge studies by river basin group or Subsequent recovery of approximately 100 aquifers to determine potential ground-water feet has occur-red as pumpage declined. Areal yields water levels have started declining slightly in (2) detailed studies of the local unconsoli- the City of Green Bay. There was a temporary dated aquifers which offer potential for good- recovery in the 1950s when Lake Michigan quality water water was first used and pumpage require- ments were reduced. Pollution of shallow sand and gravel or Pennsylvania dolomite aquifers is becoming more serious, particularly in the Door Peninsula. Improve- The small part of Pennsylvania that lies ments of waste disposal methods are urgently within the Great Lakes Basin has small to needed. Special provisions for well construc- moderate ground-water supplies. Locally, tion in Door County have been incorporated especially along the Lake Erie shore and in into the well code, and installations of septic some upland valleys, the glacial drift consists tanks are now under strict Statewide regula- of several tens of feet of sand and gravel capa- tions. ble of yielding moderate water supplies. The Wisconsin currently has a law denying per- best potential is in thicker unconsolidated sed- mits for new wells over 70 gpm capacity if they iments adjacent to perennial streams where adversely affect availability of water to any induced recharge is feasible. The shaly bed- public utility's water supply. rock generally is of low yield, high in salt con- Study needs include the following items: tent, and contains some gas. High iron content (1) a comprehensive quantitative study of in unconsolidated aquifer water is a local prob- the long-range potential of the aquifers in the lem. In a few places saline water from the bed- Milwaukee- Raci ne area. Several studies have rock discharges into shallow aquifers. been completed in this area and the general Study needs include the following items: hydrogeologic conditions are known. Coordi- (1) detailed local studies for any moderate nation with Illinois seems imperative to in- to large source of ground water hibit continuous lowering of the deep-aquifer (2) delineation of saltwater zones to permit water level. control of man-made contamination (2) a detailed study of the salinity problem in eastern Wisconsin. The general conditions are known, but the source of salinity in some Wisconsin areas is not. Curtailment of well contamina- tion, if present, and prevention of future con- The area of Wisconsin within the Great tamination should be the goal of such a study. Lakes Basin has extremely variable ground- (3) quantitative appraisal of the lower Fox water supplies. High-yielding areas of sand River basin to determine optimum manage- and gravel, dolomite, or sandstone exist in ment of the ground-water system GLOSSARY artesian water-ground water under sufficient is held in the pore spaces by capillarity. hydrostatic head to rise above the aquifer in Water content decreases upward from com- which it is encountered by a well. Originally, plete saturation near the water table to zero artesian referred to water freely flowing at the top of the capillary fringe. from wells tapping confined aquifers. Tech- nical usage now applies the term to water in cone of depression-a cone-like depression of a confine d-aqui fe r (artesian) system. the water table or the potentiometric sur- face, formed in the vicinity of a pumping or artesian well-a well tapping a confined flowing well. The land surface area included aquifer in which water rises above (artesian within the limits of the cone is known as the pressure) the bottom of the confining layer. area of influence of the well. artificial recharge-addition of water to an confining bed-a formation which, although aquifer, directly or indirectly, by means of porous and capable of absorbing water slow- wells, pits, trenches, or spreading systems. ly, will not transmit it fast enough to furnish an appreciable supply to a well or spring. average annual runoff-average water-year Clay is an example. As most confining beds runoff for the total period of record. (formerly called aquicludes) are leaky, the term aquitard is sometimes used because of base exchange-a chemical reaction where its connotation of retardation rather than clay particle cations may be replaced by ca- prevention of water movement. The term tions in solution, such as sodium replace- confining bed is now preferred in place of ment by calcium, making the clay more floc- both aquiclude and aquitard. culent. Hard ground water supplying the ca- tions may be softened by this process. disposal well-a well drilled or used for dis- posal of brines or other fluids in order to base flow-see base runoff. Base flow is often prevent contamination of the surface by used in the same sense as base runoff. such wastes. base runoff-sustained or fair-weather runoff. drawdown-the difference between water In most streams, base runoff is composed level before pumping began and water level largely of ground-water effluent. When the during pumping. terms base flow and base runoff are applied to natural flow in a stream, base runoff is the logical term. esker-a long, narrow ridge of sand and gravel confined to what once was the bed of a basement-rock complex, generally of igneous stream flowing beneath or in the ice of a and metamorphic rocks, overlain by uncon- glacier, and which has been preserved since formable sedimentary strata. the ice melted. bedrock-any solid rock exposed at the surface evapotranspiration-the process of returning or overlain by unconsolidated material. water to the atmosphere through both di- rect evaporation and transpiration of vege- brackish water-a qualitative term for that tation. water having a mineral content between that of fresh water and sea water. flow-duration curve-a cumulative frequency curve showing the percent of time during capillary fringe-the suspended water zone di- which specified discharges were equaled rectly above the water table in which water or exceeded in a given period. 77 78 Appendix 3 glacial drift-any rock material transported moraine-an E.ccumulation of glacial drift hav- by a glacier and deposited by or from the ice ing initial constructional topography, built or by or in water derived from melting ice. by the direct action of glacier ice. ground-water runoff-that part of stream outcrop-the exposure of a stratum at the sur- runoff derived from -ground-water seepage; face of the ground. On an areal geology map natural ground-water discharge. a formation is shown as an area or outcrop even if it is covered by surficial deposits. ground-water storage coefficient-the volume Subcrop is sometimes used for this latter of water released from or taken into storage connotation. in an aquifer per unit surface area of the aquifer, per unit change in the component of potentiometric surface-the static head or head perpendicular to that surface. In un- water level. In an aquifer, it is the level to confined aquifers it corresponds to the which water will rise in tightly eased wells. specific yield. The water table and artesian level are examples. This term replaces the term high-capacity well-for purposes of this report, piezometric. a well capable of yielding more than 50 gpm, usable for light industrial and small munici- saline water-that water containing dissolved pal needs. solids in concentrations exceeding 1,000 mil- ligrams per liter. induced recharge-increased ground-water recharge from surface-water sources by soil-in pedolagy, that earth material which pumping nearby wells. has been so modified that it will support rooted plants. In engineering geology, all kame-a conical hill or short irregular ridge of unconsolidated material above the consoli- sand or gravel deposited in contact with dated rock, regardless of its origin. glacier ice. specific capacity (well)-the yield of a well per karst topography-irregular topography unit of dramrdown after a specified period of formed over limestone that has been hon- pumping, generally expressed as gallons- eycombed by solution activity creating sinks per-minute (gpm)-per-foot of drawdown. and caverns. Disappearing and emerging specific yield-the ratio of the volume of water streams are common. a saturated rock will yield by gravity to its kettle-a depression in glacial drift, made by own volume. the wasting away of glacial ice that had been surficial depo sits-uncon solid ate d sediments either wholly or partly buried in the drift. lying on the bedrock, consisting of residual, lacustrine deposits-material deposited in a alluvial, eolian, lacustrine, or glacial de- lake environment. posits. till-nonsorted, nonstratified sediment car- leaching-the process by which soluble sub- ried or deposited by a glacier. stances, such as organic and mineral salts, are dissolved out of soil or rock by percolat- transpiration-the process by which water ing water. vapor escapes from a living plant and enters the atmosphere. lignin-an organic substance of many plants. It contributes to the dark coloring of surface water table-the upper surface of a zone of waters draining areas of decaying vegeta- saturation except where that surface is tion. formed by an impermeable body. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS cfs-cubic feet per second, a standard unit of gpm-gallons per minute measurement of a stream discharge mgd-million gallons per day cfsm-cubic feet per second per square mile of drainage area mg/1-milligrams per liter 79 LIST OF REFERENCES 1. Allen, W. B., Miller, J. B., and Wood, W. Supply Paper 1691, U.S. Government W., "Availability of Water in Kalamazoo Printing Office, 1963. County, Michigan," U.S. Geological Sur- vey Water-Supply Paper 1973, U.S. Gov- 10. Doonan, C. J., and Hendrickson, G. E., ernment Printing Office, 1972. "Ground Water in Baraga County, Michigan," Michigan Geological Survey 2. Bean, E. F., "Geologic Map of Wisconsin," Water Investigation, in press. Wisconsin Geological and Natural His- tory Survey, 1949. 11. Drescher, W. 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"The Water Re- New York State Commission on Northwestern sources of Southeastern Michigan," Michigan New York Water Supply, "A Report on Inves- Water Resources Commission, 1968. tigation of Water-Supply Sources in Wayne, Ontario, Yates, Schuyler, and Seneca Coun- "Water Resource ties for State Commission on Northwestern Conditions and Uses in the Lower Grand River New York Water Supply," Report of Board of Basin," Michigan Water Resources Commis- Consulting Engineers, 1949. sion, 1968. New York State Department of Health, "Pub- "The Water Re- lic Water Supply Data," New York Bureau of sources of the Northern Lake Michigan and Environmental Sanitation Bulletin 19, 1960. Lake Huron Drainage Area, Lower Peninsula, Newport, T. G., "Geology and Ground-Water Michigan," Michigan Water Resources Com- Resources of Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin," mission, 1968. 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T., "Ground-Water Resources of the Lansing Area, Michigan," Michigan Geologi- Rosenshein, J. S., and Hunn, J. D., "Geohydrol- cal Survey Progress Report 13, 1945. ogy and tround-Water Potential of Lake County, Indiana," Division of Water Bulletin Stuart, W. T., Brown, E. A., and Rhodehamel, 31, Indiana Department of Natural Re- E. C., "Ground-Water Investigations of the sources,1968. Marquette Iron-Mining District, Michigan," Michigan Geological Survey Technical Report Rosenshein, J. S., and Hunn, J. D., "Geohy- 3, 1954. drology and Ground-Water Potential of Porter and La Porte Counties, Indiana," Division of Stuart, W. T., and Stallman, R. W., "Ground- Water Bulletin 32, Indiana Department of Water Resources of the Benton Harbor Area, Natural Resources, 1968. Michigan," M:chigan Geological Survey Prog- ress Report 12, 1945. Schicht, R. J., and Moench, A. F., "Future De- mands on Ground Water in Northeastern Il- Stuart, W. T., Theis, C. V., and Stanley, G. M., Bibliography 91 "Ground-Water Problems in the Iron River Vanlier, K. E., "Reconnaissance of the District, Michigan," Michigan Geological Sur- Ground-Water Resources of Luce County, vey Technical Report 2, 1948. Michigan," Michigan Geological Survey Prog- ress Report 21, 1959. Summers, W. K., "Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Waushara County, Wisconsin," "Summary of U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper Ground-Water Investigations in the Elsie 1809-B, U.S. Government Printing Office, Area, Michigan," Michigan Geological Survey 1965. Progress Report 25, 1962. Terwilliger, F. N., "The Glacial Geology and , "Ground Water in Ground-Water Resources of Van Buren Coun- sources of the Alma Area, Michigan," U.S. ty, Michigan," in Occasional Papers for 1954 Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper on the Geology of Michigan, Pt. 1, Michigan 1619-E, U.S. Government Printing Office, Geological Survey Publication 48, pp. 1-95, 1963. 1954. 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C., "The Geog- Michigan Geological Survey Water Investiga- raphy and Geology of Erie County, Pennsyl- tion Report 4, 1966. vania," Pennsylvania Geological Survey, 4th Vanlier, K. E., and Deutsch, Morris, "Recon- Series, Inf. Circ. 56, 1967. naissance of the Ground-Water Resources of Twenter, F. R., "General Availability and Chippewa County, Michigan," Michigan Quality of Ground Water in the Bedrock De- Geological Survey Progress Report 17, 1958. posits in Michigan," Michigan Water Re- , "Reconnaissance of sources Commission plate I (map), 1966. the Ground-Water Resources of Mackinac County, Michigan," Michigan Geological Sur- U.S. Geological Survey, "Productive Aquifers vey Progress Report 19, 1958. and Withdrawals from Wells," U.S. Geologi- cal Survey National Atlas, Sheet 126, map, Vanlier, K. E., and Wheeler, M. L., "Ground- 1967. Water Potential of the Saginaw Formation in the Lansing Metropolitan Area, Michigan," (U.S.) New England-New York Inter-Agency U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, Committee, The Resources of the New 1968. England-New York Region, Pt. 2 (individual chapters on major basins), Boston, Mas- Walenta, T. R., "Some Legal Problems Con- sachusetts, New England-New York Inter- cerning Ground Water Management," Ameri- Agency Committee, 1955. can Water Resources Association, San Fran- cisco Symposium Proceedings, Series 4, Nov. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's 1967. Water Resources, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1968. Walker, W. R., and Stewart, R. C., "Deep-Well 92 Appendix 3 Disposal of Wastes," in American Society of Winslow, J. D., and White, G. W., "Geology and Civil Engineers Proceedings, v. 94, no. SA5, Ground-Water Resources of Portage County, Pap. 6171, pp. 945-968, Oct. 1968. Ohio," U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 511, 1966. Walton, W. C., and Csallany, Sandor, "Yields of Deep Sandstone Wells in Northern Illinois," Winslow, J. D., White, G. W., and Webber, E. E., Illinois Water Survey Report of Investigation "The Water Resources of Cuyahoga County, 43, 1962. Ohio," Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Water Bulletin 26, 1963. Watkins, F. A., Jr., and Ward, P. E., "Ground- Water Resources of Adams County, Indiana," Wisconsin Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, Division of Water Resources Bulletin 9, In- "Public Water Supplies of Wisconsin," Wis- diana Department of Conservation, 1962. consin Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, 1935. Weidman, Samuel, and Schultz, A. R., "The Wisler, C. 0., Stramel, G. J., Laird, L. B., "Wa- Underground and Surface Water Supplies of ter Resource:3 of the Detroit Area, Michigan," Wisconsin," Wisconsin Geological and Natural U.S. Geological Survey Circular 183, 1952. History Survey Bulletin, 35, 1915. Weist, W. G., Jr., and Giese, G. L., "Wat er Re- Wood, W. W., "Chemical Quality of Michigan sources of the Central New York Region," Streams," U.S. Geological Survey Circular New York State Water Resources Commission 634, 1970. Bulletin 64, 1969. Young, K. B., "Flow Characteristics of Wis- White, M. D., "Reasonable State Regulation of consin Streams," U.S. Geological Survey the Interstate Transfer of Percolating Wa- Open-File Report, 1963. ter," Natural Resources Lawyer, v. 2, no. 4, pp. "Supplement to Re- 383-406, Nov. 1969. port on Flow Characteristics of Wisconsin Wiitala, S. W., Newport, T. G., and Skinner, E. Streams," U.S. Geological Survey Open-File L., "Water Resources of the Marquette Iron Report, 1965. Range Area, Michigan," U.S. Geological Sur- vey Water-Supply Paper 1842, U.S. Govern- Zanoni, A. E., "Ground Water Pollution from ment Printing Office, 1967. Sanitary Landfills and Refuse Dump Grounds-A Critical Review," Wisconsin De- Wiitala, S. W., Vanlier, K. E., and Kreiger, R. partment of Natural Resources Research Re- A., "Water Resources of the Flint Area, Michi- port 69, 1971. gan," U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1499-E, U.S. Government Printing Of- Zeizel, A. J., "The Hydrogeologist's fice, 1963. Responsibility-Metropolitan Water Re- source Planning," Transactions of the Ameri- Willman, H. B., and others, "Geologic Map of can Geophysi:ml Union, v. 49, no. 3, pp. 543- Illinois," Illinois Geological Survey, 1967. 547, Mar. 1968. t2l EXPLA@ Great Lakes boun S Subb cl MINNESOTA Subbasin /Zhg 'I. Mt X SUPERIOR LAKE Physiographi '7 5,.v S ONTARIO MICHI N-'--1 St Mary. Ri- olp'] ------J'It" I M-.,- R- --- Oq 41 -1 WIS. Al 0 k, GEORGIA CIA BAY w 13 IL I 3 LAKE HURON Wig N Lal. St- " R A- X, G 0 7 LAKE ONTARIO HIG CA"A _ - - RA S fE7D STATES 0. S", Ri Rz.- St. Clair Rim, WISCONSIN V-1 -,,!EW4 YOk St. Clair AMCH*AN,'-- -S, ICH ILLINOIS j 1z I N D I A N A 0 H 10 018, Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission x p EXPLA Nipig- L ke Great Lakes bou Sub Subbasi MINNESOTA 0& LAKE SUPERIOR 0 0 0 M - - - - - - - CAP, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- M P - - - - - - - - wisi GEORGIAN BAY EXPLANATION 13 0 14. STRATIFIED DRIFT LAKE HURON WI'C V Silt and clay oNTAR Gh,cwt 1(,k, dt,p-it, V CANA_VA ITEb STATES Sand and gravel 00--hawf0lui,ial dep-its; ,NP1,I, i7ldi((1tes we-covfact de7x"it' WISCONSIN UNSTRATIFIED DRIFT Till ILLINOIS A,' it- ("'d end n"'twine, k/. """I'tw", ifl fied,wc .... .. ..... .... t'j z I N D I A N A 0 H 10 U.S.A. adapted I Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission z Canada adapted 44 L Nil I" L On L Afichiw J Adapt (0 GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECT A. NOT TO MAP SCALE _4 C% A, @n, MINNESOTA --p Great La LAKE SUPERIOR N "J, J1 ONtIARP Sub -1z (V tAOMI EXPLANATION 4a; Cretaceous LAKEfURON W) ON Pennsylvanian TARIO 'T Mississippian 17"1 Devonian 4i Fz/ WIS Silurian U040@5 Ordovician ILLINOIS 112 INDIANA 0 H to Precarnbrian Ad Base by Gceat Lakes BaSM Commission (71 IMI Mineral 300- face Co Q4 Dis mil ID 4 MINNESOTA O'A LAKE SUPERIOR ONTARIO Gre ------ - M CHIPAN---- St. Marys Riar, Z" Masotti- Ri W% cc) is 00 Ikt GEORGIAN Lat. DAY 13 I is LAKE HURON A. w1iCON It 1A 11 wi-io LARP, @Z4 r-> Nmg- -------- I tto St. Clair R- E ILLINOIS St. Clair Was, MCHIGAN,' ILLINOIS OHIO 1, m I N D I A N A 0 H 10 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission EXPLANA Ground-water yield has runoff at 70-percent flo In millions of gallons per day per square mile Less than 0.10 W 0.11-0.25 zlsoi7 MINNESOTA A LAKE SUPERIOR"", Z=D 0.26-0.50 F 0 More than 0.5 ONTARIO -------- Great Lakes Ba St. M.,y, Ri-, bounda 0'@ Subbas IVIS. v- It CEORGIAN BAY --Subba in n LAKE HURON wl@ LAKE UNITED STATES A Rit (71 St. Mir Riw WISCONSIN E Lk, W1,40s ....... St. cituir X, NEW tAt S MICHI R IAN q Y I@-C@-OBA URO, ILLINOIS Z e-t& STATUTE M I N D I A N A 0H 10 0 20 40 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 98 Appendix 3 Lake Superior E :1 Lake Michigan U) LEGEND 0 Lake Huron 0 < _j 0 _j Lake Erie Uj W 3: Unconsolidated- Uj sediments Lake Ontario E:IW PA aquifer z C@ Bedrock z E aquifer 0 (n Lake Superior 0 kee area _j 0 7-T7771 T_ Lake Michigan IEEE Chicago area Z (L Uj 2 Lake Huron River Basin Group 3.2 area CL ::) a- 11 111111- - 11 1 1 1., 1 _j Lake Erie -7771 z Lake Ontario z 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 COST, IN THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS Assumptions: 1. Number of wells needed to produce 1 mgd is based on 60 percent of the maximum yield range for typical high-capacity wells. 2. A test well is needed for each production well in unconsolidated and carbonate aquifers. 3. Well depths are based on 75 percent of the maximum well depth of the range for all wells. 4. Pump costs are based on using 70 percent of the available drawdown with the pump intake 10 feet off the bottom of the well or the top of the screen. 5. Pumping costs are based on 50 percent wire-to-water efficiency, electric power at 2 cents per kWh, and continuous pumping with lift at 70 percent of available drawdown. (See text explana- tion.) 6. Transmission-line costs from well house to distribution system are not included (the 1970 totals are estimated at $11.00 per foot of 10-inch line). 7. Operation and maintenance costs are not included, but they are usually estimated at 2 percent of capital costs. FIGURE 3-6 Costs of Producing Ground Water in the Great Lakes Basin EXPLANA Area not covered by report A 0 0-4 or covered only by state- wide summary report CL UJ Area covered by general- CANA- reconnaissance report EM Area covered by detailed- 5 reconnaissance report NEWYORK ILLINOIS 1114.1AINA' ..I. PENN$YL-A VICINITY MAP OF THE DRAINAGE BASINS OF THE GREAT LAKES 0 N T PA R 0 14. . ....... .... Gq 1,7 c3 14. WISCONSI M Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission SCALE IN MILES 2@@ 40 50 100 Appendix 3 EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED VICINITY MAP SEDIMENT AT SURFACE SCALEIN MILES Typical ranges of unsustained 0 WIM yields from 6-inch or larger j =,-:: , diameter wells Moraines Till Uss than 10 gpm got Till plain Till and bedrock 1 -100 gpm. 0 Lake deposits 4@ Sand, silt, and clay 100-500 gpm Outwash and alluvium More than 500 gpm Sand and gmvel rand Marais Observation well Babbitt ChisholW@ 1qL q SilVer Bay ............. .............. .......... ....... S ... ......................... ...... V4 ....... Two Harbors Fl. -61 s Ile( C% 2!4: ..r 4 n.ood zig) P A4/CHIGAV 4 :0 a-23caa DEPTH 51 FEET 0 0,25 W Ds-1 DEPTH 40 FEET W 10 Ul < 15 /All W 30 1950 1955 1%0 1965 1970 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPHS SCALE IN MILES Geology adapted from: Leverett, 1929; '77L '7L 711 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Thwaites, 19515; and Geol. Soc. Am., 1959 0 5 11. . 20 25 FIGURE 3-8 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments ii,.i River Basin Group 1.1 Appendix 3 101 VICINITY MAP @ALE IN MILES o" Marais rdn Babbitt Chislrolrro-e!@@"-' 0 er 7; Vol 0 P ilver Bay V- C3 o'I V C? s > Its nwood > 4> V < MICH'GAIV Z Ln + S& EXPLANATION Zone where aquifer has water Observation well containing over 1,000 mg/I dissolved solids GEOLOGIC UNITS F -o -o---o @ 1- .'0 1 M Cretaceous Precambrian SCALEIN MILES Conlomerates Intrusives P-4 F-111@71-111-1 0 5 10 15 20 25 Precambrian (Keweenawan) Precambrian (Animike) Voleanics Mistamorphics Geology adapted from: Sims, 1970 and Dutton and Bradley, 1970 Precambrian (Keweenawan) Precambr' ian Salinity in Minnesota from Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Sandstones Goraite. Feth and others, 1965 FIGURE3-9 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 1.1 102 Appendix 3 ISLE ROYALE S IAKE SUPERIOR Ontonagon Marquette lshpe EXPLANATION NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT AT SURFACE F Moraines Till plain Lake deposits Outwash and alluvium Till Till and bedrock Sand, silt, and clay Sand and gravel LAKE SUPERIOR V. 'S @@' ls@"'. 1@rb uItAe. Marie WHITEF1 'A ss@( BAY ng ..... V EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILASILITY Typical ranges of unsustained yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells VICINI"rY MAP SCAIE.. IAILIE@ Ch-24dada DEPTH 54 FEET 8 @-o i;o Less than 10 gpm 20 Lu ow 10-100 gpm 3: 0 25 Lid W L 100-500 gpm 39- 1950 15 960 1965 Observation well HYDROGRAPH Geology adapted from Geol. Soc. Am., 1959 SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Well yields adapted from Twenter, 1966 n @'M. 20 25 FIGURE 3-10 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 1.2 Appendix 3 103 + + ISLE ROYALE a LAKE SUPERIOR @xi%: Ontonago v.:' + + 4- + + + + + Marquette + + + + ++ lshpe\ ng+0_ + +* + + + I mitood + + . . . -8bd DEPTH 100 FEET + e I. . . . . . . . . + + + + + + + + ud " '0 + WC 0 07�; 0*/I@A@@+ < 12 Z' +) 3: 0 14 Salinity in part from Geology adapted from F t u.1 16 Kelley, 1968 e h and others, 1965 w 18 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH A' LAKE SUPERIOR ...... . .... @!:@77 79::' Sault a. Marie :4 WHITEFISH SAY :M ng lacial drift A' A EXPLANATION GENERALIZED F-'.- _7 GEOLOGIC SECTION Zone where aquifer has water Observation well containing over 1,000 mg/1 dissolved solids VICINITY MAP @LE IN MILES GEOLOGIC UNITS Ordovician-Silurian Precambrian Carbonates Sandstones Precambrian Cambrian-Ordovician UndVferentiated Sandstones r------ I L@j Precambrian-Cambrian SCALEIN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission SanItstoms ri X22275 20 25 IS11 ROIAl FIGURE3-11 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 1.2 Ground-w runoff at 0 In millions e+ gallons Pe 'A N Per 3quar n Less tha co 2 0.11 o"o 0.26 VICINITY MAP OFTHE PI More than z DRAINAQE BASINS OF THE QREAT LAKES 'Y GO 0 ix fqA R" /I (2 BLACK WHITE X Ar, 4tt VL I@F@o N, N, ARAIS mo MILES =zr M Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 10 20 30 40 50 Appendix 3 105 MINNESOTA wlswNvN G) 5 NEViYORK 4 ILLINOIS I I PENNSYLVANIA IINDIANA OHIO VICINITY MAP EXPLANATION 0 Area not covered by report or covered only by state- wide summary report __j Area covered by general- reconnaissance report Area covered by detailed- :2-L reconnaissance report Area covered by comprehensive report Lake basin boundary I C H I A N River Basin Group boundary 2-4 River Basin Group No. o .1-GAN o. U: I N D I A N A I PN..VIVANIA ILLINOIS 4"IN..M. OHIO SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission @@o 40 5D FIGURE3-13 Map of the Lake Michigan Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports 106 Appendix 3 EXPLANATION S- VICINITY MAP GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY SCAI E IN MILES Typical ranges of unsustained 0 wim yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells I-E Less than 10 gpm 100-5w gpm 10- 100 gpm More than 500 gp Mt-7 DEPTH 33 FEET 18 Ox 20 P 22 Observation well 24 26 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH f Anti 3n Bay C." EXPLANATION NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED o Rivers SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Moraines Lake deposits Till Sand, silt, and clay Sheboygari Till plain Outwash and alluvium I, owaupu Till and bedrYick Sand ad grawl Pt-15 DEPTH 52 FEET 32 01 uj 34- Geology ada MILES @U' 3: 38 and Geol. Soc Ain 1959 F- 36 pted frorr. Thaifes, 1956. SCALE IN 40 Well yields adapted from: T.enter, 1966; :n 17n 20 25 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Olcol 1968, Sk,nner and Borman (in press) Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission HYDROGRAPH and Oakes and I- amilton (in presz@ FIGURE 3-14 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.1 Appendix 3 107 a- VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES 45 160 -'j Paint Iron River A Glacial drift -@j River AI/C,,, pir. SRi-r S//V GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC .Norwa SECTION POPPIO 9:0 ron Mounts 0 Kingsfordo Esca aba* Cedar Ri'ar M N Antigo Men I as s Mari ette Oconto Shawa Shawano Lake tu on Bay no Emb., J01 EXPLANATION in,.nvilleo z C., reen Bay Aquifer D ere Kewaunee Waupaca New London A leton Kau na Zone where aquifer is mena5h confined by overlying bedrock Neenah* k. Pyg.. Two Rivers Berlin Oshkosh C hilton it Zone where aquifer has water td* containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids ORipon Green, Lake Fond du Lac Sb*0 Q Sheb.y&.. Observation well owau un Ports a FI-30 DEPTH 135 FEET 0 4 6 < 8 SCALE IN MILES 10- faa" 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 1955 1960 1965 1970 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission HYDROGRAPH Geology from Bean, 1949 FIGURE 3-15 The Silurian (Niagara) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.1 108 Appendix 3 A Glacial drift VICINITY MAP Y. SCALE IN MILES . . . . . . . GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION ...... "j paint 'flron River ke Michigmme De-28ac DEPTH 530 FEET -4 0 Af/CN/ W 2 3 W C 4 pi., Rii S//V 1W 5 N 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH 0 . . . . . . . . . . . poppl. ron Mounta Kingsford . . . . . . . . . . A. . . . . . . . . . . . Ap Antigo s on Bay EM lintonville0 EXPLANATION Aquifer .......... Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying Two Rivern bedrock 4 Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 Mg/1 dissolved solids Sheboygdn 4@ UP.%.\ Observation well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bn-51 DEPTH 800 FEET Geology from Bean, 0 X 80 1949 and Kelley, 1968 LU 100 W 120 LIE ES W _IN MIL 140 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 0 5 10 15 20 25 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission HYDROGRAPH FIGURE 3-16 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.1 Appendix 3 109 VICINITY MAP c4_. M"'s 0 W1 41 Port Washington 0 Hartford r EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY Typical ranges of ungustained yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells Milwau Uss than 10 gpm MI-135 DEPTH 20 FEET 8 South Mil.aukee 10-100 gpm 0,10 @_w t- t- 12 W -C 14. Dii optirluej 100-5w gpm 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH Racine N More than 500 gpm Kenosha a Observation well WISCONSIN ILLINOIS Zion NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED r- SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Waukegan Moraines Lake Forest Till Highland Park Till plain Till and bedrock Lake deposits Sand, silt, and clay _j -1a _j 010utwasb nd alluvium Chicago 7- Sand and gravel C. *La Porte Joliet araiso I t Lk-4 DEPTH 82 FEET 12 0 14 t- W -C W3:18 1955 1960 1965 1970 lGeology adapted from: Thwaites, 1956; HYDROGRAPH Wayne, 1958; and Geol. Soc. Am., 1959 SCALE IN MILES 'Or" Well yields adapted from: Michigan-Twenter, 1966@ F- 0 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission W isconsin-Skinner and Borman (in press) 0 5 to 15 20 FIGURE 3-17 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.2 110 Appendix 3 VICINITY MAP 0 IN .11"s .............. o" Port Washington 0 Hairtf . .. . ...... ............. @1111111111111111111 .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXPLANATION lacial drift A Milwau ee, @ Aquifer Waukesha A' A South Milwaukee GENERALIZED Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying GEOLOGIC bedrock SECTION Racine N Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 Mg/l Ilen.sha WE dissolved solids s WISCONSIN -1 L__L NF61 S'_ Zion Observation well Waukegan 650 Lake Forest 6 Highland Park Waste-disposal well Namber indicates injection depth, in feet Chicago 7- 295 650 CWj u 72 Ke-4 DEPTH 190 FEET u gLa Porte 0, 76 J let 80 u < 84 .1 3: Chicago Heights W 88 1 araiso 92 1970 z ,,.,,,Cr i _1-1 1950 1955 1960 1965 ni HYDROGRAPH a J:z Geology from Bean, 1949; Cok-19.6f DEPTH 401 FEET Kelley, 1968; Patton, 1956; 140 and Suter, et. al., 1959 0 J" W @- 220 (Estimated) W < W @@ 260 u_ 300 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 SCALE IN MILES HYDROGRAPH Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-18 TheSilurian Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.2 Appendix 3 111 VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES A' lacial drift ........................... Fort Washington ........... A EXPLANATION GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION Aquifer Milwauk WaukeshaP Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying ith Milwaukee bedrock Zone where aquifer has water Racine containing over 1,000 Mg/l Elkhorn N dissolved solids Kenosha [email protected] for 1,500 mgll) (From Bergstrom, 1968) WISCONSIN B Glacial drift ILLINOIS Zion Observation well Waukegan 4300 LIVe Forest 6 Waste-disposal well Highland Park Number indicates iidection depth, in feet GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION @ Elgin Aurora C./ 00 430R 4304 &LIS Porte let Chicel araiso im SCALE IN MILES L Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-19 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.2 112 Appendix 8 VICINMf MAP SME IN MI ES We end lot Part Washington Hartford Cadarbu DEPTH 1176 FEET 120 Land eiev.- et 140 730 te .A01 160 ilwaluk U.1 ISO 01' ,' W uke a U. 200 South Milaukee 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH to. EXPLANATION Racine horn Kenosha Principal recharge area 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Wf CONSI Ground-water divide ILUNO 0 Zion oHarv d Western edge of Maquoketa shale cat Wau@egla 400 GonWur interval 100 feet 0.1.; arengo 0 rysrW L a ahe forest OftfiAra is 7neart sea 2evRi Hightand Park Observation well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . int aleso ic I A 4, 1 1A ra @M' 700' Chicago Center 100 Hei 200' SEA LEVEL '@' r.-n P.t 80011 L :z 3g6o 1900 1940 1980 2020 ACTUAL AND PROJECTED WATER-LEVFt DECLINE AT CHICA130 (From Waiton, 1%4@ SCALE IN MILES dimms data basd an Sasman, 19?0. Base by Grvat L@ikes Saain Commissfon -tten 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-20 Potentiometric Surface of the Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System, 1969, in the Chicago-Milwaukee Area Appendix 3 113 CI-16cld DEPTH 23 FEET 15 EXPLANATION 0 a: NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED 17 SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Lu W@ 19 - 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Moraines HYDROGRAPH Till Till plain Till and bedrock Grand Havew Owosso Lake deposits Corunna Sand, silt, and clay nd Outwash and alluvium 4 Sand and gravel South Center St. Joseph Is 4, MICHIGAN 'X la Ca-17ba DEPTH 28 FEET 46,11. EXPLANATION 48 GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY W 3: 50 Typical ranges of unSUStained 0 52 yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells W 54 561 . . . . Less than 10 gpm 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH M 10-100 gpm VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES 0 WIM 100-500 gpm More than 500 gpm Geology adapted from: Geol. Soc. Am., 1959; Observation well and Wayne, 1958 SCALE IN MILES Michigan well yields 0-4 0-4 "M Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission from T.enter, 1966 6 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-21 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated SediMents in River Basin Group 2.3 114 Appendix 3 In-gbd DEPTH 401 FEET 20 W 1.- 60 0100 uJ 140 W 180 X-- - 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH ee Grand Haven G,.,d W81 ker Owosso 0 p A. C orunna A@ owe d udsonville o @Ze land Holland n He ing T . .. ... 77" Go. Lak. Ch w+r ac Ots min ell 0 South Haven 0 @ver Battle Creek all Pa. K'ver amazoo a Center Paw a. Paw Albion -ortage st. j.S 0 Benton Harbor epn cv.. Dow ac hree Rivers Cold ider 0 Hills ale Buchzn@no NiZ Sturgis CHIGAN 0 INDIANA MICHIGAN South 0 hart 0 ArI)la Bend Goshen Ligonier endallvill@o EXPLANATION Aquifer A Glacial drift A/ M1 Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION bedrock 11.,-.- E0 VICINITY MAP Zone where aquifer has water containing over LOW mg/I SCALE 1. ILES dissolved solids ON, Observation well SCALE IN MILES 0-4 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Geology frcm Kelley, 1968 6 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-22 The Pennsyvanian (Saginaw) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.3 Appendix 3 115 Ca-32da DEPTH 127 FEET 0 2 ow: 4 6 0 W @w 10 12 14 1950 1955 1960 1965 HYDROGRAPH Owos; ,ma &ck p CIS South Haven a. Pow Center Por.le 32 ........... St. Joseph .0 Benton Harbor NO hree Rivers is ro le Buchan 0 Niles Sturgis t@! MICHIGAN o A14 NDFANA %%it. MICHIGAN hart @-0i4IF-- 0 Ang Is EXPLANATION Bend '11 Goshen ?. Ligonier endaliville .0 Aquifer Zone where aquifer is Gla confined by overlying A cial drift A' b'edrock @@ .. ...... .5.2' GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 Ing/I dissolved solids VICINITY MAP 1. MILU 0 WIM Observation well 1713 Waste-disposal well lot Number indicates injection depth, infect, Geology from Kelley, 1968, in underlying Devonian System except for Marshall- SCALE IN MILES Cold.ater contact @hich P-4 0-01 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission is from Martin, 1936 6 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-23 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.3 116 Appendix 3 e-17ab DEPTH 60 FEET 20 3: 22 0 24 Ro-22ab DEPTH 44 FEET 2 4 1955 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH 0 6 I_ w 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH istique Lake Ix. L ke Aanistique St.I Mackinac Island Straits of M i Bois Blanc Island Escanaba If Beaver Island CharieVoix os y EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY Typical ranges of unsustained North Manitou Island% yields from 6-inch or larger N diameter wells South Manifou IslandO 4' M9 I Less than 10 gpm 100-500 gpm 10-100 gpm More than 500 gpm Frankfort Observation well 'ns Lake NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT AT SURFACE ELI Moraines Lake deposits Manistee iiii Sand, silt, and clay Till plain Outwash and alluvium All and bedrock Sand and gravel VICINITY MAP Air SCALE IN MILES Gea logy adapted from Geol. Soc. Am., 1959 SCALE IN MILES r Well yields from 0-4 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Twenter, 1966 0 5 1- 20 25 FIGURE 3-24 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 2.4 Appendix 3 117 16. D III, P At Me istique Lake &a Lake ladston Manistique acI ckinac Island Straits of Mackinei, Ws Blaric Island Escanaba 6 Beaver Island \G CharieVoix P oskey Wyn. C@ EXPLANATION North Manitou Island South Manifou IsIand(9 (I Aquifer Tordi Lake Lake Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying TraverseCity 0 bedrock Frankfort Crystal Lake Higgi. Lake Porte go Lake Lake A Glacial drift A' Manistee Sa I* Ri GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION Pere t. VICINITY MAP 4 WALE IN MILES o I@o C-A-- 41 W Whitehall 0 Musk @LE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Geology from Kelley, 1968 0 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-25 The Pennsylvanian (Saginaw) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 118 Appendix 3 A Glacial drift A' GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION do e. OV. O@A, 'stiqw Lake % Bre ko 0 Manistique St. I ac, @ackinac Island ledston Straits of MS&"W Bois Glanc Island Escanaba a", ar Island 0 Charlevoix L Cheri* .W"'n. C@" EXPLANATION North Manitou Island 1? % M - South Manitou IslandO D Aquifer 13111 Tondi Lk. Ldr Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying 53 TraVerse C ty bedrock IUU Frankfort Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 rng/I ins Like dissolved solids Manistee Geology from Kelley, 1968, except fo rMarshall- r om Martin, 1936 VN@ VICINITY MAP sc@'E'N M",,s ow 41 St-y @1.k. SCALE IN MILES 0 5 IM 20 25 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission FIGURE 3-26 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 Appendix 3 119 2 Ma-23bc DEPTH 47 FEET Lu 6 0 10 14 199. 1955 1960 1965 1970 % HYDROGRAPH D I-S 'P ique Lek. C, take . . . . . .. ... anistique ckinac Island St. I EXPLANATION ladston Straits of Mackinac Bois Blanc Island Escanaba Aquifer .......................... U C 4It, Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying bedrock Ch ie oskey Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l North Ma.itou Island dissolved solids South Manifou Island0s Is Observation well b Frankfort > hel Glacial drift A A' C.0 Higgi Lake Po,fage Hou Lek. Lek. Cadillac GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION Manistee Cadillac So Is ki 1"'We 0 Ludin on pene 111CWTV 11AP SCA=LES 0 wim Big Rapids 1`0 'e, *Fremont ILL- Whitehall 0 Muskegon Base by Great Lakes Basin C.rnmissi.n 7@ SCALE IN MILES Geology from Kelley, 1968 IM 20 25 FIGURE 3-27 The Silurian-Devonian Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 120 Appendix 3 A Glacial drift Sc-30bb DEPTH 57 FEET 6 -T-T-T-r- LJ 8 10 GENERALIZED GE 0 SECTION 12 F_ Uj W u- 14 16 L j L,ka 1955 1960 1165 197. HYDROGRAPH cort Lake St.. I Mackinac Island Straits of Mackinac Bois Blanc Island Beaver Island Charievoix oskey Charlevoi. EXPLANATION North Manitou Island .ryne C);" M N P - k@@ Aquifer South Manitou IslandIg s M Gian Torch Lake Zone where aquifer is Lake confined by Overlying bedrock Tr Verse ity 0 Frankfort C"al Lake Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids Higgins Lake Portage k. Lc, Lake Cedilla c Observation well Me 1)14 Cadillac 1. Ri %\P Ludington Pere VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES Big Rapids WE ONE -Fremont 0.. i Whitehall 0 Muskegon Geology from Kelley, 1968 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission SCALE IN MILES 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-28 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 2.4 Appendix 3 121 CA AM MINNEWTA n3 I NIV@RK ILLINOM PENNMVMIA ............ INDIANA M* VICINITY MAP IZI, U 0 Lai 7W .......... 2.2 -7, .......... ILLINOIS EXPLANATION d-water yield based on geology and Groun runoff at 70-percent flow duration I A In millions of In cubic feet gallons per day per second per per square mile square mile Less than 0.10 Less than 0.15 ,\I )'" 0.11-0.25 0.16-0.40 0.26-0.50 041-0178 SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 20 30 40 50 More than 0.50 More than 0.78 FIGURE 3-29 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Michigan Basin 122 Appendix 3 EXPLANATION CANADA MINNESOTA (D Area not covered by report Lake basin boundary W-ONSIN G) or covered only by state- 5 wide summary report River Basin Group boundary (9) .1c NEWYORK 1 4 3.1 ILI NO S I PENNSYL1,11A River Basin Group No. ;N.A.A ..I. I Area covered by detailed- VICINITY MAP reconnaissance report 0 N T R' 1 0 o o D 3.1 L A K E DIE s H IGAN H U R 0 N I-A 3.2 SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission pz=r "-i F=q 0 10 20 30 40 50 FIGURE 3-30 Map of the Lake Huron Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports Appendix 3 123 VICINITY MAP SCALE 1. MILES 0 sa I. v" St. I Mackinac Island E:C6 EXPLANATION Straits Of MS&inac Bois Blanc Island GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY Typical ranges of unsustained yields from &inch or larger diameter wells Less than 10 gpm Rogers City 0 10-100 gpm 100-500 gpm N More than 500 gpm Thunder Uy Is 9 Observation well NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT AT SURFACE a Moraines Till Oscoda Till plain Till and bedrock t Tawas Lake deposits Ro-201pa DEPTH 14 FEET Sand, silt, and clay 01 3 vium 5 Outwash and allu 3: 6 Sand and gravel 7 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Geology adapted irom@ HYDROGRAPH SAGINAW BAY Geol. Soc. Am., 1959 SCALE IN MILES Well yields from L Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Twenter, 1966 15 20 FIGURE 3-31 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 3.1 124 Appendix 3 VICINITY MAP fine River 4 Nex"N' ow 00 St. @Tce Mackinac Island Straits of Mackinac Bois Blanc Island C eboygan Black Burt Lak Mullet Lake Lake Rogers City Lake Grand Lake z 0 Long La s U Al W Th U Thunder Say 0 W Hbbrd Lake W -j EXPLANATION W Aquifer $scoda Zone where aquifer is t t Ta@as confined by overlying bedrock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/1 dissolved solids SAGINAW SAY Geology from Kelley, 1968, SCALE IN MILES ik except forMarshall- Cold@atel c ntact hich 1 0-4 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission is from Marotin, 1936 0 5 10 15 70 FIGURE 3-32 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 Appendix 3 125 VICINIW MAP SCALEM MILES Isins, IV. got Carp Jb U St. I Mackinac, Island Straift of Mackinac, Bois Blanc Island '10 DEPTH 5PI-8bb 61 FEET P 10 S UJ 15 20 1960 1965 1910 . . . . . . . . . . HYDROGRAPH 0 z 2 U) EXPLANATION Say U M Aquifer .5 Uj Zone where aquifer is W confined by overlying bedrock W Z W Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 Mg/l )scoda dissolved solids b\ Taas Observation well < SAGINAW BAY Geology from Kelley, 1968, except for Marshall SCALE IN MILES r 0 5 '0 196' 1'65 HI.ROGRAP. Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Col dwater co nt3ct which L 1@2@ ,s from Martin, 1936 . I . 15 20 FIGURE 3-33 The Devonian Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 126 Appendix 3 Ma-7aa DEPTH 102 FEET 16 M W 20 0 24 L'] 28 Ld VICINITY MAP 1955 1960 -LEN HYD 0 so Im ow ........... .11', .... .. . . . . St. I In ce Mackinac Island A Glacial drift Strait' of Mackinac @@B. i s Blanc Island C eboygan a. GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION Black BurtLake mullet Lake Lake Rogers City rb 0 0 Gmandd Lake 0 -01 Long Lake S Alpena C--J -G. lord Thu I Th,ocker Bay 0 -S 0 Hubbard Lake EXPLANATION -0 Au Sable Grayling - Aquifer Oscoda Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying bedrock Au Ta.as City E t rawas Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids 9 Observation well SAGINAW SAY SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Geology from Kelley, 1968 5 10 IS 2- FIGURE 3-34 The Silurian (Burnt Bluff-Engadine) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 Appendix 3 127 VICINiTY MAP U .. ....s Mackinac Island Straits of Mackinac Bois Blanc Island 4@; C eboygan Black Burt Mullet Lake Lake Rogers City rb 0 a lp 0A1 Grand Lake z N 0 6& P: Long Lek. U W (n 0 Alpena Th Gayl rd 0 r---jj Ok Thunder Say _j 0 W e Hubbard Lake .41 EXPLANATION 10 W Au Sblis z W Grayling Aquifer e@ M Oscoda Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying bedrock Au Tawas City E t Tawas Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 Mg/I dissolved solids Rift. Rh" SAGINAW BAY SCALE IN MILES L pl__@ Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Geology from Kelley, 1968 . 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-35 The Cambrian-Ordovician Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.1 128 Appendix 3 EXPLANATION NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Moraines Outwash and alluvium 7UI Sand and gravel Till plain Till and bedrock 4 L A K E HURON Lake deposits Sand, sill, and clay Port Austi Casevill 3rbor Beach SAGINAW BAY St. Johns 12 Gr-35bc DEPTH 20 FEET 01 14 W @W- 16 18 20 - Ge-32cc DEPTH 140 FEET 1950 1955 1960 Ir65 1970 2 HYDROGRAPH 0 26 W 30- W< SCALE IN MILES W @: 34- 15 20 38 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH EXPLANATION VICINITY MAP GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY SCALE IN MILES Typical ranges of unsustained I. yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells Olt Less than 10 gpm 100-500 gpm I ILL.- r77@ 10-100 gpm More than 500 gpm Geology adapted from Geol, Soc. Am., 1959 Well yields from Base by Great Lakes Basin Commissw Twenter, 1966 Observation well FIGURE 3-36 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 3.2 A A' Appendix 3 129 Glacial drift GENERAL17ED GEOLOGIC SECTION DEPTH Ba-22ad 170 FEET 0-W 5 LLJ 10 LLJ< La PA L A K E HURON 15 1960 1965 1970 -4 HYDROGRAPH Port Austi Caseville Harbor Beach SAGINAW SAY . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. .I,- orris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A r FIT Lapeer Ge-9dc DEPTH 235 FEET Fe.* Holly 0 1, 40 'IVA EXPLANATION 50 6 0 Aquifer 70 L 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying bedrock VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES Im Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids o"' Observation well SCALE IN MILES Pont Aus" .d A.. I Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Geology from Kelley, 1968 0 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-37 The Pennsylvanian (Saginaw) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.2 130 Appendix 3 A A' --,Glacial drift Glacial drift . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . ... ........ . . GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION LAKE HURON Port arbor Beach SAGINAW AAY w# S EXPLANATION S -33dd DEPTH 150 FEET a 15 ain 0 Aquifer LU , 1-20 UJ < Z one where aquifer is 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 owell confined by overlying HYDROGRAPH bedrock Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 rng/I dissolved solids VICINITY MAP ScALE IN MILES Observation well 1244 ow to, Waste-disposal well Nund-- i-lic0e., inj-tiw, d,14h. i,, ft,t Geology from Kelley, 1968, except to, Marshall- SCALE IN MILES Coldwater contact fiom REENEIR Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Martin, 1936 0 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-38 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 3.2 Appendix 3 131 CANADA MINNESOTA .15CO N 5 2 NEWYORK 4 ILLINDISI IEN"@VANIA V.-A ON* r VICINITY MAP Ica\ 0\ R 1 /0 M GANAT N o bo L K E U 0 IN SAUGL" EXPLANATION Ground-water yield based on geology and runoff at 70-percent flow duration In millions of In cubic feet gallons per day per second per per square mile square mile :.4 ... . ....... Less than 0.10 Less than 0.15 0.11-0.25 0.16-0.40 0.26-0.50 0.41-0.78' SCALE IN MILES M - M '__-` More than 0.50 More than 0.78 0 A .10 40 50 M1 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission FIGURE 3-39 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Huron Basin, United States n EXPLANATION 0 Area not covered by report or covered only by state- wide summary report N F-M Cz Area covered by general- .0 reconnaissance report S IT Area covered by detailed- A reconnaissance report z Area covered by comprehensive report CD 0 N T A R I Q Lake basin boundary M 1,CA ir River Basin Group boundary NE S'. I, 4.4 4.1 River Basin Group No. @) PE IGAN ..... PENNSYLVANIA 6- Nil MINNESOTA SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 I'D 20 30 40 50 EXPLANATION Appendix 3 133 NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Typical ranges of unsustained yields from 6-inch or larger Moraines diameter wells r_ Till > Less than 10 gpm ... rn Till plain 7YI1 and bedrock 10-100 gpm, f -E-_q .... Lake deposits Sand, silt, and clay ........... 100-500 gpm 0 lt_Ld @-' - J, Outwash and alluvium ....... Sand and gravel More than 500 gprn Observation well VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES 0 WIW .. .......... Holly V men d': /LAKE ST. CLAIR Wa-24cc DEPTH 75 FEET W 10 20 - 30 - W W 60 U- 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH -4.:.o Hu C I AN 6 Geo ogy adapted from GZ. Soc. Am., 1959 SCALE IN MILES Well yields from Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission Twenter, 1966 0 5 10 15 FIGURE 3-41 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.1 134 Appendix 3 7r VICINITY MAP z; C: SCALE IN MILES 0 z s 0 01, -1-1 ..................... St. Cl ir Romeo Richmond CPCJLake Orion Marine City 0@@E t 0 r Ne "Baltimore. Pontiac C' Anchor Be Algonac Mt. mense 0 Milford 4850 12806"`@Z 0 0 00 NorthVille - Plymouth 0 L'e roii JLAKE ST. CLAIR nn Arbor Ypsilanti EXPLANATION Aquifer 1:6 Milan Flat Rock 00 Zone where aquifer is 0 Tecumseh confined by overlying bedrock Monr a Adrian ,Hu n Ilk, Zone where aquifer has water Blissfield containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids 563 _@@IGAN_ OHIO Waste-disposal well Number indicates injection depth, in feet, in underlying Silurian -Devonian system SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 72@i 10 15 Geology fro m Martin, 1936 FIGURE 3-42 The Mississippian (Marshall) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.1 Appendix 3 135 EXPLANATION NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Typical ranges of unsustained y ields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells Moraines Till BE Less than 10 gpm 100-500 gpm N Till plain BE om Till and bedrock 10- 100 gpm More than 500 gpm S E@q Lake deposits Sand, 8ilt, and clay Observation well F. 0 Fn-1 DEPTH 130 FEET @-M 58 W 62 W < Outwash and alluvium 66L)','4-.'-.L 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Sand and gravel HYDROGRAPH LAKE ERIE Bay a -y-wrid andwky Bay y 4n, Au-2 DEPTH 100 FEET 01 W< LU 101, .4@@ 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH VICINITY MAP @LIE IN .11.1EI Im Geology adapted from Wayne, 1958; SCALE IN MILES Geol. Soc. Am., 1959; and Goldthwait Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission and others, 1961 0 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-43 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.2 136 Appendix 3 A A' < Glacial drif LL GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION 0 Hu-2 DEPTH 105 FEET 14 20 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH Note: 0 Lu-3 DEPTH 39 FEET Confinement and 14 sa inity extend ul beneath Mississippian w@l 9 aquifer uj 2 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH L,kKE ERIE a -<r Note: if K*Ilys nd Confinement and Ktend .01,- rt beneath Mississippian Fo oria 0 aulding Findlay at Fort Wayn Car van Went 0 0 D Ip s a Ri- Upper Iky Ada Lima lina ap oneta St Marys EXPLANATION DEVONIAN SYSTEM MISSISSIPPIAN SYSTEM Aquifer Aquifer Zone where aquifer is Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying confined by overlying VICINITY MAP bedrock bedrock SCALEI-LES 0 1 Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/I dissolved solids Observation well SCALE IN MILES 10 15 20 25 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission FIGURE 3-44 The Mississippian and Devonian Aquifer Systerns in River Basin Group 4.2 Appendix 3 137 A' A Glacial drift GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION 0 0: 80 Lu-1 DEPTH 250 FEET 100 W < W 3: 120 19 0 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH LAKE ERIE M'sunme bay ejKellysisland .......... ....... .... Y By . .. . . . @i..,.., Celina EXPLANATION st@ M ..... . . . . . . . Aquifer Note: Aquifer probably in hydraulic contact Zone where aquifer is with overlying aquifer confined by overlying bedrock re VICINITY MAP SCOI,LE IN MILES Zone where aquifer has water @-o 1;0 containing over 1,000 Mg1I dissolved solids 0"' ...... Observation well SCALE IN MILES 0-4 0-4 *n. S, Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-45 The Silurian (Bass Islands) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.2 138 Appendix 3 A A' < Glacial drift 777- GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION S 01 S-1 DEPTH 188 FEET Y < 25 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRA11 LAKE ERIE MIU." Be A @jKellyslsland -d.ky 8.y 4' ZLANATION 21 Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying Note: bedrock Aquifer probably in hydraulic contact with overlying aquifer Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l J, dissolved solids VICINIW MAP 0 1 Observation well 2780 10, Waste-disposal well Number indicates injection depth, in feet, in underlying Devonian systein SCALE IN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 5 10 15 20 25 FIGURE 3-46 The Silurian (Lockport) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.2 Appendix 3 139 EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Typical ranges of unsustained yields from 6-inch or larger F I diameter wells I,. Moraines Till Less than 10 gpm En Till plain 10- 100 gpm Till and bedrock EM P@ 100-500 gpm Lake deposits Saitd, silt, and clay a Observation well Outwash and alluvium Sand and gravel neaut 42 Fairport Harbor z 4- j- 1> A L-1 DEPTH 32 FEET 12 @avenna 16 it 20 W -sx 24 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 0 o-2 DEPTH 65 FEET 10 . . . W 20 P@A@ AAAA@ Uj 30 0 5 19@O 1955 1960 1 5 1970 HYDROGRAPHS VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES 0 wim WE C*` E. Geology adapted from Geol. Soc. Am., 1959; SCALE IN MILES and Goldth@aot and Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission others, 1961 10 15 FIGURE 3-47 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.3 140 Appendix 3 A /Glacial drift A' GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION neaut Ashtabula M z A Geneva 1z 0 0.@ X. G,,i River Je on Fairport Harbor Painesvil < > 49 Lorain Rio& Ri- d -4. V... @ Elyria gm@ Oberlin 0 0 A 0 Wallin . . . . . . . . .Ravenna Mad nao EXPLANATION Aquifer 0 Su-1 DEPTH 100 FEET 15 25 Uw 35 Observation well 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH VICINITY MAP @i .'Lls o I SCALE IN MILES Geology from Ohio Dept. Nat. Res., 1959-62 4 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 5 10 15 FIGURE 3-48 The Pennsylvanian (Sharon) Aquifer System in River Basin Group 4.3 Appendix 3 141 A A' Glacial drift GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION Ge-3a DEPTH 120 FEET 0 10 .... .... 30 Ld 4@ 50 70 1 0 1955 1960 1965 1970 C 95 HYDROGRAPH Ashtabula ITT z Ilk Geneva 1z 0 0 (A 0* < Grand River Je arson T- r- Fairport Harbor ainesvil o < I> Ln-1 DEPTH 54 FEET z 0 0 0: 10 20 W 30 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH Lorain ir, River. Note: - 0::E .lyria Cussewago aquifer unconfined where Berea not present be n 0 EXPLANATION BEREA SYSTEM Ravenna Aquifer Zone where aquifer is confined by overlying bedrock M Zone where aquifer has water containing over LOW mg/l dissolved solids VICINITY MAP S@ILE IN MILES CUSSEWAGO SYSTEM ow Aquifer Observation well SCALE IN MILES Geology and hydrology Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission to 15 from Rau, 1969 FIGURE 3-49 The Mississippian (Cussewago and Berea) Aquifer Systems in River Basin Group 4.3 142 Appendix 3 EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY Typical ranges of unsustained yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells Less than 10 gpm LAKE ONTARIO 10-100 gpm 100-500 gpm Lockport Niag More than 500 gpm G-d S Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids VV Radioactive-waste 4V disposal site ield P.sqm We >_ co W z z z NEWYORK W PENNSYLVANIA EXPLANATION 0 1:z NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED 0 W SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Moraines Till Till plain VICINITY MAP TUI and bedrock @LEI-LES o w1w Lake deposits Sand, &ilt, and clay Outwash and alluvium Sand and gravel Geology adapted from: Geol. Soc. Am., 1959: Shepps and others, 1959, SCALEIN MILES Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission and LaSala, 1968 1 122@ 0 1,, . 15 20 FIGURE 3-50 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 4.4 Appendix 3 143 EXPLANATION Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/1 dissolved solids 6 1658 Waste-disposal well Number indicates injection depth, in feet, in underlying Cambrianuind.,,tore LAKE ONTARIO GEOLOGIC UNITS Devonian Shales A Lockport Niag Silurian- Devonian Carbonates Gmnd EM S Silurian (Camillus) Shales 37 8 C, o Silurian (Lockport) Hamb Dolomite @;L@ 'All -Silurian Springvill Ordovician Shales and sandstones Dunkirk 4. CiFredonial-- __J We eld A' Pre,q.. 1,10 1658 10 E r i a 591 w 1-i Z:Z Z NEWYORK W - -- - -- PENNSYLVANIA 0 y : Z A 0W a. Glacial drift A 7 GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES o Geology from Broughton and others, .... 1962, and U.S. Geol. Survey, 1965 o"" i New York salinity adapted from LaSala, 1968 SCALE IN MILES L Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission . 7@@70 15 20 FIGURE3-51 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 4.4 EXPLANATION Ground-water yield based on geology and runoff at 70-percent flow duration In millions of In cubic feet gallons per day per second per per square mile square mile Less than 0.10 Less than 0.15 0.11-0.25 0.16-0.40 0.26-0.50 0.41-0.78 ED GRAN iL 4.1 /0 ri@, CY St. aw, 4.4 PENNSYLVANIA CD ItA I'D N 'j. MINNE- wiscoNs, IL SCALE IN MILES E3 Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 10 20 30 40 50 e+ M Appendix 3 145 CANADA MINNESOTA WIWONSIN @5@- NEWYORK "LINOISI OHIO PEN-YLIANIA INDIANA s VICINITY MAP Z o 0 N T A Rfl 0 9 5. @NADA_ L A K E ONTARIO Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission EXPLANATION Area not covered by report NEWYORK or covered only by state- "N-Y, wide summary report Area covered by general- reconnaissance report Area covered by detailed- reconnaissance report Lake basin boundary River Basin Group7oundary Area covered by comprehensive 5.2 SCALE IN MILES report River Basin Group No. C`@ AM M 0 10 20 30 4. 1. FIGURE 3-53 Map of the Lake Ontario Basin Plan Area Showing River Basin Groups and Areas Covered by Ground-Water Reports 146 Appendix 3 L A K E 0 N T A R 1 0 Bata ACID Lv- 1 DEPTH 28 FEET W 0 V." I'_ 5 V < W k4 Q 10 1950 19 r k HYDROGRAPH EXPLANATION NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SURFACE 'r, SEDIMENT AT Moraines EXPLANATION Till GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY N Till plain Typical ranges of unsustained y Till arrid b@d-k ields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells a Lake deposits Less than 10 gpm Sand, silt, and clay _M11 10-100 gpm tE Outwash and alluvium F Sand and gravel L PENNSYL 100-500 gpm More than 500 gpm VICINITY MAP Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,WO mg/l Geology adapted from: dissolved solids Geol. Soc. Am., 1959; Heath '1964; and Gilbert tot and Kmmerer, 1970 Well yields of GeneseE Base by Great Lakes Observation well basin adapted from Basin Commission Gilbert and Kammerer, 1970 SCALE IN MILES 7@i 10 15 FIGURE 3-54 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 5.1 Appendix 3 147 A' Glacial drift GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION L A K E 0 N T A R 1 0 r's --a Rotherstbir Z /B ort. 7 Grand --F-: Island Ni-69 DEPTH 36 FEET 0 Bat. 19 22 5 HYDROGRAPH 1955 1960 196 1970 tock Lak. EXPLANATION ansvill 0 Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids '0' Observation well GEOLOGIC UNITS Devonian Wollsville Shales F@@g Silurian-Devonian !El@@YO K Carboitates PE @YL AWIA 17- Silurian (Camillus) Shales VICINITY MAP SCALE IN MILES Silurian (Lockport) 9D I@D Dolomite Ordovician- Silurian Geology adapted from Shales and sandstones Heath,1 964 Salinity in Genesee basin SCALE IN MILES adapted from Feth and Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission others, 1965 10 15 FIGURE3-55 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 5.1 148 Appendix 3 EXPLANATION GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY Typical ranges of unsustained yields from 6-inch or larger diameter wells Od 1 /4 Less than 10 gpm, 40 :A 10-100 gpm, 100-500 gpm 171-1 0 More than 500 gpm 0 01 Zone where aquifer has L 16' water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids Rome Lek Observation well A;, RIK, V. A EXPLANATION NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT AT SURFACE Moraines Till Till plain Till and bedrock Lake deposits Sand, silt, and clay VICINITY MAP Outwash and alluvium SCALE MMILES Sand and gravel w 1w LW oNf Geo logy adapted from: to Geol. Soc. Am., 1959; Crain, in press; and Kant,o.itz, 1970 Well yields and salinity adapted from: Crain, in press; and SCALE IN MILES Kantrowitz, 1970 1 P__-I Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission 0 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-56 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 5.2 Appendix 3 149 A A' Glacial drift 0 GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION 481; 04 Pat a 10 0 0s.ii L Y, C Rome Lek. 0 nandaigua Otis GenevaS canardaiam Cayuga O..W I La I Lek. Lek. Lek. EXPLANATION Penn Yen Lek Z@ 0 Zone where aquifer has water Observation well containing over 1,000 mg/l Kauk. Lek. dissolved solids A Ithaca GEOLOGIC UNITS atkins Glen Devonian Silurian Shales Shales W Ot-900 DEPTH 139 FEET\/ > Z 11 Uj W -Devonian _1 9 Silurian Ordovician 0: 7 Will Carbonates Sandstones > Z 0 5 1970 3: 1955 1960 1965 E9 HYDROGRAPH Ordovician (Utica- Lorraine) Silurian (Salina) Shales VICINITY MAP Shales SCAU 1. 111 o I P2 Ordovician (Trenton-Black River) Silurian (Lockport) Limestones Dolomite ow tot Geology adapted from Heath, 1964 Salinity from Kantrowitz, 1970; SCALE IN MILES Crain, 'i press; and in part, Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission from Feth and others, 1964 0 5 .10 15 20 FIGURE3-57 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 5.2 150 Appendix 3 St-40 DEPTH 12 FEET 0 4 7 Ld< LLJ 1950 1955 1960 1965 970 HYDROGRAPH N 3 Kno n limit of w marine deposits V 0." 0 W if Lake LAKE \L@A' k. o ONTARIO Oe-151 DEPTH 31 FEET 10 0 15 EXPLANATION SEDIMENT AT SURFACE 20 W .3: 25 NATURE OF UNCONSOLIDATED 30 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 HYDROGRAPH Moraines Till EXPLANATION Till plain GROUND-WATER AVAILABILITY Till and bedrock VICINITY MAF Typical ranges of unsustained SCA@@!_E!. yields from 6-inch or larger o 5o 1w diameter wells Lake deposits IT Sand, silt, and clay Less than 10 gpm Outwash and alluvium Sand and gravel 10- 100 gpm 100-5w gpm Geo@ogy adapted from: Geo Soc Am. 1959 Observation well Hea h, 1964; M acCl,,tock SCALE IN MILES and Stewart. 1965. a-d r- @-@ Base bv Gireat Lakes Basin COveon-55IOin Waller and Ayer, in press 0 5 10 15 20 FIGURE 3-58 Ground Water in the Unconsolidated Sediments in River Basin Group 5.3 Appendix 3 151 A A/ Glacial drift GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC SECTION P_ g a urg S C on 0 lop, SN. G n TupperLak Cranberry III,- YVAIDIPO A'f-- K 91 a NT lb arthage Siliwate. Raq Lake LAKE Fulton L w EXPLANATION ONTARIO Tug Hill Plateau A Zone where aquifer has water containing over 1,000 mg/l dissolved solids GEOLOGIC UNITS Ordovician Sandstones Ordovician (Utica- Lorraine) Shales VICINITY MAP Ordovician (Trenton-Black River) SCAIE 1. -IIES Limestones 0 W I. Cambrian Sandstones Precambrian Crystallines SCALE IN MILES Geology adapted from I- r% Heath, 1964 15 20 Base by Great Lakes Basin commission FIGURE3-59 Bedrock Geology and Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in River Basin Group 5.3 152 Appendix 3 MINNEWTA WISCONWN NMMRK 2 N 4 1-0m PEN%MVMM ;- 0- VICINITY MAP TREN 0 1 R A 0 0 N 6T W) Rr 1/ 0 9(P UNffMSTATM L A K E ONTARIO :X 'V Base by Great Lakes Basin Commission K-S LVA EXPLANATION Ground-water yield based on geology and runoff at 70-percent flow duration In millions of In cubic feet gallons per day per second per per square mile square mile Less than 0.10 Less than 0.15 f IN E.0 0.11-0.25 M 0.16-0.40 SCALE IN MILES 0.26-0.50 0.41-0.78 M. Z:_3L. 410--90 More than 0.50 More than 0.78 FIGURE3-60 Estimated Ground-Water Yield, as Runoff, in the Lake Ontario Basin, United States F4 40